OFFICIAL REPORT- 1943 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS A D» partment of iho National EUticatitin As.sivciation oi the United Sr--"^'^'- 5 om^' C anc^ led Co4 fice^ T n E M £ Lducatioiiin a Contracting World Birn^inghamis* rO^mgp • Denver •''^New'tYork ^i througn >cur sut I k^ashington. O.C. p2K)] }6thScreet UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA LIBRARIES EDUCATION LIBRARY OFFICIAL REPORT Something A bout the Canceled Conferences SCHEDULED AT Birmingham, Chicago, Denver, New York JOSEPH R. FULK LIBRARY OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION COLLEGE OF EDUCATION ^ UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA THE^AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS A DepartP?ent of tie Nat zonal Edi/catioti Association of the United States 1201 Sixteenth Street, Northwest, Washington 6, D. C. APRIL 1945 Price, $1 Per Copy .-rJu- 1)10. la 1^ If- vi^'goCftTlOl! LIBRAHf ■12^^ Normandy. By the end of Auj^ust, France was liberated and tlie lines of the Americans and their Allies extended from the g^^^^Jti N JUNE 1944, American forces established a beachhead in North Sea to Switzerland. Southern France had been success- fully invaded through Mediterranean ports and the army which had landed there was marchinjz; to join its comrades who had come from Normandy. By mid-October, predictions of an early end of the war in Europe came from the lips of those in authority. Plans for our 1945 regional conferences were well under way. Timely programs of un- usual significance were in the making. But before Christmas the scene had changed. In a powerful counter- offensive, vonRundstedt's veteran troops had broken the American lines and forced an enormous bulge. Lands only recently liberated were reoccupied. Demands for more ammunition, more guns, more food, and more supplies mounted from day to day. In the United States an unusually severe winter crippled the transportation systems from the Midwest to the eastern seaboard. The outlook was not pleasing. Thus it came about that early in January it became necessary for the government to curtail civilian activities. Conventions and confer- ences were early casualties. On January 20, 1945, the regional con- ferences scheduled by the American Association of School Administra- tors were canceled. Conventions and conferences have bi^ryj'pewf riiajtrhaafls'for stimu- lating educational progress,*Di5t sucTi*^a'tnlf ings coTistitute but a single phase of the activities of our Association. Research, yearbooks, com- mittee reports, and, perhaps most important of all, active contact with governmental agencies are among the services to the schools which an organized profession should provide. The values in small group meet- ings should not be overlooked. Ere long, some of the boj'^s who short years ago marched away to the training camps will return. They will have seen many foreign lands and had experiences such as have come to few of their elders. As they come back matured men with worldwide outlook, they may reason- ably expect those who have remained at home to have kept for them a country worth fighting and dying for. Schools have no small part in preserving for them and for posterity a homeland in which all may find genuine satisfaction. In these days when the future of mankind is taking shape, school administrators, as well as soldiers, will do well to heed their country's call to duty. Perhaps this Official Report may offer some worthwhile suggestions. CONTENTS PART I Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences Page The Great Task Remaining — Engclhardt 5 An Educational Use Tax — Boushall . 10 Impact of Federal Agencies on the Schools — Spalding . 18 Suffer Little Children —McFarland 29 Problems of the Professional Personnel — McDonald 38 Administrative Problems and the Teaching Staff — Evenden . 42 The Returning Veteran — Bow ... 47 Education of All American Youth — Jackman . 52 The Impending Problems of Youth — Kulp . . 54 Education Looks Forward — Kersey . . 59 A Year of Opportunity — JVade . . 61 New Patterns in Educational Administration — Mort . . 67 New Insights into Educational Administration . • — Sexson . . 74- Problems in School Administration — Hill ... 79 The Administration of Public Education — Lake . . 89 The Teaching Staff —Bracken . 96 Educational Planning and the Postwar Era — Grace . . 100 After Taps Comes Reveille — Benjamin . 103 PART II Special Studies Prepared for the Canceled Conferences Training New York City Teachers and Supervisors in Service 109 Surplus War Materials — fVeglein . 136 Disposal to Educational Institutions — A Ives . . 136 Surplus War Commodities — Broivn . . 140 Surplus Federal Property — The State's Standpoint . . . . — Lancaster . 144 Surplus War Materials — A Comment — //;'// . . . 146 Educational Needs of Youth , — Small . . 147 A Program for Youth Under Eighteen — Strough . 148 Youth Over Eighteen Not Planning To Attend College . . — Furney . . 150 Equal Educational Opportunities for Rural Youth . . — Getman . 152 Providing Financial Support for a Youth Program . . . . — Pillsbury . 154 Significant Factors in Community Planning — Kulp . . 155 Resource Education: A Tool for Regional Development . . . — Ivey . . . 158 Radio in Education — Lake . . 169 [3] 4 American Association of" School Administrators PART III If ork (jf)iifcrcinc Report Pahe Educational Programs for Veterans 201 PART IV Official Rrcortls Officers 1944-45, 1945-46 252 Annual Report of the Executive Secretary 253 In Memoriam 272 Report of the Auditing Committee 274 Certificate of List of Securities 275 Report of the Board of Tellers 276 State Organizations of School Administrators 277 Calendar of Meetings 279 Committees and Commissions 283 OUR POLICY — The American Association of School Administra- tors endorses no individual or group of individuals or any sentiment expressed b}' any speaker or other participant in its programs, except by resolution or by motion approved by a \otc of its members. Part I Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences THE GREAT TASK REMAINING K. L. EKGELHARDT, ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N. V. ; PRESIDENT, AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS Seventy-five years ago the American Association of School Administrators had its origins. Only a fevr years earlier this nation was being wracked by a life and death struggle based on principle. Just seven years before, Lincoln, in the brief but clarion phrases of his Gettysburg Address, had presented the basic issues before the nation. ". . . these dead shall not have died in vain . . . this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom . . . government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." These, he declared, constituted "the great task remaining before us." It cannot be far from the truth to assume that the 1870 genera- tion of school administrators had accepted these challenges and were earnestly seeking their fulfilment. Wars and depression have come and gone. Throughout, this Association has carried on with an abiding faith in the educational processes and with the conviction that, through education, conflicts in ideologies may be resolved, power and wealth may be used for constructive human gains, opportunities for individual education and achievement may be increased, and man's con- quest and control of his environment may be assured. The remarkable record of educational gains since 1870 cannot be attributed to fortuitous conditions but reflects the cumulative dedication of a people to fundamental principles such as Lincoln enunciated. Seventy-five years of annual programs of this Association played an important part in the interpretation of these principles and their widespread dissemination. Successive generations of American children were taught to adapt them to new conditions. Confidence in the American school system has expanded wnth the years. In the discussions, debates, and addresses of this Association, through the decades, devotion to the ideals of freedom and equality of opportunity for all underlies all. There has been no equivocation, no denial of principle. On the other hand, the annual programs give evidence of continued professional progress, of awareness of emerging critical issues and of an unhesitating adaptation to changing conditions. In the membership of this Association, leadership and performance for what Lincoln defined as the "Great Task Remaining" have been abundantly demonstrated. In this year, 1945, the nation is still engaged in the most destructive war in history. The material losses are bej'ond measurement. Countless homes, unnumbered industries, and entire cities are being wiped out. The slaughter of human beings is beyond belief. Men are utilizing the accrued gains and [5] 6 American Association of School Administrators achievements of decades to destroy one another. Again the principle is at stake, the age-old principle of freedom, with its varied applications. Our fighting men, the youth of yesterday's classrooms are freely giving life and limb that our nation may continue to exist with all its hard-earned freedom and opportunity. The brave dead have already exceeded that of any other war. Dedication of ourselves, the living, with even stronger devotion to the principles for which they have fought is the inner purpose of every American man and woman. Consecration of our institutions, our power, and our resources to the maintenance of that way of life for which our dead so valiantl\' sacrified is our avowed obiecti\e. As this global war ends, the "Great Task Remaining" takes on deeper and fuller meaning. Shibboleths and slogans will not suffice. "You must" is the charge our dead have given us. Good intentions must become realities. Ideals must be made actualities. To-day's public-school administrators, who, approximately 6000 strong, give strength, guidance, and character to this Association, have since Pearl Harbor been confronted wn'th new and unusual tasks. With pardonable pride can each member point to the remarkable achievements of American school systems in helping to win this war. This generation of school adminis- trators has led the teachers and pupils of the nation through adaptations and accomplishments with unfailing devotion to our national cause and with amazing success. The reserves of strength in our public-school system have been utilized without stint. Whether the problem was one of specialized war training or food rationing, of curriculum change or materiel salvaging, or of practicing democracy as well as teaching it, the needs of the nation have been met. These past four years represent a high level of accomplish- ment in school administration which may well be thought of as setting the pace for the future. No brief summary can portray fully the vast efifect of the all-out war effort upon our public-school systems. Extensions to the educational program have been made as the need was felt. Adults have been trained by the thou- sands for specific war jobs. High-school courses have been revamped and condensed to make youth available earlier for war service. Realism has been given physical training. The malnourished have been fed, the young have been brought into nursery schools, and school buildings have been opened wide for war and community programs. Not land alone, but sea and air have been recognized in the teachings of the classroom. Curriculums have been vitalized, globalism has penetrated into textbooks and, as never before, the intent has been to follow democratic practices in the educational processes. These are a few of the educational gains of wartime of which all will have their influence on peacetime patterns. "Education in a Contracting World" was the timely general theme desig- nated for this year's canceled regional meetings. America's schools have been devoting much thought to the full meaning of this term. The stu- pendous advances in air transportation have made real the interdependence of all world peoples. World health, world customs, world trade, world money, world competitions, and world peace have unfathoinable implica- tions for oncoming generations of school children. Technological progress Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences brings new concerns about food, clothing, and shelter. Regional develop- ments like the TVA, here existent and now projected the world over, will have far-reaching national and international implications for human living and political government. Sulfa drugs and penicillin are forerunners in medical progress, which will give competitive strength to millions the world over for whom adjustment must be made. Research in science and industry, open to the world's initiative, will create new industries and new wealth with which educational alertness alone can compete. The forty-hour work week, with its probable further reduction, will play an important role in the world's educational .program. The character of future cities, the kinds of homes, and the conditions under which man works together with greater like-mindedness among peoples are important factors in the newly emerging era. Dumbarton Oaks, Teheran, and Yalta are new place names in our history. They symbolize man's intent to bring unity, neighborliness, harmony, and peace into this contracting world, which all too long has defied man's control. The postwar period will usher in a most stimulating and constructive educational era. In the first place, the importance of education and the need for its expansion will be more fully accepted by leaders in all walks of life. The extensive plans, already advanced in other lands, support this prophecy. The millions, who have fought, may be relied upon to seek through educa- tion avoidance of future wars. Then the full import of the extensive social, economic, and industrial changes of recent decades will be comprehended, as world reconstruction begins. Millions also will seek new opportunities, will require readjustment, and will have been inspired into continued acceptance of fuller responsibilities for citizenship. Extensive alterations in public-school organization may be expected. Some indications are in the direction of expanded adult education programs, pro- visions for early childhood education, reconstruction and extension of voca- tional education, improvement of opportunity for the handicapped, ac- ceptance of the school-camp idea, statesmanlike solution for the problems of youth, expansion of the program in the thirteenth and fourteenth years, and further secondary-school adaptations to meet the real needs of their students. Organizational change will be accompanied by fundamental cur- riculum adjustments, by improved methods of teaching, and by increased use of audio-visual materials, with a direct bearing upon living and its expanding environment. The professional workers responsible for carrying on this program will require training based upon a full recognition of the implication of the changes which are taking place. The members of this Association have a major obligation for guiding superior young minds into the profession. They should also assume greater responsibility for defining the kind of training essential for adequate service at all levels of the educational program. They should stress the need for teacher-training programs commensurate with the task to be done. At no other period in American history has as great a responsibility been placed before the school administrator as will be done in the new era now 8 A.MKRicAN Association of School Administrators definitely takinji form. "The Great Task Remaining" will require stateman- ship of a high order, well-grounded understanding of world problems, an unfaltering faith in the improvability of man, and a firmly supported con- fidence in education's role in the advancement of man's interests. The focus of interest will be the individual, without regard to creed, color, or economic or social status. The measure of performance will be the kinds of com- munities that are created and the strength, character, and substance attained in their families. Joint action with other agencies must assure the child a protected infancy and a wholesome, happy childhood ; the youth, opportu- nities for exploration, education, physical security, and a planned induction into citizenship ; the adult, an adequate home for participation in constructive family living, economic opportunity, avocational growth, and the continued chance for further enlightenment ; the aged, constructive living under reason- able security. In the postwar era education must be an expanding force, aid- ing mankind at all ages and offering stimulation for the highest achievement of all. The thousands will have died in vain if limping tradition, limited vision, petty financing, or any other road-block is permitted to prevent the progress that their sacrifice sought to make possible. The American Association of School Administrators has a great stake in the results secured in the years ahead. It represents the combined thinking and planning of all American superintendents of schools and their adminis- trative colleagues. Its past conventions have highlighted the educational progress of the nation. Its yearbooks have served as guides for nationwide action in many educational fields. The future will, however, place heavier demands upon the organization. The consolidated knowledge, skills, and understanding of its membership should be expected to serve oncoming generations even more successfully than heretofore. Opportunities for ex- tended service abound. The ^^cw era may be expected to draft the leadership that will provide the ways and means for bringing educational administra- tion to new high levels of attainment. The Association during the past twenty-five years has gone through a creative and constructive stage. The period has witnessed an unparalleled professional growth among its members, many of whom now take high rank among the leaders of the nation. An unusually competent and faithful service has been rendered by the secretary, Sherwood D. Shankland, during this entire period. The demands on this service are daily increasing and should continue to mount. The Washington office should be equipped and manned to provide even greater service than its limited resources have made possible in the past. A truly national association in educational administration should have a center, where research in its field focuses, whose library in adminis- tration is unexcelled, and whose timely bulletins or findings go monthly, if not more frequently, to all its members. Scores of special committees, working on world and national issues, should be serving the Association. Self-education as well as group learning should thus be processed. The reports of such committees, working together this year, offer suggestions for further work along this line. Closer affiliations should be established between each state association of administrators and the Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 9 American Association. Such relationships could assist in solving state prob- lems, in spreading interest and knowledge about emerging problems, in breaking down artificial state barriers in the advancement of members, and in creating a better feeling of belongingness among the members of the profession. The Association has always maintained close relationships with the schools of education which train men and women in administration. Mere superficial analysis points to many ways in which these relationships can be made mutually more helpful. Organized research programs, centralization of research results and their dissemination, surveys of training programs, and the extension of research coordinated with actual local needs may lead to constructive results. The future should welcome more frequent and continued conferences and discussions with lay groups, especially with members of boards of education. These should not be incidental to the annual meeting but should be a planned part of the year's program as has already been worked out successfully on. a state basis in several areas. Education is not just a function to be admin- istered. It is a process of living and working together for which the major association may well set the pattern. The proposed new program requires additional support. A graduated fee, making possible membership for all, whether on a low, medium, or high salary, has been frequently suggested as a source of more income. The addi- tional returns would not be great. The Association would be required to find new means for additional support. Such a responsibility should be given a special committee to work out. The "Great Task Remaining" will be a tremendous one as the postwar era of education dawns. This is equally true for the individual administra- tor as well as for his Association of steadfast, industrious, intelligent men and women devoted to one of the nation's most important services. America's youth, who have been winning the battles of the Bulge, of Manila, of the skies over Tokyo and Berlin, were but yesterday in our classrooms. The ideals for which these youth are fighting and giving their all were presented and discussed in those classrooms. The American school administrator is proud of those boys. In the spirit with which our youth have dedicated them- selves to service, the school administrator rededicates himself to the "Great Task Remaining" which these youth would have him perform. All will join in carrying out the pledge written by the immortal Lincoln: With malice toward none; with charity for ail; with firmness in the right, as (rod gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the wori< we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan — to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and a lasting peace among our- selves, and \vith all nations. 10 American Association of School Administrators AN EDUCATlOiNAL USE TAX THOMAS C. BOUSHAI.L, PRESIDENT, THE MORRIS FLAN BANK OF \IR(iINIA, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA; CHAIRMAN, COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, CHAMBER OF COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES It was my privilege to address a section of the American Association of School Administrators in Chicago in February 1944. lliere I proposed the recognition and imperative acceptance of a partnership between education and business. Such a reciprocal relationship seems requisite to the improve- ment of the political and social well-being of our people through the expan- sion of our economic activities. The upgrading of the technical skills of youth and of adults and the broadening of their cultural appetites is essential to the development of their greater earning power and the stimulation of their greater capacity of production in seeking to satisfy their expanding wants. The division of the responsibilities and activities of this partnership allo- cates to education the development of a more marketable training by the schools, greater emphasis on the discipline of work, efficiency, and acceptance of responsibility. A more marketable education is called for through better technical training and broader cultural and deeper character concepts. To business falls the lot of affording an all but unlimited market for the use of these better developed skills. There should be ample opportunity fully to exercise their upgraded capacity with increasing pay for rising per- formance. It is the function of business to provide a vast production of goods and services, together with their ready distribution at constantly lowering cost. To business also falls the responsibility to provide the money with which education is to perform its part in this working program of partnership. What I seek particularly to present is the question of this last responsi- bility. Therein lies the crux of the issue — the funds with which education may meet the urgent challenge to provide adequately marketable training for the youth and adults of the country to make our economy function to the full and advance the social well-being of our people as a whole. The future of the American way of life in the United States depends critically (to the point of potential tragedy) upon the ability of education adequately to train and inspire the youth and adults of the nation to function fully and freely in a continuation of our representative republic. Can education create an unslackening desire for the full and free expres- sion of the total capacity and ability of the whole people of this country? Can education inspire a desire for the development of the full dignity of each and every individual? Can education enable every last citizen to deter- mine that he shall be the servant of no man nor of any state? Can education fire the spirit of every child, each man and woman, to become the master of his own soul, of his own destiny ; beholden to none but the God who created him free, equal, able, and divinely potential? If education can and will accept these responsibilities and successfully accept and fulfill this challenge, business will eagerly pa\' the cost. In sup- port of this premise, 1 want to make four points clear. Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 11 My first point is that up to now the education of American youth is not as marketable as it should be. My second point is that education alone can correct the defects we find in the organized teaching and training of the people. The third point is that business is dependent for its very existence upon the upgrading of the technical skills and cultural appetites of the whole people in the postwar period. Fourth, 1 want to suggest the method by which business can reasonably and equitably meet the cost of the essential and proper training of the youth and adult population of the United States to this end. My first point, then, is the inadequate marketability of the education of youth as it has in the past come out of our schools and moved on as adults into our economy' as producers and consumers and as citizens who in our representative republic choose our leaders and legislators, which leaders in turn give authority, validity, and integrity to our way of life as a people. In the early colonial period of the North American development men worked with their hands; bent their backs to the tasks of felling the forest, building homes and tilling the soil, or sailing ships. Gradually we built a small industrial layer on top of our basically agricultural country. Char- acter, discipline, integrity of effort and purpose began to reflect themselves in a continually widening strip of conquered land moving back from the Atlantic Seaboard. Then came the war of secession when we separated from England and repudiated the king we called a tyrant. We set up that great experiment of a state functioning as the servant of man. The Declaration of Independence was more fully an Emancipation Proclamation than was Abraham Lincoln's famous document. It has served as a charter and guide for the whole world in establishing the concept that all men are free if they but have the vision and courage to declare themselves so and act upon that conviction ; if they but have the basic discipline to fight for and establish that freedom ; if they have the appetite and character to maintain it against all its foes, internal as well as external. Against all external foes we have stoutly maintained our own freedom. We have fought and won wars on our own behalf. We have challenged the great powers of the world on behalf of weaker nations. When men in foreign lands have dreamed of enslaving the world, or any appreciable part of it, we have gone abroad and have defied these forces in the name of liberty and in the name of the essential dignity of the individual human being. We have believed that man can have no master other than his own individual disciplined will to make the most of his inherent qualities and capacities in that environment in which he finds himself. But within our own borders we have overlooked more insidious enemies of freedom. We have failed to develop concepts and disciplines, character and ambitions, that stand ready to repudiate every effort to bring men under the domestic yoke of our own state. We have allowed concepts to grow that tend to make men servile to the will of a few. These few would invest power in men to dictate and direct the daily lives of the whole — not to serve and glorify the individual, but rather to make the state the supreme objective for which every man must labor. 12 Amkricax Association' of School Administrators This tendency has come about in this country through an overweening and careless confidence in our natural wealth and our exploitation of the inventive genius of our people. Up until the end of World War I we opened our gates to a flood of immigrants who came to this fabulous land of plenty, as they sought to escape the maturing economies of Europe where unskilled labor had no worthwhile market. In the 1930's we came up against the fact that unskilled workers could find few, if any, jobs. Unemployment among skilled people was relatively low\ Without carefully analyzing the situation, the philosophy was launched that we had matured our economy just as Europe had seemed to do ahead of us. We set out to divide among the total population what little work could be generated. We reduced the work week to spread jobs, not to create leisure or to lessen the effort necessary to earn a living. Beneficiaries of a nebulous power and unexplained wealth of the state, men began to surrender freedom for a semblance of security. They did not stop to consider the price being paid in the utmost coin of the loss of individual freedom and dignity. The article being ofifered was presented under the false name of a paid-for and assured security, achieved through the creation of governmental deficits. We were a virile, strong, reliant people, educated to the discipline of work. We had been educated to accept responsibility and to seek the fullest possible expression of one's own capacities in a land of maximum freedom and individual self-respect. We were a people who would defy any authority that sought to set any state above the rights of man. Soundly educated men and women would not seek to find security through arithmetical legerdemain. They would rather seek these things through individual effort. They might properly use the device of collective security, but only then when based on sound economics and honest accounting to a people of character led by statesmen of integrity. Youth coming to maturity with flabby minds — undisciplined in thought or the sacredness of obligation to fulfil assigned duties, or incompetent to read accurately or do arithmetic correctly, and unacquainted with the harsh realism of failure in competitive trials — can be readily led astray. They can be constrained to support social and economic measures that have no basis of soundness, no aspect of permanence, nor any final degree of integrity. A w^hole people, competently trained in the basic requirements of character and technical understanding, in the knowledge that competence and accept- ance of responsibility are in demand and that these qualities command increasing income, will eagerly move out of the schoolroom into a world that is full of opportunity and reward. But flabby-minded, undisciplined youth, with concepts that "the world" — whoever that vague entity may be — owes him or her a living, regardless of the contribution made, is more dangerous to a republic than its best armed external enemy. This type of education has a low marketability in business circles and is a highly potential source of danger to any form of democratic government among any free people. The second point follows as a corollary to the first; namely, that only Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 13 through our public-school system — elementary and secondary, supplemented by the country's private schools — can the basis of the character of a free people be properly established. There alone can habits of work, self- discipline, and high regard for integrity of effort, efficiency in execution, and competence in understanding the basic principles in our economy and our society be inculcated. Unskilled workers were a drug on the market in the 1930's. More and more our schools must produce men and women, not necessarily expert bricklayers, mechanics, electricians, painters, plumbers, or carpenters; but more and more they must produce youths who have the capacity to adapt their technical training to whatever tasks they may be assigned, and to meet and master those tasks with more and more basic understanding and con- sequent competence. The school must increase its attraction for youth to the end that it may be held for longer years of better training by the magnetic force of the promise that greater education affords, rather than be kept in the school system through the force of law. With the constantly rising efficiency of machinery in the field and in the factory and with its increasing complexities, youth must stay in school longer to be able to learn more how to operate this modern equipment effectively. Over and beyond this consideration is the fact that technology tends to reduce the number of workers required for adequate production. There is increased demand upon the intelligence of those people who do the work. Even with an expanding economy of undreamed proportions, the time is not far distant when more goods and services can be produced by the total people at work than the total people can consume unless we first find a correct answer to balance off this problem. One important answer is that youth must be held in school for longer years and come to the work area of life not at fourteen, fifteen, and sixteen, or even at eighteen and nineteen years of age. Perhaps in time youth must be delayed by the requisite need of training on into the ages of twenty and twenty-one. A corollary to this proposition is that the age of retirement from the work area may in time have to come down from seventy and sixty-five perhaps to sixty years of age. The working population may have to be narrowed into ages above the teens and below the sixties. Such conditions may be necessary to assure competence of workmanship. It may become necessary to remove the improper competition of immature youth and that of the declining efficiency of those in the advancing age group. More per- tinently, even, it may soon become necessary to delay the entry of youth into the working grgup in order to give it the requisite time to equip itself with adequate training and to provide men and women of the older ages with ample time to enjoy themselves leisurely while they are still able to rejoice in physical vigor and mental alertness. Otherwise youth may come to work inadequately prepared and the older group may have opportunity only to sleep out their last days in unconscious senility. Active workers in the remaining age brackets would then be able to earn enough to support their children while they are being adequately prepared 14 American Association of School Administrators for life. The workers themselves would be able to earn enough not only to provide for their own current wants, but they would themselves be able to provide an income for their later years of leisure following retirement. Education, adequate and competent, is the base requisite of these devel- opments in working capacities, ages, production, and derived incomes. Adequate education, too, is the base of maintaining an economy, a govern- ment, and a society that enables free men to work for themselves under sound fundamentals of national integrity and individual and national solvency. It can provide for adequacy of income to meet current expenses, pay off previously incurred debt, and set up reserves for future costs. The validity of an expression as to the opportunity in the economic world for competent youth can best be substantiated by the third point of these remarks; namely, that business is dependent for its very existence upon the upgrading of the technical capacities and cultural appetites of the youth and the adults of this country. If at least fifty-six million people are not for the most part privately employed in postwar America, there will be an appreciable number of unemployed people seeking subsistence or jobs at the hands of governmental agencies — local, state, or national. They will be offered "made" or unneces- sary work. It will be paid for out of deficit financing. Following a war and its huge debt with a consequent enormous federal budget, nothing more dangerous can overtake our people. We cannot lower taxes while creating deficits. If we do not lower taxes, industry will tend to spiral downward. We will then develop more unemployed, more "made" work, more deficits, and a whole succeeding series of deteriorating sequences lead- ing to eventual chaos. Business then seeks the opportunity to employ in private endeavor every possible man and woman. Then lower taxes can be justified. Business can be stimulated. Wages will be earned, and out of these wages the products of factories and farms and the services of professions will be consumed and used. Thus the upward spiral starts. When the first lush years of pro- duction have met the accumulated acute wants of the world, the problem of facilitating the consumption of an enormously expanded productive capacity will face this country. The one adequate answer is the lowering of price while increasing the quality of goods and services. The only way this typically and truly Amer- ican phenomenon can occur is by increasing the output capacity of our already amazing mass production methods and machinery. This is not feasible unless the adults already operating these machines and carrying out these methods are upgraded in their technical capacity to manage and operate even more complex units of production. Necessarily, the youth moving out of the schoolrooms into the working group must also be upgraded in their technical abilities. Education is the rock bottom foundation of the whole connective tissue of our economy. Business is not fooling when it says to Education, "We Avant the most competent and adequate education the youth and adults of this country Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferenxes 15 can be given." Business expansion is dependent for its very life blood upon men and women willing, able, and anxious to work competently, efficiently, and steadily. We urgently need men and women able to make such con- tribution to the processes of production of goods and services that they can be paid sufficient wages and salaries that will enable them to buy and to consume the whole output of the country. It is critically important that we all understand that technical training of individual skills is essential but that this alone is not the full answer. Cultural appetites must be developed to the end that the whole of our people will seek to obtain the satisfactions of better and broader living on wider horizons of geography and under broader concepts of philosophy. They must want to travel more and farther in nicer cars, to live in better homes with less cost of maintenance, to read more books, to see more plays and movies, to worship in finer, churches, and to visit more museums of art. They must want to play more often, for longer periods of time, and with more extensive and expensive equipment. Too, they must be so anxious to do these things that they will seek that training necessary to greater competence and consequent greater earning power. With these larger earnings, they can then satisfy their ever-widening wants. If education can honestly accept the challenge to educate the people adequately to these ends, business will for its own salvation set out posi- tively and vigorously to supply the additional money education needs in accepting its significant and tremendous role of preparing youth and retrain- ing adults to meet these great and critical national demands. The fourth and final point, then, is a suggested method by which business can through its own initiation provide those added funds required to fulfil these educational prerequisites for an expanding economy. Such an expand- ing economy in the United States must in its very unfolding and fulfilment bring an enlarging social well-being to all the people of this nation. The Chamber of Commerce of the United States, through its Com- mittee on Education, has made a careful study of the relationship between educational status and economic level throughout this country. Too, it has developed additional material in regard to these relationships throughout the world. Its findings are, in the opinion of the Committee on Education and the Board of Directors of the Chamber, sufficient to establish the fact that rising educational status precedes increasing economic levels. With this study published and distributed to chambers of commerce and trade associations, educational authorities, and legislative bodies throughout the country, the issue develops as to the means by which additional funds may be raised with which to meet the greater costs required by educational processes that would meet the conditions outlined in the three preceding points. Purely on my own responsibility as an individual and without consultation with or approval of the Chamber of Commerce of the United States or its Committee on Education, I want to suggest a method by which the necessary funds may be adequately and -equitably developed to meet the cost 16 American Association of School Administrators essential to a broadened type of adequate education necessary to fulfil the conditions here outlined. The present largest source of income for education in American com- munities is a local tax assessed against real estate in the townships, counties, and the states. Real-estate taxes have reached a point in many cities where they are depreciating values, ruining properties, and all but bankrupting communities. Any appreciable increase in real-estate taxes in most com- munities, particularly metropolitan areas, would have such serious economic consequences that we can readily anticipate serious resistance to that end. The educational authorities report that our total educational system in this country costs us approximately two and a half billion dollars a year. They tell us that the more adequate training of skills and development of cultural appetites would cost an additional billion dollars annually. Where and how and from whom can we find a billion dollars a year for education that would be furnished with alacrity as a profitable invest- ment, rather than being met with stilif and unyielding resistance as an unneeded, stultifying, and resented assessment ? We must first look for those who would be the greatest beneficiaries of an improved and adequate educational system. Upon such beneficiaries an assessment or tax would He most lightly and be received with least resist- ance. In fact, if these beneficiaries be first fully informed of the program and properly assured of the consequent benefits, they themselves might in all likelihood propose the raising of these funds through the laying of a tax or assessment. We have in the foregoing points seen that business would be the main or first beneficiary. We have seen first the danger of a deteriorating econ- omy and a rapid slide into totalitarian methods if our people are unemployed and dependent upon the legerdemain of governmental finances to sustain our economy. Next we have seen that an expanding economy can only come from upgrading the skills of the people and their cultural appetites, that in turn create wants that only highly trained people can earn enough money to satisfy. Business, then, would want to pay for this modernized educational pro- gram if a Avay could be found to place the burden equitably in direct ratio to the benefit received. Business — and in that term is included all those units of production of goods and services in the nation, including farmers, industries, professions, public services, and even individuals who are their own employers — employs the workers of the nation, who in turn are the product of the schools. Business is the direct beneficiary of the training given to its employees by the schools. Assume a totally illiterate people and then reconstruct the economy of America upon that basis. Assume again a totally upgraded people and reconstruct the American economy upon the skills and appetites of such a population. The Chamber of Commerce of the United States is seeking to bring that concept to American business. Now, then, if we sa\' to American business that to raise a billion dollars Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 17 we must lay an annual use tax for education upon every employer for each individual he emplo>'s, we would raise the requisite one billion dollars if only fifty million people were involved in this tax program at the rate of $20 per capita. This would leave out governmental employees (federal, state, and local), college personnel and teachers, and a vast group that might not be properly classified as engaged in business. This means that the upgraded type of education would have to increase the efficiency, or the technical capacity, or the work habits, or the accept- ance of responsibility, or the integrity of output, only $20 worth in three hundred working days of adult workers. These workers are literate, trained, and inspired by the improved outlook that comes to a people and to an individual to whom has been shown the greater possibilities of pro- duction, of earning power, and of the satisfaction of wants, which wants have been displayed to them through educational processes. This means that in three hundred days, at $20 a year, there must occur an increased productive capacity of only six and two-thirds cents a day. This improvement may occur in reduced wastage of materials, or in greater care of machinery, or in improved volume of sales, or accelerated production, or in new short cuts, or in improved methods, or merely through a higher consciousness of the integrity of work in earning and accepting a salary, a wage, or commission. The equity of the tax conies in the per capita charge. Here is a factory employing 1000 people. It pays $20,000 a year and has 1000 chances every day to improve its profits. Here is an employer of only one person. His annual tax is $20. He has but one chance a day to enjoy the benefit of better workmanship or the integrity or efficiency of selling, servicing, or producing. The larger burden falls where there is the greatest opportunity to benefit. Here is a farmer with a new $500 tractor. H the operator of that tractor has had a year's technical training in operating tractors, there will be a dividend far greater than $20 in the use of that tractor in a year's time. But over and beyond the greater capacity of the workers to produce goods and services, to care for machinery, and to improve methods, conies the greater and saving stimulus to the economy in the improved earnings of the people and their capacity' to consume the production of farms and factories and the services of the nation. One billion dollars spent on the education of our total working people would stimulate the consumption of an annual minimum of ten to twenty billion dollars. Business could hardly pass up an opportunity that would come to it in such minimum ratios. With the cumulative effect of five oi' ten years of such spiraling processes, the economy could additionally expand by tens of billions of dollars in such a period. We have, of course, a very happy, forceful, and proved precedent for just such a tax that has justified itself to be probably the greatest investment America has ever made uith the highest annual recurring yield in history. That precedent is the six-cent tax on each gallon of gasoline used in motor transportation in this countr>-. This tax, levied by the several states, is 18 American Association of School Administrators used to build and maintain the highways and byroads of the nation. It falls equitably because each user pays in direct proportion to the number of miles he drives his truck, bus, or car over the roads provided and main- tained out of this tax. A great social and economic revolution has rolled happily across the economy and society of the American people. Its description calls for a full volume merely to give it outline. The gasoline or road use tax is an eagerly welcomed investment and in no sense is an assessment on anyone who pays it. It not only directly benefits most the one who pays it, but every American citizen is additionally the beneficiary of the stimulus to our economy and the enormous increase in our whole social well-being that has come out of the widespread and all but universal ownership and use of automobiles in this country. Here, with the prospect of a postwar world that calls critically for the upgrading of the technical skills and cultural appetites of our people, is another opportunity to provide a new investment of similar equitable proportions that can equally create an economic and social revolution for the people of the United States. An educational use tax, levied upon employers for each employee, can provide the necessary money to improve our educational system, make it adequate to our needs, modernize it, and gear it into our increasingly complex economy. For education it holds great opportunity and immense challenge. For business it offers an investment it cannot afiford to refuse. It suggests a pact of partnership between business and education that seems inescapably imperative in the interest of each and of our nation. IMPACT OF FEDERAL AGENCIES ON THE SCHOOLS WILLARD B. SPALDING, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PORTLAND, OREGON In discussing this problem of the relationships, happy or otherwise, be- tween the various federal bureaus or agencies and the Portland public schools, I hope my remarks will not be interpreted as anti-governrhent or anti-New Deal or anti-federal aid or just plain "anti." I have no desire to imitate the blind mule who was seen butting his head against a tree. The fellow who had bought him wanted his money back, saying the mule was as blind as a bat. "What makes you think he's blind?" asked the seller. "Why, he butts his head against every tree in the pasture." "Oh, that!" was the answer "That ain't because the critter is blind. It's just that he don't give a damn!" Nor am I one of those about whom Stuart Chase writing in the December 1944 issue of the Survey Graphic says: "We Americans, most of us, do not believe in governments — any govern- ment, and especially our own government. We work for government, use it, take its benefits, would be lost without it, but we do not believe in it." Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 19 I do. I even believe in a strong government, capable in time of national emergency to use all the resources and pov^^er of the nation to defend it from foreign enemy or domestic breakdown. Even when the war is over and we return to conditions we fondly call "normal," the complex nature of modern society will doubtless require close interrelation between the central government and the economic life of the nation. I have no hope, and perhaps no desire, for the return of Jeffersonian democracy. The world has changed somewhat since the days of Jefferson or of Adam Smith, his contemporary. Nor, in complaining of the contradictions and the bureaucratic tangles which now complicate our relations with Washington, do I mean to crit- icize the many individuals who represent the federal government in its contacts with local institutions or individual citizens. For the most part these people are highly intelligent, devoted public servants. When they step on each other's heels or get involved in delays, interminable discus- sions, and administrative confusions, they are as much sinned against as sinning. They and we too are the victims of a catch-as-catch-can policy of meeting each new problem by setting up a new bureau and then per- mitting that bureau to proceed blithely on its way without regard to other federal agencies and without using the "know-how" of the local governmental units concerned. It may be that the war emergency has been a sufficient excuse for con- fusion on the domestic front up to now, but there is no reason in the world why the present Congress from now on should not overhaul the entire machinery of federal administration and bring some semblance of streamlined, nonduplicating efficiency into the picture. My purpose is threefold. First, I wish to acquaint you with the present situation in th"e public schools of this country, as it is affected by the ac- tivities of the federal government. Second, I shall endeavor to point out the causes for the present situation, as I see them. Third, I shall suggest some remedies. It is my earnest hope that these remedies will appeal to some of you enough so that you will wish to do something about putting them into effect. In describing the present situation, I shall talk about School District No. 1, since I know most about it. What is happening in the public schools of Portland, however, is happening in every city school system in America. Differences are only differences in degree. They are not differences in kind. Portland has received federal funds for the operation of some part of its schools since 1919 when it first set up vocational classes under the Smith-Hughes Law. During the last fiscal year it received about $23,000 from this source. This money is distributed through the U. S. Office of Education, which comes under the Federal Security Agency, which is not a department of the government headed by a cabinet officer. Portland has received funds from the federal government for the opera- tion of nursery schools and extended day care centers since 1934 when these were set up under the WPA. It received $204,200 for these pur- poses during the last fiscal year. This money is received through the Fed- 20 American Association- of School Administrators eral Works Agency, an independent governmental unit and not a department of the government headed by a member of the President's cabinet. Portland has received funds for the repair or construction of school facilities since 1940 A\hen it set up projects to construct playfields and to repair schools under the WPA. During the last fiscal year it received $341,178 for school buildings, and equipment under the emergency provi- sions of the Lanham Act. These funds also are received through the FWA. From this agency also came the sum of $306,000 for the maintenance and operation of the regular school program. A further sum is due and is in the process of negotiation, approximately $45,000. The vast production of this area has been made possible to a large ex- tent by the training program which the schools have operated. Over 200,- 000 workers have been trained for war jobs through the Portland public schools. During the last fiscal year $1,838,109 was expended for this pur- pose. These funds came through the U. S. OflRce of Education, which is in the Federal Security Agency, which is not a department of the govern- ment headed by a cabinet officer. The individual schools of this District operate cafeterias. These cafe- terias are not operated for profit and so are entitled to receive free food from the War Food Administration. This agency is in the Department of Agriculture, which is headed by a cabinet oflficer. The items of food which have recently been available are peaches, onions, and powdered eggs. When this country was plunged into war the schools were requested to operate training courses for high-school boys which would enable them to become better soldiers after they were inducted. These courses are called preinduction courses. There are over two hundred classes in opera- tion in our high schools today, enrolling more than one thousand pupils per semester. The outlines of what is to be taught in many of these courses are furnished by the Department of War, which is an agency headed by a cabinet officer. To care for the children of migrant war workers, the Federal Works Agency constructed upon existing school grounds additional classroom facilities at five of our schools. They also constructed and equipped the building now known as the Guilds Lake School. In connection with the five school facilities, the District had to deed to the federal government the ground on which these units sit. However, when the War Housing Administration set up a housing project in the Guilds Lake area, it was discovered that no provision had been made for a school site. The District had to negotiate with the county for a site, and after considerable difficulty secured one that is far from ideal, but it answers the purpose temporarily. Then the negotiations started for the building itself. These actually took a year and a half, so that the buildings were not completed and ready for occupancy until about a week or ten days after school opened. In addition to these activities the schools, like any other business, are affected by the OPA, the WPB, and the Solid Fuels Administration, as they endeavor to purchase the necessary materials for operating and main- taining their plant. These agencies were set up by Congress to meet speci- Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 21 fic needs and they are independent of any other administrative department. The District is in the process of negotiating a contract for educating disabled veterans. This contract will be with the Veterans Administration, a separate government agency, not under any other department of the government. Like any employer, the schools too must deduct for withholding taxes and purchases of war bonds, activities which come under the Treasury Department. We even have annual dealings with the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Each year we have the problem of tuition for the few Indians who come into our Portland schools. Last year we had six. To get the tuition for these six Indians, a total of $520.84, we had to make a report for each quarter of the school year, four copies, no carbons because the federal report form is on extra-long sheets with spaces too small for the typewriter. In each instance we had to list the degree of Indian blood (after we found it), the age, the grade, the number of days attended (each day separate), the number of days absent (each day separate). We listed the dates that school was in session and the days it was not in session — and for each such day, why. We listed the total number of student days for the whole system, and the cost per student, grade school, high school, and grand total. Accompanying this, we had to send a bill and a cover- ing letter. Then we had to wait for the $520.84, which to date has not yet been paid. I could go on and mention more of the agencies of the federal govern- ment whose activities impinge upon the schools, but I believe that the complexity of the present situation is clear. I have already mentioned at least twelve agencies with which the Portland schools must deal. The sum of $2,689,827 was received from the federal government during the past year with the $50,000 additional in process of negotiation, I mentioned earlier. Let us look into the nature of the relationships which exist. These relationships are characterized by ( 1 ) frequent conferences, (2) many conflicting directives, (3) lack of authority on the part of those persons from federal agencies with whom the schools deal, (4) frequent visits by federally employed persons whose duties are defined poorly and who attempt to exercise controls, (5) lack of agreement among the agencies themselves, (6) failure on the part of the agencies to follow the laws which created them, and (7) interminable delay and red tape. Let me give you a few illustrations from my files. The program of extended day care in this city has not been very large. Parents have not taken advantage of this service. When schools opened in September, a center was set up at fifty-one schools for a trial period of three weeks. Fewer than fifteen children enrolled at forty-six of these centers, and so they were closed at the end of this period. It appeared to be desirable to employ a specialist to head up this program in order to make sure that it would meet all existing needs. Adding this person meant revising the budget estimate?. This revision consisted of setting apart the sum of $4000 for this purpose out of a larger sum already allocated for supervision. This is a simple matter of five minutes work in the operation 22 Amrrican Association of School Administrators of our regular program. In order to do this with a federal program, it was necessary to write several letters and to hold seven conferences. At last we secured approval on these terms: As the result of a conference of the regional supervisor, field representative, and tlie applicant, it was agreed to replace the present supervisor, who is actually a business manager and is not an administrator, with a trained, experienced director at an annual salary of $4000. The School District had not wished to replace anyone. It had wished to employ an additional person. At no time had the matter of replacement or dismissal been discussed with anyone. This attempt to influence who shall do what is clearly in conflict with the law setting up these centers, which says : No department or agency of the United States shall exercise any supervision or control over any school with respect to which any funds have been or may be expended pursuant to this title, nor shall any term or condition of any agreement under this title relating to, or any lease, grant, loan, or contribution made under this title to or on behalf of, any such school, prescribe or affect its administration, personnel, curriculum, instruction, methods of instruction, or materials for in- struction. If this means anything, it means that the government furnishes the money and the school operates the program without any interference. There has been constant complaint from the patrons of the Portsmouth and Peninsula Schools because there are no added facilities and so a double-shift is in operation. Here is the record : May 3, 1944 — Notice was received of a contemplated relaxing of the 200 percent War Production Board ruling. May 9, 1944 — Five copies of preliminary applications for schoolrooms at Peninsula and Portsmouth Elementary Schools and Roosevelt High School were sub- mitted and accepted by the Federal Works Agency. May 12 to July 15, 1944 — A number of letters and telephone communications were received from the Federal Works Agency requesting various additional information which was supplied. August 14, 1944 — A copy of a letter was received from Mr. Hirsh, chairman of the Area Production Urgency Committee, relative to a meeting of his committee and representatives of the shipyards indicating some skepticism on the part of the shipyards as to the need for further building at this time. August 23, 1944 — A letter was received from the Federal Works Agency indicating that our architect, Manson White, had been handed the formal application forms. Up to this time we had been applying for an application blank. Sfptcniher 26, 1944 — Plans and specifications were received from Mr. White. Financial data had been prepared by Andrew Comrie at an earlier date. September 27, 1944 — Six sets containing formal applications, financial data, plans, specifications, letters furnishing supporting evidence for the need of addi- tional buildings, and other recjuested information were delivered to the Federal Works Agency office in Portland. October 19, 1944 — Information regarding architect services was telephoned to Mr. Austin's office and we were informed by him that our application was in the Berkeley office at that date. November 11, 1944 — Telegram sent to Senator Guy Cordon asking if he could expedite action on this application. November 21, 1944 — Communication from W. H. Cheney, regional director. Fed- eral Works Agency, Berkeley, California, in which he states funds are not available at present time for school facilities. Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 23 Last spring we received notice that we must convert our oil-burning heating units to coal-burning ones. This order was given by the Petroleum Administration. We applied to the War Production Board for priorities for grates, for lumber for storage bins, and the like. The War Produc- tion Board referred us to the PUC. I appeared before them and pointed out that' we could not decide which material was most critical and that we would convert if necessar}^ but that it was clear that something was wrong as one agency ordered us to convert, another refused us priorities without which conversion could not be carried out, and a third, the OPA, had just sent us oil coupons for our winter's fuel. This was in May, as 1 recall it. In October I received the following: Ever since receiving your letter of July 28 I have been hounding officials of the Petroleum Administration for War for definite information on their agreement with the War Production Board, the War Manpower Commission, and the Office of Price Administration. 1 still have not obtained copies of the interagency agreements but hope to have them on hand if and when PAW resumes its activities in the Pacific Northwest. I mentioned previously that the schools received the sum of $306,000 for maintenance and operation of the regular program and that an addi- tional sum was being negotiated. The Lanham Act reads in part as follows : The estimated expenditures must be reasonable in the sense that they do not exceed to any substantial degree expenditures for similar purposes in the three years next preceding . . . except to the extent . . . imposed by state law. This District placed the sum of $74,721 in its debt fund out of a total of $292,0.00 received for the sale of property which had been taken for taxes. This amount had been levied for the purpose of debt retirement. Our attorney had instructed us to place this sum in the debt fund. The Tax Conservation Commission had directed us to do it. The Oregon laws require us to do it. But the representatives of the federal government, in direct contradiction to the wording of the law which sets them up, refuse at present to allow this procedure. One last illustration of what is now going on will suffice. I have men- tioned the number and frequency of conferences as one aspect of the rela- tions of the District with the federal government. The District can and does send one person to such a conference with authority to act. Occasionally the District sends two persons. On extremely rare occasions the District sends three. The local representatives are always outnumbered. The man- power shortage could be solved to a very large extent by allowing one person to represent an agency at one conference. Apparently, however, the government has embarked on a permanent policy of outnumbering other conferees. Recently two persons came to the office of the deputy superin- tendent of schools in order to get cooperation between the schools and the recreation department of the city. Both we and Commissioner Cooper were and are unaware of any lack of cooperation, but the federal government apparently knows more than either party. These men were from the Divi- 24 American Association of School Administrators sion of Social Protection, Office of Community War Services, Federal Security Agency, San Francisco. Apparently the permanent policy of this agenc\' is that of sending two men to do one man's job. I could give many more illustrations of the way in which local-federal relations now operate, but finding fault and pointing out the ludicrous aspects of conflict and incompetence may help to improve one's state of mind but does nothing to help correct them. Why have these present situations come to pass? What will correct them? The Constitution of the United States is entirely silent upon the subject of education.' It contains neither the word education nor schools. It ma\- be that those who signed the Constitution were for the most part imbued with the idea that education was not necessary for the common people. They themselves were the product of a semi-aristocratic institution. As a matter of fact, public education did not exist when the Constitution was drawn, nor for many years thereafter. The right of a state to operate tax- supported public schools through the high school was not clearly established until nearly one hundred years after the adoption of the Constitution by the famous Kalamazoo decision. The omission of any reference to education is understandable. To infer from this omission that the country as a whole has no right to be concerned about the education of its children is not only logically untrue, but is historically untrue. Beginning in 1787 when the Continental Congress adopted the Northwest Ordinances for the territory northwest of Ohio and included the clause, "Schools and the means of education shall be forever encouraged," the concern of the nation has been expressed by acts of the Congress. It set up West Point in 1802 and made its first land grants about this time. In 1818 it first distributed money to the states. In 1845 it set up Annapolis. In 1862 it set up .land-grant colleges under the Morrill Act. In 1867 it set up the Department of Education. In 1914-17 it set up its grants for vocational education. With the beginning of the New Deal in 1933 it began emergency grants to education. The records show that education has been of continuous concern to the nation and that the Congress has expressed its concern both by regulatory acts and by the provision of funds. Federal aid to education is old. Attempts by federal agencies to control education at the local level, however, are new. I quote from a- speech by Edgar L. Morphet, Director of Administration and Finance of the State Department of Education of Florida. The present tendency toward indirect control developed in 1933-34 when schools in many sections of the country faced the prospect of closing because of the De- pression. At that time federal funds were made available to aid in providing normal terms for schools, but only on condition that teachers be paid relief wages and not standard salaries. Instead of making a direct appropriation which could be used by the states in solving their problem in a constructive manner, the funds were provided only on a relief basis without any attention to the maintenance of teacher standards and teacher morale. Those who accepted the money accepted the lowering of teaching salary scales. Not even this practice was consistently followed. An illustration of this was the establishment of nursery schools through the use of WPA funds. Instead of making these funds available to the states for the establish- ment and operation of these programs in accordance with educational criteria, the Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 25 nursery schools were operated directly by federal agencies. While the staff was supposed to be on a relief basis, a large percentage of the personnel was non-relief because of the need of some sort of executive ability. For that non-relief portion, the federal government entered into competition with the local authorities, thus setting up a parallel school system. Another illustration was the use of WPA funds for various types of adult educa- tion. It is true that many real needs were met in this way, but instead of meeting these needs through the trained personnel already in the school system, new per- sonnel was employed directly by the federal government. State departments of education were often almost completely ignored and federal authorities controlled this branch of the local educational system. The same thing is true of the NYA. Originally this was intended to provide funds for needy youth trying to continue their schooling. Before many years had passed, the NYA was developing schools of its own and these were beginning to compete directly with local school units in setting up construction projects. When the local authorities created difficulties or appeared unsympathetic to the program of federal aid, the PWA went ahead with its own projects. Since the beginning of the war most of the relief and construction funds have been discontinued, but other developments have shown the same tendency. The Lanham Act was passed by Congress to assist in providing necessary community facilities in war critical areas. It was obvious that the federal agencies assigned to this very necessary activity were composed primarily of engineers who had no- idea of school needs or procedures. The problem of presenting and getting their school plant needs approved and buildings actually constructed became a nightmare for state and local school officials. The consequence was an approach to chaos. Even worse situations developed in connection with the portion of the funds avail- able for schools in maintaining their current school programs In war areas — the "M. and O." funds of the Lanham Act. These were supposed to be made available when needed and on the basis of applications signed by the local school units. The Federal Works Agency, responsible for administering this phase of the program, changed its policies and regulations so many times during the year that no one knew what to expect next. It would have been far better had the entire project been financed through the United States Office of Education which would then have worked In conjunction with the state departments of education and local school systems. Auditors representing the Federal Works Agency displayed their ignorance of school conditions by attempting to impose impossible interpretations, as, for example, when one of their rulings would have required separate light meters and separate facilities of all sorts for defense-connected pupils. The basic reasons for the present chaotic conditions lie in the failure of both the local districts and the federal government to realize that the education of the boys and girls of this countrj' is of legitimate concern to all of the people of the country. Once both the federal government and local school districts accept this great truth, then sound policy can be developed and pleasant cooperative relationships can be established. When both are determined to work together for the improvement of the lot of children, then that lot will improve much more rapidly than it has ever done in the past. The present record is that of conflict among a group of bureaucrats, of which I am one, who stand for the protection of the vested interest of local control and initiative on the one hand, and other groups of bureau- crats who stand for a thousand and one different things as the whims of their superiors lead them to issue a thousand and one different directives. We bureaucrats of local school districts know where we are and what we 26 American Association of School Administrators stand for. We do not know where federal bureaucrats are, nor what they stand for. In fact we doubt that they know. What is needed is a well-established basic policy which will arise out of the careful thinking of the representatives of the people and of the public schools of America, and which will be administered by and through a single agency of the federal government. Such a policy would recognize that the quality of the education of al! of the boys and girls of this country is of concern to all of the people of this country. It is just as important to the people of the Northwest to have good schools in jMississippi as it is to the people of Mississippi. If every penny raised for taxes of all kinds in that state in 1941-42 were spent on education, the per pupil cost ($27.15) would be only one-fourth of what it is in Oregon ($111.24). It is no accident that Huey Long and his Share- the-Wealth movement or Gerald K. Smith and his dangerous movement find their first strength in those areas of the nation where education is financed least. Ignorance on the part of large numbers of our people will always be of danger to the, country as a whole. A wise policy of federal- local relations in the field of education would lead to the use of the greater tax resources of the federal government to improve the education of all the children of all the people. The public schools of the country had an enrolment of 26,801,950 during 1938, the last normal prewar year. Private and parochial schools enrolled about 500,000 during this same year; 1,350,905 students were in colleges and universities; 1,095,173 persons were employed in all of these insti- tutions; $2,233,110,054 was spent to keep them in operation. The total population of the United States in 1938 was 130,215,000. About one-fourth of the whole nation was either enrolled in or working in an educational institution. This tremendous enterprise is represented in our national gov- ernment by the U. S. Office of Education, which is in the Federal Security Agency. It has no way to influence national policy directly or indirectly through a cabinet officer. This country alone, of the major nations of the world, fails to have an officer of cabinet rank to represent education. We have seen the way in which the schools of Japan and Germany have been used to produce people who hate others. As our armies enter Germany, they are discovering that the children have been changed by what the schools have done to them. One of. the major problems of the peace is that of reeducation of these children and of developing a program of education which will maintain peace. At a recent meeting of the allied ministers of education this country was represented by a Congressman and by the Librarian of Congress. Both of these men are capable men but they do not represent education in the LTnited States. A wise policy of federal-local relations would lead to the immediate establishment of a Department of Education which would be headed by a Secretary of Educa- tion who could speak for this great agency in the councils of our President's cabinet and in conferences between nations. Such a department should include under its administrative control all of the educational activities of the federal government. It should receive Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 27 and distribute federal aid to local districts upon a formula prescribed by law and not by directives. All relationships with other federal agencies should be settled at Washington through this department so that local dis- tricts would have clear-cut and understandable statements of what to do. Each local district would deal only with the Department of Education, which would handle all relationships with other agencies. A strong Department of Education and an adequate program of federal support are the only assurances which we can have that there will not be federal control of education. Many persons have assumed that a strong Department of Education and any system of federal financial aid to schools would automatically bring federal control. The opposite is true. The reluctance of the people of the United States to accept a comprehensive program of federal aid is responsible for the very large measure of federal control which we now have. The present tendency of existing agencies to direct what schools can or cannot do in terms of implications which minor bureaucrats give to the directives of major bureaucrats arises out of the fact that there is no national policy and no national law to which the local bureaucrat can tutn for guidance. Control and interference are bound to exist wherever clear statements of basic policy are absent. Federal control is less wherever it is based upon Congressional acts rather than upon directives. This does not mean that federal aid should not include some federally imposed standards, if the aid is to be received. It should do this. The nation should be sufficiently concerned about the welfare of its children to make sure that each teacher whose salary is paid in part by federal funds is well- trained, that class-size is such that not too many children are in one room, and that similar minimum standards are met. The right to have poor schools does not exist at any level — local, state, or federal. Above this minimum, however, local resourcefulness can have its chance to develop better schools for each community. With adequate federal aid it can begin to use the ideas which have been kept dormant because of lack of money to carry them out. Federal aid will encourage local initiative, rather than discourage it. I have given you a picture of what is going on in the schools now. There is federal control which rests on the basis of the personal directives of bureaucrats. There is conflict among federal agencies. There is no uniform point of view among them. There is continual interference with the operation of federally aided programs within the .schools. There is and has been federal aid to schools for years. This aid is of many kinds and administered in many ways. What does the future hold ? The end of the war means unemployment during conversion to ci\'ilian production. The labor market will be glutted. Into this glutted -market will come the 12,000,000 returned veterans. They will want and get jobs. But what of the millions of youth leaving our secondary schools each year in order to work? There will be few jobs for them. When millions of young people are out of work this is a national problem and will be solved on a national basis. The pattern has already been set. The recently abolished NYA was an answer to this problem by the government. It was designed to serve the worthy purpose of helping needy but capable jouth to continue 28 A.MHRicAN Association of School Administrators in school. The funds, however, were not allocated to the states to be admin- istered by local educators. Instead the federal government set up its own organization and, in time, even established federally operated schools of its own in which local students were paid to attend. This was federal control and federal operation as well. Compulsory niilitar\^ training is being discussed as part of the future training of youth. As the President described it recently, it is not com- pulsory military training, but a national school system with brushing the teeth among the required subjects. This too will mean both federal control and federal operation. AVar workers must be retrained for the occupations of peaceful produc- tion. This will involve the use of much of the present War Production 7Vaining facilities. Will this too be federally controlled and operated? What of rehabilitation of the veteran? What about nursery schools? What about extended day care? Federal funds for public works? Vocational education? The "G. I. Law"? What about all the other federal projects and agencies which are now operating or financing some federally spon- sored program ? What will happen to the present program of deficit financ- ing? Will we get both federal funds and federal operation? We probably will unless there is immediate action. Again I quote, Edgar L. iMorphet: The only way to avoid future federal control of schools and to eliminate some of the present control by non-educational agencies is to establish a definite plan of direct federal aid. Through such a plan the states can know what financial resources are available and if any tendency toward federal control should develop, the educa- tional profession can meet the issue directly and successfully. Under the present system of indirect and piecemeal support, the issues seldom come out into the open where they can be made clear to the general public. Any system of direct federal aid should meet the following requirements: A. The funds should be apportioned to the states on the basis of an objective formula written into the law and therefore not subject to special interpretation or modification by any federal agencies or employees except the courts. B. The funds should be made available to the various states to be used by them in strengthening and improving their own educational systems in accordance with the provisions of their own laws. C. Each should be held fully responsible and accountable for the proper expendi- ture of the funds in accordance with the objectives and standards written into the federal law. D. The states should be expected and required to meet certain objective adminis- trative standards that are'incorporated in the law. These standards should tend to safeguard the interests of the children of the state, but should not be of the type that would subject the schools to any kind of undesirable control. The people of America are definitely opposed to federal domination of the school program. This is the greatest possible safeguard against such control. However, as long as federal funds are administered through non-educational channels and used indirectly for specific phases of the school program, it will be hard to combat this increasing control of local education from Washington. If all the millions of dollars which have been spent on the various educational functions through these non- educational agencies of the federal government had been made available to the states through a satisfactory system of federal aid for schools, our educational pro- gram would have been far better, our local control of schools would be better established and the obligation of the United States to give a satisfactorv education to all of the children of the United States would have been permanently recognized. Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 29 suffp:r little children KENNETH MCFARLAND, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TOPEKA, KANSAS I am reminded today that five and one-half years have passed since Hitler's Huns crashed across the Polish border to begin the most devastating con- flagration this world has ever known. Little children born in America that sad September in 1939 are now in school. The years which make up the life span of this year's kindergarten children have been ^ears of inter- national tragedy, years in which the flames of war have spread from shore to shore until finally they have engulfed the earth. I often think that war represents a special kind of sorrow for people engaged in the business of education. We have dedicated our lives to the task of preparing young people to live, and Avhen we see the precious product of our institutions exposed to the fury of modern warfare, it seems to represent both a personal and a professional tragedy. No one knows better than school people that there is no way to assess our battle losses accurately. If our heroic dead could have devoted their great talents to peaceful pur- suits, what magnificent contributions they could have made to the welfare of the world. Have 3'ou read that little poem of Max Foley's called "The Five Per Cent"? In that poem he says: In battle plunged a hundred men, And ninety-five came out again — Yes, they came out alive; But still we find we're just as dead As if a half the hundred bled. Instead of merely five. For we are those who died the day You read that curt communique: OUR CASUALTIES WERE LIGHT. And we, like you, have thought it well That we were but a few who fell. While more live on to fight. And yet, we had families, friends. For whom at last all hoping ends In tears through years to come. OUR LOSSES HAVE BEEN LIGHT SO FAR. Well, that depends on who you are — Not very light for some. No, to those who have nurtured the boys through the years to sec them stand on the threshold of full and useful lives, there is no such term as "light casualties." Perhaps only those can truly love freedom who really understand how much it costs. And all those who pay the price of freedom are not found on the field of battle. The wife who girds her husband's sword. Mid little ones who weep or wonder And bravely speaks the cheering word, Although her heart be rent asunder. 30 American Association of School Administrators Doomed nightly in her dreams to hear The bolts of death aroimd him rattle, Hath shed as sacred blood as e'er Was poured upon the field of battle! The mother who conceals her grief While to her breast her son she presses, Then breathes a few brave words and brief Kissing the patriot brow she blesses, With no one but her secret God To know the pain that weighs upon her. Sheds holy blood as e'er the sod Received on Freedom's field of honor. If war just killed our fine men and broke our women's hearts, if it just did that, it would hold the undisputed title of being the most damnable institution ever known. But it does worse things than that — it ravages the little children of the world. Premier Alolotov was thinking of the mil- lions of Russia's children who have died and the millions more who are living on a starvation diet when he said, "It is not only important that we win this war but it is important that we win it soon, lest the physical fiber of our people be irreparably weakened." At Lubin on August 11, 25,000 Russian and Polish civilians held a memorial service for more than 300,000 of their countrymen who had been slain there through German atrocity. The great crowd watched as the bodies of little children were taken from an open ditch. But a reporter on the scene writes, "The people did not cry. They had no tears left." Leaders in liberated France report their country has suffered terribly from what they call "the disease of defeat." Thousands of children in Paris and elsewhere have come to live by the law of the jungle. Their fathers have been prisoners of war in Germany for four years and the chil- dren have had to subsist by any means possible. "These youngsters know nothing of decency and honor," writes one Frenchman. "We must very soon get our families reunited, all of our children in school again, and our economic system functioning, or our defeat will be permanent." The Polish government in exile reports that Poland lost the present war during the last war when virtually all of its children under six years of age starved to death. "Poland has been a battle ground for nine years out of the last thirty," says this spokesman. "No nation can continue to survive the loss of so much of its blood." In Britain the government is mustering teachers out of the armed forces in an effort to recoup some of the ravages which the war has reeked upon the nation's childhood. Expressing fear that England will find itself with a whole generation of what it calls "wild children," the London Times declares, "It is too much to take everything away from our children and leave them nothing but debt and destruction. The future of the empire depends upon saving the children now." In his book entitled. They Shall Inherit the Earth, Otto Zoff points out that the children of the world pay a ghastly price for this thing we have come to call "total war." In no land are the children guilty of Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 31 making war, yet the bombs have maimed and killed them with the same iron indifference in Hamburg as in Coventry. They starved in Leningrad and Salonika. Children hiding in caves in the cliffs of Sevastopol were buried alive by the bombardment from the ships. Children were torn in two at their school desks when the German bombers blasted Bristol, and every last baby was murdered in the extermination of Warsaw's ghetto. Yes, when war kills our men and women it blots out the sun for today. But when it attacks the children it does a far more horrible thing — it reaches out with bloody hands to hold back the dawn of a better day. No wonder the Master Teacher said of the little children, "Whoso shall offend one of these little ones, it were better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck, and that he were drowned in the depth of the sea." Certainly if there is such a thing as retributive justice the arrogant warlords of Germany and Japan will burn longer in hell for what they have done to the children of the world than for anything else on the long list of their monstrous crimes. WAR CASUALTIES NOT LIMITED TO BATTLE ZONES But there are millions of war casualties among children who have never heard an exploding bomb nor the drone of a hostile plane. In our own country there are untold thousands of children who are growing up with- out the companionship and influence of their fathers. These American children are safe from air attacks and enemy armies, but they are not safe from a thousand other dangers of modern war. They are not safe from the effects of shifting populations and disorganized homes. They are not safe, as Dorothy Thompson puts it, "from the constant sensational- ism of war — from bloody films and fearsome headlines." They are not safe from the constant tenseness and nervous tiredness which surround them. Children, one writer says, "are like little receiving stations." When they live constantly in an atmosphere of emotional strain, they absorb it with their nerves even if their minds do not comprehend it. I wish I could talk to you today about the tremendous need for personal guidance counselors in the public schools, but I shall here merely point out again that every American agency dealing with childhood has a colossal job on hand to prevent another "lost generation" such as followed World War I. I think it is now apparent to even our enemies that we are going to win this war. The products of our free American homes and our great school system are defeating the regimented forces of darkness all over this planet. Gene Tunney said it well : "America's secret weapon has not been a gun or a new plane. It is America's magnificent youth. The way they have risen to the occasion has astonished the world." But we must start now to make sure that the war does not leave so many scars as to rob us of the fruits of victory. We must start now to get a big idea about the postwar world. We must start now to thinking of a social order where first things shall be first, and human welfare is always first. 32 American Association of School, Administrators Through all the avenues of public information in recent months we have heard much about postwar planning. Many newspapers have carried a worthwhile series of articles on this subject. These writers spoke mainh' of the physical improvements we shall need, and their contributions are well worth the attention of all of us. But throughout all our postwar dis- cussions 1 ha\e personally wished we might talk more about the kind of citizens we shall need. people are the "stuff" of which communitie.< are made I have often pointed out to civic groups that whereas over this land we have thousands of civic bodies working to build bigger and better commu- nities, it is very rarely that we find such a group that has taken time even to define what a community is. Now it seems to me that a community can be simply defined. A community is a place where people live together in considerable numbers. You can make a community anywhere. All you need are some people. But the quality of the community will be determined by the quality of the people who compose it, and the quality of the people ivill be determined by ivhat they think about a feiv great fundamental principles. Incidentally, as Dr. Willis Sutton has pointed out, there is a striking correlation between education and purchasing power. People of very low educational attainments usually have very simple wants. They want simple food, simple shelter, and simple raiment. Now you cannot build a great industrial civilization upon demands so rudimentary as that. But as you climb the ladder of educational attainments the wants of the people multiply and the record shows their purchasing power increases proportionately. There is only one way under the sun to plan for bigger and better com- munities tomorrow and that is to grow them. We cannot for a moment cease preparing citizenship for tomorrow. Dorothy Canfield Fisher put it well when she said : "You can interrupt the improving of a road and ten years later go on with it about where you left off, but if you interrupt decent care for children and ten years later begin again to feel responsible for them, you can by no means begin where you left off. You find them irreparabl\' grown up, and grown up wrong — enemies and liabilities of their communit\' rather than friends and assets." Why, in the darkest hour of our American war between the states, Jef- ferson Davis, whose southern Confederacy was being broken and defeated, said, "To discontinue educational facilities in the least is the most insidious form of grinding our seed corn." So let us in our postwar planning stand upon a solid base of operations and get a big idea concerning the scope of the problem. Let us follow all policies that will improve human welfare and raise the standard of citizen- ship. Let us support and improve our schools, churches, libraries, and sources of information and spiritual inspiration. From such a program will come all the human ability we need to solve our other problems. If we can spend $300,000,000 a day to get our boys ready to die, we can spend $300,000,000 a vear to get them rea(i\' to live. Bruce Barton has said : Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 33 "In times like these, invest in boys and girls. Men talk about buying stock at the bottom. When you invest in a boy or a girl you are always buying at bedrock. You are sure that the youngster is going up, and there is no telling how far. I invite every man and woman in America to take a flj-er in childhood preferred. I predict a great future for this security. It has investment merit combined with the most exciting speculative possibility. You are sure to get a man or a woman, and you may get a great man or a great woman." Every man in every business should come to the basic realization that the wealth of any community lies in a healthy, intelligent, and moral citizen- ship. The individual who follows any other philosophy is not only stupid, but he is pursuing a philosophy which would result in his own ruination should the general public follow his lead. Dave Anderson, the Barber — I used to have a neighbor who was a very wealthy man. He could have bought and sold me a hundred times, but I never envied him. He made his money in bonds, stocks, and real estate. He employed no men, he invested in nothing productive ; he maintained an office downtown, but no one ever went there except on financial matters. He had no children, he belonged to no civic groups. He never helped any- one but himself. One June morning my neighbor came over to my house and said, "Dave Anderson died last night." Dave Anderson was a barber in the town who had a family of five fine children. His oldest son had just graduated from our high school a few days before and left behind him one of the finest records as a student, an athlete, and a gentleman that we ever had. And that boy had never represented his school in a contest of any kind, at home or abroad, that Dave Anderson hadn't been on the sideline to see him. None of those Anderson children were ever in anything but what Dave was there and proud as a prince. And now he was gone. Dave Anderson wasn't an old man. He died where manhood's morning almost touches noon. As Robert Ingersol had put it, "He hadn't yet passed the stone on life's highway that marks the highest point — the shadows were still falling toward the west." But that night when Dave Anderson lay down in his bed, he was just too tired, I guess, and he fell into "that dreamless sleep that kissed his eyelids and left them still." My neighbor said, "You see, there's nothing to it. Dave has slaved all his life and he's leaving nothing to the town but a big family and he's leaving the family nothing." I said, "Well, suppose we go down to the Anderson home," and to my surprise my neighbor consented to go. We drove down in his limousine and he reiterated his oft-spoken philosophy that the only way to make it in this world was to take care of yourself. When we arrived at the Ander- son residence we found a modest house that was scrupulously neat and clean. We found a mother who was stunned into silence by the sudden disaster that had befallen that home. We found a boy of about eleven am! a bov about thirteen who were crving their hearts out because their Dad 34 American Association of School Administrators was gone, and we found two smaller children who could not yet compre- hend the finality of death. And we found Bob Anderson, the eighteen-year- old son who had just graduated from high school. After a little while when we were ready to go, Bob Anderson walked out to the car with us, and I said, "Well, Bob, what are your plans now?" He said, "I am going to forget about college and keep my job at the plant. I'll soon be making as much money as we ever have had to live on and the other kids can go to school. After all, if I can just be as fine a man as my Dad was, that's all I can ever ask, anyhow." My neighbor and I shook hands with Bob and drove back up town in silence. Finally I said, "How do you feel about it now? Do you still think Dave Anderson didn't leave anything to his family and the town?" And my neighbor said, "He left plenty, didn't he?" Then he looked away with a hopeless expression and said, "I'm getting old. What wouldn't I give for a boy like that?" I said, "You can't have a boy like that. But you can help that boy and his family. Through your school taxes, about which you complain with such remarkable regularity, you are always helping thousands of boys like that." My neighbor used to say, "What is there to school teaching? You can't make any money at it." He had not the slightest notion of a service concept in life. My neighbor never had a man come into his office, shake his hand, and say, "I'm a poor man and without influence. I can't ever repay you for getting me that job. But I can carry your memory forever in my heart, and that is what I'm going to do." My neighbor never had a mother come to his office with tears streaming down her face, and say, "My house will forever call you blessed for what you've done for my boy." But my neighbor thinks he has lived. His single ambition in living seems to be that he shall eventually have the distinction of being the richest man in the cemetery. But what a great and happy man he could be if he would only use of his talent and treasure to help his fellow men. Burris Jenkins has pointed out that the Washington Monument is the highest memorial ever built to commemorate the memory of an American, and it was constructed to honor a Virginia farmer who gave up all comfort and peace to serve his fellow men. Just across the way in our nation's Capital stands the widest monument ever built for an American — and it was built to keep alive the memory of an Illinois rail splitter who gave all — even his life — to preserve the guarantees of life and liberty to all his fellow men, both white and black. And I say to you today that some day when they build that other monument — the monument that shall be the highest and the widest — it will be built to honor some humble man who served more than all the rest. Teaching is a service profession, a noble profession ; it has great com- pensations, whether my neighbor understands them or not. Airs. Kelly's Essay — I hope In this postwar world we shall be big enough and shrewd enough to support the things that are the life blood of a healthy community. Up in Nebraska City, Nebraska, in 1926, a mother of five chil- dren sat down in her home and from her heart she wrote a prize-winning Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 35 essay. I have never met this gallant lady, but I telephoned her recently and told her I wanted to use her essay in this address and she gave her consent. That American mother is Mrs. Charles Kelly. She had a neighbor too, and her essay is entitled "My Neighbor's House." Mrs. Kelly says: My neighbor has prospered. His home is the last word in modern architecture and equipment. It is his hobby. He loves every board and block in it. He surrounds it with grassy plots and shrubs and flowers, and adorns it inside and out according to his sense of artistic grace and beauty. Not only is his home a source of pride and satisfaction to my neighbor, but by its beauty and grace and general attractiveness it sheds distinction and adds to the value of the property around about it. Now my home is a modest affair. It needs paint and the roof does not cover it as well as the mortgage. What is meant for a grassplot shows bare patches like the exposed portions of a little boy's trousers. And, instead of graceful flowering vines, my house is overrun by little rosy ramblers who clamber about scraping off the paint and leaving muddy streaks in their wake. There are five of them, and all the hard work, sacrifice, and care they mean to me is nothing compared to the pride I have in their clear eyes, clean minds, and sturdy bodies. To the hope I hold in their future the present struggle to keep them clothed, housed, and fed is a small affair. They represent my family estate. To them I hope to leave an inheritance of char- acter and courage. And to the world I shall bequeath, not large sums for charity, schools, or hospitals, but a family of men and women equipped to take up the problems of life. But when my neighbor begins to talk about taxes I have an uneasy feeling that, according to his way of looking at it, I should have drowned these dimpled babes before their eyes were open. He has it figured out to a penny how much it is costing him to educate one of my children. Now I am paying taxes, too, but for nine months of the year my children are under the supervision of trained teachers, men and women of unquestioned character and high ideals. It doesn't seem to me that they are receiving exorbitant wages. But my neighbor has no children. To him school is just a building that cost too much in the first place, is costing too much in the upkeep, and doesn't give back a profit to the town. I believe my neighbor is wrong. My children do have a monetary value to the town. For their needs my earnings are spent. I buy from my neighbor such things as he has to sell, thereby adding to his riches. I go farther. I am not raising pigs for profit, nor cattle for the market, but raw material for the nation of tomorrow. They are not mine alone; they belong to the nation as well. It is to everybody's interest that they become fit and useful citizens. As they are trained, as they are educated, they will develop. This community has a part in that development. My neighbor has no more right to spread propaganda for cheap schools, a niggardly system that will dwarf the future of my children, than I have to throw trash in his front yard. When I telephoned Mrs. Kelly the other day, I said, "Mrs. Kelly, you had your five children around j'ou in your home when you wrote that essay in 1926. Where are your children and who are they now, nineteen j'ears later?" She told me two of her sons are serving their country. Captain Robert Kelly is with the armed forces in Europe. He was formerly London correspondent for United Press, and Pharmacist's Mate Richard M. Kelly is with the U. S. Navy in the South Pacific. Mrs. Kelly's eldest son, Herbert, is city editor of the Des Moines, Iowa, Register. And the fourth son, Charles Kelly, Junior, I was pleased to learn, is in the farm machinery business and lives at 2625 Fillmore Street in my home city of Topeka. Mrs. Kelly's only daughter served on the editorial staff of Life magazine for a while and is now Mrs. Elizabeth Kelly Hutchings of New York City, wife of an editor of Liberty magazine. 36 American Association of School Administrators So today I want to say, "God bless you, Mrs. Kelly," for the great con- tribution you have made to the wealth and welfare of this nation through rearing such a fine family. I congratulate you for fighting for the things that gave your children their chance in life. And I hope that in the better world your sons are fighting for we shall all remember how very right you were when you wrote that prize-winning essay nineteen years ago. Today schools everywhere are faced with the greatest problems of their history, and they are meeting those problems with limited personnel and a host of other handicaps. This is 7iot the time for the American public to be supercritical of its schools. This is a time when the schools deserve sym- pathetic understanding and the maximum in cooperation and support. I should like to bring my remarks to a close by urging that while we rejoice in the approaching victory in Europe, let us determine now that wc shall be as diligent in maintaining our hard-won victory as we have been in achieving it. Let us not be tricked by any misplaced sentimentality when we write the terms of peace. We owe it to our gallant fighting men, we owe it to their mothers, we owe it to the children of the world to see that the hell of modern warfare shall never be unleashed again. The Prairie Flier recently printed a statement from an American soldier which suc- cinctly states the situation : An American Soldier Speaks Inside the rotten apple that is Germany today the worms have begun to twist and squirm. The Herrenvolk, the Master Race, the men who would have ruled the world are desperate men today, caught in a rapidly rising tide that sweeps upon them from all sides. For five long, bloody years, they have taken the food from the children of Europe They have watched the stomachs of children bloat from hunger and the arms and legs shrink to pipestems and the skin ulcerate. For five long, murderous years they have built a forest of gallows over Europe. They have watched the shadows of hanged men with their tongues out and their necks broken and stretched. They have murdered and tortured and hanged. The mark of their coming has been the smoke of homes burning. They have moved under "a pillar of smoke by day and of fire by night." They have ravened like wolves across a continent and the old and young, the weak and the strong, and the little children have died for their pleasure. And today they are afraid; they are desperate with a sweat of fear; they are frightened before the hatred of a world and before the ghosts that they have raised up to destroy them. And, each in his own way, the Herrenvolk are reacting to that fear. The pure Nazis, Himmler's men, the torturers and sadists and rapists ^vere never more dangerous than now. If they must fall they will try to pull down the world Avith them. They screech like madmen. They scream threats of a blood bath, of the universal holocaust that they will make. They will use robot bombs and gas. They will use every weapon that thej' may command. They will kill, and kill, until they die in turn. They are so afraid that they were never more dangerous than now. The Junkers, the stiff-necked "old army" nobles would make peace as once before. They have tried, are trying a revolt to throw the Nazis out. They want a peace before the armies of the world move into Germany. They want to forget the millions who have died and keep their uniforms and medals and go home to their Prussian castles and sulk a while and build for Der Tag again. Their minds move in a stiff pattern, in a frozen rut. They think they can surrender with full honors of war and Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 37 go home to get ready to try again. They despise the 'Nazi in defeat, but they are as guilty as he. Like him they are more and more unimportant now. The important man now is the German soldier in the ranks. On all fronts he is being beaten, he is learning how to retreat and retreat again. He must know by now that his generals are being shot for revolt, that his Luftwaffe cannot come out to protect him, that his allies are treacherous and his enemies strong. He must know better than anyone that his food and his gasoline and his ammunition are giving out. He must be beginning to know that his leaders are afraid and their promises are lies. Sooner or later he will realize these things completely and then his army will melt away. "When that time comes," says this American soldier, "we will be able to go home." Let us remember these things when the boys do come home. It is well to be charitable, to be forgiving, to be Christian. But let us deal out justice to the international murderers and outlaws. There is wisdom in an old Chi- nese proverb which says, "To be too magnanimous to our enemies is to be cruel to our friends." No, we cannot profess to love children and let the baby killers go unpunished. We cannot profess to love children and stupidly resign ourselves to exposing ever}^ generation of them to war. We rnust set up an international organization for maintaining the peace and then dedicate our energies to making that organization work. Let us follow the advice of Superintendent A. J. Stoddard of Philadelphia: "When this war is over, let every citizen every day inquire, 'How goes the peace?' " Let us ask that question as often and as earnestly as we now ask about the progress of the war. We must not stupidly despair of our hope for a warless world. THE key word in WORLD CONFLICT IS FAITH The great divine, Dr. Daniel Poling, who has himself lost a son in this war, has declared that "To say we should go back to the old way of living and that our children's children must be called upon to make the same sacrifices as ourselves, is a great lie. The Cross of Christ taught that life is redeemable and we must, therefore, see that a new world is created, see that old failures are not repeated, see that our men have not died in vain. "The key word to this world conflict is faith, not despair. Winning the war and winning the peace are one and inseparable." By making this war a permanent and perpetual victory for humanity, we shall be qualified to join with Owen Seaman^ in saying: You that have faith to look with fearless eyes Upon the tragedy of a world at strife, And know, that out of night and death shall rise The dawn of ampler life: Rejoice! Whatever anguish rend your heart That God hath given you this priceless dower, To live in these great times and have your part In Freedom's crowning hour; That you may tell your sons, who see the light High in the heavens, their heritage to take: — I saw the powers of darkness put to flight! I saw the morning break ! 1 Seaman. Owen. "Between Midnipht and Morning." 38 American Association of School Administrators PROBLEMS OF THE PROFESSIONAL PERSONNEL HOWARD MCDONALD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH What are the problems of the professional personnel? As we look over the field we find they are legion. In this short discourse it will be impossible to discuss all of them. I shall, therefore, limit myself to the problems of most concern at the present time. World War II has changed the picture most drastically. Just previous to the outbreak of the war the problem of teacher supply was of little con- cern. Thousands of well-qualified teachers were making application for teaching positions in the offices of the various superintendents of schools. With the decrease in school enrolments, these teachers found it difficult to secure teaching positions. Hundreds of these fine men and women were forced to take jobs outside the teaching profession in order to make a living. Many parents of boys and girls on whom large sums of money have been spent to educate them for the teaching profession had come and pleaded with Superintendents that their sons and daughters be given teaching posi- tions. What could superintendents do? The great depression through which the country was going made it mandatory that they curtail expenditures wherever possible. Even many needed services had to be discontinued. As soon as the United States entered into the world conflict, the entire picture of teacher supply was changed. War industries sprang up over night with good salaries for those who desired to work. Many teachers were called into the armed services of their country because of their specialized training in fields closely related to the war effort. Others were taken into the employ of private companies. These men and women have contributed greatly in the field of research. The Army and Navy were in need of instructors. Where did they go for their teachers? They came to the various super- intendents with the request, "We want your best teachers of physics, mathe- matics, chemistry, phvsical education, and industrial arts." What did the superintendents do? They released their best teachers for these important jobs. What did this do to the home front? By this time thousands of teachers had either enlisted in the armed forces or had accepted jobs in war indus- tries at salaries far above those which superintendents of schools could afford to pay under the budgets set up for educational purposes. The superintendents appealed to the teacher-training institutions for help. They could not render much assistance as their enrolment for teacher training had dropped. The salaries paid in the teaching profession did not attract students to train for the profession. In one state, which is a tj^pical example of the situation in all states, the condition was as follows : In 1940 the total number of teachers trained by the three teacher-training institutions of the state was 736; in 1941, just before Pearl Harbor, 729; in 1942, just after Pearl Harbor, 584. In 1943 the number dropped to 378, and in the spring of 1944 the figure went down to 190. To make the situation more difficult, not all of those trained for teaching positions Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 39 entered the profession. They found other jobs more desirable from a salary point of view. , Another problem closely related to this one is: "Are we attracting into the teaching profession the persons most suited for teaching, or are they selecting other fields such as medicine, law, architecture, engineering, and dentistry which give them a more adequate opportunity to maintain a home?" Horace Mann described the type of person who should be employed in the schools as follows: "A young man or a j^oung woman, whose education is sound; whose language is well-selected; whose pronunciation and tones of voice are correct and attractive ; whose manners are gentle and refined ; all of whose topics of conversation are elevating and instructive; whose benignity of heart is constantly manifested in acts of civility, courtesy and kindness; and who spreads a nameless charm over whatever circle may be entered. Such a person should the teacher of every common school be." Do our teachers of today meet these qualifications? Yes, many of them do but, sorry to say, some of them do not. In many of our school districts throughout the United States, teachers are forced to obtain supplementary jobs to maintain their homes and educate their children respectably. Teach- ers who teach under such conditions cannot give the full measure of their devotion to the boys and girls whom they teach. The superintendent is confronted with the problem that such teachers come to school "crabby" and ill-tempered because they have not had sufficient rest. Well, what are we going to do about the problem of teacher supply? One teacher-training institution is giving free tuition to all students who will train for the teaching profession. This may be an initial incentive but it does not solve the problem in the final analysis. The canceled tuition will not go far in buying a home after graduation, furnishing a home, or purchasing food, clothing, and the necessities of life. The solution will not come until the people of the United States are willing to pay the teachers salaries comparable to salaries paid to people in other professions with equal training and experience. In this problem of teacher supply, we shall ever be grateful to the great number of married women who were discontinued as teachers because they desired to assume the responsibilities of married life, but who have graciously returned to the teaching field to help in this war emergency. Many of them have been reluctant to return because they have not maintained the standards and the knowledge of teaching technics so much needed to be efficient teachers. Many of them have not taught for fifteen or twenty years. The demand since 1941 has been so great that superintendents have welcomed anyone who could and would go into the classroom. The number of married women who have returned to the classroom has not been sufficient to meet the demands. Even boys and girls with no train- ing beyond the high school have been employed as teachers. This condition is most deplorable and will be a scar upon the education of our youth for years to come. Businessmen are forever criticizing the schools for not turning out better prepared youth, and at the same time they will spend thousands of dollars to fight any move to finance the schools adequately. 40 American Association of School Administrators Not only do we need well-qualified teachers but we need sufficient text- books, supplementary and reference books in the school library, sufficient building upkeep, and Auditory and visual aids so useful in modern teaching. Many other needs could be mentioned if time and space permitted. Today there are certain persons seeking teaching jobs who should never be employed. Some of them have been released from the armed forces because of their acts. They are those who are classified as perverts. Superin- tendents must ever be alert to this problem especially at this time of teacher shortage. These men often have an appealing way toward boys and girls, and if the superintendent is not on guard, in his anxiety to fill certain jobs he will employ such individuals before they have first been thoroughly investigated. This is a time when superintendents must be honest and fair to the teaching profession. These perverts must not be just told to get out and never come back to the school system, but their state teaching credentials should be revoked. We are better of? without any teachers than with such men to lead and direct the lives of our boys and girls. Many women teachers married men in the armed forces and traveled with them from camp to camp until they were shipped overseas. These women had little to do during the daytime as their husbands would be ofif dutv perhaps only a few hours each week. They, therefore, desired to teach in the local community where their husbands Avere located. Superintendents were glad to hire them even though their residence in the district was un- certain. Many times orders would come over night for the transfer of the hu'-'band to another camp. The teacher would leave immediately with her husband. Some of our classes during the school year 1943-44 had as many as ten and twelve different teachers. No wonder many mothers became panicky about the welfare of their children. During the school year 1943-44, temporary teachers of the above type from every state in the Union were employed in the city of San Francisco. Perhaps San Francisco had a great many of these teachers because it is a port of embarkation for the South Pacific war area. IN-SERVICE TRAINING The great influx of temporary teachers, former teachers who were dis- continued because of marriage, and those coming from all parts of the coun- try, has multiplied the problem of "in-service training." The teacher-training institutions have been most cooperative in scheduling courses for these teach- ers. But the problem has been beyond the power of the institution of learning. The great burden has been placed upon the shoulders of superintendents, assistant superintendents, supervisors, and principals. The courses offered by the teacher-training institutions seemed to be too remote to the problems ;it hand. These teachers met daily problems with which they needed help. The extension courses were held perhaps once each week throughout the school term. The new teachers had taught, in many cases, six months before their difficulties in the classroom had been discussed. These new teachers needed individual and immediate assistance. To whom could they go? The logical person was the principal. If the principal happened to be one who Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 41 did not know the philosophy of education and the psychology of subjects, it was just too bad for the bewildered teacher and the children whom she was teaching. Not only were the new teachers having a problem of staging a comeback, but permanent teachers had been deprived of many phases of in-service training available to them in prewar days. For instance, in prewar days many of our teachers availed themselves of the opportunity for study and travel, including that in foreign countries, under rules and regulations pertaining to "sabbatical leave." Some teachers found rich experiences in exchanging positions with teach- ers of other school systems throughout the United States. Some also had the privilege of exchanging positions with teachers in foreign lands. Since these opportunities are not as plentiful now as in prewar days, other means have been developed for in-service training which are proving to be of great value. The Commission on Teacher Education appointed by the American Council on Education has given valuable suggestions to superintendents in the report of the cooperative study entitled Teacher Education iti Service. This book has been prepared by Charles E. Prall and C. Leslie Cushman, both of whom were field coordinators on the staff of the Commission. The Commission invited a representative group of school systems, urban and rural, to cooperate with selected colleges and universities in a study of teacher education. From 1939 to 1942 these cooperating institutions made a special effort to assist their educational personnel to increase their competence and effectiveness as teachers. The book gives a detailed account of the problems discussed and the method of approach in each school system. This volume is recommended to those who are endeavoring to improve the standards of instruction in the schools. Dr. Cushman and Dr. Prall have put into book form not only their own ideas but the combined activities and ideas of hundreds of school people, superintendents, assistant superintendents, supervisors, principals, vice- principals, and classroom teachers. NEW PROBLEMS Many of our boys and girls enrolled in the schools are going through experiences and periods of nervous tension not experienced by children in times of peace. Fathers, brothers, and relatives are in the front-line fields of battle. Those w^ho have to deal with these pupils must not only be skilful in the subjectmatter to be taught, in the technics of teaching methods, but they must have a warm response and a real love for young people. This love for young people must be supported by an understanding of boys and girls. They must use good judgment in their dealings with children in the unnatural situations into which they are thrown today. By careful observation many a child may be adjusted to the processes of learning by the endeavors of a wise teacher. As I stepped one day into the classroom of a third grade, the teacher was berating a little Italian boy, Tony. When the teacher realized that a visitor had stepped into the room she turned to me and said: "Tony 42 American Association of School Administrators is good for nothing. Please take him out of this room. We do not want him here any longer. Get him out. He is good for nothing." Little Tony stood there before the class with his jaws set and his little fists clinched. He said nothing. But it was evident from the expression on his face what was going through his mind. Not only did this episode have its effect on Tony but it produced a wave of distrust toward the teacher which swept over the entire class. At that moment she destroyed her effectiveness as a teacher. The harm done could not be repaired in weeks — perhaps in the minds of many, never. We want in our schools schoolmen and women who feel as William Lyon Phelps felt when he said : "I do not know that I could make entirely clear to an outsider the pleasure I have in teaching. I had rather earn my living by teaching than in any other way. To my mind, teaching is not merely a lifework, a profession, an occupation, a struggle. It is a passion. I love to teach. I love to teach as a painter loves to paint, as a musician loves to play, as a singer loves to sing, as a strong man rejoices to run a race. Teaching is an art — an art so great and so difficult to master that a woman or a man can spend a long life at it, without realizing much more than his limitations and mistakes and his distance from the ideal. There never has been in the world's history a period when it was more worthwhile to be a teacher than in the twentieth century; for there was never an age when such vast multitudes were eager for an education or when the necessity of a liberal education was so generally recognized. It would seem as though the whole world were trying to lift itself to a higher plane of thought." IMMEDIATE ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS IN CONNECTION WITH THE TEACHING STAFF E. S. EVENDEN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The expression "as is the teacher, so is the school," while obviously not the "whole truth" is certainly more than a "half-truth." Everyone knows that the effectiveness of any school depends also upon the abilities and backgrounds of the children; such phj^sical facilities as buildings, play- grounds, libraries, and instructional equipment; the adequacy of the sup- port for the educational program; and the public's attitudes toward the schools. Nevertheless, the teacher is unquestionably the most important factor in determining the quality of the school program. One evidence of this is seen in the fact that, for the country as a whole, at least two-thirds of the budget for current expenses goes to pay teachers' salaries. The teach- ing staff is at once the largest area of responsibility for administrators and the area in which the administrative problems are likely to be most numerous and most "immediate." I shall present only a few of the more pressing problems and discuss them so briefly that the reader may easily mistake brevity for dogmatism. Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 43 It is hoped, in spite of this limitation, that any publicity given to these problems will increase public interest and perhaps facilitate faster and better solutions. For convenience, they are arranged in two groups — those that are quite directly war-caused and those persistent problems that may have been aggravated by the war but are not directly caused by it. immediate administrative problems WAR-CAUSED 1. How can the tragic shortage of teachers throughout the country, especially in the rural areas, in the low-salaried schools, and in some of the special fields, be relieved? Various research studies of the National Education Association have re- peatedly shown us the results of the war and war conditions upon the teaching personnel. Such facts as "280,000 teachers have left the profes- sion since Pearl Harbor," "One in ten is holding an emergency certificate," "Nearly 10,000 schools were without teachers in October 1944," all show too clearly how tragically we are repeating our errors of the First World War and handicapping a generation of children. If we could fully realize the incidence of this handicap, we would put forth efforts comparable to our war efforts to avoid it. Steps should be taken as quickly as possible to relieve the present shortages of qualified teachers. The problem cannot be solved without the aid of federal equalization grants. If, until the war is over, it is necessary to employ teachers with standards below those of the prewar period, these teachers should be employed on emergency per- mits that will not be renewable without additional preparation. 2. What methods can be used to replace below-standard teachers who have been employed during the war by qualified teachers as rapidly as these can be secured? Some of the states have taken elaborate precautions to insure that "tem- porary" certificates or permits are in reality temporary. Some of the emer- gency teachers ©f the war of 1917 are still teaching. We should not make this mistake, no matter what others we make, twice in the same generation. This does not mean that teachers who have gone into teaching as a patriotic service should not have our gratitude for doing the best they could, but our gratitude should not cause us to forget the result upon the boys and girls, who year after year are receiving instruction from less than the best. Neither does it mean that many such teachers would not be retained in teaching service if they undertook a program of preparation that would upgrade them to at least prewar standards as rapidly as can effectively be done for teachers in service. 3. What steps should be taken at once fo provide appropriate reetn- ploy?nent of teachers now in the armed services? Qualified teachers in the armed services should, as was recently sug- gested by Dr. William C. Bagley, have priority in being released from military service and returned promptly to this country, if they have been 44 American Association of SciiooL Administrators serving overseas. Special efforts should be made to w^elcome these teachers back into the profession. They and their points of view will be needed in education if the teaching groups are to be truly representative of the American public. These returned teachers will help solve the problem of replacing teachers holding emergency certificates, but their return to teaching is not so simple as to plan to give them their old positions and dismiss or relocate the teachers who have been substituting for them. In the first place, the old position in many instances will have changed with new materials, methods, and emphases. Secondly, the teacher-veteran has certainly changed and. while he may think he wants nothing more than to get back to his old job, he may be most unhappy and ineffective in it. And, in the third place, the substitute teacher in some cases has done an efficient and patriotic job and may be a lost resource for the schools if forced out of teaching. The careful handling of this problem will be of great importance to the schools during the next decade. 4. JVhat concerted efforts can be made to restore the prestige of teach- ing and teachers that has suffered such setbacks during the war? The sharpest blows have been financial. Teachers' salaries, too low in many places before the war, have either not been increased or have increased less than the cost of living. National Education Association Research Divi- sion estimates indicate that nearly 30,000 teachers in the United States receive less than $600 a year and that approximately 200,000 (over one- fifth) receive less than $1200. Many of these have from two to five years of educational preparation beyond the completion of high school and yet receive less than the beginning wage for large classifications of clerical government workers and beginners in industrial plants that were open to persons with only a high-school education or less. Almost, if not quite, as hard for teachers to take as the financial loss is the fact that, in the minds of the average citizen, work in a government office or an industrial plant carries more public approval than teaching. Better salaries for teachers will undoubtedly help in regaining the esteem of the American public, but will not completely solve the prob- lem. Systematic programs of educational publicity concerning the work of the schools and their essential role in the safeguarding and perpetuating of our democratic form of government must be carried on until our public schools are considered one of our important "front lines of defense." 5. How can the teaching staff of our American schools best be prepared to carry a heavy responsibility in the building and sustaining of our na- tional morale during the difficult years of formulating a ivorld peace? The role of the United States in world affairs and in the making of n permanent peace is going to be an important one. That role, however, is going to be played in the midst of rivalry, jealousies, distrust, suspicion, and misunderstanding, mixed with some little gratitude and admiration. The task of keeping our ideals clearly in mind and our attitudes friendly and cooperative during those reconstruction years will fall in no small meas- Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 45 ure upon the teachers in our schools. If this task is not successfully met, the consequences may easily be a repetition, on a global scale, of the mis- takes of the "reconstruction period" following the First World War with the resentments, bitternesses, and seeds of future wars that resulted from the nationalistic and selfish solutions that were enforced. This task of the teachers, and of the schools, then, is of tremendous importance and one that cannot be entrusted to unqualified teachers nor even to teachers quali- fied for their regular work, but who have not given special thought and preparation to this large area of interpretation. immediate problems NOT DIRECTLY WAR-CAUSED 1. IV hat effective means can be used to help all teachers to revise their attitudes and their teaching materials in order to make immediate and direct contributions to: A. The building of democratic attitudes and habits of behavior that really \vork satisfyingly in our relationships with others. B. The development of understandings of the cultural and political backgrounds and ideals of other countries that will provide a basis for cooperation in planning for a world peace. C. The changing of our ideas of time and space and economic relationships that are necessary in moving farther into the air-age period, of the world's development. At first glance, these three objectives may appear to be separate and not too closely related. A moment's reflection will show, however, that they not only are related, but so closely related that one cannot be attained without the others. Further thought will also reveal that these goals are not the special responsibility of the teachers of social studies and geography, but rather of every teacher and every field. It will be extremely embarrassing to any teacher who cannot find in his work and in the subjects he teaches ways in which he can make real contributions to these three objectives. 2. How can teachers as groups be encouraged to be more articulate in the discussion of matters affecting the educational ivell-being of the com- munities in which they work? They should be encouraged to assume leadership in such discussions with- out being accused of promoting selfish interests. They should be protected in their attempts to assume such leadership without feeling that it is nec- essary to align themselves with noneducational and political groups which represent factions of the community and not the community as a whole — the group served by the schools. One aid In the solution of this problem would be a definite strengthening of teachers' organizations and their par- ticipation as organizations in cooperative endeavors to better the whole community. Along with the strengthening of professional organizations of teachers should go the promotion of the idea that teachers are also individuals and should be allowed, in fact expected, to live the same kind of normal lives that other leading citizens of the community do and to take part in the same types of civic, social, political, and religious activities as other citizens. Some communities are not accustomed to such teachers, and su- 46 American Association of School Administrators perintendents of schools will frequently have to defend the desirability and the rights of teachers to be happy, well-adjusted, normal persons. 3. PFhat ?neasures can be taken to recruit and retain more men as teachers in the American schools? The desire on the part of many parents and educational leaders to have a larger proportion of men in teaching positions is in no sense a reflection upon the work of women teachers, nor does it imply that the work of the men would be superior. It also does not mean that men teachers are de- sired, just to have some men. They should be the equal of the women in ability and preparation in order that the boys and girls in school will come under the influence of able women and equally able men. A slight gain was being made on this matter in the year preceding the war, but it has dropped to a probable all-time low by this year and will require vigorous measures to regain the losses, let alone increase the prewar ratio. 4. How can teachers be made aware of the fact that much of their instructional material can and should be intimately related to the every-day needs of the boys and girlsf The holding power of our schools must depend upon something more constr.uctive than raising the age for compulsory attendance and enforcing the laws. Boys and girls will want to continue in schools and parents will make it possible for them to do so as soon as they realize that the facts learned and the skills acquired in school actually make a difference in the way they live. As soon as problems relating to health, food, purchasing, housing, clothing, recreation, character, home and family relationships, and civic responsibilities find their way into the various school subjects that can contribute to their solution — just that soon will the public's attitude toward schools and their support change for the better. This problem must be met by special study facilities for teachers already in service. It must become one of the important educational challenges for all institutions of higher education in which teachers for the elementary or secondary schools are prepared. 5. What immediate steps can be taken to develop a professional spirit anion g all of America' s teachers'? •'■ Such a spirit would immediately demand more and better preparation for all teachers — elementary and secondarj^ — so that teaching obviously will rank as one of the karned professions. Also it would almost certainly result in an attitude toward education and its responsibilities to society that would cause teachers to think about proposed changes in terms of the efifect of those changes upon the services rendered by the schools and not upon themselves. The criterion, "What will be the immediate and long- term effect of this upon teaching rather than teachers?" will do much to 1 Many helpful suggestions for the solution of this problem will be found in Teachers for Our Times, a report of the Commission on Teacher Education of the American Council on Education, Washington, D. C, 1944. Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 47 clarify the thinking of professional groups on educational questions. We need not expect the acceptance and use of such a criterion, however, by teachers so long as large numbers of them are unprepared transients, with inadequate salaries and no career ambitions in the field of teaching. Such teachers are aware that they are being exploited and exploitation is not a favorablie foundation for the development of the ideals of "service to others" that are fundamental to the building of any profession. On the other hand, adequate salaries, higher standards of certification, and more public interest in and approval of the teachers and teaching will make pos- sible the recruiting and holding of able professionally minded teachers. Such teachers controlling their actions by the criterion mentioned above will undoubtedly enlist stronger support from the public and be able to shift to the citizens of America (where it should be) responsibility for de- manding better and better schools, and of waging the fight to get them. THE RETURNING VETERAN warren E. bow, superintendent of schools, president, WAYNE university, DETROIT, MICHIGAN The primary objective of every American today and until victory is won should be to train, equip, and supply adequately and completely the young men and women of our armed forces. There are, however, im- portant matters related to other phases of America's war effort which need attention. A review of the demobilization procedure after World War I and its attendant difficulties and problems reveals that certain mistakes should not and need not be repeated. The problem of demobilization was not acted upon by Congress until September 1918. When the Armistice was declared one month later, the planning and organization necessary to provide for the rehabilitation and readjustment of the veteran was hur- ried and resulted in some confusion. History should not, and from all indications, will not repeat itself. Most states and communities are at present giving serious constructive thought to the return of the veteran and the impact of his return upon civilian society. Leaders in education, industry, labor, business, government, churches, social agencies, and servicemen's organizations are pooling their resources and coordinating their efforts to provide necessary personnel and services to meet the needs of the thousands of veterans now returning. They are also contemplating the expansion which will be necessary when the millions of other veterans follow. In some quarters there is some concern that preparations have not proceeded apace. Be this as it may, one thing is still certain — no state or community can or will escape its obliga- tions and responsibilities for aiding its returning veterans. Colonel John N. Andrews of the National Selective Service System stated the problem clearly when he said, "If a country can recruit a man from the school, factory, mine, farm, or college, give him physical and vocational examinations, train him at great expense for many months, 48 American Association of School Administrators suppi}' him with the most expensive equipment, and then send him forth to fight, that same country ought to be able to develop a comprehensive program to reconvert that individual into a productive, peacetime civilian." The federal government, through the passage of Public Law 16, the Rehabilitation Act, and Public Law 346, the Servicemen's Readjustment Act, (popularly known as the "G. L Bill of Rights") has already as- sumed a far greater share of responsibility for the proper adjustment of veterans than it assumed after the last war. Present legislation provides aids and benefits far in excess of those provided in 1918 and greater than those provided by any nation at any time for its returning warriors. A few examples should make this startlingly clear. The base pay of the private now in service is $50 as compared with $30 in 1918. Allowances for the family are greater, including such new features as maternity and infant care. Mustering-out pay now ranges from $100 to $300 as against the $60 bonus paid after the last war. Unemplo^'ment compensation of $20 per week up to fifty-two weeks is now provided. No such provision existed after World War L The veteran now has a claim to his old job. This was not true in 1918. The new laws broaden the scope of vocational re- habilitation. Education and training at government expense are new bene- fits. Compensation for service-connected disability has been increased over the amount paid in 1918. Those veterans who are single and are totally disabled receive, at present, $115 per month as compared with $30 re- ceived after the last war. Benefits now paid for nonservice-connected dis- abilities are $50 to $60 per month as compared with the $20 to $40 paid at the end of World War L Veterans' preference in federal employment is now being maintained and even broadened. Such provisions as loans for the purchase of homes, farms, or business, through federal guarantee of 50 percent of the loan, not to exceed $2000, is a new feature of the current law^ These provisions clearly show the intent of the nation, and certainly coincide with Colonel Andrew's suggestion that rehabilitation should be thorough and complete. The provisions of the acts also indicate, at least roughly, some of the major needs of those returning to civilian life. They would seem to signify that the basic need of most returning veterans will be security. Security for most of them will be provided through jobs and permanent employ- ment. For some, it may mean gaining additional training or education with a view to increased intellectual and economic well-being. There will, however, be an undetermined number who will encounter difficulties of a different nature. Their needs will be varied and in some cases, complex. For many there will be the need for hospitalization ; for others there will be need for social and personal adjustment, as well as for educational, vocational, and recreational planning. All of the personal and social maladjustment apparent after World War I wnll probably again exist. In fact, since many individuals will have been in service for four or five years rather than one or two. it may be more acute. There are those of us who have intimate knowledge of such cases from" our experiences in World War L The return to normal family living, to Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 49 civilian occupations, to civilian responsibilites presents problems of adjust- ment to an entirely new environment. It means that the veteran must now plan his own life and make his own decisions in every phase of his activity. This will be a freedom which will seem strange after an extended experience of military discipline. The veteran may yearn for his service buddies. He will be glad to be home, but at times he may wish he could return to his old "outfit." That "outfit" had faced death together; there was understanding there. He must renew old friendships and make new ones. He may observe changes in his closest friends or even in members of his family. He may be disappointed in finding his home, his home town, and his community in reality much less ideal than the sentimental picture he formed in the foxholes and camps of far-off Europe or Asia. Civilian life will lack crowds, excitement, rumor, and critical action. The one mean- ingful purpose to be found in the armed forces will be lacking. The new civilian purposes and objectives may seem dull by comparison. Those men who return physically handicapped and disfigured will pre- sent an especially delicate problem. It will be difficult for the men to maintain a proper attitude toward themselves and become reconciled to their plight, for which in some instances there may be no possible correc- tion. Physical disability may result in self-consciousness which ultimately may lead to peculiar complexes. Here particularly, tolerance, sympathetic guidance, understanding, and patience are absolutely essential. The social adjustment of these veterans will depend in great measure upon the treat- ment accorded them in their own home town by appreciative, friendly well- intentioned citizens ready to help over a period of years. If such under- standing is forthcoming, many such persons will undoubtedly carry on as effective citizens after a brief adjustment period. Fortunately, most of the returning veterans will return in fine physical condition, eager to go to work. Whether the civilian economy can satisfy adequately this need depends, of course, upon employment opportunities. Because of the innumerable and lucrative job opportunities available at present, most veterans are now seeking and taking jobs as soon as they are discharged, thus foregoing the benefits provided by law. However, when the war ends, this condition may change and of necessity the veterans may be forced to make new plans. Many of them will desire and will have the right to return to their former jobs. There will be, however, several million for whom this right will not exist since they were not regularly employed when they entered the armed forces. If, at the time of demobilization, employment oppor- tunities are limited, this group may present a most critical problem. In such an event, many will very likely take full advantage of federal grants for education and training. A highly efficient program of counseling and guidance will be necessary to cope satisfactorily with this task. Recently a study of five hundred Michigan veterans was made by the Occupational Information and Guidance Division of the Michigan State Board of Control for Vocational Education in. cooperation with the Mich- igan Selective Service System. It was conducted to discover what problems 50 American Association of School Administrators veterans face, to consider possible effective solutions, and to find clues that might have meaning for educational, rehabilitation, and counseling services. It was found that 90.2 percent were faced by one or more problems re- quiring counseling and guidance, and that many were not aware of the need for counseling. It was also reported that the younger group who had not graduated from high school had the most problems. The greatest interest shown by this latter group as well as by those with limited educa- tional backgrounds was in vocational training. There are many agencies now established on federal, state, and local levels ready to counsel and serve the veterans. Some of these are the Vet- erans Administration, the United States Employment Service, the War Manpower Commission, the state offices of the Selective Service System, the State Office of Veterans' Affairs (the Michigan State Office of Veterans' Affairs is a good example), local councils of veterans' affairs, veterans' information centers (such as the Detroit Veterans' Information Center), servicemen's bureaus, servicemen's organizations, the American Red Cross, councils of social agencies, the churches, boards of education, and many others. The key to the success of the programs of these organizations lies in their ability to integrate and coordinate their activities effectively. Many communities are attempting such a coordination by establishing local and countywide veterans' information centers financed by local funds. Here the veteran may bring his problems and receive friendly and effec- tive assistance through counseling and guidance or by referral to the proper agency dealing with a particular problem. These veterans' informa- tion centers collect all data and information relative to the facilities and services available to veterans and are frequently staffed by personnel from the cooperating agencies. Problems presented usually fall in the following broad general categories: loans, employment, claims, housing, health, in- surance, review of discharge, mustering-out pay, legal aid, emergency fi- nancial aid, income tax payments, priorities, personal problems, vocational and educational training or experience. Every precaution must be taken to avoid giving the veteran the so- called "run-around." Since its inception last fall, the Detroit Veterans' Information Center has rendered service to approximately one hundred veterans per day, and it is now planning means of expansion to care ade- quately for the increased load. There are several considerations which make comprehensive planning for veterans education and training opportunities difficult. Foremost among these is the lack of accurate data concerning the number who will request such service. The second difficulty revolves around the question, "What kinds of educational or training experiences will be in demand?" Very few data to guide educational planners are available in these two areas. The opinions, estimates, and statistical reports that are available are some- what conflicting and in some particulars even contradictory. In October 1944, Brigadier General Frank T. Hines stated, "There is no way of estimating exactly how many returning veterans will avail themselves of the educational opportunities and benefits. . . ." However, Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 51 he estimates that there are five million persons in the armed forces less than twenty-six years of age — the age group which is presumably most likely to take advantage of available educational benefits. Analyzing the situation further, he reports that 36 percent of all service personnel (about four million) are eligible for higher education, and about four million have had their education interrupted by the war. On February 8, 1945, the Veterans Administration reported that, of the one and one-half million World War II veterans, about 13,000 were attending school under the provisions of the federal law, and that, as of January 1, 1945, approximately 37,000 had made application for educa- tional and training benefits. Of the 13,000 who are at present enrolled, 81 percent are working at the college level, 16 percent are in trade schools, and 3 percent, or 386, are in other schools, including those at the secondary level. Perhaps these figures do not present a true picture of the situation. The most obvious implication may be that many veterans are postponing their acceptance of educational and training benefits in order to enable them to take advantage of present favorable employment opportunities and at the same time contribute directly to the nation's war effort on the home front. It may be, too, that the veterans are not aware of these benefits or that they are waiting to determine the exact nature of the opportunities pro- vided. Another study recently reported by the Information and Education Division of the Army Service Forces estimates that the number who enrol in schools will be one, or possibly one and one-half million, depending upon the type and quality of education or training available, as well as upon current emploj'ment opportunities. Fourteen percent of the men now in the Army have had some college training. Three of the 14 percent are college graduates. Fifty-two percent have had some high-school training, of whom approximately one-half are high-school graduates. The remaining 34 percent had education before the war only through some of the elemen- tary grades. Parenthetically it may be said that these data compare favor- ably with the figures of World War I which listed 80 percent at the elementary-school level. While the estimates, reports, and enrolment statistics are conflicting, there are several important considerations which must enter into school planning for building a veterans' education and training program. In the past, it has been possible to meet the educational needs of veterans with only minor changes in school organization. If early estimates of demand materialize, this may no longer be possible. Those servicemen and women who wish to be graduated from high school will probably stress the urgency for doing this in the shortest possible time on the basis that their time for educational pursuits is limited. The request for an accelerated educa- tion or training program at the secondary-school level will require the development of a flexible program with special emphasis on counseling. It should be possible to operate the program through a long school day or even through the evening. If the program is in reality to be accelerated, it may 52 American Association of School Administrators be necessary to provide highly individualized instruction. As the demands for its services fluctuate, provision must be made for possible rapid expan- sion or contraction. These considerations and the likelihood that veterans will welcome segregation may lead to the establishment in urban com- munities especially of separate or special schools. The colleges and universities will have great need for carefully planned counseling and guidance programs. There will be little need for segrega- tion except in cases where refresher courses may be necessary. Since most schools of higher learning have for some time offered accelerated programs, such programs will meet the needs of veterans. The great and tremendous task, faced by every community, is to assist the veteran so to readjust himself that he may find security through em- ployment ; that he may satisfy his desires and needs ; and that he may become quickly and satisfactorily a constructive part of the community, the state, and the nation. In this endeavor, education is presented with an unusual challenge and opportunity to take a place of leadership and to cooperate in the tremendous task which all the resources of the community, the state, and the nation recognize as urgent, and in which all have a vital stake. We must not — we dare not fail. EDUCATION OF ALL AMERICAN YOUTH- RECONVERSION OF THE PROGRAM WILL.-^RD C. JACKMAN, SUPERINTENDENT, ELMHURST ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, ELMHURST, ILLINOIS Today education is geared to a wartime basis. Every educator has seen the schools of our country shift suddenly in methods and interests from a nation at peace to a nation at war. This sudden change has had its effect on all levels of education. It is only logical to assume that the thought of the postwar period should lead every educator to speculate about the future of education. For as surely as the educational system changed when our nation found itself at war, there will be a corresponding change in edu- cation when the nation moves back into a world of affairs that is struggling to build a peaceful world. It is this certainty of change to accompany the postwar world that chal- lenges every educator, for the extent and quality of the change in education has much to do with the establishing of sound educational procedure. Sound educational procedure means establishing the type of program that will benefit our nation and lead all of us in our nation and in the world to a higher cultural level. As a first step in preparation for this reconversion, every teacher must see the necessit\- for and be willing to formulate and implement a program of education that will be declared the best. Our determination to find the best will constitute the success of our reconversion program. Furthermore, the success of the program cannot be won without one- predominant attitude among all educators and that is the determination to AouRtssiis Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 53 give a superior degree of strength and service to achieve the essential goals. No one in our work, if he contributes to the change, must expect to do it easily. It w^ill require continually his best in honest and intelligent service. It is apparent that our postwar problem, according to the research and experience of the past, is to correct a situation that existed before the war and also to adapt completely our educational program to a postwar world. Inadequate financing of schools, inequalities in educational opportunities, poorly designed buildings, and incomplete curriculums existed before the war and they still exist. The encouraging thing about all of it is the fact the war reveals the bad spots and makes it more evident to the laity that not all is as it ought to be. The inequalities in salary levels within the teaching profession and be- tween the teaching profession and other groups give a very complete picture of our failure to provide for and fortify education when the nation suffers from stress and strain. More than one-quarter million teachers have left the profession and have taken with them their talents and influence that cannot easily be replaced. This condition was not caused by the war. The war exposed a defective place in the foundation of educational support. Like a poorly constructed building, the weakness is not revealed until the storm strikes. With this irrefutable evidence at hand those who believe in public educa- tion must, in the postwar period, demand and work out a system of coopera- tive local, state, and federal financial support that attracts capable teachers, makes possible the construction of modern, attractive buildings, provides adequate equipment, and makes possible an expanding and evolving educa- tional program that keeps in step with time and every phase of national progress. This, obviously, is a fundamental thing in our reconversion program. Regardless of what may be done to propose a better way, nothing can be done until provision is made through a willing and informed populace who are willing to make an adequate program of education possible through adequate financial support. Inequalities in educational opportunities comprise a complex problem. The postwar school must provide opportunities for every American boy, girl, and adult. There must be a place for everyone regardless of aptitude and ability. The educational program should be planned to include general education essential to the mental, moral, and social well-being of everyone in a democratic society. It should provide vocational training for individual and civic competency. The proposal for such a comprehensive educational program should be studied now in every community and planned so completely that it will be easily understood by the majority of citizens and readily established when the postwar period arrives. The curriculum must be enriched and along with it must come a well-designed physical plant so as to provide a place for the expanding educational program. The details of this need not be presented here except to say that along with accepted traditional school practices that have been found reliable 54 American Association of School Administrators there must also be provision for more extensive use of modern instructional means such as the radio, visual-aid materials, television, and libraries. The war has proved conclusively the effectiveness of these modern instructional materials and equipment. Wise adaptation of them w^ill enrich and activate the learning program on all educational levels. The possibilities have not been fully developed. There is still much to do if our health program is to be truly functional. The war has exposed another bad spot in connection with our educational program. Health in the future must be a comprehensive program of health practices that establish health habits, prevent illness, and build strong, vigorous bodies. Every community has the responsibility of providing a better health program. There is no doubt but that postwar health instruction must be more functional than it was before the war. The postwar period will soon be upon us. If every educator will keep in mind that the future program must be the best made possible, because it is based on a knowledge of how we can improve present weaknesses and on a determination to make an educational program more completely fit the needs of everyone, then reconversion will take place wisely. This can be done by comprehensive planning and by making education a community effort arxd responsibility underwritten by the state and federal government. The important thing is to start now in every community. The vast majority of educators are able to meet this problem locally and solve it. Within the next six months through cooperative ef¥ort every community ought to have a completely prepared plan to guide it in the reconversion program. By such a method the future will be faced with a reliable educational blueprint and education should emerge more dynamic and complete than at any time in the history of the world. THE IMPENDING PROBLEMS OF YOUTH CLAUDE L. KULP, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ITHACA, N, Y. On the eve of possible victory in Europe and at a moment when the tide of battle in the Pacific seems to be turning definitely and irrevocably in favor of our military forces, it is none too early to consider the impending problems of youth — problems which were familiar to yesterday's youth and which will press urgently for solution in the reconstruction period. By youth it is assumed that we mean the young men and women of the upper high-school years, those out of school for several years, millions of the 3'ounger members of the armed forces, and other millions of A^oung people on farms, in industry, and in other types of service. Roughly classi- fied by age, we may safely designate youth for the purpose of this discussion as those young people in the late teen age and the early twenties, without attempting to draw sharp lines between age groups. In the very beginning we wish to avoid the mistake of assuming that the many agencies interested in young people before the war, and the many nnd varied programs designed by public and private agencies for the solu- Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 55 tion of youth problems, achieved their purposes and satisfied the needs of the young men and women of yesterday. All of the youth projects of the prewar period touched only a small minority of the boys and girls who could have benefited from participation in such agencies or programs. Even in our more fortunate communities, large numbers of young people were not enrolled in any of the numerous programs provided by the many public and private agencies. We can judge the efifectiveness of the services pro- vided for youth in any community only by the extent to which the young people utilize such services voluntarily. Few, if any, American communities were able to interest a majority of their young people in the combined programs of social agencies, schools, churches, and organizations designed for, and often operated by, youth. Despite the lack of complete success in meeting the problems of youth in the past, it is possible that the impending problems of our young people may be solved in larger measure by existing agencies, if the young people themselves are encouraged to accept a larger part in the formulation of policies and in the providing of services in these agencies. Young people do not so much wish to have things done for them, as to have a voice in deciding what program shall be offered and to have an active part in making the program serviceable. Whatever the final verdict may be with reference to the "teen-age clubs" in many American communities, these organizations have proved that boys and girls will work hard to make such an enterprise succeed, provided that it is their club. A minimum of adult sponsorship is usually required after such an organization really begins to function. Recognizing then that the efforts of the many agencies which provide programs for youth have not enlisted the support and interest of as large a number of young people as we might wish, we turn to a consideration of the impending problems of youth. Probably the most intensive studies of the problems of youth which were ever made were those studies of the American Youth Commission in the late depression years. These surveys were especially significant because they were based upon hundreds of interviews with young people. Most educators and social workers , agreed with the opinions expressed by the young people. War and periods of prosperity tend temporarily to solve some of these problems, ofttimes by means which we regret, but in the main it is believed by many that these problems are of a permanent nature and that each generation of young people faces them for itself sooner or later. With almost monotonous regularity the young people of the depression years said that their greatest problems were these: 1. Jobs. More economic security. 2. More education, but not of the type with which they were familiar. They wanted education which would help them in their present circumstances. 3. Better opportunities for adequate social life, better opportunities for wholesome recreation of the noncommercial type. 4. Education for home and family life. 5. Guidance and counseling — vocational and personal. 56 American Association of School Admixistrators With some variation and with slight differences in emphasis due to the war, these needs are undoubtedly those which young people will experience again in the postwar period. Health needs will loom large for many, and spiritual needs will be felt by nearly all young people at times, even though not fully recognized nor expressed. It is safe to assume that the millions of youth in the armed forces, in industry, on farms, and those about to leave our schools, will expect our society to provide ways and means for them to meet such needs as those named above and that they will welcome an opportunity to help provide for these needs of all youth. Above all they will not wish a dole, but rather an opportunity to help solve their own problems even though plenty of hard work is involved. Our present generation of young people, once called "soft," have proved the hardness of their physical and mental fiber in the stress and strain of conflict and of work in industry and on the farm. The sobering effects of war, necessitating united community and united national effort, have reached into the secondary schools of the nation, with a resulting seriousness of purpose on the part of most of our high-school students. These pupils have realized, as a generation before them often failed to appreciate, the value of their educational opportunities in meeting future, but not far distant, needs in military service or occupational life. Even though state and federal assistance may be required to help finance some of the educational, health, recreational, and vocational opportunities needed by our young people of tomorrow, just as such needs are being met in part by such assistance during the period of the war, the responsibility for the ultimate success of any program established to meet the problems of youth rests in each local community. It is in the local community that each young person is known for what he is ; it is there that he has his home, his friends, his church, his social connections of various types. He knows the people of his town and is known by them, except in the larger cities, and even there the neighborhood is his center of orientation. There are certain critical issues which must be solved in part at least if our communities and nation are to avoid a wholesale return to the youth problems of the prewar days. In fact these issues are so interrelated with the oft-expressed needs of youth as to be a reciprocal phase of the impending problems of youth. Briefly stated, with the recognition that they are not all-inclusive in character, some of these critical issues are: 1. High-school "drop-outs" — Larger numbers of American boys and girls must be encouraged to remain in high school until graduation. This implies a more flexible curriculum and greater adaptation of that curriculum to individual needs than we have ever known before. It suggests a wider use of combination school-work programs after the end of the war; opportunity to work for wages while still attend- ing school. We know from our wartime experience that this is possible for many boys and girls and that school work does not necessarily suffer under such an arrangement. 2. Counseling services — Present inadequate counseling services must be improved to give more adequate assistance to boys and girls of high-school age and of post- bigh-school age in the further planning of their educational and occupational inter- ests. Counseling in the area of home and family life, including marriage problems, should be made a part of this service. Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 57 3. Recreation — Wholesome recreational opportunities ranging from the physically passive kinds, such as reading, study, radio, concerts, and forums, to the physically active types, such as games, camping, hiking, swimming, skiing, bowling, and similar activities must be made available in increasing amounts by our communities. Social agencies, city recreation departments, and schools should coordinate their efforts in campaigns to enlist larger numbers of our young people in such programs. If our young people of high-school age and slightly older have abundant opportunities for wholesome recreation in which they have developed an interest as a result of school or other experiences, a long stride will have been taken in the direction of the solution of our delinquency problems. 4. Physical fitness cnid military training — It seems probable and reasonable that the best examples of present preinduction programs in physical fitness will be re- tained in the postwar period. Such programs need careful examination, however, to insure the fact that claims made about their efficiency are not exaggerated. The best features of such programs should be combined with sound programs in health educa- tion. It is believed that more than physical fitness is required to make men ready for the strenuous program of military training. Attention to mental fitness should not be overlooked. And who shall provide military training after the war? Some seem to think that the schools should assume responsibility for this training, but high authorities in the military services and many public-school leaders believe that, if necessary, such training should be provided by the Army and Navy. Unless this issue is faced squarely at once, the schools may find themselves confronted b}' the necessity for providing military training which they are poorly equipped to give and which should be turned over to our military establishment. 5. The returning veteran — The returning veteran is with us. The number of vet- erans of World War II in most communities is relatively small at present, but, with the services discharging men at the rate of 60,000 per month, it is not too soon to provide for their needs. The schools share the responsibility for services for vet- erans with many other agencies, but surely the major responsibility for providing high-school programs for those veterans who wish such training rests with the public schools. Vocational courses, both industrial and commercial, together with counseling services for veterans, as well as academic courses for those who need such work in preparation for higher education can and should be provided in the schools. This public-school education for veterans (and war workers who need retraining) should be given in classes established especially for them, and whenever possible taught by teachers w'ho have been instructors in the services or who are skilled in teaching adults. Just any teacher can't teach these boys who have become men almost overnight as a result of experiences in war. Schools known as "Veterans' Schools" might be established in existing plants, with classes meeting during late afternoon or evening hours and on Saturdays. In order to help these veterans conserve the benefits which accrue to them under the so-called "G. I. Bill of Rights," high-school ivork should be free. State-aid for a veteran over twenty-one, on the same basis as that provided for his younger brother who is still in high school, would enable most communities to establish tuition-free programs. This in turn would make it possible for veterans to use all of their time and money credit for education above secondary-school grade. It is at once obvious that while these critical issues, so much a part of the impending problems which face youth, must be met on the local com- munity level, they cannot be so met in many instances without material assistance from state and federal sources. While encouragement may come from such agencies, the success of the program will however depend in no small measure upon the vision and efifort of the local community and upon the degree to which young people themselves are encouraged to participate and to assume responsibility'. Experience has shown that the 58 American Association of School Administrators following general principles tend to operate in connection with a successful youth program on the community level : 1. Each community should study its own youth problems. 2. Each community must have a positive approach to its youth problems. 3. The starting point for the study of youth problems should be the social situ- ation of which youth finds itself a part. 4. Basic problems of youth, almost permanent in nature, are vocational guidance, work experience, use of leisure time, health education, and social training. 5. Even in times of stress, youth problems should not be approached too much from the crisis point of view. It is an ever-present series of problems, aggravated perhaps by war, depressions, or prosperity. 6. The most important specific youth problem is "getting a job." 7. The local youth program must be flexible. It must change with changing con- ditions. 8. Conflict in leadership within the community must be avoided. Agency-minded- ness is often a great obstacle to real community service. 9. Sometimes a community council or a coordinating council proves successful in pooling the resources of the community for youth services. Included in such an organization should be the representatives of private agencies, public agencies, labor, industry, business, and above all, youth itself. 10. We should work for and with youth, rather than attempt to do things to and for youth. 11. Those w-ho serve on a community council should be unselfishly interested in the problems of youth, not in the advancement of the interests of a particular agency. 12. The community eouncil is an advisory group, not a directing body. 13. Youth must do for itself whenever possible. This is most important. In summary, we might well justify even this brief and rather superficial consideration of the impending problems of youth in the midst of a world war, by a quotation from that well-known study of the American Council on Education, Youth and the Future. "Why think, speculate, plan for things as they were, and are no longer?" And the answer, "Because the situation of yesterday, so altered today, will almost certainly be again one day, the same as it was yesterday." And continues the Council: "Never was there a better time to consider what the real situation of American Youth is, was, and creatively might be than when we see them snatched out of that situation of yesterday with its wonderful but neglected and unex- plored new possibilities for richer life and thrust into the war. .We now gladly vote vast sums to feed, clothe, train, teach, discipline, and occupy youth that they may protect the nation from danger. The nation was also in danger before the war because we failed to make sure that youth were adequately fed, clothed, trained, and occupied. If only we could have the chance to do it over and do it better!" Perhaps we shall have the chance to do it over, with firm resolution to do it better, especially in our schools, instead of waiting for some federal super-agency to tackle the job right next door to our schools in communities throughout the length and breadth of the land. In all of this the secondary school should play a prominent and helpful part, reshaping its program as conditions necessitate to meet the needs of youth in school and out of school. In the smaller communities the best available leadership in the com- munitv is often found in the school, as far as youth problems are concerned. Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 59 It would be a mistake, however, to assume that any or all agencies could solve these problems without the aid of the young people themselves. It would be short-sighted for community leaders to assume that youth cannot make a real contribution to the solution of the impending problems of young people, or that they are not interested in doing so. Youth should be invited and expected to take over much of the responsibility for the necessary planning of youth programs and should be invited to provide many of the needed services. Out-of-school youth has demonstrated its ability to do just this in its organization and supervision of programs for secondary-school youth in the teen-age centers now operating in so many places. We have often been most undemocratic in our attitude toward youth without intending to be. Youth will welcome a chance to work with adults and will assume a surprising amount of responsibility if given the oppor- tunity to learn how our complex society really functions. The school should advocate the idea that our young people shall really be given a chance to belong to the society in which they live. EDUCATION LOOKS FORWARD VIERLING KERSEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA The pattern of education today must prevision the pattern of living tomorrow in all of its social, political, and economic aspects. Many develop- ments, current or potential, demand a make-ready of planning on the part of school leaders. During the next five years, education in the United States of America must meet certain positive and assertive demands. 1. Education must make a constant and continuing contribution to win- ning the war. All other considerations must be held secondary. Every con- structive war-winning attitude for every youth must be clinched for life. The war has taught us precision, exactness, accuracy, timeliness, and the ab'^olute value of achieving results. Anything less than these in the future will be a hazard to democracy. What education has done to help win the war is worth doing with like emphasis as it may contribute strength for peace. 2. -Every educational need of returning veterans must be met by the schools. This type of student will be quite different from that to which we educators have grown smugly accustomed. Men and women, more mature than their years measure, will fill school classrooms. They, inured to hard- ship, developed in initiative, accustomed to responsibility, returning from intimate acquaintance with thousands of miles of global geography, will demand and will patronize only schooling different from that to which we are and they previously were accustomed. Perhaps more than five years from now we will find that these veterans will demand a different education for their children, for their younger brothers and sisters. 3. Immediate preparation must be made to meet those acute problems which will attend peace, military and industrial demobilization, and future construction and reconstruction. 60 American Association of School Administrators 4. Education must be a leading factor in the development of a "total youth program." Twenty-four hours of constructive living shall be provided for every child, every day. Home, school, church, and community must constructively fill out twenty-four hours of balanced good living for every day. No agency can completely take the place of any other of these agencies in balanced child life. Yet the next five years will make education respon- sible for more of the direction and more of the time of all youth. Likewise, when the regular program of schooling is terminated, the school system must provide continuing opportunit}' for the learning mind to be construc- tively served. Unless good planning and adequate funds are made available to provide and promote constructive living, surely destructive, anti-social, and civically irresponsible livifig will follow. 5. Education takes place mainly through teaching. Upon the qualitv and quantity of teachers depends the achievement of our educational objectives. Upon the teachers of today and the teachers of tomorrow rests the respon- sibility for the development of operative democracy. Our experience during these trying war years has shown that the morale and ability and the spiritual stamina of the teaching profession have been far beyond the mini- mum standards which we have sometimes ascribed to them. Staff require- ments in every aspect of public education present a most significant prob- lem during the next five years. This problem must be met in order to keep schools open and in order to provide trained teachers for the all-time future of public education. Adequate personnel, satisfactory induction into service plans, and proper improvement in service programs are a current must. 6. Teaching must take place in a suitable and adequate environment. Physical facilities — grounds, buildings, equipment, and supplies — each of these must be planned for and adequately provided in terms of anticipated needs. War retarded programs, restricted priority expansion, and new frontiers in education serve to indicate the scope of this demand. Plans for this catching-up program as well as readiness to finance can now be developed. 7. Community attitudes which are right for education must be de^■el- oped by education. If school services are right, good communitv attitudes may be assured. The graduate of tomorrow must be taught that serving in a democracy may many times take place without pav and always with the thought of the common good in mind. He must know and practice •^hat when we produce, conserve, and consume wisely, there will alwavs be enough for all. The war has taught us that we must "do for" as well as "get from" our country. The war has taught us teamwork. Youth leadership must be developed among youth. Home ties must be strengthened. The home should sponsor child membership in desirable youth acti\ities — church, scouting, camping, and others. 8. Isolationism no loneer exists, either internationally or in the com- munity. Todav's child will be an American citizen tomorrow in the inter- related new world about which he must know more. He must know our allies, present and future. He must know our history and must be able to Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 61 project our future in terms of that history. He will know what and why we are now fighting in World War II. He wiH help to develop postwar plans and ideals which are practical. 9. The conflicting and confusing attitudes concerning the values of compulsory military training must be resolved. We must never again find ourselves as unprepared for attack as we were following World War I. The schools must assure that every young citizen is prepared for an iden- tified and socially-desirable occupation for which he is fitted by intelligence, personality, interests, and training, and that he is prepared and ready to defend and fight for the freedoms we cherish. Every pupil must be prepared to take his place in this great democracy and to defend it, if need be, on the firing line, in industry, and at home. 10. Wartime gains have been made in education. They must be evaluated and continued. The disciplined personality will provide and guarantee positive, dynamic Americanism for every pupil. It will manifest the results of emphasis on the moral and spiritual, as well as on the mental, physical, cultural, and vocational values of life. Total fitness for tomorrow must include discipline, spiritual values, and high-grade learning. Precision learn- ing, acceleration, complete physical and mental fitness, knowledge of work from realistic work experiences, marketable skills, and reestablished stand- ards in the basic fundamentals of learning are but a few of the wartime gains made in education which must be continued. The long-term view ahead demands of education today that it meet the needs of the pupils, of the productive forces of the land, of the patrons of the schools, and of the country. It is for us in the classrooms to think constantly about the coming period in American history, "the time after." What education provided yesterday, what it provides today, must be even stronger for tomorrow. As teachers, we must everlastingly strive to develop our nation's greatest resources, the character, personality, ability, and knowledge of American youth. The America of tomorrow is the steward- ship of our schools today. A YEAR OF OPPORTUNITY JOHN E. WADE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N. Y. A year of opportunity! You may well ask if this title would not be more appropriate at a time when school conditions are at their best — when there is an ample supply of teachers, when instructional materials of all kinds are available in sufficient quantity, and when budgets are adequate. Can this be a year of opportunity when many of the nation's schools are closed for lack of teachers, when supplies are becoming more costly and more difficult to obtain, and when it is extremely difficult to obtain the materials and labor necessary to keep the school plant in proper physical condition? Can it be a year of opportunity when people are constantly tense and when the all-absorbing emphasis is upon the winning of a global war rather than upon the important but more intangible problems of education ? 62 American Association of School Administrators History shows us that progress frequently occurs when man is confronted with new and unusual major issues. Critical periods create opportunities for individuals or groups to rise above the trivial or routine. Normal con- ditions make for contentment without creativeness and may tend toward retrogression rather than progress. The difficulties between the colonies and England created an opportunity for groups of clear-thinking men to write the Declaration of Independence. The Battle of Gettysburg gave Lincoln the incentive to rededicate, in immortal words, our nation to its basic purposes. The economic depression of the last decade created an opportunity for Americans to become more definitely aware of how their fellow Americans lived. Out of this came great social change culminating in protective and ameliorative programs of far-reaching import. If, therefore, times of stress and strain create opportunities for progress, the present times are truly teeming with opportunity. Educators of today have an opportunity, even a duty, to address them- selves to some fundamental problems, the solution of which will make the present era outstanding in educational history. What are some of these problems? Without doubt of major concern to all school executives is the solution of the many issues associated with j^outh in the age ranges of sixteen to twenty and over. Our education sj^stems have been working assiduously in this area, but many baffling problems remain for solution. Of especial concern are the out-of-school 3'outh, namely, those who have concluded their formally organized school programs. Some questions to be raised are as follow : 1. To what extent are educational authorities responsible for out-of-school youth? 2. What kind of informal educational program can be organized to facilitate the youths' induction into substantial citizenship? 3. What service or work experience situations, municipal or commercial or indus- trial, can be devised which will provide youth with a realistic understanding of these areas of the adult world, without infringing upon the legitimate labor market? What steps should be initiated by boards of education to obtain the cooperation of other agencies, such as labor unions, governmental services, and business establishments? 4. To what extent have our programs of guidance been effective? Do our school counselors have available the latest information in regard to occupational trends and developments? The latest labor market reports? Should counseling and guid- ance services be available to out-of-school youth which would facilitate the transition of the young adult into the more mature life of the community? 5. How creative can the school become in stimulating the opening of new areas of employment? This is asked on the assumption that man is always creating new fields of service in which human beings can be employed. 6. What program should be developed by public education to detect and explore the sources of the undesirable attitudes of many of our youth? 7. What can the schools do to reduce the conflicts that exist between theory and practice in our social, economic, political, and ethical life? What are the effects of these conflicts upon the young adult? 8. Should counseling centers be established which could aid both j'outh and the older adults in reducing family tensions? 9. How can support be secured for needed expansion of educational services for youth ? Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 63 Expansion in adult education is inevitable. With the increased respon- sibilities resting upon our nation due to our rise in world leadership, educa- tional opportunities on all adult levels must be provided. The meager offer- ings of the past must be supplemented with courses which will give knowl- edge and understanding concerning the economic, social, and political problems that are emerging out of this contracting world. Our society's needs will include extensive programs for vocational rehabilitation and educational opportunities for recreational and avocational development of our people. An exceedingly important aspect of adult education will em- phasize citizenship education for those who have not as yet become full- fledged members of our society. This program in citizenship training will not only provide for speaking, writing, and reading the English language, but will also include instruction which will help in unifying the people of this country. The entire program of adult education is closely interwoven with the development of our schools as community centers. In such centers, parent education will need to be stressed. Provisions for creating better under- standing among America's many racial groups must be made. Every effort should be applied toward maintaining the character and the wholesome- ness of our local communities which makes for strength in democracy. Problems growing out of the war have created new interest in the educa- tion of children at the prekindergarten and nursery-school levels. School systems cannot ignore the progress which has been made in child psychology and the understanding of the needs of young children. Nursery schools can contribute much to the future educational success of boys and girls. They take children during a pliable period of learning and build proper foundations in personal habits, in social understanding, and in general social behavior. If every American child could have the privilege of nursery-school education, a decided gain would be made in eliminating cultural and racial barriers that have been created all too fre- quently in American life. The school administrator should welcome the controversy which has been waged on the subject of the health and physical condition of American youth. Army statistics indicate that from 20 to 50 percent of the draftees are being rejected for military service because of physical or mental dis- abilities. At the outset I want to state that I am not one of those who be- lieve that the schools are to blame, or largely to blame, for this condi- tion. The schools cannot replace injured limbs, lost fingers, or punctured eardrums. The schools cannot give sight to the blind, nor hearing to the deaf, nor are the schools responsible for handicaps developed after the youngsters have left school. Many young men were rejected for defective teeth, but these same young men may have had good teeth when they left school. Furthermore there is much to be said for the opinion expressed by James F. Byrnes, Director of War Mobilization and Reconversion, who questions the physical standards used by the armed services which result in the rejection of so many rnen who continue to be stars in the professional athletic world. 64 American Association of School Administrators The nation seems ready at this time to improve greatly the opportunitie> for getting our youth into good physical condition and for keeping them at that high level. To assist the nation in formulating its physical advance- ments in this field, the school administrators working with their staff and local community would find it ad\antageous to canvass thoroughly the presentday existing facilities for health and physical education, the train- ing and vision of the teaching staff of health and physical education, and the kinds of opportunities and programs which should be initiated. The program of health and physical education permeates all courses of instruction. It is associated with conditions of living, of school housing, of recreation, and of work itself. The sanitary conditions within our schools ; the provision for lighting, heating, and ventilation ; the installations for hand-washing and for drinking facilities; and the rooms for rest and rec- reation are all phases of school administration which must have renewed emphasis. Equally important is the nutritional program for boys and girls and the conditions under which they eat in school cafeterias and lunch- rooms. There is no city in the United States in which decided improvement cannot be secured in many of the areas enumerated above. More extensive playgrounds with adequate equipment and expanded gymnasium facilities are needed if our school children are to be given thorough-going programs of physical education which are expressed not in terms of one or two hours a week, but in terms of a period a day under competent instruction. In times of emergency the nation desires to rely upon all its youth. In normal periods the nation should strive to the utmost to keep its youth at a high level of vigor and physical attainment, and should adjust its educational program in terms of such needs. In this year of opportunity the educator should not be complacent about the methods of instruction that are being employed. There has been much helpful discussion on the teaching technics used by the armed forces with the purpose of securing definite results quickly and effectively. The armed forces have had available in teaching devices the best that money could buy, and a highly selected group of instructors trained in the schools and colleges of America. These men no doubt have much to bring back out of their war experience. For instance, military authorities have demonstrated that it is possible to develop a speaking knowledge of a language in several months of concentrated study. In the schools it has been customary to spread the study of a language rather thin over a long period of time. The basic aim in most schools has been to develop a reading knowledge rather than a speaking knowledge. Is this aim the right one and can we learn some- thing from army methods? Perhaps this is the opportunity for language teachers to analyze anew the programs in which they have had confidence, and to alter them in terms of more meaningful objectives. Army and navy instruction to develop skills has been aided greatly bv the use of all kinds of visual aids and by individual instruction in small classes. Although military instruction is more costly than public education, is the resulting gain worthwhile? In the past the schools have tended to lag behind when modern invention made possible instructional gains. This has Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 65 been true with the radio and the motion picture. In both of these fields man\ educators have been indifferent to possibilities or have been unwilling or unable to make adjustments in spite of the greater gains that are possible. The teaching of history, geography, the physical sciences, and many other subjects without the use of the motion picture seems to place the teacher in the same category as the individual who would refuse to ride in an auto- mobile because a horse-driven vehicle proved more satisfactory. Instructors in the military scene have used visual instruction to a maximum degree. The schools should no longer be lagging behind. It is also reported that television will open up new possibilities of instruction as the peace era begins. Let it not be said two or three decades hence that the school ad- ministrators of this country ignored in its early stages the educational possibilities of television. It would increase the stature of the educator if it could be said that he was in the vanguard of those who realized the significance of television in broadening educational opportunity and in ex- tending the bounds of understanding of our people. The absorbing problem of new curriculum developments carries with it incentives and inspiration growing out of the world changes which are taking place constantly. The school curriculum is ever in the making. The degree to which adequate curriculum adjustments are being made today to world change is a measure of America's potentialities in world leadership. There is no phase of the curriculum which has not been feeling the impact of recent economic, social, and political change. The present day offers an opportunity for curriculum reconstruction which should be welcomed by all teachers. Such reconstruction may even affect the organization of our schools. Other world peoples and the geography of their environments take on new meaning as time is accelerated and distance is diminished. The hopes of world leaders expressed in the Atlantic Charter, at Dumbarton Oaks, and at Yalta strengthen the foundation upon which the school cur- riculum of the future is being built. It is safe to assume that no school 'system can be considered progressing satisfactorily in this day of rapid change unless it is contributing adequately to a curriculum development -in consonance with our nation's expanding needs. During the wartime period the schools of the nation seized every oppor- tunity to render a victory service. When such mechanized tasks as issuing ration books or salvaging paper or scrap were assigned, the schools secured superior results. The story of the schools' contribution to the planning, production, and preparation of foods is most heartening and indicative of what can be accomplished through group instruction and group action. During the war teachers throughout the land have rendered service far above and beyond the call of duty. Let me give one illustration from among the many services rendered by the teachers of New York City : Early in the war a small group of teachers organized the Teachers Voluntary Serv- ice Organization. This group opened a canteen for servicemen, and, in addition to providing a lounge room, recreation room, and meals, the teach- ers offered instruction in English, mathematics, languages, typing, or any other field for which a serviceman expressed an interest. They met every 66 American Association of School Administrators request. This center has become so successful that the teachers have opened four additional centers. A recent report indicated that as many as 1947 servicemen and women received instruction in these centers in a single month. It is true that the service record of American teachers and school admin- istrators is a remarkable one and deserves full recognition when the history of victory in World War II is written. The period which lies just beyond will offer challenges to our profession of no lesser merit. They are the challenges of readjustment to peace times, and of the readaptation of millions of fighting men and women to the constructive service which their victory will have made possible. Every city like New York City is engaged now in reorganizing educational programs as well as testing and guidance programs to take ca^e of the millions who seek speedy return to normal living. The immediate adjustment made for this youth as they return from victory may not be enough. Our schools must be sufficiently alert to provide constantly for adjustment. They cannot be merely localized institutions, but must teem with world interest. The emphasis must not be upon method or discipline, but upon developing broadminded and capable men and women free of bias, strong in intellect, and equally courageous to face emerging economic and social problems as those of the beachhead and the battle front. The world is experiencing a great upheaval. The material wealth of centuries is being destroyed. The sacrifice of human life is beyond all rec- ords of history. Out of this earth-wracking struggle man hopes for better conditions for all mankind. Such betterment will come only to the degree that man educates himself. The schools of America offer the greatest oppor- tunities ever found in this world for the improvement of man. The school administrator's task is to develop schools which will never cease offering such opportunities. These opportunities are those of individual growth, of adjustment to change, of stimulation to create, and of provision for growth into spiritual, moral, and social human beings. Vhe degree to which the year ahead is one of opportunity will depend upon the vision and the consecration of American school administrators to the challenging needs appearing above the horizon. Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 67 NEW PATTERNS IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION PAUL R. MORT, professor OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. During the past quarter century administrative practice in city and county school systems has outrun organizational theory. Many prudential or democratic variations from the line and staff theory have been thought of as adaptations of that theory. Other aspects of the operation of a school have never been aligned with the line and staff theory.^ We have now reached a place where schools suffer from the lack of a more encompassing theory, one that will have a positive place for obviously needed variations in practice and will in and of itself stimulate the further adaptation of administrative structure and operation. The application of the home rule concept to constituent parts of a school system having several schools seems to provide the positive factor now missing in the organizational theory of local school systems. Here is a concept of long and honorable history, widely understood. It is the concept, in fact, in terms of which the state legislature, responsible for the school system of the state, has delegated powers to boards of education to be exercised for all the people of the state and with the full force of the authority of all the people. It is proposed that city and county school systems be organized in terms of a theory built on two concepts for the fanning out of powers held by schoolboards — the line and staff concept and the home rule concept. This is proposed as a substitute for the present practice of using line and staff theory as far as it can be used, making exceptions in terms of empirical evidence alone. The need is particularly great in the huge city school systems in which approximately a fourth of American children receive their education. But there are indications that the application reaches down at least to school systems of 50,000 population and perhaps down to those of 10,000 population, thus encompassing the school systems that serve a large majority of American children. There follows a statement of this proposal in greater detail. This in turn is followed by descriptions of two sets of conditions that appear to make imperative such a shift in organizational theory. Finally there is a brief statement on the problems of creating home rule unit-;. PROPOSED USE OF THE HOME RULE CONCEPT The proposal in brief is that schoolboards should modify their policy of considering all authority flowing down from them through the adminis- 1 Four studies ,in recent years have brought out a number of these puzzling cliarai t^•rl^liL•,s: two of them deal with schools in New York Citv, one with schools in St. Louis, one with schools in Newark: Gillie, Francois S.. Centralkation or Deccntrali-ation? New York: Bureau of Publications. Teachers College, Columbia University. 1940. 105 p.; Hicks, Alvin W., A Plan To Accelerate the Process of Adaptation in a New York City S'-hool Community (Manuscript in Teachers College Library); Ebey. George W., Adaptability Among the Elementary S'hools of an Ameri-an City. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College. Columbia University, 1940. 74 p.; The Report of a Survey of the Public Schools of Newark. New Jersey, T"f2. Chapter II. New Vork: Bureau ^of Publications. Teachers College, Columbia University, 1942. 68 American Association of School Administrators trative line. Instead, they should, by legislative act, legally recognize that certain ultimate control powers are now of necessity vested in the school personnel and, to lesser degree, in the lay public, of geographical areas within the local school system. Such powers should be reviewed and per- haps extended. In this they would simply be following the ancient home rule principle according to which their legal parent, the legislature, has operated in the creation of school districts and in the vesting of ultimate power in them, not over all educational policies, but over many educational policies subject to such legal metes and bounds as the legislature has seen fit to define. While the state legislature has delegated the vast majority of educational powers to schoolboards, reserving comparatively few to central line officers, the schoolboard as a local legislature would doubtless reserve the vast majority of powers for exercise through the administrative line. Again, whereas most legislatures have delegated taxing powers to the school dis- tricts and placed the responsibility for raising a large part of the support on the school districts, it is proposed here that this pow.er be retained' by the board — that the home rule principle be used only with respect to aspects of control. The following guides are suggested : 1. The power of ultimate decision on educational policy should rest in the repre- sentatives of a group of people no larger than which will be sufficiently representa- tive of the interests of all the people to provide reasonable protection of the inter- ests of the state (all the people). 2. Local administrators (principals) should be given no escape from being held responsible bj' the public for decisions that they now by custom exercise ; the scope of the present ultimate authority of local operators should be made clear by board rule so as to avoid blaming central authority for steps taken and using the fiction of "no authority" as a reason for failure to act. This should be made clear to the public. Sharing of the authority with a local board would promote the desirable condition. 3. City boards of education and central administrative officers should be freed from the feeling of personal responsibility for untoward happenings within the range of responsibility and authority of local operators; their attitude should be more akin to that of the state legislature and state department of education toward such occurrences in local school districts. Such happenings should only raise the question of the general wisdom of the assignment of authority to local operators or of the fitness of particular areas to exercise such authority. This counsels the establishment of some sort of local advisory board, perhaps made up of parents, other laymen, and teachers. 4. Communities in a city should not necessarily be treated alike." Some should have wide powers; some perhaps less than they now exercise. The fact that prin- cipals have been selected as line officers to carry on a merely ministerial function may mean that many of them would not embrace the opportunity of home rule. Interest of local principals is therefore a useful criterion in selecting communities that are to have their home rule extended. Similarly, certain demographic and sociological factors condition the ability of a community to exercise home rule. There are some indications that the favorable factors are highly correlated with community interest. Accordingly, the selection of communities to which home rule is to be extended appears to be possible in terms largely of the public and staff interest alone. -There is precedent for this in state-loral nrcani7.ntion« in the varied treatment of different types of srhnol districts. The extreme rase is the operation of schonl= directly by the state department of edu- cation (complete line and staff) for children in unorsanized territory in '^^ainc. Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 69 5. Provision should be made for the opening of channels to the public mind. The local board suggested (No. 3 above) should be designed not only as a sharer of responsibility for local acts, but as a channel for expression of the public mind, particularly within the area where the local unit has ultimate powers. EFFECTIVE USE OF STAFF There are two sets of conditions that counsel such a change in organ- izational theory ; one centering around the school staff, the other around the lay public. Either of them by itself would seem to provide adequate justification; together the implications are compelling. First let us assess the forces that resulted in the line and staff organiza- tion of school administration. One of them was the legal conception of responsibility and power. The school district is created by the legislature and delegated the power to act for the state, subject to relatively minor limitations and directives. The school district's chief instrument for action is the schoolboard. Whatever the method of selection — popular vote, ap- pointment by the mayor, appointment by the courts, appointment by the governor, or self-perpetuation — it finds itself vested with large state powers as a state legislative and administrative body. Formerly, and still in small districts, this power operated directly on the teaching staff. As its task be- came more complicated, the board emploj^d liaison officers — school super- intendents and other administrative, supervisory, and inspectorial ofBcers. The charts always placed the classroom teachers at the bottom of the power line. The army line and staff pattern was thus a natural device for charting the flow of power and for keeping the various agents in align- ment, one with another. The classroom teacher was the buck private in the rear rank. With the organism nicely set up legally, we now see it get in motion. Administration represented by the board and the various administrative heads employed by them immediateh' becomes a target for all sorts of de- mands for doing things differently. Administration's ideas of 'policy, like oysters, are fed by cross currents of loud demands from the world with- out; relatively silent demands made by growing insight into the nature of learning by new views of society and by invention in the realm of meth- odology; less silent demands made by those whose business it is to scan the procession of economic and social statistics and call out for the redress of wrongs by political action or by changing the habits or attitudes of the people themselves through education ; and more artful demands made by those whose business it is to purvey new kinds of blackboards, or floor- ing, or heating devices, or lighting systems, or textbooks. All these and myriads more is administration required to assess, make decisions as to change in policy, communicate the decisions through the line to the buck private in the rear rank, provide supplementary services, and check up on the results through the staff specialists, supervisors, and inspectors. All of this assumes, approximately, that the buck private, also the ordinary citizen and the student, had few, if any, ideas worth much in shaping policy; or if they had, that they could be adequately assessed by the line 70 American Association of School Administrators and staff officers chosen primarily as one-way channels of flow of authority from the center. In the process of this development, administrators made some decisions that were eventually to be disturbing to their peace of mind. They de- manded and got persons to staff the schools who had more training. At first this training took the form of study of subjectmatter teachers were supposed in turn to purvey — review courses in history or in arithmetic, courses in methodology of reading, instruction courses in handwriting. Finally, however, the teacher-training institutions got off the reservation. They began teaching these persons criteria for judging courses of study and facts about the nature of learning and of society. The result was that all the big administrative oysters became, unknown to themselves, sur- rounded by little oysters feeding from the same currents. In other words, the school system developed sensitivity below the administrative level. Now anyone who has been a buck private in the rear rank knows that there is a great deal of time when the sergeant is not giving orders or is not around to see what is happening. As a result, some talking back is likely to develop from the most vociferous, and some action without the benefit of authority is likely to slip in. Administrators were not much con- cerned with the latter because they did not recognize it. But they gave attention to the former. Among other devices they developed teachers' councils as safety valves. Some few superintendents even went farther and developed curriculum study groups in the fields of specialization. Few ad- ministrators seem to have sensed the fact that a great many of these special- ists had become broad persons capable of thinking outside their- specialties.^ Naturally, the schools that had recruited larger numbers of superior human beings as teachers found it necessary to give rein sooner. Some made real headway in developing a new organization. First let us deal with some of the results of the work of these independent spirits. One of the interesting results of having brilliant classroom teachers in the cross currents of demands on the schools was that there was brought into the defacto, policy-forming group those who were in firsthand contact with boys and girls. They did not need to generalize in terms of the child, the youth. They dealt with John and Mary, Susy and Tom, Angelo and Concita. They saw things to do and did them. They thought they were exercising common sense. Actually they were exercising unusual insight and highly educated sense. If we look into the schools that have an unusual number of these superior persons working under either liberal or be- wildered administration, we will see educational developments never dreamed of by persons remote from the educational process. This last year it has been the writer's privilege to stand on the sidelines and watch 250 persons from sixty-five relatively favored commi'nities work at the job of finding the patterns that have developed in their schools — patterns that, to a large extent, have developed by individual teachers without the benefit of either administrative or professorial blessing. * For an analysis of administrative sensitivity to alert personnel, see Raymond L. Collins (Ed.D. Project — manuscript in Teachers College, Columbia University, Library). Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 71 Changes made by administrative act are readily observable, accretive phenomenon. Those originating from within are hard to distinguish, intus- susceptive changes like those in a growing organism. Administratively ini- tiated changes take the form of specialists and bureaus, and special teach- ers, addition of new courses and curriculums rather than modification of the old, and departmentalization ; at its best it is characterized by a modern high school — a great mosaic, fit together by careful hands. Change from within tends to shelve many of these specialists, to militate against depart- mentalization, to leave bureaus active a dozen years ago without useful work to do. It is characterized by our best elementary schools. Space will not permit the presentation of the details of the study referred to above. Accordingly, the following observations appearing in the introduc- tion to a recent document ■* summarizing 101 patterns of .educational practice observed in sixty-five relatively favored school systems must suffice : 1. The least favored American schools emphasize the teaching of knowledge and skill. They concern themselves only incidentally with the other factors to be mentioned. 2. Somewhat more favored schools, accepting what on the surface appear to be exactly the same objectives, are more concerned with making the knowledge and skills more meaningful and useful than they otherwise would be by taking into account past experiences and immediate environment and mental maturity of children and young people in the educational process. 3. Probing somewhat deeper, or at least into a different type of soil, still more favored schools carry along a definite parallel interest in discovering special apti- tudes of individuals in dealing with our environment and in providing opportunities for the growth of these aptitudes. In other words, these schools are not only con- cerned with what adults believe to be the most useful knowledges and skills to teach pupils but are also interested in discovering what lies within the individual human chrysalis that will respond to discovery and cultivation. 4. The most favored schools reach into a very deep substratum which seems to give to the quality of their fruit quite a different flavor. They are concerned with a third facet of growth of children and young people: with the growth in those more slowly developing patterns of behavior which we speak of as intelligence (used in the popular sense), character, citizenship, and personality. These schools draw sustenance from the other substrata which we have discussed above but their tempo seems to be determined by this deeper, richer substratum. If we are to stimulate the internal sources of such powerful educa- tion, it w^ould appear that we shall need an organizational theory that will capitalize it rather than discourage it. Hence the recommendations for an organization that will give certain ultimate powers of control to smaller units than those represented by city schoolboards.^ * What Schools Can Do — One Hundred and One Patterns of Educational Practice. Metropolitan School Study Council. 525 West 120th St., New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, November 1944. ^ It may be said also that these results, highlighting phenomena that every administrator iViust have noted here and there, seem to challenge a number of other administrative concepts such as scope of considerations in teacher selection, age of beginning tenure, equal pay for equal work, departmentali- zation of instruction, single salary schedules, and employment of specialists; seem to throw further light on the present" trends toward preschool and parent education, organization of supervisory services, and small classes; and seem to suggest continued attention to growth in the "gross behavior patterns beyond the high-school years," and certainly fortify the arguments for the development and conservation of "lighthouse school districts." 72 American Association of School Administrators EFFECTIVE USE OF THE PUBLIC MIND One of the surprising discoveries from the early adaptability studies was the relation of the community to the quality of schools. Such factors as the heterogeneity of the population, the percentage of the population born outside the community, the public understanding of the developments in education during the past quarter century, and the educational level of the public were found to be reflected in the quality of the schools. This holds when, as in small communities, there is an opportunity for public influence to be brought more or less directly to bear on the schools. The influence of the community on the schools in large cities, however, has not been so readily observable. The implications are that whether or not the school authorities in small independent communities make any particular attempt to utilize the public mind they cannot entirely escape it, and that the devel- opment of school districts in which the legal authority to act is remote from the public, as in large cities, has resulted in the isolation of the schools from the powerful forces inherent in community autonomy. This has important implications for school districts of all sizes : in small independent communities for more careful procedures for working with the public; in large school districts for the decentralization of at least some of the important powers controlling the character of the school. Just at what stage there is a need for a breakdown of powers according to the home rule pattern has not been determined. There are indications, how- ever, that in compact communities as small as 10,000 population and in large, sparsely settled areas with less population, the deterioration of effec- tive home rule has begun. Probably what happens is that as we go up the size scale the advantages more than outweigh the home rule losses until we reach some point either in population or geographical spread where the loss of home rule effects rapidly accelerates, the result being a large loss in efficiency that outweighs the advantages of size. Casual observation indi- cates that this point has been passed by communities of 100,000 popula- tion, arid by many county school systems. If this analysis is sound, it means that even smaller city school systems may reap distinct advantages by restoring a measure of home rule to geogra- phic areas within their borders. There would seem to be no reason to argue that because a school district with a population of 25,000 has advantages from size that outweigh its losses from deterioration of home rule it should not seek to maintain the advantages of both. OVERCOMING MISCONCEPTIONS One of the misconceptions that has retarded thinking in this area is that the forces we are discussing are somehow a function of a unique phenornenon called a community. The indications are that it is not a mys- terious power of a community but can rather be reduced to understand- ings gained by individuals interested or potentially interested in public education. It appears that it can be greatly influenced by raising the under- standing of a relatively few key persons. It must have machinery for ac- tion ; this we associate with community. Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 73 When this misconception is coupled with the notion that a community is or is not, and nothing can be done about it, we have a hopeless situation. As a matter of fact, there are strong indications that communities don't necessarily just happen. Given any group of human beings living in a geographic area certain groupings appear — clubs, real-estate associations, block societies, churches, and service clubs. If there is some strong force that operates over a given area it amalgamates these social groupings into a "community." Such a force is that which comes into operation when a municipality or a school district is laid out. The voluntary groups then become cells of a larger group. The interest of the larger group comes into play in the bridge clubs, commuters' trains, women's clubs, lodges, churches, and service clubs. In other words, if there is a way by which these social (symbiotic) groups can bring their influence to bear, we have a community. Accordingly, within any area of a city there is a potential home rule com- munity. All that is needed is a common interest with geographical metes and bounds — such as a school attendance area — and a realization that those working in the area can have some influence on what goes on without appeal to some remote authority. The essentials seem to be an area served by one or more schools and a recognized body such as school principal and an advisory board, or school principal, a few teachers, and a few chosen leaders from the community, some parents and some nonparents with power to take final action in some important phases of the school program. From there on, the opportunities for developing and using the power of the public mind is the same for any one of these areas as for a superintendent in a small independent school district. With this arrangement, creative teachers and the more farseeing prac- tical laymen can set up that state of "collusion in the work of the Lord" that seems always to characterize advance in education, without impairing the obvious advantages that come from having many functions, some authori- tative and some of a service nature, exercised by the central administrative stafif in line and stafif relationship with the individual communities. refinement of the theory we live by In conclusion, let it be understood that this paper deals with a theory — a projection of a tentatively held mental picture of reality. Its purpose is to stimulate observation and experimentation leading to the development of that most practical of all practical matters, good theory. Studies now being carried on by the Metropolitan School Study Council in New York suburban communities ranging from 2000 to 120,000 population, and in communities within New York City ranging from 30,000 to 100,000 popu- lation, will provide some testing of the goodness of this theory and, at the same time, will result in machinery for its use in practice to the degree that it proves in tune with the realities. But there is need for observation and experimentation by many persons under a wider range of conditions. Let those who have been troubled by any impracticalities in the theory we've lived by in the past few decades use the exceptions they have noted to test this proposed modification. Let them test the theory in practice. 74 American Association of School Administrators NEW INSIGHTS INTO EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION JOHN A. SEXSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PASADENA, CALIFORNIA It is a commonplace, but one often overlooked, to observe that the office of school superintendent (school administrator) is peculiar to and unique in the United States. The writer can discover no comparable official in connection with any other phase of local, state, or national government or in the list of officials operating under any other form of government. There arc, certainly, schoolmasters — persons holding head positions in schools and school systems — in every country in the world, but in no other instance can one find the duties, powers, responsibilities, and obligations peculiar to the office of school superintendent as it has developed in America in the last half century. Positions of leadership in government and in connection with all human projects are of many kinds. They are described by many titles somewhat indicative of their character. For instance, there is the executive whose duties and responsibilities are those of following orders and following the law — carrying out or putting into effect that which has been predetermined by a law-making agency or by an order-issuing body. School administration has to do in some part with following the law or following the orders or rules of a board* of education, but this is not the essence of the job. Then, there is the manager whose duties call for economy, frugality, efficiency, and the setting up and enforcement of routine. School adminis- tration includes some of these, but here again, they are not of major im- portance. Such aspects of the job are commonly delegated to business mana- gers or to subordinates dealing with irflportant but secondary routine. The title, "city manager," has a widely different connotation from the title, "superintendent of schools." The functions of these two officials are so obviously different that the distinction need not be drawn. There is also the supervisor whose implied duties are inspectorial and whose purpose is, by implication, to produce conformity. There is likewise the coTfunissiotter whose title implies limited authority; the governor whose title implies exclusively political powers. One might continue indefinitely within the limits of our own governments or within the political systems now functioning anywhere without finding an official whose position, powers, du- ties, responsibilities, and obligations are comparable to those exercised by the school administrator in America. A part of the uniqueness of the position lies in the fact that in almost no states are the powers and duties of the school administrator prescribed by law or even inventoried in the rules of the employing board. To summarize — school administration is public service at its best. It has to do with the exercise of political power and authority, but it func- tions almost exclusively by consent. It has to do Avith public service, but it has the unique responsibility of determining both the quantity and the quality of that service. It rests on a political base in that the constitutions and codes of the several states provide for the service and its financial Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 75 support, and set up the essential machinery of operation ; but school ad- ministration is concerned with social, religious, political, and economic problems as well as with educational problems, and the school administra- tor may, and often does, hold a position of commanding influence in many phases of community life. The late Dr. Jesse H. Newlon was among the first to attempt to itemize the broad powers, duties, functions, responsibilities, obligations, and oppor- tunities of the office of school superintendent. In Part VIII: Report of the Commission on the Social Studies, American Historical Association,^ Newlon characterizes school administration as "an applied social science," and he stipulates that the qualified school administrator must be a com- petent, qualified, trained scientist, applying scientifically devised, laboratory tested principles and formulas to the problems involved. "It is he (the school administrator) who must interpret the technical processes of the school to society and the wishes and needs of society to the schools. He stands between the technic of the schools and the practical requirements of the adult world ; between the idealism of the classroom and the realism of the board meeting. The measure of his success lies in the skill with which he discharges the functions. He may be buffeted about by both or he may rise to a position of leadership in which both find their finest expression." " To the writer's knowledge, no one has better described the unique and almost limitless responsibilities, functions, and opportunities of the school administrator. Numerous situations may be cited wherein the school admin- istrator has failed ignominiously — where he has neither sensed nor appre- ciated the opportunities all about him — situations in which insuperable obstacles have thwarted the best efforts of competent and farseeing admin- istrators ; situations where there has been neither vision nor progress. These, on the other hand, may be snowed under by citations of those situations wherein the school superintendent has transformed community life in all its phases through the instrumentality of a public school pointed to a broad program of community betterment, and moving forward on a broad front to improve every aspect of community life and every phase of individual and group life. One need only review the history of national development, the history of the growth of our democratic institutions and way of life, to see what school administrators have contributed to our national well-being. For example, we have gone a long way toward the perfection of the machinery essential for rnaking public education for all children and youth essentially universal and free. This is distinctly the work of an illustrious line of school administrators working in the several states — in the cities, communi- ties, villages, and neighborhoods — testing in the laboratory of community life the formulas proposed for legalizing, setting up, operating, and main- taining the agencies and institutions of public education. The list is too ^Newlon, Jesse H., Educational Administration as Social Policy. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1934. ^ Ibid; p. ix. (From Preface by A. C. Krey.) 76 American Association of School Administrators long to be itemized, but here are a few: Horace IVIann, Henry Barnard, W. E. Chancellor, Ellwood P. Cubberley, A. S. Draper, James M. Green- wood, William H. Maxwell, Paul R. Mort, George D. Strayer, Nicholas L. Engelhardt, Jesse H. Newlon. These men have dealt with those phases of our problems of public educa- tion that have arisen in our effort to set up state and local systems of schools and to finance, administer, operate, and maintain them. Their educational services have gone far beyond the classroom, far beyond issues of curriculum and method. They have been concerned with broad aspects of social policy, with principles as well as details of political organization and machinery, with investments of the social income, and with fundamental modifications of our national way of life. These educational administrators have dealt with the problems of technics and procedures essential to the handling of the business of education on a nationwide scale, with problems of housing, and with supplying materials of instruction for the nation's educational institutions and agencies. They have been public relations ambassadors plenipotentiary. They have built public opinion in support of our national ideal of universal, free public education; of equal educational opportunities; and of adequate educational services for all children and youth. As we survey the scene that confronts us today as well as that which will likely confront us as the fury of the war effort subsides, it is fitting that we seek new insights into the problems of the school administrator. I refer to the official who accepts the thesis that the school administrator holds a unique position ; that his responsibilities, his obligations, and his opportunities are many and significant ; and that he may, within the frame- work of his office, become a mighty force in shaping the tomorrow of his pupils, his teachers, his community, his state, his nation, and his world. It is of prime importance that the public-school administrators of this nation realize now that we are but fairly embarked on this national com- mitment to establish and to maintain an essentially free, universal system of public education, providing something roughly approximating equality of educational opportunity. The 1940 census reveals that among 74,775,836 persons twenty-five years old and over: ' 2,799,923 ( 3.7 percent) had less than one year of schooling 7,304,689 ( 9.8 percent) had 1-4 years of schooling; 8,515,111 (11.4 percent) had 5 and 6 years of schooling 25,897,953 (34.6 percent) had 7 and 8 years of schooling 11,181,995 (15 percent) had 1-3 years of high school 10,551,680 (14.1 percent) had 4 years of high school 4,075,184 ( 5.4 percent) had 1-3 years of college 3,407,331 ( 4.6 percent) had 4 or more years of college 1,041,970 ( 1.4 percent) were not reported. By the earliest criteria of educational fitness, established when this nation was in its infancy and requiring only that our voters be able to read * According to the V. S. Statistical Abstract as reported in the Journal of the National Education Association, February 1945. - tnorr rvil whcu dpppndpnt-^ ;irc Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 99 involved. Group sickness and accident insurance help to dispel this specter. Some venturesome school systems have discarded the usual method of allow- ing, annually or on a cumulative basis, a definite number of days for sick- leave. Instead, through annual periods of employment, they underwrite teachers' annual salaries as provided in their contracts. Reports from scat- tered school systems following this practice indicate that its cost does not exceed 2 percent of the personnel budget. The superintendents of these school systems are of the opinion that such an increase is more than justified by the improvement in morale which results. Teachers' security has been heightened by tenure and retirement legis- lation. In some instances communities without tenure legislation reveal as good tenure records as other communities governed by tenure laws. Such regulation places a prime responsibility on administration for the selection of the teaching personnel and for guidance in service. At this point the record of administratiqn is not entirely clear. Democratic administration full}- applied probably is more effective than tenure laws bound in books. With approximately forty states now providing some form of retirement funds for all or part of their educational employees, most American teachers can face their declining years with some assurance of decency and comfort. In some instances retirement allowances hardly reach the subsistence level, but general approval of social security measures seems to make it possible for this condition to be corrected. The situation invites administrative assistance. Without the effects of appropriate administration of personnel the future of teaching is not cheerful. With wise development of these elements the stage is set for teachers to serve their schools and their communities. In order that the schools may be served properly, it is necessary for adminis- trators to protect teachers against overregulation by schoolboards and overpossessiveness by the community. Teachers belong in a community, but they do not belong to a community. The restriction of teachers' out-of-school activities and the assignment as a matter of course of specific extra-school duties has a numbing effect upon the teaching staff. These practices repel young persons of spirit who otherwise may be interested in careers in teaching. .Most important of all practices in personnel administration is the recog- nition of a teacher's individual contribution and of her inherent right to full realization of her powers of development. Teachers are not iiT^truments of educational administration; they are component parts of democratic school organization. On their guidance, their growth, and their functioning together depends the development of schools in our generation. The administration which protects teaching personnel, makes opportu- nities for teachers to work effectively; uses the entire educational situation to provide expanding ways for teacher participation, growth, and develop- ment; does more than furnish intelligent instruction at the 1945 level. Such administration strengthens the teaching profession and builds solidly for the future. 100 American Association of School Administrators EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND THE POSTWAR ERA ALONZO G. GRACE^ STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION^ HARTFORD^ CONNECTICUT Ainerica has been able to mobilize her resources, human and material, in an unbelievably short period in order that a known and ruthless enemy might be destroyed. Without a central ministry of education, the armed services and productive enterprise nevertheless were the beneficiaries of an educational system which accepted the challenge of directly training millions. Because of the education which other millions had received, train- ing within the armed services and within industry and business was facilitated. Irrespective of criticisms that may be leveled at American educa- tion, the mere fact that it is a state enterprise administered locally is one guarantee that America can remain free from ideologies emanating from a central authority. The educational enterprise, public and nonpublic, can be geared to the reconversion period. Whether or not we shall view the period following the war with as much fear as we viewed the trend of totalitarianism re- mains to be seen. Perhaps the major danger to the security of this country will come from the unobserved enemy within. At any rate, planning and dishful thinking must not be confused. In this discussion the educational program as conceived by the state board of education of Connecticut and its relationship to the reconversion period is outlined in brief. Fundamental Principles The program which is being developed in Connecticut is based on several fundamental principles among which the following may be stated in this discussion : 1. Vocational education, guidance, and training will not create jobs. The major problem in this country is to provide sufficient jobs for all who are able and desire to work. The training job is relatively simple. The machinery for operation already is here. 2. National purposing in promoting the general welfare cannot be dismissed merely by talking about states' rights. A strong nation requires strong parts. There should be national purposing and a national interest in the general welfare of a people with administration of these social enterprises by states and communities. Unless states and localities do something more than talk about our problems, in the long run the federal government will evolve programs. 3. Specific training in advance of the knowledge of the manpower requirement is of limited value. Eighty to ninetj' percent of the specific training required can be secured on the job. Leadership of our specialists in vocational education is available. 4. Training programs should not be devised to retain present war training pro- grams intact. The reconversion training program should be carried on at con- siderably less cost and with considerably less personnel. There is need to do more for ourselves. 5. New agencies should not be created at the state level to accomplish the recon- version objectives. This is no more desirable at a state than at the federal level. 6. Special schools for veterans under auspices other than rrgnlnrly organized Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 101 schools and colleges should be discouraged. This does not mean that the returned veteran should be placed with a group of immature youth but rather that each college, university, or school should readjust both program and structure in order that the returned veteran or the displaced war worker will not be subjected to practices and procedures unsuited to the needs or interests of these groups. 7. Youth under eighteen should be encouraged to remain in school and complete their education, including a work experience, prior to entering the work of the community. 8. Training programs should not be initiated primarily to magnify a particular program. Aside from the regular adult programs offered by the several institution> in a state, new training programs should not be based on speculation but on demonstrated need. Procedures Each public or nonpublic institution having the training facilities no doubt will make them available as has been the case during the war period. In order that there may be complete information concerning the oppor- tunities available, the state department will maintain, as during the war- time, an advisor}^ committee on training. This will be composed of repre- sentatives of (a) management and business, (b) labor, (c) educational in- stitutions, (d) the general public. It will be the function of this committee through the educational channel to secure information about training programs and to arrange conferences with manpower and other authorities concerning training needs. The Program It is not possible in this brief comment to do more than outline the program contemplated : 1. The statutes have been amended to make the local board of education the most powerful organization in the community — in other words, a board of education that is authorized to establish educational opportunities from nursery school to college. 2. The statutes have been amended to permit the state board of education to receive any federal financial assistance for the conduct of educational programs. This is the sole body authorized to receive general aid. 3. The old trade schools have been replaced by regional technical schools having an upper and a lower level educational opportunity. The upper level requires high-school graduation for admission. It is largely an adult education program operating from 4:00 until 10:00 p. m. It includes also veterans, disabled war workers, or others who desire one or two years' specialization in a particular area. No college credit is awarded and there is no intent that the technical school become a junior college. However, if any college desires to equate this experience and record it for college credit, that is the prerogative of the institution. The dead-end opportunity has been withdrawn from "trade schools" and a new day in vocational education is developing. 4. The appraising and licensing of institutions is a function of the state board of education. This is a task which requires care in order that the Hy-by-night or borderline institutions may not operate in this state. 5. The program involves the development of the comprehensive high school, and we recommend the extension of the local high school to the thirteenth and fourteenth grade where feasible. 6. A state high-school diploma will be issued in all cases where the local school does not desire to evaluate the military credentials and training of the individual. This is granted after examinations have been successfully completed. 102 American Association of School Administrators 7. The security of tliis country rests largely on the youth of the nation. The states, therefore, should see that youth not only have received an education designed to teach them how to live, but also how to make a living. We need to develop in our people a deeper sense of responsibility for returning something to society as well as taking something out. We need a change from materialism to moral values. A youth program has been transmitted to the state board of education and to the chief executive. It is designed to provide youth with: a. A knowledge of how to work and a work experience without competition with adult workers in the community. h. A delayed period for entrance into the so-called labor market. At the same time we should not destroy in youth, as we did during the depression period, and previously, the idea of how to work, the dignity of work, or the meaning of work. c. Work education experience in a state-operated civilian conservation corps camp or its equivalent. d. State scholarships to develop ingenuity and to recognize talent. e. A student aid and loan fund. f. A physical fitness program. g. A youth personnel service in local school systems. h. The Bureau of Youth Services in the state department of education. 8. The liberal arts college, University of Connecticut, and Yale University each has developed a postwar plan for education under the jurisdiction of the respective institutions. It becomes increasingly evident that if the state and localities do not seize the opportunity for leadership, for the identification of problems, and for an honest effort to solve these problems, the federal government cer- tainly has an obligation. Those w^ho entered the first grade of America's schools in the 1930's are now the pilots, the navigators, the artillery men, and infantry men of this war. There is need to eliminate institutional, de- partmental, and personal competition and jealousy in the interest of 3'outi). I am continually impressed with our reluctance to serve youth and our deeper interest in preserving the integrity of a program, a procedure, or the struc- ture of education within a given state. I am impressed also with the fact that our motive may not be to serve youth but rather to build the great institution. Wc need quality in this country rather than quantity. Let us hope that there will be planning, wise planning, in our state and localities and that we can set aside our best interests long enough to plan the enter- prise wisely. Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 103 AFTER TAPS COMES REVEILLE HAROLD BENJAMIN, DEAN, COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND, COLLEGE PARK, MARYLAND (On military leave since June 1942) The pessimism with which men commonly approach the end of a long war is not so broadly based as it appears when described in jieneral terms. It is compounded of elements as specific as the German tank which yester- day made your neighbor's daughter a widow. It is as individual as the bullet which tomorrow may come whining from a Japanese sniper's rifle to drop your son in a rotting jungle. It is as personal as love and hate. Although we weave the pattern of this pessimism from particular strands of fear, pain, and grief, we try usually to describe the pattern in sweeping generalizations. Air. J. J. Doakes, general manager of Doakes, Inc., says that he fears for the future of his country because of the entrenchment of longhaired dreamers in the federal government, but his real fears are reserved for the safety of Private First Class J. J. Doakes, Jr., riding in a tank across Germany. Joe Doakes, the barber, flames into patriotic fury by throwing a Purple- Heart-and-Silver-Star-wearing American soldier of Japanese descent from his shop. "The only good Jap is a dead Jap," Joe generalizes vigorously, unaware that the actual sources of his pessimism are as specific as the verdict of the recruiting officer in January 1942: "You're too old, Pop, and your blood pressure is too high." Miss Josephine Doakes, in a letter to the editor, writes passionately of the dangers of peacetime conscription. "Are we to fight militarism only to embrace it?" she demands. She knows that her only nephew, a boy who liked music and poetry, died long ago behind his blazing deck gun on the route to Murmansk, but she does not know that he still lives in her fear of com- pulsory military training. Finally, of course, mention must be made of Dr. J. Jornsprudel Doakes, distinguished president of the great University of Oskaloosa. "I look upon this plan to give free college tuition and a monetary allowance to returned servicemen in schools of various kinds," he says sorrowfully, "as being cal- culated to strike a blow at the very foundations of general culture. Money debases a veteran just as practical training debases a university." This may be the saddest case of all and the one least susceptible to analysis, but let us assume charitably that it too derives from particular sources far beneath the level of its pompous generalizations. With respect to general pessimism arising from very particular and often unrecognized fears, we are all Doakeses in wartime. Each of us has his specific reasons for being subdued in spirit not only in the latter part of a war but also at its beginning and throughout its course. We have heard taps and the three volleys sound over the graves of too many men, we have seen too many other men buried without more ceremony than a prayer in the roar of battle, we remember too well a particular soldier who stumbled and fell face forward when a Nambu machine gun suddenly clattered in the fog. IU4 American Associaiion of School Auminisirators In proper Doakes fashion, moreover, we seek to dress our naked fears in decent garments of generalization, and naturally we use the clothes to which we are most accustomed. We pick up commonplaces of judgment as well as of language. If pressed for quick responses we can always slip into a rehearsed routine. We can be irritated with Mr. Ickes, curse John L. Lewis, or mutter that progressive education is both spineless and brainless. I am nevertheless persuaded that in the hearts of our people, beneath the grim depression of spirit induced by a bitter war, there abides a fundamental optimism. The captains and the kings may think otherwise, the statesmen and the savants may envision elements of a dark future, but the people themselves are generally unafraid of what tomorrow and the day after to- morrow may bring. Perhaps this is because the people are not so learned in military, political, and economic lore as are the statesmen and the savants. Perhaps it is even because the people have more guts than do the captains and the kings. The details in the background of this American optimism are clear. From every frontier ancestor who packed a plowshare into the hunting grounds of a hostile tribe, from every grandfather who slugged out a national blood feud at Gettysburg and Shiloh, from every father who helped build a rail- road, from every uncle who homesteaded a claim, from every Paul Bunyan and John Henry and Pecos Bill, from all the diggers of gold and branders of cattle, from the triumphant violins and sonorous guitars of every cabin dance from North Carolina to Oregon, and from a million other full- blooded and hardy elements, our Americans derive their optimism. They expect to fight their fights and always win. The\' expect to tackle new and hard jobs and always succeed. They expect to pla\' their banjos and sing their songs and always laugh at the end of each chorus. Are not these people foolish and misguided ? Is it not possible that the\' may lose their next big fight? Is it not possible that they may fail on their next big job ? Is it not possible that their next big song may end in tears? These things must be possible. History tells us that they must be possible, but I find it hard to believe so. and you will find it hard to believe so, for we too are Americans, and as such we share the American vice or virtue of optimism. We are Americans by birth in this country, by bearing arms in her quarrels, by working in her fields and factories, by singing her songs and playing for her dances, and by teaching her children the ways of peace. History tells us that lasting defeat, overwhelming disaster, and utter failure are possible for any country, but our country herself has given us a different teaching. She taught us long ago and beyond all forgetting that, no matter how heartbreaking the strains of taps, for a people like our people I e\eille will always sound again in the morning. We American schoolmen and women have standards to which we will alwaj^s repair, around which we will always reform our battalions, and for which we will always fight. We say that human behavior in all its manifestations, in all its aberra- tions and in all its steadfastnesses, in all its moments of littleness and in all its moments of grandeur, is not the product of chance. Addresses Prepared for the Canceled CoxNferences 1U5 We sav that human behavior is the product of learning, of education workin;^ with the elements of human nature, flexible, varied, and susceptible to infinite change. We maintain that this is the basic problem of all systems of culture, the national and international problem beside which all others are lesser in sweep and effect, the problem of what kind of people are wanted in a par- ticular society, and the problem of how they are going to be conditioned, led, informed, and inspired to be that kind of people. We hold that the educational system our people deserve and want is a system founded squarely upon the principle that the welfare of one and all is the concern of one and all. We belie\e that the procedures of such a system derive directly from the principle that every individual personality, old or young, great or insignifi- cant, rich or poor, is an end in itself and must be accorded all the rights and privileges consistent with the rights and privileges of others. We claim that the worth of such a system must be measured in terms of its contribution to the general welfare and in no other terms whatever. Are the American people going to continue their progress toward the complete development of such a system of education? I believe that the\' are going to continue that progress. 1 believe that the pace of educational development in this country will be accelerated in the near future. Here are some of the reasons for my optimism in this regard. The character of our civilian population at the end of this war will be markedly different from its character at present and from its character be- fore this war. That difference will fa\or the rapid extension and improve- ment of our educational services. The first cause of that difference will be the addition of some fourteen millions of new members to our civilian population within two or three years after the close of this war. These new civilians will cause some changes in the general thought patterns of the people of this country. Let me state parenthetically at this point that I am not one of those stu- dents of "\eteran" psychology whose views and predictions are todav so widely current. Indeed I am not a student of "veteran" psychology at all, 1 do not even believe that there is such a thing as "veteran" psychology. It is ni>' opinion that the 14,000,000 Americans now in uniform are very much like the Americans who are not in uniform. Some of them are wise and some of them are foolish, but most of them are neither very wnse nor very foolish. Most of them are ordinary Americans with ordinary outlooks on life. Undoubtedly their outlooks on life have been changed by war. How could it be otherwise? They have traveled and fought over all the continents. They have taken their ships over all the oceans. They have girdled the world with their air routes. They have stormed Pacific and Mediterranean and Atlantic beaches with bomb, shell, grenade, rifle bullet, and at the last their swinging bayonets and fists. They have jumped from gliders into seething cauldrons of enemy fire. Of course their outlooks have changed. The outlooks of all Americans have been changed by this A\ar. however, and I do not believe that the outlooks of the members of the armed forces 106 Amkrican Association of School Administrators have been chang:e(l so much as to make them a class apart. Most of them will come back to their communities and be very much the same kinds of citizens as they would have been had they never gone away. We must recog- nize, nevertheless, that some differences between the 14,000,000 in uniform and the 120,000,000 or so who are not in uniform are probably inevitable and obvious. In the first place, of course, one difference arises from the fact that the average age of the Americans in uniform is not very great. The great bulk of them are in their twenties. When they return to civilian life, therefore, they will not be children or even youths coming into the civilian population, but they will make our civilian communities younger. It must be remembered, however, that these people, although young in years, will be adults. They will be adults who in some respects will be more mature than their elders. The school administrators of the United States must face that fact squarely. If we think we are going to give these young adults who desire further education anything other than instruction fitted for adults both in form and in content, we are riding for a fall. The city and state school systems, the university and college administrations, that are now preparing the ground for new and vital programs of adult education are the ones most likely to avoid this fall. In the second place, it is obvious to any schoolman who has had the honor to serve in the field with the young men in our present armed forces, as well as with their fathers in the various smaller campaigns of 1916 to 1919, that the soldiers, sailors, and marines of the present United States forces are the best-trained, best-spirited, and best-educated men who have ever fought under our national colors. Their schooling before they entered the services was not only more extended than that received by their fathers but it was also of incomparably better quality. After these young men of the present war entered the armed forces, furthermore, their military training, their technical instruction, and the additional general education given to them by the services were far more complex and difficult, much more extensive, and generally better organized and presented than in previous wars. For this achievement, in my lowly and entirely unofficial opinion, too much credit cannot be given to the vision and imagination of the military and naval high commanders who planned and authorized these programs of education and training. Great credit must also be given to the officers charged with special duties of education and training for the faithful, pains- taking, and often brilliant manner of their performance. I was not one of those officers, and so I feel free to say, impersonally but very heartily, that they have done and are doing a magnificent job. A large share of credit for this job, however, must also be granted to a quarter which is sometimes overlooked in this connection, the American public-school system. The training and educational achievements of the Army and Navy in this war have been based squarely upon the previous achievements of the American elementary school, high school, and college. This would appear to be self-evident, and yet 1 have heard statements seem- ing to subscribe to the notion that the educational achievements of the serv- Addresses Prepared for the Canceled Conferences 107 ices were a discredit to the school systems of the country. This involves a manner of reasoning with which I am powerless to cope. As an old soldier and an old schoolmaster I can only say that the real reason why such prod- igies of effective training were not forthcoming in 1917 as in 1942 was mainly because the trainees in 1917 came into the services with less and ■poorer schooling than in 1942. In the past four years we have witnessed a dramatic and searching test of the quality of our public education systems, a test which most citizens of the United States and many officers of the armed forces have not even realized was going on. In spite of the success of that test, looking in the face of the most courageous and efficient army and navy this country has ever had, there have still been some good people both in and out of uniform who have moaned that we should return to principles and procedures of educatioit which helped produce inferior armed forces for us in the past. There are even some left in the United States who, at the very moment when the German state, the German TV ehrmacht j the whole structure of German Kultur are falling about those German ears that are still left above ground, would still like to see us adopt the solid-subjects, no-frills, heel-clicking, obedience-instilling type of schooling which played so large a part in putting the German people exactly where they are today. This, then, is the prospect. About 14,000,000 people will return to civil life in this country within the next few years. The educational level of our civilian population will be noticeably raised. Its age will be lowered and its maturity in certain respects increased. The temper of its life will he sharpened. Its sophistication will be heightened. The resultant pressure on education systems will be very great. It will be a more intelligent pressure than that to which education systems of this country have heretofore been subject. It may indeed be so heavy and so shrewd that education systems or some of their parts may bend or even break under the strain. If so, let them collapse and be replaced by newer and hardier instruments for the welfare of our people. We pledge no devotion to systems. We are sworn to give allegiance to our people rather than to our systems. It seems to me that this pressure, the direction in which our education systems will go as a result of it, may be suggested by a few questions. Will the man who, under the command of a general named Eisenhower, has been fighting Germans be more or less likely to recognize that Nazi fanaticism is a product of learning rather than of heredity? Will this tend to make him more or less interested in the kind of schooling available for himself and his people? Will the man who won his Distinguished Service Cross fighting at the side of a Nisei comrade be more or less likely to believe that Japanese mili- tarism is not a necessary product of Japanese ancestry but rather something which has been taught to a people by an ignorant and brutal ruling class i* Will this tend to make him more or less concerned about the extent and quality of education in his home communitv? 108 American Association of School Administrators Will the man who has shared with fox-hole buddies from every corner of this Union the last scrap of his field ration, the last clip of cartridges, and the last word from home be more or less provincial in his attitude toward his fellow Americans? Will this tend to make him feel more or less responsible for the education given to American communities outside his own? An optimistic answer to those questions must be compounded from faith as well as from knowing, but the greatest moments in our people's history have been moments of greatest faith. I believe that the present is one of those great historical moments for the United States and for all the world. Let us match it with a new and daring greatness in our education systems, a greatness which our people will have faith to support. Part II Special Studies Prepared for the Canceled Conferences TRAINING NEW YORK CITY TEACHERS AND SUPERVISORS IN SERVICE THE COMMITTEE Association of Assistant Superintendents of the City of New York Arthur Bowie, President, Association of Assistant Superintendents of the City of New York I. Victor Burger, Assistant Superintendent, Districts 53-54 Rufus M. Hartill, Assistant Superintendent, Districts 10-11 Minnie Obermeier, Assistant Superintendent, Districts 18-19-20 Antoinette Riordon, Assistant Superintendent, Districts 29-30-31 Mary A. Kennedy, Assistant Superintendent, Junior High-School Division David H. Moskowitz, Assistant Superintendent, High-School Division Morris E. Siegel, Assistant Superintendent, Vocational High-School Divi- sion Ethel F. Huggard, Chairman, Assistant Superintendent, Division of Elemen- tary Schools John J. Loftus, Editor, Assistant Superintendent, Division of Elementary Schools FOREWORD This study, "Training Teachers and Supervisors in Service," was pre- pared by the Association of Assistant Superintendents of the City of New York. It describes some of the steps which have been taken to meet the problem of retraining teachers and supervisors in the largest school system of the country. Because of its size and diversity, the New York public-school system is representative of conditions in many types of communities. A review of the problem of in-service training in New York and of the resources available in dealing with it should prove helpful as a check list to school people elsewhere. Many of these resources have been used successfully in other systems. Not every school in New York has made full use of them. They are all useful in an over-all program. Our teachers and supervisors need retraining. The New York educa- tional program is in process of transition. Changing concepts and practices in public education find many teachers unready to interpret them without considerable in-service training and guidance. Changing conditions, induced largely by a global war, have required considerable reorganization and readjustment of our teaching and supervisory staffs. Absence on military [109] 110 American Association of School Administrators leaves of many of our teachers trained in special fields has necessitated special training of other teachers to replace them and a change of super- visor}' emphasis. Increasing numbers of resignations, retirements, and leaves of absence, together with a decreasing enrolment at all levels in the school system over the past decade, have created new assignments and new tasks for man)" teachers and supervisors, all requiring reorientation and in-service training. It is our practice in New York to share our experiences. I trust that our efiforts to meet our teacher-training problems as reported in this pam- phlet will prove helpful not only to workers in our own school system, but to educators throughout the country. John E. Wade, Superintendent of Schools NEW YORK schools FACE A PROBLEM Times are changing. War, inventions, and social progress effect major changes in home and community life. Educational concepts and practices are changing also. Schools face new problems and new challenges. Teachers are asked to reexamine and reorganize their philosophy and practice in the light of these challenges and concepts. Teachers have new jobs to do — jobs that require special training. Old courses of study have outlived their usefulness. The formal recita- tion makes way for more vitalized learning. Regimentation yields to pupil planning, a democratic atmosphere, and instruction adapted to each indi- vidual. Examinations and tests serve new purposes. Promotion tends to be on the basis of chronological age rather than on standardized achievements, on annual rather than semiannual basis. Selection of students for higher schools through elimination of the less qualified is superseded by the concept of schools for "all the children" — schools suited to their age, maturity, and interests. The curriculum is more inclusive than all the isolated courses of study together. The type of occupations for which students must be prepared is dif- ferent. Changing conditions in industry and society raise new problems for teachers concerning objectives, curriculum, subjectmatter, materials, and methodology. At the secondary-school level a general diploma is now attainable by pupils whose aim is general education rather than prepara- tion for college. War needs and manpower shortages have necessitated accelerations, additions, and modifications in students' programs. As a byproduct of preinduction needs, there has arisen increased demand for teachers in certain fields with corresponding decrease in others. To meet this demand, teachers licensed in certain subjects had to be trained hastily in other fields to fill gaps in teaching staffs. Refresher courses or short-unit courses have made it possible to award to teachers certificates of com- petency in subjects for which they have aptitudes and some special training. A Tore than half the teachers in New York schools have been twenty-five years oi more in srrxicr. Their original preser\icc training is in the main Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 1 1 1 inadequate for present needs. They require an extensive and continuous program of in-service training to meet present responsibilities, TRENDS IN PUBLIC EDUCATION IN NEW YORK Current trends and problems in Nev\^ York are clearly indicated in offi- cial bulletins distributed to all our teachers. Several quotations from these Bulletins are presented here to show the type of current responsibilities of teachers and supervisors for which in-service training must be provided. Schools for All vs. Selective Schools — Time was when even our elemen- tary schools were selective. Less than thirty years ago the law permitted children to leave schools to go to work when they were in the fifth grade. The elementary schools were also made selective by promotion policies which in effect denied to many the completion of an elementary education and consequently of secondary education. Today, on the other hand the compulsory school age has reached seventeen. ... In the decade 1926-36, the rate of nonpromotion was cut in half; the average promotion rate now is well over 95 percent. Out of this mass movement through the grades arises the need for readjusting the curriculum to the more slowly maturing pupils who are being sent to higher grades. The ideal toward which teachers are asked to strive today is a system where, in the main, promotion is "on the basis of chronological age" ; a sj'^stem characterized by an articulation of all its parts so effective that children move through the system on a continuous uninterrupted basis and are not confused or educationally handicapped because some parts of the school system may be operating on different philosophies or at different stages of a program of curriculum reorganization. Continuing education for adults is essential to make up for opportunities lost in early j'ears and to provide means whereby the individual may adjust himself to new civic, social, economic, and individual opportunities and responsibilities. An integral part of adult education should be a program of parent education which will assist parents in dealing with home and school problems. The Community School vs. the Cloistered School — Schools of today are becoming inore broadly social in their interrelationship with the communi- ties they serve. Barriers of every sort which tend to make the school a cloistered institution are being gradually removed. Teachers, realizing that "curriculum expectations must vary from community to community," know their communities better and are active in formulating plans for dealing in a constructive fashion with basic limiting factors in the environment which retard wholesome growth and development such as ill health, delinquency and crime, poor recreation, inadequate housing. Teachers go still farther. They endeavor to make provision for pupils increasingly to share in the planning and administrative activities of the community by participating in the more serious and important functions of community life. rhr community ■school has a cnrricnlnni which is const.inth r\olving. ll 12 American Association of School Administrators represents the best thinking and planning of the community — teachers, supervisors, pupils, parents, specialists. [It is] constantly undergoing revaluation in the daily woric and life of the classroom. Schools must more and more utilize the resources of their communities. More and more the school must identify itself with its community and guide pupils to live efficiently and helpfully in the community. Coordination of all organized agencies that may be used directly to influence the educational program either within the school or without and the conscious planning for representation of all important interests in such organized agencies. Guidance of Behavior vs. Teaching of Subjectmatter — In community schools for all the children and all the people, less emphasis is placed on the acquisition of subjectmatter, and more on the guidance of behavior. Proper understanding and guidance of behavior is the greatest single challenge that confronts the teacher. It is expected today that teachers will arouse feelings of "belonging," of "security," and of "successful achievement," and will win the confidence, respect, and friendship of students. The obligation to diagnose and treat behavior problems is with certain chil- dren even more important than that of securing fundamental school skills. Discipline should not be thought of as a matter of oifenses and penalties. The good teacher does not become annoj'ed at children's indiscretions. Like the phy- sician she regards conduct as a symptom to be diagnosed and treated. She is a counselor, not a judge or a taskmaster. The test of a teacher's worth is how much better a child is for having been associated with her for a school term. If the teacher's objective is to train children to live congenially and effici- ently with other people they must have opportunities to do in school the kind of things they do normally outside. There must be freedom to use initiative, to discuss, to hold and express one's own point of view. There must be opportunities for settling conflicts and for adjusting oneself to difficult personalities. Discipline involves a certain amount of self-analysis and gradual acceptance of standards of good conduct. This may require some direct moral instruction and training in etiquette and social relations selected chiefly on the observed moral weaknesses and needs of pupils. It can be aided by informal dramatizations in which children improvise and act proper ways to meet problem situations. Chil- dren may demonstrate how to make a gracious apology, how to carry out a command, how to meet a specific emergency, how to conduct oneself in familiar situations in class, on the street, on the cars, in the theater, in the home. They can gain intense vicarious experiences through participation in good plays and through reading or hearing uplifting stories or poems. Integration vs. Isolated Courses of Study — At one time in the city of New York, for the elementary schools alone — to say nothing of the junior, senior, and vocational high schools — there were twenty-five separate courses of study. For the teaching of these courses, oflRcial time allotments were observed. Today a determined attempt is being made to reduce the number of courses and to efifect an integration of subjects into large units of work and to give the teacher a large measure of freedom in selecting subject- matter and in scheduling activities. Integration, unification, large units of work — these today are key words. Where once the teacher used term plans and plans prepared far in advance, today "^hc realizes the necessity for Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 113 planning cooperatively with children on the basis of observed needs and interests. With the teacher's guidance children plan projects, units of work, activities, and the daily schedule. Large units are developed by children and the teacher which cut across all sub- jectmatter lines. In accepting the educational challenges of the war, teachers must realize the need for more vital, more dynamic, and more realistic instructional materials than have been found in textbooks alone. Many teachers find the large unit of work effective in realizing objectives, in breaking down unnatural subject barriers, in providing for the individual needs and interests of pupils, and in avoiding waste of time and energy. It facilitates the selection of subjectmatter and can lead to clearer thinking and good discussion by pupils, and to a greater awareness of current happenings. Living and Learning Together vs. Reciting Lessons — How shall the aims set forth above be achieved? Not by characteristically authoritarian controls, but by the creation of a democratic atmosphere. Democracy is not a matter of lessons or pageantry. It is a way of living. The classroom should be a democracy in which pupils learn the democratic way of life through daily experiences as well as through instruction. In a democracy the worth and dignity of each individual is recognized; per- sonality is respected; human intelligence is encouraged; rights and obligations are recognized; and critical thinking and creative intelligence are developed. Each child has personal and group responsibilities which he meets by himself without having to wait for commands or having to ask for permission. The job needs to be done and he is the one to do it. The daily tasks may be printed on a bulletin board, and a child's name posted after each. Monitors shouldn't need to receive orders. Children are free at proper times to talk things over and plan and discuss among themselves. For some part of the day at least their business should be with other children rather than solely with the teacher. Children are free to share more and more in making necessary rules and regulations for their groups or their class and in higher grades for the whole school. Pupils do not assume sole responsibility. Children have a share and a responsibility in selecting chairmen, monitors, and other leaders, and are responsible for holding these leaders to faithful and efficient performance of duties. Children get opportunities to do the kind of work they can do best and to enjoy the kind of experience they like best so long as they don't interfere with others. The work they have to do for the groups should challenge their best efforts and abilities. Their interests, hobbies, and other enjoyments should be so encouraged and guided as to cultivate their tastes and develop their creative aptitudes. Situa- tions in which everybody in the class is doing the same thing at the same time should be more and more infrequent. In order to realize the implications of these newer trends and to embody them into regular teaching practice, teachers and supervisors have felt and expressed their need for reorientation and guidance. The practices and devices enumerated in the next section have been effective in individual schools, in supervisory districts, and in the system as a whole. The examples given represent a selection from many submitted by every division and every department of the New York public-school system as typical of their regular policy' and practice of in-service training of teachers and supervisors. Il4 American Association of School Administrators NEW -^"ORK TRIES TO MEET ITS PROBLEM Bulletins Are (jurr'uuluni Guides What the hlueprint and the specifications are to the builder, official bulletins and curriculum guides are to the teacher. With the help of these bulletins, teachers are able to work together for the realization of com- mon objectives. The following bulletins, developed during recent years, have been distributed throughout the system : Curriculum Bulletin No. ], 1942-43, C/mru/in// Conrr/'ts an,l Prrir/irrs in Elementary EJuration. 32 p. This first bulletin to be developed through the Curriculum Council sets forth in simple language the basic philosophy of elementary education evolved from six years of major experimentation by the Division of Elementarv Schools. About five hundred teachers participated in the development of this Inilletin. It is addressed to classroom teachers and supervisors. Curriculum Bulletin No. 2, 1942-43, Guuiinti Prinr/plrs in Ciirriruliim Devel- opment. 32 p. This over-all curriculum bulletin sets up twelve guiding principles of cur- riculum development agreed upon by representatives of all the divisions of the Department of Education. These guiding principles serve as a blueprint with which curriculum projects on all school levels must be consistent and as a measuring rod in the evaluation of any curriculum enterprise. The bulletin was reviewed in manuscript form by a hundred representative professional, business, civic, and parent leaders before final adoption. Curriculum Bulletin No. 3, 1942-43, The War and the Curriculum. 64 p. This bulletin, developed during a summer workshop of 1942 by a group of 150 teachers and a few supervisors, shows how the curriculum can be adapted to changing conditions. It is unique in the subtitle, "Recommendations by Teachers to Teachers." Curriculum Bulletin No. 4, 1942-43, Modern History. 76 p. This bulletin was developed by a standing committee of high-school teachers and supervisors and reviewed by educational specialists in the field and professional groups of teachers before its adoption. Curriculum Bulletin No. 5, 1942-43, Curriculum Development in the Social Studies— Kgn.-9B. 150 p. This bulletin is described as a progress report representing the recommenda- tions of teachers and supervisors in every elementary and junior high school in the city organized by school, district, and central committee as to a desirable social program with suggested topics for the Kgn.-3B, the 4A-6B, the 7A-9B groups, with recommended units, activities, source materials, and selected reference. The recommendations were worked over for bulletin purposes by a summer workshop group in 1942. The present tendency is to organize the social studies and other large subject areas on four levels: Kgn.-2, 3 and 4, 5 and 6, 7-9. Curriculum Bulletin No. 6, 1942-43, The Child's Day in School. 48 p. (Illust.) This bulletin was developed by the Elementary School Curriculum Planning Committee with a view to providing for optimutn freedom in planning and time schedules on the part of elementary school teachers to meet the varied needs of pupils, schools, and communities. Hundreds of flexible daily programs were collected from many teachers, and samples on each grade level are pre- sented together with guiding principles of progr.nmming and helpful rommrnts. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 115 Curriculum Bulletin No. 7, 1942-43, Heallh Educatioti — Physical Activities, Grades 4A-6B. 136 p. This is a "guide for planning and teaching physical activities" with helpful instructions, diagrams, music, and suitable bibliography. Curriculum Bulletin No. 8, 1942-43, Activities and Procedures in Homcmaking. 204 p. This bulletin is an adaptation of curriculum materials to meet present economic conditions. It contains many basic recipes and descriptions of desir- able home and school activities with a classified bibliography. Curriculum Bulletin No. 9, 1942-43, Consumer Problems in IVartime America. 32 p. This bulletin helps counselors and teachers "to organize classroom activities at proper maturity levels." It deals helpfully with problems of rationing, con- servation, nutrition, raising money to pay for war, and keeping the cost of living under control. It is designed to help teachers at all levels in elementary schools, junior high schools, and the academic and vocational high schools. It has an annotated bibliography. Curriculum Bulletin No. 11, 1942-43, Industrial Arts for Grades 7, S, and 9. 36 p. This bulletin contains courses of study and syllabuses for the wood- working shop, the electric shop, the metal shop, the graphic arts shop, and the general crafts shop. It contains valuable suggestions and projects and annotated references. Curriculum Bulletin No. 13, 1942-43, Museums, Libraries, Parks, Zoos, and Gardens as Educational Resources. 64 p. This is a well-indexed directory of agencies in New York together with essential information as to the personnel and services available to schools. Several other official bulletins are now in preparation. Two bulletins which are in the later stages of preparation present the curriculum designs for the elementary school and the junior high school. The titles are indica- tive of the democratic and developmental pattern of curriculum planning in New York. The proposed titles are Working Together for Ciirrictdiim Improvement for the Elementary School and Working Together for Cur- riculum Improvement for the Junior High School. A series of ten curriculum bulletins dealing with the official experiment with slow learners and rapid learners, at Public School 500 (Speyer School), were distributed during 1937-1940. For Rapid f, earners: Bulletin No. 1, Aviation — 1937 " No. 3, Communication — 1938 " No. 5, Transportation — 1938 " No. 7, Illumination — 1939 " No. 9, Shelter— 1939 For Slonv Learners: Bulletin No. 2, fVe Visit the Orient — 1938 " No. 4, Public Services and Public Utilities — 1938 " No. 6, Our City— 1919 " No. 8. Bio(jraphy—\939 " No. 10, A Year of Nature Study in Our C;/r— 1940 116 American Association of School Administrators In addition to these are the educational research bulletins of the Bureau of Reference, Research, and Statistics based on recent research and experi- mentation in local schools setting up very specific instruction and specialized technics in reading in the elementary-school program. The official bulletin of in-service courses for teachers offered by the Board of Superintendents is issued every year in September and February. It presents a long classified and indexed list o^ ii-service courses and other courses offered by the local teacher-training institutions, all of which have the approval of the Board of Superintendents and the State Department of Education. The Board of Examiners accept several of these courses in connection with certain teaching and supervisory licenses. Cor/iniittees Pool the Best Thinking of the Staff Committees are the agencies through which New York strives to get the maximum participation of the teaching and supervisory staff in the development of the curriculum and in the teacher-training program. They are among the most effective means of capitalizing the best thinking and experience of the most representative people on the professional staff. They provide machinery by which every teacher and every supervisor has opportunities to make significant contributions to an evolving curriculum. Every elementary school and every district has a standing curriculum committee. The Junior High-School Division has a central curriculum committee with subcommittees in every district. There are standing com- mittees in every subject in the academic and vocational high schools. Profes- sional organizations have special committees interested in various cur- riculum areas. Every division has a standing curriculum planning com- mittee. Every director of special subjects has steering committees and special committees. There is no curriculum area for which there is not an over-all curriculum committee with several subcommittees. All major curriculum committees are under the guidance of the Cur- riculum Council, which is virtually a subcommittee of the Board of Super- intendents. Every curriculum proposal affecting any division must be ini- tially approved and finally reviewed by the Curriculum Council before it can be submitted to the Board of Superintendents. To insure consistency and articulation, major curriculum committees include liaison members from other coordinate committees or from the different divisions of the school system, and advisory members who are usually chairmen or dele- gates of cooperating subcommittees. In this way, no curriculum committee or teacher-training committee works in isolation. Everybody works to- gether for the common advantage. Some committees include professional experts and lay members. There are many other kinds of committees working on special projects on a local or citywide basis. Among the latter are committees on the annual promotion, program, new permanent record cards, report cards, roll books, and teachers' manuals for rating and recording adapted to new curriculum patterns, classes for intellectually gifted children, opportunity classes for behavior problem children, and others. There are district com- Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 117 mittees studying community relations, intercultural relations, consumer education, guidance, health education, interschool visitation, reading readi- ness, district testing programs, auditory and visual aids, teacher-parent relations, work-study skills, and other community and professional prob- lems. In each school there are committees to study any local problem affecting the school policy. An interesting type of committee in some schools is the local health council which includes teachers and the health counselor, the school nurse, the custodian, the head of the school lunch service, and some parent leaders. Three examples of committee operation are cited as illustrations: Curriculum Committees In Elementary Schools — In every elementary school there is a standing school curriculum committee. Most standing school curriculum com- mittees, under the supervision of the principal, interpret curriculum bulletins to the teachers, suggest suitable experiences, procedures, and reasonable local out- comes, and assist teachers in meeting difficulties. Many of these committees have subcommittees for each of the growth levels and sometimes for each of the sub- ject areas on which the program of elementary education is now being organized. Every district has a standing district curriculum committee under the super- vision of the assistant superintendent, on which there is usually at least one repre- sentative from each school in the area. In some districts these committees prepare more detailed statements of desirable concepts, attitudes, skills, experiences, and outcomes in terms of local needs and resources. They also (a) advise and assist individual schools on request of school representatives, (b) set up local demon- strations and exhibits, (c) conduct curriculum studies, and (d) make suggestions to the elementary-school curriculum planning committee, thus sharing both in the production and the implementation of curriculum bulletins. Curriculum Committees In Junior High Schools — The Junior High School Divi- sion has, in addition to a central planning committee, special committees in a. Development of a social studies course of study and syllabus b. Study of subjectmatter areas and schedules c. Guidance and exploration d. A program of social living — democratic and social procedures e. School-community relationships. In each district there is a local committee for each of these areas. Standing Committees In High School — In each of the fields of study, the teachers and heads of departments are organized into professional associations. Each professional association, by popular election, designates both classroom teachers and supervisors as representatives to a committee known as the standing com- mittee. The members hold office for a limited term, the principle of rotation being in effect. Each committee elects its own officers. The standing committee is the liaison between the High School Division and the professional subject association. It organizes and supervises im-service training courses for teachers. It advises the division on matters such as textbooks, supplementary teaching materials, build- ing equipment, revision of courses of study, projects and experimentation, ex- aminations and evaluation, and general administrative policies. It supervises in- quiries initiated either by the teachers or by the Division, and assures the demo- cratic participation of the teaching staff on all professional matters. Committees serve as a valuable means of teacher training and pooling significant experiences. They serve also to develop initiative, leadership, and morale. 118 American Association of School Administrators ff'orksliops ProTide Firsfhanrl Experiences and Develop Nejv Technics This form of cooperative enterprise has been and is beinji; used in the city as a means of gettinfi; teachers and supervisors to reconsider school practices so as to bring; them in harmony with modern educational theory. As the plan has been devised, the workshop usually involves a breakdown of the staff into small groups with common problems. Under the guidance of trained or experienced chairmen, each workshop group decides upon what can be done for more effective work in the area of the problem. Usually the group organizes the problem into phases requiring further study, subdivides these, assigns them to individuals of the group for re- search, plans for the use of competent consultants, arranges for frequent free discussions on the problem, and concludes by coming to some agree- ments and making recommendations for further action by whatever groups the workshop represents, subject to approval by the responsible super- visors in charge of these groups. This technic has been used in citywide plans and also in special fields. Illustrations of the extensive use of the workshop are found in various sections of the city. In one district all the teachers within the area, super- vised by an assistant superintendent, joined in a project to become acquainted with their colleagues who were teaching at their own year levels and to study common problems which developed as the present program of ele- mentary education was being gradually extended. A close study of the plan in this district shows the organization of some six hundred teachers and supervisors of elementary grades into five neighborhood areas. The teachers in each of the five areas were further grouped on eight levels — kindergarten, first year, second year, third year, fourth >ear, fifth year, sixth year, and supervisory groups, thus making forty workshop groups in all. They directed their thinking and discussions to discovering and sharing helpful procedures appropriate to each year level. The intent of these workshops was not to prepare an exhaustive study of the current program of elementary education but rather to focus attention on worthwhile aspects of good teaching and supervisory practices which in the opinion of the groups could be used successfully by the teachers and supervisors whom they represented. The plan involved collecting the problems which the teachers wanted studied, selecting group leaders, training discussion leaders and participants, discovering those successful in the fields discussed, arranging to bring their contributions into the workshop, organizing the topics discussed into some form for study, hearing the suggestions of invited specialists, taking notes on the points discussed, and reporting the findings and recommendations to a central editing committee at the close of the meetings. The conclusions reached and the recommendations made for the dis- tricts were compiled by a group of teachers and supervisors. Copies of their report were distributed to each member of the different groups so that the best thinking of the teachers and supervisors in the area was made known to all. Thus the report represented not so much where the teachers Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 119 and supervisors of the district wanted to go or where they should have gone in their thinking, but rather where the combined best thinking of the workshop group had helped them to reach at the close of the workshop periods. Out of their recommendations evolved the plan for the next term's teacher-retraining program. The plan as used thus gave an opportunity to many to share their ex- periences and their thinking. It is obvious that additional benefits accrued to those members of the workshop groups who assumed the added respon- sibilities of leading the discussions, doing research work for reports, pre- paring minutes of the meetings, developing summaries, and editing the final report. A Workshop for Superintendnits — Responsibility for supervisory leadership in elementary and junior high schools resides largely in the local assistant super- intendent. During a period of transition to a new program of elementary educa- tion, it is essential that his philosophy of education should be sound and consistent, his vision broad, his judgment practical and realistic, and his understanding of teachers' needs, concerns, and problems sympathetic and adequate. The success of a nev7 curriculum program is conditioned by his insight and leadership. For this reason, shortly after the official approval of the present program of elementary education by the Board of Superintendents in 1941, the Association of Assistant Superintendents took the initiative and organized a workshop in super- visory procedures. Curriculum Bulletin No. 2, 1942-43, Guiding Principles in Curriculum Development, was used as the basis for discussion. Every month for two years the group met as a seminar for critical consideration of one of the twelve guiding principles of curriculum development. The interval between ses- sions was regarded as a laboratory period in the field where plans were set up and evaluated in terms of the seminar discussions. Dr. E. George Payne, Dean of the School of Education, New York University, acted as host to the group and provided accommodations and facilities. Decisions reached by the superin- tendents during the workshop period have served as the basis for local supervisory programs in many of the districts. In another type of workshop, teachers practice under the leadership of experienced fellow teachers those skills and technics which they are responsible for imparting to pupils but in which they themselves lack proficiency. The Art Department has workshops in arts and crafts rotating in several districts. The Department of Health Education holds workshops in dance technics and athletic stunts. The Bureau for Children with Re- tarded Mental Development has thirty-two monthly workshops in the special technics required for its work, especially in the area of occupational education. Workshops in consumer education have prepared several source units in an area unfamiliar to many classroom teachers. The workshops of the Division of Blind and Sight Conservation Classes have prepared bibli- ographies of special remedial reading materials. In some districts ■work- shops for parents and teachers have been set up in an effort to develop ways of working effectively together in the interest of children. During the earlier days of the war, certain workshops concentrated on indoor activities to be carried on in air-raid shelters. Various t^'pes of workshops were conducted during the summer of 1942 when all teachers were required to remain on duty for two weeks. During their workshop session some teachers of the elementary schools developed 120 American Association ok School Administrators the official bulletin, The Jf'ar and the (jurriciiluni. The teachers of the upper elementary grades, junior high, and academic high-school classes nf the seventh, eighth, and ninth school years worked out an interpretation of the official o\er-all bulletin, Guiding Principles of Curriculum Develop- menl , in terms of the special needs of adolescents. The current oflficial bulletin, Curricuhnn Development in the Social Studies, Kgji.-QB, was also developed in a summer workshop from the assembled recommendations of teachers from every district in the city. Other important bulletins, manuals, and source units on all levels were produced in mimeographed form and later distributed. Other workshops have been established in New York l^niversity. Teach- ers College of Columbia University, Queens College, College of the City of New York, Fordham L^^niversity, and others. These provide the services of specialists of national reputation and many desirable social features not easily available elsewhere. All of these workshops have provided rich training for many New York teachers and supervisors. An interesting workshop was developed in the Borough of Richmond in connection with the Staten Island Council of Social Agencies organized as an in-service course whose purpose was to provide closer relationship between schools and twenty-four social agencies. It dealt with the programs of the social welfare and health agencies, public and private, with special emphasis on the work of these agencies with school-age children. There were visits to such agencies as the courts, children's agencies, hospital clinics, the Bureau of Child Guidance, and the family consultation agencies. Lectures were given ; case studies were discussed ; and training in filling in referral slips so as to secure the quickest and most effective response to requests for adjustments by school authorities was included. In another instance of in-service training by cooperative agencies, the chief social workers of the Community Social Service, the Jewish Social Service Association, the Catholic Charities, the ]\Iadison House, and the Henry Street Settlement combined to conduct a workshop for teachers and supervisors. In this workshop typical maladjusted children were studied for the purpose of indicating curative treatment. Demonstrations were given M'hich illu'^trated the cooperative efforts of the psychiatrist, the social worker, the psychologist, the educator, the nurse, the doctor, the parents, and others to effect suitable adjustment. Experiments Seek and Find Better IVays In a school s\stem as large as that of New York City it is imperative that new ideas or procedures be tried out in selected schools under careful supervision and guidance before the Board of Education considers their adoption or rejection. There are consequently many experiments being tried in all types of schools. Thr Activity Proyratn a Major Curriculum Expcrimrnt — The largest and most far-reaching experiment in curriculum development in the city was inaugurated bv the Division of Elementary Schools in 193 5. The newly formed division in an effort to "capitalize the best thinking of the teaching and sujiervisory staffs in our SpiiciAi. S'lLuifcs Pri.hared i-or Canceled Conferences 121 schools"' invited the three professional associations of principals of elementary schools at that time to propose a program of modern elementary education suit- able for the cosmopolitan and fluid school population of the city. The New York Principals' Association recommended that, instead of imposing the proposed program arbitrarily on all elementary schools, the Division of Elementary Schools set up a major curriculum experiment based on the activity program "in not less than one school in each assistant superintendent's territory" as an adequate sampling of New York schools. Among the schools which volunteered to participate as experimental schools, seventy were selected representing nearly every known type of community and of school building and organization. The experiment was to be a "developmental" experiment to last six years and all teachers and principals of elementary schools in the city were asked to keep actively informed about the nature and progress of the experiment during that period. An advisory committee of experts in the field of elementary education and statistical procedures met monthly to guide the experiment and to devise a continuing program of sound evaluation. The program of evaluation included some testing and observation in all of the seventy schools and an intensive program in nine selected experimental schools of different types together with nine comparable control schools as similar as possible in community background, intelligence, teaching staff, and facilities. With some help from a staff of demonstrators and trained observers furnished by the United States Works Projects Administration, it was possible to conduct a widespread testing program supplemented by continuous coded anecdotal record- ing of significant behavior within the class and at times outside the school. More than a million individual tests were administered. Several new types of test were developed. Progress was recorded in terms of average current achievement and also on average growths over a three-year period. Near the close of the six-year period on the invitation of the Superintendent of schools and with the approval of the Board of Education of the City of New York and the State Board of Regents, a comprehensive survey of the activity program was conducted by the State Department of Education. The recommenda- tions of this survey form the basis for the present citywide program of elementary education. 1'he Bureau of Reference, Research, and Statistics is conducting several experiments in the schools. One is in the field of reading and is under the supervision of a research assistant. Local clinics are established and as a typical outcome of the experimentation seven reading bulletins have been issued to the teachers in the last three years. Another experiment of the Bureau is an attempt to determine the best school organization for bright and slow pupils. This is being conducted in three schools in Brooklyn, two with homogeneous and one with heterogeneous grouping. In one elementary and two junior high schools in Harlem the Board of Education is working in cooperation with the New York Foundation on the study of school and after-school programs best suited to the boys and girls of that area. In two schools in Manhattan the Public Education Association is assisting in the study of the "all-day neighborhood school." The Summer Play School Association conducts summer play schools in various school buildings throughout the city. The South Bronx Citizens Committee is working in cooperation with the Board of Education on a program of in-school and after-school recreational and avocational activities in three schools in the Bronx. The Bank Street School, a private institution, is working on a teacher-training project in cooperation with a public school 122 A.MHRiCAN Association of School Aumimstrators in Manhattan. The teacliers of the Hank Street School are conductinji; an in-service course in the school and are following: each session with ohservation in the classrooms and conferences with individual teachers. Current experimentations with a core curriculum are beinj; conducted over a period of years by the Bronx Hi^h School of Science and by the Midwood Hi^h School, the former experimenting with a science core and the latter with a social studies core. In the case of the Midwood Hijih School, the parents of students involved were invited to a conference in advance of the experiment and permitted to elect the new inteijrated pro- gram or the more familiar high-school curriculum for their children in accordance with their preference. In all of the experiments of the Board of Education provision is made for continuing observation and study by large groups of teachers and super- visors as one means of developing teacher readiness to adopt practices demonstrated to be effective. Usually an experiment is followed by many exhibits and demonstrations or by a series of curriculum bulletins or by both. Other experimentation is constantly going on in connection with post- graduate courses in teacher-training institutions. The New \ ork Society for the Experimental Study of Education, which includes large numbers of teachers and supervisors, organizes most of its monthlv meetings around current experimentation in the public schools. Institutes J re Seriii/iars The institute is not so familiar in New York as in some other commu- nities. It combines, however, some of the advantages of the conference, the demonstration, the exhibit, and the workshop. The institutes for new heads of schools, conducted in recent years b\' the Division of Elementary Schools, have been among the most valuable local institutes. Newly ap- pointed principals, assistants to principals and teachers in charge of inde- pendent schools are called together in a certain selected school to be oriented in their new duties through a day's program of observation and discussion. The program for the institute consists of several phases — presentation of the more important problems submitted by the "heads of schools" previ- ous to the conference ; description by the principal of the characteristics of the school being visited, of significant factors concerning the neighborhood, the school population, personnel, program, educational resources, and of special problems of the school ; observation of the classrooms and of school activities ; luncheon ; discussion during the afternoon session of the impli- cations of the problems presented, of the observations made in the school, and of the desirable "next step" to be taken by the Division of Elementary Schools and by the "heads of schools" attending the conference. Among the problems discussed at these all-day institutes are the in-service training of teachers for an elementary education program which focuses attention on personality development and social growth of children ; the supervisor's responsibility for the guidance of teachers: curriculum plan- ning as a phase of cooperation undertaken by the school personnel ; educa- tional giu'dance — its meaning, implications, scope, and technics; slow learn- Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 123 ers and juvenile delinquents; conferences with teachers; teaching of skills in an informal educational program ; group work and remedial instruction ; problems of school administration resulting from a shifting population and the admission of newcomers from other sections of the country; and inter- racial conflicts and tensions. This training of new "heads of schools" has been found to be of great value and has extended over a period of two years for these newly appointed supervisors. A similar institute has been held for experienced "heads of schools," at which time two experienced principals from each of the twenty- three assistant superintendents' areas have participated. Those who have attended these institutes report back to their colleagues at district confer- ences of principals held by assistant superintendents. Thus, all "heads of schools" are being kept informed by this pooling of experiences. Institute for Health Counselors — Another type of Institute has been tried by the acting director of health education. A health counselor has been assigned to each assistant superintendent to assist in coordinating the health program in every district through the school health counselors and other teachers in each school. The chief task of the district health counselor is to interpret the health education program to each school health counselor and to assist her in organizing and utilizing the school and community health resources. The institute consisted of two weeks of all-day lectures by specialists, discussions, and demonstrations in order to orient the new district health counselors in their new work. These ses- sions of the institute have been followed by a series of spaced conferences for the district health counselors and a series of four conferences of school health counselors held by the district health counselor in every district. Thus the direc- tor of health education, with the help of specialists within and Avithout the school system, trains the district health counselors in methods of guiding and assisting all classroom teachers and hopes eventually to bring guidance and assistance to every elementary and junior high-school teacher and principal. Recently some of the city's museums and the universities have set up cooperative institutes in which many New York teachers participate. At the Visual Aids Institute of the American Museum of Natural History, various types of motion pictures, slides, flat pictures, dioramas, and other modern realia available to schools were exhibited, discussed, and demon- strated in various groups under leaders in specialized fields. Visual and A uditory Aids Enlighten and Clarify Some use has been made of radio and motion pictures in the program of teacher training. In connection with the curriculum experiment with the activity program and subsequently since the general adoption of the program of elementary education, demonstrators have shown' and explained motion pictures of the activity program in hundreds of schools and before some professional organizations of teachers and parents. In various rooms at headquarters files of photographs and bulletined photograph displays are available to teachers. In high schools and junior high schools, motion pictures are made a regular part of instruction and occasionally the basis of conferences of teachers. In schools having public address systems the principal frequently uses the broadcast to the classrooms in order to share good devices and to 124 Amkrican Association of SciiooL Administrators insure certain desirable practices and to keep the teachers in touch with all the activities of the school. For two jears each of the divisions has con- ducted a series of radio broadcasts over station WNYC to inform and enlighten parents, teachers, and the general public concerning the objec- tives and practices of the schools. Various types of program have been used including dramatizations, discussions, panels, and direct explanations in which pupils, teachers, parents, and supervisors have participated. These programs have proved helpful to many teachers by giving them more intimate insight into the programs of their schools and their divisions. Use of Visual and Auditory Aids — The assistant director of visual instruction maintains a district film center in the districts of every assistant superintendent. The film and other visual aids in a school are usually under the supervision of a teacher who has had special training. This training is given in a series of con- ferences and demonstrations for representatives of elementary and junior high schools. The Bureau of Visual Instruction also organizes in-service training courses in the mechanics of visual instruction, and in the selection, use, and evaluation of instructional materials, and in the special methodology of visual instruction. Teachers with special aptitudes and experience explain teaching devices and coach individuals in the course who want to gain more skill in the use of visual aids. Workshop groups make special studies of government films and industrial films. High schools usually have one person especially assigned to coordinate the work of various departments within the school and to train a group of stu- dents in the handling of visual and sound equipment. In most schools teachers who have charge of visual instruction train one or more understudies in order to extend the service and to safeguard against emergencies. This phase of the in-service program is quite recent and has not yet been highly developed.' As visual and auditory technics become better known and as more equipment becomes available, they will probably be used much more extensively in the direct training of teachers and in the instructional programs in the schools. Exhibits and Deinotistratiniis Shoiv Hoiv When teachers are questioned as to the kinds of assistance they need, they invariably give high ranking to exhibits and demonstrations. They want to see what pupils can do and how they do it. Exhibits and demon- strations are always popular. Teachers attend in large numbers, ask many questions, and take many notes. Exhibits are especially valuable when accompanied by some form of demonstration or dramatization or motion picture. For this reason there are usually teacher or pupil guides available to interpret the many samples, models, charts, graphs, dioramas, or other three-dimensional representations. Pupils are often shown at work on projects of various t\ pes. The director of sewing holds a fashion show with living models — students of art-weaving work at their looms, shop students at their benches or machines. The director of health education holds a series of park fetes to demonstrate various patterns of dance activities or athletic stunts. Annual exhibits of work done by homebound children and other physically handicapped and mentally retarded children are a source of inspiration as well as of assist- Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 125 ance to the many teachers who visit them. The directors of art, sewing, science, home making, speech improvement, and music hold frequent exhibits and demonstrations. Exhibits and demonstrations are held at various centers. There is a con- tinuous rotation of exhibits of two weeks' duration in the main hall of the Hoard of Education where all the divisions and the directors take turns showing their special activities at work. Each division has a permanent exhibit in its main headquarters at the Board of Education. Displays are changed frequently in order to provide variety for observers and oppor- tunities for many schools to exhibit. All the separate divisions maintain curriculum exhibits. The Bureau of Reference, Research, and Statistics maintains a well- organized exhibit of up-to-date reading materials, both teacher-made and commercial, based on its program of experimentation and specializing in devices and materials for remedial reading. In the central library and else- where in the main building are displays of new textbooks and library books of all types classified according to various activities or curriculum centers. In the office of the Division of Elementary Schools are numerous illus- trated and indexed reports from each of the seventy schools which partic- ipated in the six-jjear curriculum experiment with the activity program which in large measure forms the basis of the present curriculum for all schools. Some assistant superintendents maintain a continuous or a traveling exhibit and demonstration of local activities and projects. Usually the exhibit is held in a central school in the district for a few weeks and then broken up into three or four units and rotated in schools conveniently located. Here teachers may study the latest textbooks and other instructional materials, units of work, teachers' plan books and various types of records, samples of pupils' handwork and creative expression, and of other activities of interest to teachers. Individual schools have many kinds of exhibits. Some schools set aside one room as a museum or demonstration center. In the new buildings there are built-in illuminated display cases in the corridors in which classes may display the work they have done. Each class and each department plans its own exhibits and sets them up. Where display cases are not available, bulletin boards and other devices are used. In many schools an exhibit is held once a term to acquaint the parents as well as the teachers and pupils with the work done by pupils. During '.'Open School Week" each class has an exhibit of pupils' work in its own room. In some schools there is a perma- nent exhibit of teachers' logs, plan books, units, and records. It usually includes sample textbooks and other materials of instruction. Public museums set up or lend exhibits to public schools and maintain elaborate programs supplemented by sound pictures, silent motion pictures, instructors, and guides. They also provide training courses for teachers. Local and visiting professional associations of educators usually set uji valuable exhibits at their annual conferences. Curriculum Bulletin No. 13, 1942-43 series, a Directory of Museum a. T.ihrnrirs. Parks, Znns. and Gardens as Edurafioual Resources, li^^ts one 126 American Association of School Administrators hundred centers within the school system and among agencies cooperating with the public schools. A few selected ones are typical: Hayden Planetarium of the American Museum of Natural History Eighty-first Street and Central Park tVest, Neiv York City The Planetarium presents skyshows daily. In the "Theater of the Stars" the stage is the whole of creation; the actors the bright celestial objects of vast, even inconceivable space and time. The Planetarium gives two special shows each school day for school children. It presents radio broadcast quiz programs in which school children participate. It holds classes for the instruction of teachers in prertight training. Hall of Fame Neiv York University, University Heights, Neiv York City The open-air colonnade honors the memory of seventy-three famous men and women of the United States — patriots, inventors, poets, scientists, and reformers. Bronze tablets and portrait busts by contemporary American sculptors fill the spaces between the columns. Children's Museum Brooklyn Avenue and Prospect Place, Brooklyn, Neiv York This museum is renowned for supervised recreation and education in natural and social sciences for school children. Facilities for Teachers 1. Reference library covering natural history, geography, history, folk lore, and biography (12,000 volumes) 2. Play index (arranged by subjects) 3. Loan material: a. 6000 objects: dolls, models, costumes, artifacts, utensils, textiles; mounted birds, animals, and insects; collections of woods, minerals, and shells b. Picture file — +0,000 mounted pictures c. Slide file. Facilities for Children 1. School classes: a. Museum programs of two to four hours which are correlated with school- work and which include motion pictures, special lectures, and gallery tours. Each program is individually planned to meet the needs of the teacher. By appointment only. b. Special motion pictures for classes. (Subjects cover history, biography, indus- try, and nature.) c. Scientific demonstrations including microscopy, physics, and chemistry. (1. Nature craft technics for children. p. Special docent service in social studies and natural history, f. Mineral laboratory. 2. For individual children: a. Activities in the social studies, nature study, and science. b. Clubs. Groups set up by the children for the study of current events, minerals, microscopy, puppets, the drama, stamps, and numerous scientific subjects. c. Reference library. d. Loan material. Mounted birds and animals and collections of minerals and shells may be borrowed by children who pass qualifying tests. Pictures may be borrowed by any child who presents a note from his teacher. r. NTotinn pictures. Announcements mailed to the schools. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 127 f. Special programs on Saturdays during the winter, whenever possible. g. Story hour. h. Changing exhibits which reflect current interests. i. Mineral laboratory, j. Science workshop, k. Microscope room. I. Pottery class. The Iranian Institute School for Asiatic Studies 9 East Eighty-ninth Street, Neiu York City The Iranian Institute and School for Asiatic Studies supplements its work in research and education by selected exhibitions of material in the field of Asiatic art, emphasizing the affiliations and interrelations between these various cultures and the interchange of artistic motifs and styles. No teacher in the New York schools needs to lack ideas to carry on her work. One of the major objectives of every division is to capitalize the best thought and experience of the teaching and supervisory staff through sharing experiences and suggestions. Specialists Serve as Coiisultatits and Demonstrators In connection with workshops and the introduction of new procedures, it is customary to call upon specialists for expert assistance. In the work- shop the specialist usually participates in the discussion, answers questions, or demonstrates certain desired practices. In the classroom, use was made for several years of personnel from the Work Projects Administration to demonstrate newer practices in remedial reading or arithmetic, arts and crafts, dramatization, folk songs and dances, and other activities. Some of these activities have been continued by the regular staff since the discon- tinuance of the WPA. A program for specialized remedial treatment of pupils with disabilities in reading was set up recently. This included the assignment of teachers to elementary schools and some junior high schools which had a large num- ber of slow learners and retardates. These teachers had to be specially trained. They were not assigned to classes. They devoted their time to coaching small groups of children who needed a clinical approach, so that educational as well as social adjustment would be effected. Such special assignments are known as OTP (other teaching positions). In addition, these OTP teachers demonstrate remedial reading proce- dures in regular classrooms, so that eventually classroom teachers may come to know and use the group and remedial reading instructional technics for slow learners. There should be at least one additional teacher specialist in remedial instruction assigned to every school or cluster of schools in which there are many slow learners. The training of these OTP teachers was twofold — before they initiated the program they attended a "workshop" and demonstration for a month, and, as the program developed, they attended frequent interim conferences nnd rpceivrd continuous guidance. 128 American Association of School Administrators In the training of these OTP teachers, use was made of the research findings and instructional materials of the WPA Remedial Project and of technics developed by the Instructional Division of the Bureau of Refer- ence, Research, and Statistics. Attention was given to the administration and use of standardized tests for intelligence and reading achievement, diagnosis of weaknesses revealed by these tests, special instructional mate- rials, record keeping by teachers and by pupils to indicate progress and special needs, cooperation with homes and other agencies for personality adjustment, "setting up" inviting reading rooms, and related procedures. Emphasis was placed upon the creative ability of each teacher. No set pattern of remedial instruction was indicated. The significant features of the program were pooled and a bulletin of "high spots" was published at intervals. Specialists from the art department and the music department give series of local demonstrations. Frequently shop teachers, kindergarten teachers, or teachers of classes for mentally or physically retarded children demon- strate arts and crafts technics to teachers of regular grades. In workshops, teachers often take turns in demonstrating certain desirable skills in which they happen to be proficient. Supervisors from the office of homemaking, sewing, art weaving, visual instruction, and kindergarten give individual demonstrations in the classrooms. Local museums provide a variety of services through specialists in their various departments. During a period of transition in curriculum development, demonstration by specialists goes far toward giving teachers a sense of understanding and confidence, and is for this reason one of the most valuable devices in teacher training. Courses Develop Professional Background and Sound Method Professional in-service courses are offered to teachers by the Board of Superintendents. Most of them, conducted by members of the teaching and supervisory staff, are arranged by associate superintendents, assistant superintendents, directors, principals, or other supervisors. A few are given by cooperating agencies such as Youthbuilders, East and West Association, Museum of Natural Histor}% American Arbitration Association. Teachers on permanent license who are not receiving maximum salaries must take at least one course a year. Most of the courses consist of fifteen two-hour sessions and may be used for credit toward salary increment. A few carry additional credit toward qualification for a higher license. There are also short unit courses or seminars of five or six sessions each. Every teacher and supervisor was required to take a standard first-aid course during the first year of the war. It is the general policy of the Board of Education to restrict its courses to methods of instruction, supervision, and administration, and to leave to the colleges, which have better facilities, courses in psychology, philosophy, the arts, and other cultural courses. The approved in-service courses fall into the following categories : after-school program, art weaving, assembly programs, arts and crafts, audio-visual aids, n\iation, blueprinting, boat- Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 129 building, consumer education, cookinj^, curriculum, electric installation, elementary-school program, English, foreign languages, guidance, health education, junior high schools, kindergartens, leathercraft, machines, mathe- matics, mechanics, mentally handicapped, merchandising and salesmanship, metalcraft, museum tours, music, photography, plastics, program making, radio, reading, school and community, science, secretarial studies, shopwork. social studies, speech, student government, supervision-administration and organization, vocational education, and women's garment trades. Each semester a carefully indexed bulletin is issued to the schools, listing not only all the in-service courses sponsored by the Board of Education and cooperating agencies, but also certain courses given at Brooklyn College, Teachers College of Columbia University, City College, Fordham Univer- sity School of Education, Hunter College New School, New York Uni- versitj', Pratt Institute, St. John's University, Queens College, and Woo- chefee University. The program of in-service courses for teachers is extensive and continuous, and many teachers take advantage of it. Most of these teachers no longer require the courses for salary credit or tenure. Professional Reading Provides Point of T iew and Specific Help New York City recognizes the need of both teachers and supervisors to know what is going on in the field of education and what research has to ofifer in order to keep their viewpoint and practice abreast of the times. A means for doing this is found in the field of professional reading. To this end the Board of Education maintains at its headquarters an excellent library in which teachers may consult books in the field of pedagogy as well as in the field of children's literature. It has excellent displays of books suited to special needs. The Bureau of Reference, Research, and Statistics has a special curriculum library of curriculum bulletins and courses of study from other cities. The Division of Elementary Schools has fairly complete libraries for its own use. Out in the field many assistant superintendents have gathered central libraries of modern professional literature for use within district areas. In addition to this, each school accepts the responsibility for maicing its own plans so that teachers and supervisors may become acquainted with the best current educational books and periodicals. The devices used to encourage professional reading by the staff are many. Some schools and districts issue mimeographed reports on worthwhile professional readings that give practical help. Others have reports on such readings made at grade and school conferences. Others use these reports as bases for discussion groups. In certain schools there is a plan for systematic readings by all members of the staff, while other schools list voluntary readings designed for those interested in selected topics. In the districts of one assistant superin- tendent a committee of principals compiled and circulated in every school a review of forty recent professional books for the information and guidance of teachers in the districts. The periodicals of various local professional organizations have presented 130 American Association of School Administrators many fine articles, reviews, and analyses. Among these are The Principal. published by the New York Principals' Association; Hi^h Points, pub- lished by the High-School Division ; The Brooklyn Teacher, by the Brooklyn Teachers' Association; The Bronx Teacher, by the Bronx Borowide Asso- ciation of Teachers; Teaching/ in Practice, by the Queens Teachers Associa- tion ; and other publications appearing less frequently. Besides these are publications by national associations and local teacher-training institutions. The Public Library of the Borough of Queens has a special reference section reserved for reports and literature of current professional practice. Five of the larger daily papers carry considerable educational news every week. The Neiu York Sun carries a daily school page and reports current educational projects and news of conventions and professional studies in other parts of the United States. The New York Times, the New York Post, the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, P.M., and the New York World-Telegram carry many valuable educational articles. Local colleges and libraries have helpful reading and reference rooms with well-classified collections. The Board of Education Library is a general collection including profes- sional books and a good reference library. Teachers may use this library for reference and may borrow books for home use. The Bureau of Libraries is the clearing-house for all problems dealing with the libraries of the elementary, junior, vocational, and senior high schools. The Reference Library on Adult Education, maintained by the New York City schools, contains books, periodicals, pamphlets, and teaching material with particular emphasis on the following : 1. Adult elementary education 2. English for the foreign-born 3. Immigration and naturalization procedures 4. Training of illiterate draftees 5. Literacy tests for new voters. The Speech Improvement Department library of the public schools con- tains volumes on speech pathology and correction, phonetics, voice produc- tion, speech education, and the speech arts. These books are circulated among members of the Department but are available to all teachers for reference in the speech office. Current issues of the Quarterly Journal of Speech and the Journal of Speech Disorders are also available for reference. The New York University film library offers two special serx'ices — film^ and recordings — to the schools at a small rental charge. The film library is the distributor of several hundred films, including films from the Office of War Information. The films have been previewed and evaluated by members of the faculty of the University. The Recordings Division of the library has more than one thousand recordings, all of which have been selected in cooperation with the American Council on Education. A catalog of the film library's program and activities may be obtained upon request. ^The central building of the New York Public Library contains the refer- ence department, the circulation branch, exhibition galleries, and the picture collection. The reference collection is not open to high-school students, Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 131 nor to undergraduate students without a written request from the college librarian. The most complete collection for these types of students is the Bronx Reference Center. The central building has no separate department for teachers, but every branch library has some educational books for the teachers in its community. luiervisitation Pr-esents Opportunities for birsthniid Observation The Association of Assistant Superintendents, recognizing the need for an extensive program of intervisitation in selected schools by teachers and supervisors, pooled their local resources and undertook as a professional project the organization of such a program and the preparation of a direc- tory of available schools and activities so that adequate arrangements could alwaj^s be made with minimum inconvenience. In order to safeguard against overburdening cooperating schools and to insure the most profitable kind of observation, certain guiding principles and suggestions were set up along with suitable provisions for application for permission to visit and for notification of schools to be visited. The following pages are quoted from the mimeographed bulletin on intervisitation which was sent out by the Association to all schools. Teachers find suggestions and encouragement in observing the practices of more experienced teachers. Through observational activities, teachers come to realize that expert teachers have to face problems, difficulties, and discouragements similar to their own, and thereby find reassurance for them- selves through learning how other teachers solve their problems and diffi- culties. Experienced teachers also like to visit other teachers for purposes of enriching their own practices. In order to provide opportunities for teachers and supervisors to observe the operation of educational procedures under ordinary working conditions, principals and assistant superintendents have set up helpful programs of intervisitation in their schools and districts. In order to make such visits helpful to the observer and the observed, certain guiding principles and practices have been set up : 1. Cooperating schools should not be overburdened with visitors. 2. Regular programs should not be disarranged except for occasional special demonstrations. 3. Teachers should not he required to visit other classes or other schools, hut opportunities for helpful observation should he easily available to teachers who seek them or show need of them. 4. Principals of cooperating schools have the right to limit the number of visitors and change the date of visit by mutual consent with the principal who approved the application. 5. Teachers should be authorized occasionally to make a second visit to a school for purposes of more intensive study of certain selected activities. 6. The principal or representative should greet visitors at the opening of the session and organize the visits. A brief conference will provide opportunity to point out distinctive activities and to reveal the philosophy of the school. A short follow-up conference with visitors should be arranged so as to present an oppor- tunity to Interpret and clarify procedures observed. 7. A hall bulletin or mimeographed manual or directory \\\\\ help visitors to 132 American Association of School Administrators locate places and times where and when activities may be seen to advantage. Some principals furnish pupil guides. 8. Attractive door panels, or similar devices, serve to indicate centers of interest in individual classrooms. 9. Exhibits of pupils' work, teachers' plan books and records, and teaching aids at a central location will be instructive and helpful. 10. Distribution of available materials is always appreciated by visitors. 11. Pupils should not interrupt their work because of visitors, but selected in- dividuals or committees may volunteer unobtrusively to inform visitors and interpret activities on which classmates are working. 12. Schools should refrain from any exhibitionism or distortion of the program characteristic of the school. htterclass Visitation ivithin a School 1. Voluntary arrangements between teachers for interchange of visits subject to approval and guidance of the principal. 2. Scheduled visits requested by teachers or recommended by the principal or by the standing school curriculum committee. 3. Voluntary visits by one class to another class for the purpose of sharing ac- tivities or finding out how another class conducts certain activities. Some schools post a bulletin of classes which have become skilled in certain activities and are available for such visits. 4. Scheduled interchange of class visits for the purpose of insuring better artic- ulation between two levels of instruction, such as the kindergarten and the primary grades, or for the purpose of sharing learning experiences. 5. Visits by individual pupils or committees of pupils to study certain materials or procedures and make reports and suggestions to their own class. Intcrscliool Visits ivithin a District 1. Visits recjuested by teachers with the approval of the principal and the assistant superintendent. 2. Scheduled visits of individual teachers or groups of teachers to local demon- stration centers or between schools cooperating on a mutual project. Jntcrdistrict Visitation 1. Visits requested by individual teachers, usually to demonstration centers of experimental schools. 2. Visits of individuals or committees arranged by the assistant superintendent to study special problems usually in connection with the local curriculum cr teacher-training programs. 3. Visits arranged by instructors of in-service training courses and leaders of curriculum workshops. Suggestions to Visitors 1. Visitors should report not later than nine o'clock. Before leaving they should report again and have their applications endorsed by the principal or his rep- resentative. 2. Visits should be purposeful and planned. The directory below indicates what activities are available. 3. Visitors should observe in a friendly spirit. They should not criticize or de- bate with the teacher in the presence of the class. The propriety of procedures observed may be discussed to better advantage with the principal. 4. Visitors should not expect to see uniformly excellent practice. It is usually better to see regular practice. 5. Visitors may talk to pupils or class representatives if they can do so without interrupting the class or the teacher. 6. Visitors should not distract the class or the teacher at work. The teacher is entitled to do her work as she plans it. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 133 7. Visitors usually acknowledge help received or courtesies extended. Some prin- cipals welcome constructive criticisms. 8. There should usually be no intervisitation during September and June. Directory of Schools for Visit ntional Purposes — Each year principals of certain schools, seventy to eighty in number, report to the associate super- intendent in charge of the Elementary-School Division and the Junior High-School Division that they are available to receive visitors who desire to observe certain practices and procedures which have been developed in their respective schools. The Association of Assistant Superintendents prepares a schedule of these schools with a code indicating desirable visiting days and definite practices which can be observed in certain schools within their districts and in the districts of other assistant superintendents. For the vear 1944-45 the following activities have been listed: Group procedures Conferences Research technics Drill technics Remedial teaching Arts and crafts Real situations Club activities Creative expression Music experiences Visual and auditory aids Social studies Teachers' records Pupils' records Supervisory practices Individualization Pupil self-government Training for leadership Parent activities Opportunity or multi- grade classes Atypical children Equipment Teacher training Experiments Special classes Library Public address system Guidance I. G. C. classes Speech training Choral speaking Science experiences Pupil-conducted assemblies Study groups Conferences Serve as Clearing-Houses The conference is in several ways the most direct and useful means of teacher training. It is flexible and adaptable to many purposes. It deals with present problems. It may be a faculty meeting at which directives and suggestions are given or policies discussed or certain procedures encouraged. It may be conducted with large or small groups. Conferences with indi- viduals are frequent. Health counselors, guidance counselors, demonstrators, or other specialists give valuable help to individuals and groups. The conference may come at stated times or may be called at need. It is usually purposeful and dynamic rather than academic. It aims to pool the best thinking of the group. Frequently school specialists or lay leaders are invited to address a conference. Occasionally schools have a health council including the health counselor, the doctor, the nurse, the custodian, certain teachers, and certain social workers in the community which holds many conferences. Frequently conferences take the form of a panel. The tendency is to encourage active participation by teachers and others in pro- fessional discussion of current problems. Conferences are sometimes organized and scheduled for a whole year or a semester. For the current year the general integrating theme for the Division of Elementary Schools and the Junior High-School Division is "educational guidance." Most of the assistant superintendents have planned a corresponding local series of conferences with principals in terms of educational guidance. 134 American Association of School Administrators The Superintendent of Schools has held a series of general conferences of all superintendents and heads of schools to hear a presentation of major educational problems by such leaders as Pearl Buck and Arthur Hays Sulzberger. Associate superintendents and directors of special subjects have held frequent staff conferences with representatives of standing curriculum committees or subjectmatter committees within their jurisdiction to discuss common problems and to prepare or interpret curriculum bulletins or teach- ers' handbooks or to consider supervisory or teacher-training projects. The Curriculum Council, which is a committee of the Board of Superintendents, holds a monthly conference in order to direct and guide all curriculum committees representing the Divisions or the Directors. In individual high schools, priricipals hold conferences with chairmen of departments and grade advisers as well as with the whole faculty. Each chairman in turn holds conferences with his special group. Every principal is required to hold a conference at least once a month. Occasionally articu- lation is sought through joint conferences of groups representing two or more divisions or departments. Joint Conference of Kindergarten Teachers and First-Year Teachers — As part of the general program of articulation and coordination of the classes of the first two years and the kindergarten into a single growth level unit, an interesting type of joint conference was held for the teachers of kindergarten and the first school year. Teachers in each group who had developed valuable technics or devices in social studies, science and nature, arts and crafts, music, health education, language arts, social living, or number concepts and manipulation explained their procedures. The general problem presented by the first year w-as "What readiness in each of the large-subject areas is set up in the kindergarten?" The challenge presented by the kindergarten teachers was, "What continuity of desirable experiences and attitudes set up in the kindergarten is maintained in the grades?" Out of the con- ference came provision for interchange of class visits and joint teacher conferences in several of the cooperating schools. There are several periodic conferences in connection with the develop- ment of general projects or policies. Representatives of the Division of Elementary Schools, the Junior High-School Division, the Bureau of Child Guidance, the Bureau of Reference, Research, and Statistics, the directors of health and of kindergartens, and of the principals and teachers of the city have met jointly to devise new types of permanent record cards and pupil report cards consistent with the new program of education and with the recommendations of parents and teachers. Heads of schools selected to experiment with the new program of annual promotion meet regularly. Teachers and supervisors of classes of intellectually gifted children and teachers of maladjusted pupils of the Opportunity A-B-C-D classes confer frequently. Teachers of classes for intellectually retarded or physically handicapped regularly discuss problems or learn new technics. During the six-year experimentation with the activity program, principals of the seventy experimental schools met every month. Conferences are sometimes held in order to demonstrate new procedures or to consider new instructional procedures. They are called at times to clarify school policies and administrative procedures or to set up local Special Studies Prep.ajred for Canceled Conferences 135 surveys or experiments. The director of kindergartens and the directors of ph^^sically or mentally handicapped children or of special subjects usually arrange for a series of individual or group conferences with new teachers or teachers with special problems or needs. Supervision Is Responsible for Follow-up and Guidance All of the aids to teacher training enumerated above fall into a pattern. Teacher training is at present, during a period of major curriculum transi- tion, the chief responsibility of supervision. Through it the supervisor may make his leadership constructive and helpful in many ways. Through com- mittees, conferences, and workshops his supervision is cooperative and democratic. Through exhibits and demonstrations and institutes it becomes creative. The supervisor seeks initiative and talent and develops leader- ship. He maintains a broad vision and a kindly human guidance of teachers. He recognizes the anxieties of teachers during a time of stress, and under- stands their present insecurity in attacking new problems while curriculum changes are in process. With sound objectives and a consistent program, the supervisor analyzes his problems, inventories his needs and resources, and utilizes the numerous facilities within and without the school system for teacher training, con- fident that over a reasonable period continuous progress will be assured and goals attained. Helpful supervision is concerned chiefly with in-service guidance of teachers and supervisors. Increasingly, however, the preservice training of teachers is becoming important. A program of closer articulation between the school system and teacher-training institutions will soon have to be developed. Meanwhile, the Board of Examiners is in a position to render important contributions to schools in connection with new programs and changing conditions. What the Board of Examiners requires in the way of qualifica- tions, records, and performance will go far toward stimulating candidates for teaching and supervisory positions to acquire desirable professional skill and adequate cultural background and attitudes consonant with our demo- cratic and educational objectives. The kind of written tests, interviews, teaching performance, and supervisory challenges with which the Board confronts candidates will result in stimulating desirable readiness for teaching and supervisory assignments. 136 American Association of School Administrators Surplus War Materials— A Committee Report DANID E. WEGLEIN Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Maryland, Chairman DISPOSAL OF SURPLUS WAR PROPERTIES TO EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS ftfl-NRY F. ALVES, CHIEF, DIVISION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION, UNITED STATES OFFICE OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Following the appointment about a year ago of the Surplus War Prop- erty Administrator, in accordance with an Executive Order, several con- ferences were held with the Administrator and stafif members of his office and the Commissioner of Education and members of his staff. As a result of these conferences, the Commissioner arranged for a conference, March 20, 1944, of educational representatives to assist this office in formulating recommendations for the disposal of federal surplus properties to educational agencies for submission to the Surplus War Property Administrator. This conference, in its recommendations, took cognizance of the recom- mendations made by a larger national conference called by the Commissioner on March 3 and 4, 1944, of representatives of thirty-one national educa- tional and lay organizations, to consider, among other important problems, the distribution by federal government agencies of surplus property useful fur educational, training, and research purposes. The recommendations of the conference, convened on March 20, 1944, presented, in brief, a plan to make available surplus property to schools and colleges of all levels and types through state commissions with re- sponsibility to represent all educational interests, thus assuring effective distribution, on the basis of needs established by educational authorities, of such property to eligible educational institutions, large and small. Soon afterward the Commissioner appointed, at the suggestion of the Surplus War Property Administrator, an advisory committee to work with the Office of Education and the Surplus War Property Administration in formulating proposed policies and administrative procedures for handling the disposal of surplus properties to educational institutions. The 78th Congress passed the "Surplus Property Act of 1944," Public Law 457, late in September 1944. Under this Act there is established in the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion a Surplus Property Board of three members, to be appointed by the President by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, with the authority to dispose of surplus property in accordance with the provisions of the Act. The members of this Board have been appointed. Section 13 of this Act (Disposal to Local Governments and Nonprofit Institutions) carries in several of its subsections provisions of particular concern to eligible educational institutions. These subsections are set forth below as follows : Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 137 "Sec. 13. (a). The Board shall prescribe regulations for the disposition of surplus property to states and their political subdivisions and instrumentalities, and to tax-supported and nonprofit institutions, and shall determine on the basis of need what transfers shall be made. In formulating such regulations the Board shall be guided by the objectives of this Act and shall give effect to the following policies to the extent feasible and in the public interest: "(1) (A) Surplus property that is appropriate for school, classroom, or other educational use may be sold or leased to the States and their political subdivisions and instrumentalities; and tax-supported educational institutions, and to other non- profit educational institutions which have been held exempt from taxation under section 101 (6) of the Internal Revenue Code. "(C) In fixing sale or lease value of property to be disposed of under subpara- graph (A) and subparagraph (B) of this paragraph, the Board shall take into con- sideration any benefit which has accrued or may accrue to the United States from the use of such property by any such State, political subdivision, instrumentality, or institution. "(2) Surplus property shall be disposed of so as to afford public and governmental institutions, nonprofit or tax-supported educational institutions, charitable and eleemosynary institutions, nonprofit or tax-supported hospitals and similar institu- tions. States, their political subdivisions and instrumentalities, and volunteer fire companies, an opportunity to fulfill, in the public interest, their legitimate needs. "(b) Under regulations prescribed by the Board, whenever the Government agency authorized to dispose of any property finds that it has no commercial value or that the cost of its care and handling and disposition would exceed the estimated proceeds, the agency may donate such property to any agency or institution sup- ported by the Federal Government or any State or local government, or to any nonprofit educational or charitable organization. . . . "(f)The disposal of surplus property under this section to States and political subdivisions and instrumentalities thereof shall be given priority over all other disposals of property provided for in this Act except transfers under section 12." Late last fall the Office of Education Advisory Committee assisted in formulating proposals for submission to the Surplus Property Board for effective educational participation in the program. This committee, in its recommendations, took cognizance of the recommendations made by the National Conference on Prospective Educational Programs of March 3 and 4, 1944, and of the suggestions and recommendations of numerous con- ference groups and committees following their respective considerations of the special provisions, as set forth above, affecting and involving eligible educational institutions. At the same time a special conference of represen- tative library leaders formulated a similar report of recommendations relative to disposal of surplus properties to libraries. These two reports were transmitted by the Commissioner of Education to the Surplus Property Board in December 1944. The report of the Advisory Committee emphasized the need for and the utilization of surplus property by educational institutions, indicating that this property could be effectively utilized, for example, in replacing existing equipment known to be educationally inefficient ; in meeting a need which the institution is financially unable to fill, but which is essential for the improvement of its present program ; and in providing for a needed expansion in the present program. It stated, "Our schools and colleges have, 138 American Association of School Administrators through the conduct of essential training programs and numerous scientific research projects, played a necessarj?^ and important part in preparing for and prosecuting the war. ... In the postwar period our schools and colleges will face responsibilities for service to the nation no less important than in wartime." The report then states, "That the educational system of our country needs to be expanded and improved is immediately evident when one considers the grade level achievements of the personnel in our armed forces." Data ^ presenting the educational attainment of the popula- tion twenty-five years old and over (1940 Census), were included here fur- ther to point out the need for extensions and improvements in our edu- cational system. In emphasizing the benefits that have accrued or may accrue from the use of surplus property by education, the report stated, "Were it not for the benefits of a public nature that accrue through education, it would inevitably follow that the American people would discontinue their long- standing and thoroughly-tested present practices and methods of supporting and maintaining institutions for the education and training of children, youth, and adults." In considering the necessity for a planned program for determining edu- cational requirements by educational authorities, the Advisory Committee stated : Any plan for the orderly and effective utilization of surplus properties by educa- tional institutions must recognize that it would be extremely difficult, In fact, highly impracticable, inefficient, and undesirable, for the Federal Government to deal directly with each of the governmental entities and other existing authorities respon- sible for the administration and operation of tax-supported educational institutions and other nonprofit educational institutions specified in Section 13. In the United States there are approximately 115,000 local school districts or administrative units, ranging from small one-teacher districts to large counties and cities, as well as several thousand privately-controlled nonprofit elementary and secondary schools. There are also approximately 600 publicly-supported and more than 1,100 privately- controlled nonprofit institutions of higher learning. Similarly, it would be neither practicable nor desirable for the Federal Govern- ment to attempt to determine, by direct dealings with more than 100,000 educational entities, the actual and potential needs of surplus property, with a view of its most effective utilization, basically essential if educational institutions are to have the 'opportunity to fulfill in the public interest, their legitimate needs.' The Advisory Committee's recommendations related to the need for state machinery considered essential for the effective participation of eligible educational institutions, suggested price policies, and access priority limita- tions as follows: Adm'imstrat'i'vc PJatt. — Within such organization as may be established in each State, in connection with the program for the disposal of surplus property, there should be provided a State educational agency to represent all educational institu- tions— tax-supported and nonprofit — eligible under the provisions of Section 13 of Public Law 457. This agency would be responsible for: (a) Utilizing to the maximum extent existing educational boards and authori- ties at the State and local levels. 1 Two tabulations showing percentage distribution, respectively, of enlisted personnel in the armed forces and of the population twenty-five years old and over (1940) were induded. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 1.59 (b) Establishing criteria, in Iveeping with prescribed regulations and with a program of effective utilization of the property involved, to be used: (1) By existing educational boards and authorities in determining esti- mates of need ; and (2) For approving applications (requisitions) from eligible educational institutions for available surplus property. (c) Collecting and reviewing, for validity and quantity, the estimates of need in conformity to established criteria. (d) Preparing, certifying, and transmitting necessary summaries of estimates of need. (e) Transmitting approved requisitions to the appropriate authority. (f) Making allocations as necessary in case of short supply of designated items of surplus property. (g) Transmitting to existing educational boards and authorities (by whatever names called) information re: (1) Availability of kinds and types and locations of designated sur- plus properties; and (2) Rules and regulations of the Surplus Property Board and designated disposal agencies with respect to the program of disposal. In order to insure the maximum benefits to the public from the use by educa- tional institutions of surplus property, the disposal price must be a 'nominal price.'" A policy of 'nominal pricing' will effect, to the greatest degree, 'a broad and equi- table distribution of such property' with consequent public benefits and will provide to the largest number of educational institutions 'an opportunity to fulHU, in the public interest, their legitimate needs.' It is our understanding that regulations now in effect provide that transfers between Federal agencies shall be made within 21 days. We feel that this period of time is inadequate for sufficient notice to States, political subdivisions, and instrumentalities of the availability of surplus property and for all transactions necessary for the acquisition by them of such property. Therefore, it is urgently recommended that the specified time limit now in effect be extended. The recommendations by the special conference of representative library leaders, referred to above, paralleled the recommendations of the Advisor}' Committee, as discussed in the preceding paragraphs. As the Surplus Property Board issues statements of policy and regula- tions relative to the disposal of surplus properties "appropriate to school, classroom, or other educational use," the United States Office of Education will do everything possible to keep eligible educational institutions informed of developments. - Understood to represent the necessary cost of packing and the cost of handling; excluding the cost of transportation of property "appropriate to school, classroom, or other educational use'' from rea- sonably accessible points of disposal. 140 American Association of School Administrators SURPLUS WAR COMMODITIES FRANCIS J. BROWN^ CONSULTANT, AMERICAN COUNCIL OX EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. The issue of surplus war properties is a teasin<2; problem. Already some surpluses of war are available, yet it is impossible to know M'hat they are, in what condition, and in what quantity. On the other hand M'ith each month of \var the need for equipment and supplies which mijiht be of vital significance to educational institutions and school systems becomes greater. Before pointing out the specific aspects of the problem at the present time, it is necessary to review the various steps which have been taken both by legislative acts and by Executive Orders dealing with surplus war commodities. The earliest action was taken more than a year ago when the Army and Navy began canceling their college training programs. At that time the Army and Navy were made, by statute, dispersing agents and such properties as were used for instructional purposes were disposed of. First priority was given to the armed forces in the event they wished to transfer such materials from the institutions to some other training establishment. Second priority was given to the institutions in which the college training programs had been operated. Through this means some items of value for instructional purposes were acquired by colleges and universities. For example, one university procured a considerable number of dental chairs which had been purchased for dental training under the Army Specialized Training Pro- gram. The disposal of surplus war properties was provided for b\- the Surplus Property Act of 1944 (Public Law 457, 78th Congress). The Surplus Property Board was established under the general jurisdiction of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion created by Public Law 458, (78th Congress). This Board was by law composed of three members whose functions include: "(1) the care and handling and disposition of surplus property, and (2) the transfer of surplus property between Government agencies." The authority of the Board is indicated in the following quota- tions from the Act having direct relationship to education: "Regulations Issued pursuant to subsection (a) may, except as otherwise provided in this Act, contain provisions prescribing the extent to which, the times at which, the areas in which, the agencies by which, the prices at which, and the terms and conditions under which, surplus property may be disposed of, and the extent to which and the conditions under which surplus propertv shall be subject to care and handling." "Disposal to Local Govrrnmcnts and Noiifirofil Institutions "Sec. 13 (a). The Board shall prescribe regulations for the disposition of surplus property to states and their political subdivisions and instrumentalities, and to tax- supported and nonprofit institutions, and shall determine on the basis of need what transfers shall be made. In formulating such regulations the lioard shall be guided by the objectives of this Act and shall give effect to the following policies to the extent feasible and in the public Interest: Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 141 "(1) (A) Surplus property that is appropriate for school, classroom, or other educational use may be sold or leased to the states and their political subdivisions and instrumentalities, and tax-supported educational institutions, and to other non- profit educational institutions which have been held exempt from taxation under section 101 (6) of the Internal Revenue Code. "(B) Surplus medical supplies, equipment and property suitable for use in the protection of public health, including research, may be sold or leased to the states and their political subdivisions and instrumentalities, and to tax-supported medical institutions, and to hospitals or other similar institutions not operated for profit which have been held exempt from taxation under Section 101 (6) of the Internal Revenue Code. "(C) In fixing the sale or lease value of property to be disposed of under sub- paragraph (A) and subparagraph (B) of this paragraph, the Board shall take into consideration any benefit which has accrued or may accrue to the United States from the use of such property by any such state, political subdivision, instrumentality, or institution. "(2) Surplus property shall be disposed of so as to afford public and govern- mental institutions, nonprofit or tax-supported educational institutions, charitable and eleemosynary institutions, nonprofit or tax-supported hospitals and similar institutions, states, their political subdivisions and instrumentalities, and volunteer fire companies, an opportunity to fulfill, in the public interest, their legitimate needs. "(b) Under regulations prescribed by the Board, whenever the government agency authorized to dispose of any property finds that it has no commercial value or that the cost of its care and handling and disposition would exceed the estimated pro- ceeds, the agency may donate such property to any agency or institution supported by the federal government or any state or local government, or to any nonprofit educational or charitable organization, or, if that is not feasible, shall destrov or otherwise dispose of such property, but, except in the case of property the immediate destruction of which is necessary or desirable either because of the nature of the property or because of the expense or difficulty of its care and handling, no property shall be destroyed until thirty days after public notice of the proposed destruction thereof has been given (and a copy of such notice given to the Board at the begin- ning of such thirty-day period) and an attempt has been made within such thirty days to dispose of such property otherwise than by destruction. . . ." "(f) The disposal of surplus property under this section to states and political subdivisions and instrumentalities thereof shall be given priority over all other disposals of property provided for in this Act except transfers under Section 12." The Board called for in the legislation was not immediately appointed. The members of the staff in the OfHce of the Surplus War Property Ad- ministration (established, prior to legislation, by Executive Order No. 9425) could do little more than wait. The first steps which had been taken under the framework of the Executive Order could not be followed by more constructive action since any action taken might be reversed by the Board which was to be appointed under the legislation. Despite this fact, educational groups both in and out of government at- tempted to take such preliminary steps as to be ready to render assistance to the Board when appointed. On October 19, 1944, a conference was called of representatives of approximately fifteen national educational organ- izations to meet with officers of the Surplus Property Administration and the United States Office of Education. Following this meeting, George F. Zook, president of the American Council on Education, requested the 142 American Association of School Administrators following committee to prepare a statement of policy which might later be presented to appropriate federal officers. Henry F. Alves, Chairman, United States Office of F^ducatinn I,. H. Dennis, American Vocational Association J. Harold Goidthorpe, American Council on Education Fred L. Jackson, Davidson College John W. Lewis, Baltimore Public Schools Charles L. MacQuigg, Dean, Ohio State University R. B. Marston, National Education Association The Committee later held a two-day session to discuss the broad outlines for its statement to include recommendations on the determination of need, price policies to schools and colleges, and stimulation in each state of a state educational authority representing all schools and colleges eligible under the Act to receive surplus war properties. This statement has been prepared but it has not, as yet, been released pending the clarification of the relationship within government. Mr. Alves is spending a considerable portion of his time working with the staff of the Board and directly with the Board members. The American Council on Education and the Educa- tional Buyers' Association have entered into a cooperative project to pro- vide an information service for colleges and universities on all matters rela- tive to surplus property disposal. Mr. Ahrens, Executive Secretary of the latter association, will direct this project. If policies and procedures are now sufficiently developed to justify doing so, the Council plans to initiate a series of special bulletins describing pro- cedures in the procurement of surplus war properties. Unfortunately, no accurate statement can now be made as to this whole problem except to indicate the present plan of organization and to point up some of the problems for which solutions must be found. The members of the Board have now been appointed and its membership is as follows: Guy M. Gillett, Edward H. Heller, and Robert A. Hurley. At the present time, the Board is giving major consideration to working out interrelationship among government agencies: the War and Navy De- partments, the Veterans Administration, the Treasury, and others. Since through Public Law 346 (the "G. I. Bill") the Veterans Administration has priority second only to the Army and Navy the major attention is now being given to the needs of the Veterans Administration. A definite classification of surplus consumers goods available from the Treasury regional procureinent offices has been established as follows: Furniture — hospital, household, laboratory, and office furniture, floor covering"*, mattresses, bedsprings, and pillows. Machinery — construction equipment, tractors, trailers, agricultural and miscel- laneous machinery. General Products — batteries, containers, electrical supplies, lighting equipment, photographic equipment, and live stock. Automotive — trucks, tires, automobiles, generators, and related equipment. Hardivare — plumbing and heating equipment, sporting goods, hand tools, rubber goods, houseware, and musical instruments. Textiles and fVearinci .IpparrI — fabricated textiles, footwear, leather goods, and wearing apparel. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 143 Medical and Surgical — drugs and medicines, dental equipment, thermometers, rub- ber goods, hospital equipment and supplies, optical, laboratory, and surgical equip- ment and instruments. Paper and Office Supplies — paper, office equipment and supplies, and stationery. The Board has recenth^ issued a number of pamphlets, the most important being the Buyer's Guide which contains instruction for locating detailed information on type of property, disposal agencies, and addresses of regional offices. Copies of this booklet may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. It is hoped that within the next few months these intergovernmental questions will have been ironed out and that major attention may then be directed to the development of procedures for transfer or sale of property to educational institutions and school systems. It should be pointed out, parenthetically, that the Act makes no distinction between privately and publicly administered education in the purchase of such property except when the supply is limited. In such instances publicly administered institutions have priority. Several basic problems must be resolved: (1) The government itself must establish definite channels of operation, including the dissemination of information regarding the availability of surplus war commodities. This in itself is a stupendous task, since there are approximately 300,000 individual items from paper clips to machinery of all types. (2) Some means must he found through which educational institutions and school systems can indi- cate their needs and when the supply is limited such disposal be allotted on the basis of use. These tasks are as stupendous as that which faces the govern- ment disposal agency, since the items used by schools and colleges are as diverse in types and number as are those which will be available for disposal and the determination of use is, at best, highly subjective. (3) The problems of bringing one and two together cannot be done on a national basis. It must be done on a state basis and in the larger states on a regional basis. Schools and colleges should now take the initiative in setting up such agen- cies, broadly representative of all of the educational interests in the state, invested with sufficient authority to act for all education within the state. It was stated at the beginning the question of surplus war properties was a "teasing problem." This is all the more true since a number of private speculative ventures have alrpad\- been initiated tn act as middle- men— for profit. Schools and colleges are receiving circiilars soliciting state- ments of their needs. They are being asked to subscribe to commercial "In- formation Bulletins" purporting to have inside information. Some of these ventures are honest and can be relied upon but it is questionable if their claims can be made good at this time. Perhaps the soundest advice that can be given now is to wait in patience. It is entirely possible that through the clause in the Act providing "for transfer" on the basis of need, properties may be made available without cost to the educational institutions or at so nominal a cost as to be virtually nothing. While waiting, educators should not be idle. Two things can he done: first, to stud\- their own needs in specific terms both as to type and quantity 144 American' Association of School Administrators of materials needed and est;ihlish such needs on a priority basis; and. second, to give every possible stimulation to the development of the state agency with power to act. Every effort will be made on a national basis to keep alert to developments and to give such direction as is possible. Information of an authoritative character w'\\\ be disseminated by the American Council on Education and other organizations as rapidly as it is available. The amount of surplus war properties now available, while large in its gross, is little in comparison to that which should be available later. It is better that sound policies be developed gradually than that ill con- ceived plans be put into speedy operation. At this moment patience is the better part of prudence. SURPLUS FEDERAL PROPERTY— THE STATE'S STANDPOINT DABNEY S. LANCASTER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA Much has been said in recent months about the effectiveness of the educa- tional programs of the armed forces. Many factors, of course, have contrib- uted to the satisfactory results secured from these programs. There has been good instruction ; the students have been motivated in a way that is not always possible in the public schools; and there has been an ade- quate supply of equipment and teaching materials — teaching materials such as laboratory and shop equipment, visual aids, charts, and diagrams. With full realization of the many problems that must be faced by the Federal Surplus Property Board, it seems clear that since this property has been purchased from the tax dollar, it is logical that it should be made available both to publicly supported institutions and agencies and to tax- free institutions that are rendering public service. During the war years, it has been impossible for schools to secure needed equipment and supplies. It will be difficult for them to secure sufficient funds to make necessary purchases. It does not seem probable that purchases from private sources will be curtailed even if large quantities of surplus property arc donated by the federal government. In addition, the acquisition by schools of modern equipment will undoubtedly create an increased demand for such equipment on the part of the buying public, and it does not seem probable that inde- pendent industry and business will be adversely affected by the donation of this property. From the state's standpoint, it seems, therefore, that laboratory and shop equipment, school furniture, library equipment and books, projection machines and teaching aids, sliould be provided and will contribute greatly to a more effectixe school program in the years following the war. At the 1944 session of the legislature of Virginia, it was provided in Senate Joint Resolution No. 18 that there should be set up a Commission on Surplus Federal Property. The resolution provided that this commission should >^rrure as full informntion ns possible about the av.Tilabdity of sal- Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 145 vage, surplus, or excess war material, equipment, or supplies, which may become available for purchase or for distribution without charge to the state or any of its agencies or political subdivisions. The commission was to consist of five members of the legislature — two senators and three mem- bers of the House of Delegates — and five members to be appointed b)^ the Governor. Acting upon this resolution, the Governor appointed the State Highway Commissioner, the State Commissioner of Agriculture, the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, the State Director of the Division of Purchase and Printing, and the State Commissioner of Corrections, all representing agencies that would be directly concerned with the use of surplus property or with the procurement of such property. The purpose of the commission was to act as an intermediary between localities, insti- tutions, and agencies within the state and the federal distribution agencies, encouraging an accurate determination of the needs of institutions and agencies, as well as specifications set up for use by the Federal Procurement Division, and to inform localities and agencies of available material. At the first meeting of the commission a part-time secretary of the commission was appointed, with adequate secretarial and oflfice assistance. Several meetings have been held by the commission and certain procedures have been agreed upon as follows : 1. That in all instances where materials, equipment, and supplies are needed by both the agencies of the state and the localities, it will be the policy of the com- mission to satisfy first the needs of the localities. 2. That where there is a sufficiency, the surplus shall be allocated on the popula- tion basis, but if there is not a sufficiency, then the need basis shall be the first consideration. 3. It is preferable that the prospective purchaser make his own inspection of the properties or goods; however, if the distance is too great or if the prospective purchasing agency has no one competent to make an inspection of the material in question, the commission will attempt to find a competent inspector from some other source upon the written request of the prospective purchaser. 4. That requests will be considered from city councils, count}' boards of super- visors, schoolboards, or other governing bodies. 5. The attention of the local governing bodies was called to the importance of furnishing the office of the state commission with a list of immediate and future needs, at the earliest possible moment, so that these needs may be passed on to the federal disbursing agencies. It was emphasized that there was need for immediate action since there can be no delay about securing desirable items when the govern- ment really begins to get rid of its surplus. 6. Upon receiving the requests of the agency, county, city, or town, the commis- sion will set up files showing the needs of such agency, county, city, or town; then upon receipt of notices of the items being surplus, the commission will notify the local body of the location of the items so far as the commission may be informed. After inspection has been made, the requisition is to be forwarded liy the local governing body to the State Division of Purchase and Printing. This di\i>i()n, in turn, will place an order with the federal disbursing agency. It seems to us highly important that each state should set up without delay some comparable organization, and that as rapidly as possible a list of the needs of the various localities should be filed with the state commis- sion. It is realized fully that it is quite difficult to list these need^ intelligentlv with so little dehnite information about properties as will be a\'ai1able If 146 American Association of School Administrators is imperative, however, that the machinery be set up, to be put in motion at the proper time. Here is an opportunity to strengthen the position of our public schools and to enable them to render more effective service in the years following the war. SURPLUS WAR MATERIALS— A COMMENT HENRY H. HILL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA The particular facet of this problem which I would have underlined would have contained caution that, instead of having difficulty getting equipment and supplies which the schools need, we should eventually be almost overwhelmed with materials and equipment. It behooves us, there- fore, not only to determine our needs wisely and with some mature delibera- tion, but just as carefully to determine that we do not need certain equipment which may later be had almost for the asking. I think we also need com- plete honesty of purpose and expression in dealing with the federal govern- ment concerning federal surplus war materials. In the long run we should avoid the temptation to use the political approach by ballooning our real needs up to proportions not seriously believed in and made only for the purpose of making a case. Our case is good enough, in my judgment, without padding. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 147 Educational Needs of Youth— A Committee Report WILLIAM J. SMALL Deputy Superintendent of Schools, Niagara Falls, New York, Chairman During the decade between 1930 and 1940 there emerged certain eco- nomic and social conditions which seriously interfered with the satisfactory induction of our young people into the traditional pattern of adult living. This was a matter of much concern to educators, lay groups, and to the federal government. In various studies and experiments that were carried on during this period this situation was commonly designated as the "youth problem." In 1938 the New York State Teachers Association appointed a Commit- tee on Youth Needs to investigate the problems of youth and to prepare a desirable plan of action which the association might undertake. Subsequent to its appointment the committee held a series of conferences with repre- sentatives from statewide organizations who were concerned with the youth problem. In September 1940, a report on the "Educational Needs of Youth" was prepared in which the general policies underlying such a program were presented. In June 1941, the committee issued a report under the title, "Com- munity Programs of Action for Youth." This report briefly outlined the need for organized community action as the most immediate practicable means for serving our young people. In June 1943, the committee issued a report covering the educational services of the public schools in helping youth to focus their energy and interests on wartime requirements. In De- cember 1943, the committee prepared a report on "A Postwar Education Program for Youth." In November 1944, the committee recommended to the annual House of Delegates of the Association a dfffmite program to be put into efifect throughout the state. During the spring of 1945 the com- mittee will hold a series of conferences with educational leaders to discuss the establishment of such a program. The committee believes that the time has come for definite action in the development of a program of educational service for youth. The problem is too complicated to leave until we are faced with a need for such service. Now is the time for citizens and educators to join forces in the development of such a program. The great emergencies of the depression and of the war years ha\'o tre- mendously accelerated social and economic changes that can contribute materially to this improvement. These conditions present both the most critical challenge and the greatest opportunity ever faced by our profession. We must overcome the traditional isolationism of much of our school pro- gram. We must examine present practices and procedures in terms of meet- ing the tasks of postwar readjustment and reconstruction. We must plan and build an educational program designed to serve the educational needs of all youth, for such a program is essential both to the security of our in- stitutions and to any program of mobilizing America's resources for peace. 148 American Association of School Administrators Any plan for refashioning secondary education must be concerned not only with extending the scope of educational services but also with strength- eninfi the whole structure of education. It can and should be developed within the framework of local and state educational systems. With federal financial assistance and effective local and state leadership, it will not be necessary or desirable for the federal government to establish independent educational agencies for serving youth. The following papers will present some of the more significant problems in connection with such a program. A COMPREHENSIVE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM FOR ALL YOUTH UNDER EIGHTEEN YEARS OF AGE LYNDON H. STROUGH, PRINCIPAL, NIAGARA FALLS HIGH SCHOOL, NIAGARA FALLS, NEW YORK In recent years we have been learning the importance of the efficient use of the nation's manpower in waging a world war. America's greatness in the postwar years of peace will be equally dependent on the efficient mobiliza- tion of our human resources for peaceful living. In this great task the schools should be dedicated to the proposition that every youth should experience a broad and balanced education that will develop each to the maximal growth of which he is capable. Certain principles are basic to the development of such an educational program : 1. No two young people are alike. They differ in intelligence, aptitude, interests, occupational outlook, cultural background, and mental and physi- cal health. 2. All youth have certain qualities in common. They are all members of family groups and citizens of the American democracy ; they will be ex- pected to engage in useful work. They need to develop the capacity to think rationally, make decisions based on a wise choice of values, maintain their mental and physical health. These common qualities indicate certain mini- mum essentials in the development of social competence. 3. Outcomes must be measured in terms of individual growth. Education never exists in the abstract. It is always the personal experience of an in- dividual. For each individual this experience is unique. A secondary-school program designed to meet the educational needs of all vouth in terms of these principles will difi'er in notable particulars from the conventional school program. Therefore certain proposals are made here to effect needed changes in the secondary school. 1. All youth should be retained in school t)r umler the supervision of the school until the age of eighteen or until graduation from secondary school, whichever occurs first. This implies revisions in the secondary curriculum, the improvement of guidance services, and the use of community resources to provide work experiences under the supervision of the school. This is a positive approach to the problem of youth leaving school prematurely. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 149 2. The part of the curriculum required of all youth, variously known as the constants or the core curriculum or general education, should be re- vised to meet more directly the common needs of youth. This implies the elimination from this group of those subjects or units of work not serving these common needs, the reduction of emphasis on memorization of facts, particularly those remote from the "here and now" in the lives of youth, and increased emphasis on functional learning with the introduction of education for family and community living. The constants should not be taught in the same way to all youth or with the expectation of the same degree of achievement for all pupils. 3. The part of the curriculum known as the electives or the specializa- tions should be expanded and diversified to meet the many varied interests and abilities of all youth. Special attention should be given to the occupa- tional, the recreational, and the intellectual interests of youth. Many activ- ities now considered extra-curricular and out-of-school should be adopted as a part of the curriculum. The educational plan of each youth should be formulated under the constant supervision of skilful counselors. 4. The guidance and testing service of the school should be expanded so that every youth may be guided more intelligently in the selection of his in- dividual curriculum and in his vocational choice. This implies that the school shall discover more about the capabilities, interests, and personal problems of each youth than is usually known at present. This will inev- itably lead to wiser counseling, better educational planning, sounder voca- tional choice, and ultimately to more efficient use of the nation's manpower and more satisfactory adjustment of the individual to community living. 5. Every youth should have the opportunity to follow a curriculum suit- able to his individual needs, abilities, and interests. This curriculum should be composed of subjects or courses of study adapted to his speed of learning so that he can achieve success in school. This implies the elimination of the traditional single standard of achievement that has been perpetuated by the use of state or equally standardized local examinations and the establishment for each youth of his own particular standard determined by the measure of his own individual ability. 6. Opportunities for community, service should be available to all youth. These may include after-school work for pay, part-time work and part-time schooling, or community service on a volunteer basis. All these out-of-school experiences should be under the guidance and supervision of the school. As the secondary school enters the postwar period, the needs of youth of that day will be seen more clearly than at present. Other changes in the educational program will then be indicated. In the meantime those re- sponsible for the school programs should put their houses in order to prepare for the changes that seem now to be necessary in order to insure for every youth the educational opportunity that is his heritage. ] "^0 American Association of School Administrators A PROGRAM OF EDUCATIONAL SERVICE FOR THE YOUTH OVER EIGHTEEN YEARS OF AGE WHO IS NOT PLANNING TO ATTEND COLLEGE OAKLEY FURNEY, ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, ALBANY, NEW YORK In developing an educational program for this age-group it will not be sufficient merely to extend the services of the present high school upward for two more years; nor will following present instructional practices provide the kind of program these young people want and need. This is essentially a period of apprenticeship to life. Any educational program designed for them should provide induction into adult activities through the medium of par- ticipating experiences. Intelligent planning can utilize many phases of com- munity living as an educational laboratory. In order to meet the educational needs of the 80 percent of youth who do not go on to higher institutions it is recommended that a post-high-school institution be developed that is designed to serve the in-school needs of this group. Admission should be on the basis of ability to profit by the instruction given rather than on accumulated school credits. In some cases certain kinds of instruction can be developed as extensions of the local high school. In many community centers it will be desirable to develop an institution serv- ing an area larger than a local municipality. The proposed New York State Technical Institutes and the community institutes described in the Educa- tional Policies Commission report, Education for All American Youth, are examples of this t^^pe of program. Stemming out of these institutes there should be developed a "cafeteria" type of educational service for older youth and adults, including part-time cooperative courses, short unit courses, cooperative apprentice training, and extension programs designed to provide a continuous program of educational service. The needs of youth in vocations cannot be found solely in providing train- ing in the traditional fields of vocational education. The schools must, in many instances, go out into the "highways and byways" of occupational opportunity and provide educational services as the need exists. As we move into adult areas of educational service we find the need for highly specialized training more apparent. Present public-school plans and policies of voca- tional education should be widely extended to include all the possible ave- nues of training for employment open to youth. In some instances the school will assist in the conduct of programs carried on quite largely in the occu- pation itself ; in others the cooperative efforts of the occupation and the school will be necessary; in other instances a full-time school program will be the most effective method of training. Greater flexibility in organization and procedure is essential. Carefully considered and adequate offerings in vocational education by the public schools can do much to assist young peo- ple to get and hold productive employment. Out-of-school youth faces the same needs but even more severely than youth in school. It would be tragic for those who have completed high school Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 151 to lose all contact with citizen responsibilities until the age of twenty-one when they assume the voting practice. To the end that this gap be bridged, the community youth council in cooperation with existing agencies for adult education should provide definite participating activities in the duties of citizenship for youth who are beyond the school. Such activities as participa- tion in community surveys, service in betterment drives of all types, sur- veys of vocational opportunities in the community and surrounding terri- tory, and political party apprenticeship are illustrative of the most promis- ing types. Further it is suggested that the practice of having a formal induction into the duties, responsibilities, and privileges of citizenship, which originated in a town in Wisconsin and has been duplicated elsewhere, might be fol- lowed in all communities. The wide variety of educational needs and interests of this group should be met through an individualized type of instructional service. This can be done by the use of coordinated self-study programs in a wide range of subjects under the guidance and assistance of trained instructors. The work of the Armed Forces Institute is indicative of the possibilities in this field. Wholesome recreational opportunities ranging from the physically passive kinds to the physically active types should be made available in increasing amounts by our communities. Social agencies, city recreation departments, and schools should cooperate in the planning and development of such programs. Underlying this entire program will be the need for a new and compre- hensive type of guidance service. Counseling in the area of home and family life including marriage problems should be a part of this service. Such a program may well be developed to include service to older youth, adults, and returned veterans. The number of veterans of World War II in most communities is rela- tively small at present, but with the services discharging men at the rate of 60,000 per month, it is not too soon to provide for their needs. The schools share the responsibility for services for veterans with many other agencies, but surely the major responsibility for providing high-school programs for those veterans who wish such training rests with the schools. In order to help these veterans conserve the benefits which accrue to them under the so-called "G. I. Bill of Rights" high-school work should be free. State-aid for a veteran over twenty-one, on the same basis as that provided for his younger brother who is still in high school, would enable most communities to estab- lish tuition-free programs. Intensive vocational courses, both full-time and part-time, should be developed. In many cases it will be desirable to organize separate schools or classes for them. Schools should work with industry to establish coopera- tive programs involving training on the job with supplementary technical training in school. 152 American Association of School Administrators EQUAL EDUCA^riONAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR YOUTH IN RURAL AREAS A. K. GETMAX. CHIEF, BUREAU OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, ALBANY, NEW YORK The welfare of America depends upon the rural schools. Urban com- munities have a unique stake in the efficiency of the schools in the rural areas because from the farms and villages they replenish their populations and secure their manpower for industry and commerce. The equality of educational opportunity, therefore, is not only of primary concern to rural people, but it is likewise of supreme interest to the urban centers throughout America. Rural communities have a numerical advantage over urban centers with reference to the number and proportion of children. Of the rural farm population in 1940, 42.8 percent were under twenty years of age, while the rural nonfarm proportion was 37 percent and the urban proportion was 33.3 percent. In the postwar period, it is reliably estimated that of the persons in excess of our current labor force, three out of four are now living or will be born in rural areas. Since the turn of the century half of the rural youth have moved to urban centers. At the present time, there are approximately 450,000 teachers and 12,- 000,000 pupils in rural areas. It is an inescapable conclusion that hundreds of thousands of youth residing in these areas are seriously handicapped in the educational opportunities open to them. Teachers are woefully under- paid ; buildings and teaching facilities are grossly inadequate ; and such educational services as guidance, physical education and health instruction, and specialized courses in vocational fields suited to the needs of the com- munities in which the schools are located need expansion and improvement. Most of the problems of equalizing the educational opportunities for rural 30uth could be eliminated if immediate and adequate attention were given to the following: 1. Unit of Administration— T\\t rapid development of consolidated and central rural schools, coupled with the growing need for improvements in administrative and supervisory services, has revealed the need for and the advantages of a larger unit of administration. Such a unit would provide more efficient supervision of instruction, specialized services in such fields as guidance, health, and the activities for handicapped children, together with a more efficient and economical program for older youth and adults. Furthermore, such a unit would provide a substantial set-up in the efficiency and economy of management and finance for the educational services within the area. It is now highly important for educational leadership throughout America to move forward as rapidly as possible toward the establishment of such a unit. Current social and economic trends point unmistakably to a critical need for prompt action among states and for the natioii as a whole to improve the present archaic units of administration. 2. Financing the Program — Present inequalities of educational oppor- tunity for rural youth are due chiefly to the lack of adequate financial sup- Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 153 port. Present fiscal policies for financing rural schools need drastic re- vision. The development of federal and state support for education will require specific measures of need and cost for the various types of educa- tional services. Federal and state governments should unite in insuring a minimum of educational opportunity for youth and especially for rural \outh in all parts of the nation. Yet, in doing so, state and local units of administration must be strengthened. 3. Area Vocational Schools — Youth residing in rural areas face an acute handicap in the availability of many types of vocational preparation. While the development of strong agricultural courses for youth regularly enrolled in school and for out-of-school youth and adults, coupled with courses in home economics and courses in, the commercial field, have served effectively the needs of many pupils, almost no opportunities whatever have been pro- vided in the fields of trades and industry and in many farm service employ- ments. Current research studies have revealed the importance of a new type of educational program known as the area vocational school. Such a >chool may be centered within the facilities of an existing school district or it may be established by two or more cooperating districts. Furthermore, such a school may come within the jurisdiction of an intermediate unit of administration or under the administration and control of a state board of education. When an area vocational school is organized in terms of specific local needs based on surveys and when the work is carefully correlated with the existing school systems within the area, a unique contribution may be made in equalizing the educational opportunities for rural youth. 4. Teaching Persotmel — Adequately paid teachers who have met mini- mum standards in their preparation for teaching are primary requisites to effective schools. The lack of suitable salaries and the insecurity of tenure among a large majority of rural teachers stand in the way of needed progress in rural education. Currently, the salaries of rural teachers are scarcely half the salaries paid to teachers in urban centers. Moreover, approximately 60 percent of all teachers in one- and two-teacher rural schools have had less than two years of preparation beyond the high school. 5. The Quality of Instruction — The program of education in rural areas should be organized to meet the specific needs of pupils and to serve the communities of which the schools are a part. The primary aims of edu- cation throughout America can be made real and vital only as the teaching is geared to the social, economic, citizenship, and cultural situations which the pupils face from day to day. Our rural way of life and the modern world of science, technology, and machines should be brought into balance. School officers and teachers should strive to make science contribute to the best economic, moral, and spiritual needs of rural youth. Already, science is providing a better answer than has yet been given to the problem of making the rural area a better place in which to live and the farm and village occupations a better means of making a living. The patterns of cul- ture in our rural America, however, have their roots penetrating deeply into the values of living close to nature. 154 American Association of School Administrators 6. Expansion of Specialized Services — There is nationwide need for extending many of our effective educational programs to larger numbers of communities. Special courses in music, art, health, dramatics, and the like are greatly needed to bring the rural school facilities in line with opportunities in urban centers. Many individual districts serving rural com- munities, which are large enough to maintain courses in home economics, vocational agriculture, industrial arts, and commercial subjects have not kept pace with the expansion of these services in other progressive centers. With the increasingly complex social and economic conditions in our rural areas, a critical need has arisen for extending guidance services to a large number of rural communities. High-school programs likewise should be redirected so that every youth, regardless of residence, economic status, sex, or race may have the advantage of a balanced education through the twelfth year. Such a program emphasizing both cultural and vocational objectives will enable each youth to become a worthy citizen, to become vocationally competent, and to understand and appreciate the best in our cultural and ethical values. THE FUNCTION AND RELATIONSHIP OF FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES IN PROVIDING FINANCIAL SUPPORT W. HOWARD PILLSBURY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS SCHENECTADY, NEW YORK The educational program here presented involves a considerable increase in services. It involves an equally great increase in educational expenditures. This increase cannot be met by local governmental units. The job is national, not merely local in its scope. It must necessarily depend for its support partly on the state but primarily on the federal government. The local community depends entirely for its revenue on the taxation of real property. In recent decades as the sources of the income of our people have changed, this source of revenue has constituted an increasingly smaller proportion of our total wealth. The local community finds its resources taxed to capacity to support its present program. Expansion of revenues from real property is impossible. The state is the smallest unit which can tap our principal sources of wealth — the intangibles. For some of our wealthy states the expansion which this program involves would be possible. For many of the other states, how- ever, the most rigid system of taxation would not permit them adequately to support even existing services. For these states such an expanded service as this program contemplates would be out of the question without federal aid. And even our wealthy states are becoming increasingly embarrassed by the trend in federal taxation. The national government is gradually taking over all the prolific sources of revenue. If this trend is to be continued, and there is every evidence that it will, the support for expanded services must increasingly come from the federal government. Sfecial Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 155 Control, however, must rest in the state and local community. Educa- tion is a state function. No educational principle has become more firmly established in the minds of our people, both through state constitutional provisions and through legal decisions. Never again should this country tolerate the waste of public funds and distortion of educational services involved in setting up independent governmental agencies for the educa- tion of youth. Communities differ widely in their local conditions. A sound program must be adapted to the needs of each local community but under the general supervision of the state. The adequate support and administra- tion of this program, therefore, presents the following picture: 1. The federal government will act largely as a tax-collecting agency, distributing funds to the states and through them to the local communities. This must be free from federal control. If the purposes of the expenditures are definitely stated in the act and not left to the discretion of governmental officials, federal control can be avoided. 2. The state will set up programs for meeting the purposes of the act and exercise general supervision over its operation in the local community. 3. The local community or area will initiate and operate its own local program for carrying out the purposes i)f the act, adapting it to local or area needs. WHAT ARE THE SIGNIFICANT FACTORS IN COMMUNITY PLANNING TO MEET THE PROBLEMS OF YOUTH? CLAUDE L. KULP, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ITHACA, NEW YORK Our topic assumes that community planning is needed in the solution of youth problems, regardless of the source of such problems, and the assump- tion is sound. Whether our interests center in the modification of the present high-school program, or in out-of-school youth who are not attending college, or in rural youth, or in the determination of the functions and rela- tionship of federal, state, and local educational agencies, small success will reward our eflForts unless and until the community brings all of its resources for study, planning, and youth services to bear upon the problems of youth. We have witnessed at least a dozen years of experimentation with youth programs of various types at the community level in various parts of the United States. The combined reports which describe these projects would constitute several good-sized volumes. The areas included ranged from sparsely settled counties in the South and in the Middlewest to large urban centers. Certain common theses may be implied from a review of these youth program reports. For example : ^ The major problem is not lack of effort nor lack of youth-serving agencies, but a lack of coordination among the various agencies. The school can adapt its program to serve community needs, if it has a complete knowledge of the community. 1 American Association of School Administrators. Schools and Manpower. Chapter VIII, p. 224, Washington, D. C. 1943. 156 American Association of School Administrators Almost every community has numerous agencies concerned with youth which are able to give valuable guidance and services for youth. To insure the complete adjustment of youth, the school and the community must work together. The major responsibility for coordination of effort and planning rests with school administrators. Councils, coordinating, neighborhood and rural, may provide an effective and democratic means of achieving community solidarity in serving youth. Councils may be initiated in many ways. Sometimes a problem which has become so serious that the entire community is aware of it, becomes the basis for a meeting of representatives of all of the important agencies con- cerned. Such problems are unemployment, lack of recreational opportunities, lack of guidance services, preinduction services for young men about to enter the military service, readjustment of returning veterans to community life, problems of juvenile delinquency, and the like. Out of meetings called to consider ways and means of solving such problems often comes a more permanent organization of the community council type, designed to enable the several agencies of the community, public and private, to study current needs of youth and to provide necessary services. At the moment, mounting delinquency has stirred many communities into action. Other communities have organized effectively to serve returning veterans. Tomorrow the prob- lem of securing a job for all who wish to work may be with us again. What- ever the problem may be, if it is real and urgent, no better method of enlisting the aid of all community' agencies in a common effort can be pro- vided than to attempt a solution. A genuine problem of some magnitude insures a specific purpose for the first meeting, and this is important, as little interest attaches to a project which concerns itself primarily with organiza- tion rather than work to be done. Someone has to call the first meeting, howexer, and it is logical to expect the school administrator to define the problem and to assemble the repre- sentatives of the private and public agencies which serve youth. No agency of importance should be omitted. School, church, home, and social agencies should all be invited to send one or more representatives, including one or more young people whenever possible. The school has the most complete roster of youth and the most comprehensive information about the boys and girls of the community. It is the only agency which touches the lives of all children who are physically and mentally able to attend school. It has, ideally, built many desirable relationships with the home, the church, busi- ness, industry, labor, and the many social agencies which serve the modern community. It should be made clear in the first meeting that the school does not wish to usurp the functions of any other agency and that each agency is cordially invited, and in fact expected, to contribute such services as it is equipped to provide. In some communities the Council of Social Agencies provides an excellent medium for the organization of a committee, which may later become a community council, for the study and the meeting of youth needs. The school administrator is usually identified with the Council of Social Agen- Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 157 cies, or is at least in a position to present to the Council the need for coordi- nation of effort in the improvement of educational opportunity and services. In other communities the War Council might serve as the sponsoring agency for the organization of a Council of Youth Agencies. The project might be initiated as a committee appointed hy the War Council, but in any event the school administrator is probably the logical person to present the statement of need and the suggestion that a committee shall be appointed to deal with A^outh problems. To summarize, we may say that the creation of a new kind of educational program requires intelligent planning. If such planning is to be effective it must be based on critical evaluation of all the factors involved in pro- viding such service. This involves a study of necessary changes in the organi- zation and procedures of the school, an analysis of educational experiences available in the community, and the steps to be taken in establishing the program. The comprehensive character of this program requires that both educational and lay groups shall participate. Therefore the committee of the New York State Teachers Association recommends that : First, educators in each community should take the lead in organizing for educa- tional planning so that an effective program, designed to serve youth and to give young people a chance to provide their own services, may be developed. This implies the establishment of an educational planning committee in each local com- munity. It calls for administrative leadership with courage and ability to secure the cooperative effort needed in the development of such a program. Second, since local action can be aided or impeded by state education department policies and regulations, and since certain phases of the problems extend beyond the limits of local communities, educational planning on a statewide basis should be inaugurated under the direction of the state education department. This recom- mendation recognizes the importance of an over-all consideration of plans to meet the needs of youth and the necessity of a coordinated program of educational service. It implies the unity of leadership necessary to encourage, assist, and coordinate local planning and local action. 158 American Association of School Administrators Resource E^lucation : A Tool for Regional Development JOHN E. IVEV, JR. Executive Secretary, Committee on Southern Regional Studies and Educa- tion, American Council on Education, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Given adequate natural resources and human resources, what is it that determines whether a society will prosper? Or, to put it another way, why is it that in some societies the people, in spite of the fact they have adequate natural resources at their disposal, still find it difficult, and sometimes impossible, to achieve satisfactory levels of living? These questions pose a problem which has been weighing heavily on educational leaders in the southern United States. For in the southern region this is not an academic matter ; southern leaders know full well that in modern society natural resources, no matter how great their potential value, make little or no contribution to living until the people have the skills, machines, capital, attitudes, and the motivation to use resources to satisfy their individual and group needs. For decades research specialists have been adding to a veritable mine of information on the status and opportunities for use of the natural resources of the Southeast. Scientific facts on the status of resources of the region paint a picture of a people using but a small part of the wide variety of resources potentially at their disposal. Cotton and tobacco largely dominate com- mercial agricultural activity. The region's industry pours into the stream of commerce manufactured products which, in general, represent primary stages of manufacture. The workers, both in agriculture and industry, earn income well below amounts received in other regions of the nation. Potentialities of the South have been set forth in bold terms, well based on scientific inventory. Diversified farming, decentralized industries draw- ing on agriculture for raw materials, higher levels of finished-goods manu- facture, rural and urban housing developments, more adequate public services for health, education, welfare, and government — all these activities are examples of potential areas of regional improvement. The gap between potentiality and the present status of living in the Southeast seems to exist for the most part because the people of the region, their natural resources, their leaders, and available scientific information have not been united into living and working arrangements which spell progressive change. It is comparatively easy for the scientist to sit in his office and blueprint "desirable" social changes, or determine zuhat needs to be accomplished. This has been done in many research documents. There still remains, however, the job of discovering how that scientific evidence and conclusion can be brought into the sphere of human action. Therefore, to the people of the Southeast, a major task in regional development lies in discovering not only ivhat needs to be done but hoiv the job is to be undertaken — how the people and scientific information are to be more effectively united. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 159 Regional development implies chanfje, change in existing ways of living and working; successful social change requires satisfactory adjustment among the various aspects of social environment. Regional development, then, is essentially a concept denoting a process of achieving higher and higher levels of adequacy in social adjustment. If we are to discover how science is to contribute more effectively to this process of regional develop- ment, it is necessary to identify ( 1 ) the types of relationships involved in social adjustment within a region; (2) where the process of developing these relationships actually takes place; (3) what kinds of public activity are essential to the process of regional development; and (4) how education can stimulate the process of regional development. regional development as a problem of relationships Regional development, as a total problem, has two major aspects closely interrelated. On the one hand, it is essentially a job of bringing about increasingly adequate relationships between people and their natural re- sources. Scientists and technicians in transportation, communication, agri- culture, industry, and other fields of production possess the "know how" for this undertaking. On the other hand, regional development is a job of bringing about a more satisfactory relationship among the people them- selves. This problem permeates law, government, medicine, religion, educa- tion, business, finance, and other such institutional systems in which social leadership functions among a maze of human values and attitudes. The social scientist — psychologist, sociologist, public administrator, economist, and educator — possesses much specialized information for application in these fields. There are two criteria, almost truisms, on which one can judge the adequacy of relationships between men and their natural resources and among men living and working together in a given society : ( 1 ) what is the long-run effect on natural resources; and (2) what is the long-run efifect on the welfare of men and their ability and capacity to work out adequate social adjustments. The natural environment, left untouched by man, exhibits a tendency or strain toward biological balance. Water, sun, and land function in a unified process which gives a geographical area a certain productive capacity. The agricultural and industrial activities carried on in an area can be said to be effectively geared to the sustained productive capacity of the natvir;tl environment only when they contribute to the continunnco of a iinifird relationship between the water, land, and sun. For example, when men farm their land in a manner that accelerate'^ erosion or continually saps the fertility from the soil, without ever using soil building practices, they are destroying the productive capacity of the area. When a forest area is denuded in one cutting and the land left to inroads of erosion from rain, a valuable wood producing unit has been destroyed, and the productive capacity of the uncovered land will be greatly diminished with increasing severity of erosion. Even when men use natural resources so as to maintain their natural producti\T capacity, there are some resources, such as iron, coal, and oil, 160 American Association of School Administrators which, unlike water, sunlight, plants, and trees are not renewable. The\ represent exhaustible resources which cannot be replaced. Consequently, over a long period of time, men should use inexhaustible resources in such a manner as to draw as little as possible on their exhaustible resources. There are cases, for example, where hydro-electricity, made from an inex- haustible resource — water — can be substituted for power furnished by oil or coal, exhaustible resources. In such situations, the long-run necessity for preservation of exhaustible resources would demand that water power be used whenever possible. Thus, we have two criteria of the adequacy' of the use relationship from the standpoint of what happens to the natural environment as a result of its use by man : ( 1 ) the maintenance of a sustained productive capacity of natural resources by strict observance of the unified relationships among the various elements of the natural environment; and (2) the use of exhaus- tible resources in such manner as to prolong their availability by substituting inexhaustible resources whenever possible. Now, to get to the second measure of the adequacy of relationship between men and natural resources and of the relationship among men : What is the long-run eliect on men? Are men using the land so that they avoid nutritional deficiencies by producing food which is rich in mineral and vitamins? Do all men have access to medical and educational facilities so that they develop to the maximum of their physical and psychological capacity? Do all men have the opportunity to participate in economic and social activities so as to make a maximum contribution in the processes of living and working? The assumption underlying each of these questions is that every normal individual and each group possesses a sustained capacity for socially pro- ductive effort. This capacity can be realized only by continual, full release of physical and intellectual powers of the individual and the group. The capacity of a social group to attain higher levels of adequacy in social relationships can be measured on three highly interdependent points : the extent to which ( 1 ) the physical capacity of each individual is devel- oped; (2) the intellectual capacity of the individual is developed; and (3) group customs, technological facilities, and social institutions are organized to provide ways and means for individuals to identify and develop pro- cedures for meeting physical and intellectual needs. These three points indicate the importance of social attitudes and values which condition individual thinking and action as participants, for example, in business, government, religion, education, and family relationships. For it is through these established t\pes of social relationships that individual needs are defined and met. Just as man uses certain elements of his natural environment and calls them his natural resources, he also uses these estab- lished types of social relationships as resources to meet needs. They are, in a very real sense, man's social resources. When existing social relationships do not facilitate, or do not sanction action to facilitate, the full release of all individual and group creative energies, human energy, is wasted. Disease, ignorance, substandard hotising, Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 161 racial discrimination, are all indications of inadequate social relationships resulting in wasted human energy. It can be seen then that adequate relationships between man and natural resources and adequate social relationships among men depend on how men use natural resources and how men use their social resources to define and meet needs. Every environment, physical and social, has a productive capacity ; the degree to which it is developed and maintained is one main guide line for judging the adequacy of the way men are using their natural and social resources. Since the effective use of natural and social resources depends upon human energy, the basic problem of regional development is the full train- ing and use of the human beings in the region. Given adequate natural resources, the realization of a region's productive potentiality turns on the technics and procedures of uniting the natural resources with human energy, physical and mental. It is this process of achieving a more sufficient relation- ship and adjustment between the human potentiality and the productive potentiality of the natural resources of an area that is the basic problem in regional development. REGIONAL development AND COMMUNITY ACTION In the United States men are brought into relationship with their natural and social resources by three highly interrelated levels of social organization: local communities, states, and the nation. It is upon these levels of organization that Americans solve their problems of living. The region, as a level of social organization, represents a group-of-states area. In actuality it lies between the state level and the national level of action. Regional action is necessitated because there are problems of living which cut across state lines and which cannot be effectively met except through interstate cooperative effort. In the Southeast problems such as flood control, soil erosion, interterri- torial freight rates, cotton and tobacco production, race relations, and many others, affect the lives of people in many states. To effectively work toward solutions of these problems there must be a framework of interstate action. In this sense, regional action can be thought of as an integrating facility among states. Federal action on the regional level should be viewed primarily as a means of strengthening the ability of states and communities to solve their own problems through interstate cooperation, on the one hand, and through state-federal collaboration, on the other hand. The operation of the Ten- nessee Valley Authority has well illustrated the efficacy of the principle that a regional agency, while serving as an integrating facility in a seven- state area, can successfully pursue a policy of working with and through state and local agencies and institutions. In the field of agriculture the TVA works through the facilities of the various state land-grant colleges ; in health it collaborates with state departments of health ; and similar pro- cedures are followed with regard to conservation, education, and many other phases of regional development. 162 American Association of School Administrators Yet, within a framework of interstate integration, the processes of regional development, being essentially problems of human development, find their mainsprings firmly rooted in the communities of the area. It is in their communities that people live and work ; the family, church, business, school, government, and state and federal services take concrete form. Atti- tudes and values are real forces ; they guide human behavior. On the basis of these social values, right and wrong are evaluated ; wants and desires are formulated and given expression in the way men work and live. The adequate development of the South can be measured only in the extent to which there is achieved a richer quality of community life. This fact places the responsibility for southern development squarely on the shoulders of every community leader in the region. A new South will not be molded out of glowing generalizations ; it can grow only by direct application of physical and mental energy to create better living and working arrangements in localities. The achievement of more adequate use of natural and social resources of a community is both a means and an end of regional action. But what areas of human activity condition and control the development of procedures for accomplishing this objective? scientific management and the process of regional development To achieve higher levels of adequacy in relationships among men and between men and their natural resources, even in the face of technological splendor and an abundance of natural resources, two vital areas of human development must be carefully studied : ( 1 ) the nature and type of values and attitudes embraced by the people; and (2) the vocational training possessed by the group. Within a community one is becoming accustomed to the need for using scientific information and procedure in running an industry or a farm. This is recognized good management. Vocational training, in the broad sense, has usually well recognized this fact, and, in general, has encouraged this point of view. The same community, however, rarely views the operation of its social institutions as a total job of democratic social "management." The family, church, school, business, and government are expected to somehow meet the needs of the people without any special over-all attention. Social values and attitudes have not j^et generally accepted the fact that man has the scientific information necessary to allow him to manage more effectively the total social resources of a community. By use of scientific information the people of a region can achieve more adequate relationships with their natural resources. Capital, technology, and business organization can be applied to problems of production, dis- tribution, and use of commodities. To achieve more adequate relationships among men there must be a similar democratic use of scientific management in the field of human relations. Experience has shown that the solution of problems such as health, housing, social security, labor relations, educa- tion, and government in a democracy cannot, and need not, be left to some invisible hand. Today adequacy in use relationships of man to natural Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 163 resources depends more than ever upon adequacy in social relationships among men. The major premise here is that the processes of regional development can- not be effectively and permanently set in motion unless there is generally accepted among the people a point of vievv^ which recognizes the necessity for and encourages the development of procedures for the scientific develop- ment of the natural and social resources of the particular area involved. The diffusion of this point of view among the people of an area is a matter of stimulating the development of values and attitudes which become reflected in activities of individuals. Vocational skills in the use of natural resources — farming, forestry, mining, industry — and vocational skills of bankers, doctors, lawyers, merchants, educators, public administrators, and others cannot make a maximum contribution to regional development unless guided by information and a general philosophy based on broad principles of scientific resource management. In the United States democratic processes must form the basic principle for developing procedures of scientific resource management. These proc- esses require maximum individual and group participation in ( 1 ) identify- ing what objectives are to be pursued; (2) deciding how, or through what procedures, the objectives are to be attained; and (3) implementing pro- cedures agreed upon. This process of individual and group decision-making and group action can be no more effective than the information, point of view, and experience which enter into the judgments made. At once it becomes apparent that education in the very broadest sense must be the major social process under- lying the development and implementation of regional programs for scien- tific management of natural and social resources. The role of education also is underscored when it is remembered that, in developing more adequate relationships betw'een man and natural re- sources, and providing for the formation of more effective social relationships among men, the major causal force in bringing about these changing rela- tionships lies within the human side of the equation. Machines and natural resources cannot be brought into effective productive relationship until men have the skills, attitudes, and motivation to organize adequate working and living arrangements. One can logically conclude, then, that the future of the South largely rests on the development of dynamic educational procedures which provide the region's people with skills, attitudes, and motivation to continually use available research facts for the scientific , management of the area's natural and social resources. education for scientific resource management What kind of education would contribute to realization of a better quality of living in the South? How can it be made realistic, down to earth? How can the task be begun ? These questions represent basic problems w^hich must be faced frankly without unsheathing philosophical red herrings, or using the well-known ender of many arguments, "It can't be done." Education, viewed as total life experience, cannot be drawn into neat, 164 American Association of School Administrators labeled compartments. At the same time experiences are not educational until they have some significance for, or use in, the life of the individual or group. It would seem then that educational experiences designed to improve the quality of living in the South must find their focal points in terms of the individual and group problems of living. From this point of view there can be no absolute or generalized state- ment as to what content of education would contribute to the improvement of the quality of life in the South. Problems of living, while often reflecting general similarities among communities and among states of a region, are unique in their local incidence. Consequently because of differences in types of problems, or in the nature of similar problems, within a region, educa- tion must look to functional guides and emphases as standards for attain- ment. ELEMENTS OF ACHIEVEMENT IN RESOURCE-USE EDUCATION Educational experiences planned with the objective of stimulating scien- tific resource management, while built within a group's problem of living, >?hould have at least five functional elements. Each of these elements should he couched in a point of view which stimulates attitudes and values calling (or scientific management of natural and social resources. First, the basic facts which people learn pertaining to their resources and problems should always hold in proper perspective ( 1 ) the interrela- tionships and unity of the various elements of the natural environment and man's role in maintaining that unity; and (2) the measures of adequacy of resource-use relationships in terms of the inherent productive capacity of the natural environment and of the social environment. This latter point can be gauged specifically by observing (a) what is the long-run effect of man's activities on the productive capacity of the natural environment ; and (b) what is the long-run effect of man's activities on his own inherent productive capacity. These aspects of subjectmatter in resource-use education should be con- ■idered not as understandings to be gained through a special course or special P'ogram, but as an essential part of all phases of formal and informal education. The natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities, as con- ceived in formal education, can find basic themes of integration on these si'bjectmatter principles. The entire curriculum of the public schools, through progressive stages of development, should infuse these principles into existing courses and activities. Public and private agencies working uith the resources and problems of an area should use these principles as policy guides for program development. A second element in resource-use education is the matter of creating motivation to use resources in the most effective manner. Facts, even if ♦^horoughly known, must exert some driving force on the individual before thr^y effectively condition his thinking and acting. It is, therefore, necessary to surround information with appeals which are likely to precipitate action. Films, novels, group discussions, radio, newspaper, editorials, church pro- grams, as well as all types of written materials offer many avenues of attack en the problems of individual and group motivation. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 165 A basic aspect of developing motivation to follovv^ scientific resource-use practices is the matter of facilitating the development of a feeling of indi- vidual and group responsibility for maintaining adequate use relationship betw^een men and their natural and social resources. Soil erosion should be interpreted as reflecting irresponsible robbing of the land. Community prob- lems, such as substandard housing, venereal diseases, racial discrimination, objectively view^ed, should be seen as symbols of failing community leader- ship. The inadvertent kindling of forest fire should incur the same com- munity wrath as the deliberate burning of a factory or school house. The dumping of sewage into streams that might otherwise serve recreational or water supply needs should be viewed with the same public anger as an act of dumping garbage into the center of a public playground. The adequate use of resources will not result unless motivating forces and attitudes creating an acceptance of responsibility are woven into the processes of resource-use education. As a third element in resource-use education, people must be assisted to develop perception in knowing when they need further information on matters. A part of this problem lies in cultivating attitudes which place confidence in the utility and provide a desire to use new scientific facts. Another matter lies in assisting people to become aware of sources of infor- mation. State departments of health, conservation, education, state planning boards, state agricultural extension services, agricultural experiment sta- tions, to mention only a few, are sources of information which is given in the form of reading materials, consultation, and technical assistance. A fourth basic element in resource-use education, if it is to be integrated effectively with democratic processes, is that there be provision for people to become experienced in group decision-making and group action. Assisting individuals to develop facility in group participation, while an educational problem itself, is essential to scientific management of social resources. The work of government, health service, the public school, the church, business clubs, PTA, and many institutionalized agencies, depends on group participation for its effectiveness. Group action can result in uniting existing social resources more closely with newly developed needs, or can create new forms of social resources to meet the needs. As new needs become recognized in a community, e.g., substandard housing, stream pollution, racial discrimination, nutri- tional deficiencies, then existing agencies have to find ways of meeting their problems, or the people have to organize new facilities to meet these prob- lems of living. When a large number of rural people began to discover that electricity could be made available to them through cooperative arrange- ments, this new form of group activity was started over large areas of the region. This represents a social resource, an invention of a new facility of group action in meeting a human need. A technical facility, electrical equipment, was brought into relationship with a need recognized by a group through social invention or social engineering. Individual experience in group decision-making and group action is essential to this type of achieve- ment. 166 American Association of School Administrators Another aspect of developing facility in group participation lies in the relationship which must exist between the laj^man and the expert or spe- cialist. This is a key matter in uniting people with scientific information and is also intimately related to the problem of individual and group aware- ness as to sources of scientific information and services. To realize the full fruits of the democratic process in group decision-making and planning, the experts or scientists and laymen must be brought face to face in solving problems and implementing decisions. David E. Lilienthal, writing of layman-expert relationship in the Ten- nessee Valley, has stated that, "Bringing the technician physically face to face with the people's needs where they occur, in short, I regard as funda- mental." ^ An essential part of this relationship is that different kinds of experts, working in special fields that are related in their effect upon the people, should live together and work together. Mr. Lilienthal well states the principle that "unless specialists are required by appropriate managerial methods to live together and work together, they will not unify their con- clusions so that they will make sense to the laymen who must put the results to use in their lives." ^ This second aspect of developing facility for group participation, the expert-layman relationship, is a basic two-way educational process. It breathes life into the expert's speciality; he sees his scientific findings woven into the fabric of life ; he sheds his scientific jargon and, if necessary, relearns basic English as a tool for scientific expression. The layman can find self- expression and sense his part in group processes of living; a new spirit of motivation and accomplishment can spring from his group activities. Science and the expert bring new tools of thought and action, vividly real as seen in everyday application. A fifth element In resource-use education is that there should be provision for people to develop skills, or "know-how" In implementing decisions. One facet of this problem Is solved by bringing the expert into the picture because he serves as a tie between the people and the technical services of the agency, business, or organization he represents. He can thus bring com- munity problems Into contact with the social resources available. But when new skills are required, such as In agriculture, industry, trades, or professions, there must be facilities for training. Adult education classes, vocational education In the public schools, apprenticeship experience in busi- ness, either In the community or in other areas — all these offer possible procedures for developing skills more strictly of a vocational nature. No program for scientific management of a region's resources can expect to reflect success if it depends solely on "broad understandings" of scientific resource-use principles. Nor can It attract and hold the interest of the people. The type of training called for here largely will have to be given to people where they live. Colleges, universities, state and federal agencies, and private 1 Lilienthal, David E. TVA — Democracy on the March. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1944. p. Ul-22. 'Ibid., p. 122. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 167 business represent social resources which can be drawn on to do the job. Its realization would demand, however, a concept of coordinated public voca- tional education based on the resource-use potentialities of the communities in which people live. A Problem in Administration From this brief discussion of elements of resource-use education, it is apparent that, just as education is viewed as total life experience, effective educational procedures to assist people in developing facility for scientific management of their resources must attempt to unite the people with all those influences and forces which can contribute to making life experience more adequate. All agencies and organizations — public, private, professional — working with or interested in the resources and problems of a region, its communities and states, have a stake in the problem of achieving this unity of educational effort. Some agencies have more direct responsibilities, e.g., the public schools, the churches, colleges and universities, agricultural exten- sion services, agricultural experiment stations, state planning boards, state departments of education, health, welfare, conservation, and in addition many regional and federal agencies and organizations. These agencies, added to private business, constitute the social resources of the region. They must achieve some unity of objective and cooperative coordination of educational effort. From this point of view, resource-use education can in part be seen as a gigantic job of educational administration. Educational technics, media, curriculum, agency and institutional relationships are points of focus which require continual appraisal as to their effectiveness in contributing to scien- tific resource use. Each phase of appraisal would in some way be evaluated in light of the five elements of resource-use education. A review of these elements reveals that each represents some aspect of interdependence among different varieties of educational and research activity. To create a recognition of the essential unity of the parts of the natural environment, including man's behavior in use of resources; to get the layman familiar with sources of scientific information ; to develop motivation and a feeling of responsibility for scientific use of resources ; to bring experts into working relationships with laA^men ; and to provide for training in new resource practices — all these matters, if they are to be suc- cessfully pursued, require new levels of cooperative coordination in admin- istration. coordinate educational administration applied to resource-use education in the local community The anchor points for achieving regional development through adminis- trative integration of educational and research activity must be deeply rooted in the philosophy and action of the local public school. The processes of scientific resource management, in final analysis, are set in motion on the community level of social organization. Throughout the greater part of the southern United States the school is the major center for community 168 American Association of School Administrators activities. In most cases it is the only source of formal educational activity. Therefore, the role and responsibility of the local school in resource-use education is obvious and inescapable. It also is obvious that, as a basic process in regional development, success- ful education for scientific resource management places the school principal, county superintendent, and state department of education into a broadly conceived concept of public administration. On the one hand, they face the responsibility of assisting a rising generation to attain competence in use of their natural and social resources. On the other hand, these public-school administrators must serve as focal points or catalytic agents in bringing the facilities of other educational and research agencies into effective contact with the people on the community level. In carrying out these responsibilities the school principal and superin- tendent, collaborating with their staffs and lay leaders in their area, should ( 1 ) develop actions within their school systems which will increase the effectiveness of resource-use education within the school and will relate resource study, in part, to the resource needs of the area; and (2) examine the effectiveness of their procedures for working with other public and private agencies serving the resource-use needs of their people and who have materials and consultants that would be useful in the public-school program. If local schools are to go successfully through this process of thinking and action, and in turn facilitate effective scientific resource management in their communities, the state departments of education, state universities, land-grant colleges, teachers colleges, and many other state and federal agencies will find opportunities to gauge their programs more effectively in line with problems of living in the areas they serve. Teacher training, both in-service and pre-service, processes of curriculum ' development and integration, school administration, and working relationships with and among nonschool agencies — all these matters will have to be oriented in part to meet an area's needs for resource-use education. The visions of a great South can come no nearer to realization than the ability of educational and research personnel to perfect procedures for a total program of resource-use education. On all levels of social organiza- tion— the community, state, region, and nation — there are social resources that can play a role in creating the "know-how" of regional development. Resource-use education offers one effective avenue to make scientific dis- covery the people's tool. Higher levels of satisfaction and accomplishment may be attained through more effective Individual and group participation in the process of building a greater America. This points a way toward making a reality from the American Dream of social and economic democracv. Radio in Education— A Committee Report CHARLES H. LAKE Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio, Chairman FOREWORD The year 1945 marks a quarter centurj' of broadcasting in America. At present more than nine hundred radio stations operate daily in the United States. The average home has its set tuned for programs more than five hours a day. The American school child listens to radio more than two and one-half hours daily. All these facts have real significance for education. The recent action of the Federal Communications Commission which reserved twenty channels in the FM band for the exclusive use of non- commercial educational stations makes a report of this type both timely and valuable. The individuals who have contributed to this publication represent some of the leaders in this increasingly important field. It is hoped that this report will accomplish its purpose — that of serving as a valuable guide for the development and use of this medium of education. EDUCATION'S OPPORTUNITIES IN RADIO ^ CLIFFORD J. DURR Commissioner, Federal Communications Commission, Washington, D. C. Mark Hopkins on one end of a log may have, in his day, constituted the nearly ideal school — at least for the one student who was so fortunate as to be sitting on the other end of the log. Such a system, however, would not go far in meeting today's educational needs. There are not enough Mark Hopkinses to go around, and logs have definite limitations as places to sit. There are not enough teachers to go around, even if we should reduce the qualification standard far below the Mark Hopkins level. Moreover, it is probable that the range of the presentday curriculum would strain even his pedagogical versatility. The story of the public schools of this country is one of unrelenting effort to carry the benefits of education to a constantly expanding student body and to adjust and enlarge the courses of study to meet the complexi- ties of a rapidly changing social and economic order, and thereby bring to the students at least a minimum of awareness of the world they live in. We may wax sentimental about the little red schoolhouse — particularly around the time of the year when the tax bills fall due — but few are either so sentimental or so economy-minded as really to want to go back to the good old days of the underequipped, underheated, and poorly lighted one-room schoolhouse with its backless wooden benches, pot-bellied 1 Address presented at the annual meeting of the National Council of Chief State School Officers, Baltimore, Maryland, December 2, 1944. [169] 170 American Association of School Administrators stove, and common drinking dipper, presided over by a harassed, over- worked, and underpaid teacher, faced with the impossible task not only of keeping order but of teaching a mixed-age group ranging from six to eighteen years. Please do not misunderstand my use of the past tense. I am neither so bold nor so ignorant as to imply that the harassed, overworked, and underpaid teacher is a thing of the past. I know, too, that the little red schoolhouse is not yet a museum piece and that sometimes it is hard to identify merely because it doesn't have its coat of red paint, or paint of any other kind. But at least it is no longer our model. In the progress away from the one-room, one-teacher schoolhouse toward the modern well-equipped school with its staff of trained teachers, its libraries, laboratories, workshops, recreation rooms, playgrounds, and bus service for children living at a distance, a tremendous amount has been accomplished in a remarkably short period of time. For this, we owe a deep debt of gratitude to the devotion, sacrifice, imagination, and hard work of our public-school teachers and officers. They have not only had the job of educating the young, but also of educating the adults in the educational needs of the young. I would not be surprised if the youngsters have not, on the whole, been more apt pupils than their elders. Even the parents of children in school have not been too quick to understand that the cost of better and more extensive educational facilities is not a sacrifice but the soundest kind of investment in the future. I do not believe that I can yet be fairly labeled as a "tired old man," but even I can recall — as a child, of course — the lifted eyebrows of some of my elders at the mention of the local public school. It was regarded as somewhat on the socialistic side, but perhaps deserving of support in a modest way as a charitable institution for the benefit of those children who had not shown proper foresight in the selection of their parents. Certainly the public schools were no place for "nice children" of "substantial parents." Some who looked on the public-school system with greater approval were nevertheless reluctant for their own children to attend on pure grounds of personal pride. They felt that they would not be playing the part of good citizens if they should let their children be educated at public expense when they were fully able to pay private school tuition. Certainly public education of parents has made vast strides since those distant da^'s. It is not surprising that the educational institutions, which have so con- stantly sought new and better technics and tools of education, should have been among the pioneers in radio broadcasting. Here was probably the most effective instrumentality of education that had come along since the inven- tion of the printing press. By its use, the best teaching talent could be spread among a tremendously enlarged number of pupils and the outside world could be brought into the classroom. More important still, an effec- tive means was now at hand for continuing throughout adult life the job just begun with the youngsters. Before the Federal Communications Commission was established in 1934, the Department of Commerce and the old Federal Radio Commission had Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 171 licensed more than two hundred broadcasting stations to schoolboards, high schools, colleges, and universities. It looked for awhile as if a new era in education was about to begin. But the problems of the early broad- casters were tremendous, particularly those of the educational broad- casters. Radio was far from perfect and skill in its use could be acquired only by experience. There were a few receiving sets in the hands of the public and those who owned them were likely to be absorbed more in the game of trying to pick up the maximum number of distant stations than in the content of any particular program. Certainly their attention could not long be held by a classroom lecture. Some of the schools and colleges looked on radio primarily as a scientific development to be studied in the physics laboratory. Others appreciated more fully its significance as an educational medium, but with limited audiences and even more limited budgets, they found the problems of good programming insuperable. One by one, the educational stations left the air, their frequencies passing into the hands of commercial groups who were quick to see the possibilities of radio as a profitable advertising medium. A handful of educational stations survived. Through hard experience they learned how to use their new tool, and while they were learning, the tool itself was steadily improving. The costly and inefficient receiving sets were replaced by newer models at constantly decreasing costs and increasing efficiency. In little more than a decade, the few thousand sets in the hands of the public had increased to tens of millions, and 30,000,000 American living rooms had become potential classrooms. But by this time the standard broadcasting band had become crowded and there was little, if any, room left for education to reenter the broadcasting field. In abandoning their own stations, many educational institutions were influenced by the belief that their educational work could be effectively carried on through the use of time donated by the commercial stations. This was true for a while, but as broadcasting grew in popularity as an advertising medium, the time available for educational programs rapidly declined. The demand for advertising has been stimulated still more by the wartime profits of business concerns, and there is no reason to believe that advertising pressure upon broadcasting time will grow less when the war is over. Now, happily, an educator has given education its second chance. The importance of FM, or frequency modulation broadcasting, developed by Major Edwin H. Armstrong, Professor of Electrical Engineering at Columbia University, lies not merely in its high fidelity and its compara- tive freedom from static and interference, but even more in the new spaces it has opened up in the broadcasting spectrum. When the wartime pressure upon critical materials has been relaxed and radio equipment again made freely available, there will be room for many new stations, both educational and commercial. If I read the signs right, the educators are not going to let this second chance go by. In the old recipe for rabbit stew, the first step recommended is to catch the rabbit. Educational stations must be established before there can be 172 American Association of School Administrators effective educational broadcasting. Even this part of the job is not a simple one, and the educational institutions cannot count on others to do it for them. They must do the job for themselves. The first part of the task of establishing an educational FM station is the technical problem. What geographic area should the station serve? Where should the studios be located? Where should the transmitter be located? Should the studios and transmitter be linked by vv^ireline or by radio relay? How much power and how high an antenna will be needed to serve the area desired? What brand and type of transmitter should be procured? What antenna pattern should be adopte'd ? How should the studios be soundproofed, and what special studio equipment should be procured? How should the station be linked with other stations for the mutual exchange of programs? The answers to such technical questions as these require sound engi- neering assistance. The United States Office of Education has, as you know, published a very excellent pamphlet entitled FAI for Education, which answers many questions of this type extremely well. This is only one of the many FM services which the Office of Education has been rendering under Commissioner Studebaker, whose pioneer efforts for educational broadcasting over the past decade are now approaching fruition. But no pamphlet can solve the local engineering problems associated with each particular FM station. Fortunately, the educational institutions of this country have available on their own staffs many outstanding engi- neers. Major Armstrong himself, the pioneer of FM and its chief pro- ponent, is a professor at Columbia University, and is extremely sympathetic to educational broadcasting; and there are other trained radio engineers in our educational institutions throughout the country. It seems to me extremely important that educators secure the cooperation of the technical experts in their own ranks. This cooperation could first be procured at the national level to solve such problems as the setting of equipment standards for educational FM stations, the developing of improved technics for linking educational FM stations into networks, and similar technical problems which all educational FM stations will have in common. A nationwide committee of radio engi- neers willing and able to assist in broad-scale educational FM planning would be of the greatest assistance. In addition to these general technical problems, each educational FM station will have its local technical problems — choosing a site, determining power and antenna height, etc. Here local engineering skill should be available within each state to assist in soundly planning a particular station. A related problem is the securing of equipment. During the war period of course, very few FM transmitters and almost no FM receivers are available, but some of the equipment manufacturers are accepting orders now for postwar delivery. The Army and Navy, moreover, have very large quantities of communications equipment, some of which will no doubt be declared surplus. This may be an economical way of filling some of the Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 173 equipment needs of educational institutions entering FM. Educators might well investigate this surplus property possibility. Once the technical questions have been answered, at least tentatively, the painful question arises: "Where is the money coming from?" There may be a few school systems, colleges, and universities today with more money than they know how to use, but I have not heard about them. As a member of a federal agency which must, at least once every j'ear, justify its own use of funds and its budget requests for the coming year, I can ofifer my sympathy but not much helpful advice. My only suggestion is that you make the fullest use of those "educated" parents I have previously referred to, and of parent and teacher associations, many of which have already expressed a very real interest in the need for educational FM sta- tions. At recent hearings before the Federal Communications Commission, the representative of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers indi- cated that the state radio chairmen of that organization were as enthu- siastic about educational FM as any educator. If parents can be made to understand the full significance of broadcasting as an educational medium, and their support can be enlisted, your appropriations problems should be considerably reduced. After your technical plans are lined up, the time comes to apply to the Federal Communications Commission for a license. This may appear to be a reversal of advice 3'ou have previously received. Some of you may recall a widely quoted speech made by the former FCC chairman in September 1943, in which he urged educators to apply for FM station licenses without delay. He referred to the five FM channels which the Commission had set aside for the exclusive use of nonprofit educational institutions, chiefly at the request of U. S. Commissioner of Education Studebaker, and said: . . . Those choice channels were not set aside for absentees. The ether is far too crowded, the pressure from other interests seeking to use radio far too great, to permit continued reservation of those channels, unless educators actually get busy and fill them with educational stations. There is no room for what the rail- road industry calls 'deadheading.' If education doesn't want and doesn't need those channels, and if it doesn't prove its desires and needs by actually making intensive use of them, history is going to repeat itself, and education will again find that it is left with memories of a lost opportunity. I am not, of course, able to read Chairman Fly's mind at the time he made that speech, but from the response, I suspect that he accom- plished his purpose. Within a year, the whole outlook for educational FM had changed. By September 1944, five noncommercial FM educa- tional stations were actually on the air, four were under construction, two had been granted construction permits but were forced to discontinue temporarily because of the war, eight applications were pending, sixteen incomplete applications had been received, and more than one hundred and sixty other educational institutions had written the Commission ex- pressing an interest in the establishment of FM stations or requesting application forms. Since then, these numbers have still further increased. 174 American Association of School Administrators The interest already demonstrated by educators should certainly relieve any fears that the five channels set aside for them will be allowed to go to waste. The testimony of the educators who appeared as witnesses in the Com- mission's postwar allocation hearings, held in September and October of last year, should definitely put to rest the question, "Will these five chan- nels be used?" It raises an entirely different one: "How many more chan- nels will be required?" I cannot, of course, tell you what answer the Commission will give to this last question, or even to the questions as to whether FM broadcasting will remain in the same part of the radio spec- trum now assigned to it or will be moved elsewhere where there is more room, for the Commission is still giving consideration to these and the other tremendously complicated allocation problems. But I think I can say that the entire Commission is impressed with the fact that this time the educational institutions really mean business. Please do not misunderstand me, I am not suggesting that you relax. The suggestion that your technical planning precede your applications merely relates to the order rather than the speed with which you should proceed ; whether the Commission finally allocates five or ten or fifteen chan- nels for nonprofit educational broadcasting, unoccupied spaces will remain a continuing temptation to other groups. - The FCC forms which must be filled out before an application is granted may seem difficult to many of you. Let me assure you that they are much less difficult than the form which we previously had and which we simplified at the request of educators. Let me say also that the recent United States Office of Education publication, FAI for Education, should be of great assistance in filling out our forms. Let me quote from it; If the (FCC application) form seems long and complicated, remember that it is an application for public property. Because radio channels have been declared by Congress to be the property of the American people, the FCC, which is charged with their allocation for use, must take pains to be careful, fair, and circumspect. Back of each question asked lies a wealth of FCC experience respecting precautions required to protect the public interest. Let me say also that much of the work which must be gone through in order to fill out the FCC application form would have to be com- pleted in any event, even if no FCC existed, in order to build the FI\I station. The information required on the application form is for the most part precisely the information which the educational institution should have itself before it undertakes construction of an FM station. The chief problem with respect to application forms, it seems to me, has heretofore been that they have been filled out as a preliminary to planning a station rather than as the last stage of planning. A question which may baffle you at the beginning will be extremely easy to answer once you have com- pleted your basic technical and financial plans. Now that the need of educa- tion for FM channels has been shown, it will probably be more convenient 2 On January IS, 194S, the FCC announced that twenty channels had been set aside for non- commercial educational stations. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 175 both for educators and for the Commission, if emphasis is placed on basic planning first and on filling out the application forms thereafter. Throughout the process, the chief state school officers can be of tremen- dous assistance in rounding up competent technical assistance which can be made available to school s^'stems and other institutions in the state, and in seeing that the plans of individual institutions are coordinated into a sound overall plan. After the FM license has been granted to an educational station, and actual construction of the station completed, will educational broadcasting be successful? Or will the experience of the 1920's and the 1930's, when so many educational stations succumbed to commercial competition, be repeated ? Looking back on earlier educational broadcasting experiments, we can see that they lacked two very simple technics which the commercial sta- tions exploited, and which made it possible for commercial stations to reach a comparatively high level of competence. The first of these technics was the network, which quickly revolutionized commercial broadcasting. So long as each station produced all of its own programs, the general level of broadcasting was necessarily low. There are eighteen hours in the stand- ard broadcast day. That means 6570 hours a year to be filled with pro- grams. Few licensees, whether they be educational institutions or com- mercial companies, have the financial resources and the talent available to maintain a high level of program quality over so many hours by themselves. The commercial broadcasters have solved this problem in large part by establishing networks, which deliver a single program simultane- ously over as many as 250 stations. In this way, the programming burden is shared, and it is possible to expend far more time, money, and effort on raising the quality of each particular program. Fortunately, postwar plans for educational broadcasting include full utilization of the network technic. Several states have already mapped statewide educational FM networks which will enable the educational stations to share their programming burden and to pool the programming resources of the entire state. Certainly these proposed networks are one of the best reasons for hoping that postwar educational broadcasting will reach high levels of competence. The educational network, however, should differ from the ordinary com- mercial network in at least three significant ways, and I should like to call these to your attention. First, the commercial networks, even the so-called nationwide networks, are not in fact nationwide. This is because commercial broadcast stations are, for the most part, located in cities where advertising revenues will be highest, rather than where the need for service is greatest. As a result, even if all the standard broadcast stations in the country were broadcasting the same program simultaneously, there would still be many areas of this country where the program could not be heard during the day. The regions without primary broadcast service, it is true, are sparsely settled, but it is precisely in these sparsely settled regions that the individual's need for radio may be greatest. It is very 176 American Association of School Administrators encouraging that the educators planning statewide FM networks have already expressed a great concern that their networks shall cover the entire state, the sparsely settled nooks and crannies as well as the densely populated urban centers. A second way in which the proposed educational networks should differ from the existing commercial networks is that the educational networks should not become one-way streets. A network can be merely a device for taking programs from New York, Chicago, and Hollywood and piping them into smaller communitifs all over the country. But a network can also pick up outstanding talent from even the smallest hamlet and make it nationally available. In planning your statewide educational FM net- works care should be taken to see not merely that programs produced in the larger institutions can be picked up and rebroadcast from the smaller stations, but also that the smaller stations in the network can feed programs into the entire network. A third point in connection with these statewide educational networks is the need for caution to insure that each local educational station affili- ated with the statewide network will be free either to carry the statewide network program, or to substitute a local program which it produces itself. This problem of the relationship of the station to the network has been a source of much concern with respect to the commercial stations ; the FCC chain broadcasting regulations were in part designed to prevent local stations from becoming mere subdistributors of network programs pro- duced at a distance. By planning your statewide FM networks properly from the start, you can insure that the local station will have statewide network programs available to fill those periods when no outstanding local program of its own is available, while simultaneously insuring that the local station will be free to develop the program resources of its own community. In addition to the network as a technic for sharing the program burden and pooling program talent, there is the use of electrical transcrip- tions. A transcription, as you know, is like a phonograph record except that it reproduces much more faithfully the tones and overtones of the original program. With good equipment, it is possible to transcribe any program, thus making it permanently available for broadcasting later over the same station or for distribution to other stations. Or programs may be produced initiallv in special transcription studios located in the major talent centers and distributed thereafter to the stations. A very large portion of the time of commercial stations which is not devoted to network programs is devoted to transcribed programs, and there is also, it seems to me, a place for the transcription technic in FM educational broadcasting. When, for example, Ohio State University puts on an outstanding forum discussion of a current issue, featuring experts from its faculty, there is no reason why this pro- gram cannot be simoltaneously transcribed at a comparatively low cost and made available to other broadcasting stations throughout Ohio and indeed throughout the country. The same is true of musical programs, and programs in other categories. Dramatizations of the classics from Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 177 Shakespeare on could be transcribed by the great interpreters of these works, and thereafter remain available through the years for broadcast to classes in schools, and to the public as well. It may even be hoped that a few of the really outstanding public service programs of the commercial networks may be transcribed in a permanent form so that instead of being heard once and then being lost forever, they can be revived from time to time over educational or other stations. The U. S. Office of Education has established a script and transcription exchange, and the expansion of education transcription services can be an important part of postwar educational FM development. There is one further technic for sharing burdens and pooling resources which I should mention. This is the technic by which two or more neigh- boring educational institutions each has its own studio, but connects with the other studio by a single transmitter. A city school system and a small college located in the same community, for example, could profitably enter into such an arrangement, the school system programming the transmitter from its studio during the school hours, while the college takes over for programs of more general appeal after school lets out. Three, four, or even more educational institutions may, under certain circumstances, find it advisable to enter such a joint arrangement. Sharing a single transmitter is desirable in densely populated regions because there may not be enough frequencies available otherwise; and it is desirable in thinly populated areas because sharing a transmitter means lowering the cost for each institution. The chief state school officers have a particular responsibility with respect to assisting and encouraging coordinated planning of the many educational FM stations which are now being planned. In the educational portion of the radio spectrum, as elsewhere, throughout the spectrum, there will not be enough room for all those who seek to broadcast unless spectrum space is conserved by careful coordination of frequency assignments. There was no such coordination in commercial broadcasting; and as a result, after a quarter of a century, one-third of the area of the country is still without primary broadcast service. You can help prevent a similar misfortune in the educational band by developing statewide plans now. If you wait, the applications for frequencies now pending before the Federal Communica- tions Commission will of necessity be granted without respect to a state- wide plan, and it may be much more difficult thereafter to introduce coordination. I am informed that some states, including Maryland, West Virginia, Tennessee, and perhaps others, have already adopted resolutions authorizing the chief state school officers to prepare statewide plans. I am further informed that Michigan, Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Connecticut have set up state radio committees to prepare statewide plans. It is none too early ; for if these plans are not ready when equipment and materials become available, the foundations of educational broadcasting may develop helter-skelter. It is always desirable to complete your architectural blue- prints before you lay the cornerstone of an edifice. 178 American Association of School Administrators The final question, but the one upon which success or failure hinges, is this: What shall be the content broadcast over the noncommercial educa- tional FM stations after they are in operation? The proof of the station is the program and I regret that on this subject I must be both exceedingly brief and exceedingly vague. Certainly it is not the intention of the Federal Communications Commission to dictate in any way, either directly or indirectly, the content of the programs to be broadcast over educational FM stations, with the sole exception that under FCC regulations no com- mercially sponsored programs or announcements can be broadcast. Beyond that, program responsibility lies where it should lie, with the individual educational licensee. The rules of the Federal Communications Commission make possible a very broad range of programming. Each noncommercial educational broadcasting station is licensed to broadcast "for the advancement of its educational work and for the transmission of educational and entertain- ment programs to the general public." That language is just about as broad as language can be made. With respect to programs broadcast primarily for in-school listening, you, yourselves, are the experts. You educators already know what pro- grams are most needed in the schoolrooms, and what technics bring the best results. With respect ,to educational and entertainment programs for the general public, your own opportunities for learning and exploring are unlimited. It will no doubt be necessary to train some teachers in the art of pro- ducing programs for in-school listening, and all teachers in the art of utilizing such programs in the classroom. But my touching on school- room problems with you would be like my teaching grandma how to spin. I do want to say, however, that I do not believe the ultimate success of your educational FM stations will depend merely on the program you broadcast for in-school listening. Nor will success depend merely upon the quality of the transcriptions and the network programs which you bring into the community from the outside. At least equally important will be the function of your educational FM stations as vehicles for local self- expression for the community as a whole. The little red schoolhouse and the modern brick consolidated high school alike have always played a role as civic centers, and it is certainly appropriate that the new educational FM stations should play a similar role in the life of the whole community. By means of FM you are enabled to serve not merely the children in the schoolroom but the cultural, intellectual, and recreational needs of every man, woman, and child in your service area. I doubt whether there is any town, however small, which does not have a considerable untapped reser- voir of talent suitable for broadcasting. Every educational institution has on its staff teachers and lecturers who can contribute much to the entire community as well as to their classroom students. Every community, I suspect, has far richer resources of local culture than have yet been tapped. The "little theater" movement is a case in point. We have heard much about soap operas: how about local dramatic Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 179 programs produced on a little theater basis, which will save whatever is worth saving in the soap-opera or the to-be-continued technic, and at the same time serve to create an awareness of local cultural affairs? Lest this acceptance of the serial-drama technic seem heretical, let me say that one state university is seriously considering the production of a soap-opera type of program by its child welfare group. They consider this particular form best suited for presenting the particular child welfare material they seek to publicize. I understand that one state university station, WOSU, is now broadcasting a dramatic serial type of program designed to instil a better understanding of the principles of democracy. In addition to local dramatic possibilities, there is local music; here radio can be of particular service. And finally there is the discussion of local issues. It is all very well, for example, to hear discussions of problems of national or international importance by speakers of nationwide reputa- tion, but what about juvenile delinquency in your own home community? Or housing in your community? Or public utility regulation? Perhaps such home-grown programs may not have the professional polish of network programs; but it is at least possible that they will make up in local interest what they lack in professional craftsmanship. And they will serve a most important cultural function — the preservation and perhaps even the survival of those regional variations of culture without which our national life would be the poorer. A democracy cannot rise above the level of the education of its citizens. The vistas which FM stations open for education are unlimited, and so are the vistas which they open up for our democracy as a whole. A tool has been offered us ; let us do our best to use it well. ILLUSTRATING RADIO'S SERVICE TO THE SCHOOLS WILLIAM B. LEVENSON, DIRECTING SUPERVISOR, STATION WBOE, CLEVELAND PUBLIC SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, OHIO No educational medium — modern though it be — will alter the basic laws of learning or create wise men in ten dramatic programs. However, it would be equally foolish to deny that an intelligent use of radio has great significance for the schools of our time. Ample evidence has been accumulated to demonstrate that radio can contribute to education in numerous ways. The writer proposes to list several of these contributions and then to illustrate with programs now being presented by Station WBOE, which is owned and operated by the Cleveland public schools. 1. Radio can pfovide in-service teacher training — The use of this instru- ment enables many to hear the best. An outstanding teacher can illustrate her technics citywide. The teachers in the classroom have a unique oppor- tunity to observe the methods of an expert being applied in their own schools. Basic suggestions in improving teaching procedures can thus be demonstrated by supervisors. 180 American Association' of School Administrators 2. Radio can assist in curriculum revision — Changing emphasis and new content can be introduced quickly and easily with radio. The revision takes form not in another bulletin but in actual classroom situations. 3. Radio can challenge dogmatic teaching and passive learning — As new personalities and new points of view enter the potentially cloistered class- room doctrinaire thinking is confronted with evidence which may suggest alternative conclusions. 4. Radio can create desired attitudes — The ability of radio to enlist drama and music — two powerful forces in stimulating emotions — makes it possible to use this medium to supplement the pupil's accumulation of facts. The full measure of education is the extent to which facts modify behavior and in this process emotions as well as intellect have a part to play. 5. Radio is timely — The timeliness of radio can be used to serve the schools in the study of current events, vocational guidance, community drives of many kinds, and in numerous emergency applications. Radio can provide the last page of the newest textbook. 6. Radio can bring authorities to the classroom — Only the rare teacher can presume to be expert in every phase of the subject she is expected to teach. By means of radio community representatives can visit the schools, thus contributing their specialized knowledge and experience. Medical men, government officials, scientists, and industrial leaders can offer their help to the school. By recording their comments at convenient times even very busy men find it possible to appear. 7. Radio can inform the community of school accomplishments — The realistic business world has learned how to employ radio as a "selling" medium. The need for acquainting the citizen with the school product he is receiving for his tax dollar is greater than ever before. Several school systems have already demonstrated how radio can be used to interpret school activities to the community. These are several of the contributions that radio can make to the schools. Now to be more specific, what types of programs and related services can be provided by a noncommercial educational station? For purposes of illustration the activities of WBOE will be described briefly. The Cleveland school station is on the air eight hours each school day, from 8:00 a. m. to 4:00 p. m. The programs presented range from kinder- garten stories illustrated with lantern slides to more elaborate workshop presentations planned for the secondary grades and including special pro- grams designed for teachers and the community at large. With the cooneration of the local commercial stations, private lines have been installed which make possible selective program service from all the major networks: NBC, CBS, Blue, and Mutual. Thus WBOE can act as a clearing-house for sustaining educational programs originating from coast to coast which may be of interest and value to the school children of Cleveland. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 181 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL DIVISION Most of the programs for the elementary schools are prepared at "cur- riculum centers" or laborator}^ schools. Twelve such schools have been established in Cleveland, and at each of these schools experimentation takes place in the development of improved methods for the teaching of various subject areas, such as safety, health, arithmetic, and science. To these schools there have been brought those teachers who appear to be especially interested and capable in the teaching of that subject. As a reservoir of technics and procedures is developed at the school, and as thought then is given to the distribution of these methods to the other elementary schools, various agencies of distribution are emplo3^ed. The radio station is regarded as one of these. Thus in the Cleveland schools each elementary school is the recipient from time to time of so-called "demonstration lessons" which have been prepared at the various laboratory schools. To balance this radio diet several supplementary programs planned for the lower grades are presented each week. The following regularly scheduled programs were presented to the elementary grades during the spring 1945 term. Most of the programs utilize a teacher's guide sheet and selected lantern slides which are syn- chronized with the script material. Pupil worksheets are also available for several of the series. Sixth Year Art — These lessons are devoted entirely to the study and appreciation of pictorial art. They are planned for enjoyment and not for analysis, although points are raised which reveal the picturemaker's under- standing and use of design. Colored slides and music to create a mood or illustrate a point are used. Fourth Year Health — A weekly series based on daily experiences of the child in the home, school, and neighborhood. The unit is titled "Learning to Grow Well." Fifth Year Health — In this unit, which is called "Growing Up," the processes of growing up are developed. Sixth Year Health — "Bacteria and Your Daily Life" is the theme of the 6A health series. Classroom activities in the growth and observation of bacteria cultures are an outgrowth of the demonstration radio lessons. Music for Young Listeners — A weekly series of listening lessons pre- senting a carefully chosen repertory of little masterpieces. Professional musicians are used. The aim is to develop discriminate listening and a taste for good music. Rhythmic Activities — A weekly program presented by a qualified music teacher who uses carefully chosen selections for rhythmic experiences. Planned for second year classes. Rote Songs — This music series, planned to aid the first j'ear teacher, presents a variety of methods of procedure and selected songs for first year children. The series aims to help develop good vocal habits as well as careful habits of listening. 182 American Association of School Administrators Song Study — This series is planned for fourth year classes, but presents plans and teaching devices useful throughout the upper elementary grades. Elementary Safety — These weekly broadcasts discuss seasonal, home, school, and traffic safety, as well as current and unscheduled safety prob- lems which may arise during the semester. Various municipal and public agencies cooperate with the Division of Safety Instruction. Children's worksheets are provided for most of the lessons. Upper elementary broad- casts alternate Avith those for primary grades. Second and Fifth Year Science — Both these series follow the science course of study and present demonstration lessons which make use of slides, dramatizations, and other types of pupil participation. A valuable by-product of the series is in-service teacher training in a specialized field. Primary Social Studies — This series, based on the course of study, in- cludes two units: Indians and Mexico. The broadcasts are designed to enrich the classroom program with interesting material which will stimu- late additional activities. Audio and visual education are combined in the majority of these lessons by the utilization of lantern slides. Behind the Headlines — A five-minute feature story based on one of the headlines of the preceding week, with guest commentators from the Cleve- land Public Library, the Council on World Affairs, the Cleveland news- papers, and the Cleveland Board of Education. This program is presented several times during the week to provide a choice of listening periods. Story Lady — A supplementary story program directed to upper primary levels and presented by expert storytellers from the Cleveland Public Library. Stories include both old favorites and recent books. Let's Pretend — Selected transcribed dramatizations of the series pro- duced by Nila Mack of the Columbia Broadcasting System. Tales from Far and Near — A transcribed series of dramatizations from outstanding children's classics, and offered to upper elementary groups. These programs are presented by the Columbia School of the Air. Elementary French I — Simple, conversational meetings by air in which a native of France gradually introduces a basic vocabulary. Simple folk songs are also taught. Elementary Spanish I — Conversational Spanish for beginners is pre- sented by a qualified teacher from the school system. A basic vocabulary is developed. News for Youth — Once every two weeks a guest serviceman will speak presenting his views and personal experiences. On alternate weeks a news- caster from one of the four cooperating local radio stations will bring listeners up-to-date on the news in terms they can comprehend. This series aims to promote home listening to newscasters and to encourage an interest in the reading of news items. America Sings — This series presents songs from various sections of the United States, with continuity material designed to give listeners an appre- ciation for the background and life of these groups, i. e., the Southern mountaineer, the Indians, the Negro, the New England coastal people. Music is furnished bv elementarv-school choirs. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 183 Once Upon a Time — This series, planned for kindergarten and first year levels, introduces the beginners to school radio listening. Although the series consists chiefly of stories told by a selected group of kindergarten teachers, other activities designed to help children to follow directions and to participate in the broadcast are included. Several of the stories in- corporate the use of colored slides to illustrate the story. The Zoo Comes to School — This series of seven informal talks con- cerns some of the interesting animals of the world and is presented by Fletcher A. Reynolds, Director of the Cleveland Zoo. It is hoped that these programs will stimulate an interest in this field for recreational reading and will give listeners a greater awareness of the zoo as a whole- some, worthwhile center for the use of leisure time. 4B Arithmetic — A series planned to give the 4B child real and worth- while number experiences through participation in games and other planned activities. Fourth Year Art — An enrichment program in which art is correlated with science, literature, and music. Colored slides and a teacher's guide accompany this series. Meet the Famous — This enrichment program aims to acquaint children with some of the men and women who have made significant contributions to the world in various fields, and who are not usually met in the elemen- tary curriculum. A civic leader in a similar field presents a brief talk following the dramatic portion of the program. Together We Learn — An experimental series produced by and directed specifically to major work groups. The programs offer an additional chal- lenge to these children of exceptional ability, and serve to bring classes into closer contact with each other by the sharing of their wide experiences and various activities through the medium of radio. JUNIOR HIGH-SCHOOL DIVISION In the Cleveland junior high schools the radio programs are nearly all of the supplementary type. The script writers are teachers who have had classroom experience. Production is handled by the junior high pro- gram coordinator. Volunteer adult groups and school radio workshop talent are used. In some instances educational recordings are edited and organized into a series of related content. If the available recorded ma- terial is general in its nature, an interview or narration is added which makes it more pertinent to local needs. Division of Social Studies — "The News: Places and People" is pre- sented each Monday. A summary of the latest news is followed by an analj^sis of a place and a person significant in the headlines. A teacher's guide is furnished each week. Division of English — "Did You Hear It, Too?" ofifers dramatized episodes dealing with correct usage, vocabulary choices, and acceptable social conversations. Suggestions for classroom utilization are sent to teachers in advance. "Passing in Review" presents on alternate weeks dramatized episodes from stories on the seventh-grade reading level. Selections are taken from 184 American Association of School Administrators the reading lists and newly published fiction. The final broadcast is a quiz program. Guide sheets for class discussions are sent to teachers of English classes before every broadcast. Division of Science — "Adventures in Research" programs are intended primarily for ninth-grade science listening and concern themselves with topics from the field of physical science. "Your Health Today" programs are intended primarily for seventh- and eighth-grade listening, and treat of topics related to personal health. Programs in this series have been prepared in cooperation with the Educa- tion Committee of the Cleveland Academy of Medicine and the Bureau of Health Education of the City Department of Health. Division of Art — "Art Appreciation" consists of two series presented to 7B and 8B classes as supplementary lessons in art appreciation. Sets of selected lantern slides from the Division of Visual Education are furnished to each school. These slides are shown in the classrooms in synchronization with the comments of the broadcaster. Supplementary Weekly Programs — "Careers in Science" — rebroadcasts of the CBS series which describes vocations in various fields of science. Senior high schools are also invited to listen to the series. SENIOR high-school DIVISION Here also the script writers are experienced classroom teachers. Most of the dramatic talent comes from high-school workshops. Some individual programs are delegated to schools for unit production under the direc- tion of the workshop teacher. Final rehearsals are conducted with the aid of the WBOE stafF. Division of English — "Fun from the Dictionary" — a series which pro- vides a systematic development of vocabulary through brief dramatic interludes and analysis by a pupil panel. Production on each program uses talent from five different high-school radio Avorkshops. Teachers receive in advance an outline of program content and supplementary material. "Speaking of Writing" — this series is an experiment in the use of radio as a medium for the improvement of writing. The programs emphasize some of the basic principles in good writing. Two types of writing (de- scription and exposition) and two qualities in writing (accuracy and clarity) are considered. Numerous examples of good and bad writing are used for illustration and analysis. Program outlines and teaching guides are sent in advance of each program. Division of Social Studies — "Current Topics" continues its discussion of national and international issues into an eleventh semester. The ma- jority of programs are interviews by high-school pupils with recognized local or national experts on the topics scheduled. The Social Studies Divi- sion selects the topics and speakers. A committee of teachers evaluates the programs. Teachers are provided with a comprehensive outline of program content and with suggestive material for follow-up activities in the classroom. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 185 Division of Science — "Science and the War Industries" presents four- teen broadcasts to senior high-school science classes divided into two groups: one for physical science classes in the eleventh and twelfth grades; the second for biological and health science groups in the tenth grade. Four of the seven programs in the physical science series deal with aero- nautics topics which are of interest primarily to 1 1 B physics, senior sci- ence, and aeronautics classes. The remaining three programs are con- cerned with developments in electronics including short wave radio and television. All of the seven broadcasts to the biology and health groups are related to everyday health and diet problems of the individual and community. Division of Physical Welfare — High-school radio workshop pupils present over their schools' central sound system one-minute spot announce- ments emphasizing good health habits and regular school attendance. The announcements are prepared by WBOE from material supplied by the Divisions of Health Service and Physical Welfare. Division of Home Economics — Two programs are presented for use in home economics, homemaking and family relations, and personal regimen classes. One of the programs gives a dramatized case history in personal conduct followed by a pupil discussion of possible solutions. The second program deals with home safety. The material for the programs is selected by departments which have accepted the radio assignment. Division of Foreign Languages — Semi-monthly programs presented on the second and third Tuesdays and broadcast at the scheduled Tuesday high-school times are designed for both junior and senior high-school language classes. "French" — the second Tuesday; four programs "German" — the third Tuesday; four programs "Teacher's Spanish" — begun as a weekly series last term, continues this semester and is scheduled for the convenience of teachers both during lunch hours and after school. Supplementary JVeekly Programs for Occasional Listening — "Gate- ways to Music" — selected by the Division of Music from transcriptions of the Columbia American School of the Air series of the same name, and intended primarily for after-school listening groups in the junior and senior high schools. "London Column" — weekly presentations of the transcribed documen- tary series prepared by the British Broadcasting Corporation. These pro- grams are also announced for junior high schools. Special Events — ^WBOE presents special programs in observance of various holidays, drives, and observances. The following are illustrative : Lincoln's Birthday, Brotherhood Week, Victory Garden Information, Conservation Week, Pan-American Day, Graduation Exercises, Me- morial Day, Constitution Day, War Chest Drive, Armistice Day, Thanksgiving Day, Tin Salvage Drive, Christmas Carols, etc. 186 American Association of School Administrators OTHER programs To Teachers "Have You Read?" — Twice each month librarians from the Cleveland Public Library present streamlined versions of "Readers-on-the-Run," the Main Library noon-hour series of book reviews. "Physical Education Talks" — Fifteen-minute discussions are presented once each month by the Supervisor of Phj^sical Education. They are planned primarily to give in-service teacher training in a specialized field. "Teacher's Spanish" — A weekly broadcast in beginning Spanish de- signed for teachers and presented in an informal conversational style. Each program is given twice to facilitate its use. "Postwar Schools in Cleveland" — These ten-minute talks are planned and used as the opening phase of faculty meetings in the various schools and thus the series serves as an "oral house organ." To Parents "PTA Comes Calling"— The Radio Committee of the Cleveland Council of Parent-Teacher Associations presents a series of programs built around the theme "The Parent and the Child." Musical and dra- matic talent is selected from among the membership. To Institutions Five days each week WBOE sends programs to veterans at Crile General Hospital by means of a broadcast line to the hospital, and individual headphones. Selected programs from the WBOE transcrip- tion library are thus made available to bed-ridden servicemen. Monday — Two programs: The CBS "Careers in Science" series which discusses vocations in fields of science, and the WBOE news series en- titled "The News: Places and People." Tuesday — "Frontier Fighters," a dramatic series which deals with the exploits of American frontiersmen, and "Adventures in Research." The latter program is made available to WBOE by Westinghouse. Wednesday — The series entitled "The Best in Science." These programs are selected from "The Human Adventure" and from CBS "American School of the Air" programs. These broadcasts dramatize significant developments in scientific thought. Friday — "The Best in Biography." Outstanding transcriptions of the lives of great writers, artists, scientists, and public figures are presented. Saturday — "The Best in Radio Plays" and radio adaptations of books and stories. These transcriptions are selected largely from the series. Cavalcade of America and Corwin Presents. There are other related activities which can be undertaken by an educational station and which have value for the schools. Consider a few emergency uses. When there was talk of impending air raids, the public, parochial, and suburban schools of Greater Cleveland estab- lished continuous listening procedures whereby WBOE could alert the area in a few seconds. When the teachers were engaged in rationing, Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 187 daily bulletins were broadcast to the rationing centers answering ques- tions which had arisen. The radio is used to administer tests citywide. Pupil forms and teacher guides are used. The Bureau of Educational Research indicates that the results are much more objective in centrally controlled, expertly administered radio tests than from the individual classroom procedure. A Saturday morning class in communications was established at WBOE, instructed by the technical staff, in which pupils used the studio equipment as a technical laboratory. Certificates were granted upon completion of the course. The school station can do much to stimulate interest in speech — even on the elementary-school level. For instance, WBOE has built several portable public address systems which circulate in the schools on a definite schedule. Teachers use the equipment in any way they wish. However, at the conclusion of each period each school sends in audition rating cards to the station, whereupon further screening takes place in an original playlet rebroadcast to the schools. In this way, a "talent pool" is being established in the elementary schools, and the file made available to program producers. A Saturday morning radio workshop is conducted for talented junior high-school pupils. In the senior high schools radio workshops have been established where accredited courses in Radio English have been insti- tuted. The local school workshop relates to WBOE somewhat as an affiliate does to a network. In these days of restricted driving, the practice of holding some department meetings by radio has been appreciated by teachers. Instead of always coming to Headquarters, they remain at their schools where they can hear the supervisor or a panel of their colleagues. An enterprising educational station will not confine its programs to classrooms. A cultural service to the home is an important phase of its work. Two years ago the series "Home Safety" was presented for listening by parent-teacher groups meeting in the various schools. This series, developed in cooperation with the Cleveland Safety Council, featured the appearance of physicians, firemen, policemen, and others. A certificate was awarded to each parent who listened to the entire series. After the war, when more FM sets are available, we are considering concluding our service to the schools at four o'clock daily and then offer- ing a program service for adults. A night school of the air, for example, would probably be welcomed in most communities. The noncommercial station has a chance to capitalize upon the abilities and talents of community representatives. Nearly every community has men and women whose talents can be used in the furtherance of educa- tion. Retired engineers can contribute to science teaching; lawyers to government ; doctors to health. Some suggestive programs are : "Your Health," "Being a Parent," "First Aid," "Philosophy through the Ages," "Frontiers of Science," "Meet the Expert," "Chamber Music," "Local Issues," "Current History," etc. 188 American Association of School Administrators Numerous technical developments, such as facsimile broadcasting, are now available which will be used by alert educators. With facsimile broadcasting and FM, the listener at home will receive not only the voice of the speaker and the best of music, but also newspapers, maps, and pamphlets printed by radio. Television, with its remarkable ability to present sight and sound, motion and actuality, has great significance for education. The tools are available — the challenge is ours. INTEREST OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS IN FM CHANNELS FOR EDUCATION S. D. SHANKLAND, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS, WASHINGTON, D. C. Since school systems that include the largest cities will probably be among the first to install stations, we have submitted a questionnaire on this subject to all superintendents of schools in cities of 20,000 population or above. There are about 500 cities of this class in the United States. We have responses from 276 of the appropriate school officials in those cities. Out of that number, four of the larger cities have FM stations in opera- tion— Chicago, Cleveland, New York, and San Francisco. Sixty-two of the school executives respond that they are now making definite plans to estab- lish an FM station, and have either applied for licenses or expect to do so in the near future. An additional forty administrators responding consider that their school systems will within two or three years after the war take definite steps toward establishing an FM station. Thus, 106 school systems — or 40 percent of those reporting to us- — -either have stations or plan defi- nitely to install them within the next few years. Another 6 percent of our respondents indicated that they expect to have FM stations eventually, when circumstances permit. This, however, does not tell the whole story. An additional 17 percent indicated that they either have or are now planning studio facilities which will enable them to share in producing programs to be broadcast over educational stations currently being planned in their localities. Thus, at least two out of three of the cities of this size may be expected to have in operation within the next few years FM stations, program- producing facilities, or both. In this connection, it should be pointed out that in responding to this questionnaire, many superintendents of schools have hesitated to make any commitment:?- pending action bv boards of education and other officials responsible for directing and financing the activities of public education. Another 8 percent of the number reporting indicated that they do not immediately plan to provide FM stations for their school systems, but that they are planning definitely to use educational programs broadcast by other school systems or educational institutions nearby. These intentions are significant in that they depend on the assumption that other schools Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 189 in their respective localities known to be planning FM stations will be able to be granted the necessary channels. Less than a third of the school s^'stems reporting to us apparently have ^no plans at all for making use of FM channels for educational broadcast- ing. Most of the cities that have no such plans are among those of smaller populations. It is safe to conclude that a large proportion of cities over 30,000 will wish eventually to have the facilities for frequency modulation broadcasting. For the most part, the rural and village schools will have to defer the use of these facilities until they can create combinations among themselves or make arrangements with nearby colleges or state depart- ments of education to share facilities with them. This is more than a guess. A few of our respondents not planning installation of transmission facili- ties for themselves indicate their intention of constructing program pro- duction facilities as part of state, county, or local regional combinations. PLANNING AN EDUCATIONAL FM RADIO- BROADCAST STATION RONALD R. LOWDERMILK, RADIO SERVICE, UNITED STATES OFFICE OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. School people should bear in mind that the matter of preparing the technical specifications for an FM broadcast station is a professional en- gineering job — not a job to be undertaken by the layman! While it is perfectly true that the accumulated literature of radio engineering pro- vides a great mass of technical information comprehensible to the average person who has had some training and experience in applied electronics, it should be pointed out that only a professional engineer experienced in radio station construction will be in a position to weigh all of the tech- nical variables applicable to any single station construction job. This does not necessarily imply that the school administrator who in- tends to develop an FAI broadcast station need stand in awe of the tech- nical details of station construction as something completely beyond the scope of his comprehension. (Research and development in the field of communications engineering within the past half-dozen years actually have tended to remove the mechanics of radio transmission from the category of the "mysterious.") Neither would it be desirable for him to maintain a strictly "hands off" attitude with respect to the details of planning his school-owned station. On the contrary, many of the details of station planning will involve decisions which the school administrator and his staff are best in position to make. In order that such decisions may be maximally advantageous to the local school, the school administrator should make sure that members of his staff responsible for planning the station take steps from the outset to inform themselves fully about such matters as (a) the factors which determine station coverage, (b) comparative advantages of different equip- ment choices and arrangements, and (c) possible deviations from usual 190 American Association of School Administrators practices in equipment design and studio arrangement which might be desirable in order to fit local conditions of program production or station use. This will mean that engineering data concerning radio wave propaga- tion characteristics will need to be examined carefully, and tentative serv- ice-area calculations made, trying different combinations of transmitter power, antenna power-gain, and tower height, until that particular com- bination is found which most nearly provides the exact required coverage at the lowest cost. It will be well, also, to give some study to typical studio and control- room arrangements, evaluating each one in terms of whether or not it would meet, satisfactorily, the conditions under which the local school station would be operated. The school administrator and his station-plan- ning group should give careful consideration to the matter of planning his studio, control-room, and auxiliary equipment ; weighing the selection of individual equipment items against the specific functions to be served, the amount and variety of equipment items against the school budget, the specific makes and models of equipment items against the operational char- acteristics that are likely to be desirable from the standpoint of (a) antici- pated conditions of use, and of (b) the presumed level of operator skill; and weighing the quality level of equipment items against performance- quality requirements. Since broadcast-station equipment prices are open to anybody who cares to write to the manufacturers for quotations, it should be possible for the average local station-planning group to arrive at a reasonably close approxi- mation of the total equipment cost for its proposed station. By calculating wage differentials between the local area and the country as a whole, it should be possible to figure, from data on average station-installation costs, what the approximate installation cost of the local school station would be. Local architects or building contractors can provide estimates of costs of constructing any new buildings or sound-treated studios, or of constructing studios and transmitter room in available space within existing buildings. Thus it is possible for the local planning committee, by adding these several estimates together, to arrive at an estimate of the total cost of constructing its school FM broadcast station. Estimates so derived, assuming all calculations have been made care- fully and accuratel}'^, will ordinarily be accurate enough for use by the school administrator when he appears before his board of education to discuss the feasibility of constructing a school broadcast station, or to ask for authorization to apply for a station construction permit. In fact the technical side of school station planning ordinarily proceeds somewhat along this line. At this point, however, school people may be inclined to ask whether, having progressed this far in their planning, there would be any necessity for employing a professional radio engineer to handle the details of applying for the station construction permit, preparing detailed station specifications to submit for bids, examining specifications submitted by bidders, and supervising the actual station construction. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 191 Usually the answer to this question will be "Yes." FM coverage-predic- tion data that are available are necessarily based on the assumption that cer- tain conditions that may affect radio wave propagation are held constant. Coverage characteristics for any proposed station can, of course, be cal- culated from these general prediction data, by simply applying the appro- priate correction formulae to take into account conditions peculiar to the local situation, provided that the individual who is making such calculations is able to identify the precise factors peculiar to the local situation which are likely, in any particular instance, to be operative. Here obviously the judgment of a professional radio engineer, experienced in broadcast-station planning and construction, offers the best assurance that all variable factors peculiar to the local situation will be identified and weighed in their proper perspective. It is not necessary that the services of a professional engineer be engaged at the outset of station planning. As already indicated, there are a number of different matters, preliminary to the actual planning of the physical facilities of a broadcast station, which involve decisions that only the local school administration can legitimately make — whether or not the program service should be extended to nearby urban communities, to what distance program service should be provided to rural communities, which one of whatever number of possible transmitter sites are available would be most advantageous, whether the purposes for which the station is being planned would best be served by concentrating all studio facilities at one point or by providing studios at several different schools, and the like. However, when this preliminary investigation of possible services and comparative estimated costs has reached the point where it has been definitely decided that the school system is to have its own FM station, it will ordinarily be desirable to employ a professional engineer to continue the station planning from that point. Many school administrators are at a loss to know where to turn for qualified engineering consultant services. In some states professional radio engineering consultants are registered with a state licensing board, but licensing practices vary widely among the states, so no single procedure can be suggested which will be applicable to all parts of the country. Ob- viously any school system which happens to be located near a recognized college of radio-communication engineering may find engineering-consultant service available there. Similarly the school administrator would do well to begin his search with any recognized firm of professional radio-engineering consultants that might happen to be located conveniently nearby. Relatively few school systems, however, are likely to be fortunate enough to be lo- cated near centers from which such service is available. In the great ma- jority of cases, then, perhaps the best advice that can be given the school administrator who is planning an educational FM broadcast station would be to consult the chief engineer of any nearby radio broadcast station. In some instances the chief engineer of a local station may himself be in a position to undertake the job of developing the engineering specifications for the school-system station. Apart from this possibility, there are two other 192 American Association of School Administrators items of information the local radio station engineer should be able to give. First, he should be able to say whether or not there are any state licensing requirements for engineering consultants — a consideration which is ex- tremely important to the school administrator from the standpoint of sat- isfying all legal requirements. Second, he should be able to refer the school administrator to professional radio engineering consultants who have al- ready had some experience in constructing stations of the type and power that the school system would require. As a final suggestion, it might be well to write to school systems which already have their own FM stations, and find what their experiences have been in relation to obtaining profes- sional engineering assistance. Finally, it might be well to consider briefly how much the school admin- istrator may expect to have to pay for engineering services of the kinds indicated, and just what it is he gets for his money. In the first place, it will probably cost him somewhere between $300 and $1000 to have a com- petent engineer make whatever "preapplication" engineering study may be necessary, and to prepare the application for a station construction permit that must be filed with the Federal Communications Commission. The amount charged in any given instance will vary, of course, according to (a) how much of the technical data has already been compiled by the local station-planning group or committee, (b) the complexity of the engineering problems that are involved, (c) the power of the station, and (d) whether or not it should be found advisable to make actual field-strength measure- ments from a test transmitter in order to determine the best transmitter site. In return for this expenditure, the school administrator gets the serv- ices of a qualified engineering specialist for checking whatever station plans his committee may already have developed. He gets assurance that the suitability of the transmitter site chosen will be verified ; that the combina- tion of transmitter power, antenna gain, and tower height finally specified on the application form will provide adequate coverage of the desired serv- ice area; and that the technical details that are specified conform to pres- ently-accepted standards of good engineering practice. He gets assurance also that all technical and legal information requested on the construction- permit application form will be supplied in full. Finally, he gets assurance that all supporting exhibits supplementing the information requested on the application form will be prepared in conformity with currently ap- proved professional practice. In many cases the school administrator may find it desirable to employ a professional radio engineer to develop detailed engineering and perform- ance specifications for his broadcast-station equipment and its installation. This service may cost; anywhere from $200 to $1000, depending on (a) the power of the station, (b) the complexity of the engineering problems that are involved, (c) the nature and arrangement of the equipment se- lected, and (d) the degree of exactness to which technical details and per- formance are specified. In return for this expenditure, the administrator gets a set of definitely specified standards, in terms of which competitive bids can be considered and the actual performance of the completed station Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 193 can be judged. This service will be necessary, of course, in those states and municipalities which require that construction specifications be prepared by licensed engineers, architects, and the like, but, even where not required by law, the school administrator will usually find that money spent for this kind of service will prove to be a worthwhile investment. It is expected that after the war some of the professional radio engineer- ing consulting firms may be prepared to offer still another type of service in which many school administrators may be interested — a complete engi- neering service including (a) preparing completely detailed technical and performance specifications to submit to manufacturers and station-construc- tion contractors, (b) contracting for the necessary equipment and its instal- lation, (c) supervising the actual installation of all station equipment and accessories, (d) checking all aspects of the final performance of the com- pleted station, and (e) preparing certified proof-of-performance data. Although such service is not currently available, the estimated charge would probably be somewhere around 5 percent of the total station cost. This may, on first consideration, appear to be something of a "luxury" service which few school sj'stems, if any, would be able either to justify or to afford. Actually, the savings in time, construction costs, and materials costs, together with such economies as would normally result from careful buying, coordinated planning, and the elimination of waste due to faulty planning, should amount to more than the 5 percent fee of an experienced, professional engineer, even on a quarter-kilowatt station costing around $15,000. In addition, with engineering service of this tj^pe (which, for lack of a better name, might be called "complete-package, station-engineer- ing service"), the school system should get an actually better station con- struction job for its money ; moreover, the school administrator and his staff would certainly be relieved of all the anxiety and worry which the average school administrator is likely to experience when he undertakes to manage all the details of constructing a station. EDUCATION PLANS ITS FM NETWORK IN CONNECTICUT ROBERT C. DEMING, SUPERVISOR OF ADULT EDUCATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT Connecticut's experiences and plans in seeking an FM noncommercial educational broadcasting network may be of some assistance to other states facing similar problems. In April 1944, the state was tentatively surveyed by Dr. R. R. Lowdermilk, of the United States Office of Education, and four 1000 watt transmitters, overlapping, and each able to rebroadcast on its own frequency the broadcast of its neighbors, were recommended, thus completely covering the state and every school and home. Since April, by request of the State Board of Education, another transmitter will be added in the northwest corner of the state. During the summer and fall of 1944 half a dozen meetings were held in different sections of the state with educational organizations, acquaint- 194 American Association of School Administrators ing them with the plans, possibilities, capabilities, and requirements of the proposed FM network. On October 4, the State Board of Education sent to the Federal Communications Commission a copy of the following resolution, copied after that used in Maryland. Resolved, that the Commissioner of Education is hereby authorized to take steps toward the establishment of a noncommercial, educational FM radio broadcast service throughout the State of Connecticut, said service to be inaugurated at the earliest practicable date. To the end that the State of Connecticut may be assured of adequate technical facilities for accomplishing this objective, the State Commissioner of Education is further authorized (1) to determine immediately the optimum number, location, and spacing of educational broadcast stations and studio facilities, together with point- to-point communication facilities for the inter-station transmission of programs, for providing the proposed educational broadcast service through all parts of the state; (2) to employ whatever qualified engineering counsel may be needed in order to make this determination; (3) and to take such steps as may be necessary in order to obtain for Connecticut access to the desired transmitter locations. Finally, in view of the necessity for prompt action in informing the Federal Com- munications Commission of the needs of the Connecticut State Department of Educa- tion for educational FM frequencies, the State Commissioner of Education is authorized and instructed to apply to the FCC at the earliest practicable date for construction permits and licenses for whatever number of noncommercial educational FM broadcast stations are considered necessary for the establishment of a proposed educational broadcast service. Not being able to locate any earlier legislation in any other state, it was decided to introduce a bill of a general rather than of a detailed type call- ing for an appropriation based on prices of equipment and services obtained largely from the United States Office of Education. Other states may find it necessary to go in for legislation with elaborate detail and itemized appropriations, as may be customary. Finally, the following bill was intro- duced with an accompanying "Statement of Purpose" as required. The sum of $370,000 is appropriated to the State Board of Education; for the acquisition of property; for the erection, maintenance, and operation of the necessary broadcasting stations for a statewide educational noncommercial FM network; for the inauguration of programs of education and information in which state depart- ments, institutions, and agencies may participate; this appropriation to continue until the end of the biennium during which such stations begin operations. STATEMENT OF PURPOSE Many educational leaders believe that radio is the greatest supplementary aid known to instruction. FM can broadcast to the most remote school or home in the state any subject, course, information, whether in education, industry, agriculture, science, health, and can transmit from any state department, institution, agency, or official, any bulletin, information, warning, request, order or advice. The proposed FM network is to obtain and reserve for educational purposes the new frequencies in the radio spectrum now made available and possible by the discovery of frequency modulation, and to obtain the necessary licenses and permits from the Federal Communications Commission. If not obtained now, these frequencies will no longer be reserved for education and can never be regained. Accompanying the bill is the following estimated cost of constructing and servicing an educational broadcast FM station which may be helpful to other state administrators. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 195 Estimated Cost of Constructing and Servicing an Educational Broadcast Station in Connecticut (united states office of education — 1944) A. Basic Transmission Equipment (Inc. transmitter, Estimated Probable Costs 1000 W.) Mini- Aver- Maxi- Antenna Supporting Structure, Tower Light- '""'" ^ff^ mum ing, and Frequency and Modulation Monitor $ 5,400 $ 16,300 $ 31,700 B. Studio and Control-Room Equipment 1. Equalizer(s), "patch-board," etc 300 400 500 2. Speech-Input Console (2 studio operation) . . 500 1,200 1,500 3. Microphones, stands, cables, connectors .. . 450 650 1,000 4. Transcription turntables (2 complete units) 500 900 1,000 C. Accessory Equipment 1. Recording facilities (2 recorders with re- cording amplifier and associated accessories) 825 1,250 2,200 2. Remote input equipment (for programs originating outside of station studios) ... 320 530 3. Radio tuners (FM and AM) for receiving and rebroadcasting other station programs 75 130 320 4. Facilities for producing sound effects 200 650 750 D. Estimated Installation Costs 1,000 2,000 3,000 E. Studios — (Estimated cost of structural alterations, sound-proofing, wiring, heating, ventilating, etc., involved in converting existing space into two studios and one control room) .... 750 1,200 2,500 F. Property (Exact location unknown, but rural) ... 500 1,000 2,000 G. Construction (Not including legal and engineer- ing advice) 5,000 9,000 15,000 Totals 15,500 35,000 62,000 Totals for Five Stations $ 77,500 $175,000 $310,000 estimates by state department of education H. Contractual Services (Inc. repairs and transmis- sion) $ 2,000 $ 4,000 $ 8,000 I. Personal Services — Station Manager and Produc- tion Dir . 3,000 4,300 5,000 Station Engineer 2,500 3,000 3,500 Station Editor, Recordist, sound eff 2,300 2,500 3,200 Station Program Engineer 2,000 2,500 2,750 Station Clerk and Receptionist 1,800 2,000 2,400 13,600 18,300 24,850 Totals for Five Stations 68,000 91,500 124,250 State Radio Director 5,000 6,000 7,000 State Total for Services 73,000 97,500 131,250 Required for Biennium 146,000 195,000 262,500 A to G above 77,500 175,000 310,000 Total Appropriation $223,500 $370,000 $572,500 196 American Association of School Administrators State administrators will be particularly interested in the additional values attached to a statewide educational network. First of all a state radio council should be formed to represent the participating groups — superintendents, teachers colleges, technical scl\ools, state universities, teachers, participating state departments and agencies, as proportionately as possible, and the state department of education. This advisory council should establish the minimum standards required in equipment of all kinds and especially in broadcasting which must measure up to commercial and professional standards if possible. In the lack of this many see the greatest danger to educational broadcasting on a statewide scale. The council will undoubtedly have to draw up regulations regarding the qualifications of participating groups and institutions whether nondiscriminatory, nonde- nominational, and open to all creeds, races, etc. The Connecticut plans call for a participating or contributing service, definitely not for a state dominated or ordered schedule, to which all local public-school systems will be asked to give their best and to receive much more in return. Superintendents will be vastly encouraged, following the war, to purchase available equipment knowing that their local radio sched- ules can definitely rely on the state network programs, and they will not be on their own. A bimonthly bulletin should indicate the broadcasting schedules and subjects, these largely by transcription with frequent petition to guaran- tee integration with classroom schedules. It is obvious that many of the earlier programs will be devoted to the proper and approved methods and technics to be adopted by teachers in utilizing the broadcasts. j\Iany teachers colleges are already alert to these requirements. Emphasis should be put upon the availability of the proposed network to state departments, institutions, agencies, and officials to broadcast infor- mation, advice, appeals, warnings, or commands. These might well be state executives, welfare and motor vehicle departments, health, agriculture, parks, fish and game, labor, welfare, highway, and other departments, all to participate at scheduled hours. Education will have the lion's share of the time for school hours now occupy the morning, afternoon, and evening, and the whole purpose of the service is education. Without listing the unlimited actual subjects that might be broadcast, here are the types of broadcasts: Departmental and executive Adult education (Vocational, avocational, academic, cultural, hobby, labor, agriculture, veterans) University extension (credit courses) News at all grade levels Teachers colleges (Service and in-service courses) Problems of education (Commissioner, supervisors, specialists, conferences) Forum and discussion groups, debates, forensic and dramatic Music (Largely by transcription) Emergency warnings, great events Transcriptions and reproductions (from national and sustain- ing sources, by permission) Broadcasts for the sick, invalids, and shut-ins Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 197 Realists, Connecticut educators have no illusions regarding the problems in equipment, staffing, legalities, programming, and the necessity for high standards, but particularly in imparting to the legislators the necessity for action at this time and an appropriation sufficient to satisfy the requirements of the Federal Communications Commission. Education is endeavoring to anticipate and to have vision without seeming visionary. Win or lose, the picture is here passed on to others. It is low aim, not failure, that is a crime. One thing is certain: if education does not utilize the air in 1945, it will get it ! RADIO Ax\D TELEVISION EDUCATION— POSTWAR I. KEITH TYLER, DIRECTOR OF RADIO EDUCATION, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO A look into the future may be helpful in suggesting the role to be played by radio and television once the war is over. It is always precarious to make predictions ; too many unforeseen factors may upset all calculations. Never- theless, schools are now planning buildings and curriculums for the postwar period. Such planning should be based upon as clear a conception of the future as is now possible. The picture painted here is perfectly feasible from a technological point of view. And it is certainly desirable from an educational standpoint. Its accuracy will be dependent upon our ability to control human and social factors following Victory. RADIO and TELEVISION IN OUT-OF-SCHOOL LIFE A school is a part of a community. It is also an integral part of the American scene. It must develop its program in terms of the realities of life outside of the classroom. The social and educational effects of radio and television upon children and youth have decided implications for what goes on within the four walls of the school. What will these communication industries be like in the period from 1950 to 1955? The whole field of electronics may well be one of the expanding areas which will give employment to millions in the reconversion period. Certainly there will be great changes. Five to ten years after the war, our nine-hun- dred-odd standard radio stations will probably have dwindled to some two- hundred fairly high-powered outlets chiefly serving the rural areas. Most of the purely local stations will have deserted amplitude modulation (the present "standard" type of broadcasting) in favor of frequency modulation. This will leave the present facilities free for the clear channel larger sta- tions to give better coverage to the vast stretches of the United States which now lack adequate primary service. It is likely that as many as three thousand frequency modulation com- mercial stations will have been developed for local and regional broadcast- ing. These will be supplemented by some three hundred educational FI\I stations operated by school systems, colleges, universities, and civic organiza- tions. The latter stations will serve the educational and cultural needs of communities, with both day and evening programs directed to adults and 198 American Association of School Administrators children alike. For the first time in American radio, it will be possible for serious listeners generally to tune in to educational programs at convenient hours. In addition, the existence of more than three times as many radio stations serving the public will give broadcasting a more local and regional flavor. More programs will originate in the cities and hamlets all over the land which are America; network offerings from New York, Chicago, and Hollywood will represent a much smaller fraction of available programs. This "grass-roots" development will give radio new vigor and vitality; just as radio today is saved from decadence by the first approaches to pro- grams which stem from the battle-front reports covering war developments all around the world. Television will have made rapid growth in this period. Three hundred or more of these stations will be operating for limited hours in the more populous centers. Like FM radio, these stations can cover only local or regional areas. Programming will be much more costly than for radio, so that smaller communities remote from metropolitan centers will not- be likely to benefit from television until network programming becomes a reality. Probably not more than 20 to 30 percent of the homes of the country will be equipped for television reception, since sets will be expensive even in time of prosperity. The rest of the population, however, will have access to its programs in neighborhood motion-picture houses or in special television theaters. The rush for new radio sets, however, will have resulted in an almost complete change-over in home equipment. It is likely that 85 percent of homes will have new combination AM-FM receivers so that they can hear whatever programs may be on the air in their district. DEVELOPMENTS WITHIN SCHOOLS It is even more difficult to predict what will have taken place as the schools adjust themselves to these communication instruments. Perhaps one should only suggest what schools could be like in this period if they were to recognize fully the educational importance of radio and television and provide adequately for their effective use. This, then, is but a dream. It can be realized only if the schools want it enough to work for it. In this dream school of the future, every classroom will be equipped with an AM-FM receiver or with a loudspeaker from a central receiving set. The walls and ceilings of every room will be acoustically treated so that programs may be heard at their best. In each building there will be a spe- cial visual-television room with good ventilation, acoustic treatment, a sloping floor, comfortable seats with shaded lights and tablet arms for note-taking, and of course both a 16 mm. motion-picture projector and a television projector. Projected television is an obvious necessity for large group viewing. The cost of such equipment makes a centralized viewing room the onlv feasible alternative. Special Studies Prepared for Canceled Conferences 199 In this postwar school there will be teachers who understand children and are familiar with their background in the home and in the community. They will keep in close touch with the motion pictures, the newspapers, the radio and the television programs to which boj^s and girls are exposed. Such teachers of course will have a clear philosophy of education, but they will also have a mastery of the technological aids so that children may benefit fully from their rich postwar environment. How likely is the achievement of this dream? Will America in 1950 to 1955 have these advantages? Will schools make adequate provision for the effective use of modern technology? What factors will determine whether this is attained? factors affecting future developments In the first place, all of these developments are dependent upon a con- tinuing high level of national income. If America can maintain an income level of $135 to $150 billions, these changes will be perfectly possible. But an impoverished scarcity economy with a national income of $60 billions would deny the attainment of such a future. School people must never lose sight of their dependence upon the general health and well-being of the economy. There can be no ivory tower for the schools. Likewise, the multiplication of local commercial FM stations is depend- ent upon the ability of communities to support a larger number of stations. With high levels of employment and wages, business flourishes and adver- tising expands. Then these predicted local stations can operate profitably. It is even more certain that the advancement of television will be possible only with a continuing prosperity. Programming is expensive and commer- cial development of the medium depends upon ample budgets for this form of advertising. So far as the schools are concerned, the educational FM stations can be established only if adequate funds are available for the general expansion of educational services and if school administrators provide leadership in this field. It is quite probable that a large number of these stations will be established. The public is accustomed to radio and is generally willing to support its use in education. Indeed, laymen are easier to convince than the typical educator. It is easy to see that by broadcasting programs for classrooms, such a station makes possible valuable educational experiences to thousands of children daily. The cost of the entire installation is but a fraction of an elementary school serving only a few hundred pupils. Yet the school station may serve the community as well. The real difficulty is the expense of operating and maintaining these educational stations. Quality programming costs money for personnel and upkeep. Engineers, announcers, program staff, and the time of teachers and supervisors are required. A school system would do better not to initiate such a venture unless it is prepared to support it adequately. This necessity for regular support, year in and j^ear out, seems to be the real obstacle to the expansion of educational FM stations. 200 American Association of School Administrators A thorough program of teacher and staff education is required if radio is to be incorporated into the school. The staff to operate and program the station must be trained through courses at colleges and universities, through summer workshops, through cooperative arrangements with local commer- cial stations. In addition, the whole body of teachers must become skilled in the utilization of radio programs in the classroom. This alone is a tremen- dous job of in-service education. Let us not fool ourselves. To develop adequate use of radio in the schools requires an educational revolution. We have had more than fifteen years of school broadcasting in the United States and yet we are only beginning. Nationally, the picture is very spotty. The public schools in Cleveland are probably making the greatest and most intelligent use of radio. It permeates the entire school system as a regular tool of instruction. Fine developments are also taking place in Chicago, Detroit, Rochester, Akron, Toledo, Indianapolis, Atlanta, and other cities, but radio is by no means universally used even in these pioneering sj^stems. Probably not one school in five throughout the country is using radio regularly and certainly not more than one teacher in twenty. This after more than fifteen years of development ! Can an^'one doubt that an educational revolution is neces- sary ? THE ROLE OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS If schools are to enter this field, they must have the wholehearted sup- port of principals and superintendents. It must be recognized that radio sets and other equipment Mn'll have to be purchased for reception and that every classroom will need acoustic treatment sooner or later. Special attention will have to be given to teacher education. All- this is expensive but not impossible. If America maintains its high national income, if it continues its dream of democratic education, if it utilizes its increased well-being to expand its educational services, and if schoolmen capitalize upon the layman's belief in technology, then modern teacher aids may become a commonplace in education. There are, then, five tasks which lie before us: (1) As intelligent citi- zens, we must lend every aid to the achievement of an economy of abun- dance in the postwar period. (2) We must give leadership in ensuring the public's belief in and support of education. "Onlj^ the best in education is good enough for my child." (3) Every school administrator must be converted to the tremendous need for and the value of technological aids. (4) We must ensure that the new educational stations are manned by trained and intelligent personnel. (5) We must work toward the goal of all teachers thoroughly trained in the field of teaching aids. Nothing short of the attainment of this dream is good enough for the boys and girls of America. Only through unremitting effort toward this goal can the promise of the future become a reality. Part III Report of the Work Conference on Educational Programs for Veterans Special Emphasis on Noncollegiate Education NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION HEADQUARTERS FEBRUARY 26, 27, AND 28, 1945 Co-ChairTJieu Howard A. Dawson, Director of Rural Service, NEA Ralph McDonald, Secretary, Department of Higher Education, NEA INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT The G. I. Bill of Rights (Public Law 346, 78th Congress) became a law on June 22, 1944. It contains, in addition to other rights and benefits affecting veterans, provisions relative to the education and training of men and women who have participated in World War II. These provisions have been acclaimed as part of the just dues which a grateful nation wishes to extend to veterans. It was thought that this law conferred on veterans the opportunity to acquire skills or talents which would equip them to obtain jobs, continue to higher levels of learning, or broaden their mental horizons. The underlying principle of the law was that it would permit veterans to offset the loss of educational opportunities brought about through military service. It was believed that veterans would individually be benefited ; that society would be strengthened ; and that the law was a promise of "free" education needing only the active expression of the veterans' desires to accomplish these basic purposes. But what are the facts? Almost a year has elapsed since the G. I. Bill of Rights was placed on the statute books and many questions have arisen as to whether it answers the aims of its sponsors or the intent of Congress. Many citizens who have studied the law, its limitations, the regulations promul- gated for its administration, and its operation to date, now think that the basic purpose will fall far short of realization unless needed actions growing out of the answers to certain' questions are soon forthcoming. Let us look at a few of these questions : 1. Can state and local school S3'stems fulfil America's promise to the veteran that he will have the opportunity to enter upon and complete an educational program which will enable him to take his place in society as a producer and a socially competent citizen ? 2. Are communities generally alert to the singular opportunity they have to improve their educational services and strengthen the educational equip- ment of society if they meet the needs of veterans? [201 ] 202 American Association of School Administrators Or — Will only a relatively small minority undertake to make the most of the possibilities? 3. Are communities going to be content only to say to the veteran, "Here are our institutions, you are w^elcome to use them as they are."? Or — Are the communities' educational systems planning to redirect their efforts to provide the opportunities needed? 4. Should the G. I. Bill of Rights unequivocally provide education at federal expense without cost to local publicly supported institutions or with- out the possibility that the veteran might eventually have to pay for his own education? Or — Should the law remain in its present form ? 5. Are the facilities of the educational institutions, especially in less popu- lated communities, presently equal to the task of providing that which the veteran and society need ? Or — If found inadequate should that fact he of national concern and fed- eral funds utilized to correct it? 6. Under the present provisions of the law and regulations, is the veteran who is qualified and desires a college education likely to be better served than the far greater number who need a different type of education ? 7. Is the veteran going to be stimulated and encouraged through all pos- sible channels to take advantage of his opportunities? Or — Will he be permitted to find his own way if he can? 8. Are technics going to be developed which will assure that the veteran clearly understands his privileges? Or — Will these be left to haphazard unrelated efforts? 9. Will all states plan and be able to establish special criteria which in- stitutions must meet before being approved as qualified to enrol veterans and receive tuition payments from the government? Or — Will present methods of accrediting and licensing continue? 10. Do states and communities consider the problems of veterans' educa- tion of at least equal importance with other postwar projects? Or — Will they be concerned about veterans' education too late with too little planning? 11. Are management, labor, agriculture, and educational systems co- operating to meet the needs? Or — Is the leadership necessary for this lacking? 12. Are vitalized adult educational curriculums being developed? Or — Will the veteran who seeks education be expected to conform to programs which are neither interesting nor stimulating, or which have little fundamental value? 13. Are veterans' educational programs likely to be considered largely remedial ? Or — Will it be possible to develop facilities, personnel, and curriculums which will challenge the potentialities of adults who have matured rapidly and experienced greatly? Educational Programs for Veterans 203 14. Are colleges and universities planning to train adult educational leaders and teachers in order that there will be a sufficient number of qual- ified personnel for the types of programs needed ? Or — Will attempts be made to utilize personnel that is generally qualified for teaching only youth? 15. Are plans being made to develop adequate facilities for the needs at all levels in all communities? Or — Are only the larger well-financed urban centers going to be able to serve veterans? 16. Should there be an organized body dedicated to the task of focusing attention on these questions, gathering, analyzing, and disseminating infor- mation, seeking modifications in the law and regulations if experience war- rants, and stimulating actions which have as their objectives the fulfilment of the promises to veterans implied in the law? To give final or complete answers to all these questions is impossible and even undesirable at this time because the problems of veterans' education are by their very nature an unfolding process. What is most important though is that plans be made now to protect the veteran and to meet his needs by seeking the answers to these questions so that the veteran and society will be well served. If this is not done, a grave injustice will result, tax money will be wasted, the veteran will be disillusioned, and society will be the poorer. In the months subsequent to the passage of the G. I. Bill of Rights, a number of local educational systems throughout the nation, and a few of the states, began seriously to plan how the needs of the veterans could be met. It soon became evident that the number engaged in active and realistic planning was insufficient, and what was particularly disturbing was that little thought was being given to programs for veterans needing education or training other than that of collegiate grade. As the result of this situation many persons began to call for action for fear that the majority of veterans would be forgotten. Therefore, late in the autumn of 1944, the National Education Associa- tion, still aware that some excellent things were being planned in scattered areas, saw the need for a more concentrated consideration of veterans' prob- lems. It was realized that lack of facilities and local action would result in only a relatively small percentage of veterans taking advantage of their privileges unless more attention was given to concrete proposals. Also lack- ing was coordinated thinking about how to encourage and stimulate the veteran's interest in acquiring new skills and knowledges. Consequently, in January 1945, at the National Education Association in Washington, rep- resentatives of fifteen governmental agencies and twenty-one private agencies met to explore some of the problems connected with the possibilities under the law and its implications. Two things were evident from that conference. The first was that the problems were so complex that they could scarcely be more than mentioned in an exploratory conference; second, that some means should be developed 204 American Association of School Administrators through which the citizens in more states and communities might realize the possibilities in adequate veterans' educational and training programs. The exploratory conference agreed that a work-conference should follow which would try to develop certain principles and suggestions for furthering interest and action in the problems. Subsequently a work-conference met in February 1945 and three days were spent by representatives of public and private agencies in formulating statements considered pertinent to veterans' educational programs, with particular reference to the needs of those who wish other than collegiate education. The work was apportioned among committees and the material presented herewith is the result. In several in- stances the material has been modified from its original form as the partici- pants of the conference gave the editing committee that permission. The results of the work-conference, further study of the problems, and evidence of what states and communities are presently doing, will form the bases for subsequent recommendations. It is hoped that the material published at this time will provoke further questions, interest, research, and suggestions which the National Education Association will welcome as part of the source ma- terial in any further publication. All individuals and organizations con- cerned with providing veterans' educational or training programs, or that wish to see them provided, are invited and urged to send their ideas or ques- tions to the National Education Association which will undertake to serve as a clearing-house for them. This material includes recommendations which either were made by the various work-conference committees, or grew out of the implications in their reports. Following the recommendations are the committee reports which repre- sent the points of view of the individual participants. No commitments are intended to be implied, nor is responsibility assumed by the public or private agencies which were represented at the conference. VETERANS' EDUCATION PROGRAM RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Since veterans' education is essentially adult education, the instruc- tional programs, methods of teaching, and facilities should be adapted to the needs and experiences of veterans. 2. Since fully two-thirds of the veterans have had less than a high-school education, the principal need is for educational opportunities of the non- collegiate type. A majority of the veterans needing additional educational opportunities come from small communities and from areas where educa- tional facilities are most meager. For that reason, education facilities should be made available through local school systems, state colleges, extension services of colleges and private educational institutions to meet the needs of veterans. Traditional types of curriculum? and teaching methods will not be satisfactory and veterans must not be placed in classes with children and adolescents. Educational Programs for Veterans 205 3. Although funds have been made available to pay for tuition and sub- sistence for veterans, no provision has been made to finance the kind of edu- cational opportunities needed by veterans. The responsibility here clearly rests upon the state, the local community, and the federal government. 4. In some states there are constitutional or statutory limitations on the use of public-school funds to pay for the education of persons over twenty- one years old. States should take immediate action to remove such limita- tions, especially as they apply to veterans. 5. States should immediately provide the personnel in their state depart- ments of education to promote the establishment of educational facilities for veterans, to counsel with local school systems and state and private educa- tional institutions in providing needed educational programs and facilities. 6. Schools and colleges, both public and private, should be permitted to offer educational programs for veterans only after having been approved for the specific work they propose to do by a single state agency designated or established by state law to do this important work. Uniform standards should be adopted and applied and inspection by the state authority provided. 7. Standards should be set up in each state for evaluating the experiences and training of veterans received in the armed forces for granting scholastic credits. It is strongly recommended that the procedure recommended by the Armed Forces Institute be uniformly adopted. Attention is especially di- rected to these procedures as set forth in A Guide to the Evaluation of Edu- cational Experience in the Armed Forces, published by the American Coun- cil on Education. In any case, educational accrediting associations should require their members to conform to the uniform practices. 8. Teachers for veterans, especially for veterans needing education of the noncollegiate type, should have special training in adult education philosophy and methods. Teacher education institutions should immediately set up in cooperation with local school systems adequate pre-service and in- service training of such teachers. In many cases it seems desirable that vet- erans should be trained for this work. 9. Courses should be developed on local levels with assistance from state and national planning conferences to give needed educational assistance in such areas as vocational adjustment, home and family living, communitywide living, and personal growth and development. 10. Veterans' education will need learning material developed on adult levels, directed toward adult problems, and more condensed than in the usual textbooks. It is recommended that local, state, and national groups develop adequate materials; and that various publishers be encouraged to publish textbooks suitable to adults. Local, state, and national groups should compile and evaluate the wealth of pamphlet and visual materials adapt- able to adult education. 11. Special educational guidance and counseling services are needed by veterans. The Veterans Administration is authorized by law to provide guidance and counseling services and has plans for providing approximately four hundred guidance centers. It is urged: 206 American Association of School Administrators (a) That the Veterans Administration require veterans to make use of the op- portunity personally to accept or refuse advisement by an authorized representative of the Veterans Administration. (b) That the Veterans Administration provide for mobile or traveling personnel units for the purpose of taking their services directly to the veterans not living where the guidance centers are located. (c) That in cases where veterans are not otherwise reached, the Veterans Ad- ministration should provide for transportation and subsistence of veterans who need to obtain information, counseling, and guidance outside their own communities. Unless the four hundred guidance centers are supplemented by services indicated under "(b)" and "(c)," the veterans from rural areas and small communities are almost certain not to receive assistance. (d) That public and nonprofit state-approved schools and colleges should provide such educational information and guidance services as veterans may need when referred to them by the veterans' information centers. 12. Teacher education institutions should immediately begin the train- ing of counselors and guidance personnel to serve veterans. 13. Public libraries should examine their facilities and programs to see that they are in position to serve the educational needs of veterans. An immediate expansion of library facilities is needed in rural areas and small communities. There is special need for the compilation of materials perti- nent to the various areas of veterans' education. 14. Many of the veterans desiring and needing further education will be married men vv^ith children. Colleges, universities, and area schools should provide special dormitory facilities for these veterans and their families. 15. Certain amendments should be made immediatelv to Public Lavi'^ 346 (The G. I. Bill of Rights) : (a) Title II, Part VIII, Paragraph 1, should be amended to make educational benefits available to all veterans, regardless of whether their education was inter- rupted by service in the armed forces. All age limitations should be removed. (b) Title II, Part VIII, Paragraph 1, requiring that the educational benefits be accepted within two years after the termination of the war or separation from the service, whichever occurs latest, should be repealed, thus permitting the veteran to accept educational benefits whenever he thinks he needs them. (c) Title II, Part VIII, Paragraph 6, subsistence allotments, payable to veterans pursuing an educational program, should be revised as follows: "$50 for a veteran without dependents; $75 for a veteran with one dependent; $100 for a veteran with two dependents; and $125 for a veteran with three or more dependents." Education should not have to compete with unemployment benefits. (d) Title VI, Section 1505, should be repealed insofar as it relates to educational provisions. This section now provides: "In the event there shall hereafter be authorized any allowance in the nature of adjusted compensation, any benefits received by, or paid for, any veteran under this Act shall be charged against and deducted from such adjusted compensation. . . ." 16. Certain action with respect to the law and the regulations promul- gated by the Veterans Administration should be taken : (a) Title II, Part VIII, Paragraph 10, provides that the Administrator of Vet- erans' Affairs, when he deems it necessary, shall make available information re- Educational Programs for Veterans 207 garding the needs for general education and for trained personnel in various crafts, trades, and professions. It is recommended that this information be collected and disseminated as quickly as possible. Without it, adequate programs cannot be established or effective guidance be carried on. (b) It is recommended that definite provision be made to pay for the education of veterans who desire to take a course of study involving less than three semester hours a term in college or less than six hours a week in high school or other train- ing of less than college level. (c) In order that there may be more equitable treatment for part-time students, it is recommended that the present basis for charging off time against the total entitle- ment be revised. In general it is recommended that a plan for translating the total amount of entitlement from units of time into the number of units of school or college credit that full-time students would ordinarily complete during the period of the total entitlement be adopted. It is, of course, proposed that courses failed and courses completed would both be counted. 17. Inasmuch as one and one-half million veterans of World War II have already been discharged from the armed forces, it is quite evident that the problem of veterans' education is already facing the hundreds of com- munities, schools, and colleges of the nation. It is recommended that the experience and needs of these veterans be taken into immediate considera- tion as a basis for projecting the necessary educational programs. 18. A national council on veterans' education should be established to act as a clearing-house of information, to promote and conduct research, and to promote the establishment and improvement of educational programs and services for vetejans. EDUCATIONAL RIGHTS AND BENEFITS OF VETERANS The basic purpose of Title II, Public Law 346, 78th Congress, was and is believed to be the opportunity for veterans to secure "free" education. Congress apparently intended, through the processes of this law, that a grateful country would extend every possible assistance to veterans to reestablish their skills and educational competence. No doubt it was the intent of Congress that the effects of the law would be to equalize educa- tional opportunities and lift the educational level of America. However, the truth of the matter is that "free" education per se has not been offered, and there are certain provisions of the law and regulations formulated to date which do little to protect the veteran, equalize oppor- tunity among veterans, or encourage publicly supported institutions to pro- vide the services needed. To appreciate these facts it is only necessary to examine certain parts of the law and some of the regulations : Excerpts from Public Law 346, 78th Congress, Title II, Part VIII, Paragraph 1 : ". . . That any such person who was not over 25 years of age at the time he entered the service shall be deemed to have had his education or training impeded, delayed, interrupted, or interfered with." 208 American Association of School Administrators Here the law assumes that persons under twenty-five years of age have had their education interrupted by service in the armed forces, and by im- plication that persons over that age do not need or cannot profit by educa- tion or training. This is unsound as well as discriminatory. All veterans should be treated equally. It is recommended that the educational benefits of Public Law 346 be made available to all, regardless of whether their formal education was in fact interrupted, and it is believed this can be accomplished by the pas- sage of H. R. 154. Support of this bill is urged. Title II, Part VIII, Paragraph 6: "While enrolled in and pursuing a course under this part, such person, upon appli- cation to the Administrator, shall be paid a subsistence allowance of $50 per month, if without a dependent or dependents, or $75 per month, if he has a dependent or dependents, including regular holidays and leave not exceeding thirty days in a calendar year. Such person attending a course on a part-time basis, and such person receiving compensation for productive labor performed as part of their apprentice or other training on the job at institutions, business or other establishments, shall be entitled to receive such lesser sums, if any, as subsistence or dependency allow- ances, as may be determined by the Administrator: Provided, That any such person eligible under this part, and within the limitations thereof, may pursue such full- time or part-time course or courses as he may elect, without subsistence allowance." It is recommended that subsistence allotments payable to veterans while pursuing an educational program be revised as follows: $50 for a veteran without dependents; $75 for a veteran with one dependent; $100 for a veteran with two dependents; and $125 for a veteran with three or more dependents. It is not assumed that these amounts are adequate for the com- plete support of a veteran and his family, but in suggesting increased allot- ments for a larger number of dependents, the desire is to remove some of the handicaps to securing further education which veterans with several dependents are encountering. Education should not have to compete against unemployment benefits. Title II, Section VIII, Paragraph 10: "The Administrator may arrange for educational and vocational guidance to per- sons eligible for education and training under this part. At such intervals as he deems necessary, he shall make available information respecting the need for gen- eral education and for trained personnel in the various crafts, trades, and pro- fessions: Provided, That facilities of other Federal agencies collecting such informa- tion shall be utilized to the extent he deems practicable." It is recommended that this information be collected and disseminated as quickly as possible, for without it adequate programs cannot be estab- lished or effective guidance be carried on. Title II, Section VIII, Paragraph 3: ". . . And provided further, That any such course of education or training may be discontinued at any time, if it is found by the Administrator that, according to the regularly prescribed standards and practices of the institution, the conduct or progress of such person is unsatisfactory." Educational Programs for Veterans 209 It is recommended that the advice of the institution at which the veteran is studying be obtained and be given substantial weight and consideration in the administration of this provision. Title VI, Chapter XV, Section 1505: "In the event there shall hereafter be authorized any allowance in the nature of adjusted compensation, any benefits received by, or paid for, any veteran under this Act shall be charged against and deducted from such adjusted compensa- tion . . ." It is recommended that Section 1505 be repealed insofar as it relates to educational provisions. While man}^ persons who assisted in obtaining the passage of this law believe that no further benefits will be authorized for veterans, we may not discount that possibility. In such event, the amount of subsistence allow- ance paid to a veteran, plus tuition paid for education or training, will be deducted from any such adjusted compensation. This also means that if a veteran had enrolled in a private educational or training institution, his deductions would be greater than those for the veteran who had enrolled in a publicly supported institution. Of course, the man from a war indus- try whose education had been interrupted and who had enrolled in a pub- licly supported institution in the postwar period would pay no tuition or have it paid for him. The local educational system or state-supported insti- tution will continue to bear the greater part of the cost of educating or training the veteran. If the federal government paid public institutions the actual cost of instruction, these institutions would be in as favorable a posi- tion to serve veterans as are private institutions of higher education and private commercial or vocational schools. In fact, these latter two groups seem to have been particularly favored under the terms of the law. Excerpts from Veterans Administration instructions relative to the interpretation of the law and its administration are issued from time to time. The following are pertinent in considering how effectively or adequately the veteran may be served : veterans administration instruction no. 2 TITLE II, PUBLIC NO. 346, 78tH CONGRESS (servicemen's readjustment act of 1944) Subject: determination of eligibility for education or training, notification to VETERAN AND APPROVED INSTITUTION AND PAYMENTS TO VETERAN UNDER THE PROVISIONS OF PUBLIC NO. 346, 78th CONGRESS, TITLE II. — January 18, 1945. Paragraph 18. For the purposes of determining the amount of subsistence allowance to be paid and the rate at which the beneficiaries full-time entitlement will be exhausted, part- time courses of study will be measured only in fractions of three-fourths, one-half and one-fourth, determined in accordance with the standards herein prescribed for the type of training course being pursued. No subsistence allowance shall be paid under the terms of this instruction when the payment thereof is barred because the veteran engaged in full-time gainful employment not a part of his course of educa- tion or training. 210 American Association of School Administrators (a) For undergraduate courses in collegiate institutions which use a standard unit of credit, recognized by accrediting associations, determinations will be based on the number of standard semester hours for which the trainee is registered for credit. Less than twelve but not less than nine semester hours per semester, or the equivalent, will be counted as three-fourths time and will entitle the trainee to receive three- fourths of the full-time subsistence allowance. Less than nine but not less than six semester hours per semester, or the equivalent, will be counted as one-half time and will entitle the trainee to receive one-half of the full-time subsistence allowance. Less than six semester hours per semester, or the equivalent, will be counted as one-fourth time and, if three semester hours or more, will entitle the veteran to receive one- fourth of the full-time subsistence allowance. No subsistence allowance will be paid for less than three semester hours per semester, or the equivalent. (b) For graduate courses or advanced professional courses such as medicine the determination will be made in the individual case in accordance with the policy of the institution and a certification by a responsible official of the institution stating that the course being followed is considered as three-fourths time, half-time, or one- fourth time will be accepted and subsistence allowance will be paid accordingly. (c) For courses in all other schools, including high schools, determinations will be based on clock hours of required attendance at the school. Less than twenty-five but not less than eighteen clock hours of required attendance per week will be counted as three-fourths time and will entitle the trainee to receive three-fourths of the full- time subsistence allowance. Less than eighteen but not less than twelve clock hours of required attendance per week will be counted as one-half time and will entitle the trainee to receive one-half the full-time subsistence allowance. Less than twelve clock hours of required attendance per week will be counted as one-fourth time, and if six clock hours or more, will entitle the veteran to receive one-fourth of the full-time subsistence allowance. No subsistence allowance will be paid for less than six clock hours of required attendance per week. (d) For on-the-job training, where there is being received no wage or compensa- tion, determinations will be based on the number of hours per week which the trainee is required to devote to training, according to a specific schedule which the employer- trainer will be required to furnish. Less than thirty-six but not less than twenty-seven hours per week will be counted as three-fourths time and will entitle the trainee to receive three-fourths of the full-time subsistence allowance. Less than twenty-seven but not less than eighteen hours per week will be counted as one-half time and will entitle the trainee to receive one-half of the full-time subsistence allowance. Less than eighteen hours per week will be counted as one-fourth time and, if nine hours or more, will entitle the trainee to receive one-fourth of the full-time subsistence allow- ance. No subsistence allowance will be paid for less than nine hours per week. (e) For combinations of institutional and on-the-job training each component type will be measured in accordance with the appropriate standard in the preceding para- graphs and the two fractions will be combined. It is recommended that definite provision be made to pay for the edu- cation of veterans who desire to take a course of study involving less than three semester hours a term in college or less than six hours a week in high school or other training of less than college level. In order that there may be more equitable treatment for part-time stu- dents, it is recommended that the present basis for charging off time against the total entitlement be revised. In general, a plan for translating the total amount of entitlement from units of time into the number of units of school or college credit that full-time students would ordinarily com- plete during the period of the total entitlement is recommended. It is, of course, proposed that courses failed and courses completed would both be counted. Educational Programs for Veterans 211 veterans administration service letter administrator's OFFICE April 3, 1945. Subject: special notice to veterans who were over 25 years of age at the time of ENTRANCE INTO ACTIVE SERVICE AND WHOSE EDUCATION OR TRAINING WAS NOT IMPEDED, DELAYED, INTERRUPTED OR INTERFERED WITH BY REASON OF ENTRANCE INTO SERVICE. 1. A person who was over 25 years of age at the time of entrance into active service, who otherwise meets the basic eligibility requirements of the law and whose education was not impeded, delayed, interrupted or interfered with by reason of entrance into service, is entitled to pursue a refresher or retraining course for a period of time not in excess of one year (or the equivalent thereof in continuous part-time study) or for such lesser time as may be required for the course chosen by him. A refresher course of instruction is one which relates to a previous course of education or training and is calculated to bring the recipient to a more current status in the field of knowledge, art, or science in which engaged and to make him more proficient therein. A retraining course is one which is designed to equip a person for an occu- pation different from that previously followed, or which will make him more proficient in a field related to that which he formerly followed. If the course chosen by him is completed no further rights exist under Title II, Public No. 346, 78th Congress: Provided, That for reasons satisfactory to the Ad- ministrator a change in the course of instruction may be made: And provided further, That any such course may be discontinued at any time if it is found by the Administrator that according to the regularly prescribed standards and practices of the institution the conduct or progress of such person is unsatisfactory. In no event can such veteran have more than one year of training. It is recommended that the law be amended to delete all reference to refresher or retraining courses so that veterans may pursue any type of education or training which seems to meet their needs. The preceding recommendations are certainly not the final ones which may need to be considered as the administration of the law affects more and more veterans. However, there are certain actions vitally needed now in planning education and training programs. Therefore, it is recommended that: 1. Every state department of education add one or more persons to its staiif, whose duties shall be to encourage and promote the adaptation and development of educational programs to meet the needs of veterans, espe- cially of veterans of less than college grade. Such personnel should work in close cooperation with the Federal Office of Education and the Veterans Administration. The state legislatures should appropriate funds to the state departments of education which would make it possible to employ qualified persons for this purpose. 2. The recommendations of the work-conference be directed to the atten- tion of: a. The legislative commissions of the organizations represented at the conference. b. The governors of each state and the state departments of education, urging them to take effective action. 212 American Association of School Administrators c. Veterans' publications. (1. Yank, Stars and Stripes, Office of War Information, etc. e. Educational magazines. 3. Congressional leaders be consulted and informed as to the inadequacy of Public Law 346, Title II, and their aid sought for amendments to the law. 4. The Veterans Administration be urged to modify its regulations so that the veteran may be more adequately served. 5. A permanent committee under the leadership of the National Educa- tion Association be formed to implement the recommendations of the work- conference. EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF VETERANS general statement Public Law 346 makes it possible for veterans of World War II to secure, at the expense of the federal government, education and training adapted to their needs, aptitudes, and abilities. The federal government assumes the responsibility for the financing of the education of veterans. The colleges and universities, the public schools, and private agencies, in doing their part, must provide the educational opportunities for the hundreds of thousands of servicemen and women who will undoubtedly wish to continue their education after the war. The ultimate success of this great educational enterprise, which means so much to the general welfare of our country, is dependent, to a large degree, upon the educational leadership- of our colleges and universities, our public schools, and private agencies In developing educational programs adapted to the interests and needs of these men and women. previous education of enlisted men A number of surveys have been made of the previous education of the men in the armed forces. While these surveys show a slight variation in the percentage distribution of those who have completed certain levels of edu- cation, the data is sufficient to present a valuable and clear-cut picture of the educational background of these servicemen. One survey of over seven million enlisted men in the Army as of June 30, 1944, which has recently been completed, shows that 28.6 percent of the men had completed eight years or less of elementary-school work ; 32.6 percent had completed one, two, or three years of high-school work; 27.6 percent had either been en- rolled in the fourth year of high school, or had been graduated ; 8.2 percent had completed one, two, or three years of college work; and 3 percent had been in the fourth year of college, had been graduated from college, or had completed some graduate work. In other words this survey plainly indicates that 60 percent of these men had not completed their high-school education. Special attention should he given, therefore, to the planning of educational programs for this group. ^ ^ See Table, "Eduration and Acp of Army Enlisted Mm Arrangrd by Stales," appearing at end of this report, p. 218-19. Educational Programs for Veterans 213 NUMBERS PLANNING TO CONTINUE THEIR EDUCATION Many studies have been made by local, state, and national agencies, rela- tive to the numbers of servicemen who will continue their education after the war. These estimates will undoubtedly vary from time to time, due to changed conditions. The length of the war, the age of the veteran at the time of his discharge, the opportunities for employment at good wages, the desire to get married and establish a home, the urge to buy a farm or estab- lish a small business, the financial responsibilities felt toward relatives are some of the factors that will play an important part in the postwar plans of those returning from the services. On the basis of the present estimates, between 8 and 10 percent of the men and women in the armed forces plan to continue their full-time educa- tion after discharge and between 10 and 15 percent of them desire part-time education. This large group will be composed largely of young veterans under twenty-five or twenty-seven years of age who have already had good basic educational preparation. Many of these men and women were in col- lege at the time they entered the service, large numbeington, D. C. Johnson, Elizabeth S., Assistant Director Industrial Division, Children's Bureau u' b. Department of Labor, Washington, D c' Kastner, Elwood C, Registrar, New York University, New York, N. Y. Keller, J. O., Chairman, Legislative Com- mittee, National University Extension. Pennsylvania State College, State College Pa. ' Kendall, Glenn, Chief of Educational Serv- ices, Immigration and Naturalization Service U. S. Department of Justice Philadelphia, Pa. Kraabel, T. O., Director of Rehabilitation, The American Legion. Washington, D. C. Legendre, Leonce R., Lt. Col., Inf. U. S. Army, Supervisor, Veterans Information Center, Washington, D. C. Levine, Louis, Lt. j.g., USNR, Selective Service System, Washington, D. C. Lloyd, W. A., Director, Information Serv- ice, Association of Land-Grant Colleges, Washington, D. C. 250 American Association of School Administrators PARTICIPANTS IN THE WORK-CONFERENCE (Continued) McDonald, Ralph, Executive Secretary, De- partment of Higher Education, NEA, Washington, D. C. McManus, Rev. William E., Assistant Di- rector, National Catholic Educational As- sociation, Washington. D. C. MacCammon, J. M., Chief, Rehabilitation and Education Division, Veterans Admin- istration, Washington, D. C. Mapes, Spencer, War Manpower Commis- sion, Washington, D. C. Mason, Laurence G., Capt., U. S. Army. Separation Center, Fort Dix, N. J. Morgan, Ben, Press Relations Officer. Vet- erans of Foreign Wars, Washington, D. C. Mosier, Earl E., Division of Teacher Train- ing and Certification, State Department of Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich. Nichols, Frederick G., Agent, Massachusetts Board of Collegiate Authority, Boston, Mass. Nielson, Hazel B., Secretary, National De- fense Committee, National Society DAR. Washington, D. C. Nolle. Glenn W.. The American Legion, Washington, D. C. Norton, Frank D., Administration Officer, D. C. Selective Service System, and Chairman, State Veterans Commission, Washington, D. C. Owens. Robert H., Lt. Col., U. S. Army, Assistant Executive, Selective Service System, Washington, D. C. Patterson, John C, Chief, Division of Inter- American Educational Relations, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Percy. Mrs. Mildred S.. Director of Guid- ance. Public Schools, Washington, D. C. Perry, Richard O., Cpl., U. S. Army, Head- quarters Detachment, Woodrow Wilson Hospital, Staunton, Va. Pillsbury, W. H.. Superintendent of Schools. Schenectady. N. Y. Pinkston. Eva G.. Executive Secretary, De- partment of Elementary School Princi- pals, NEA, Washington, D. C. Pope. J. D.. Assistant Director. Farm Ownership, Farm Security Administration, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wash- ington, D. C. Reed, Carroll R.. Assistant Superintendent of Schools. Washington, D. C. Richter. Irving. National Legislation Rep- resentative. United Automobile Workers. Washington. D. C. Riley. Winston. Jr., Bureau of Training, War Manpower Commission, Washington, D. C. Roosevelt. Mrs. Franklin D.. First Lady of the United States. The White House. Washington. D. C. Schorling, Raleigh, Professor of Education, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Schuler, Edgar A.. Social Scientist. Bureau of Agricultural Economics. U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture. Washington. D. C. Scott. Ira D.. Chief. Advisement and Guid- ance Division. Vocational Rehabilitation and Education Service. Veterans Admin- istration. Washington. D. C. Senty. W. B., Secretary. Educational Ar*- visory Committee, State Department of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. Shankland, Sherwood D., Executive Secre- tary, American Association of School Ad- ministrators, NEA, Washington, D. C' Shumaker, R. Worth. Assistant National Americanism Director. The American Legion, Indianapolis, Ind. Sloneker, Lewis S.. The American Legion, Washington, D. C. Smith, R. C, Chief Program Analyst, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Snavely, Guy E., Executive Director, Asso- ciation of American Colleges, Washington, D. C. Solby. Bruno. Surgeon. U. S. Public Health Service, Washington. D. C. Soltar. Elsie B., Economist, War Manpower Commission, Washington, D. C. Spanton, W. T., Chief. Food Production War Training. U. S. Office of Education, Washington. D. C. Stafford. Frank S., Specialist in Physical Fitness, U. S. Office of Education. Wash- ington. D. C. Stanley. Ralph J., Capt., Army Air Corps, Information and Education Division, A. S. F., Washington. D. C. Stapay. P. P., Registrar, American Uni- versity, Washington, D. C. Swiger, Rachel R., Social Scientist. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Sylvester. Charles W.. Director of Voca- tional Education, Public Schools, Balti- more, Md. Taylor, Carl C., Chief, Division of Farm Population and Rural Welfare, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, Washington. D. C. Tessari. John J., Bureau of Training, War Manpower Commission, Washington, D. C. Thompson. Ralph L.. Assistant Librarian, The Public Library. Washington, D. C. Thorne. Florence, Director of Research. American Federation of Labor, Washing- ton, D. C. Valient. June W., The American Legion. Washington. D. C. VanSant, Thomas A.. Director. Division of Adult Education. Public Schools. Balti- more. Md. Watson. F. B.. Washington Region. Civilian Defense. Washington, D. C. Waugh. Karl T.. Vocational Advisement Supervisor, Veterans Administration. Washington, D. C. Williams. Charl O.. Director. Division of Field Service. NEA. Washington, D. C. Wilson. L. A., Deputy State Commissioner of Education, Albany. N. Y. Wine. E. C, Budget Examiner, Bureau of the Budget, Executive Office of the Presi- dent, Washington, D. C. Wright. J. C. Lt.. USN. Educational Serv- ices Officer, llth Naval District. San Diego. Calif. Wright. Wendell W.. Dean. Junior Division. Indiana University. Bloomington. Ind. Young. Donald. Director of Veterans Educa- tion, George Washington University. Washington, D. C. Part IV Official Records 252 American Association of School Administrators The American Association of School Administrators A d<-i>arlni<'nl <>f tlic National Ediiration Assoriation of tlir United States Officers 1944-45 President, N. L. Kngelhardt Associate Superintendpnt of New York Cit}' Sdiools, 110 Livingston Stroet Brooklyn 2, N. Y. Fimt Vice-president, Worth McClure Superintendent of Schools University City. Mo. Second Vice-president . W. Frank Warren Superintendent of Schools Durham. N. C. Executive Secretan/. Sherwood D. Shankland 1201 Sixteenth Street, Northwe.st Washington 6, D. C. Executive Committee Charles H. Lake. Superintendent of Schools Cleveland, Ohio W. Howard Pillsbury. Superintendent of Schools Schenectady, N. Y. John L. Bracken, Superintendent of Schools Clayton, Mo. Henry H. Hill, Superintendent of Schools Pittsburgh. Pa. The President, First and Second Vice-presidents, ex officio. Officers 1945-46 President, Charles H. Lake Superintendent of Schools Cleveland, Ohio First Vice-president, N. L. Engelhardt Associate Superintendent of New York City Sclioois. 110 Livingston Street Brooklyn 2, N. Y. Second Vice-president, W. Frank Warren Superintendent of Schools Durham. N. C. Executive Secretanj. Sherwood D. Shankland 1201 Sixteenth Street, Northwest Washington 6. D. C. Executive Committee W. Howard Pillsbury, Superintendent of Schools Schenectady, N. Y. (Term expires March 15, 1946) John L. Bracken. Superintendent of Schools Clayton, Mo. (Term expires March 15, 1947) Henry H. Hu-l, Suiiorintendent of Schools Pitt.sl)urgh, P;i. (Term expires March 15, 1948) HoHART M. Corning, Superintendent of Schools Omaha, Nebr. (Term expires March 15, 1949) The President, First and Second Vice-presidents, ex officio. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE SECRETARY To the President, Executive Committee, and Alembers: In accordance with the provisions of the constitution adopted at the New Orleans convention in 1937, the annual report of the activities of the American Association of School Administrators is presented herewith. It covers the period from January 1, 1944, to December 31, 1944. REGIONAL CONFERENCES 1944 Worth McClure became president of the American Association of School Administrators March 15, 1943. The outlook for the year ahead was not encouraging. For many years, the Association's major effort had been pointed toward the holding of a great national convention. Starting from small beginnings shortly after the close of the Civil War, the annual meeting had continued to grow in scope and influence. Shortly after Pearl Harbor, the last national meeting was held, bringing together at San Francisco a registered attendance of 12,174 persons. Its activities were spread out over a period of two weeks with a host of lesser meetings scheduled before, during, and after the convention period. No meeting of any sort was held during the followine year due to the last minute cancellation of the 1943 convention scheduled at St. Louis, as requested by the Office of Defense Transportation. Because railroad trains were crowded and hotels in every large city booked to capacity, it was evidently impossible to hold the usual type of national convention in 1944. Thus, at the beginning of his term of office, President McClure was faced with the urgent necessity of planning a satisfactory convention substitute. From time to time members here and there had suggested regional conferences in place of one big national con- vention. President McClure adopted this idea and took the Association to the membership by scheduling five wartime regional conferences. The People's Schools in War and Peace was the general theme for all of the conferences. Among the subordinate topics presented were "Morale for a Free World," "Education and the People's Peace," "Protecting Home Rule in American Education," "Financing Education in the Postwar Economy," and "What's Right With the Schools in 1944?" The pro- gram framework for each conference followed somewhat the same general pattern but topics were handled by different speakers, selected for the most part from the conference area. Upon invitation of the British Board of Education and the British Min- istry of Information, President McClure was selected by the U. S. Office of War Information to visit Great Britain with a view to working with groups of English educators on various problems common to the schools of the United Kingdom and of the United States. He returned from his trip to Great Britain just in time to participate in the first conference which was held in his home city of Seattle. At each of the conferences he gave interesting glimpses of school conditions in Great Britain. [253 1 254 American Association of School Administrators A nuinhrr of (listinyuished sprnkers from outside our own profession participated in the conferences including Ciovernor Arthur B. Langlie of the State of Washington at Seattle; Governor Ellis G. Arnall of Georgia at Atlanta; Brigadier General Walter L. Weible at Atlanta and New York; Chairman Thomas C. Boushall of the Committee on Education of the Chamber of Commerce of the United States at Chicago; and Chief Scout Executive Elbert K. Fretwell at Kansas City. The Associated Exhib- itors presented the American Education Award for 1943 to Captain Eddie Rickenbacker at New York, and for 1944 to Superintendent Emeritus Frank Cody of Detroit at the Chicago conference. Special features enlivened the proceedings at each of the conferences. At Seattle, President iVIcClure was welcomed home at a series of breakfasts, luncheons, and dinners. At Atlanta, visitors were taken to the Cyclorama in Grant Park, a million dollar painting in authentic detail of the Battle of Atlanta. At New York, open house was maintained during the period of the conference through the courtesy of Superintendent Wade and hi^ staff. At Chicago, past president Milton C. Potter was awarded honorary life membership in the American Association of School Administrators. At an evening session in the Kansas City Municipal Auditorium, to which local teachers and citizens were invited, an audience of ten thousand people enjoyed a rare musical treat provided by a chorus of two thousand chil- dren from the fifth and sixth grades of the Kansas City public schools. The last speaker at the last conference was Dean J. B. Edmonson of the University of Michigan. He summed up the prospect for the future as forecast by the proceedings of the five conferences in these terms : ( 1 ) in- creased enrolments, (2) longer periods of schooling, (3) more emphasis on guidance, (4) enriched instructional programs, (5) more cooperative undertakings with community agencies, (6) more varied occupational train- ing. O) rnore competition for public funds, (8) increased activity of pres- sure groups, (9) more state and federal control, (10) heavier responsi- bility on professional organizations of teachers, (11) heavier demands on educational leadership. THE executive COMMITTEE Article IV of the constitution provides that the Executive Committee shall consist of seven members. The president and the first and second vice- presidents are members ex officio and are elected annually. Four mem- bers chosen by election hold office for terms of four years. The annual meeting of the Executive Committee was held at the Stevens Hotel, Chicago, Illinois, April 16 and 17, 1944. Members present were: N. L. Engelhardt, New York, N. Y., president; Worth McClure, Seat- tle, Washington, first vice-president; W. Frank Warren, Durham, North Carolina, second vice-president; Charles H. Lake, Cleveland, Ohio; W. Howard Pillsbury Schenectady, New York; John L. Bracken, Clayton, Missouri; and Henry H. Hill, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Executive Sec- retary Sherwood D. Shankland and Business Manager H. A. Allan also were present. Official Records 255 The minutes of the mcetinf: of the Kxecvitivr C'onimittrc on Octohn 17 and 18, 1943, were read and approved. The executive secretary' reported that the annual elections had been held according to the constitution and bylaws and that the tellers had certified to the election of N. L. Engelhardt, Associate Superintendent of New York Citv Schools, to the office of president for the year beginning March 15, 1944. The annual report of the executive secretary was submitted in writing. It covered in detail the activities of the Association, including the work of its various committees and commissions. It also included a statement of receipts and expenditures for several years past, together with estimates for the year 1944. The report was received and placed on file. On motion of Mr. Lake, seconded by Mr. McClure, the budget for 1944, as submitted by the executive secretary, was adopted. It was summarized as follows: Balance, January 1, 1944 $ 9,011.04 Estimated receipts for 1944 55,880.00 Total to account for, 1944 $64,891 .04 Less estimated expenditures, 1 944 55 , 759 . 86 Probable balance, December 31, 1944 $ 9,131.18 It was agreed that in 1945 it would again be impossible to hold a national convention. On motion of Mr. Pillsbury, seconded by Mr. Warren, it was voted to hold another series of regional conferences. Mr. Shankland and Mr. Allan were requested to canvass the railroad, hotel, and convention facilities in various cities and to prepare a report for later consideration. It was agreed that the status, activities, and relationships of Boards of Education should be studied and reported in the 1946 Yearbook. It was pointed out that it was none too early to begin thinking about the 1947 yearbook, since the preparation of a yearbook is a task which requires time and painstaking attention. A number of topics were suggested, but final decision was postponed until the fall meeting of the Executive Com- mittee. On motion of Mr. Pillsbury, seconded by Mr. Bracken, it was voted to continue affiliation with the Council on Cooperation in Teacher Education of the American Council on Education, with the understanding that this action is for the period of one year only, ending May 15, 1945. Mr. Hill will continue to be the representative of the American Association of School Administrators. It was voted to hold a breakfast in honor of President N. L. Engelhardt on Thursday morning, July 6, at the University Club in Pittsburgh, Penn- sylvania, during the summer meeting of the National Education Associa tion. Mr. Shankland was authorized to complete the necessary arrangements. A joint dinner meeting of the Executive Committees of the National Education Association and the American Association of School Adminis- trators was held in the Hotel William Penn, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on 256 American Association of School Administrators Monday evening, July 3, 1944, at 6:30 o'clock, for the purpose of con- sidering the future of the Educational Policies Commission. National Education Association Executive Committee members present were: Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Norfolk, Virginia, president; Leonard L, Bowman, Santa Barbara, California; A. C. Flora, Columbia, South Carolina; Joseph H. Saunders, Newport News, Virginia; Harold Smith, Glendale, Arizona; (ilenn E. Snow, St. George, Utah; B. F. Stanton, Alliance, Ohio; Emily 'J'arbell, Syracuse, New York; and John W. Thalman, Waukegan, Illi- nois. Members of the Executive Committee of the American Association of School Administrators present were: N. L. Engelhardt, New York. N. Y., president ; W. Frank Warren, Durham, North Carolina, second vice-president; W. Howard Pillsbury, Schnectady, New York; John L. Bracken, Clayton, Missouri; and Henry H. Hill, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The executive secretaries of the two organizations, Willard E. Givens, NEA, and S. D. Shankland, AASA, were also present. The meeting was called to order by Mrs. Joynes. The work of the Educational Policies Commission was discussed at length — all agreeing that no agency has done the constructive type of think- ing which has characterized the work of this commission. Critical problems will be faced when peace comes which will need for their solution the best minds education can find, and then the need for the Educational Policies Commission will be more urgent than ever before. A motion was made by Mr. Saunders, seconded by Mr. Warren, and carried, that the Executive Committees of the National Education Asso- ciation and the American Association of School Administrators authorize the continuation of the Educational Policies Commission for two years from December 31, 1944. It was agreed that a joint meeting of the two executive committees should be held later in the year to select the personnel of the Commission and meanwhile that a study should be made to determine a long-time plan for carrying on the policy-making function. Following the dinner meeting, the Executive Committee of the Amer- ican Association of School Administrators adjourned to the home of Super- intendent Henry H. Hill. The minutes of the meeting of the Executive Committee held in Chicago, April 16 and 17, 1944, were read and approved. The committee previously appointed to canvass convention facilities in various cities, recommended the holding of the 1945 regional conferences in Chicago, Denver, Memphis, New York, and San Francisco. It was later ascertained that facilities for holding a conference were not available at Memphis, and the southern conference was transferred to Birmingham. President Engelhardt said he had been working on a plan whereby he hoped to bring the Association closer to the individual members through the work of committees. He submitted a list of subjects for committee work and outlined the procedure to be followed, which was agreed to. Mr. Pillsbury reported on the "G. I. Bill of Rights," the recently passed bill providing federal government aid for the readjustment in civilian life of returning World War II veterans. Mr. Pillsbury has been charged by Official Records 257 the Educational Policies Commission with the responsibility of preparing a booklet interpreting the bill in the light of its educational implications. The Committee adjourned to meet at the breakfast in honor of President N. L. Engelhardt at the University Club, Thursday morning, July 6. The master of ceremonies at the breakfast was Superintendent W. Howard Pills- bury, Interesting talks were given by John L. Bracken, Willis A. Sutton, and Henry H. Hill. President Engelhardt responded with timely remarks. The Executive Committee met at the Schenley Hotel, Pittsburgh, Penn- sylvania, on Saturday, October 14, 1944, at 10:00 A. M. Members pres- ent were: N. L. Engelhardt, New York, N. Y., president; Worth McClure, University City, Missouri, first vice-president ; W. Frank War- ren, Durham, North Carolina, second vice-president; Charles H. Lake, Cleveland, Ohio ; W. Howard Pillsbury, Schenectady, New York ; John L. Bracken, Clayton, Missouri; and Henry H. Hill, Pittsburgh, Pennsyl- vania. Secretary S. D. Shankland was also in attendance. The minutes of the meeting of the Executive Committee held in Pitts- burgh, July 3-6, 1944, were read and approved. There was presented and read to the meeting a letter from L. A. Pech- stein, president of the National Council of Education, advising that the term of office of George Melcher as representative of the American Associa- tion of School Administrators on the National Council had expired and requesting that appointment be made to fill the vacancy. President Engel- hardt nominated Superintendent J. L. Hanley of Providence, Rhode Island, and on motion, the nomination was confirmed. The Executive Secretary reported that arrangements had been completed for a joint meeting of the Executive Committees of the American Associa- tion of School Administrators and of the National Education Association at Washington, D. C, on Saturday, November 25, for the purpose of reor- ganizing the Educational Policies Commission. It was voted to present honorary life memberships in the American Asso- ciation of School Administrators to Alexander J. Stoddard, past president of the Department of Superintendence and chairman of the Educational Policies Commission, and to Willis A. Sutton, past president of the National Education Association. Superintendent Worth McClure announced that under the authority granted by the Executive Committee he had appointed the commission to prepare the 1946 yearbook dealing with the problems of boards of educa- tion and that the commission was organized and at work. Serious consideration was given to plans for the 1947 yearbook. It was decided to postpone selection of the topic until the November meeting of the Executive Committee and in the meantime to seek advice from the mem- bers of the Advisory Council, Superintendent Pillsbury reported that, in connection with the New York Regional Conference of the Association, arrangements had been completed for a post-conference trip to the General Electric Company in Schenectady, New York, for a demonstration of television. Attendance is to be limited to 150. 258 American Association of School Administrators Srvnal hnurs wrrc spent in (liscussin^ details of the programs for the rej^ional conferences of the Association to he held earlj^ in 1945. Education in a Contracting Horld was the j^eneral theme announced by President Engelhardt. Topics for the five general sessions were proposed as follows : 1. The Unfinished Task 2. Immediate Administrative Problems 3. Expanding Responsibilities of School Administration 4. Let Us Also Wage Peace 5. For Us the Living The Executive Committee of the American Association of School Admin- istrators met in the oflfices of the Association, National Education Asso- ciation headquarters building, Washington, D. C, on Saturday, November 25, 1944, at 10:00 A. M. Those present were: N. L. Engelhardt, New York, N. Y., president ;' Worth McClure, University City, Missouri, first vice-president; W. Frank Warren, Durham, North Carolina, second vice- president; Charles H. Lake, Cleveland, Ohio; W. Howard Pillsbury, Sche- nectady, New York; John L. Bracken, Clayton, Missouri; Henry H. Hill, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; and Secretary S. D. Shankland. The minutes of the meeting of the Executive Committee held in Pitts- burgh, October 14, 1944, were read and approved. On motion of Mr. Bracken, seconded by Mr. McClure, the following telegram, signed by President Engelhardt and Secretary Shankland, was sent to Everett E. Keith, executive secretary of the Missouri State Teachers Association : The Executive Committee of the American Association of School Administrators recognizes the progressive educational changes in the proposed new constitution for Missouri being submitted to the voters of the state for ratification on February 27. The adoption of the proposed constitution would make possible the development of an effective program of education for the postwar pe/iod. The proposed changes are in complete accordance with the most advanced educational thinking. Missouri has an opportunity to lead the way and to set a pattern to be followed bv other states. For the good of education, not only in Missouri but also throughout the nation, the executive committee of the American Association of School Administrators sin- cerely hopes the proposed constitution for Missouri will be adopted by the voters on February 27, next. On motion of Mr. Bracken, it was voted that future appointments to the Advisory Council of the American Association of School Administrators be made on the basis of nominations by superintendents' associations in the respective states, where such organizations exist and when nominations can be made available. The Committee recessed at noon for luncheon with the Executive Com- mittee of the National Education Association, after which a joint meeting of the two committees assembled at NEA headquarters for the purpose of completing the reorganization of the Educational Policies Commission. Following the joint session with the Executive Committee of the National Education Association, the Executive Secretary presented a tabulation of the Official Records 259 vote of the Advisory Council on the topic to be presented in the 1947 year- book. The results were as follows : First Second Third choice choice choice Adult Education 9 16 1 Character Building 7 8 0 Postwar Curriculum 25 22 2 Teacher Personnel 10 10 ' 2 Vocational Education 16 12 3 On recommendation of President Engelhardt, TJie Postwar Curriculum was selected as the topic of the 1947 yearbook. The personnel of the com- mission to prepare the book was discussed at length. It was agreed to appoint Superintendent Claude V. Courier of Cincinnati, Ohio, as chairman. Presi- dent Engelhardt was authorized to complete the organization of the Com- mission. The Executive Secretary reported the receipt of a remittance of one thou- sand dollars ($1,000) from the Air-Age Education Committee for the pur- pose of printing the report of that committee entitled "The Waging of Peace." The report has been printed and mailed to all members of the Amer- ican Association of School Administrators, to subscribers to the Educational Research Service, and to three hundred editors of newspapers and magazines. Payment of the printer's bill in the amount of $1,000 was approved. Mr. Bracken stated that there are undoubtedly many superintendents of schools in the country who do not join the American Association of School Administrators because they cannot afford to. He said that in his own state of Missouri, many superintendents receive salaries of around $1,600 and $1,800 a year; some 740 superintendents of first-class high-school districts are in the low-salary brackets. He raised the question of the desfrability of membership dues based on salary. On motion of Mr. Lake, Secretary Shank- land was requested to secure figures on salaries of superintendents of schools throughout the country, to determine suitable membership dues for the various salary levels, and to report back to the Committee. A joint meeting of the Executive Committees of the American Association of School Administrators and of the National Education Association was held in the Board of Directors room of the NEA headquarters building, Washington, D. C, at 2:30 P. M. on Saturday, November 25, 1944. National Education Association Executive Committee members present were: F. L. Schlagle, president; Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, junior past presi- dent; Mrs. Mary D. Barnes, Leonard L. Bowman, L. V. Phillips, Glenn E. Snow, B. F. Stanton, and Emily A. Tarbell. Joseph H. Saunders, chair- man of the NEA Board of Trustees, was absent. American Association of School Administrators Executive Committee members present were: N. L. Engelhardt, president; Worth McClure, first vice-president; W. Frank Warren, second vice-president; Charles H. Lake, W. Howard Pillsbury, John L. Bracken, and Henry H. Hill. The executive secretaries of the two organizations, Willard E. Givens, NEA, and S. D. Shankland, AASA, were also present. 260 American Association of School Administrators On motion of Mr. Pillsbury, seconded by Mr. McClure, it was agreed that the P^ducational Policies Commission should be considered a continuing commission. On motion of Miss Tarbell, seconded by Mr. McClure, it was voted that in order to provide for the election of approximately one-fourth of the mem- bers of the Educational Policies Commission each year, the term of each of those beginning January 1, 1943, shall be extended to January 1, 1947 ; that the term of each of those beginning January 1, 1944, shall be extended to January 1, 1948; that the term of the three members elected before 1943 and whose services are being continued shall be for one year until January 1, 1946; that the term of each of the three members elected for the first time shall be for four years until January 1, 1949, and that the term of those elected in the future shall be for four years. Commission members were then elected with terms beginning January 1, 1945, as follows: To continue service for- one year — President James Bryant Conant, Harvard University President Edmund E. Day, Cornell University Superintendent Alexander J. Stoddard, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania To continue service for two years — Superintendent Francis L. Bacon, Township High School, Evanston, Illinois Dean Edwin A. Lee, School of Education, University of California at Los Angeles George D. Stoddard, New York State Commissioner of Education Mrs. Pearl A. Wanamaker, Washington State Superintendent of Public Instruction To continue service for three years — Assistant Superintendent Prudence Cutright, Minneapolis, Minnesota Assistant Superintendent Paul T. Rankin, Detroit, Michigan Maj'cie Southall, George Peabody College for Teachers New members to serve for four years — Superintendent A. C. Flora, Columbia, South Carolina President E. W. Jacobsen, University of Louisville Mabel Studebaker, Past President, Department of Classroom Teachers, National Education Association, Erie, Pennsylvania THE finances The Department closed the year 1944 with a balance in the regular fund of $13,280.20. The balance one year ago was $9,011.04. Two years ago it was $17,710.47. The principal source of revenue is the annual membership fee of five dollars. The Department enrolled 1,263 members in 1922; 4,013 in 1931 ; 3,110 in 1933, which was a depression year; 4,814 in 1942; and Official Records 261 TABLE 1.— MEMBERSHIP BY STATES FOR THE YEARS 1939.1944 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS formerly the Department of Superintendence state 1939 Cleve- land 1940 St. Louis 1941 Atlantic City 1942 San Francisco 1943 No con- vention 1944 Regional meetings 55 25 31 144 48 76 20 69 22 63 9 328 106 93 98 58 52 27 63 169 219 110 41 139 IS 46 4 28 249 22 424 56 15 266 60 21 353 37 37 21 40 227 24 27 62 26 53 136 13 2 66 24 45 150 59 71 19 71 17 63 8 352 114 107 115 56 47 22 69 161 223 110 44 184 13 57 3 30 234 29 379 60 15 261 60 25 334 38 36 24 43 244 25 26 61 27 47 131 14 3 61 23 36 153 60 92 25 66 21 63 10 331 101 82 95 49 43 23 76 174 231 99 40 140 15 48 4 37 287 18 417 63 16 251 55 29 401 42 37 15 44 227 24 24 75 28 46 129 13 1 50 28 29 1,214 62 67 18 67 20 49 12 273 96 86 82 39 37 20 60 138 175 93 37 128 20 45 4 25 212 23 319 55 18 187 45 38 279 32 30 18 28 229 31 22 56 35 40 106 13 48 34 27 254 57 57 17 65 24 45 13 270 95 79 76 35 36 17 55 150 175 88 34 119 22 41 4 25 206 19 319 50 15 175 41 27 274 29 29 14 30 191 23 21 51 34 36 102 11 1 1 85 38 37 244 73 94 26 73 30 150 27 483 140 128 180 52 38 28 77 202 334 120 43 223 22 52 3^ 276 21 414 89 20 253 72 53 391 40 71 22 55 2 75 30 28 76 141 53 184 14 3 New Hampshire North Carolina Ohio Oregon South Dakota Texas Utah Vermont Alaska 1 11 1 1 11 2 1 11 13 1 1 11 14 Canal Zone Guam 1 3 2 1 1 2 1 i 3 3 India 1 Mexico 1 2 4 1 2 5 1 1 Philippine Islands 4 6 1 6 8 Puerto Rico 4 3 Virgin Islands Total 4.359 4,439 4,470 4.814 3.680 5.644 members, 169 life or twenty-five 462 members who pa year members, and 2 id dues for the year six-year members. 1944, U honorary 262 American Association of School Administrators 3,680 in 1943, when the St. Louis convention was canceled. In 1944, with the introduction of regional conferences, the membership rose to 5,644. The membership distribution by states for the last six years is shown in Table 1. By agreement with the National Education Association, the net income from the exhibits at the winter meetings is divided equally between the De- partment and the parent Association, each organization thus deriving funds for convention expenses. The active work of organizing and managing the exhibits is done by the Business Division of the National Education Asso- ciation. The amounts which the Department has derived from this source during recent years are as follows: 1928— Boston $ 8,883.87 1929— Cleveland 14,687.26 1930— Atlantic City 17,485.71 1931— Detroit 16,502.51 1932— Washington 12,903.39 1933— Minneapolis 9,061 .75 1934— Cleveland 8,288.50 1935— Atlantic City 13,511.03 1936— St. Louis 16,044.82 1937— New Orleans 16,184.67 1938— Atlantic City 19,441.51 1939— Cleveland 20,293. 10 1940— St. Louis 18,900.98 1941— Atlantic City 22,666.62 1942— San Francisco 13,349.96 1944— Regional Conferences 10,991 . 17 The statement of receipts and expenditures which follows covers the cal- endar year 1944. It includes expenses of the regional conferences at Seattle, Atlanta, New York, Chicago, and Kansas City; some preliminary expenses for the 1945 regional conferences; and all items of general expense. All bills were paid at the end of the year. A detailed statement regarding the Permanent Educational Research Fund is given elsewhere in this report. Regular Receipts during Calendar Year 1944 Annual dues, 5,032 members, for year 1944 ?25, 160.00 .Annual dues, 428 members, for year 1945 2,140.00 Interest — Permanent Research Fund 1 , 186.75 Yearbooks sold 5,359. 19 New York and Chicago exhibits 10,991.17 Educational Research Service 13,973.75 Other income. 72. 15 Total receipts ." $58,883.01 Balance January 1, 1944 9.011 04 Grand total $67,894.05 Official Records 263 Regular Expenditures during Calendar Year 1944 Regional Conferences: Registration.... $ 981.79 Stenotype report 107.78 President's expense 420. 19 Secretary's expense 441 . 18 Hall rentals 645 . 30 Public address system 1 1 0 . 00 Expense for speakers 1,251.18 Publicity 127.63 Programs 706 . 22 Total Regional Conference expense $ 4,791 .27 General Expense: Salaries, administrative unit ?10,245.26 Printing 8M Twenty-second Yearbooks 7,734. 18 Printing 63^M Official Reports of Regional Conferences 2,401.21 Printing Research Bulletins, 4 issues 628.23 Other printing 1 ,297.35 Postage, express, and stationery 4,712.19 Mimeographing, multigraphing, typing, etc.. . . 1 ,182.48 Telephone and telegraph 157. 14 President's expense 142.99 Secretary's expense 496 . 86 Executive Committee expense 2,065.22 .Audit Committee. 90.38 Board of Tellers 219.57 1945 Yearbook Commission expense 2,223.78 1946 Yearbook Commission expense 2,161 .70 Bad debts and worthless checks 22.90 Educational Research Service, salaries 7,649.57 Educational Research Service, miscellaneous. . . 3,277. 14 Retirement fund 480.00 Supplies and equipment ' 1 59 . 43 Educational Policies Commission 2,000.00 Regional Conferences, advance expense, 1945.. 375.00 American Council on Education 100.00 Total general expense 49 , 822 . 58 Total expense for the year $54,613. 85 Balance December 31, 1944 13,280.20 Grand total $67, 894.05 264 American Association of School Administrators PERMANENT EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH FUND At the Boston convention in 1928, it was voted to appoint a committee to make plans for creating a permanent fund that should yield an annual income sufficient to finance important studies in education on a nation-wide basis. Money was plentiful in those days and the committee set its goal at $1,000,000. Just as the campaign was getting under way, the depression caused its postponement. Conditions since then have not warranted resump- tion of a money-raising campaign. Meanwhile the Fund is growing slowly, due to the generosity of a number of interested members. Some of them took out ten-year endowment insurance policies in the amount of $250 each; others took out $100 life memberships or raised substantial sums as direct contributions. The last of the insurance policies matured in 1941. Receipts from life memberships during 1944 amounted to $285. The total is now $32,204.55. In the beginning the average annual income rate from investment was slightly over 5 percent. Since then the return on securities has gradually gone down. At present U. S. Treasury Bonds, Series G, pay 2^^ per cent interest. The Board of Trustees of the National Education Association reports assets in the investment account to the credit of the Permanent Educational Research Fund on December 31, 1944, as follows: Par Value Book Value U. S. Treasury 2 J^% Bonds due 1955-60 $ 150.00 % 150.00 U. S. Treasury Savings Bonds due 1946 3,000.00 2,250.00 U. S. Treasury 23^% Bonds due 1 956-59 3 , 000 . 00 3 , 092 . 28 U. S. Treasury 23^% Defense Bonds, Series G, due December, 1953 6,000.00 6,000.00 U. S. Treasury 23^2% Defense Bonds, Series G, due November, 1954 500.00 500.00 IT. S. War Savings 2}A% Bonds, Series G, due September, 1955 400.00 400.00 South Carolina Highway Certificates of Indebted- ness, 4^%, due 1946 2,000.00 2,077.28 Newport News City Street Improvement and Sewer- age Construction Bonds, 5^^%, due 1950 11,000.00 11,285.00 Portsmouth, Virginia, Waterworks Bonds, 5%, due 1948 3,000.00 3,160.51 Port of New York Authority 3% Bonds due 1976. . 2,000.00 2,017.50 City of New York Corporate Stock, 3%, due 1980.. 500.00 498.75 Cash on hand 773 . 23 Total $32,204.55 THE AUDIT COMMITTEE The books and accounts of the American Association of School Adminis- trators are audited twice each year. In June, certified public accountants make a complete examination of the finances of the National Education Official Records 265 Association, including all its departments. The constitution of the American Association of School Administrators also requires that a committee of three members of the Department shall audit the accounts at the close of each fiscal year. The constitution further provides that its fiscal year shall corre- spond with the calendar year. The report of the Audit Committee for the year ended December 3 1 , 1944, appears elsewhere in this volume. The members of the Committee arc Superintendent J. L. Hanley, Providence, Rhode Island, chairwan; Super- intendent C. Herman Grose, Erie, Pennsylvania; and Superintendent Alex- ander W. Miller, Glens Falls, New York. PUBLICATIONS It takes hard work to prepare a yearbook. Ordinarily four commission meetings, each covering a period of three or four days, are held. After an out- line has been worked out and chapter headings selected, each member assumes responsibility for preparing the first draft of a chapter in an area which he is especially qualified to discuss. Naturally, there is much overlapping and lack of unity at first but discussion at succeeding meetings usually brings adjustment, revisions, and agreement. Morale for a Free World, the 1944 yearbook, was distributed to members in time for consideration at the regional conferences. The selection of this topic was made while Pearl Harbor was still fresh in mind. As peace-loving America went to war, it was evident that morale building was an immediate task for all agencies in a position to influence public opinion. Not the least important of these agencies was the great system of American schools. The commission to conduct the study was appointed by President W. Howard Pillsbury shortly after the San Francisco convention. This yearbook has done much toward calling attention to the values and high purposes for which this nation is fighting. The present yearbook. Paths to Better Schools, was authorized two years ago by the Executive Committee. A nine-member commission was appointed by President Homer W. Anderson to conduct the study. Its task was to review the nation's experience with public education during the past trying decade and to present some of the problems that are likely to demand atten- tion in the days ahead. Only two of the original appointees were still on the commission at the finish. Two resigned because of illness ; three because of new and time-consuming responsibilities in their regular positions; and two went overseas in the armed services. No commission has labored under more discouraging circumstances and none has more loyally carried through on its assignment. For a long time there has been insistent demand for a comprehensive study of the status, activities, and relationships of boards of education. This study is now well on its way under the guidance of the 1946 yearbook com- mission appointed by President Worth McClure, and consisting of Omer Carmichael, superintendent of schools, Lynchburg, Virginia, chairman; Charles E. Greene, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colorado; Mrs. W. W. Harlin, president, Tennessee Association of Public School Board 266 American Association of School Administrators TABLE 2.— YEARBOOKS OF THE DEPARTMENT Year 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1944 1945 Title The Status of the Superintendent ' The Elementary School Curriculum Research in Constructing tlie Elementary School Curriculum The Nation at Work on the PubHc School Curriculum The Junior High School Curriculum The Development of the High School Curriculum The Articulation of the Units of American Education The Superintendent Surveys Supervision Five Unifying Factors in American Education Character Education Educational Leadership Critical Problems in School Administration Social Change and Education The Social Studies Curriculum Improvement of Education: Its Interpretation for Democracy Youth Education Today Schools in Small Communities Safety Education Education for P'amily Life Health in Schools Schools and Manpower— -Today and Tomorrow Reprint of 1942 Yearbook Morale for a Free World Paths to Better Schools Number Cash sales of copies all yearbooks printed for the year 3 . 200 $ 142.45 4.500 1.364.13 1 1 . 000 4,707.65 1 6 . 000 8,467.94 1 1 . 000 8.844.57 10. 000 9,8.?0.58 1 1 , 000 7,842.51 11 .348 10.603.43 11 .572 8.375.87 1 2 . 000 10.053.94 8,000 4,922.85 7 . 000 5.021.13 9 . 000 7 , 844 . ')') 1 4 , 000 9,128.17 9 . 000 6 . 965 . 99 11 .000 6.789.56 9.000 5 . 48.^ . 06 1 1 . 000 8.894.92 9,000 7.411 .29 1 1 . 000 9.563.43 9 , 500 5.816.95 '.000 8 . 000 5,359.19 9 , 000 Members, Franklin, Tennessee; R. V. Hunlcins, superintendent of schools, Lead, South Dakota; Arthur K. Loomis, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado ; New^ell D. McCombs, superintendent of schools, Des Moines, Iowa; Alden B. Mills, president, Illinois Association of School Boards, Elvanston, Illinois; Clyde B. Moore, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York; H. E. Akerly, assistant superintendent of schools, Rochester, New York; and Mrs. William C. Ridge, member, Board of Education, Pitts- burgh, Pennsylvania. The curriculum of our schools in the postwar era is a matter of great concern to all educators. When the members of the AASA Advisory Council were asked to name the topic they considered of greatest interest and value for the 1947 Yearbook, the majority voted for The Postivar (Jurriculii/ii. The Executive Committee approved the choice of the Advisory Council and authorized President N. L. Engelhardt to appoint a commission to prepare a postwar curriculum yearbook to be issued in 1947. The members of the Commission are Claude V. Courter, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio, chairman; Herbert B. Bruner, superintendent of schools, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; Harold F. Clark, Teachers College, Columbia University; Stephen i\L Corey, University of Chicago; Charles L. Cushman, associate superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ; Clyde A. Erwin, state superintendent of public instruction, Raleigh, North Carolina; C. Frederick Pertsch, assistant superintendent of schools. New York, N. Y. ; Grant Rahn, principal, Shorewood High School, Milwaukee, Wisconsin ; and lienjamin C. Willis, superintendent of schools, Hagerstown, Maryland. The 1944 Official Report , a volume of 256 pages, included addresses at each of the five regional conferences together with a variety of official records. Members received their copies shortly after the adjournment of Official Records 267 the last regional conference. Four issues of the Research Bulletin of the Na- tional Education Association were mailed to members during.the year. The titles of these bulletins were: "Teachers Colleges After Two Years of War," "Proposals for Public Education in Postwar America," "Tax Legis- lation Affecting State School Revenues, 1939-1943," and "Superintend- ents' Opinions on Compulsory Youth Programs." The School Administrator, a concise news bulletin issued at frequent intervals, keeps members informed about Association activities. From time to time other mailings are made to members. In 1944, such items included American Education Week materials ; a report of the Air-Age Education Committee entitled "The Waging of Peace"; and a forty-page booklet en- titled "A Program for the Education of Returning Veterans," prepared by the Educational Policies Commission. EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE The Educational Research Service was authorized in 1923 by vote of the Department of Superintendence. It was established primarily to meet the needs of small school systems unable to support research staffs of their own. However, contrary to the original expectation, the Service has had a definite appeal to large city school systems, colleges and universities, state departments of education, and other state and national agencies — while only a few of the smaller school systems have taken advantage of it. It is maintained jointly by the American Association of School Administrators and the Research Division of the National Education Association. The annual subscription fee for the Educational Research Service is $25. It should be pointed out that this amount does not make possible any profit and scarcely covers the actual cost of service rendered. The aim is to provide a clearing-house of facts and not to make money. At this particular time, the Educational Research Service is in a position to furnish subscribers with material of national significance for education, available through its contacts with the National Education Association, the federal government, and numerous private agencies located in the Nation's Capital. At intervals during the year special circulars presenting up-to-date in- formation on topics of current importance are prepared for the use of sub- scribers. In 1944, these circulars included: Basic Salary Schedules for Principals in Regular Day Schools and Special Schools in 101 School Systems in Cities 30,000 to 100,000 in Population. School Expense Compared with Combined City and School Expense. Administrative Policies and Practices Relating to Textbooks and Instructional Supplies and Expenditures for These Items in 326 Public School Systems. A Bibliography of Questionnaire Studies Completed. Education in Lay Magazines. (4 issues.) As one of its most important functions, the Educational Research Service answers hundreds of letters from subscribers requesting information on current administrative problems. Bibliographies and memorandums are pre- 268 Americ.mv Association of School Administrators TABLE 3.— EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE SUB- SCRIBERS AND INCOME FROM SUBSCRIPTIONS Year Number of subscribers Cash receipts from subscribers 1 2 3 1924 40 131 177 213 245 271 323 338 324 319 346 359 369 408 445 445 468 483 489 558 607 $ 525.00 2,555.00 3,. 325. 00 5,790.00 6,225.00 6 , 362 . 00 8.112.50 8.100.00 7,443.75 7,514.58 8,496.75 8,714.56 0,254.17 0,887.82 10,800.44 10,460.42 11,662.50 11,888.75 11,968.75 13,145.93 13.973.75 1925 1926 1927 1928 1029 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 19.^9 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 pared as occasion demands. A file of questionnaire studies made by agencies and individuals throughout the country is kept for use in answering the various inquiries. During the past year, the topics on w^hich information was most frequently requested were : 1. Practices of school systems in granting leaves of absence and sick leave to teachers. 2. Salaries of teachers, principals, and other school employees. 3. Questions concerning local and state retirement systems. 4. Records and reports of pupils. 5. Religious and character education in schools. 6. School costs. 7. Trends in types of school organization. 8. Methods of selecting and duties and responsibilities of schoolboard member>. professional obligations and opportunities This Changing World — Men's minds change slowly. A few people are still thinking in terms of the horse and bugg\^ era. Others have stabilized their ideas around concepts of automobiles, railroads, telephones, and phono- graphs. Youngsters, as a rule, have broader horizons than their elders. They visualize a world of rapid communication made possible by airplanes, radio, and television. Only a fraction of their education is acquired in schoolrooms. Movies, radio, and comics are important factors in shaping the minds of the coming generation. To a considerable extent, the children of the little red schoolhouse built their ideas of life and conduct out of the pages of Mc- Guffey's readers. The textbooks of today must compete with the comic supplement, the radio serial, and the neighborhood theater. New conditions make new demands. Vested intellectual interests must give way to modern conditions. Forward-looking educators are seriously reflecting on these Official Records 269 things. Schools must keep pace with this changing world, or surrender leadership to other agencies. It is a time for realistic self-appraisal. Since its first meeting at Harrisburg in 1865, it has been the unique con- tribution of this organization to bring together in an annual convention the best minds in our profession. The winter meeting has been a clearing-house of ideas for the better administration of schools. This year, wartime condi- tions have made it impossible to hold either a convention or a series of re- gional conferences, but the cancellation of the conferences does not relieve anyone of the obligation to take stock, as best he can, of educational needs. Veterans' Education — Of immediate concern, is the education of re- turning veterans. The "G. I. Bill of Rights" provides financial assistance for veterans seeking further education. In the administration of the law, much stress is being placed on helping the veterans who plan to go to college. Not enough attention is being given those at the elementary- and secondary- school levels. It is obvious that no mature individual, such as the returning serviceman is bound to be, would willingly take up school work in a seventh or eighth grade along with youngsters less than half his age. Furthermore, he will hardly find acceptable the high-school courses typically taught to secondary students. Because his training in the armed forces has been definitely in terms of skills needed by him in current situations, he will desire and expect that any further education will also be immediately useful in terms of his civilian needs. A few cities are preparing plans to offer appropriate educational oppor- tunities to returning veterans. Unfortunately a majority of the veterans most in need of further education are from rural and village communities where facilities are poorest. Certainly the obstacles are great, but if the public schools provide no adequate programs of adult education for these men when they get out of uniform, attitudes of bitterness and resentment toward the schools will be widespread and a golden opportunity will be forever lost. Veterans' Children — 'Ere long, ten million veterans will be the heads of families. Will men and women who have been at Bataan, Midway, Nor- mandy, the Aleutians, Bizerte, Iwo Jima, or Cassino, be content to send their children to formalized schools, administered by superintendents with- out perspective and staffed by substandard, provincialh^-minded, or back- ward-looking teachers? Recent acrimonious discussions of history teaching may well serve as a warning of the searching scrutiny to which school prac- tices are likely to be subjected in the postwar years. Adult Education — The Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, or- ganized in 1878, was one of the first attempts to provide out-of-school edu- cation for adults by means of well-adjusted home reading in literature and science. It still has a numerous and loyal following. The desire for self- improvement has motivated the activities of many other voluntary organ- izations. No doubt women's clubs owe much of their strength to the fact that their programs are largely educational. Evening classes and public forums have been the projects most frequently sponsored by the public 270 American Association of School Administrators schools. Higher educational institutions have specialized in extension classes. The entire field of adult education merits prompt and careful study. Forces outside the schools are demanding rapid expansion in educational offerings for adults. Not only returning veterans but also civilians whose education was interrupted by employment in war industries are beginning to seek refresher courses, retraining for adjustment to new jobs, and classes in cultural subjects. The United States Department of Justice and the American Association of School Administrators recently issued a joint pub- lication entitled. Civic Education for the Foreign-Born, which deals with another essential job to be done in the area of adult public education. On the national level there are two more or less competitive organiza- tions of those interested in adult education. Together they reach only a small fraction of the teachers and administrators engaged in such work. A union of these organizations is much to be desired. A strong national volun- tary association of those actively engaged in adult education will find plenty of work to do. School Libraries — Equal educational opportunity includes for every child and youth of school age ready access to adequate library facilities and service. It is important to help children and young people to understand the value of books and how to use them effectively. Such knowledge is immediately useful and will also be a source of mental growth and satisfaction in the long years ahead when school days are over. The school library is an integral part of the whole school program and as such is basically a responsibility of the board of education and the superintendent of schools. A school library is no longer merely a collection of books. To carry out its essential purposes, provision must be made for trained librarians and adequate library quarters. The school library should be a service center for pupils and teachers, as well as a repository for the illustrative and reference materials needed in a good school, including periodicals, pamphlets, clippings, newspapers, maps, recordings, films, and audio-visual aids. Its book collec- tion should contain titles appropriate to the ages and interests of the students. Out-of-date and worn-out books have no place on the school library shelves. Shortsighted economy beginning in the depression years is depriving too many children of adequate materials of instruction. School officials will find many helpful ideas in a document recently issued by the American Library Association entitled. School Libraries for Today and Tomorrow. Federal-State-Local Relations — The trend toward federal control and domination of education continues at an accelerating pace. There can be no doubt that theoretically the American people want to keep the schools under state and local control and administration. But by an insidious process of infiltration, due in large part to federal appropriations to meet pressing edu- cational needs, noneducational federal agencies now exercise considerable control over local school systems. Under the Lanham Act, for example, the federal government is now distributing vast sums for the payment of teach- ers and for the erection of school buildings. State and local school authorities are by-passed in the administration of this act and federal controls are strictly enforced. Official Records 271 It is well to keep in mind tlmt federal participation in education is here to stay. Concentration of wealth in a few financial centers drains away the resources from rural areas and small communities. As one walks along the main street of any small American city, evidence of nonresident ownership greets him on every hand. The signs over picture-shows, drug stores, banks, hotels, grocery stores, meat markets, and manufacturing plants proclaim the extent of outside control and remote management. But the children are still there. To assure suitable schools for these future American citizens, some of the money which has gone elsewhere must be returned. Thus arises the necessity for the use of the federal tax system to aid the states and localities in financing education. Since the trend of events has made federal participation in education in- evitable, our immediate task is to seek the most helpful ways to channel federal funds to state and local school systems. First, the federal government should develop consistent policies affecting the granting of financial aid for education, and eliminate autocratic control from Washington in the administration of such aid. It should recognize the United States OflRce of Education as the agency for the coordination of all federal educational programs, grant to it more adequate funds, and pass legislation to give it appropriate rank. Second, many state departments of education should be strengthened and given genuine responsibility. Third, local school units should be so reorganized and consolidated for administra- tive and financial purposes as to conform to modern conditions. Constructive action, rather than viewing with alarm, is needed if the menace of federal control of education is to be averted. Self-appraisal — In calling attention to the administrative problems men- tioned above, no attempt is made to exhaust the list nor to weight those mentioned. The sole purpose is to suggest, by means of a random sampling, that school authorities should be alert to what is going on around them. In a few school systems, exhaustive surveys by experts have been made recently. Those who cannot afford to pay for a survey can at least profit by a perusal of the published reports. There is talent enough in most com- munities, if properly mobilized, to accomplish much by way of self-appraisal. The postwar period will bring problems of school plant planning and con- struction, of personnel adjustments, of curriculum revision, of guidance, research, food service, rehabilitation, increased attendance, and public re- lations. It is encouraging to learn that in many places active planning is under way In anticipation of future needs. Long ago someone said "To foresee is to rule." Agencies of many kinds, both public and private, are getting ready for reconversion. Schools cannot afford to be behind. Even if means are small, there is every reason for putting to the best possible use whatever human ability or material resources are available. It is the responsibility of the superintendent of schools to see that this is done. Respectfully submitted, Sherwood D. Shankland Executive Secretary 272 American Association of School Administrators In Jl^morj) of €l)c :^tmhn$ Wi^o i^abe 2DtcD toitl)in tf)e ^a^t fear The American Association of School Administrators A Department of the National Education Association of the United States H. W. Benedict Canton, Ohio Mary E. Branch Austin, Texas Joseph C. Brown Pelham, New York E. B. Burroughs Collinsville, Illinois C. C. Carson Miami Beach, Florida William V. Casey Boulder, Colorado J. H. Catlin Reedley, California R. E. Cheney .Elizabeth, New Jersey F. W. Cook Plainfield, New Jersey A. P. Diffendafer Nanticoke, Pennsylvania Robert I. Elliott Chadron, Nebraska Fred Engelhardt Durham, New Hampshire Donald M. Erb Eugene, Oregon Lillie R. Ernst St. Louis, Missouri James Ferguson Daly City, California Raymond E. Fildes Springfield, Illinois William R. Flowers Baltimore, Maryland S. C. Garrison Nashville, Tennessee C. Ray Gates Grand Island, Nebraska S, Monroe Graves Wellesley Hills, Massachusetts Annie G. Griffey Little Rock, Arkansas R. C. Hall Little Rock, Arkansas A. W. Hendrix Prescott, Arizona Sister M. Kathleen Hennessy Convent Station, New Jersey Charles M. Herlihy Fitchburg, Massachusetts K. J. Hoke Williamsburg, Virginia Herbert P. Holtzman West Reading, Pennsylvania Walter Hullihen Newark, Delaware W. A. Jessup New York, New York M. K. Johnson Union Springs, Alabama Daniel S. Kealey Hoboken, New Jersey Margaret R. Kelley Derby, Vermont Harold F. King Washington, Rhode Island Julia K. Kureth Lowell, Indiana J. R. E. Lee Tallahassee, Florida U. L. Light Barberton, Ohio James A. Lobban Webster, Massachusetts Guy F. Loomis Kenosha, Wisconsin A. M. McCallum Austin, Texas Archibald E. MacQuarrie Minneapolis, Minnesota E. D. Martin Berwyn, Illinois Chester J. Miller Northport, New York DeWitt S. Morgan Indianapolis, Indiana E. R. MosHER New York, New York Mrs. Lois Coffey Mossman New York, New York Mary Belle Nichols Thomasville, Georgia L. John Nuttall, Jr Salt Lake City, Utah RUFUS H. Palmer Denver, Colorado Official Records 273 3ln jHemoriam {contwued) Nina A. Pape Savannah, Georgia Lewis A. Pringle Harvey, Illinois Lester A. Rodes South River, New Jersey R. W. Russell Amite, Louisiana John W. Sahlstrom Elmira Heights, New York J. C. Sindellar Chicago, Illinois William F. Smith Elwood, Indiana L. V. Stockard Dallas, Texas Mrs. Amy E. Stuart Dallas, Texas Auguste J. Tete New Orleans, Louisiana Wesley D. Tisdale Ramsey, New Jersey H. R. Townsend Columbus, Ohio Leon Robert Vance Enid, Oklahoma H. J. Van Ness Boone, Iowa Willard N. Van Slyck Topeka, Kansas John H. Waldron Colton, California John Adams Young Bridgeport, Connecticut Frank B. Younger Menasha, Wisconsin j^arcl) 22, 1945 274 American Association of School Administrators REPORT OF IIIK AUniTINCJ coMivirrrKK Washington, D. C, March 6, 1945 Dr. N. L. Engelhardt, President American Association of School Administrators Brooklyn, New York Dear Dr. Engelhardt: The Auditing Committee of the American Association of School Admin- istrators, a Department of the National Education Association of the United States, submits to you the following report. The committee has gone over all records in the office of the Department and has checked all vouchers and all cancelled checks and has made a care- ful examination of all of the special accounts and funds of the Department. The audit includes all vouchers for expenses, records of bank deposits and withdrawals, and the accounts of the permanent funds of the American Association of School Administrators. A check of the membership records was made for the purpose of noting the receipts in this Department. This committee examined and checked on the books the list of securities certified by the Executive Secretary and the Business Manager of the National Education Association, a complete list of which is printed herewith. General Fund The distribution of receipts and expenditures was as follows: Total receipts for 1944 $58,883.01 Balance January 1, 1944 9,011.04 Grand total .• $67,894.05 Total expenditures 54,613.85 Balance on hand December 31, 1944 $13,280.20 Inasmuch as the accounts are kept on a cash basis and all outstanding bills were paid before the end of the year, the balance on hand December 31, 1944, which is $13,280.20, represents an increase in the income of the Association of $4,269.16. This gain is a result of growth of membership which was stimulated by the regional conferences. Permanent Fund Assets on hand January 1, 1944 $31,919.55 Receipts — Life memberships 285.00 Assets as of December 31, 1944 $32,204.55 The income from the permanent fund during the year was $1,186.75, which was used, as is required, for educational research. The committee desires to express its appreciation for the cooperation and helpfulness of the Executive Secretary, of his office assistants, and of the Business Manager of the National Education Association. Respectfully submitted, James L. Hanley, Chair man C. Herman Grose Alexander W. Miller Official Records 275 CERTIFICATE OF LIST OF SECURITIES Washington, D. C, December 28, 1944 This is to certify that the undersigned, Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary of the National Education Association, acting under the authority of Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman, Board of Trustees of the National Education Association, and H. A. Allan, Business Manager of the National Education Association, on December 28, 1944, examined and checked the securities of the Permanent Educational Research Fund of the American Association of School Administrators, a department of the National Educa- tion Association of the United States, in the safe deposit vaults of the American Security and Trust Company. Said securities, after detachment of currently due coupons, are as follows : 1 U. S. Treasury Bond, 2%%, due 1955-60, in the denomination of $50.00 with coupons attached payable March 15, 1945, and semi- annually thereafter $ 50.00 1 U. S. Treasury Bond, 2%%, due 1955-60, in the denomination of $100.00 with coupons attached payable March 15, 1945, and semi- annually thereafter 100.00 3 U. S. Treasury Bonds, 2^%, due 1956-59, each in the denomination of $1,000.00 with coupons attached payable March 15, 1945, and semi- annually thereafter 3,000.00 2 State of South Carolina Highway Certificates of Indebtedness, 4^%, due December 1, 1946, each in the denomination of $1,000.00 and each with coupons attached payable June 1, 1945, and semi-annually there- after 2,000.00 11 City of Newport News, Va., Street Improvement and Sewerage Con- struction Bonds, Sy2%, due December 1, 1950, each in the denomina- tion of $1,000.00 and each with coupons attached payable June 1, 1945, and semi-annually thereafter 11,000.00 3 City of Portsmouth, Va., Waterworks Bonds, 5%, due December 1, 1948, each in the denomination of $1,000.00 and each with coupons at- tached payable June 1, 1945, and semi-annually thereafter 3,000.00 2 Port of New York Authority, 3%, due December 15, 1976, each in the denomination of $1,000.00 and each with coupons attached payable June 15, 1945, and semi-annually thereafter 2,000.00 1 City of New York Corporate Stock for transit unification, 3%, due June 1, 1980, in the denomination of $500.00 with coupons attached payable June 1, 1945, and semi-annually thereafter 500.00 6 U. S. Treasury Savings Bonds, due January 1, 1946, each in the denomination of $500.00 without coupons 3,000.00 6 U. S. Treasury Defense Bonds, Series G, 2^%, due December, 1953, each in the denomination of $1,000.00, without coupons 6,000.00 1 U. S. Treasury Defense Bond, Series G, 2J^%, due November, 1954, in the denomination of $500.00, without coupons 500.00 4 U. S. War Savings Bonds, Series G, 2^4%, due September, 1955, each in the denomination of $100.00, without coupons 400.00 Willard E. Givens, Executive Secretary, for Chair- man, Board of Trustees {Joseph H. Saunders) H, A. Allan, Business Manager National Education Association of the United States 276 American Association of School Administrators REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TELLERS Washington, D. C, January 13, 1945 Results of the Final Preferential Ballot for the Oflfice of President of the American Association of School Administrators a Department of the National Education Association of the United States We hereby certify that the results of the final preferential ballot for the office of president of the American Association of School Administrators for the .year beginning March 15, 1945, as provided in Article V, Section 1, of the Constitution, are as follows: First choice Second choice Third choice Nonii/iee 'votes received 1 . John L. Bracken 413 2. WiLLARD E. GOSLIN -. 481 3. Henry H. Hill 765 4. Herold C. Hunt 479 5. Charles H. Lake 668 The total number of ballots cast in this final election was 2834, of which 28 ballots were invalid. By applying the formula for counting the ballots in accordance with the instructions of the Atlantic City convention in 1938, as recorded on page 189 of the Official Report of that convention, the totals are as follows: CHARLES H. LAKE 668 first choice votes x 3 2004 642 second choice votes x 2 1284 636 third choice votes x 1 636 votes votes received received 462 496 531 648 582 432 589 594 642 636 Total 3924 JOHN L. bracken WILLARD E. GOSLIN 413 first choice votes x 3 1239 481 first choice votes x 3 1443 462 second choice votes x 2 924 531 second choice votes x 2 1062 496 third choice votes x 1 496 648 third choice votes x 1 648 Total 2659 Total 3153 HENRY H. HILL HEROLD C. HUNT 765 first choice votes x 3 2295 479 first choice votes x 3 1437 582 second choice votes x 2 1164 589 second choice votes x 2 1178 432 third choice votes x 1 432 594 third choice votes x 1 594 Total 3891 Total 3209 In accordance with the above results, we hereby officially certify and announce the election of Charles H. Lake as president of the American Association of School Administrators for the year beginning March 15, 1945. Respectfully submitted, E. L. AcKLEY, Choirinan Edwin W. Broome Frank C. Ketler Official Records 277 STATE ORGANIZATIONS OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS Corrected to April 1, 1945 In the following roster the symbol (1) is used to indicate the president and (2) is used to indicate the secretary. ALABAMA — Association of School Ad- ministrators. (1) Acting County Supt. L. G. Walker, Marion. (2) Pres. W. W. Hill, State Teachers College, Livingston. ARIZONA — Arizona Association of School Administrators. (1) Supt. Robert D. Morrow, Tucson. (2) Supt. W. G. Austin, Chandler. ARKANSAS — Arkansas Association of School Administrators. (1) Prin. L. L. Goff, High School, Jonesboro. (2) County Supvr. Cecil Shuffield, Nash- ville. CALIFORNIA — Assocl-^tion of Cali- fornia Public School Superintend- ents. (1) Supt. J. R. Overturf, Sacra- mento. (2) Supt. Homer H. Cornick, Santa Cruz. COLORADO — School Administrators Section, Colorado Education Asso- ciation. Eastern Division. (1) Supt. L. A. Witt, Morrison. (2) Supt. James H. Bu- chanan, Boulder. Superintendents and Principals Sec- tion, Colorado Education Associa- tion. Southern Division. (1) John Dunlap, School District #20, Pueblo. (2) Supt. N. V. Gorman, Florence. fVestern Division. (1) Supt. Dale Lundy, Grand Junction. (2) Prin. Q. L. Paolozzi, Branch County High School, New Castle. CONNECTICUT — Connecticut Asso- ciation OF Public School Superin- tendents. (1) Frederick R. Noble, Supt. of Tr. Schs., State Tchrs. Col., Willi- mantic. (2) Supt. Walter P. Sweet, Danbury. DELAWARE — Association of Second- ary School Administrators. (1) Supt. Milman E. Prettyman, Seaford. (2) Asst. State Supt. John Shilling, Dover. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA— No organ- ization. FLORIDA — County Superintendents Association. (1) County Supt. How- ard W. Bishop, Gainesville. (2) County Supt. Sallie Jones, Punta Gorda. GEORGIA — Association of School Ad- ministrators. (1) State Supervisor J. E. Owens, Madison. IDAHO — No organization. ILLINOIS — City Superintendents' As- socLVTiON. (1) Supt. T. H. Cobb, Ur- bana. (2) Supt. D. F. Blodgett, Jack- sonville. INDIANA — Indiana City and Town Superintendents' Association. (1) Supt. William F. Loper, Shelbyville. (2) Supt. Harry H. Mourer, Bedford. IOWA — Superintendents of Schools in Cities with Population of 5,000 and Over. 5upt. Jack M. Logan, Waterloo, Chairman. KANSAS — Association of City Super- intendents. (1) Supt. James B. Hut- ton, Caney. KENTUCKY — Department of Superin- tendence, Kentucky Education As- sociation. (1) Supt. C. V. Snapp, Jen- kins. (2) County Supt. Mrs. Willie C. Ray, Shelbyville. LOUISIANA — Superintendents Section, Louisiana Teachers Association. (1) Parish Supt. E. D. Shaw, Bastrop. (2) Parish Supt. W. H. McLaurin, Jones- boro. MAINE — Superintendent's Associa- tion. (1) Supt. Raymond Finley, Skow- hegan. (2) Supt. Frederick Aikens, South Windham. MARYLAND — No organization. MASSACHUSETTS — School Superin- tendents Association. (1) Union Supt. Roy Keller, Manchester. (2) Supt. Burr J. Merriam, Framingham. MICHIGAN — Conference of City Su- perintendents. (1) Supt. Warren E. Bow, Detroit. (2) Executive Secretary A. J. Phillips, Michigan 'Education As- sociation, Lansing. MINNESOTA— Council of School Ex- ecutives. (1) Supt. Philip L. Fjelsted, Thief River Falls. (2) Supt. Ralph R. Reeder, Litchfield. 278 American Association of School Administrators MISSISSIPPI — Association of School Administrators. (1) Supt. S. F. Smith, Houston. (2) State Supervisor E. R. Jobe, Jackson. MISSOURI — Department of Superin- tendence, Missouri State Teachers Association. (1) Dean Burke W. Brad- ley. Junior College, Moberly. (2) M. C. Cunningham, Northwest Missouri State Teachers College. Maryville. MONTANA — Association of School Ad- ministrators. (1) Supt. R. L. Irle, Glasgow. (2) SuDt. M. C. Gallagher, Billings. NEBRASKA — Department of Superin- tendents and Principals, Nebraska State Education Association, (1) Supt. W. W. Hansen, Seward. (2) Supt. J. P. Young, David City. NEVADA — No organization. NEW HA-MPSHIRE — Association of School Superintendents. (1) Supt. Austin J. Gibbons, Manchester. (2) Supt, Donald P, Mattoon, Tilton. NEW JERSEY — Department of Super- intendence, New Jersey Education Association, (1) Supvg. Prin. Joseph L. Bustard, Roselle, (2) Supvg, Prin, William F. Conway, Edgewater. NEW MEXICO — Superintendents Di- vision, New Mexico Educational As- sociation. (1) Supt. Ray Stinnette, Dawson. (2) R. J. Mullins, Exec. Secy., New Mexico Educational Association, Santa Fe. NEW YORK— Council of School Su- perintendents. Cities and Villages. (1) Supt. Howard B. Eccleston, John- son City. (2) Supt. E. L. Ackley, Johns- town. NORTH CAROLINA— Department of Superintendents, North Carolina Education Association. (1) Supt. John H. Knox, Salisbury. (2) County Supt. James T. Sifford, Albemarle. NORTH DAKOTA— No organization. OHIO — Superintendents' Association . (1) Supt. Z. M. Walter, Wyoming. (2) Supt. W. G. Bahner, Cuyahoga Heights, Cleveland. OKLAHOMA — Association of School Administrators, Oklahoma Educa- tion Association. (1) Supt. DeWitt Waller, Enid. (2) Supt. James R. Frazier, Wewoka. OREGON — Department of Superin- tendence, Oregon State Teachers As- sociation. (1) Supt. John F. Schenk, Corvallis. (2) Supt. Leonard Mayfield, Coos Bay. PENNSYLVANIA — District Superin- tendents Association, (1) Supt, Rov W, Wiley, Butler. (2) Supt. A. Bruce Denniston. Greenville. RHODE ISLAND — Association of School Superintendents. (1) Supt. James L. Hanley, Providence. (2) Supt. Donald Dunnan, Peace Dale. SOUTH CAROLINA— South Carolina Department of Superintendence. (1) Supt. R. L. Stuart, Jr., Greer. (2) Supt. W. B. Southerlin, Winnsboro. SOUTH DAKOTA — Administrators' Conference. (1) Supt. A. P. Sonste- gard, Bridgewater. (2) Supt. Donald Jones, Hurley. TENNESSEE — Tennessee Public School Officers' Association. (1) Supt. A. F. Bridges, Covington. (2) Supt. V. F. Goddard, Alcoa. TEXAS — Association of School Admin- istrators. (1) Supt. Irby B. Carruth, Waco. (2) Supt. H, A, Moore, Kerrvillc. UTAH — Society of School Superin- tendents. (1) County Supt. Milton E. Moody, St. George. (2) Supt. David Gourley, Salt Lake City. \ERMONT — State Superintendents' Association. (1) Supt. S. Donald Miner, Orwell. (2) Supt. Frank O. Stiles, Fair Haven. VIRGINIA — Department of Superin- tendents. Virginia Education Asso- ciation. (1) Division Supt. L, T, Hall, Windsor, (2) Supt. Rawls Byrd, Wil- liamsburg. WASHINGTON — Department of Ad- ministration and Sltpervision, Wash- ington Education Association. (1) Supt. P. B. Hanawalt. Puyallup. (2) Supt. Forrest E. Beck, Raymond. WEST VIRGINIA — Association ot School Superintendents. (1) Asst. Countv Supt. Virgil H. Stewart, Pine- ville. (2) County Supt. R. Virgil Rohr- bough, Grafton. WISCONSIN — Association of School Administrators. (1) Supt. Harvey J. Powell, Watertown. (2) Supt. W. F. Waterpool, Marinette. WYOMING— No organization. Official Records 279 CALENDAR OF MEETINGS Historical Note — At the meeting of the National Teachers' Association in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, August 1865, the state and city superintend- ents present decided to form an organization, to be composed exclusively of those engaged in supervisory work in the schools. This group agreed to meet in Washington, D. C, in February 1866, at which time the work of organizing was completed. The new organization was called the National Association of School Superintendents. Nine states and twenty cities were represented. The National Association of School Superintendents became the Depart- ment of School Superintendence of the National Educationc/ Association at a convention held at Cleveland, Ohio, August 1870. In 1907 a new act of incorporation which had been passed by Congress and approved by the President of the United States was accepted and adopted by the summer meeting of the parent association at Los Angeles, California. According to one of the provisions of this new act, the name was changed to the Department of Superintendence of the National Educa- tion ^Association. Following an amendment to the bylaws of the National Education Asso- ciation at Des Moines, Iowa, in July 1921, the Department of Superin- tendence was reorganized under a new constitution of its own, with a full-time executive secretary. The 1937 convention at New Orleans adopted a new constitution chang- ing the name from the Department of Superintendence to the American Association of School Administrators, a department of the National Edu- cation Association of the United States. Wartime necessity brought to an end the long and unbroken series of great national conventions which for more than a generation had served as a rallying point and clearing-house of school administration. The 1943 convention was canceled at the request of the Office of Defense Transpor- tation. In 1944 five regional conferences were substituted. Regional con- ferences were again planned for 1945 but at the last moment they were canceled by government directive. N.\TION.\L ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS, 1865-1870 1865— HARRISBURG, PA. COrganizatinn") 1868 NASHVILLE. TENX., August August Emerson E. White, President BiRDSEY Grant Northrop. Chairman Daniel Stevenson. Vicepresident L. Van Bokkelen. Secretary L, Van Bokkelen, Secretary 1866— WASHINGTON. D. C, February 1869— TRENTON. N. J.. August INDIANAPOLIS, IND., August J. W. Bulkley. President BiRDSEY Grant Northrop, President Emerson E. White. Vicepresident Charles R. Coburn, Vicepresident L. Van Bokkelen, Secretary L. Van Bokkelen, Secretary 1870- WASHINGTON. D. C. March 1867 — No Meeting James P. Wickersham. President S. S. Ashley. Vicepresident W. R. Creerv, Secretary 280 American Association of School Administrators DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, 1870-1907 1871— ST. LOUIS, MO., August W. D. Henkle, President W. M. CoLBV, Vicepresident Warren Johnson, Secretary 1872— BOSTON, MASS., August John Hancock, President A. P. Marble, Secretary 1873— ELMIRA, N. Y., August William T. Harris, President John W. Page, Vicepresident A. P. Marble, Secretary 1874— WASHINGTON, D. C, January DETROIT, MICH., August J. H. BiNFORD, President Allen Armstrong, Secretary 1875— WASHINGTON, D. C, January MINNEAPOLIS, MINN., August J. Ormond Wilson, President A. Abernethy, Vicepresident R. W. Stevenson, Secretary 1876— BALTIMORE, MD., July Charles S. Smart, President A. Pickett, Vicepresident Horace S. Tarbell, Secretary 1877— WASHINGTON, D. C, March LOUISVILLE, KY., August WASHINGTON, D. C, December Charles S. Smart, President Horace S. Tarbell, Secretary 1878 — No Meeting I879_WASHINGTON, D. C, February PHILADELPHIA, PA., July James P. Wickersham, President James H. Smart, Vicepresident R. W^. Stevenson, Secretary 1880— WASHINGTON, D. C, February CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y., July M. .'\. Newell, President N. A. Calkins, Vicepresident S. A. Baer, Secretary 1881— NEW YORK, N. Y., February ATLANTA, GA., July A. P. Marble, President N. A. Calkins, Vicepresident Samuel Findley, Secretary 1882— WASHINGTON, D. C, March SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y., July W. H. Ruffner, President N. A. Calkins, Vicepresident Henry S. Jones, Secretary 1883— WASHINGTON, D. C, February SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y., July N. A. Calkins, President Horace S. Tarbell, Vicepresident Henuy S. Jones, Secretary 1884— WASHINGTON, D. C, February MADISON, WIS., July B. L. Butcher, President D. F. DeWolf, Vicepresident Henry R. Sanford, Secretary 188S— NEW ORLEANS, LA., February SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y., July Leroy D. Brown, President W. O. Rogers, Secretary 1886— WASHINGTON, D. C, February TOPEKA, KANS., July Warren Easton, President A. P. Stone, Vicepresident Charles C. Davidson, Secretary 1887— WASHINGTON, D. C, March CHICAGO, ILL., July Charles S. Young, President N. C. Dougherty, Vicepresident Charles C. Davidson, Secretary 1888— WASHINGTON, D. C, February SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF.. July N, C. Dougherty, President Henry A. Wise, Vicepresident W. R. Thigpen, Secretary 1889— WASHINGTON, D. C, February NASHVILLE. TENN., July Fred M. Campbell, President Charles C. Davidson, Vicepresident W. R. Thigpen, Secretary 1890— NEW YORK, N. Y., February Andrew S. Draper, President J. A. B. Lovett, Vicepresident L. W. Day, Secretary 1891— PHILADELPHIA, PA., February Andrew S. Draper, President J. A. B. Lovett, Vicepresident L. W. Day, Secretary 1892- BROOKLYN, N. Y., February Henry Sabin, President Virgil G. Curtis, Vicepresident L. W. Day, Secretary 1893 -BOSTON, MASS., February Edward Brooks, President John E. Bradley, Vicepresident J. H. Phillips, Secretary 1894— RICHMOND, VA., February D. L. Kiehle, President Warren Easton, Vicepresident Frederick Treudley, Secretary 1895— CLEVELAND, OHIO, February William H. Maxwell, President Oscar T. Corson, Vicepresident James M. Carlisle, Secretary 1896— JACKSONVILLE, FLA., February Lewis H. Jones, President J. H. Phillips, Vicepresident Robert E. Denfield, Secretary 1897— INDIANAPOLIS, IND., February C. B. Gilbert, President A. B. Blodgett, Vicepresident Lawton B. Evans, Secretary 1898— CHATTANOOGA, TENN., February Nathan C. Schaeffer, President Frank B. Cooper, Vicepresident William L. Steele, Secretary 1899— COLUMBUS, OHIO, February Edgar H. Mark, President George H. Conley, Vicepresident James H. Van Sickle, Secretary 1900— CHICAGO, ILL., February Augustus S. Downing, President G. R. Glenn, Vicepresident Charles M. Jordan, Secretary 1901— CHICAGO, ILL.. February Lorenzo D. Harvey, President Arthur K. Whitcomb, Vicepresident Frank B. Cooper, Secretary 1902— CHICAGO, ILL., February G. R. Glenn, President Henry P. Emerson, Vicepresident John W. Dietrich, Secretary 1903— CINCINNATI, OHIO, February Charles M. Jordan, President Clarence F. Carroll, Vicepresident J. N. Wilkinson, Secretary 1904— ATLANTA. GA.. February Henry P. Emerson, President Edwin B. Cox, Vicepresident John H. Hinemon, Secretary 1905— MILWAUKEE, WIS., February Edwin G. Cooley, President Lawton B. Evans, Vicepresident Evangeline E. Whitney, Secretary 1906— LOUISVILLE, KY.. February John W. Carr, President J. H. Phillips, Vicepresident Ella C. Sullivan, Secretary 1007— CHICAGO, ILL.. February W. W. .Stetson, President H. H. Seerley, Vicepresident J. H. Harris, Secretary Official Records 281 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, 1907-1937 1908— WASHINGTON, D. C, February Frank B. Cooper, President Stratton D. Brooks, Vicepresident George B. Cook, Secretary 1909— CHICAGO, ILL., February William H. Elson, President David B. Johnson, Vicepresident A. C. Nelson, Secretary 1910— INDIANAPOLIS, IND., March Stratton D. Brooks, President Wales C. Martindale, Vicepresidrnt John F. Keating, Secretary 1911— MOBILE, ALA., February William M. Davidson, President J. A. Shawan, Vicepresident Arthur D. Call, Secretary, 1912— ST. LOUIS. MO., February Charles E. Chadsey, President O. J. Kern, Vicepresident Harlan Updegraff, Secretary 191.?— PHILADELPHIA, PA., February Franklyn B. Dyer, President Samuel Hamilton, Vicepresident Burr W. Torreyson, Secretary 1914— RICHMOND, VA., February Ben Blewett, President W. E. Ranger, Vicepresident Anna E. Logan, Secretary 1915 -CINCINNATI, OHIO, February Henry Snyder, President Paul W. Horn, Vicepresident Mrs. Ellor C. Ripley, Secretary 1916— DETROIT, MICH., February M. P. Shawkey, President Lawton B. Evans, Vicepresident E. C. Warriner, Secretary 1917— KANSAS CITY, MO., February John D. Shoop, President Fred L. Keeler, Vicepresident Margaret T. Maguire, Secretary 1918— ATLANTIC CITY, N. J., February Thomas E. Finegan, President A. A. McDonald, Vicepresident Lida Lee Tall, Secretary 1919— CHICAGO, ILL., February Ernest C. Hartwell, President David B. Corson, Vicepresident Marie Gugle, Secretary 1920— CLEVELAND, OHIO, February E. U. Graff, President D. J. Kelly, Vicepresident Charl Ormond Williams, Secretary 1921— ATLANTIC CITY, N. J., February Calvin N. Kendall, President Ernest A. Smith, Vicepresident Belle M. Ryan, Secretary 192 2— CHICAGO, ILL., February Robinson G. Jones, President Will C. Wood, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1923— CLEVELAND, OHIO, February John H. Beveridge, President Frank W. Ballou, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1924— CHICAGO, ILL., February Payson Smith, President M. G. Clark. Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1925— CINCINNATI, OHIO, February William McAndrew, President John J. Maddox, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1926— WASHINGTON, D. C, February Frank W. Ballou, President E. E. Lewis, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1927— DALLAS, TEXAS, February Randall J. Condon, President David A. Ward, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1928— BOSTON, MASS., February Joseph M. Gwinn, President Frank D. Boynton, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1929— CLEVELAND, OHIO, February Frank D. Boynton, President Frank G. Pickell, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1930— ATLANTIC CITY, N. J., February Frank Cody. President Norman R. Crozier, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1931— DETROIT, MICH., February Norman R. Crozier, President Daniel S. Kealey, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1932— WASHINGTON, D. C, February Edwin C. Broome, President George C. Bush, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1933— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN., February Milton C. Potter, President George Melcher, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankjland, Secretary 1934— CLEVELAND, OHIO, February Paul C. Stetson, President David E. Weglein, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1935— ATLANTIC CITY, N. J., February E. E. Oberholtzer, President A. J. Stoddard, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1936— ST. LOUIS, MO., February A. J. Stoddard, President A. L. Threlkeld, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1937— NEW ORLEANS. LA., February A. L. Threlkeld, President Jesse H. Mason, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS A Department of the National Education A.ssociation of the United States, 1937- 1938— ATLANTIC CITY, N. J., February C. B. Glenn, President J. W. Ramsey, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1939— CLEVELAND, OHIO, February John A. Sexson, President Paul T. Rankin, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1940 ST. LOUIS, MO., February Ben G. Graham. President Homer W. Anderson, X'icepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 1941— ATLANTIC CITY, N. J., February Carroll R. Reed. President Hobart M. Corning, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary 282 American Association of School Administrators 1942 -SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF., Frbruary W, Howard Pii.i.sburv, President Worth McClure. Vicepre.sident Sherwood D, Shanki-and, Secrclary 1943_ST. LOUIS, MO.. February Canceled at request of Office of De- fense Transportation Homer W. Andkrson, President Chari.es H. L,\ke, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Serrclarx- 1944- REGIONAL CONFERENCES Seattle, Atlanta, New York, Chicago, Kansas City Worth McCi.ure, President W. Frank Warren, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shanki.and, Secretary 1945— REGIONAL CONFERENCES Birmingham, Chicago, Denver, New York— Canceled by government direc- tive N. L. Engelhardt. President W. Frank Warren, Vicepresident Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary Official Records 283 1945 Yearbook Commission — Paths to Better Schools WiLLARD E. GosLiN. Chairman, Superintendent of Schools. Minneapolis, Minn. L. Frazer Banks, Superintendent of Schools Birmingham, Ala. Paul L. Cressman, Director, Bureau of Instruction, State Department of Public Instruction Harrisburg. Pa. Nkwton Edw.\bds. Professor of Education, University of Chicago . Chicago, 111. Philip H. Falk, Superintendent of Schools Madison, Wis. Alonzo G. Gr.\ce, State Commissioner of Education Hartford, Conn. Arnold E. Joyal. Professor of Educational Administration, University of Maryland College Park, Md. Emerson H. Landis, Superintendent of Schools Dayton, Ohio J.^y B. Nash. Chairman, Department of Health and Phy.sical Education, School of Education. New York University. . . New York, N. Y. Alfred D. Simpson, Professor of Education, Graduate School of Education, Harvard Uhiversity Cambridge, Mass. 1946 Yearbook Commission — Boards of Education Omer C.\rmichael, Chairvian, Superintendent of Schools Lynchburg, Va. H. E. Akerly. Assistant Superintendent of Schools Rochester, N. Y. Ch.\rles E. Greene, Superintendent of Schools Denver, Colo. Mrs. W. W. H.\rlin, President, Tennessee Association of Public School Board Members Franklin. Tenn. R. V. HuNKiNS, Superintendent of Schools Lead, S. Dak. Arthur K. Loomis. Director, Scliool of Education. University of Denver Denver, Colo. Newell D. McCombs, Superintendent of Schools Des Moines. Iowa Alden B. Mills, President, Illinois Association of School Boards Evanston, 111. CL-iT>E B. Moore. Treasurer, New York State School Boards Association Ithaca, N. Y. Mrs. William C. Ridge, Member, Board of Education Pittsburgh. Pa. 1947 Yearbook Commission — The Postwar Curriculum Claude V. Coitrter, Chairman, Superintendent of Schools . Cincinnati. Ohio Herbert B. Bruner. Superintendent of Schools Oklahoma City, Okla. H.ABOLD F. Clark, Professor of Education, Teachers College. Columbia University New York. N. Y. Stephen M. Corey. Professor of Educational Psychology, University of Chicago Chicago. 111. Charles L. Cushman, Associate Superintendent of Schools . . Philadelphia. Pa. Clyde A. Erwin, State Superintendent of Public In.stniction .. Raleigh, N. C. C. Frederick Pertsch. Assistant Superintendent of Schools New York, N. Y. Grant Rahn, Principal, Shorewood High School Milwaukee, Wis. Benjamin C. Willis, Superintendent of Schools Hagerstown, Md. Advisory Council Alabama — Charles B. Glenn. 2840 Hastings Road Birmingham Arizona — Robert D. Morrow, Superintendent of Schools Tucson Arkansas — J. W. Ramsey, Superintendent of Schools Fort Smith California — Pansy Jewett Abbott, County Su])erintendent of Schools Redwood City John A. Sexson. Superintendent of Schools Pasadena CoLOR.ADO — James H. Risley. Superintendent. School District No. 1 Pueblo Connecticltt — Fred D. Wish. Jr.. Superintendent of Schools Hartford Delaware — H. V. Holloway, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . . Dover 284 American Association of School Administrators Advisory Council (^Continued) DiSTRUT OF Columbia — Robert L. Haycock, Superintendent of Schools Washington Florida — Uh-ic J. Bennett, County Superintendent of Schools . . Fort Lauderdale Georgia — B. M. Grier, Superintendent of Schools Athens Idaho — Glenn W. Todd. President, State Normal School Lewiston Illinois — R. 0. Evans, Superintendent of Schools Quincy William J. Hamilton, Superintendent of Schools Oak Park Indiana — Merle J. Abbett, Superintendent of Schools Fort Wayne Iowa — William F. Shirley, Superintendent of Schools Marshalltown Kansas — Evan E. Evans, Superintendent of Schools Winfield Kentucky — W. T. Rowland, Superintendent of Schools Lexington Louisiana— Joseph E. Gibson, Director of Higher Education, State Department of Education Baton Rouge Maine — Charles E. Lord, Superintendent of Schools Camden M.\RYLAND — David E. Weglein, Superintendent of Schools Baltimore Massachusetts — Burr J. Merriam, Superintendent of Schools Framingham Michigan — Otto W. Haisley, Superintendent of Schools Ann Arbor Paul T. Rankin, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Detroit Minnesota — S. T. Neveln, Superintendent of Schools Austin Mississippi— H. M. Ivy, Superintendent of Schools Meridian Missouri — Herold C. Hunt, Superintendent of Schools Kansas City Montana — C. G. Manning, Superintendent of Schools Lewistown Nebraska — F. E. Henzlik, Dean, Teachers College, University of Nebraska Lincoln Nevada — Mildred N. Bray, State Superintendent of Public Instruction , Carson City New Hampshire — James N. Pringle, State Commissioner of Education Concord New Jersey — John H. Bosshart, State Commissioner of Education Trenton A. S. Chenoweth, Superintendent of Schools Atlantic City New Mexico — James D. Shinkle. Superintendent of Schools Roswell New York — Arthur Bowie, Assistant Superintendent of Schools New York Claude L. Kulp, Superintendent of Schools Ithaca North Carolina — W. Frank WaiTcn, Superintendent of Schools Durham North Dakota — Arthur E. Thompson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Bismarck Ohio — George A. Bowman. President, Kent State University Kent Claude V. Courter. Superintendent of Schools Cincinnati Okiahoma — Joseph R. Holmes. Superintendent of Schools Muskogee Oregon — Frederick M. Hunter. Chancellor, State System of Higher Education. University of Oregon .Eugene Pennsylvania — F. Herman Fritz, Superintendent of Schools Chester John G. Rossman, Superintendent of Schools Warren Rhode Island — James L. Hanley, Superintendent of Schools Providence South Carolina — James H. Hope, State Superintendent of Education, Columbia South Dakota — John C. Lindsey. Superintendent of Schools Mitchell Tennessee — Sue M. Powers. County Superintendent of Schools Memphis Ti5XAS — William M. Green. Superintendent of Schools Fort Worth E. E. Oberholtzer, Superintendent of Schools Houston TTtah — E. A. Batemnn. State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Salt Lake City Vermont — F. S. Irons. District Superintendent of Schools Bennington Virginia — Dabney S. Lancaster, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Richmond Washington — C. Paine Shangle, Superintendent of Schools Bellingham West Virginia — W. W. Trent. State Superintendent of Free Schools Charleston Wisconsin — Lowell P. Goodrich. Superintendent of Schools Milwaukee Wyoming — Jesse L. Goins, Superintendent of Schools Cheyenne United Statrs Office of Education — John W. Studebaker Washington. D. C. INDEX Ackley, E. L., 276 Administration, New insights into edu- cational (Sexson), 74 Administration, New patterns in educa- tional (Mort), 67 Administration of public education in the United States, The (Lake), 89 Administration, Problems in school (Hill), 79 Alves, Henry F., 136 Auditing committee, Report of the, 274 Benjamin, Harold, 103 Boushall, Thomas C, 10 Bow, Warren E., 47 Bowie, Arthur, 109 Bracken, John L., 96 Broome, Edwin W., 276 Brown, Francis J., 140 Burger, I. Victor, 109 Business and education i Boushall), 10 Children, Suffer little (McFarland), 29 Cleveland schools. The use of radio in the (Levenson), 179 Committees and commissions, 283 Connecticut, Education plans its FM net- work in (Deming), 193 Dawson, Howard A., 201 Deraing, Robert C, 193 Durr, Clifford J., 169 Education looks forward (Kersey), 59 Engelhardt, N. L., 5 Evenden, E. S., 42 Executive secretary, Annaal report of the, 253 Federal agencies on the schools. Impact of (Spalding), 18 Federal aid (Spalding), 18 Financial support, The function and re- lationship of federal, state, and local educational agencies in providing (Pillsbury), 154 Financing education (Boushall), 10 FM channels for education. Interest of city school systems in (Shankland), 188 FM network in Connecticut, Education plans its (Deming), 193 FM radio broadcast station, Planning an educational (Lowdermilk), 189 FM radio broadcasting (Deming), 193; (Durr), 169; (Lowdermilk), 189; (Shankland), 188; (Tyler), 197 Furney, Oakley, 150 Future in American education. The (Kersey), 59 Getman, A. K., 152 G. I. Bill of Rights, 201 Grace, Alonzo G., 100 Grose, C. Herman, 274 Hanley, James L., 274 Hartill, Rufus M., 109 Hill, Henry H.. 79, 146 Huggard, Ethel F., 109 Ivey, John E., Jr., 158 Jackman, Willard C, 52 Kennedy, Mary A., 109 Kersey, Vierling, 59 Ketler, Frank C, 276 Kulp, Claude L., 54, 155 Lake, Charles H., 89, 169 Lancaster, Dabney S., 144 Levenson, William B., 179 Loftus, John J., 109 Lowdermilk, Ronald R., 189 McDonald, Howard, 38 McDonald, Ralph, 201 McFarland, Kenneth, 29 Meetings, Calendar of, 279 Miller, Alexander W., 274 Mort, Paul R., 67 Moskowitz, David H., 109 Necrology, 272 New York City teachers and supervisors in service, Training, 109 Obermeier, Minnie, 109 Officers, 1944-45, 1945-46, 252 Personnel, Problems of the professional (McDonald), 38 Pillsbury, W. Howard, 154 Planning and the postwar era, Educa- tional (Grace), 100 Postwar education (Jackman), 52 Postwar era. Educational planning and the (Grace), 100 Postwar reconstruction (Engelhardt), 5 Radio and television education — Post- war (Tyler), 197 Radio, Education's opportunities in (Durr), 169 Radio in education — A committee report (Deming), 193; (Durr), 169; (Lake), 169; (Levenson), 179; (Lowdermilk), 189; (Shankland), 188; (Tyler), 197 Radio's service to the schools, Illustrat- ing (Levenson), 179 Resource education: A tool for regional development (Ivey), 158 Riordon, Antoinette, 109 Roosevelt, Mrs. Franklin D., 245 [285] 286 American Associa on S IOC \dministrators Securities, Certificntr of list of, 75 \ Sexson, John A., 74 Shankland, S. D., 188 Siegel, Morris E., 109 Small, William J., 147 South through resource education, Devel- opment of the (Ivey), 158 Spalding, Willard B., 18 State organizations of school adminis- trators, 277 Strough, Lyndon H., 148 Supervisors in service, Training New York City teachers and, 109 Surplus federal property — The state's standpoint (Lancaster), 144 Surplus war materials — A committee re- port (Alves), 136; (Brown), 140; (Hill), 146; (Lancaster), 144; (Weg- lein), 136 Surplus war properties to educational institutions, Disposal of (Alves), 136 Taps comes reveille, After (Benjamin), 103 Task remaining. The great (Engel- hardt), 5 Tax, An educational use (Boushall), 10 Teachers and supervisors in service. Training New York City, 109 Teachers, The scarcity of (Evenden), 42; (McDonald), 38 Teaching staff. Immediate administra- tive problems in connection with the (Evenden), 42 Teaching staff, The (Bracken), 96 Television education — Postwar, Radio and (Tyler), 197 Ve -rs, » port of flie hoard of, 276 Traming New ^'ork City teachers and supervisors in service, 109 Tyler, L Keith, 197 Veteran, The returning (Bow), 47 Veterans, Report of the work conference on educational programs for, 201 ; participants in the conference, 249 Wade, John E., 61, 110 War and education. The (Benjamin), 103 Weglein, David E., 136 Year of opportunity, A (Wade), 61 Youth — A committee report, Educational needs of (Furney), 150; (Getman), 152; (Kulp), 155; (Pillsburv), 154; (Small), 147; (Strough), 148 Youth, Education of all American (Jack- man), 52 Youth in rural areas. Equal educational opportunities for (Getman), 152 Youth over eighteen years of age who is not planning to attend college, A program of educational service for the (Furney), 150 Youth, The impending problems of (Kulp), 54 Youth under eighteen years of age, A comprehensive educational program for all (Strough), 148 Youth, What are the significant factors in community planning to meet the problems of (Kulp), 155 Date Due 1 I 1 85 iilllillliilllllllllllllilllillliilllltili r7^.6 3 1262 04042 1074 ^7 ^j -? "