Department of Superintendence OFFICIAL REPORT . BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS February 26 to March 1, 1928 Belns « preprint ot a aectlon of Volume 66 ot the Addresses and Pro- ceedinfTS of the National Education Association of the United States. Published by the Department of Superintendence, 1201 Sixteenth Street NorthweMt, Washington, D. C, April, 1928 3T0.6^T3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUM The Sixth Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence The Fifth of a Series of Books on the Curriculum — 584 Pages PART ONE— FUNDAMENTAL ISSUES IN SECONDARY V3 So UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA LIBRARY THIS VOLUME HAS BEEN ilEVIEWED FOR REFORMAHING 8Y PRESERVATION OFFICE. DAT: •c/^3 <^t/cu/ not iculum Levels failum 'oblem IN JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS PART FOUR— OFFICIAL RECORDS Report of the Executive Secretary List of Members aerdal ION Price 12. Free to Members of the Department of Superintendence DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE Vesper Service at Faneuil Hall RELIGION AND EDUCATION: RESPONSIBILITY OF CHURCH, SCHOOL, AND HOME KENNETH C. M. SILLS, PRESIDENT, BOWDOIN COLLEGE, BOWDOIN, ME PRESIDENT Joseph M. Gwinn, presiding. — Education must face four ways — forward, outward, backward, upward. Forward, that the training given the children and youth of America may be appropriate to the needs of the years ahead of them — ten, twenty, forty. Outward, that the schools may be organically joined with the other elements of present-day society in which the young people live and from which they are furnished the experiences for their own development. Backward, that anchorage may be had in those eternal truths and ideals which will hold the force of education true, whatever may be the storms and stresses that disturb the present order and might turn the course of education in wrong directions. In facing backward, to test our anchor chains and anchorage there is no more appropriate place to which we could come than to Boston and to Faneuil Hall, to this Cradle of Liberty which gave birth to so many of the ideals and acts which have shaped us as a nation and have kept us on a true course toward greater and greater herit- age of liberty. To go forward better, we need to look backward, so we have come to Faneuil Hall. Last, and most important, education must look upward to the Great God and Father of us all, whose handiworks are the things that have been, now are, and shall be. Our forward, outward, and backward views are often confused and indistinct. For a clearer view and for power and inspiration we must look upward. It is altogether necessary and fitting in beginning oue convention that we should come as we now do to consider the relation of religion to edu- cation. President Sills: — I believe that we teachers are eternally and inevi- tably interested in religion. We deal with religion, with the religious spirit and impulse every day of our lives. For weal or woe we cannot get away from religion, and we would not if we could. Some of you may remember the schoolmaster questioned by L. P. Jacks. "We teach religion all day long," he answered. "We teach it in arithmetic by accuracy. We teach it in language by learning to say what we mean — yea, yea and nay, nay. We teach it in history by humanity. We teach it in geography by breadth of mind. We teach it in handicraft by thoroughness. We teach it in the playground by fair play. We teach it in astronomy by reverence. We teach it by kindness to animals, by courtesy, by good manners, and by truthfulness in all things. We teach it by showiiig'the children, that we, their elders, [IJ » J > > ) :» > National Education Association are their friends and not their enemies." Yes, \\c teach it in all these ways and in countless others. No one can teach history properly without setting forth the great role that religion has played in the evolution of the human race. No one can approach the problems of science without a deep realiza- tion of the mysteries of nature. We are concerned from the kindergarten through the university with the passionate pursuit of truth — and if that be not religion, what is religion? In dealing with this great problem there are certain qualities which ought to exist, and 1 believe do in large measure exist in the great majority of teachers in our public and private schools. First and foremost 1 place reverence. And by reverence I do not mean a milk and water piety, but a deep regard for the mj'stery and nobility of human life in its relations with God. "In college," said a great teacher, "we deal not with the for- tunes of our students, but with their spirits." Out of reverence there naturally flowers fairmindedness. It is the busi- ness of the teacher always and everywhere to cultivate this lovely virtue. I have little sympathy with the theory that controversial subjects should never be mentioned in classroom. Such an attitude leads straight away from reality. But it is highly important that both sides of a contrt)versial sub- ject should be presented fairly. Tolerance is another virtue closely allied to reverence and fairmindedness. We are fairminded when we set forth the other fellow's point of view; we are tolerant when we recognize he has a right to his opinion. In the Amer- ican school, which is not so much the melting pot as the alchemist's bowl, we must recognize our obligation to be tolerant. As a nation we could get rid of much bigotry and prejudice if more of our teaching was actu- ated by tolerance. Despite much boasting and idle talk we have not yet succeeded in becoming a tolerant nation. Let me give one very obvious example. In our schools all over the country every American boy is told that the path to the highest offices in the land is open to every child who develops latent character and ability of a high order. Any American boy may become President, we have heard constantly reiterated ; and yet if that child happened to be born in the Ghetto or in the Bowery, there are still thousands of Americans who would refuse to vote for him, no matter what other qualifications for the highest kind of leadership he might have. As an actual matter of fact, other lands are more tolerant in this respect than we. This example is perhaps enough to illustrate my point, but many others could be found. Racial and religious prejudices are very deep seated ; they cannot be easily or in a decade eradicated. But it behooves all (>t us teachers who give lip service to democracy and freedom to see to it that our teaching squares with our belief. * * • < I)i;i'ARTMENT OF S UPHRINTENDENCE Vesper Services at King's Chapel GOOD Jt ILL AMONG NATIONS WAI.I.ACI- VV. ATWOOD, PRESIDENT OF CLARK UNIVERSITY WORCESTER^ MASS. THERE is but one jz;reat barrier remaining between the nations of the world today. That barrier is ignorance of each other. Man has con- quered space and time. The great barrier of ignorance remains to be conquered. As the improved means of travel and communication have come, trade rehitions have developed betw^een this country and most of the other countries of the world. It is but a commonplace today to call at- tention to the economic unity of the world. But there is much more than economic unity. Just as certainly as commodities of trade pass back and forth, so do ideas travel from one country to another, and we find repre- sented in our own commonwealth the various political, social, and religions ideas of the other countries of the w^orld. The day of isolation has passed, and the day for cooperation is at hand. We are living in an era when the problems of international relations are uppermost. We must prepare our- selves and the young people of the rising generation to meet these prob- lems. Isolation for us is impossible. If we had come together here in New England or anywhere along the Atlantic seaboard during the years immediately preceding the American Revolution, we should undoubtedly have found it appropriate and perhaps necessary to declare ourselves as loyal or disloyal to the British crown. That was the all important question of that day. If we had gathered any- where in this country from the Atlantic to the Pacific in the late fifties or early sixties of the last century, we should have been called upon over and over again to take a definite stand on questions of national polic>'. We have come together, for a great national education congress at a time when there are still larger problems before us than any that have heretofore faced this nation. They may not seem as imminent because we are not just now engaged in war. They are, however, most significant. We are living at the opening of a period during which the nations of the world must learn to cooperate with each other. During the last two decades the leading nations of the world have cer- tainly bungled their international relations, slaughtered millions of their best citizens, and burdened themselves for decades, perhaps for more than a century, with an expense account which necessitates heavy systems of taxa- tion. We have demonstrated the folly of the old-fashioned ways of settling disputes between nations. The statement recently issued by the Secretary of our Treasury that eighty-two cents out of every dollar of the billions of dollars used by this government goes to pa\- for past, present, or future wars, is a sufficient commentar\' on the foll\ of the old system of settling disputes between different peoples. It is our duty to profit by our experi- ences and to pass on to the next generation a new point of view toward 4 National Education Association the other peoples of the earth and a new system of dealing with them. Unless we accomplish this task the next generation is quite certain to try the same plan we have tried. Is not the time approaching when, "The common sense of most shall hold a fretful realm in awe ?" Organizations are active in almost every urban center in this country, endeavoring in one way or another to bring about a better understanding of the different peoples of the world. We must make up our minds to take a stand one way or another on this question. We are facing a prob- lem of developing a patriotism that is more than inspired by narrow na- tionalistic points of view. The common sense of the many must be based on right information. Through our educational work, we must lead the \ounger people of this country to a fuller knowledge of the people of other countries. Events such as were recently reported from one of the large cities of the middle west, reflects ignorance of a people across the sea. They reflect a failure to understand the true friendship that has long existed and should always exist between the Anglo-American people wherever they are on this ever-shrinking planet. We must work from childhood to estab- lish an intelligent sympathy for other people. We must overcome pro- vincialism and our prejudices. A new generation must be reared in which there is a broader and greater patriotism, a greater love and admiration for our country because of the role she is taking in the affairs of the world. It detracts not the least from the love one may have for this country, but it broadens that patriotism and broadens that citizenship if we develop a respect for the citizens of other countries. It draws us nearer to the ideals of peace and goodwill among people. Vesper Service at Old North Church THE ESSENTIAL TASK OF THE LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE ELLEN F. PENDLETON, PRESIDENT, WELLESLEY COLLEGE, WELLESLEY, MASS. THE essential task of the liberal arts college is to develop in the stu- dent the ability to think. The first condition which will secure this objective is health. While the men's institutions were still providing sports for a chosen group of athletics, the women's colleges had organized departments of hygiene and physical education whose duty it was to meet the needs of the individual student. Given the emphasis on health, we turn next to the curriculum and the classroom as the most important factors in accomplishing this great task of teaching students to think. All the discussions on the making and remaking of curriculums, the introduction of honor courses, a tutorial teach- ing staff to secure the great aim of leading students to think for themselves. Indeed, often to save time the teacher must collect information from va- rious sources for the students, but just as often the student must seek it for herself. In either case, the pros and cons in any given subject must be presented and the student led to draw her own conclusion and form her Department of Superintendence own judgment. It is because we believe that our students should hear both sides of a question that some of our critics class the women's colleges among organizations subversive of the constitution. Those of us who know our students could tell many cases in which the propagandist has defeated his own end, for the student has not needed the help of her instructor to discover the fallacy of an argument. But what of the students today? If we were to believe the tabloid sheet, we should be discouraged indeed. Since the days of St. Jerome it has been the custom of the older generation to deplore the weakness of the younger. The young people of our colleges are on the whole upright, frank, intelligent, making some mistakes, to be sure, but no more, and per- haps fewer, than their forebears at the same age. Are we accomplishing this task of teaching our students to think? We are not satisfied that we have found the solution of our problem. We should not be greatly concerned whether we are classed as old-fashioned or modern, conservative or progressive ; rather we must be sure that so far as we are able, we choose the good rather than the bad, the right rather than the wrong. Then we may face the result with courage, even though we may be named by the unthinking among the radicals. Vesper Service at Park Street Church EDUCATION THAT GLORIFIES THE COMMONPLACE DANIEL L. MARSH, PRESIDENT OF BOSTON UNIVERSITY, BOSTON, MASS. FORMAL education is in need of a transfiguring plus that will glorify the commonplace. We have a right to expect education to make a man self-supporting, acquaint him with practical measures for comfortable living, prepare him for citizenship, make him a man of letters, or a theo- logian, or a scientist, or an artist. But education should go further: it should strengthen and broaden man's faith in God ; make keener his appre- ciation of spiritual realities; furnish him with a just conception of human life, its needs, possibilities, and obligations; deepen the distinction between right and wrong; strengthen his convictions of those truths which surround right with the most impressive sanctions. We must create such an atmosphere around our students as will make tnem sensitive to life's tragic grandeur. We must keep a clear vision as to the true end and aim of educational endeavor — the unfolding of per- sonality', the cultivation of ideals, the bestowal of vision, the clarifying of purpose, the strengthening of will, the development of power. I believe whole-heartedly in the practical values of education ; but while holding steadily to such values, I plead also for a plus that will cause a Divine nimbus to rest over the commonplace things of life ; that will trans- form the primrose into the Court of Deity and make the golden-rod sig- nificant with the Awful Immanence; that will ennoble and enrich life and give meaning to it; that will give sanity and order to the Universe, and lead us on to all things true and beautiful and good. National Education Association Vesper Service at St. Paul's Cathedral Church THE OFFICIAL OR THE MAN JOHN EDGAR PARK, PRESIDENT, WH EATON COLLEGE, NORTON, MASS. 1TAKE my text from a book by Dante Gabriel Rosetti called "Hand and Soul." The text consists of these words, "For with God is no lust of Godhead." That ideal lies at the heart of all true religion. God has to be an official. He has to be God. But He is not obsessed by the importance of His official position; He prefers to be regarded as a person, a friend of the humble man. From God down to the veriest beggar on the street we are all caught on the horns of this dilemma, we are all officials, we are all in livery, whether it be a doctor's gown, a roll-top-desk-manner, or a beggar's rags, and yet we would all prefer to be considered persons. How can one be an efficient official and at the same time preserve his humanity? Now, an official is one who serves an institution. The light- house keeper is the official of his lighthouse. His first duty is to keep the light behind his lenses burning clear. No other consideration is for him equally important. If he, out of the kindness of his heart, gives his oil away to the villagers who cluster in the huts at the base of his lighthouse, he is derelict in his duty. It is kind of him to be touched by the darkness of the villagers' huts, but in helping them he has been disloyal to his first and highest duty — to keep the light burning in order to safeguard the multitude of those whose fair passage upon the waters depends upon his vigilance. This is in a peculiar way the problem of an official. The supreme task of a school official is to conduct the schools for the benefit of the children who attend them, and yet all kinds of humanitarian motives seem at times to interfere with this primary duty. This teacher is evidently entirely inadequate for her task. She would retard the progress of the children under her care and be an obstacle rather than an aid in their educational path. Yet the principal or superintendent knows that she is a most worthy person, is a great friend of dear friends of his, has an aged mother entirely dependent upon her, and would be unable easily to find another position. What shall he do? He is asked to give the official oil of his lighthouse to succor the needs of those who appeal to him as a man. Must he be an official and simply consult the interests of the school and of the children who attend it? Or, ought he to compromise and because of his friendliness or pity allow inadequate instructors to be engaged and retain them? In that question we are interested today. Should he be an official or a man ? As I look at myself and other people, especially in the educational field, it seems to me that there are three types of us, whether we are presidents, superintendents, principals, supervisors or teachers. The first t\pe with whom we are all acquainted is the sentimentalist who never can think his Dei'artmeni' of Superintendence position out, whose personal desires and predilections are always interfering! with his official duties. He is guilt>' continually of what can be called sentimental graft. As soon as a man is appointed to a position of official responsibility "friends" appear from all corners of the country to claim recognition by him. He has a great dislike for giving pain. To summon any one to his office and tell him that it is impossible for him to continue in his present position is a task which he postpones \ear after year. The sentimental- ist's feelings as a man thus continually interfere with his duties as an official. He is never happy but wobbles on one side or the other in a hope- less attempt to discover some compromise between the two extremes. The second type with which a study of ourselves and others makes us familiar is the bureaucrat. The bureaucrat solves the dilemma which troubles the sentimentalist b}' simply being an official. He is nothing but his office. He is Mr. President or Mr. Superintendent, the name is non- essential. Subtract his office from him and there is no remainder. He is efficiency itself. He gets the forms filled in and forwarded at the proper date. He runs the schools with deadly uniformity. He is proud of his position and likes to have his importance felt. He has no mercy. You must get your forms in on time or get out. He is the up-to-date business man demanding results, and results for him are always figures or averages which can be codified, averaged over again, arranged in tables and reported. He is exceedingly busy and tries to keep all those under him occupied continually. A hustler, he is always on the run from one engagement to another and has a deep suspicion of any one who is ever seen sitting still or thinking. Santayana describes him rather uncharitably as being a man who redoubles his efiorts when he has forgotten his aim. The third type can be described neither as a sentimentalist nor as a bureaucrat but can only be described as a man. You look at his face rather than at his livery be it ever so resplendent. He seems to have solved the dilemma of the sentimentalist. He is loyal to his institution because he sees beyond it. He has continually in mind the real end of education which is not that reports be turned in, but that people should be educated. He is not anxious to save his own soul or enhance his own reputation so much as he is that the light in his lighthouse should shine efficiently for those who need it. Any system plus a man is better than the best system plus a mere official. The best systems of education seem to fail when you get them home from the convention into your own school because the heart of the new re\elation was not in the s>stcm so much as it was in the personality that conceived, expounded, and carried out the system. National Education Association GREETINGS MALCOLM E. NICHOLS, MAYOR OF BOSTON While it is a source of very deep gratification to the Mayor of this city to come before you with the greetings of this city, nevertheless, he is forced to say that the city will gain so much more from your presence here than it can possibly extend to you that he feels some diffidence in speaking of the greatness of this city in the channels and courses of education ; of what little start the city of Boston has made in the great cause of education ; how in 1630 when the colony was first founded here by John Winthrop the fathers established in the w^ilderness that great institution, Harvard College, whose influence and power for good has been so pronounced dur- ing all these generations and has been great under Dr. Eliot and under President Lowell, who will presently address you; how in 1635 the Boston Latin School was established, and in 1639, the first public school to be supported by taxation was established in Dorchester. You know these things so much better than I that you cannot wonder at the diffidence which the chief magistrate of this city feels in speaking of them. But I look at this gathering as of great significance because it is not merely a gathering of teachers, it is the directive educational force of this country to whom I have the privilege of extending this greeting, and ever does it seem to me as the Mayor of this city that the problems of educa- tion are swinging more and more in the direction of this force in which you are the representatives this morning. You cannot realize what a problem of directing education there is in this city. Thirty percent of the revenues of this city in its municipal endeavors at the present time go into the channels of education, and out of a municipal expenditure of about $60,000,000, about $20,000,000 is devoted to the maintenance of our schools. I think that the city of Boston has as fine a school system as you will find anywhere, progressing under the great tradition of that past to which I have just made a brief reference, and finding in the promise of a future which is to come, and in which you may bear an important part, that inspiration which I know we shall have out of this great convention. Boston is in the forefront of its support and of its generosity toward the cause of education, and, therefore, you cannot wonder if I speak with some frankness here to you who direct education when I say that our expenditures are so high that occasionally we pause to make a review and check them up, as indeed I presume they do throughout the entire country. Yet, we are on the threshold of greater things. It is a temptation to talk about such things so great is my interest with my own children in the Boston public schools. We are on the threshold of great discussion of diversified education, and yet as I look through I can't help thinking that after all, reduced to simplicity, the problem with which we are faced is this: How can we best instruct those children which are dear to us in such ways as will give them strength of purpose, manhood and womanhood, Department of Superintendence so that they may make a great and noble contribution to their country as their fathers made in the beginning when they came here to this wilderness to establish a great nation ? In this spirit, my friends, I come here as the chief magistrate of this city to give you a cordial welcome from as fine a community, as splendid a citizenship as you can find an\^vhere in this world. We know that you are of us as we are of you. We hope you will come again and not wait thirty-five years, a long time in the history of the human race. Come often, we want to see you, we want the benefit of your example and your instruction, to the end that we may all join and cooperate in that great cause of lifting the welfare of our country to sublime heights among the nations of the earth. RESPONSE TO GREETINGS MILTON C. POTTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MILWAUKEE, WIS. When Mayor Nichols was in the city of Milwaukee a few weeks ago, he was so gracious as to give me an outline of his remarks for this morning's address. He departed somewhat widely from those pre- pared remarks, and it leaves me in the position of departing somewhat widely from my written response, but from the heart the superintendents of America thank you, your Honor, for the very gracious welcome to this great city. From every corner of the Continent, from all the mid spaces, we have gathered here, sent by our boards of education to join in discus- sion and partake of the feast set before us by our officers, directed by Super- intendent Gwinn of San Francisco. Superintendents of states and counties and cities, all the way from the Golden Gate to Cape Cod, are here. We have honored ourselves in choosing the lovely shrine of American traditions as our meeting place. We are honored in the friendly opening of your hearts by your Mayor, and the opening of your gates and your homes to us. This greatest of educational centers, about which cluster the greatest of the nation's schools, as the choice of your committee. Presi- dent Gwinn, for this meeting is amply justified. The Mayor is justified in expecting manifestation of our best thought, our highest purpose throughout the week's deliberations. We know that Mayor Nichols in welcoming us has had the cooperation of our Father Winship, the Executive Committee, the great schools which cluster here, the various local educational organizations, the Chamber of Commerce, the press, the citizenry of Boston and of New England and that everywhere we shall see evidences of their generous plans for our comfort. In our forgatherings we realize, Mr. Mayor, our responsibility. We each treasure the privilege of representing our own small local group of eager young people and their teachers. Though far away we are still humble in their service, forgetting selfish aggrandizement, laying aside the way of the worldly in times certain. In practice and in sincerity we shall try to speak and move here, contributing each his share to a program of scholastic freedom, political justice, and social welfare. 10 National Education Association John Fiske quotes Charles Reed as giving an explanation of history: too much taxes, the main spring of the eternal struggle by local hundreds against ducal thousands and the treasury in the first administration of the Ameri- can Constitution — too little taxes, too little taxes ; no hope of national power because of too little taxes. In days of power worship, a noticeable symptom, says John Fiske, is mounting taxes. Hamilton of King's College, an advocate of delocali- zation, considered this a symptom of health rather than disease and hailed with delight all signs of parochial surrender to the larger group. Mr. Fiske writes of the passing or rapid modification of the rural town as cause for grave reflection to those who have learned how to appreciate its value. Here is an antithesis. No one likes the man who stands aside and refuses to be classified. Everyone wishes to put a label on him. In all things one perceives that we are too antithetic in our feeling. We are not confronting specific issues. Every man knows the purpose of thinking is unification. Truly, we Americans have come here to Boston, to the very cradle of our history and the ancient shrine of our life. But of even more moment in our day is the curious philosophical consideration that here in New England grew and still thrives an ideal of unity in every apparent con- tribution. The age long, the trouble has been our failure to reconcile apparent antitheses — centralistic culture versus local culture, capital or labor, renaissance or revolution, private schools or public schools, open shop or union shop, education or office control against classroom control- endless antitheses. It was your statesman of New England and of Boston who exalted the coordinate conjunction to its place of regal eminence in our political history which it so long had held and still holds in pure thought. Centralism and localism, liberty and union — since Webster's glittering peroration it has been less fatal in practical life to admit that each member of an antithesis is a necessary control, a conditioning factor to the other member thereof, the healthful service of one promoting the serviceable health of the other. The two parts of the parent antithesis are commonly recognized in New England village streets as "Now and forever, one and inseparable." Due sanity is sensed here in the reconciliation of the antithesis. We thank you, Mr. Mayor, for your gracious words of welcome to Boston, but we conceive that you speak also with the tongues of all New England towns. The man at the town meeting, Adams, considered the township not onh' the oldest but also the fairest form of government known in the world. In the day of this decadence it is good to come to America's fountain head for refreshment, good for thoroughgoing nation- alists and good for nationalism. The agglomeration of national powers will not completely despoil local self-government, when America's children still read and sing and dream of New England, and their teachers visit Boston. Dl-PARTMiiNT OF SuPKRlXTENDH NCI- 11 THE RELATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS TO COLLEGES A. LAWRENCE LOWELL, PRESIDENT OF HARXARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE^ MASS. Looking over some figures of the cost of education — or rather of the cost of teachers' salaries — per pupil for the last fifteen years one may note some significant facts. A score of the larger cities of Massachusetts (not includ- ing Boston) show an average increase of the expenditure for salaries per pupil from $25.40 in 1911-12 to $62.70 in 1926-27, the more rapid growth being in the elementary grades. At the earlier date the costs for primary and secondary schools are not given separately ; but taking a later year we find that in the ten years from 1916-17 to 1926-27 the cost per pupil in the elementary schools has risen from $28.80 to $67.85 ; and in the high schools from $52.07 to $104. A considerable part of this increase is due to the fall in the value of money, but this by no means accounts for the whole change, for there is no doubt that education from the kindergarten to the university is becoming more expensive. It may be interesting, therefore, to compare the fore- going figures with those for the faculty of arts and sciences at Harvard. In doing so one must remember that this faculty covers both the college and the graduate school of arts and sciences ; that the instructing staf¥ is de\oting no small part of its time to research as well as to teaching; and that during the last fifteen years a system of general examinations and tutors has been introduced in almost all the departments of the college, and this has involved a large addition to the number of teachers. The cost per student there in 1911-12 was $183.38 and in 1926-27 $305, an increase of 67 percent ; while in the same period the cost of salaries per pupil in the public schools of the cities considered had enlarged 167 per- cent. The public may well ask itself why so rapid an increase and whereunto it will grow. The teaching profession sees no need of a limit, but the public is likely to differ wnth that view. We may ask whether the problem of this generation is not to make universal education effective, and that of the next will not be to make it equally good and less expensive. The more immediate question is that of effectiveness. Why should not secondary schools in America, as in England, France, and Germany, finish secondary education by the time the pupils are in their nineteenth year, the age at which they graduate therefrom in all these countries? That they do not do so in this country is universally admitted, with the result that the colleges devote one or two years — usually two — to instruction of a secondary nature before the student is prepared for work of university grade. Some colleges are therefore proposing to divide their course into two distinct parts, the first two years being frankly of secondary charac- ter; and all over the countr\ , increasingly as one travels westward, junior colleges are being set up which are not really colleges, but schools for continuing secondar\- education. 12 National Education Association The saying that there are many ways of killing a cat beside choking it with butter can be applied to American schools in more than one sense. More than one road may lead to a desired goal ; and it may be that secondary education in this country had better as at present be completed in college or in a supplementary high school. To me it does not seem to be the best plan ; but if it be so, then the regular secondary schools should graduate their pupils a couple of years earlier than they do now — that is at sixteen — for at present secondary schooling is that much behind the European age. The time when education in this country, secondary, college and professional, is completed is too late, and this is the more true the farther it is carried. At present American youth either enters upon its career in life too old, or it is deprived of a couple of years of instruction which the young people of the same age enjoy in Europe. The retardation is only in small part due to the secondary school itself. It is in the main caused by beginning the whole process of education too late, by the slow progress in elementary schools, and by insufficient pro- vision for more rapid advance by the pupils who are destined to go far. To some aspects of education we seem to have paid insufficient attention — one of these is its selective function. We hear much at the present day of vocational guidance, the determination of the pursuits for which school children are best adapted by somewhat artificial devices for discovering their natural abilities. But all true education should be a sifting process. Have we not neglected a little this side of the problem in our effort to push all children through the whole educational mill ; and in doing so have we not to some extent unwittingly sacrificed the more intelligent — to their own damage and that of the community? There is, of course, a danger here of confusing mere precosity with more solid but slowly developing capacity; but experienced teachers can deal with that problem. Are we not also striving to teach too many things ? There is a constant tendency to introduce new subjects good in themselves, but which crowd out, not from the list of subjects taught, but from the studies of the individual, things of a larger educational value. One of the defects we observe in not a few candidates for admission to college is a dispersion of high-school studies over many fields, no one of which has been pursued long enough to give a thorough grasp of the subject. Education consists less in the number of things a boy has glanced at than in the way he has learned to regard them. What we need is a good mental training, an accurate and thorough habit of mind ; not a frittering away of the attention by a multitude of small matters of which the pupil does not get enough to develop consecutive thought. There is a special disadvantage in the inclu- sion of subjects which he is not mature enough to study thoroughly, and sometimes the teacher does not know profoundly enough to use in training the mind. Another element in the problem that has not, I think, received the consid- eration it deserves may be illustrated by a simple algebraic formula. If we express the product of any educational process, that is the benefit obtained Department of Superintendence 13 by the pupil who has gone through it, by P, then in a very rough way, and leaving out of account other factors not germane in this particular inquiry, we may write (x+ 1) YC = P where the constant C is the inborn ability of the pupil in question, "x" is the quality of the instruction, and Y is the amount of the pupil's personal effort (by no means the same as the mere time spent in study, but rather dependent upon the intensity of application). 1 write the formula thus, because if there be no effort whatever, volun- tary or induced, by the pupil, or if he have no intelligence of any kind, there can be no education, and the product is zero. Whereas, without teaching above the elementary stage, extraordinary personal effort and great natural ability produced the education of Benjamin Franklin. In short there may be self-education without teaching, but there can be none without effort and intelligence on the part of the pupil, however good the instruction. Nor is the formula in other ways inaccurate, for a doubling of the pupils effort doubles the effect of good instruction, and the better the teaching the greater the earnestness of the pupil's effort. Have we not thought too exclusively about enlarging the product by increasing the "x," with comparatively small attention to the factor Y? Is there not some truth in Mr. Dooley's description of the college president who asks the student which of the great subjects of human learning he would like the professors to study for him? Education is not like trepan- ning the skull, where the surgeon puts something in the patient's head while he is under an anaesthetic. The brain is not exempt from the gen- eral biological law that any organ grows by exercise, and is atrophied by disuse. If the object of education were to convey a certain number of impressions, carefully selected and assorted for the purpose, it could prob- ably be attained most rapidly with the pupil in a wholly passive and recep- tive state — as nearly as possible in a hypnotic trance. No doubt something resembling this is an element in education, particularly in the initial stages; but it is far from the main purpose of training the pupil to use his own mind. No doubt, also, all teachers are aware of the importance of voluntary cooperation on the part of the pupil. There has been an overwhelming revulsion against the drudgery of dull disciplinary tasks that breed disgust with school and all its mechanism. An attempt has been made to render study pleasant, but often, unfortunately, by making it easy. We are told that a youth will work best at something in which he is interested, some- thing that accords with his natural tastes ; but in many, if not most, cases he has no serious intellectual interests and his tastes are still undeveloped. He is apt, therefore, to construe the principle as the avoidance of what he finds hard, and the selection of subjects that give a superficial sense of acquisition with little labor, or of those which he deems of practical use, a matter whereof he knows even less than of his own aptitudes. He does not 14 National Education Association appl\' the same ideas in his pla\ . The sports that are eas\ , iequiiiii<; no fatiguing exercise, are not more sought than such as call for energy, and even involve pain. Youth does not desire ease, but the exercise of natural powers if the reason for it can be made clear, or emulation points the way. Work is, indeed, stimulated by interest, but interest is no less generated b\- work ; for most people are interested in that on which they bestow labor, and at least up to the point of fatigue — in proportion to the labor they bestow ; while the greatest of all interest comes from a sense of mastery. Too much attention has, I think, been paid to making education attrac- tive by smoothing the path, as compared with inducing strenuous volun- tary effort ; but this involves doing things that require exertion, and therefore are not at the time wholly pleasurable. Repeated mental exertion becomes a habit, one of the most valuable a man can possess. In fact the habit of overcoming obstacles is a large factor in the condition of mind that is properly called education ; for the quantity of knowledge obtained when one leaves school is far less important than developing the ability to acquire knowledge and to think clearly on hard problems. The colleges desire from the schools precisely what they are themselves trying to cultivate in their students, a greater sense of responsibility for their own education, and a willingness, nay a desire, to make the effort re- quired to the best of their ability. Perhaps a more careful attention to the problem of self-education, its conditions, its possibilities, and its limitations may hereafter prove to be the road towards economy as well as efficiency. THE SECONDARY SCHOOL PROVIDES ENTRANCE RE- QUIREMENTS FOR BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY ALVAN T. FULLER, GOVERNOR OF MASSACHUSETTS, BOSTON, MASS. I find myself this morning before this great audience of representative leaders of American public education, charged with two duties, one of them most delightful in every way and the other, I confess to you, one which I approach with some hesitation. I am very happy indeed to have the privilege as the Governor of Massa- chusetts of representing the Commonwealth on this occasion, and to bid you all a most cordial welcome. From the foundation of the Plymouth and the Massachusetts Bay Colo- nies, the people of Massachusetts have had faith in education. Through- out three centuries that faith has not changed, but rather has it grown and been strengthened with the passing years. Proud as we are of the achieve- ment of past years, yet we know full well that it is of the very essence of education to rely not upon the deeds of other years, but rather to work to the end that the future may be worthy of what has gone before. As the representative of a people, therefore, having faith in education as a power that we believe will constantly improve the common welfare, I rejoice that you have come among us that we may learn of you, and with you go forward to the tasks of the morrow more intelligently equipped Department of Superintendence 15 to meet them. I wish that your sta\ ainontz us ma\ ho pleasant and profit- able, and that when you leturn to Nour homes, you will can"\ in sour hearts and minds those pleasant sentiments of unity, fraternity, and worth- while service which I am sure you \vill lea\e with us when \-ou depart from within our portals. Your president has asked me to sa\' something to \()u this morninj^ about the expectation of American business of tlie product of the sch(M)ls. That, it seems to me, is a fairly large assignment. In this complicated civilization of ours it is not possible to speak of business in so specific a manner that you can list the exact accomplishment that the schools should be expected to produce in their graduates. Moreover, business men who think clearly on the subject, understand l')erfectly well that the schools have to meet a great man\ different require- ments. The very program of this morning reflects only in part the breadth of your task. You are discussing onl\' a part of the work of the schools yet it seems that the lower schools, while the_\ are educating boys and girls, have to think of what colleges expect, of what business men expect, of what fathers and mothers expect, and of w hat citizens as a whole ex- pect. With ail these expectations, it would not be surprising if teachers should suggest that they would like to know what children have a right to expect, in order that their own welfare may be promoted. Indeed, only as a layman I am inclined to believe that all of us, whether citizens, school officers, or teachers, should understand that in education of school, church, and home, the consideration that outranks all others is that we should provide for the child the kind of training and the type of discipline that will help him to grow to the fullness ot his stature as a man. Therefore, I should say first that business, as such, desires that the lower schools should help the boy to understand his obligations to the social, civic, and economic community of which his life is to be a part, and his duty to himself — as the English would put it, to "play the game." It is obvious that the rapidly developing specialization in business will increasingly demand special study of various kinds, in order that indi- viduals may be better equipped for certain types of employment. In the field of secondary education, our schools and departments of agriculture, home economics, trade and commercial subjects, are wisely paying attention to this specialization. The establishment of great schools of business ad- ministration in our colleges gives evidence that in a larger degree collegiate education will recognize the needs of business for specially prepared men and women. President Lowell lately remarked that "business is one of the oldest of the arts and the latest of the professions." There can be no ques- tion that just as schools of law and medicine and teaching have long pro- vided the means of translating theoretical knowledge into effective practice, so in the future will institutions of learning increasingly make provision for training for business pursuits. 16 National Education Association The success of these schools will depend much upon the knowledge which the institutions will have of the practical situations to be met in the business enterprises to which the youth expects to go. It is certain that education in general must constantly seek to make more effective appli- cation of theory to practice. Technical education of any character in the field of business, and probably of the professions, meets its final test, not in what the candidate for a position knows about a business, but upon the extent to which he can go to a job and demonstrate there that he has the ability actually to perform the work demanded. So far as these technical courses are concerned I have only one defi- nite suggestion that I am prepared to make to you, namely, that they be tested again and again, with reference to their actual usefulness in the occupations for which they prepare. I appreciate that such a testing de- mands the cooperation of business itself. The industries of our land should develop a sympathetic and helpful interest in the thousands of our youth who are leaving school in the upper elementary and the senior high school years. Without minimizing the importance of the work of the school, it may well be maintained that business can hardly expect a boy in his teens to be a fully finished product. Therefore, school and industry should work hand in hand to the end that these youths of ours may make as speedily and as effectively as possible successful introduction to their business and industrial careers. Frankly, however, as a business man, I am not so much concerned with these items of technical preparation. The specific and definite demands of any business are reasonably clear. In the modern tendency of business prac- tices to become specialized, and in a measure standardized, the schools will not find it impossible or extremely difficult to organize work which will provide reasonable preparation for business life. The schools should and will address themselves with continuing success to meeting the technical demands of business training. But apart from these, the expectations of the business man are not so very different from the expectations of others. While the business man is glad to recognize in the candidate for a posi- tion that he has certain knowledge of his trade or business, and that he has developed a certain skill in making that knowledge effective, yet in my opinion, business men everywhere will forgive a good deal by way of a shortage of specific qualifications, provided the youth who comes to them for positions have developed certain characteristics which will provide the foundation upon which the structures of successful careers may be built — a solid rock of principle and not the shifting sands of expediency. Briefly, I will name some of the qualities which I believe it to be possible for the schools to help in developing which have always been needed and always will be needed in the business relationships of life. First the school ought to help a boy to understand that no keenness of wit, no shrewdness of bargaining, no plausibility of reasoning, in short. Department of Superintendence 17 that no trickiness of mind of whatsoever sort can for a single moment over- come, or offset, a fundamental weakness of moral fibre. A boy develops his attitude toward the tasks of adult life exactly as he develops an attitude toward the tasks of school. If a student, as a stu- dent, is slovenly in his thinking, if he is content with inaccuracies, if he is without aim or purpose, it is difficult to see how he will develop at once the opposite characteristics when he goes out into business life. It simply cannot be done. Second, I should be inclined to place very high on the list of things de- sired by business in the graduates of the schools, that they should have ac- quired a certain ability or technic in meeting issues and in making decisions. It is my observation that some men seem to acquire the habit of making decisions, while others seem to be in an habitual state of indecision. There is no question that men of the former class will be valuable in the business concerns with which they are connected, while men of the latter class will be obliged to accept constant direction and guidance. I do not be- lieve there is any other way of developing the power to make decisions except as one through the period of youth and young manhood is constantly faced in his daily life with the necessity of making them. To so live that one may trust his impulses is one way to avoid indecision. Cannot the schools better serve our boys and girls by placing upon them a little more, and upon their teachers a little less, the responsibilities that are normal to school life ? I cannot help feeling that a boy who is brought constantly face to face with his own responsibility for his work and conduct, will be likely to grow to be the kind of man who will come to his work with a sense of responsibility toward it, and with an understanding that he must, of and within himself, meet the questions and the responsibilities of the day without leaning too constantly upon others for guidance and leader- ship. There may be those who believe that modern business has become so mechanical that there is no longer any opportunity for the play of individual initiative and resourcefulness. I am not in that number. Business will be a dynamic force only to the extent that the people who are engaged in it can bring to it the power and force which come from personality. In the third place, though it may seem trite for me to say it, yet I am prepared to declare to you that modern business as well as every other demand of modern life, is calling for a generation that has a pervading and honest respect for work, and that is prepared to render a full measure of it. I am not critical either of the schools or of industry on this -point. There are, however, certain obvious conditions of modern life which both the school and business must recognize. We are living in an age of great ma- terial prosperity. Nothing like it has ever been known in the history of the world. All of us, old and young, are lured by prospects of ease and pleasure, made possible through the inventions of the age. It is natural, and only natural, that boys and girls observing the evidence of wealth about them with opportunities and temptations to pleasure and enjoyment 18 National Education Association present at cvei"\ turn, sliould come to count the hours of leisure, and not the hours of work as the most attractive part of life. Perhaps we who are older, as well as they who are jounger, are in danger of forgetting how many ages of toil have gone into the building of the structure of the civilization that we have ; perhaps we, as well as they, may overlook the fact that this great complicated and intricate machine which we call civili- zation, cannot go forward unless every one of us is prepared to perform efficiently some useful service. In short, education must not fail to impress upon our children that all worthy work is to be respected, and that no man is to be held in respect unless in accordance with his talent, he finds some way of justifying his existence through work. The business man likes to see the type of boy who has developed such a mental attitude toward work that he will go joyously to the tasks that are set before him. The business man desires this, not so much that his business may prosper, but that he knows that such a boy will himself become a happy and efficient man. To be sure, we sometimes hear business spoken of in a disparaging man- ner, as if those of the market place were not all that they should be. Many times, particularly in foreign countries, we hear America referred to as a nation of merchants and tradespeople, as if hard work and industry were things to be disparaged. If my observations have been accurate, these criti- cisms are not justified. I am proud to say that there are no people more honorable in business dealings than Americans, and that in America there are no men more jealous of equity and honor than are those men who are direct- ing the business concerns of the land. These standards, already by no means low, must constantly be lifted. The days when business can have as its ideal the Latin phrase Caveat emptor have passed forever. You are fortunate that you deal with youth whose ideals are naturally high, and whose instincts are normally clean. To the institution of the school these youths go to meet there one another in the discharge of individual tasks and of mutual obligations. The school offers an opportunity through clean competition for each boy to take not only the measure of himself but of his mates as well. In such a place he may learn those rules of human con- duct which will safely guide him in his relationships with his fellows. If as a schoolboy he learns to play the game squarely, taking no advantage for himself that he is not willing to yield to the other, and recognizing that the liberty of the individual in action must stop at the line where it transgresses the wellbeing of others, then indeed he will have found for himself such a course as will make him a valuable asset to any business that is a proper and legitimate one. Please do not think I am giving utterance to mere sentimentality when I say that this very day you will find not a few, but tens of thousands of business establishments in this country conducted upon the sound economic principle of treating others even as one would himself be treated. I do not find it difficult to believe that the pervading spirit of American educa- tion toda_\ under your leadership is to enforce this principle of square dealing. I)i;parimi:nt of Supkrintendence 19 Help, tlicrctOrc, the risiiiii; j^ciu'iatioii to \aluf aboxc all otluT thinj^s, intellectual sincerity; help them so to analyze themselves and the work they should have to do, that they may have the habit of makinji wise de- cisions, develop in thcni an honest respect for work and lead them to accept in practice the principles of the Golden Rule, and the business man will believe that you have performed a useful service. Perhaps all of you who are in this room have looked upon that remark- able statue of Lincoln which is to be seen in the Lincoln Memorial at Washington. There the sculptor, Daniel Chester French, has brought out the strength and power of that great American to whom our thoughts instinctively go whenever we think of a complete and satisfying life, a life in which there is joined an abounding sympath\-, a deep wisdom, and a pro- found devotion to the service of mankind. if you care to take the time to do so, you can, while you are in this cit\-. go to the English High School, within a few blocks of this hall where we are meeting, and see there another statue, also the work of the great sculp- tor I have named. This second statue, dedicated only a few nights ago, was the gift of an alumnus to that school, the oldest free public English High School in America. When you see that statue, you will see the like- ness of a lad going, with the blessings of his Alma Mater, into the joys and storms of life. Upon the still immature face of this lad are the signs of the hope and the ambition that fire his youthful heart and brain. The figure of the fostering mother, as she stands behind him to give her bless- ing, bears a shield which she is about to bestow upon the youth. Upon that shield are six simple words, which I leave with you, as she leaves them with him, believing them to be so powerful in their significance, so protective in their character, so safe in their dependability, that whether business man, or citizen, or parent, one could ask no better guide of youth. The words are these: "Be clean; be courteous; be square." My friends, analyze those words, think deeply into their significance, and I believe you will find therein something that may guide you in your teaching, not onl\- for business, for higher education, for the home or for citizenship, but in- deed for all the relationships of life. THE SECONDARY SCHOOL PROVIDES EXTRJXCE RE- QUIREMENTS TOR THE HOME MRS. A. \{. Ri:i:VH. PRESIDENT, NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND lEACHERS, PHILADELPHIA, PA. If by some strange chance, not a vestige of us descended to the remote future save a pile of our schoolbooks or some college examination papers, we ma\ imagine how puzzled an antiquarian of the period would be on finding in them no indication that the learners were ever likeh to be par- ents. "This must have been the curriculum for their celibates." we may fancy him concluding. "I perceive here an elaborate preparation for many things: especialh from reading the books of extinct nations and of co- 20 National Education Association existing nations (from which, indeed, it seems clear that these people had very little worth reading in their own tongue) ; but 1 find no reference whatever to the bringing up of children. They could not have been so absurd as to omit all training for this gravest of responsibilities. Evidently, then, this was the school course of one of their monastic orders." Since the day when Herbert Spencer wrote these words the world has been moving toward an improvement in the situation which he outlines. As is always the case, the mass moves more slowly than the individual, but the scouts show the direction which will be followed by the army, and from their appearance in this new territory of the home we are encouraged to look for its ultimate occupation by large divisions of the educational expeditionary force. The home has been called the training school for life. Today a fierce light is being turned upon it, but too generally, as Mark Twain says about the weather, everybody talks about it but nobody does anything. To teach, to preach, to practice medicine, to wire a house or install its plumbing, a man or woman must have training, experience, and a license. Mentally, morally, physically, the state safeguards its citizens in all but the one most important item. To found a home, to become parents, to make or mar a child, it is only necessary to be man and woman, untrained, uncertificated, in abysmal ignorance, wasting the money of the taxpayer by placing upon the community unfair burdens because of lack of the most elementary ac- quaintance with the rules of physical and mental hygiene. Yet in all other civic relationships, "ignorance of the law excuses no man." A tremendous wave of socalled parental education is sweeping over the country, but there is grave danger that like a wave it will recede, leaving behind it at the worst some wreckage and at the best, dry land. Parental instruction would more nearly describe the movement and therein lies the cause for thought. What is needed in this field is irrigation, not inunda- tion. We have almost reached the saturation point for information ; the demand now is for reaction — definite returns for intensive cultivation. We are not considering today the education of today's parents; that, as Kipling says, is another story. But from what we have learned of the need for it should be drawn the requirements for the proper education of the parents of tomorrow, if we are to achieve our objective of worthy home membership and its corollary, worthy homes in which to exercise it. From the demands of these parents, who come in droves, seeking enlight- enment wherever it may be offered material may be gathered to build the curriculum for the generation now within reach of the direct influence of high school and college. Alas that there are so few to profit by the knowledge thus gained! Two hundred and sixty thousand young women in college, 2,500,000 in high school, as compared with 11,000,000 in the elementary grades who make up the vast majority of the 26,000,000 girls and women now engaged in household occupations. "Education is effective only when it results in new or changed habits of thought and action.". Department of Superintendence 21 With this aim in view home entrance requirements may be grouped under two heads: First, how to live in a home; second, how to operate a home. And the one is as essential as the other. To meet these requirements a three-fold system of training is demanded — personal, social, commercial, for a home is fundamentally a business partnership, and bad management is the reef on which most of the wrecks which we deplore have come to grief. It is inefficiency, not poverty, which drives love out of the window! Under the personal heading may be grouped: Health, mental as well as physical ; good relationships w ith those within the home and with all those whose business brings them in contact with it ; a broad sympathy with the idiosyncrasies of such a heterogeneous assemblage as is found under the roof of the average home. The word sympathy rather than the more common term, tolerance, is used advisedly, for toleration con- notes the idea of endurance, and there is far too much of that spirit in the attitude of the splendidly self-confident young generation which does not suffer parents gladly. Boys and girls trained to a recognition of the fact that a long line of ancestors have contributed to this family group, here a trait and there a characteristic; here a peculiarity and there a virtue, but to everyone something of each ; the expression of a tribal spirit, will come into an appreciation of the continuity of this clan to which they belong and a pride in carrying it one step further up the line of progress. Youth must come to see itself, not as the center of a special little cosmos all its own, but as an infinitesimally small but important link in an endless chain to whose strength they may make a worthy contribution or to whose weakness they directly contribute. It is necessary to get away from the old idea that a family's responsibility to its members hinges upon parental and filial affection. Too many widely differing ancestors are in each one of us for the ties of love as a duty to be relied upon entirely. In the family, moreover, we have so many close-ups ; every flaw, every roughness becomes visible. There is need to cultivate family loyalty, to restore to everyday use some of that lost tribal feeling which will hold fast when the family tie has been worn thin by "love's minor frictions." The tendency of recent years has been toward an exaggeration of indi- viduality. Mass education has yielded to that of the individual, but as is always the case, the swing of the pendulum has carried us too far; we need to come back to an equidistant center for a right balance — not the mass, not the unit but the link in the chain; responsibility of parents for their children, responsibility of those children in their turn for the men and women who are to follow them. The day of the crowd has gone ; the day of the unit can never be, for it is a truth that no man liveth unto himself alone. The era of cooperative ex- istence is dawning. Of all the dangers facing youth in this our day by far the worst is this isolation of the ego, leading as it does to unlimited evil, to selfishness raised to the nth degree, to selfsufficiency, to selfdevelop- ment at the expense of all who may stand in the way. As in nations, so 22 National Education Association in humanity. Liberty without law becomes license; selfexpression without self adjustment to environment becomes pernicious activity. So the second type of essential traininji, the social, calls for the dis- cipline of heredity in order that man may live in a world of men and for the recognition of human relationships as vital factors in that education which goes so much deeper than mere instruction. Here the social training which is being given by the school must be supplemented by a cooperative home, and because of the opportunity for the school to individualize, by still fur- ther development in the community. As a rule the average school boy or girl of today is mannerless — to put it mildly (though a negative description seldom covers the condition) because thinking more of maintaining his or her position in the crowd, of asserting a right to a place in the sun, than of making conditions more agreeable when out of the school atmosphere. On the streets, in the cars, in hotels, restaurants, theaters, youth from the average American home is loud voiced, loud-laughing, aggressive, lacking in the elements of courtesy, pushing in or out, rushing to secure the best seats, dramatizing its personality for the benefit of all observers. Yet these same boys and girls, when within the confines of school, may appear unobjectionable, reserving for outside display the effects of a system faulty because in home and school it relies upon instruction, usually years too late, to secure the observation of certain regulations under certain con- ditions, instead of developing from the earliest years the fine flower of natural good manners. There is need of a sound criterion which will serve as a standard equally applicable wherever conduct has to do with the comfort or well-being of others. Under social requirements in the broader sense of the word, enters also the need for a cooperative civic attitude which will result in a continued relationship to the school, no longer as pupil but as patron of that insti- tution which more than any other save the home, is developing the future citizens of the community in which the graduate scholar is now taking a place. Equal educational opportunity for all children everywhere will come only when all citizens — not educators alone — awaken to a sense of their responsibilit\- for the school as a community undertaking, fully as im- portant as good roads, a pure water supply and adequate police and fire pro- tection. Those of us who, strong in our belief in the value of education, are engaged in the business of selling it to the American public, teaching men and women to know their schools years after they have left school days behind them, know how much easier would have been our task if this had been done in the impressionable period and had become a habit of thought instead of a new enterprise. A similarly cooperative attitude to- ward community' health and community safety should be a part of this training. From such thought-habits would result better housing condi- tions, adequate recreational facilities for rich and poor alike, and a re- duced accident record, on the sound old princiiile that prevention is better than cure. Defar'imI'Nt of Superintendence 23 Out of ever\- one hundred children, accordin^^ to Dr. Goddard, ten go to hijih school and three graduate from it. If these things are fundamental — and we helieve that they are — two remedies suggest themselves to meet the present situation. The teaching ot home entrance requirements must he moved hack ultimately within reach ( f the 70 percent who leave school in the seventh grade and the 40 percent who stay through the eighth, but as a step in the right direction, let them he made a part of the curriculum of the junior high school with the least possible delay. The second remedy is to reach the average boy and girl and their parents and impress them with the importance and more, with the sound economic value of an education continued through at least two years beyond the grades. Only between 30 and 40 percent o£ the tremendous drop from grade school to college can be accounted for by economic necessity. Lack of interest in what the school offers and the desire for a moderate financial independence are the other causes assigned. But there is little use in setting forth a table when there are no guests. When the feast is spread there must be those who will go out into the highways and the hedges and compel them to come in. The third requirement is commercial training. Worthy home member- ship demands business ability. Youths who will spend several years as office boys, clerks, mere writing machines, are taught to keep books for the commercial concern which may employ them, but how much preparation do they receive for the keeping of household accounts, the dividing and budgeting of an income? Does the average young man leave high school or even college with a clear understanding of the cost of living and the proper use of the salary necessary to support a home, a wife and children? Yet he is likely to enter that business as soon as he obtains a position in another, and where else, unless in the hard and bitter school of experience, will he learn the rules? What does he know of renting vs. buying, of upkeep vs. taxes and interest? What idea has he of all the other items of the home budget — clothing, the margin for doctors both medical and dental, equipment and insurance, and the minus sign which will usually appear in the space allotted to amusement? Manual training may have fitted him to build a bookstand or construct a table, but it is not probable that he as a householder, with a position to fill and a family to support, will make from blueprints the furniture which he may purchase outright as he needs it or which may be acquired all too readily on the installment plan. Rarely does school or college give the \()ung-man-about-to-be-married — and the majority fall into that class — the ability to save money by making his own repairs. To this rule there is a shining exception ; there may be many of them. 1 hope so. The Irving Junior High School of Lincoln. Nebraska, meets home requirements in a most practical manner. The parents are requested to send to the school a list of the skills which would be most helpful in the home, and upon these lists is the curriculum based; locks and hinges that will not work, cracks in the plaster, door bells and buzzers that refuse to function, broken panes 24 National Education Association of glass, leaking faucets, coppers in need of solder, and in addition, such carpentry as will assure the repair of broken floor boards, furniture and window screens are provided in a "model" house in the manual training de- partment. With the first list comes another, giving the tools to be found in each home, and the boys are taught the use and the care of them, thereby contributing to the mechanical as well as the financial maintenance of the family partnership. The young woman who graduates into the home is somewhat better equipped, as our present system goes. She has been given a course, more or less thorough, in sewing, cooking and the chemistry of foods. In some instances she has had opportunity to furnish a room or two in a home eco- nomics flat or a practice cottage. Under extraordinarily favorable condi- tions she may have attended a nursery school and observed and under careful supervision, given some care to a preschool child. If a college gradu- ate— that is, if she is one and a half in a thousand — she may have received instruction in psychology, sociology, biology — advanced terms these for the primal necessities of worthy home membership! That which is required to meet a universal need is obtainable only under special conditions by the pitifully small minority. The one-room school, the ordinary classrooms offer instruction in arithmetic and algebra, in history and geography, in what is called English — for want of a better term — and even in languages, some living, some dead. But it must be a truly superior school which is equipped to fit the boy or girl for life as he or she will find it as they finally pass the threshold. When men and women are at grips with living, a de- mand is made upon education which it is not yet prepared to meet. The ability to analyze "Paradise Lost" will not bring paradise regained to a home where ignorance and irresponsibility have played havoc with its very foundations. Education must eventually include the expert direction of home projects. As yet there is too much talking and too little doing, under average conditions. When we are fully awake to the futility of lecturing anyone into good habits a better system will result. In the preschool years the child learns through activity, and human nature does not change very much with the passage of years. We still learn best the thing we do. When shall we be able to break the shackles of years, and allow some of the "cultural" studies to await the later stages of education, giving more time in the earlier years to those great fundamentals, right living and the de- velopment of intelligence? When a young mind has been trained to exer- cise itself, it will take its needed exercise. The girl who has learned — really learned — the mathematics of the home budget, of buying and saving to spend wisely, the chemistry of right feeding for a varied family group, the biology of human life, will have sense enough, if she is worthy of higher education, to seek it, and when found, to make use of it, especially if — and here make note — she has also been taught that school is only the opening of the door to education, and that when she has finished school she is in some degree prepared to learn something. Few more pernicious doctrines Department of Superintendence 25 have been taught than that which terminates education on Commencement Day. This applies equally to boys, for what is the value, in business or profession, of the callow fledgling, fresh from high school or college, except insofar as those institutions may have equipped him to learn ? His chief function would seem to be to discipline into selfcontrol those who have to begin his real education. This is especially true of the entrant into the home. The wisest theories explode into thin air when the graduate husband or wife faces the weekly deficit, a series of culinary disasters, or a disposition undreamed of in the idol of dreams. The most technically perfect of domestic science instructors may fail to equip her pupils to deal simultaneously with a wailing baby, an omnipresent runabout, and a man desperately anxious to have his breakfast and be off to the day's work. There is no question as to the value of the knowledge of the expert, the trained teacher, the laboratory product, whose experience is founded upon certain- ties, but in the home are to be found not ideal but real conditions, varied as no classroom instruction can possibly vary. To do this is still not enough. The mental attitude is yet more important, the spiritual reaction to the countless little nagging worries and cares which often are so much worse than the disasters which call at once upon the high, heroic strain ; the "total depravity of inanimate things," the mental traits which are harder to deal with than a smoky lamp or a stubborn stove or even a crying infant, call for spiritual as well as mental education, a type which, under the name of character education, has been called into service by those who have climbed the heights and have seen the Promised Land. In the curriculum of the future there should be provided opportunity for lectures from field workers; and by field workers, I mean successful home makers, male and female, men and women who have met all these enemies to domestic peace, have fought them with the weapons of hardly earned experience and of common sense which has survived the most fiery trials and has remained to assure the stabiHty of that greatest of all educa- tional institutions, the worthy home. But upon the school alone this burden cannot be laid. Upon the home must fall a due share of responsibility. If the schools are to teach worthy home membership, the home must provide a worthy field in which to exercise it. The habits of years are not easily changed, yet something may be hoped for if this movement for parental education is recognized by the schools and linked closely to their teaching. If the parents of today car be brought to meet the teachers upon the basis of this objective, we may look for a Renaissance in the world of the home. To learn is to acquire a way of behaving. The instruction which is given is in too many cases ephemeral. It is "part of the course," not an essential of living. When we shall have eliminated the "domestic" and the "economics" from the familiar terms and have as a result a course equally applicable to boys and girls without loss of masculine dignity under the title "Home Science" we may take a step toward the better appreciation of the home partrerchin. 26 Naiioxai. Education Association English is being taught in the schools both high and low in the hope that in the years to come the students will continue to read the best in prose and verse. Of course they do not do it ; witness the news stands, the cheap novels, the motion picture crowds, the 7,000,000 copies of sex and confession magazines sold monthly. The youths who have been taught gentleness and courtesy, simplicity and taste, sound health, both physical and mental, will, if they have learned these things automatically avoid the tawdry in art, in literature, in film and drama. If on the other hand they are led to believe that Homer and Milton have set an eternal standard of good literature and they do not like the "Odyssey" and 'Comus," they will turn to those things which are within their compre- hension and their evaluation of life ^^'ill be created by their reading, instead of their reading resulting from a high and fine attitude toward iiving. Are \()ung women sent out from school today filled with a desire to learn more and yet more of home science ? Are they supplied with book lists, encouraged to form clubs to keep it up as a fascinating study for which an insistent demand may be met at any turn of the road? No; they have "taken" home economics and the attack is over when they have "finished school." They go into society, into business, into teaching and when the necessity arises, there is a desperate effort to recall some of the elements of their school da>s. I do not decry Latin ; it is a noble tongue and a very mine of wealth to those who know how to profit by it. But I have wondered why it has cast into the discard the ancient study of etymology in which lay the core of the value of Latin to the non-college-seeking youth, giving as it did the sources of our English tongue, the beauty of ^'aried expression, the richness of synonym, all in simple language, and taught in the years when memory seized and inscribed as upon tablets of brass all those things ^^•hich were presented to the child- ish mind. 1 have heard classes in French and in Spanish, but I have never heard a pupil speak as a result of those classes, and those who have gradu- ated in those subjects sa\' sheepishly upon interrogation, "Oh yes, 1 took French, but 1 can't talk it." Mental discipline? Perhaps; but why not useful discipline ? Too much of our finest educational program is planned for the ideal, rather than the real school, the exceptional rather than the average teacher. Light is coming, but we are allowing it to find its way through the chinks instead of opening the windows. In a recent stud\' made in Massachusetts of 400 problem children, it was found that four-fifths of them had failed to receive what a normal home should give them. Flighty-three percent received from their parents no teaching as to what constitutes right or wrong behavior. And these were not from homes of poverty. We are faced by such facts as these ; of the 2,000,000 men drafted in the great war, onl\- 30 percent had passed beyond the sixtii grade. The average mental age of the country Dlil'ARTMliM OF Sui'KRIN TliNUIiNCl- 27 is thirteen >cars. One million j^irls are married each \ear. Arc we giving in our secondary schools the teaching which will deal with these facts? We have considered brieHy the matter of home entrance requirements. Shall we lay it upon the shelf with many other thoughts, as being some- thing to which at some future time we may refer, or shall we endeavor by united action to meet these demands, if we admit that they are sound and within reason ? To attack an evil at only one point is to postpone indefinitely the day of its eradication. There are four points at which a simultaneous advance should be made : The school system ; the domestic science course ; the home of today ; the teacher-training classes. The school system is in your hands. Separate necessities from special- ties and luxuries. Teach all of the children the things which all must know in order to meet life successfully as well as to make a living, and teach special children the things which they are fitted and eager to learn. The domestic science course must give the concrete, but must not leave the abstract untaught. Emphasize the spirit of the home as well as its body and mind. Use every possible channel to reach the parents of this and the closely following generations. In plain and simple language, set before them as coworkers their duties and responsibilities. Call upon them to work with you, and then in your turn work with them, not in a world of your own, separated b\- the barrier which your erudition and your position have set up. Tell the coming teachers the plain facts of the situation. While they are being trained, make them see not only the technic but the great spirit of education. Face squarely the responsibility of sending out unequipped teachers. They are far more deadly than ignorant doctors who may slay the body. The moral influence of the teacher, like that of the parent, may save or slay an immortal soul. Again the home must be reckoned with. The public, which is the assemblage of the homes, must be made aware of this danger of poor teaching. When they have realized this, the majority will demand and will be willing to pay for the best, and your problem will be in a fair way to solution. Hut speak to the people in terms which they can under- stand. Make them conscious of your desire to make better schools for their children, and they in their turn will strive to make better homes, so that together we ma\' build a better nation in the years that are to come. ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR CITIZENSHIP JEREMIAH E. BURKE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BOSTON, MASS. The early pioneers of New England were the spirit of civil liberty incar- nate. No sooner hail tlie\ landed upon these rockbound shores than they proceeded to establish a go\ ernment of the people. I'he town meeting still persists as the purest type of local selfgovernment that the world has ever known. Rut the forefathers were not merel\- idealists, thev were far-seeing 28 National Education Association statesmen. They knew that absolutism flourishes in illiteracy, but that an unenlightened democracy shall fall. They foresaw that if freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of worship, and trial by jury are to abide; if free men are to counsel, make just decisions and rule wisely — then the electorate must be intelligent and virtuous, as well as free. In order that the ideal they cherished might be shielded and defended, these nation-founders placed Liberty under the guardianship of law. Hence the oft repeated truism, "Obedience to law is liberty." And then to insure the inviolability of civil liberty and the perpetuity of government under law, they created the free public school, "New England's fairest boast." The school thus became the bulwark and support of popular gov- ernment. It would be stupid to declare that free government is dependent wholly upon popular education. There are other powerful contributory forces; but it is significant that the chief agency sanctioned by the state for its own defense and perpetuity is universal and compulsory education. Therefore, popular education and democratic government are mutually interdependent, each deriving from the other elements of security and stability. The purpose of popular education is two-fold. It should enable every child or youth — regardless of his gifts or limitations — to rise to the very height of his capabilities and endowments and then to become a citizen of power in the service of the Commonwealth. In this definition, I advisedly place the child before the state. Both as a human being and as a future citizen, he possesses certain indefeasible rights which the state must recog- nize and foster. At the same time, next to worship of his Maker, a citizen owes unreserved fealty to his country, its institutions, and its laws. This re- ciprocal relation of citizen to state, therefore, is intimate and protective. The great teachers have differed little in their interpretation of the objectives of education. Invariably they have insisted upon a symmetrical development. They never advocated an intellectual aristocracy ; they realized that unless it is accompanied by the cultivation of the child's spiritual nature, the training of the intellect is "as sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal." Unquestionably these leaders exalted the intellect, but they always sounded warnings against its training at the sacrifice of natural and spiri- tual endowments. They repeatedly asserted that sharpening the intellect without at the same time wisely developing spiritual qualities, tended to produce cunning knaves and rascals to become a perpetual menace to society. Unfortunately, there has arisen an inclination to apotheosize the intellect and thereby obscure other faculties. In consequence, sensibility and will have come to be regarded as relatively unimportant. Such a theory of edu- cation is indefensible. The heart frequently leads us aright when the head appears to go wrong. On the other hand, passion frequently dethrones reason and the individual plunges into danger or sin. No program of edu- cation for citizenship is complete or justifiable therefore which fails to Department of Superintendence 29 emphasize strongl\ the important role pla_\cd by the emotions in the shaping of human life and civic conduct. The emotions can no longer be consid- ered as forbidden topics, dissociated from the realm of legitimate pedagogy. The emotions must not he suppressed ; rather they must be controlled, and directed to serve their lofty purposes. Dominated by the will, which in turn should be subservient to conscience, they should contribute toward the perfecting of Huxley's educated man, "whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant of a tender conscience." The Puritan forefathers believed that they had reconciled the various educational complexities — intellectual, emotional, moral, and spiritual — and thus had insured a virtuous citizenship, by making religious instruction an integral part of the public school's curriculum. Such a program was unob- jectionable and practicable so long as communities were denominationally homogeneous and the closest union existed between church and state. But it was unable to resist the onward march of events. With the advent of heterogeneous populations came the disestablishment of church and state and the secularization of education. Not only has the teaching of religion been swept away, but in many instances instruction in the moral and civic virtues, and consequently in good citizenship, has been relegated to a subor- dinate place. It is a serious question whether the centrifugal force of these rapidly revolving wheels of progress has not hurled us out of our true pro- portions. Whatever be our personal points of view, however, there are certain facts which cannot be disregarded. We, engaged in the field of popular education, are not privileged to teach whatever we may choose ; upon us are imposed either by custom or by statute law, certain well-defined limitations. In the present day public schools, we cannot teach religion. Such instruction is reserved for the home, the church, and religious teachers. Nevertheless, sjnce moral instruc- tion is indispensable to good government, teachers and administrators have very distinct obligations. Indeed, there exists in Massachusetts an ancient statute which is mandatory and unequivocable in its insistence upon moral training in our schools as a preparation for citizenship. It reads as follows: All instructors of youth shall exert their best endeavors to impress on the minds of children and youths committed to their care and instruction the principles of piety and justice and a sacred regard for truth, love of their country, humanity and universal benevolence, sobriety, industry and frugality, chastity, moderation and temperance, and those other virtues which are the ornament of human societ}' and the basis upon which a republican constitution is founded. It is, therefore, the child's right — it is his educational heritage — to pos- sess these virtues as a touchstone to which all his thoughts and all his actions may be subjected. If he has these qualities deeply imbedded in his heart, if he possesses them as a vital part of his very being, then he may err for a time and wander far afield, but drawn back inevitably will he be by an irresistible impulse, by a centripetal force, back to safe spiritual anchorage. The welfare of the child and the welfare of society, therefore, equally demand the cultivation of these moral and spiritual virtues. Denial 30 Natiokai. Education Association ot this pri\ik*y;c is to drhaud children and xouths of thcii indisputable educational heritaj2;e, it is to deprive democracy' of the fulfillment of its destiny. And this destiny will be thwarted insofar as the average citizen fails to practice habitualh- moral and civic virtues. For man and society are reciprocally interrelated. The citizen of char- acter is the foundation of good government. Conversely, the citizen with- out character is a menace to the state and for his delinquency society stands accused. Social righteousness depends upon individual morality. There is no such thing as collective virtue which can be practiced by a community whose members are not personally virtuous in any manner or degree. In- tegrity of life in each citizen is the only sure guarantee of worthy citi- zenship. It was such conclusions as the foregoing — with a consciousness of an imperative call for more intensified citizenship training — that urged the school folk of Boston to prepare an epoch-making report entitled "Citizen- ship Through Character Development" which has for its essence and core the inculcation of natural and civic virtues. In this document which was approved as a course of study, a definite time allotment is assigned daily for the practice and exercise of these virtues under the guidance of the teachers. Thus character and citizenship training has been elevated de- servedly to a position of supereminence in all our school programs, elementary and secondary. At every point, all the machinery of the school is operating to produce a spiritual entity, an upright, honorable, and depend- able citizenship. Manifestly teachers always have regarded moral and civic instruction as the chiefest of their duties. All honor to those unselfish men and women whose illuminating personalities have been beacon lights to generations of youths! But for the most part, such instruction has been left to the initia- tive of individual teachers. Now the obligation is upon all, and all teach- ers must become equipped for this inspiring service. In consequence, a campaign of education has been inaugurated in Boston to collect material, organize instruction, develop skill, and formulate special technic of pro- cedure. Normal training schools, teachers colleges, and graduate schools of education everywhere might well cooperate in this missionary enterprise. It is unsafe to prophesy: but it is altogether likely in the future that public school teachers will be required to qualify for instruction in citizen- ship as thoroughly as they now prepare in so-called academic subjects. And it is wholly within the range of probability that power in the molding of civic virtues may become the chief criterion of the teacher's ability. Interwoven in the warp and woof of the Boston plan is the impelling conviction that a prerequisite to worth) citizenship is the possession and habitual practice of fundamental moral and civic virtues similar to those enumerated in the ancient statute of the Commonwealth. These then are the essential requirements demanded of ever>' youth who aspires to don the toya inrilis of American citizenship, and thereby join in tliis glorious venture for equality of rights and identity of responsibilities: Department of Suim:rintendence 31 I'irst ami toiciiiost, the \\(>rtli\ citi/x-ii iini>.t hv capalilc of (listinjj;iii^liin^ between ri^'lu and \\ lon^i, and must acciuire the habit of wiUin^ to do the right. He is clean in thought and word and deed; he practices self-control and self-denial; he has convictions and the courage of tiis convictions; he appreciates truth and has an established habit of speaking truthfully. Everv child should ha\e, during his school life, innumerable lessons in mental truth-seeking and truth-telling. He interprets freedom as opportunity for service, privilege to do the right. The worthy citizen is virtuous socially, as well as personally. While steadfast in maintaining his individual rights, he is obedient to regularly constituted authority; he has a keen sense of justice and respects all the rights of others; he has a proper sense of loyalty and is loyal to his family, his institutions, his community, his country, and his faith. Fair-minded and magnanimous, he is tolerant toward the opinions, be- liefs, and convictions of his fellow-citizens; he dispenses goodwill; he pro- motes the brotherhood of man ; "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." P.very citizen must be a public servant, performing meritorious deeds that add to the happiness of his fellow-citizens and promote the prosperity of his countr\. He should know through practice that it is more blessed to give than to receive. He should not be seeking governmental favors, but should be giving richly and freely to the state from the plentitude of his appreciation and gratitude. He should be able to exclaim with Othello: "1 have done the state some service, and they know it." What shall be the measure of a citizen's service? It shall be commen- surate with the gifts and endowments bestowed upon him by nature and b\ nature's God. One citizen has strength of arm, another brilliancy of intellect, and a third magnanimity of heart. To the extent that one pos- sesses these enrichments, he should dedicate them, to some extent at least, to the welfare of his fellow-men, the honor of the nation, and the glory of God. Y'ou are interested to know what are the fruits, the results of this ambi- tious and adventurous program, is it functioning? What are its ac- complishments?— are pertinent inquiries. We are laboring under no illusions. We appreciate fully the magnitude of our tasks, and are far from extravagant in our expectations. The results Howing from this work in character development — the very tap-root of good citizenship — are intangible and immeasurable as all spiritual reac- tions are. "Behind the visible work there is a work invisible." However, evidences of the effectiveness of (jur program, coming from parents, teach- ers and even from the pupils themselves, indicate quite conclusively that we are making noticeable and persistent gain in personal and civic honestw practice in truth-telling, effort to choose the right and reject the wrong, reverence for elders and superiors, respect for law and order and for others' rights and privileges, growth in moral judgments, and appreciation of spiritual \alues. 32 National Education Association It is particularly gratifying to record in many instances the development of a better civic virtue, of a finer collective spirit; in short, the dawning of an educated public sentiment. Pupils are beginning to assume responsibility for the good reputation of their school communities, and are learning the lesson paramount in a democ- racy, namely, the indispensableness of a high order of leadership and the moral purpose to select such leadership. A teacher writes: "I feel that the most distinct benefit from our work in citizenship is the formation of a new attitude of mind. The weight of public opinion (that is, what will my classmates think?), is manifestly on the side of right. Whereas a few years ago a boys' club generally would choose the most daring or most mischievous boy for their leader, the choice now falls to one who in the estimation of the class possesses desirable qualities as a citizen. I believe that the creation of public opinion that immediately condemns the slacker, the dishonest, the disobedient, and com- mends the praiseworthy and reliable is most vital, since in the final analysis it is public opinion that rules in democracy." The American people have been called upon to solve a problem — one of the most momentous and serious ever committed to mortals — the up-build- ing and perfecting of a free government with liberty and justice to all, under novel and untried conditions. The whole American people, in all the years of our nation's life, have wrought and sacrificed that this ideal might become realized. Fortunately, the exalted service of citizeship has been universal — denied to none, accepted by all. Nevertheless, it has been the peculiar privilege of the teachers to stand sentinel in holy places. In an especial manner the teachers of the nation are the keepers, not only of the intellect and sensibilities, but likewise of the will of our future citizens. Upon us are placed obligations and responsibilities of leadership which one cannot shirk and must not ignore. God grant that you and I and all of us may have the strength, the fortitude, and the grace so to apply our- selves unto wisdom that those who look to us for guidance may not be mis- directed but rather may find and cherish life's purest ideals — that they may be led into pathways that are straight and undeviating, along banks of streams that are transparent and undefiled, and upward toward the heights where immaculate peaks unerringly point the way to eternal truth, and universal justice, and everlasting love. DEMOCRACY IN EDUCATION vv. H. P. faunce^ president, brown university, providence. R. I. America, we commonly say, means democracy. But what is democracy? We rejoice that the World War abolished a goodly number of kings. The pomp and circumstance of royalty has become unpopular throughout the world. But in getting rid of kingship we may come under the domination of something worse. What is this democracy which seems to be in the ascendant in nearly all the leading nations of the twentieth century? Department of Superintendence 33 It 1 wanted to show any younj:; man or woman today the meaning of democracy, 1 would ask him or her to read first of all Lincoln's Gettysburg Address and then Emerson's Boston Hymn. Those two historic utterances have crystallized the experience of three centuries on this continent. Democracy, then, is freedom — not identity or similarity. Democracy does not mean leveling down, or leveling up, or any kind of leveling or standardizing process. It does not mean that one man is as good as another, but that all men are good enough to help in finding out who the best ones are. A public school \\hich produces in the course of ten years a few potential leaders of the state or the nation is far more democratic than one which merely enables thousands to read and write and cipher and to live respectable but stupid lives. Boys and girls are no more alike in their ability to devise, administer and create than they are in the color of their eyes and hair. When all men grow six feet tall, all may develop the same brain power and the same heart power. "Unto one He gave five talents, to another two, to another one." Some of the timber that is floated down from the forests of northern Maine to the sea is made into the masts of seagoing vessels, some into chairs and tables and some into toothpicks. You cannot make seaworthy masts out of toothpick timber. When Mr. Ford makes an auto, all the parts are interchangeable; when Nature grows a flower, no parts can be interchanged ; and when we grow men and women no two are like or ever will be alike through all the ages. We do not mould human beings as we make silver forks and spoons by a heavy weight descending on the child and stamping child nature into some desired pattern. The children that give us the most trouble may be pre- cisely those most worth educating. It is the top and the bottom of the class that are the most interesting and challenging portion of the school, precisely because those pupils decline to conform! So democracy should not mean mediocrity. European lands have always distrusted America as the land where excellence is unpopular, and now America is happily beginning to perceive and criticize its own surrender to the fatal average. Our magazines are filled with self-criticism and our fiction shows us that a civilization which exalts a Babbitt or an Elmer Gan try has yet much to learn. The majority may easily become the mob, and the saving remnant be engulfed. In a republic there is constant danger that the least sensitive and delicate minds will dominate the situation and impose their standards on their superiors in discernment and character. In the moving picture industry we have one of the greatest instruments for the possible education of the people ever devised. It may be so used as to bring all the famous cities of the world, all the historic shrines, all the inventive processes, all the leading personalities and events of our time before the eyes of the humblest worker in a New England factory or Colorado mining camp. And that agency of democracy has fallen largely into the hands of shrewd, unscrupulous managers who fear not God nor regard man. It has become in many quarters the means of coarsening the 34 National Education Association liber, dulling the sensibilities and A\Gakcning the conscience of the young people of America. Happily another agent of democracy, the revolving disk for reproducing music, has fallen into better hands, and our musical records bring us not only the blare and vulgarity of jazz, but the finest symphonies and the sweetest voices of our generation. Yet when we have a choice of pictures or records, frequently the spirit of a school or a college is such as to frown on the best and practically exclude it from presentation. In the house of a college fraternity 1 have seen two or three students who insisted that what they called "high-brow stuff" should not be heard and that only songs suited for the cabaret should be allowed. Recently, speaking at a certain college, I ventured to quote a sonnet of Shakespeare that has been precious to me for many years. At the close of the address as the assembly was dispersing, a shame-faced student showed me a copy of Shakespeare's sonnets which he carried in his inside pocket. He was reading it slyly in moments of leisure, but afraid to show it to his fellow students, who preferred the vulgar periodicals of the day. In that particular college the best was obliged to hide its head. Then democracy becomes hatred of excellence, and that hatred is found today in many schools and clubs and churches in America. The great danger in our schools is that they may be geared to the capacity of the average child, and there is no such creature. They should be geared to the discovery and training of leaders, in the confident conviction that most of our chil- dren may lead in something, and that the discovery of the boundless varie- ties of human ability wrapped up in the most prosaic and unpromising children makes the daily task of the teacher an adventure into the infinite far more alluring than any expedition in hunting and fishing, a true voyage of discovery in realms of gold. Democracy means, then, an equal chance for unequal minds. Every tree in the forest should have an opportunity for air and sunlight, and every human being is an unknown quantity, an A' that should have a chance to become X nth power. Democracy means the transcending of all distinc- tions of race, creed, occupation, or possession. When a school or college confines its pupils to the children of the rich only, it is forgetting what democracy is. But if it limits its students to. the followers of one religious creed, or one racial origin, it is equally un-American. The supreme ques- tion about any student is not where he came from, but where he is going to, not who his father or mother were, but what he, himself, is and may be- come. When we are, through the educational process, thus discovering and building men and women we need envy no engineer or architect in the world. We may feel as did the French artist, who used to wake in the morning crying: "O what joy! — Another day in which to paint!" But if teachers are thus to have educational adventure, if they are to stimulate growth in pupils, they must be growing personalities themselves. Many a school system — unhappy phrase! — has stunted the teachers that it professes to train and has put a premium on acquiescence, conformity and Department of Superintendence 35 • routiiu'. Aii\ tiling like- originality or personal llaxor or individual (iiialit)' has been banished from some of our schools by the iron hand of a system which allows no free play to any man or woman. Yet when the graduates of any school come back for an anniversary or reunion, what do they talk about ? Not the buildings, not the curriculum — always about the teacher. What makes a teacher interesting? The fact that something is now hap- pening in the teacher's mind. She went to Europe last summer. She at- tended an extension course in some university. She climbed a mountain and went through a storm at sea. She has mastered a new author in English literature. She has become all aglow through a new study of the stars. The world is held back chiefly, not by bad men and women, but by good ones who have stopped growing. The most discouraging place I have ever visited was a certain normal school, where everything was arranged to re- press personality and exalt system, and where teachers were sent out annually who were icily regular, splendidly null. Such a school often exhibits to the casual visitor a long row of apathetic faces immune to intel- lectual enthusiasm. If a teacher loves English poetry, or history, or chem- istry, with unflagging appreciation, she will make her pupils love it by a happy contagion — even though she be ignorant of all the school laws of Massachusetts! The teacher is, then, the agent of the "state in preserving itself and creat- ing its own future. Education is not a charity, it is a part of the national defense. Fewer submarines and more high schools constitute the best program for defending America. I'he most useful studies are not those dealing with bread and butter, but those removing from the mind of youth its prejudices, its distorted views of other nations, its racial and religious hatreds. Nationalism and internationalism are not opposed. Without the international vision the citizen becomes a mere jingo or super-patriot. \Vithout devotion to his own country the internationalist is a drab dreamer, at home nowhere in particular. It is only the man of breadth of sympathy gained through education who can be a worthy citizen of his own country. A generation ago Kipling — surely a British patriot of intense zeal — wrote: "What should they know of England who only England know?" The true teacher has to deal not only with facts, but with values. Mad- ern science, to which we owe so much, which has virtually created our present civilization, is necessarily silent concerning values. It can tell us how to construct an automobile, but not how to use it or in what direction to travel. The purpose and the goal of life, the aims and ideals of a democratic world — to explain these and make them alluring through the educational process — that is the adventurous calling and the indispensable function of the teachers of America. 36 National Education Association THE INTER-AMERICAN IDEAL THOMAS E. BENNER, CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PORTO RICO RIO PIEDRAS, P. R. During the brief sessions of the recent great Pan-American Congress in Cuba, the world was given a glimpse of the difficulties and responsi- bilities which the Americas confront as they enter upon a new era in world history. During that era Spanish-speaking South and Central Amer- ica, dedicating its attention with a new efficiency to the development of its incalculable resources, is destined to a maturing and blossoming which will re-enact much of the history of the past century in the United States. This maturing and blossoming will be stunted and distorted — its fruit acrid and unpalatable, if not actually poisonous — unless there may be re- moved from the atmosphere in which it goes forward some, at least, of the uncertainty and distrust which have marked recent relationships among the republics of the Americas. We are, let me repeat, entering upon a new era in world history — an era which, for convenience, future historians may even date from the Cuban meeting of the Pan-American Union. The distinguishing phenom- enon of this period will be increasing domination of the world stage in international affairs among occidental nations by the relationships one to another and to the rest of the world of the several American republics. From the era which now draws near to its close, the era of European domination of world affairs, we of the Americas upon whose shoulders is about to fall the weight of world leadership have much to learn. We must learn, first of all, that internationally speaking the world is still in a period of primitive savagery. Nations have not been content even to exact an tyt for an eye or a tooth for a tooth. Of the offender and even of the innocent, they have sought life itself if national selfishness were accompanied by the national might which made such exaction possible. Until that fact is fully recognized no improvement can occur. There are good reasons why leadership in world politics on the part of the American nations is likely to bring about some amelioration of this state of international savagery. The American nations, taken as a vvtjole, are under-populated and under-developed. Their natural resources are sufficiently great to relieve them of the economic pressure which is the basis of European rivalries. Annie S. Peck, in her book Industrial and Commercial South America describes the situation in these words: Geographically Latin America and the United States are contiguous neighbors; politically they are much the same, with a similar form of government; com- mercially they have mutual and, for the most part, non-competitive markets. Their natural and material resources are complementary. The same is true of their culture, their philosophy of life and their prominent characteristics. These, however, are accidents of history; and in assuming the responsi- bilities of world leadership the Americas will have failed miserably if his- torians in future centuries are compelled to report that only accidental Department of Superintendence 37 contributions to international stability have been made by the western hemisphere. Here is the tremendous difficulty. Man as an individual acts purposefully. In comparatively small groups, such for example as this great educational association, he strives collectively towards fairly well defined objectives. But mankind in those mass-forms which we know as nations seems scarcely more than a blindly squirming organism without much of purpose beyond selfpreservation and selfaggrandizement. Historical research during the past ten years has revealed, for instance, that the causes of the world war were far different from those originally assigned by the contending nations. It has shown, furthermore, that these causes were in fact at that time unknown and almost unknowable, so insidious was the working out of the blind forces which brought about this great catastrophe. A recent editorial in a great newspaper contained the following para- graphs: It is just eleven months since Secretary Kellogg appeared before a committee of the Senate and charged that a Bolshevist government in Mexico threatened the peace of the United States. The Mexican government which was a Bolshevist threat in January is the same Mexican government with which a new Ambassador has succeeded in establishing unusually cordial relations. And all Mexico is cheering Lindbergh. The change which is recorded by these facts is much more than a surface change. The flight of Lindbergh follows a series of events which indicate a real shift in sentiment and a thoroughgoing change in policy. The appointment of an American Ambassador to Mexico capable of appreciating a Mexican point of view has been followed by a decision of the Mexican Supreme Court interpreting the disputed oil laws in a manner favorable to the United States. Now comes Lindbergh's errand of goodwill and an amazing response in Mexico. Whence originated the impulses which led these two American nations so near to the brink of open rupture in the face of a genuine preference for peace on the part of both ? How explain the sudden revulsion of feeling which the quotation describes? It is another evidence of blind unintelligence concerning international relations that there are so many who glibly propose the name of "Wall Street" as the answer to unfriendly relations between the United States and the rest of the world. Yet a "Wall Street man" is appointed United States ambassador to Mexico and at once evidence of friendship and under- standing begin to appear where onl\' mistrust existed before! Let me repeat. Nations are not intelligent in their world relationships. It will be much better if that fact is faced, however much we deplore it. The.\- are blindly and stupidly sentimental and emotional. They cry and laugh at the achievements of a Lindbergh. They rage and storm over a minor and unintended discourtesy. They may be led by appeals to the heart but are indifferent to appeals to the intellect. A Wilson labors in Paris in the interests of high international ideals. He is ousted from his leadership and dies a broken man because his efforts 38 National Education Association make their appeal to the intellect and fail to stir the emotions of the people. Those who believe that the nations of the Americas, in the era of world leadership upon which they are entering, must make their contribution to the betterment of international relations will conclude, if they agree with this analjsis, that the upward-looking intellectual leadership of the Amer- icas must have the emotional support of the people or fail completely. To be of any enduring value such emotional support must be honestly aroused. It must not be the product of partisan propaganda. What should be the nature of this emotion which it is proposed to develop in the people of the United States as the only means of enabling our country to function constructively in inter-American affairs? Is it not the same reaction which impelled our forefathers in the infant days of our great nation out of "a decent respect for the opinions of mankind" to outline to the world the causes and aims of the program on which they were about to embark? Among individuals it would perhaps be described by the homely phrase: "A spirit of neighborliness." A concrete case will illustrate how it may be developed. As educators we are interested in education. We are not good neighbors of the educa- tors of Mexico, because we contrast their achievements with those which are commonplace in the most remote corners of the United States. Our training in the history of education because limited in its scope to the line of our educational inheritance, includes no mention of Mexico. We for- get that our system of public schools is the accidental product of the Luther reformation which taught that all must learn to read that they might, each for himself scan the scriptures and determine the way of salvation. We forget that since the Luther reformation has had little or no significance in the life of Mexico its accidental byproduct — a de- mand, springing from the people themselves, for education for all people — has never occurred. The educational leaders of Mexico are following a most interesting pro- gram which aims to build up such a demand. Official committees whose members are trained respectively in agriculture, education, public health and other important fields, are sent to the several centers of population where they devote a few weeks to lecturing on their several specialties and organizing the resulting interest before moving on to a new center. At a later date the committee returns to pbserve the effect of its program. If it finds that a nucleus of sufficiently interested people has resulted, it advises and directs this nucleus in handing on to the surrounding district the inspiration which has been received. This program, it is hoped, will lead eventually to a public hunger for better educational opportunities. Our knowledge of this enterprise and its purpose leads us to respect the Mexican educator and to admire his resourcefulness. And when we begin to respect and to admire we begin also to be friends and neigh- bors— to react emotionally where formerly we were indifferent. Department of Superintendence 39 Some of _\ou will recall the stor\' of the American husiness man who visited a South American republic where he was shown relics of the great liberator. Simon Bolivar. You will recall that he was moved to mention George Washington as the father of the North American republic. His guide, thoroughly familiar with the achievements of our great leader, replied: "But Bolivar was the father of many republics." The incredulous American, at last convinced, exclaimed, "Many! Why someone ought to write a book about him!" It would be in itself no small contribution to the building up of the right emotional attitude towards our neighbors of the south if every mem- ber of this great association might be induced to read one good biography of the great liberator. A brief quotation from his address to the congress of Angostura, delivered on February 15, 1819, will perhaps tempt your curiosity concerning him. As much as I admire the excellence of the federal Constitution of the United States, so much am I convinced that it is impossible to adopt that constitution in our state. To me it is a marvel that the Constitution of the United States has operated so successfully and has not been overthrown when the first em- barrassments or perils appeared. But the United States is a singular example of political virtue and moral rectitude. That nation has been cradled in liberty, has been nurtured in liberty, and has been maintained by pure liberty. I will add that the people of the United States are unique in the history of the human race. And I repeat: It is a marvel that a government so weak and complicated as the federal system should have endured under such difficult and delicate cir- cumstances as those which have existed in the United States. But whatever may be true in regard to the government, I must say with regard to the American peo- ple, that the idea never entered my head to consider as identical the characteristics of two people so different as the Anglo-American and the Spanish-American people. V\'ould it not be very difficult to apply to Spain the English system of political, civil, and religious liberty? It is even more difficult to adopt the laws of the United States in Venezuela. Does not I'Esprit des lots say that the laws should suit the people who make them? That it is a mere chance if the laws of one nation suit another nation? That laws should be adapted to the physiography of the country, to its extent, and to the manner of life of the in- habitants? That laws should be adapted to the degree of libert\' which the con- stitution can sanction, to the religion of the inhabitants, to their inclinations, riches, numbers, commerce, and manners? This is the code which we ought to consult and not the code of Washington. Bolivar, one hundred years ago, predicted accurately some of the in- evitable differences in governmental forms which we note today among the American nations. He recognized differences between North and South America and understood the reasons for these differences. He ad- mired the United States and we reciprocated that emotional reaction with an equal warmth. We \\ere then, perhaps, better neighbors to the peo- ples to the south than we are today. We, too, were still struggling to insure our new-found liberty. Now the United States has moved from its little cottage just of¥ of Main Street into the big fret-sawed mansion on the hill, with a cast-iron •+0 National Education Association fence about the well-kept lawns and cast-iron deer flanking the entrance walks. It is not as easy to be good neighbors as it was when we, too, worked for liberty in our shirt-sleeves and paused at noon to eat our lunch from a dinner pail. Is the picture a homely one ? The ideal which should be the contribu- tion of the Americas in the era on which we are embarked, the inter- American ideal to which the title of this paper refers, should be the homely ideal which we commonly call neighborliness. Would it be impertinent to suggest that our school readers might con- tain more stories from South American history, more stories of our com- radeship with the nations to the south in the era when we were nearer each other because of our common struggle for liberty, more translations of the poems, essays, and fiction of South American writers; or that our histories devote more attention to our relationships with these nations during our formative years as a nation ; or that more high schools and colleges offer instruction in Latin-American history and inter-American relations ; or that in our teacher-training institutions we give the future members of this association some slight conception of the educational pro- blems of our neighbor republics and the courageous efforts which their leaders have made and are making to create a popular demand for their solution? Might not this association decide to invite annually a small group of Latin-American educators to attend its meetings, not merely with the purpose of enabling these guests to hear the papers which may be delivered here, but also in order to give them an opportunity of acquaint- ing the educators of the United States with the educational accomplish- ments and hopes of their respective governments? This would not be propaganda. It would acquaint us with the facts with which we should be familiar if we would be good neighbors. A Latin-American educator with whom I recently discussed these mat- ters made the following comment : We of Latin-America are a sentimental people. You will answer that this is true of all nations. But it is an especially strong characteristic among us. If we could feel that the heart of the United States was warm and friendly to us, a great obstacle would be removed to closer understanding and to coopera- tion in the solution of problems of mutual interest. Porto Rico has offered an example from which we might learn. These Latin-American citizens of the United States, moulded by four hundred years of the Spanish tradition which is the common inheritance of Latin- America, and familiar with the institutions and policies of the United States of which they form a part and in which they have their citizen- ship, have done and are doing much to bring together the two great cul- tures of North and South America in mutual understanding and com- penetration. The republics of Panama, Colombia, Santo Domingo, Cuba, Venezuela, Peru, to give only a partial list, have from time to time sought trained leadership from Porto Rico — usually from among the graduates Department of Superintendence 41 of the University of Porto Rico. It has for many years been the con- scious and expressed aspiration of Porto Rico and of the University of Porto Rico to serve as a meeting ground of the Anglo-Saxorv north and the Spanish south. Porto Rico understands Latin-America. Porto Rico understands the United States. And that understanding makes her im- portant despite her small area and her low per capita wealth. "Balance of power," the matching of hate against hate, fear against fear, selfishness against selfishness, is the contribution of the dying era of European domination of world affairs. But Christ said, "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." If the first paragraph of this paper had proposed this teaching as a practical formula for the betterment of international relations you would, perhaps, have dismissed the idea as another millenial dream. Will you not now agree that these words best summarize that ideal which should be the great inter-American contribution to world history in the era just ahead, an ideal which furnishes the basis for the most practical of international programs ? THE FARMER AND THE FARMERS CHILD ADAM MC MULLEN^ GOVERNOR OF NEBRASKA, LINCOLN, NEBRASKA Massachusetts and Nebraska, representing respectively, we may say, the industrial and agricultural groups of our country, are interested mutu- ally in the welfare of the factory and the prosperity of the farm. Both states are producers of necessities and both are consumers ; each state de- pends on the other for source of supply. Both states are concerned alike in the even flow of trade and commerce and in the equitable operation of transportation and credit. Even though the basic resources of Massachusetts and Nebraska are distincth' different, their economic aims are identical. This is true of all states in all sections. If industry and agriculture were governed solely by natural laws there would be no dis- crepancy between them. It is the artificial law, if I may use that term, that permits the overdevelopment of one industry at the expense of an- other. It is man-made law that builds barriers between productive groups and prevents proper cooperation on equal terms. Many man-made laws conferring benefits on other activities have been denied to agriculture. As a result the farmer is handicapped in a business way and the farmer's child is discriminated against in an educational way. With our farming element composing one third of our total popula- tion and producing one third of our annual national wealth, it is unjust that the farmer should receive only eight percent of our national income. It is unjust that his dollar should have only four-fifths the purchasing power of every other dollar. And what is more to the point, it is repre- hensible that because the farmer possesses less economic strength than others, the farmer's child must be deprixed of educational advantages freely granted the children of the city. 42 National Education Association Agriculture has never been able to operate as a unit. That is its chief disadvantage. During the progress of the world war, industry and labor and other agencies became organized as never before. This was con- sidered necessary in order to meet the war demands of the government. Immediately following the armistice in the late fall of 1918, the adminis- tration issued a statement assuring the industries of the country that con- tracts for war supplies would be dealt with fairly in the settlement of their agreements. Agriculture, being unorganized, could not enter into agreements with the government. All it could do was to follow instruc- tions. Industry and labor and transportation could bargain for prices; agriculture had to take whatever was offered. Labor organizations, through Mr. Gompers, served notice that labor would insist upon retain- ing the advantage it had gained in recent years and would fight every at- tempt to modify the immigration laws or lower wages. Then at the first sign of post-war deflation congress passed emergency tariff legislation for industry and followed it with the Fordney-McCumber law. There- fore industry and labor were able to protect themselves through these legislative enactments. Agriculture, on the other hand, without effective organization, was forced to compete with foreign markets and accept un- protected prices for crops distributed through our export channels. The Transportation Act of 1920 guaranteed to the railroads that for six months from March 1, 1920, their earnings should be proportionately equal to the earnings guaranteed them under government control. To make this guarantee good, the railroads were paid from the treasury in round numbers $600,000,000. Furthermore, the Transportation Act in- structed the Interstate Commerce Commission, as a new rate-making rule, to prescribe rates sufficiently high as to earn a fair return on the aggregate value of the railroad property. No such protection was thrown around agriculture. In 1920 cash wheat sold for $2.50 per bushel and cash corn sold for $1.25; then in 1921, a year later, wheat brought only 90 cents per bushel and corn only 30 cents. With a sudden fluctuation of that magnitude, reaching all branches of the farming industry, as it did the grain crop farmer, sweeping away the investments of a lifetime — without warning and without hope of compensation^ — it requires no argument to show that there was no post-war guarantee to agriculture, as there was to the railroads, of a fair return on the aggregate value of farm land. The time has arrived to adopt a positive program for agriculture. With the farmer's dollar worth 80 cents — and on an average it has not been worth more than 80 cents since the deflation period started — as compared with the 100-cent dollar of other wealth producing agencies, he never can hope to find himself square with the world until something is done to give him an even chance in the markets of America. If farming de- clines until its profits become negligible, and it is not so far from that point at the present time, the farm population will decline proportionately and there will follow such a corresponding increase in the price of farm products that American manufactured goods will be unable to meet the Department of Superintendence 43 competition of other countries. American exports will decline because crop prices of the raw material entering into them will be hif^h. With a reduced farming population prices for crops to meet the demands of home consumption also will be high. With reduced export trade, labor will be less employed and wages will be lowered. The next step will require removing the tariff from farm products and allowing agricultural imports from foreign countries to destroy the value of the .American farm, PROGRESSIVE TENDENCIES WITH RESPECT TO SOURCES OF SCHOOL REVENUES FLETCHER HARPER SWIFT, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CALIF. There are three great needs in American education today as far as fi- nancing schools is concerned. The first of these needs is the need for more revenue. The second is equitable methods of distributing school funds. The third is an equitable method of providing school funds. The first and third are intimately related. Superintendent Cook of Maryland is going to discuss the second, as it is most fitting he should in view of the marvelous contributions Maryland has made to educational practice in the field of the distribution of school funds. The question arises at once, What evidence is there that we need money for our public schools? We are sometimes told by people who know only a portion of the facts that we are spending too much mone\- for our public schools. America has entered upon what is perhaps the most heroic as well as the most noble task in the history of the race in her at- tempt to amalgamate into one great republic people coming from all over the w^orld. This meeting and your presence here is a testimony to her great success in many aspects of her undertaking. America has far from succeeded in making a complete success. On every hand there are evidences that education is not free, is not universal, is not democratic. When I can tell you that in one of our states one-tenth of the teachers are given salaries of $300 or less per year, you do not feel like talking to me about our spending too much money on public schools. When I can tell you that in the report of that state superintendent of public instruction in grouping his teachers according to annual salaries he begins with his first division, teachers receiving $100 or less per year, his next division, $100 to $200, the next division $200 to $300, the next division $300 to $400, and in that state more than one-tenth are paid $300 or less per year, you cannot think they are spending too much money. When I tell you that in another state where I made a personal survey the average number of children in the classrooms was eighty, you will find they are not spending too much money for public schools. If I can take you out into a rural school in that state and show you 160 children enrolled in a one-teacher school, and this one-teacher school con- 44 National Education Association ducted in an old dilapidated store, the children sitting on the floor, with one book for every four children, you would perhaps not think that America is spending too much money for public schools. If you were to accompany me to the office of the county superintendent of schools who is about to enter upon his day's task of visiting rural schools, you would not think that America was spending too much money on pub- lic schools. He had bis material spread out upon the table. He was to take these materials around to rural schools. I noticed there was quite a marked difference between the materials at one end of the table and at the other end of the table. I asked him why this difference. He looked at me in rather a queer way and said, "Don't you understand? The things at this end of the table are for the teachers who can read and write." I can see no reason why half of the teachers in that state should read and write, for that is a state where many rural teachers have enrolments of 160 pupils, where there is one book for every three or four children, where the children recite out loud and the child who sits in the center of the room has his book upside down or right side up or back side forward or inside out or outside in and shouts words which he thinks sound good. I could go on with this story and I think we can marshal all the evi- dence before us and we will conclude that there is great need in the United States today for more money for public schools. When you realize that there are thirty million children in the United States between the ages of five and seventeen and that five million of these are not enrolled in school and that on any particular school day five million more are not in school attendance, you know that every day in the United States one- third of the children are not at school and one-half of one-third have no chance of going to school. When you realize that in the mountain regions of Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, and North Carolina it is stated that there are two million children and twenty-five thousand of them in school, and these are pre-Revolutionary stock, you begin to ask yourself whether we need any more money for schools or whether it is true, as some try to maintain, that America is spending too much money on public schools and must curtail her expenditures. I must now pass to the second topic, that is progressive tendencies with respect to state school revenues. The most widely used source of school revenues in the United States today is the general property tax, the tax on real estate and on personal property. There are twenty-one states which levy such taxes for school purposes. In seven states it is the only type of tax levied. The remaining fourteen states levy other taxes as well for public schools. Those of you who have looked into the matter at all know that every state tax commission as well as every student of the state taxation has condemned the general property tax in no unstinted terms. The Georgia Department of Superintendence 45 Tax Commission declareil that the general propert)' tax was a failure and recommended graduated income taxes, graduated inheritance taxes, and graduated taxes on privileges and occupations. The Ohio Tax Commission summed up the situation by saying that the general property tax punishes the honest, rewards the dishonest, re- sults in double taxation, lowers the standard of public integrity. Professor Seligman says it puts a premium on dishonesty and debauches the public conscience ; it imposes double taxation on one man and grants entire immunity to another. It is so flagrantly inequitable that its reten- tion can be explained only through ignorance or inertia. We are, there- fore, very much interested with respect to what our states are doing re- garding the general property tax. The first thing we note is that there is a tendency in some quarters at least to abolish the general property tax as a source of school revenue. Virginia, in 1925, occupied the position of levying the heaviest general property school tax in the United States. She levied a state tax of five mills. The legislature in Virginia in 1927 abolished the general property tax as a tax for schools and substituted in its place corporation taxes, severance taxes and inheritance taxes. California, as long ago as 1911, took measures to abolish the general property tax as a state tax, and like Virginia, segregated general property or real estate for local taxation. North Carolina in 1918 created her income tax. There is nothing in the North Carolina law to indicate that this was created as a school tax, but all the history of the case shows very definitely that the income tax in North Carolina was provided in order to furnish state school revenue, and, furthermore, with the creation of that tax and the levy and collection of that tax. North Carolina discontinued entirely her state general property tax for schools. Nebraska provides in her laws for a state general property tax for schools but has levied no such tax since 1906. Ohio discontinued her general property tax in 1922 as far as a tax for furnishing state school revenue. We see, then, throughout the country a v^ry marked tendency to act upon the findings of these state commissions and of these students of tax- ation and to abolish as a state tax the general property tax and to substi- tute other types of taxes for it. The most universally employed method of levying general property taxes is to levy a tax of a certain number of mills. Minnesota has a state tax for schools of one mill. Other states have two mills; some states have three mills. The difficulty with that sort of a tax is that there is no guarantee that it will furnish the amount of money that is needed and yet, like most of our policies in taxation, whether we are talking about taxation in a gen- eral sense or public finance as affecting schools, the worse the method the more commonly \()u w ill find it employed. This is the worst type of gen- 46 National Education Association cral property tax there is, because it always results in the fund being pro- rated. Consequently, it is very encouraging to find a number of states doing away with this method of levying a general property tax or any tax of fixed rate. As long ago as 1916, Massachusetts enacted her state income tax. In 1919 she provided her general school fund by saying that there shall be set aside from the proceeds of the state income tax, not any particular amount, not any particular percent, but that there shall be annually set aside from the income of her state income tax whatever amount is neces- sary to meet the claims of the schools against the state. That is one of the most applicable, one of the most satisfactory methods of levying or provid- ing a tax. Other states have adopted the policy of providing that a state tax shall be levied sufficient to provide a certain amount of revenue per child. This is the policy followed in Arizona, Utah and Washington. In each of these states, the law provides that there shall be levied a tax suf- ficient, together with other funds, to provide twenty-five dollars per child in Arizona and in Utah and twenty dollars per child in the State of Washington. Still another method is to levy a tax sufficient not to provide any definite amount per child but sufficient with all other sources of state revenue to meet the claims of the budget. Massachusetts levies a tax of that character. Having made out the state budget, having determined what revenues will be received from other sources, she then provides that there shall be levied a state tax sufficient to meet any deficit in the budget. Delaware follows a similar policy. Another tendency which gives us encouragement and satisfaction is seeing the states undertaking to assume and guaranteeing to provide a definite proportion of the school revenue. If you look at the figures you will see that there has been a steady decrease in the proportion of the school burden by the states. On the other hand, if you go into the indi- vidual states you will find one state after another undertaking to pro- vide an increasing amount, and in the more progressive states, endeavor- ing to provide in many cases an increasing proportion of the school bur- den. Delaware offers the most interesting example in this respect. Hav- ing experimented with the district system and having become convinced of its incurable evils, Delaware abolished the district system and sub- stituted for it the county unit. Then Delaw'are reasoned that since the county unit was so much better than the district, why not adopt a state unit, so Delaware did away with counties as units and established a state system. In Delaware today schools are state supported as well as state controlled, and any of you have need only to turn over the reports for the last five years of the superintendent of public instruction of the state of Delaware to be convinced that this was a most wise step. I venture to prophesy the day will come when our schools in the ma- jority of our states will be supported by the state, and that this support Department of Superintendence 47 will cmer ;i miiiinnim projiram. To those of you to whom this may seem a new idea, I would su^^est that this is tlie method pursued in every state in Australia, that it is the method pursued in Hawaii, that it is the method pursued as far as teachers' salaries are concerned in most Con- tinental European countries. For generations in the United States great corporations have gone into states and have taken out of those states natural products. They have cut down forests, they have taken away vast fortunes of coal, oil, asphalt, clay and all sorts of mineral products. These corporations have never made any due return to the state for the wealth which was being taken from the state. More recently our states have awakened to the fact that those who take out these great fortunes ought to make some special return to the state and so there has arisen in the United States a new type of tax of great interest, the so-called severance tax, a tax which is levied upon all natural products severed from the soil, except agriculture. lx)uisiana was a pioneer in this movement, and Louisiana today levies a tax on oil and gas, three percent of the gross profits, and two percent on all other natural products. Two-thirds of the proceeds go to the state universities and one-third is returned to the parishes to be used for schools. Montana levies a severance tax upon the gross products of mines. Fifty percent of the proceeds of this tax are credited to the state common school fund. Arkansas created in 1923 a severance tax. One-third of this tax the state keeps for its state school fund and one-third is returned to the local communities. In general it seems to be the policy among the states thus far in estab- lishing severance taxes to return a proportion of those taxes, and generally one-third, to the counties or to the districts in which the products on which the tax is levied were originally produced. Another great source of school revenue and a type of tax which is often relieved from the general property tax is the corporation tax. Every state in the Union, except one, levies a corporation tax. In fourteen states the schools have definite claims upon the proceeds of corporation tax. In two states the proceeds go entirely to schools. Fourteen states levy inheritance taxes, and in seven of these states all or a portion of the proceeds of the inheritance tax go to public schools. 1 realize it is quite useless for me to expect you to carr}' away from this meeting any of this statistical material unless you have happened to write down a few of my figures. I only realize the most important thing for >()u to carry away from this meeting is a conception of the general trends toward improvement of our sources of school revenue. There are a few facts to which I would like to call your attention in closing. In the first place, there is recognized throughout our land to- day the fact that we must provide more revenue for public under- takings, not only for schools but for many other public undertakings. 48 National Education Association A recent statement appeared in which it was stated that next j'ear ten billion dollars in this country would go for motor traffic. Our actual expenditure for public schools in 1926 was approximately two billion dol- lars. We have got to have more money for schools ; we have got to have more money for roads ; we have got to have more money for our army and navy; we have got to have more money for public health and for all these other undertakings that this great Republic of ours desires and is perfectly able to subsidize from the public treasury. The more the pressure comes for money, the more necessary will it be for us to give up as rapidly as possible depending upon the generjal property tax. The general property tax as levied today in the United States is a national scourge. It is driving the farmer from his farm, it is driving the rancher from his ranch, it is driving the small householder from his home to live in tenements. It was false measures, it was wrong economic policies which under- mined the yeomanry of ancient Rome. The same thing is undermining the yeomanry of America today. When you read in the report of the Department of Agriculture that two million farmers have left the farms, or at least the farming population has decreased two million since 1922, when you realize that the farming population in this country is decreasing at the rate of between four hundred thousand and five hundred thousand a year, if you are doing any thinking you will realize that the bread line in the Bowery district and the bread line in Chicago and the bread line in Bos- ton will grow longer and longer unless we do something to keep these people in independence and contentment, earning their living on their farms. The farmers that I have talked with who have come to San Francisco and Chicago and Boston and New York did not come because they wanted to come ; they knew that there was no rosy future awaiting them in the great city ; they knew that their children w^ould be thrown into the streets ; they knew that there was nothing ahead of them but some job which involved the sacrifice of their independence. Why did they come? They came because year after year they have worked by the sweat of their brow^ their wives had worked early and late and their income was not sufficient to pay for their seeds, their machinery, their help and their taxes, their interest, and many of these men have stood financial loss year after year. What did Montana do when the crops failed year after year? Did she close her schools? \Vhen property values sank to almost nothing, the heroic in that state did not close their schools, they did not lower their taxes, they doubled, trebled, quadrupled their taxes, and what happened in Montana? Beautiful farms were sold for less than their taxes. What has happened in this wonderful state of Massachusetts? What is the story of the Mohawk Valley in New York ? What is the story of the farm throughout our country? It is no wonder that there is a McNary- Haugen Bill presented and urged. We do not need a McNary-Haugen Department of Superintendence 49 Hill. The farmer does not need to be subsidized. He does not need to be pauperized. The thing that the farmer needs is a just system of ta.xation. We tax other men on their income, we tax them on their gross profits, on their gross production, or at so low a rate that it does not affect them. We tax the farmer when his crop has failed one year, two years, three years, and it is a general property tax that is doing this, and if I can say nothing else this morning that will be remembered, 1 want to repeat that the general property tax is a national scourge which is striking at the foun- dations of our agricultural life ; it is striking at the foundation of the American home, and 1 want to call to your attention that state commis- sions appointed by governor after governor, made up of hard-headed busi- ness men, not of theoretical professors, have condemned the general prop- erty tax and have suggested other types of taxes in its place. It is perfectly true that we cannot give this tax up entirely, but in- stead of doing as Wisconsin did, raising her general property tax from seven-tenths of a mill to one and one-tenth of a mill, as was done by the last legislature, let us raise our rates on income taxes. Let us place the tax burden upon the people who have the money, and let us not ask the widow who has given her mite to give her house as well. There is every reason for believing that our states which are awake to the problem will continue to grow more and more awake through the necessity of devising new sources of revenue, and we have plenty of ex- amples of successful policies so that we need no longer to labor in the dark. THE EQUALIZING PRINCIPLE IN STATE SCHOOL SUPPORT ALBERT S. COOK, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BALTIMORE, MD. One of the chief duties of a superintendent of schools in a city, county, or state, is to make a case with the public for financial support of progres- sive educational policies. Adequate financial support and effective organ- ization and control are two primary requirements that must be met in order to have a good system of schools. It is a fundamental principle of American education that the wealth of the state shall educate the children of the state, regardless of where the wealth is located and of where the children reside. A unit of the state that does not have sufficient wealth to educate its children must be helped by the wealthier communities, through a state school fund. The purpose of a state school fund is to equalize the burden of taxation for schools, and to secure, in a measure, equality of educational opportunity for all the children of the state. In the earlier days of public education, men seriously debated whether it was right to take one man's money to educate another man's child. Some thought that every family should be held responsible for educating its own 50 National Education Association children, and that there is no obh'gation upon societj' as a whole to pro- vide educational facilities for all bojs and girls. But as a people, after half a century of discussion, we have accepted the principle of public education. We have gone a step farther and have forbidden the parents to keep children out of school. All the states now have compulsory at- tendance laws. General intelligence and a common school education are essential to the successful operation of a democracy. It has come to be the fixed American policy to hold the wealth of a state responsible for the education of the children of the state, regardless of who has the wealth and who has the children. Education is a state function and a system of free public schools is provided for in every state constitution. I fully realize that all here present accept the foregoing principles under- lying our system of free public schools, but the people of a state, and even the schoolmen themselves, need to have these fundamentals fre- quently and continuously brought to their attention. And this is espe- cially true in a state where there is concentration of enormous wealth and large populations in comparatively small areas. Some one has said that the government of human affairs consists in finding a compromise among conflicting interests, and surely any one who has had intimate acquaintance with the application of the equalizing principle in state school support will be in full accord! While there is practical unanimity that it is the duty of the state to provide universal elementary education for all of the children, when we come to the proposi- tion that it is equally the duty of the state to provide free high school education to all of the children who successfully complete the elementary course, there is a considerable part of the population, of some states, at least, that does not consent willingly to that proposition ; some of our wealthiest states place artificial barriers in the form of high-school en- trance examinations; and even a few of our educational leaders are raising the question of whether or not a state can adequately support all the various types of secondary education that are now under way in our more progressive communities. Back of the equalizing principle in state school support, there are, then, certain accepted American ideals : 1. That mass education is the safeguard of a democracy, and equality of op- portunity is the ideal of our democracy. 2. That there should be equality of educational opportunity for all the chil- dren of the state. 3. That, by reason of constitutional provisions for a system of public educa- tion in all of our states, education is a state responsibility. In interpreting this responsibility the states have passed through various stages of evolution in distributing funds to the local units, but each state has developed in its own way in accordance with its traditions, its form of organization, and its educational leadership. Because the earliest bases of apportionment no longer survive in practice, I shall not attempt to enumerate those which preceded the school census. Department of Superintendence 51 Educational leaders of the time considered the school census such a notable advance over precedinj^ plans for apportionment that more than one-half the states inserted it in their constitutions as a basis for apportion- ment. 1 need not inform you that as a means of equalizing burdens and opportunities it is unjust and unsatisfactory. Measured by the need of the unit to be aided in terms of wealth back of each teacher, the com- munity having the most children and the greatest wealth usually receives a larger proportion of aid through the school census than the sparsely settled rural district which is too poor to have school facilities which meet desirable standards. The community which has many children in private and parochial schools or a shorter school term or poorer attendance or over-large classes receives a relatively larger measure of aid than one which is struggling to have a longer school term, better attendance and smaller classes. Cubberley says: "This basis of apportionment offers no stimulus to a community to make any educational effort beyond the bare minimum standards required by law of all." The evils of apportionment on the basis of the school census resulted in the use of enrolment, and later of average daily attendance or, still better, aggregate days of attendance in its place or in combination with it. Although these bases give greater aid to school systems having good conditions which bring about improvement in attendance, the rich com- munities which can afford improved schools profit most by the aid, while financially poor, sparsely populated rural districts which so sorely need aid fare even worse than with the school census as the basis. The next important step in state school support was to provide state subsidies ostensibly to stimulate the development of high schools, voca- tional education, free books, special classes or other special forms of education. In most cases it was the large wealthy cities which felt the need for these extra facilities and they were the first to establish them. The large proportion of this special aid again was distributed to those who had ; but to those who had not, no additional aid was given. Then, in turn, with a partial realization that the teacher rather than the pupil was the unit of school costs, some states began to use the teacher as the basis for the distribution of more or less of the state school funds, usually continuing some form of the census and attendance basis in part, and also continuing state subsidies for certain school activities that the state desired particularly to encourage. In all of these movements toward better plans for distributing state school support, all of the local units were treated alike, in theory, at least, except that the comparative ability of the local units to support schools was not actually taken into account. For example, the census and attendance basis of distribution was wholly favorable to the larger schools, and the larger schools are almost invariably in the wealthier com- munities. The teacher basis was a step in the right direction, since it took into account the number of teachers needed, instead of the number of chil- dren enumerated, regardless of the sparsity of population. But with a 52 National Education Association uniform appropriation per teachet throughout the state, the small, sparsely settled and less wealth}^ community was again penalized, because the state aid per teacher was usually a comparatively small percent of the entire cost per teacher, and the small, and less wealthy communities needed many more teachers per thousand of school population than did the large, usually more densely populated, and more wealthy communities. The state has a right, unquestionably, to set up a minimum program of public education that shall reach every child in the state, but there is a corresponding obligation to so provide state support for the program, that no local school unit shall be required to tax itself beyond a reason- able limit for schools, in order to carry the program set up. The two indispensable factors, then, in the equalizing principle are: 1. A state program that shall provide for efficient organization, administration, supervision, and teaching in even the least wealthy school unit of the state. 2. A state school fund sufficiently large and so distributed that even the least wealthy school unit need not tax itself beyond a reasonable maximum to carry the state's minimum requirements. The first problem is to determine the desirable minimum program, which differs for each state, at least in the initial stages of development. The program should provide, if possible, for: a. An adequate supply of professionally trained teachers and a legal require- ment that trained teachers shall be employed whenever available, as vacancies occur. b. A guaranteed minimum salary, preferably on a yearly basis, for all teachers meeting the state requirements for the type of teaching position occupied in every school, with salary increments at intervals for successful experience. c. A guaranteed minimum school year of at least nine months for all local school units. d. An adequate supply of books and materials of instruction. e. Adequate and efficient instructional supervision in every school unit. f. Provision for effective administrative and professional leadership on the part of the superintendent, since educational leadership is the first requisite of a progressive school system. The second problem is to determine the amount of money required to carry the desirable minimum program and the method of distributing the funds available in order to most nearly equalize educational opportunity and burden in all local school units. In considering these two problems, I ask your indulgence in permitting me to discuss them as they apply to the Maryland situation with which I am most familiar. We have before us, then, a state school system composed of twenty- three county unit school systems and Baltimore City, the only independent unit; 24 boards of education, in all, to deal with. This presents ap- proximately the simplest problem in applying the equalizing principle that could be imagined, compared with the thousands of school units and thousands of boards of education that are found in many of the states. Department of Superintendence 53 The so-called technics involved in applying the principle, however, are the same, but the simplicity of the problem involved is at least one strong argu- ment for a larger school unit. We have a state of average wealth, half urban, half town and rural in population ; we have a state school fund distributed on the census and attendance basis which makes available about $9 per elementary school pupil, and in addition there are state subsidies for high schools, vocational education, free books and supplies, and for part payment of salaries of certain county administrative and supervisory school officials. We have a minimum salary law based on grade of certificate, with in- crements for experience. The law provides a definite ratio of teachers to pupils in all types of elementary and high schools. Our State Tax Commission has been functioning effectively for a period of years in securing uniform assessments of property values throughout the state. Our law requires a minimum school year of nine months. All of these conditions existed prior to the meeting of the legislature in 1922 and it was not our purpose to change the status quo except to make any additions which would result in bringing about equalization of educational opportunity and burden. We knew, of course, that the amount of additional money to be appropriated would be comparatively small, and that no school unit would willingly consent to any reduction in its share of state school funds. In determining our minimum program, the first important considera- tion was to secure a minimum salary schedule for teachers that would guarantee a gradually increasing supply of teachers of standard academic and professional qualifications to fill all vacancies in all types of schools both rural and urban. The Legislature of 1922 accepted the judgment of the friends of education on a minimum salary schedule, and the re- sulting supply of standard trained teachers over a five-year period has confirmed the wisdom of their judgment. The proportion of teachers with standard training in both elementary and high schools in the counties has increased from 35 percent to 85 percent. The minimum salary schedule adopted was not that of a county of aver- age wealth, but was one that provided salaries considerably higher than were then being paid in all except two of the twenty-three counties. The next important step was to determine a measure of the ability of each county to support schools. At this important stage at this partic- ular time (April, 1921) we were sailing on an uncharted sea. The technics subsequently developed by Professors Strayer, Swift, Mort, and others, based on salary and an equalized local tax rate, were not then available. Since the assessed valuation of property in our counties was equalized by an efficient state tax commission, we assumed that the average tax rate for school maintenance (exclusive of capital outlay and debt service) which then prevailed in our counties was a fair measure of ability of the 54 National Education Association counties to support schools. We found the average rate to be 67 cents on $100 of assessed valuation, or 6.7 mills. In the Maryland plan of equalization, therefore, the state pays the entire school maintenance budget for the minimum state program, less the amount that the county contributes by a 6.7 mill tax. The county school maintenance budget is calculated annually, and is based on the actual salaries paid to the teachers for the current year as set forth on the payroll of each county ; the state, however, fixes the minimum annual salary for each type of teaching position, and for years of experience and grade of certificate of each teacher. The state law also fixes the number of teachers required to carry the minimum program in every type of school based on the number of pupils in attendance. Counties sharing in the equalization fund may pay higher salaries or employ more teachers than the state provides by levying more than 6.7 mills for school mainte- nance. In addition to making plans for a sufficiently large minimum salary schedule to attract teachers of standard training to all the schools, even those in remote rural districts, it is necessary to furnish each teacher with an adequately equipped classroom. To insure this the state school law provides that not more than 76 percent of the county school mainte- nance budget shall be expended for teachers' salaries, leaving 24 percent to be expended for other current school expenses. Having determined total salaries for each county, the total maintenance budget is found by dividing total salaries by .76 ; for example, if total salaries are $76,000, the total maintenance budget is $76,000 -^ .76, or $100,000. Now in the case cited, if a tax of 6.7 mills on the taxable wealth of the county yields $60,000, and the state subsidies for all purposes other than equaliza- tion total $30,000, the county would have an income of $60,000 from the local school tax, plus $30,000 from state subsidies, or a total income of $90,000 with which to carry a $100,000 program; this county would therefore be entitled to an equalization fund of the difference between $100,000 and $90,000, or $10,000. On the other hand, if the income of the county just cited from a 6.7 mill tax plus total state aid for all purposes other than equalization is $100,000 or more, the county would receive no equalization fund, because it has sufficient local and state funds to carry a $100,000 program. The provision for equalization in the Maryland law reads as follows: * * * provided, that the board of county commissioners of each of the several counties sharing in the equalization fund shall levy and collect an annual tax for the schools of not less than sixty-seven (67) cents on each one hundred dollars ($100) of assessable property, exclusive of the amount levied for debt service and capital outlay for the schools; and provided, further, that the county board of education in each of the several counties sharing in the equalization fund shall expend not more than seventy-six percentum (767f) of the total budget, not including capital outlay and debt service, for teachers' salaries. Dkpartment of Superintendence 55 After five years, we find that the outlay for teachers' salaries as re- quired by law is considerably less than 76 percent of the total maintenance budj:;et, by reason of the enormous increase in transportation costs due to consolidation. To meet this situation, before calculating the amount of the equalization fund we have arbitrarily added 50 percent of the cost of elementary school transportation to the estimated county school budget, which was obtained by dividing the salary budget by .76. In our next budget we shall add approximately 100 percent of the cost of transporta- tion in elementary schools. In our opinion, there is an outstanding advantage in basing the equaliza- tion fund on the actual salaries as shown by the county payroll, since the county superintendent and the county board of education know that teachers of standard training may be secured as vacancies occur without increasing the county tax rate, and further, that for every additional 76 cents of salary increase by reason of the appointment of a better trained or more experienced teacher, or both, the equalization fund is increased by $1. As an illustration, one of our poorest and most sparsely populated counties has increased the proportion of standard trained teachers from 7 percent in 1922 to 81 percent in 1927; as a consequence, its equaliza- tion fund has increased $60,000, of which 24 percent, or $14,400 is avail- able for current school expenses other than teachers' salaries and capital outlay. Another of our counties sharing in the equalization fund was the first county in the state to have 100 percent of two-year normal school graduates in the elementary schools; and of the ten counties having from 90 to 100 percent of trained teachers, five are equalization fund coun- ties. A flat salary allowance on a teacher unit basis does not provide so strong an incentive to appoint only standard trained teachers. The minimum program set up in Maryland by the Legislature in 1922, except in salary schedule, was equivalent to the program then found in the two most progressive counties. Since the financially poorest counties were very far below the standard set up, they have been aided each year only to the extent that they have actually been able to employ an in- creasing number of better trained teachers and provide them with neces- sary equipment. As a result, expenditures did not increase enormously at first in these counties. The program provided for large increases in salary only in replacing teachers entirely or partially untrained by normal school graduates; i. e., the salary increases were limited for the most part to teachers having the desired professional status. Although the minimum salaries provided in the state minimum program for the various types of positions and for years of experience were somewhat lower than the salaries paid in the wealthiest two counties, they were high enough, as our experience hius shown, to enable all the counties to secure two- year normal school graduates for practically all elementary school vacan- cies that occurred in both town and rural schools, and even to replace some of the teachers holding the lower grades of certificates. In five 56 National Education Association years the counties as a whole have increased the percent of standard trained teachers in the elementar}' and high schools from 35 percent to over 85 percent. Notwithstanding this rapid growth in the percentage of trained teachers, the equalization fund has increased only slightly since 1925, by reason of the increase in the assessed valuation in the coun- ties sharing in the equalization fund. At some time during the five-year period from 1922 to 1927, seventeen of the 23 counties have shared in the fund; but in any one year no more than 15 have received its benefits; only 13 counties share at present; but other counties are likely to share again as they approach 100 percent of trained teachers. The second indispensable factor in the equalizing principle is a state program that shall provide for efficient organization, administration and supervision in the least wealthy school unit of the state. No matter how desirable it may be to equalize the burden completely," says Professor Mort, "if that equalization results in the further entrenchment of a decadent system of local organization that makes impossible the use of the tools and technics developed in city school administration, its result is bad, for in the long run it limits educational opportunity for vast masses of the people. Maryland has, by inheritance, the county unit plan of organization ; our problem was simply to make the most of it. Strange as it may seem, however, legislative attack was concentrated largely on that part of our program which provided for an adequate staff of professional and clerical assistants for the county superintendent. The county board of education functions in exactly the same way that a city board functions, namely, by appointing a superintendent of schools who is the agent through whom the board acts — a man with first rate educational and professional qualifications, especially trained in school management ; who, as secretary-treasurer of the board, acts as its business representative and executive agent in financial matters, and who takes the lead in the matter of securing public support and interest for the schools. In other words, the county superintendency calls for the same type of trained and efficient professional leadership as the city superin- tendency. In Maryland the law provides for the appointment of supervising teachers for each county on the basis of one supervisor for every 50 ele- mentary teachers employed. These supervisors must be properly qualified and their appointment approved by the state superintendent ; and, as is the case with the county superintendents, two-thirds of the salary is paid by the state. The county superintendent is held responsible by the state department of education for supplying professional leadership, inspiration, and assistance to his teaching staff and to his staff of supervisors. Thus, with a fairly adequate plan for equalizing educational oppor- tunity and the burden of school support, open from time to time to re- finements in its application with or without additional legislation, and with a fine legal basis for efficient organization, administration, and Department of Superintendence 57 supervision, the county school systems of the state have full opportunity for progressively increasing the efficiency' of the schools, subject only to the limitation of professional leadership in each county, and to the desire for better schools on the part of the people of the state as a whole. EFFICIENT EXPENDITURE OF SCHOOL MONEYS FRED M. HUNTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CALIF. School systems are frequently administered more in the interest of the reputation of superintendents, teachers, business managers, and architects, and to the profit of private businesses and contractors than in the interest of children. School money is wasted, school programs handicapped, and the support of education is endangered by loose and thoughtless, or per- sonal and selfish, policies of control by boards of education and executives. One purpose of school administration and business management is de- fensible— and one only — namely, the best provision for the teaching of children which the money provided by the state and community will buy when handled by a scientific and professional (disinterested) plan of ad- ministration. Good teaching for all types and classes of children, not pro- fessional reputation nor money profits, is the goal of school administration. Some of the chief causes of waste in the administration of public school systems are: 1. Too large proportion of the school budget spent for overhead (gen- eral control) purposes and too small proportion for instructional purposes. 2. Failure to control distribution and assignment of teaching service. I personally know a superintendent of schools in a city of 150,000 popu- lation who in a single year saved 75 teaching positions — or $150,000 — in the schools under his charge without doing injustice to a single teacher by an indefensibly heavy pupil or "pupil-period" assignment. He merely inaugurated a "check-up" system on small classes and non-teaching po- sitions. 3. Rapid expansion of the fields of school service without efficient pre- paratory organization or justification in actual needs of children or com- munity. 4. Exploitation for profit h\ business firms. 5. Extravagance in" school buildings. Three American cities of 200,000 to 300,000 population inaugurated programs for the erection of new school buildings during the years from 1920 to 1928. City "A" voted $6,000,000 and housed 8,00U pupils — Average cost per pupil — $750. City "B" voted $8,000,000 and housed 15,000 pupils — Average cost per pupil — $533. City "C" voted $10,000,000 and housed 30,000 pupils— Average cost per pupil — $333.' 58 National Education Association Each city had similar housing needs and erected buildings of permanent fire-resistant construction. 6. The provision of positions in the school system for personal and po- litical favorites. Tentative statement of general principles governing efficient expenditure of school moneys — School moneys are efficiently and economically ex- pended when the result is a maximum of advantage in the direction of the best teaching for all the children of the community. Such maximum of advantage requires the recognition of the following principles of school administration : a. Single headed control b. Coordination c. Merit system for appointments d. Checking system e. Schedule for teaching positions f. Cost accounting g. Standardized buildings h. Standardized supplies i. Manufacture of equipment j. Requisition system The American people are thoroughly devoted to the cause of public education. Whenever issue is joined in a battle of ballots over school mat- ters, the schools and the children inevitably win, provided the responsible executives show to the electorate full and complete evidence of efficient and economic trusteeship of school funds, and the necessity for victory for the school cause, as separate and apart from other issues. A people with a fortune of 300 billion dollars and an annual income of 100 billion dollars is willing to spend two billion dollars per year in edu- cation— yes, and more- — if that people is assured that the two billion is effec- tively invested in cultural and spiritual values in the lives of its 25 million youth, and that such investment is predestined to pay the rich dividends of a happy and prosperous democratic civilization for all posterity. SUPERJ'ISION IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL FROM THE FIEir POINT OF THE PRINCIPAL FRANCIS L. BACON, PRINCIPAL, J. STERLING MORTON HIGH SCHOOL CICERO, ILL. Considering the country, at large, the secondary school knows little and does less about supervision. This statement is supported by the interpre- tation which denotes supervision as the attempt to improve classroom pro- cedure or what is often called the techiiic of instruction. Instruction has been and still is, most of us believe, the crux of the whole educational process. The function of supervision is the improvement of instruction through the recognition of effective content and methods and elimination of ineffective material and practice. Department of Superintendence 59 The elementary and grammar schools have done much with this interpre- tation of supervision. These units have not only established technics; they have put them to work. In the main the secondary school has done neither. 'Hiere are many trained supervisors in the ^rade schools who give daily demonstration of the values which may come through supervision. A very small number of high schools can show comparable supervisors. For the most part the grammar school principal and teachers have acquired a view- point toward supervision far different in its sympathy and understanding from that which may be discovered in the secondary school. The contribution of the normal school to the professionalization of the grade school teacher has been the outstanding influence in bringing recog- nition and development of supervision in the elementary schools. For the secondary school there is no counterpart. The majority of high-school teachers have not received professional training of any kind prior to their first jobs. They are merely college graduates. The acquisition of certain degrees, has seemingly prepared them to teach in all units of public educa- tion. These college graduates, suddenly turned to the field of teaching, enter, for the most part, the small high schools. The larger schools insist upon experience — and experience, such as it is, must be obtained in the smaller schools. In these latter schools the principal is usually as much a neophyte in the art of instructing youth as the members of his staff. If experience and training are his, use of them is generally nullified by his own heavy program of teaching, plus a multiplicity of management detail which is overwhelming. Often in such situations, the superintendent pre- sents a similar picture; and generally, the major portion of his supervisory interest and time are given to the lower grades. Out of such conditions, in general, the inexperienced, untrained college graduate becomes in time an experienced intructor and passes on to the higher salaries of the larger schools. Habits and methods, to large degree, have become formulated and static. These teachers have learned to teach, perforce, as they were taught. Oddly enough, such methods have usually been quite sufficient for the definitely specialized, strongly formal, and traditional subject-matter of the high school. The small high-school principal, likewise gradually advances to a larger school. He is usually selected for such advancement by reason of his per- sonal (]ualities plus the ability he has demonstrated in the organization and administration of his school. Rarely, if ever, is his promotion dependent upon what he has done specificallx to improve the quality of classroom instruction. The latter is usually taken for granted as a byproduct of successful management. The principal's teaching experience is generally meager and unnoticed. Once, particularly in New England, and vestiges may still be found, the principal or headmaster, by virtue of his position, was first of all the head teacher. Accordingly, he taught the most im- portant of all subjects, the subject through which all pedagogy has been most unchanging and unchangeable. And that same Roman influence 60 National Education Association was observable in all his contacts with the school. This tradition has been powerful in shaping the attitude of principals. But again, generally, the advancing principal with teaching experience often outstanding in its limitations, has been forced to forego teaching altogether and immerse himself in an overwhelming burden of organization and managerial duties. Meanwhile the larger the high school involved, the less help is forthcom- ing from the superintendent. In the middle sized and larger schools there are often department heads. When there are such, the reduction in teaching load is usually merely sufficient to provide some additional time for routine duties connected with books, supplies or details of management. As supervisors of instruc- tion most department heads fail to function either because of lack of time or ability or both. The lack of professionally trained teachers and principals, the inherit- ance of formal and traditional subjectmatter, the dominance of the highly specialized requirements of higher schools, and the huge enrolments, pro- hibitory of cost extension, other than for the basic provision of rooms and full time teachers, are briefly, some of the most important factors which have hindered the development of supervision in the secondary school. Though there are exceptions to this rather sombre picture and recently a much more hopeful attitude is abroad, yet it is quite apparent that the major problem of supervision in secondary schools is one of adequate recog- nition. Recognition which will come through the development of more suitable professional training schools for high-school teachers and prin- cipals ; recognition by school boards, in stipulating definitely such training for incoming high-school teachers and principals ; recognition by superin- tendents of schools that they should place more definite responsibility upon their high-school principals for obtaining a balanced program of supervision in the secondary school. The more complete development and broader standardization of state and other accrediting agencies will be of much valuable influence in gaining desirable recognition. These are some gen- eral factors which may aid in developing a cooperative outlook favorable to the growth of an adequate conception of the art of supervision. The specific problem w^hich follows the general one of recognition has to do with the place and character of the supervisor in the development of supervision. Much has been said about the high-school principal as the supervisor of instruction. Ideally he has been named as the proper super- visor. Upon analysis it may be found that this customary conception is open to much qualification. Conditions in the small high school, already referred to, make the principal either unsuitable or unavailable. In schools with less than 200 enrolled (an arbitrary number merely indicative) it may be strongly argued that it is the obligation of the super- intendent to meet the problem of supervision in the secondary school as fully as in the grades. The high school is much more in need of trained Department of Superintendence 61 and experienced service. 'J he superintendent, generall\, is more mature, more experienced, more permanent than the high-school principal. A wide recognition of the responsibility of tlie, superintendent for at least more specific leadership in the solution of this problem might clarify and de- velop the existing situation to great advantage. In schools with enrolment between 200 and 1000 (again merely an indicative spread for general grouping) the problem is obviously more clearly up to the principal alone. For this reason he is all the more in need of help. Though the superintendent can give less time to the high school, in systems large enough to support high schools within this great middle grouping; he can easily be of much more help to the principal than is generally true. It is not unreasonable to expect that a program of super- vision should make both superintendent and principal effectively operative in its development. However well such a program is planned the chief load will rightly devolve upon the principal. Schools of this size, in the main, will not be able to support trained and capable department leaders. Leadership in supervision as well as in other things must be the definite obligation of the principal of the middle-sized high school. For such leader- ship he must obtain specific, adequate training in well established schools of education. The summer school, of necessity, must play an important part in such training, for most of the specific preparation will become effective after the teacher has become a principal on the job. Much of the training will be vitalized by the use of the position in the field as the medium for experiment and practice. The principal who is to su- pervise must know the characteristics of good teaching. He must learn and apply the art of supervision in a variety of forms. If he is to do all this, school boards and superintendents must make it possible through adequate office assistance both clerical and managerial. Until this latter is reasoiiably done the immediacy of business management, startlingly insistent in the modern high school, will preclude the principal's satisfactory leadership in the improvement of classroom teaching. In schools larger than 1000 in enrolment capable and properly trained assistants to the principal are possibilities. They may be departmental leaders, curriculum or subject supervisors or assistant principals especially selected for instructional supervision. For the principal of one of the large schools to supervise satisfactorily, the instruction in the broad and varied fields of the modern curriculum, as it exists in our large secondary schools is, in most cases, to beg the issue. He must, perforce, become a general manager; and if he devotes anything like the time to supervision which should be given, other phases of his school organization will suffer to the extent that there will be serious interference with instruction. If the prin- cipal of the large school is especially qualified in the art of supervision, then, he should delegate many important managerial and executive duties to capable assistants and give largely of his time to classroom supervision. Few, if any. principals are as well qualified for detailed and specific super- 62 National Education Association \ ision as departmental specialists. The principal of tiie large school, as far as intelligent practice is concerned, must of necessity become a super- visor of especially trained and appointed oflRcers of supervision. His great obligation to the supervision of instruction is likely to be that of coordinat- ing and articulating the work of several supervisory assistants, a chal- lenging, necessary, and skilled work in itself. From this brief analysis it becomes obvious that the size of the school and the qualifying conditions must determine the nature of the executive plan for supervision. We have stated that the accepted interpretation of supervision is in re- spect to the improvement of classroom instruction. The oldest and rrtost firmly established conception of supervision carries the idea of classroom observation by an officer who is superior to the teacher. This officer is to make constructive suggestions relative to the organization of subjectmatter and the method of developing the lesson. While this conception of super- vision properly carried forward should be productive of valuable results; it is too often the sum total of the supervision within a given school. Such supervision is good as far as it goes ; but it should be emphasized that there are many other phases of supervision which are intimately related to the teaching process and fully as necessary to the improvement of learning. The principal w'ho faces the problem of supervision squarely, whatever the conditions, will first view the situation administratively. He will or- ganize a plan of supervision. Not a highly complex and mechanical ar- rangement which will be put into effect by the issuing of a bulletin or sud- den announcement in faculty meeting but rather a plan which will be of a gradual developmental character; a plan which will provide for the working out of several phases of the whole problem with correlation and coordination as rapid as the school may be carried along in effective spirit and work. The first step in such a plan would be that of encouraging the training of teachers in service. This is an effective way of improving classroom work by obtaining the interest of the teacher in attacking the problem through sustained personal effort. Professionalized activities by depart- mental, faculty, and extension groups, individual research and study, summer school work, all of these will give strong impetus to the growth of the necessary professional spirit and will give much aid in solving the difficult technical phase of the problem. A plan of supervision will also include the professionalized faculty meeting as a medium of cooperative enterprise and common understanding of problems intimately related to the classroom. The importance and the place of the assignment as a simple factor in classroom procedure may easily form an excellent project for faculty discussion and realization. Such an opening followed by observation, demonstration, and report could be carried throughout the school as a special project in supervision. This accomplished, another phase of supervision could be advanced and simi- larly developed. liy a developmental plan of this character the principal Dlil>ARTMnNT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 63 can learn and appl\ the tochnic of supcrx isidti as his teachers practice the technic of tcachin>i. A definite superxisioii prot^iam should recognize pupil control and man- ajiement and the physical conditions of the classroom as a specific phase of the general problem. These are considerations basic to the best teaching. Oftentimes, there is much confusion incident to inspection as supervision or supervision as inspection. For purposes of efSciency, inspection should be recognized as merely a definite part of the whole program. Much argu- ment can be advanced for inspection in relation to physical conditions, pupil control, and for checking certain specified phases of cla'ss procedure. However, it should always be understood as merely a legitimate follow-up efficiency procedure and surely never as the sum or emphasized part of the supervision program. It should not be permitted to operate alone but as a well understood item among sexeral more important parts of the gen- eral scheme. Once there is an attitude within the school favorable to constructive progress in educational method, there comes the challenge of the curricu- lum. One of the most important phases of the problem of supervision is that connected with the selection and organization of the subjectmatter to be taught. The relation of this question to the improvement of teach- ing is obvious. A successful plan of supervision will provide for the constant reorganization and adjustment of content with corresponding discovery and application of suitable classroom methods. An answer to the inevitable question : What shall we teach, raises, at once, the insistently pertinent question, how shall we teach it? The supervision of instruc- tion if intelligently done, demands selection of text and organization of content conforming to the needs of the school population. It means supervising outlines of work, consideration of method in advance and the preparation of dail\- plans. Now the alert principal will not be content with merel}- starting things. He will insist on knowing what happens. His whole program of super- vision will be objective in its character. He will test the component parts of his plan. He will be especially interested in knowing whether the sum total of his plan has been made a difference in the quality of the educa- tional process. Unquestionably a very important phase of his program is that which has to do with the measuring of classroom instruction. To what end all the effort over the supervision problem unless results are checked. The knowledge of results may easily disclose the need and fur- nish the starting point for definite supervisory practice. More objective material is necessar\. Standardized subjectmatter tests are increasingK' available. Tests of such character should and can be de- veloped by the local school as a part of the supervision program. An at- tempt to improve the testing practice will open up the whole problem of instruction. Curriculum matter must be selected, organized, certain essential parts emphasized, and non-essentials eliminated. H teachers' 64 National Education Association results arc to be evaluated, charted, compared, methods of obtaining the best results are, at once, in demand. The principal who interests him- self in supervising a subject testing program will do much to forward the cause of efficient instruction in his school. Perhaps the most marked weakness in supervision has been that of in- sufficient standards. The question of standards for measuring classroom instruction has been extremely difficult in the secondary school. The mul- tiplicity of specialized subjects, each with its own peculiar technic has made the setting up of suitable standards exceedingly complicated. Once the various phases which have been mentioned as necessary parts of a bal- anced program of supervision have been worked out in a given school, they will tend to create a set of standards for that school. It will be the particular job of the principal to keep such a set of standards refined to the best thought r.nd practice available. But this will not be sufficient. The principals as a group need very greatly to study this problem of standards of supervision for secondary schools. A pooling of efforts and findings will aid in clarifying the existent haze on this important problem. In time, supervision will, of necessity, be based upon a set of principles and standards with accompanying procedures which have survived through experiment and demonstration to convincing proof. This statement on supervision, necessarily brief and general in its char- acter has not made any attempt to develop argument for supervision. The necessity and importance of supervision have been assumed. There has been no attempt to present its technic. We have been interested in defining the problem which supervision faces in the secondary school ; and in offering somewhat comprehensively, the attitude of some of the prin- cipals. SUPERVISION FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE S UP ERIN TEND EN T WILLIAM MC ANDREW, EDITOR, EDUCATIONAL REVIEW, CHICAGO, ILL. Most of the superintendents of m\- acquaintance see the high-school Avorkers confronted with a bewildering change of circumstances and problems. Those good people need all the sympathy, help, and guidance the heads of tiieir school systems can give them. Many of you present who are not yet Methuselahs — may you continue your service through vigorous maturity, rich in days abounding in good works — can remember when high schools regarded themselves as constituted for sifting from the product of the elementary schools the most scholarly, and for maintaining through four years a still further selective process, determining who might pass on to higher education. You had the en- trance examinations required for admission to high school. You recall Maxwell, voicing in his annual report, only twenty-five years 'ago, his conviction, a common one, that — "many children get into high school who Department of Superintendence 65 should not be tiiere at all." You are familiar with the old high-school slogan, "Through the survival of the fittest we train for leadership." As compared with their present perplexities the task of the high-school teacher was simple, indeed. His children had a definite college entrance standard to attain. A teacher made no study of teaching. He could give out lessons, hear them recited, puts marks in a book, and draw his pay. His pupils were selected on the basis of ability and desire to learn. Now comes the astounding revolution ! Compulsory laws extend the school age. Everybody goes to high school. Over three millions are in the public institutions of secondary education. The amazing increase of 610 percent confronts these schools. The common-minded, the lazy, the uninterested, the mental pauper — all are in a refectory whose menu and service were planned for the select robust appetites of a few. It is a situation which no ridicule of methods, however inept they may be, can greatly help. It is a case for compassion, for constructive sympathy, for intelligent guidance by the head of the school force. Tell them the truth. It is no kindness for a superintendent to feed the high-school people with honeydew. He who called himself the Third Napoleon was given that diet until he thought he had an invincible fight- ing organization. When he put his troops against a real army it crumpled them in a few days. The worst thing a superintendent can do is to let the high-school principals get their heads into the sand. The futility of continuing high schools on the old basis needs especially to be sensed by the superintendent. His responsibility demands that unpleasant facts be known about what is now the most expensive and least efficient part of the public-school service. Let him be sure that the high-school managers realize that college prep- aration is not now their main business. The high schools are paid for by every person in the town. From every cent spent for anything a part goes to the high-school tax. Unless one keeps that essential fact near the top of his consciousness, he can run a high school for getting a few boys and girls into college. But, as Thomas Finegan hammered into the Pennsylvanians, "Every child of fourteen is a high-school obligation, not to prepare so much for residence in the University of Pennsylvania as for contributing benefit to the state of Pennsylvania." Let the superintendent see that the high-school people appreciate the hollowness of the old training-for-leadership fallacy. It was a high-sound- ing cymbal, mere noise. Those who had innate power of leadership, no doubt got into high schools where, in sooth, they were so diverted by scholarship and pedantry from the paths in which America needs to be led that we see our educational products playing golf on election day while the real leaders, who never saw the interior of a high school, are herding their voters to the polls to keep in power the sorriest set of states- men to be found in any country on the globe. Let the superintendent, while praising honest and intelligent effort of high-school people, see that they realize the growing power of Dr. 66 National Education Association Piitclictt's and Dr. Lowell's protest ag;ainst rising costs, the formidable movement of chambers of commerce, of granges, of associations of inaNors, and of governors, seriously inquiring whether the American people are getting a fair return for what in many localities is much the largest item in the public budget. We have the advantage of a supreme American faith in education. The marvelous growth of the demand for it should not lull us into complacency. The amount and keenness of criticism from without is growing. Meantime our own school people have themselves developed a discontent with high-school results which no superintendent may ignore, I see some men here who remember Jacob Gould Schurman's criticism of us at the Poughkeepsie meeting of the Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools, well back in the last century. You remember him deploring that we were organized on the basis of teaching subjects. "Your high schools," he said, "are bibliocentric, or themocentric, directed towards imparting the contents of a book or covering a course of stud\'. What the country needs is a more paidocentric service in which the high school will determine what the boy is, who comes ; what he ought to be, who leaves; how he can be made to grow from one to the other." "We need ■i service," he said, "which shall deliver that kind of American who will render the social, civic, political service for which the makers of America instituted public schools and made them a tax on all people whether parents or not." You remember at that meeting J. McKeen Cattell proposed that by tests and measurements we should determine whether high schools are doing their work. It seemed Utopian. Yet now comes Henry Morrison with the most talked-of book of the time and shows us that by centering on the subject, by mere covering of the lesson, we have seasoned society with a distressingly large proportion of people who know education as a partial performance of tasks only up to a low average that will relieve the doer of requirement to undertake them a second term. It is a cause for congratulation that the proposition of Cattell and Rice and Ayres and others, to devise a means of knowing how well a school is succeeding, is worked out in this enheartening Mor- rison book to a system of simple mastery units for every high-school ac- tivity, with means of demonstrating in greater accuracy than e\er before that they are really mastered. 'V'ou will remember, too, James E. Russell's excursions through Ger- man schools before the war and his book, the essence of which is that those people know what they are aiming at and how to hit it ; ours don't. Now comes David Snedden with a ^\•hole book on "What's Wrong with American Education." The theme of his high-school chapters is, "No- b(Kly Knows." "Nobody knows why Latin, plane geometry, and chemistry are taught in high school, nobody knows whether English as taught in high-school functions as worthwhile culture, nobody knows whether his- tory in high school has well defined ()bjecti\es of civic conduct." "Of belief and faith, we have much," he says, "but of sound, dependable kii()\\l- Department of Superintendence 67 cdjje, none." It ifinituls you of Paul Hanus's figure of the liii^li school: A great ship with all sails set and tioiny; nowhere; or, of the suhject of a New Jersey Education Association meeting: "Resolved that the high- school is a chaos." In the notable number of books on high-school manage- ment coming frcjm the press in the past five \ears, the conclusion by both the Douglasses, b\- Hollister, b\' Uhl, by Barr and Burton, by Judd, by Snedden, is "the work of the high school leaves much to be desired." The constructive, optimistic Morrison declares the result of these four years upon our youth, at the time when their duty in the world begins naturally to dawn, is "the making of an adult incapable citizen albeit he may be legally entitled to vote and hold office." Supervision , the diinver — What is the remedy? All the students of productive organization answer, "supervision." The workers require guidance. Perci\al Hulson, who was awarded one of the Sachs prizes for an essay on high-school improvement, reaches the conclusion that the teachers are not prepared for what the high school should do. Edward Fitzpatrick, the other prize winner, reports thousands of instructors, whose onl\' teaching preparation was for English, found in charge of classes in geometry, French, and domestic science. Hundreds of high schools are like a fake hospital whose specialists' qualifications are that once they had the measles or the smallpox. William Burton's book puts first the train- ing of teachers now in the service. John W. Withers makes it the im- mediate paramount need. Barr and Burton feel justified in saying that supervision is already recognized as the foundation on which school pro- cedure must be built. They add these requirements to training those already in service: Second, employment of only teachers who are ade- quately trained for teaching; third, reorganization of the school activities with definite human abilities in view; fourth, testing and measuring the results and improving them ; fifth, appraising the work of separate teachers and replacing those who fail to meet requirements. This is a formidable task, enlisting the highest ability and courage of superintendent and principal. "It is not," said the progressive Profes- sor Inglis, within a short walk of this spot, "so much of a problem to improve high-school supervision as how to get any. While, a thousand miles further west. Professor Judd responded, "The part of the high school job poorest done is supervision. It needs a tonic dose of honest self-criticism." Obstdcles — To have such agreement among the bookmakers that super- vision is the high schools' greatest need is something, but who thinks human nature rushes gladly to the benefits conferrable by the supervisor? Douglas Waples ought to know . His book is the result of wise acquain- tance with us. He remarks, "Few high-school teachers get any super- vision. They don't want it. It is considered bad form for a teacher to admit the need of help with school problems." Out on the shores of the Peaceful Sea, where every prospect pleases and onlx man is vile, a gentle and -sympathetic woman, Susan Dorsey, grieves over "teachers who, 68 National Education Association shouting for liberty refuse freedom by creating an atmosphere of strife in their own souls against the imagined bondage of supervision. Tell them that all the tests establish that the best method is this one; they immediately want to do differently." On the eastern coast is Hosic declaring that "where supervision is func- tioning there is little excuse for agitation for democracy in the school system. Under the disguise of academic freedom they want the liberty of wasting youthful lives and setting up the ugly form of teacher Bol- shevism." Let the superintendent realize that a principal who sets out to get each member of his corps to use the road which surveyors have agreed is the safest and best often has a backwash of teachers who flood the offices of the superintendent and of board members with complaints which would make workers in other lines laugh and wonder. New York held meetings of protest against the raising of requirements of new entrants into teaching. "Teachers to arms," read the circular, "Your rights are assailed. A tyranny more dire than that against which your fathers fought is upon us." In Chicago, a circular assembling the friends of free- dom recounted that the principal invaded the classroom, sat in a back seat, took notes and imposed them on the teacher. These things impress the honorable, the members of the board of education. A distressed gentle- woman, tastefully clad, inevitably awakens the chivalry of the layman. He who would dismiss a neglectful home nurse, however beautiful, will gallantly champion a handsome incompetent if she is merely wasting the lives of a few score of other people's children. Let a superintendent sup- port his honest and thorough people against the opposition of his board and note what happens to him. Ettinger resents the proposed replacement of hard-working progressive Edson, Ettinger protests the promotion of an unscrupulous woman school politician, Ettinger insists that the judg- ment of a school system shall be based upon the measured accomplish- ment of it as shown by standard tests. Ettinger refuses to permit a poli- tical school board to violate the law secured by years of struggle against political domination. What does his board? Discontinues him. Fine- gan reorganizes the supervision of the schools of Pennsylvania. By the opinion of all those open-eyed observers, the travelling bookmen, Pennsyl- vania schools came up into the van. What happens to Finegan ? Poli- ticians pinch him out. What did Baltimore do to Van Sickle and West? Newark, to Corson? Terre Haute, to Engleman ? What were the deeds of that choir invisible, the company of superintendents that were? Win- ship has told us that more school men lose their positions for improving the service than for leaving it as it is. This leads your John Beveridge to tell the life insurance men that school superintendency is the most hazard- ous of all occupations. This leads to a type of supervision by principals and superintendents of the sort that justified Dr. Eliot to tell this Asso- ciation that school service is fifty years behind the science of it. This produces the "inspirational address" and a sort of evangelical supervision Department of Superintendence 69 in which the Third-Napoleon-fallacy persists in telling teachers how noble, conscientious, and able they are, with no other basis for the declaration than a desire to please. Coffman sneers at us when he quotes a well-known superintendent of 1917: "The business of a supervisor is to cast a genial influence over his schools, but otherwise he is not to interfere with the work." As long as I can remember, the favorite pose of principal and superintendent has been that of a dear little Coue, saying to all his school people, "Every day in every way you're getting better and better and better." The re- sult may be a coming Gravelotte and Sedan. It may be a setback result- ing from the protests of the Pritchetts, the Lowells, the granges, the cham- bers of commerce, and the associations of the mayors and governors. But that is not the main consideration. The question is what is the chief end of principals and superintendent ? Truly there is no respectable theory of their service other than to do their stint in a thorough and workman- like manner, let the axe fall where it may. Let them each, therefore, throw away those shiny baubles of long ago: poise, pleasing personality, and the attainment of popularity. Noboby really loves a lazy commander. The old conception of principal as foster father to delightful boys and girls is not satisfying the Pritchetts. "The principal is on the platform ; let all the school keep silence before him," hasn't brought us any whither worth coming to. Let the superintendent now say, "My son, your main business is with teachers; not with pupils and parents. Let me see your plan of organization. Simple Simon had not any, but he is dead at present. The motto of efficient service, as Thomas Briggs reminds us, is organize, deputize, supervise. Let me see your plan. Your institution is part of the public school system. I am responsible for it. I want to know how you deputize the supervision of the f2nglish teachers, of the Latin teachers, and of all the people who teach anything. I want to know what you do to see that the habits of penmanship, language, and other things that we have built up at much expense in the lower schools are preserved in yours. I want you and your deputized supervisors to get into those schools enough to know how they are doing things so that you may direct your people to work accord- ingly. Head-architect Burnham had the planners of every building in the great World's Fair inspect the whole works every morning to get unity, harmony, and completeness. I want you to tell me what abilities you expect your children to have at definite periods. I'll send somebody to go and find out by tests whether they have those abilities. What book on high-school supervision do you set most store by? What have you learned about the attention-holding quotient of your various teachers? What mastery units have you decided on for your history? Have you made them few and simple enough to leave the teachers time for their favorite and valuable hobbies? Understand, my son, that I am not trying to dominate you. Dear no! I merely want to be sure that you are making a business of your business and not running a Sunday school in 70 National Education Association which nobody interferes with teachers. 1 want you to understand I'm with you. \ our success is my chief desire. If you liave superintend- entitis, I consider that all right, too. Although, to tell the honest truth high-school principals are happier than superintendents. So organize, my son, organize and deputize, and supervise. I'll back you. Tell your teachers they mustn't run to me. I'll hear them, of course, but never unless you're present." That ladies and uentlemen, is high-school supervision from a superin- tendent's standpoint. He can't help high-school education much unless he can get principals to roll up their sleeves and remake their high-school systems. They need sympathy and help. They have inherited a silk mill, built and equipped to weave the most delicate threads into orna- mental patterns. A cataclysmic change has dumped among their raw material wool and flax, sisal, hemp, and wood pulp. The principals must be helped to so reorganize as to deliver a well-known useful fabric suit- able for stout sails for the ship of state. Who despairs ? So far as I can see, every one worth knowing is glad that the hundred researchers in the laboratories of the schools of education and, under their inspiration, teachers in the classrooms of high schools, are reducing our profession from a mess of glittering generalities to a nearer approach to a science of surety. We want to be in line with the progress of those mate- rial constructionists who can build a car that inevitably runs, who manage a railroad that gets you to your goal. We want to be in the class of those engineers in human welfare who know they can prevent cholera and yellow fever, who know an increasingly large number of diseases they can cure. All around us in the humbler occupations we see the conquering of uncertainty as in that beautiful rhythmic sign in Albany, "No woman so fat but we can make her stylish," or that other proud boast of a mas- ter of trade on Warren Street, New York City, "You don't have to try on the pants I make for you." •From these ridiculous exampleti to that sublime realization of the hope of the fathers is a step, long enough, no doubt. But the best men of our time have faith that the schools can take it, for from Washington to Coolidge it has been the faith of the fathers that the schools are the hope of the world. WHAT TEACHERS WANT IN SUPERVISION CORNiiLIA S. ADAIR, PRESIDENT OF THK NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCLA- TION, RICHMOND, VA. When one considers the topic "What Teachers Want in Supervision," another question arises in the mind demanding instant solution, "Why is supervision?" Mature consideratiot^ of the two ciuestions brings to light the fact that there is little if any difference between what teachers want in super\ision and what other thoughtful educational workers want. I)i:i' ARl .\Ii;\|- OF Sui'liRlXTENDENCE 71 The ultimate aim and nu-asurc of all supi'ix isioii is the progress oi a child. All school iuachiner\ exists that liis growth may he guided in the right direction. Tliat teacher is greatest who creates within the school an atmos- phere of freedom, growth, and responsihilit\ . That principal is greatest who gives teachers tiie maximum freedom and who secures the largest growth and self-imposed responsibility. That superintendent is greatest who is most able to develop principals and teachers and to keep them free in their wttrk with the children. That system of city or state supervision is best which fosters the finest adaption of the schools in each local com- munity to the highest needs and ideals of that community. Super\ision has been influenced in spirit and method b\' the shift from autocracy to democracy in the management of human life. While there is still much in our educational practice that belongs to the middle ages, steady and substantial progress is being made in the direction of wiser and more wholesome methods of handling people. This is nowhere better illustrated than in the epoch-making Sixth Year- book of the Department of Superintendence on the Development of the High School Curriculum. This \earbook is literally an example of super- vision. It is the \ision of the best minds in American education working on the greatest collection of facts relating to the secondary school ever brought together. Its aim is not uniformity or standardization in the narrow sense, but diversity and the adaption of the school to the needs of individual children and of the various communities. Its aim is not to enslave the teacher to a fixed way of doing things, but to free the teacher by bringing out the facts and the principles so that they may be applied in the readaptation of our secondary schools. This is a democratic attitude. In this yearbook is also found a clear statement of the responsibility of the secondary school for all adolescent youth rather than merely for a part of them. The high school of the past may have excluded many pupils because they were restless or unin- terested or could not profit from what it had to ofifer. The high school of tomorrow, following the lines laid down in this yearbook, will find a way to meet the needs of all adolescent youth. It will recognize clearly that the pupils who tend to drop out at early ages are often the ones who need the atmosphere of the school most. Supervision developed in accord with this ideal will lead teachers to elevate student growth abo\e the mere mastery of subjectmatter. This does not mean that we shall value scholar- ship less but rather that we shall value growth and the all-round develop- ment of young people more. iModern supervision recognizes the simple principle that children grow through their own activity'. It seeks therefore to guide and direct their activit\ and nf)t to repress it unnecessarily. Through the teachings of John I)v'we\, which iia\e jircjfoundh influenced educational theory antl practice there \u\\^ the dncrrinc of guided growth. This great philosopher emphasized the need of a kind of super\isiori which shall gi\e to the indi- \idual child greater freedom and responsibilitx . Under the Dewey dis- 72 National Education Association pensation each school is a little society in which the embryo citizen under simple and guided conditions is enabled to make his mistakes and learn his lessons protected from the exploitation and the penalties of a selfish and competitive civilization. If a child is to grow there must be things to do that involve more than mere verbal situations. Progress is not made by don'ts and stop's. Necessary as these may be at times, they are not the normal approach to growth, and joy, and power. Just as the supervision of children has been made more constructive by the modern educational advance, so has the supervision of teaching become a profession in itself. The development of the departments within the National Education Association suggests this growth. The Department of Secondary School Principals is larger than the whole Association was a few years ago. It is a far cry from the socalled early supervision which consisted of an occasional visit to the school by the district trustees, to the highly trained, sympathetic, and efficient supervision of the modern school principal and his staff. This development has been made possible by the improvement in the status and training of teachers. If teachers are to be free and effective in the larger sense — if they are really to be great technicians as well as fine and noble personalities — they must be well-trained. It is for this reason that the National Education Association has said that every teacher should have four years of training beyond the four year high school. The growth of the teacher-training movement is most encouraging. Normal schools are becoming teachers colleges. Two year normal schools are becoming three year schools. Attendance at summer schools is increas- ing. During the summer of 1927, according to figures published in The Journal of the National Education Association, 250,000 teachers took courses in education. Study on the part of teachers in service has also grown until in cities like New York, Boston, Cleveland, and Detroit there are thousands of practicing teachers who take extension courses from the best talent in the teacher training field. Cincinnati put into operation in September a salary schedule which encourages training for all teachers through the four year level and beyond. Directing the work of a corps of teachers such as is being built up in Cincinnati is very different from the sort of petty direction required for many teachers in rural communities who have had no professional training at all. This petty supervision, which may have been inevitable in the pioneer stages of teaching, becomes less and less necessary as teachers im- prove in training and working skill. Early supervision was often unwel- come because its real purpose was misunderstood both by the teacher and by the supervisor. Sometimes supervision is not kindly received because of the personality or spirit of the supervisor himself. But such cases are growing rarer as the principles of supervision are becoming better under- stood. Supervision has to do with the improvement of the teaching act, the selection of organization or subjectmatter, testing and measuring, and the improvement of teachers in service. Everyone grants that the principal Department of Superintendence 73 aim of supervision is the improvement of teaching. This end will be ac- complished by inspiring and encouraging the good teacher to further study and experimentation, and by redirecting and improving the work of the average and the poor teacher. Good supervision has definite, well-understood standards and a well- organized program. It is essentially a cooperative procedure. It supplies the means which enable teachers to live up to the set standards and to carry out the authorized program. One who goes about as an inspector or detective will not gain coopera- tion. He will never see the best work of teachers, because of the nervous stram to which he subjects them. A dictator is of no real assistance to teachers! What teachers need is inspirational leadership. Much that is superimposed is valueless. Encouragement and suggestions together with helpful demonstrations will build up a teaching morale worthy of the name. In their supervisors, teachers hope to see the qualities they themselves should possess and more. They demand in them a certain amount of per- sonality and enough power to inspire confidence in their professional ability. They want them to have a thorough knowledge of the art of teaching and willingness to make, occasionally at least, a carefully detailed study of a recitation before entering upon any criticism of it. In conference, teachers would have their supervisors speak sincerely, make a simple straight-for- ward statement of facts, and give them an opportunity to do likewise. I must pause to make a special plea for better supervision in rural schools. In spite of our theory that every child should have a fair start in life, it is possible to find in many states of the union wonderful city schools side by side with rural schools that are utterly inadequate when measured by the needs and standards of modern life. Too often countv and even state superintendents are selected for petty political reasons rather than for edu- cational qualifications. The National Education Association has said in Its resolutions that such officers should be chosen by lay boards— that they should be selected not from the small areas they are to serve, but from the best talent available anywhere in the country. Only thus can we bring to rural schools the professional supervision which they need even more than city schools. In spite of the rich educa- tional materials that lie at its very doors; in spite of the crying needs of rural life for a curriculum that will develop men and women able to deal with rural problems in a large way, the course of study in rural schools IS in sad need of revision. Few workers are trained to undertake the task. It has been made evident b\ the studies of the Curriculum Commis- sion of the Department of Superintendence that the tvpical high school is still the small semi-rural high school. And yet how few there are at work on its problems! Beyond the work of the principal there is in every school system a wider direction— perhaps more accurately called administration than supervision— which concerns intimately the growth of every child and teacher. Con- sider for example the sweeping implication of the course of study itself— a schedule of work which largely determines all school activities. 74 Nationai, Education Association Every educational system which tries to keep its education abreast of the needs of a rapidly changing civilization must wage a constant battle to keep its course of study flexible enough to be in accordance with the needs of the children. Courses of study reflect child needs best when they are the product of the cooperati\e effort of teachers and supervisors. Curriculum building has proved one of the best means yet found for training teachers in service. As such it yields advantages to the school system in ways not obtainable through other processes of supervision. It helps to train each teacher to study the problems of the individual child. It encourages them to seek a new content in education and to vitalize the old content by more effective forms of organization and interpretation. It inspires to wider vision. Supervision once meant inspection. Later it meant petty dictation. Now it means inspiring leadership. For the masses of teachers this leader- ship will be associated more and more with supervising principals of broad training and fine personal character. As van Dyke sang the praise of the unknown teacher, may I sing the praise of the unknown principal ? Great superintendents plan school systems, but the principal leads and guides the teachers. He communicates his own joy in service and shares with them the treasures of his mind. He lights many candles which in later years will shine back to cheer him. This is his reward. I have chosen to develop the meaning of supervision in this broader setting rather than in its narrower definition, because it has seemed possible thereby to emphasize the new ideals that are guiding not only school man- agement, but also sound management in business, in industry, and in the home. What teachers want — what we all want — most in supervision is leader- ship, human, constructive, inspiring. We want our leaders to be men and women of sterling character, possessed of penetrating discernment, bound- less sympathy and an insatiable desire for the complete development of 30uth. We want them rich in experience and culture, open-minded in training, clear-eyed in purpose, embodying in their personalities high ideals of work, lofty standards of achievement and a keen dissatisfaction with less than their best. CAN HIGH-SCHOOL SUPERVISION BE MADE SCIENTIFIC:' CHARLliS H. JUDU, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF KDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICACO, CHICAGO, ILI,. High-school supcr\ isujii cannot be made scientific without arduous labor. There are unfortunately some people who think that science is easy to inject into all kinds of situations. For example, a principal writes to a college professor as follows, "Our school has a six-period program; eacli period is 55 minutes in length. Do you tliink this program is too heavy for pupils of high-school age?" The college professor who gets this letter niii'ARiMi'N r OF Superintendence 75 knows that the principal who wrote it is in trouble with a local physician, or with the president and secretary of his parents' association. What the principal wants is a document that he can la\' before his board with the statement that it comes from a scientific expert. There is a quieting effect on some boards of education in the wcjrds "scientific expert." The local physician is scientific; members of boards of education know about scientific business management, it the principal can get a pronouncement from some- one far enough away from his town, he may be able to convince his board that he is operating under the sanction of science. I shall not pursue this matter of the correspondence between the principal and the college professor further lest it lead to revelations which probably ought not to be made public. My purpose is served if I add the statement that no one knows whether that program is too heavy or not until he has studied the situation with sufficient care and detail to arrive at a verifiable conclusion based on facts not supplied in the off-hand letter. The get- scientific-quick method of extricating oneself from supervisory difficulty may serve the temporary purpose of quieting an aroused community, but it is not a safe or valid method for scientific control for the schools. There are some principals who are willing to go further than to write letters to supposed experts. They go so far as to take a summer quarter course or two in the science of education. The\' establish themselves after these courses on the firm ground of one of the leading scientific generaliza- tions and begin operation. There came into my hands some time ago an application for a fellowship. The applicant was a high-school principal. Among the achievements which he enumerated as entitling him to fa\orable consideration was one on which he laid great stress, evidently considering it a mark of the most advanced training and an evidence of his determina- tion to be in the front rank of educational scientists. He said, "Since I came to this school, I have completely reorganized the method of marking. Every teacher in this school now follows strictly the normal curve in distributing his or her marks." I have a vivid picture in m\ imagination of the wa\ in which the teachers in that school have been browbeaten into adopting the normal curve. I can see the pride with which this enthusiastic youth looks over the bookkeeping which he has perfected and reports to the neighboring count\ institute the unqualified success of his efforts to bring science into a situation which was formerly conducted in utter ignorance of the findings of the best educational research. I trust that no one will misunderstand m\- position. The normal curve is a most useful instrument in the hands of one who understands its value. 1 know of no more stimulating method of inducing teachers to study the whole problem of developing an equitable system of grading pupils than to have them compare the distribution of their own marks with those of other teachers and with the normal cur\e. On the other iiand, I know of nothing more stupid than to dictate as a matter of in\ariable rule that the normal curve shall be followed rigidh b\ all teachers in the distribution 76 National Education Association of their marks. The trouble with the young applicant whom I quoted is that he had too slight an acquaintance with the normal curve. It would be possible to offer an endless number of examples of what may properly be called ignorant enthusiasm for the science of education. The latest which came to my attention was in the form of an article submitted for publication to the School Review. The article in question was written by a professor in a university department of modern languages. He had evi- dently participated in some of the testing initiated by the national com- mission in charge of the Modern Language Inquiry. Evidently, also, he had never heard of the long labors by which educational tests in other fields have been refined. He wrote in glowing terms of a new educational era when other subjects in the curriculum will adopt the practice which the modern languages have found to be productive, namely, the practice of judging the success or non-success of instruction by tests. He pointed out that tests will show any teacher exactly how the results secured in his class compare with results secured elsewhere. The writer of this article urged all schools and colleges to use tests. The author evidently felt it to be his duty to bring the overwhelming importance of tests to the attention of a hitherto unenlightened public. Our editorial board considered seriously publishing this article as a means of introducing a little humor into the sometimes too somber pages of the School Review. There would be very little justification for the present paper if it could contribute nothing but examples of the misuse of the science of education. I have ventured to report such cases as I have cited because I believe the science of education is in critical need of a kind of support which the great body of administrators do not fully understand. The science of education requires at this moment the expenditure of an enormous amount of energy. The science of education is understaffed and undersupported. The number of workers who are attempting to carry on educational research is pitifully small and wholly inadequate to the demands. I have thought of this occa- sion as a strategic opportunity to make a plea for a new type of support for the scientific study of high-school problems. I shall try to persuade you that the high schools of this country must think of their task in a new way. I shall try to convince you that it is expedient and economical for high schools to become centers for the scientific study of the problems of adoles- cent education. Let me be concrete. I remember some years ago visiting the New York City High School of Commerce when the late Mr. Shepard was principal. There was a record in the principal's office of the activities of each of the teachers in the school. The record showed what subjects the teachers taught, how many pupils were in each class, how many pupils passed and failed, and so on. There was one item in the record which interested me very much. It showed how many pupils in each class elected a related subject during the year following instruction by a given teacher. I was interested in this item because it revealed very clearly the fact that some teachers influenced their pupils positively while others did not. I recall Department of Superintendence 77 that there was one teacher of mathematics whose pupils in large percentage went on with advanced courses in that field and that there was another teacher working under almost identical conditions as to subjects of instruc- tion and numbers of pupils whose influence was almost zero as shown by subsequent elections. It required some energy to compile the records to which I have referred and there were a number of items on which information was collected year after year which did not seem to be as significant as the one which 1 selected for special comment. The energy required for the compiling of the record undoubtedly lessened the amount of time which someone could expend in supervising extracurriculum activities or in holding conferences with parents or teachers or in performing some of the other duties which princi- pals ordinarily think of as normal routine. I do not hesitate, however, to assert that such careful and complete records kept in every school in this country would give an objectivit\' and precision to high-school supervision which are at present largely lacking. Why is there so little work done in high-school offices in the preparation and study of scientific material on which supervision is to be based ? We all know the excuse commonly offered. It is said that there are no funds available for such records. Or it is said that the principal is so fully occupied that he cannot find time to think of such matters. At the risk of making a statement that will not be palatable to some of the members of my audience, I shall say what I believe to be true and I shall depend on your good nature to hear me through in the hope that we may ultimately part on amicable terms. It is my firm conviction that the reason high schools are not scientifically conducted is not that resources or time are lacking, but that high-school principals are as a class uninterested in scientific methods of investigation. It is my belief that if principals were scientifically minded, they could persuade communities to provide the neces- sary energy to put high-school education on a thoroughly sound and valid basis. In making this assertion, I do not for a moment overlook the fact that the high-school principals of this country are a highly educated and highly intelligent group. Many of them are thoroughly grounded in literature and histor> and some are productive scholars in mathematics and physics. They were, in many instances, transferred overnight from the field in which they were doing effective work as teachers and were transformed into principals without being changed internally in any respect. The result is that the_\' do their thinking, when they indulge in that higher form of in- tellectual exersise, in the fields of literature or physics and they carry on their activities as supervisory and administrative officers with no more special skill than would be brought to the task by ordinary men. What I am saying does not imply that these non-scientific principals are failures in conducting their schools. Quite the contrary, many of them are men of such good sense that they find what seem to be in most instances adequate solutions for the problems which arise among teachers and pupils. 78 National Education Association The solutions which arc adequate are, liowever, seldom of the type that can be defended as well founded on scientific grounds. The high schools of this country are, for the most part, conducted with the best of intentions and with a high degree of success, but by methods which are only vaguely defined and often quite tentative and fluctuating. The remedy for the present situation does not lie in mere individual change of attitude. If some principal becomes aware of the necessity of finding scientifically defensible grounds for his action, he immediately dis- covers that he is an isolated individual. There is very meager information about the practices of high schools in general to which reference can be made by any individual who begins to study high-school problems. Let me cite a few cases in point. It has recently been said of American high schools that they administer curriculums which are "ropes of sand." This rhetorical phrase is, I admit, somewhat vague. I am interested in emphasizing the fact that when one begins to refute the charge, one finds in the literature of high-school supervision very little definite material with which to answer or confirm what is said. An answer from a single school is inadequate. We ought to know much more than we now know in a definite way about the extent to which the studies pursued b\ individual high-school pupils really w^eave themselves into coherent curriculums. Again one hears the statement that there is here and there an oversupply of teachers. What constitutes an oversupply ? How does an oversupply in one city — assuming that it exists — affect the supply in other centers? Additional examples of uncertainty in regard to the conduct of schools appear when one tries to find out what are the relations of a high-school principal to the city superintendent of schools. Or what are the relations of a principal to his teachers in such matters as the determination of the methods which shall be followed in the classrooms, in the disposition of disciplinary cases, and in so fundamental a matter as initial appointment. There must be broad general principles to which appeal can be made in dealing with matters of the various types mentioned. These broad general principles cannot be ascertained through purely personal endeavor. The profession must address itself as a body to the study and scientific solution of the general problems of high-school administration and supervision. A thoroughgoing science of education will be possible only when cooperation is established on a sufficiently broad scale to supply a vast body of energy and full use of the facilities for experimentation furnished by all high schools. At the present time there are a few men in scattered university centers, in state departments of education, and in a few isolated high schools who are carrjing on studies on the margin of time left after performing other duties. Each man does a small piece of work periodically and timidly publishes his results. The stream of common practice flows on very little affected by these side eddies. The magnitude of the educational enterprise is enormous!)' great ; the magnitude of the scientific output is relatively insignificant. Department of Superintendence 79 Very often scientific research is seriously limited by the fact that the man who would be interested in carryinjj^ on the research is without the authority necessary to permit the work. Colleges of education have tried in many mstances to secure opportunities for scientific work by organizing schools under their own control. Individual investigators have often found them- selves so entangled in red tape and so inhibited by tradition that they have been completely blockaded in their inquiries. 1 he fact IS that schools are organized as operating concerns. Means for the study and criticism of school operations have not been provided as a part of the routine. This appears in the fact that an ordinarv principal of a middle sized high school has more distracting duties than would be assigned m industry to any kind of supervisorv officer. While industry has learned to set up well-equipped laboratories and to guide its activities by the exercise of the most drastic scrutiny of its results, schools have been asked by the public to use every ounce of available energv in operation If htty new pupils come to a high school, the board of education mav emplo\ a new teacher, but it u ill certainly not think of providing an assistant to the principal. Among new pupils there uvav be problem cases which call for caretul diagnosis; some of the pupils mav come ill prepared and be for this reason, in need of special attention; thev mav be undecided in their interests and in need of training of a type ncjt Commonly provided in the school. Does the community supply expertlv trained research people to study the f^fty new pupils? Not at all. It is commonh' believed that the principal who is now dealing with seven hundred pupils can take on fifty mcjre without any recognition of the fact that his duties have been increased. The public IS not wholly to blame for its attitude. Very few principals have ever asked for facilities with which to make a careful studv of teachers and pupils and the public does not know that teachers and pupils need to be studied. 1 must repeat in substance what I said a few moments ago. 1 he profession must become scientifically minded or the schools will con- tinue to be supervised on the basis of purely personal judgments. Since I have urged the profession to take up scientific studies, it may be thought that it is my duty to outline plans which will insure the achievement of the end which I have advocated. 1 have several concrete suggestions to offer. First. I suggest that high-school principals develop as frequent opportuni- ties as they can for conferences with one another regarding the problems which they encounter and regarding successful devices for meeting these problems. Principals in neighboring'communities could very advantageously meet at least once a month and ask one another regarding such a iiKUter as their respective methods of judging teachers. President Eliot is said to have formed his judgments regarding the teaching ability of members of the Harvard faculty by reading the examination questions which these teachers set for their classes. A canvass of the school supervisors of the country would undoubtedly bring to light a number of other useful plans. M\ colleague Morrison has suggested that the extent to which a teacher 80 National Education Association holds the attention of his or her class is an objective indication of the degree of the teacher's success. Principals could well afford to spend much time and energy gathering suggestions of this type. Another question which principals might discuss in conference is the question of how far the results of tests are to be used in rating teachers. I know one great school system which holds that the results of tests are not proper bases for the rating of teachers. It is argued that the individ- ual teacher is not responsible for the kind of pupils that are sent to his or her class through promotion, nor for the curriculum which is required to be administered. Why, then, should the classroom teacher be respon- sible for the results of tests? It is the obligation of the central officer to adjust matters if pupils are found to be deficient. In direct contrast with the attitude of the school system to which I have just referred is that of another system where the curriculum is assumed to be correctly standardized and where promotion is thought of as properly adjusted. In this second system, teachers are rated strictly in accordance with the show- ings made by their pupils on the tests arranged in the central office. I can think of nothing that would furnish a more appropriate theme for a principal's conference than the problems suggested by this contrast in attitudes on the value of tests. In suggesting that principals meet and discuss such questions as those proposed, I am not assuming that the science of education will be directly advanced by the early meetings, I am confident, however, that after men have discussed such questions, there will very soon develop an interest in supervisory problems which will inspire the participants in the dis- cussion to seek objective evidence on which to base decisions and practices. There will begin to appear a scientific mind which is essential to participa- tion in the productive study of school problems. My second suggestion is made in the belief that a scientific attitude once established will seek and find means of promoting widespread re- search. I suggest that principals go about the task of converting boards of education and the public to an understanding of the fact that decisions about school policy should be reached in the light of facts. We are in a period of serious jeopardy to school interests. The expenditures for schools have come to be so vast that all kinds of sinister forces are begin- ning to seek places in the councils of public control of education. Con- scientious educators are so busy with their daily tasks that they seldom take the time to show the public the real character and complexity of school supervision and management. The result is that the public con- sumes the energy of school officers in meeting trivial demands. The public seems blind to the fact that absorption in petty details interferes with the real interests of pupils. The principal of a high -school who with sensi- tive conscience gives all his time to answering miscellaneous office callers is not really serving the public as he should. As the leader of the school, the principal ought to take time to plan for the development of the institu- tion and he ought to devise ways of convincing the public that he is Department of Superintendence 81 serving them when he works behind closed doors. The principal ought to prepare reports which will keep the public reading. In direct line with this suggestion is another of like import. The public ought to pay for expert research assistance in every school. There is nothing so convincing to the public as a draft on its purse. The public will not understand and appreciate educational research until it has paid for it. At present, the public pays most of its money for teaching and appropriates only a small amount for supervision. The public pays out- side of the schools a great deal for science. I have waited in the outer office of my oculist, as 1 dare say the rest of you have done, and I have contemplated with respect the difficulty of securing his services and the amounts which he is likely to charge me. I have noted the eagerness with which people await their turns. He is a scientist. When he decides that 1 do thus and so, I do it. 1 have been unable on occasions when holding such meditations with myself to avoid contrasting the way in which the scientist disposes of people with the way in which people impose on educa- tors. I repeat what 1 said a moment ago. The public must be taught to pay for expert research of high-school problems. I suggest that every high school with ten members on its faculty employ an expert to gather information about teachers, pupils, and curriculum. The public is get- ting less education for its present investment than it should. The public deserves to have its educational problems subjected to the most criticdl study. Let us give the public what it needs. One of the chief reasons why a school should be supplied with time for scientific study of its problems is that records may be kept which will make'possible comparisons of different schools with one another. One of the most striking indictments against the high schools of this country is that they demand of the colleges that credentials of graduates shall be asked for only on uniform blanks, but they do not, so far as I know, ex- hibit the slightest interest in uniformity of records in any other connec- tion. High schools have their private methods of registering pupils, of reporting grades, of keeping account of discipline, of crediting extracurric- ulum activities, and of recording the activities of teachers. The financial officers of schools long ago discovered the advantages of comparisons which are made possible because of the existence of uniform methods of bookkeeping. Principals seem to be wholly unaware of these advantages. The higliest ambition of each high-school principal seems to be to invent a new blank on which academic records are to be recorded. I know a great city in which the high schools of the single system are so divided in their practices with regard to records that scientific studies through comparison are impossible, even if there were anyone in that system interested in the science of education. The high-school principals of this country will some day keep uniform cumulative records of their schools. Even a change in administration will not result in a destruction of records or a break in the continuity of standard information. The profession as a whole will dictate as a 82 National Education Association matter first of response to the demand for public information and second as a contribution to scientific studies that academic officers do as well as financial officers and as well as the best public utility corporations. It is an astonishing fact that it is impossible in many high schools to ascertain what courses of study were offered ten years ago and even more impossible to find out how many pupils elected certain subjects four years ago. The state of public high-school records is chaotic beyond all possible defense. My next suggestion is a negative one but it is offered with all the em- phasis that I can put into words. High-school principals should not ex- pect educational science to be brought to them in the form of simple rules of conduct which are merely to be followed. Projects are undoubtedly good when they are genuine, but there are times when school work can- not be cast in the project mould. New type examinations are very use- ful when one wants an objective measure of the extent to which pupils have absorbed one hundred items of information. There are occasions, however, when an examination should test the pupil's ability to formulate a train of ideas into a coherent discussion. On such occasions, the new type examinations should not be used. He who is truly master of scientific research will not think of projects and new type examinations as devices to be used without discrimination. Science is above all analytical and discriminating. He who would use science must become critical and dis- criminating in his own personal thinking. The science of education is a stimulating body of thought. It is not a series of rules to be slavishly followed. I picture to myself the future principal of a high school, the man who fulfils in the most complete measure the injunction to approach his task as a scientist should. This man will be equipped with such information as others have collected and made available in educational literature. He will know the types of pupils who have been measured and described through tests and laboratory experiments. He will understand the various, learning processes by which pupils respond to instruction in different de- partments. He will be acquainted with the discoveries that have been made in regard to methods of teaching. He will be familiar with the devices of supervision used by his fellow principals. He will be em- ployed by a board of education who will say to him that it is not his duty to cater to the wishes of every parent and teacher. He will have time to use his scientific training and he will approach each of the large problems that confront him as his professional colleagues, the doctor, the lawyer, and the engineer approach their problems. He will have a reason- able number of assistants and he will be responsible for results of a superior type. I am frank to say that I do not expect to find this type of principal where men have been catapulted late in life into supervisory office after spending their best years specializing on Virgil, or physics. 1 expect to see the principalships of this country occupied by men trained in the methods of scientific supervision. Then supervision will become scientific Department of Superintendence 83 exactl\' as all tin- other modern undertakings ha\c become scientific because the>' are in the hands of competent men who have learned that success depends on the collection of objective facts, on the derivation of broad principles of action from these facts and on the discriminating application of these principals to the emergencies of practical life. THE WORK Of THE SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENT vv. w. charters, professor of education university of CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. We are completing a comprehensive analysis of the duties of adminis- trative offices, including those of the different types of superintendents and principals. We have read 1167 books and articles written in the field of administration, and have drawn from them all the activities that are mentioned in them. We have collected by correspondence a list of duties from over 1000 administrators, and have utilized all the analytical studies that have been included. From all these sources, we have gathered together approximately 18,000 statements of activities including duplicates. The following are a few illustrations of the activities as handled by us: Accompanying the board of directors through the school; addressing teachers; addressing Y. \l. C. A. organizations on the value of the high ">'" to the school; assigning playground activities to teachers; substituting for a teacher during illness; participating in campaigns for the chamber of commerce. Upon these duties we centered the processes of classification, and as we did so, we found that we might use either one of two types of classifica- tion— the structural or the functional. The first of these types of clas- sification deals with the thing, the object, the materials, the people with which the administrator works. Roughly speaking, they are the nouns in the sentences. So upon this basis it is possible to classify all duties under the nouns and secure such headings as parents, pupils, teachers, schedules, attendance, records, truant officer, athletics, games, and courses of study. We have collected over 5000 things with which the administrator deals. With these concepts selected as the major divisions of the analysis, we then proceed to classify and list the activities that the administrator carries on in connection with, or by means of, these objects. To illustrate: When we use such a term as pupils, we find that the administrator accompanies pupils, addresses groups of pupils, adjusts difficulties in connection with pupils, admits them, advises them, awards honors to them, commends efiort. and disciplines. By this procedure we are able to set forth all the parts of the school and community machinery, and in a complete sur- vey, we can tell what the administrator's active relations are with each of these. On the other hand, we might resort to a functional analysis, in which case, we consider the activities that the administrator performs, and classify those, according to t\pe. Froin this point of view, we find that 84 National Education Association he accepts general responsibility, accords support, he advises, arouses in- terest, assigns, beautifies, constructs, distributes, employs, formulates, finances, and trains. These you will see, are roughly the verbs in the sen- tences which express the activities. Then when we proceed to an analysis of the next level, we have a sub- classification of the objects of the activities. For instance, he accompanies boards of education, parents, pupils, teachers, school officers, visitors, and community officials to various places. I do not have time this morning to describe in detail the nuances of this analysis. Rather, I must stop with the approximate statement that it is possible to have a structural analysis by paying attention to the nouns, or a functional analysis by paying attention to the verbs. In one case, the nouns are made major, the verbs minor ; in the other case, the activities as verbs are major, and the objects as nouns are minor. When we made the functional analysis we discovered that the activities of administrators were expressed in the canvassed sources in terms of verbs, or activities, and these when classified can be condensed into a list of 87 type activities. It is unnecessary to introduce a complete list because the verbs will be published later. But a sample of the first 15 verbs will be given. These run as follows : Accepting general responsibility for ; accompanying persons; according support to; acting as official in contest; addressing groups; adjusting difficulties between people; adjusting diffi- culties relating to school procedure; admitting pupils; advising; announcing matters of interest; arousing interest; arranging materials; articulating activities; assigning duties; attending to correspondence. It may seem at first glance that the selection of one or the other type of classification is a matter of little moment. But on more careful thought, the fact is revealed that the picture of the administrator's job is changed if we shift the type of analysis from structure to function. This can be best illustrated by a consideration of two types of courses that might be offered for administrators. First, the usual professional textbook in the schools of administration is organized on a structural basis, and deals with such topics as the state school system, the county school system, city school district, boards of education, superintendents, the teach- ing corps, the courses of study, tests, the health department, attendance, the library, costs, records, and reports. The list of these headings indi- cates clearly that if the administrator covers the text, he deals with one part, or object, or instrument, of the school system after another in serial order, and presumably under each as a minor topic he considers the activ- ities that the administrator carries on with each. As a result of this arrangement major attention is given to the struc- ture and only minor attention is and can be given to the activities, since there is a limit to the size of volumes and length of courses. Consequently, very little attention is paid to the technics of the activities which the ad- ministrator carries on in connection with each of the structural units of the school system. Department of Superintendence 85 If now, we turn to the other approach through the activities, we find a quite different situation, and in the last analysis, a different content to the courses. So dift'erent is this content that I think the course should have a different name, and perhaps should be called the technics of ad- ministrators activities, or if the less comprehensive view were taken of the course, it might be dubbed the psychology of school administration. In such a course I should want to consider each type activity in terms of five headings. We would obviously want to know what the objec- tives of the activities are, what are the standards by which successful per- formance is measured, the difficulties encountered in carrying on the ac- tivities, the solutions for these difficulties that have been worked out by administrators, and the principles upon which these administrative measures are based, where any principles are discoverable. Let me put some flesh upon this skeleton. First, we shall consider the simple activity called accompanying. Here we find that the administrator accompanies boards of education, parents, pupils, visitors, and so forth. If I were considering this question as a unit in a course on the technics of administrative activities, I should want to inquire, first, "What is the object of accompanying teachers, or pupils, or boards of education?" Why should the superintendent spend time doing that or in having it done by a subordinate ? We shall have a discussion of the reasons for there are a variety which influence the superintendent's technic in carrying on this activity. He may want to accompany school visitors, for instance, from motives of vanity to show how efficient his school is, for unbiased and searching criticisms from visitors, or to illustrate a principle in which he believes. And the objective definitely influences the procedure that he follows in carrying out the activities. Second, it is important for him to have criteria by which to know whether it has been worthwhile to carrj^ on this activity. What are the signs by which he will know whether or not he has properly impressed his visitors, or has secured the criticisms that he wanted, or has put the principle across? Without constantly measuring his activities by sub- stantial criteria, the superintendent cannot be sure which of his efforts pay and which do not. Third, he should then be interested in finding out what difficulties he encounters in accompanying persons. They may be lack of time, lack of intelligent interest on* the part of the visitors and so forth. Obviously, it is important to know what these difficulties are, if one wishes to be efficient in carrying on the activity. If it is worthwhile for a superin- tendent to accompany visitors, he needs to study the technics in order to discover the causes of the poor trips. Fourth, when these difficulties have been located, it would be of interest to know how the difficulties can be eliminated. How, for instance, is it possible so to handle intelligent visitors that the superintendent will feel that his accompanying was success- ful ? Or how can he find the time? From many sources this information can be collected, partly from the books, but chiefly from the experience of 86 National Education Association other administrators who have met the same problem. Finall.v, I should like my young administrator to know the principles of psychology and sociology which are applied in the use of successful methods of accompany- ing people. The foregoing example illustrates a quite simple and unimportant activity of an administrator, but the same treatment can be applied with equal facility to more complicated and significant activities. For instance, one of the activities the satisfactory performance of which marks an effi- cient administrator is securing the confidence of the school community; and here again, the same five rubrics are applied. We inquire, first, "Why secure the confidence of the school community?" and the number of objec- tives can be listed. The administrator may wish to secure this confidence for the good of the school or for his own personal advancement, even, specifically, for having his salary raised. We should want to know also the criteria by which the successful securing of confidence is known. When can a superintendent feel that he has secured the confidence of the school community? This is a very important and crucial question, and for it he should have definite criteria. Quite clearly, it would be worth- while to consider the causes that lead to lack of confidence on the part of the individual. This diagnosis is fundamental to successful adminis- trative work. When these causes have been discovered, it would be neces- sary to collect methods of removing this lack of confidence and substituting for it a wholesome attitude of approval and good will. Finally, it would be very important for the administrator to have a knowledge of the prin- ciples of psychology and of ethics which lie beneath the methods of secur- ing the confidence of a school community. May I be permitted to give another illustration? The administrator has to secure official consideration of important matters by the school board. According to the treatment that I have outlined, he would ask why he needs to have official consideration given to matters, and the answer to this is easy. The criteria by which he can judge of the success of the effort are likewise simple. But when we come to a consideration of the difficulties encountered, we are dealing with a much more complicated subject. Yet the topic is important because the activities of many ad- ministrators are seriously hampered by the failure to get official considera- tion. The board may be indifferent, dilatory, opposed to the superin- tendent, or even possibly dishonest. Then, when these possibilities are canvassed, it will be of equal value to find out how one can know the methods that are used to get action out of an indifferent board, or one that puts off action, or one that is opposed to the superintendent, or one that is dishonest. Finally, again, we should want the administrator to know whatever principles of conduct can be applied in a case such as this. I maintain that these are vital problems to which too little attention is given in our courses for administrators. The administrator likewise advises. There it is again important to know why he should advise in a particular case, and how much advice should Department of Superintendexce 87 be given. If he has to j^ive much advice, he ou^ht to know whether his advice is sufficiently successful for it to be worthwhile for him to continue to i^ive it. It would be very valuable for him likewise to canvass the difficulties encountered in giving advice. He may find difficulties in the sensitiveness of the person seeking advice, lack of intelligence, background, and unwillingness to follow the advice. Then, he will be greatly benefited by a discussion of the technics for giving advice successfully. Many of us frequently feel that much of the advice we give is wasted, and if we are quite efficient we may decide to restrict the amount that is given in the future. Again, there are principles of psychology which may help in guiding us in our operations. The administrator does not carry on the activity of commending effort as much perhaps as he should. Yet, it is one of the duties of adminis- trators, and as such is worthy of more or less careful attention. Here again, we would inquire into the objectives of commending effort. Some of us feel that it has to be handled with great care for fear we commend too generously. Others by nature feel that commendation is not neces- sary. But serious consideration needs to be given to the question of what and how much commendation should be given, and for what pur- poses. This we follow by a consideration of the criteria for such an ac- tivity. We may commend, for instance, to promote morale, create happi- ness, and stimulate effort. H it does not do these things, or accomplish other acceptable results, it is not successful. It is important to consider the difficulties, the handicaps, in the way of giving commendation, due to the personal peculiarities of either the one commended or the one com- mending. Undoubtedly, it is a matter of quite considerable importance to know the technics for commending effort efficiently. Sometimes com- mendation on the part of some individuals seems to be insulting to the one who is being praised. Often, it is tactless and ungracious, and fre- quently lacking in charm. Sometimes, it is too obvious and at other times too subtle. Any consideration of these technics would be greatly strengthened by the intelligent use of the principles of psycholog}'. I might continue these illustrations indefinitely to cover the whole round of type activities, but that is unnecessary. I might have ceased with the first illustration, but 1 have given others because I want to get clearly across the differences between structural treatment in conventional courses, and this functional treatment which I advocate. 1 believe that if the material has been properly presented, the audience will agree with me that there is something to be gained by a course such as this, for, as has been said, in the structural treatment, the activities are treated incidentally, and time is not given for the development of their technics. In a course with this functional organization, the technics are made prominent, and an opportunity- is gi\en to describe them in detail, with the result, I believe that an administrator who has studied his activities from the functional angle, either in class or on the job, and has discovered resourceful methods of handling them, will be in a better position to handle the activities than 88 National Education Association he would be had he merely studied the structure of his tasks and given only incidental consideration to these activities which he applied in handling them. I am not advocating the substitution of the functional treatment for the structural treatment. As a matter of fact, the textbooks which are built on the structural basis describe some of their activities and have a combination of structural and functional treatment. Indeed, the list of activities which we have organized has some traces of both. But I am firmly convinced that the art of administering school systems would be greatly benefited by an attack from the functional point of view, at least as a supplement to the structural attack. My reasons for proposing this approach to administrative activities are easily summarized. In the first place, the performance of activities is crucial. Superintendents rise and fall on their ability to perform these effectively. In the second place, the only conditions under which these technics can be learned at present is on the job by trial and error, and supplemented by occasional advice from experienced superintendents. In the third place, while the specific methods to be used in overcoming the specific difficulties are for the most part unrecorded, it is easily possible, with the research technics already available, to collect, organize, and interpret them. No technical difficulties need to be encountered in col- lecting the material. Time and clerical help are the only consideration. In the fourth place, from these and other sources, a body of general prin- ciples to be used in carrying out these activities will emerge; and finally, while skill in administration is made artistic only on the job, the funda- mental principles can be presented with profit to administrators in courses in teacher training institutions. Botany and zoology have in the recent past swung from the structural to the functional approach. Thirty years ago we studied the parts of plants — root, stems, and leaves. Today, we study reproduction, osmosis, and nutrition. And it is possible that with the analysis that is now being prepared, an impetus will be given to a similar shift in administration from the materials and people with which the superintendent deals to a corresponding consideration of the activities that he carries on. THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PROFESSIONAL SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS JOHN H. BEVERIDGE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OMAHA, NEBR. The topic assigned me assumes that school superintendence is a pro- fession. What do we mean by a profession ? Dean James E. Russell defined a profession as "a vocation in which specialized knowledge is applied ration- ally, skilfully, and ethically in the affairs of men." Professor George Palmer of Harvard defined a profession as "an occupation entered upon after a long and vigorous preparation — maintains definite standards, and Department of Superintendence 89 gives unmeasured service." These are the two most satisfactory definitions of a profession we have found. One classifies a profession as a vocation, the other as an occupation ; both agree substantially in the differentiation in the latter part of the definition. In our discussion then we may assume that the professional superintend- ent has acquired special training for that work; that he has had long and vigorous preparation ; that he will apply his knowledge rationally, skil- fully, and ethically ; that he maintains definite standards and gives un- measured service to the community in which he works. Other professions meet these requirements. The exceptional lawyers maintain that a satisfactory lawyer should have four years of collegiate training followed by four years in the law school and two years in an efficient law office before he can really become a practitioner. One of the leading physicians of the Middle West stated to me only a few days ago that his son was preparing to practise medicine, that he must put in ten years before entering upon this practice — obtaining his Bachelor of Arts degree in Harvard University, taking four years of medicine and two years of interne-ship. Superintendence differs from teaching. We must understand that the work of the superintendent of schools differs from the work of the teacher in school. The work of the principal is different from the work of the teacher as many elementary principals will bear witness. A great superintendent of this country said to me less than a year ago that the superintendency of a public school system was ten times more difficult than that of the president of a university. He may have been wrong. I recall a statement in one of our leading magazines to the effect that one president of the United States seemed to find the work of the chief executive of this country rather easy in normal times in comparison to that of being the president of a great university. What then may be said of the superintendency? The successful administration of a public school system, with its multiplicity of duties and the difficulties incident thereto, is an opportunity worthy of the ability and of the ingenuity of those most ambitious. No attempt will be made to give all the qualifications necessary for so difficult a position but to suggest in mere outline a few that seem to be fundamentally essential. We use qualification in the broad sense as meaning "any endowment which fits a person for a place or an office" — here, superintendent of schools. Scholarship — The superintendent of schools should be well qualified in scholarship. It may not be possible for him to be a profound scholar as he pursues his profession with the multiplicity of its duties and entangle- ments. But he should possess that scholarship which merits and maintains the respect of his associates in work — teachers, principals, supervisors, and deans. 00 National Education Association No one should undertake to be a superintendent of schools who does not have a mentality that will compare favorably with the best of those with whom he is associated in his own school system and those in the community where he works with the mentalities in other professions. Such data are available to show in general (some exceptions, of course) that a man's success in business and professional life has a rather definite correlation with the standard of scholarship he demonstrated in his col- legiate training, that there is also a satisfactory correlation between his work as a high-school pupil, as a college student, and in the professional school. Past-President Thwing, the "historian of higher education in America," states that he has found no exception in the records of any American col- lege to the general rule that those who "achieve most before graduation are likely to achieve most after graduation." A careful stud\' was made about ten years ago of the success of the class of 1894, Harvard University. A committee of three carefullj'- chosen men selected twenty-three men of marked success in this class, then chose twenty-three men at random from the same class. This com- mittee then secured the undergraduate grades of the several men thus selected. "To the credit of the successful men were 196 A's, to the credit of the other men, only 56." (Foster, Harpers Magazine, Vol. 133, page 615). Caution: One must be careful, howe\'er, that his academic training does not spoil his education. Background — The professional superintendent should have a wide background of knowledge, information, experience, and contact. Says one, "To be professional requires a superior education." He must not only possess specialized knowledge of his own specific work, but must be able to meet men in other occupations and professions, confer with them, with some degree of intelligence regarding their own interests; he must be a fair conversationalist, a good listener with some knowledge of music, art, and dramatics, with a good basic knowledge of literature and literary activities, such as will make him a satisfactory member of the several types of social groups. He must be able to meet professional, industrial, commercial, and finan- cial men and women in such a way that he may secure and maintain their respect. Tlie necessity for a good background of knowledge and experience in tile successful operation of any undertaking is well illustrated in the life of a great insurance salesman. Doctor C E. Albright, who in twenty- one years paid for 45 million dollars \\()rth of life insurance in his own company and at the same time placed large amounts in other companies. He was an honor student of the Rush Medical College, assistant medical examiner tor a well-known insurance company for fourteen \ears. He was a constant student of men and methods, applying the scientific spirit to this part of the insurance work during his fourteen years of service Depari .mi;nt of Superintenden'ce 91 as an assistant medical examiner. When lie definiteh' decided to enter the selling side of insurance, he resigned, spent a year and a half in Europe getting a hroader background so that he could more easily meet the type of people to whom he wanted to sell life insurance. If an insurance salesman finds it necessary to have this broad background of which 1 speak, how much more should the professional superintendent of a city school system strive to get the background which will enable him to render the highest type of service? Doctor Albright has found it valuable in his business as an insurance salesman to be associated with members of the board of directors of many large financial institutions. Such a con- nection, even in a small way, is valuable to the city superintendent. Knozciiif/ tilt' job — It is a fundamental principle of any business or profession that one must know his job. No board of directors would entrust a bank to a manager who was not familiar with the banking busi- ness; no manufacturer would think of appointing one to the head of a department in his factory who did not know thoroughly the work of that department ; and no board of directors would think of appointing a man president of a great railway system who did not know the railroad busi- ness. You would not select one as a salesmanager who had not had experience in salesmanship. And so you would not think of appointing one as a superintendent of a school system who is not familiar with the principles of teaching, who did not understand supervision, who is not familiar with school construction, school equipment, the organization and direction of people. The school superintendent should be a constant student of the work of executives in other lines of endeavor. He can learn from the banker, the manufacturer, the railroad executive, the insurance director, the de- partment-store manager. He should be a keen observer, a willing learner, a careful practitioner. The importance of knowing thoroughly the job of the superintendent is emphasized by a number of my coworkers whom I asked to write me directly giving the ten most important qualifications of the professional superintendent. More than half of these superintendents indicated the importance of knowledge of the job. Eight of the ten points given by one superintendent commenced with tiie statement "a knowledge of." Four answers of another superintendent and three of the third were based on knowledge of the job. You would be interested in the kind of knowledge that was suggested by coworkers. The types of knowledge considered necessary by these superintendents are — Knoixledgr of — 1. School finance, buildings, equipment, supplies; 2. organization; 3. the aims, ideals and goals of education from the elementary through the senior high school; 4. a grasp of the specific objectives of the American public school; S. technic and methods; 6. principles underlying curriculum and instruction; 7. budgetary procedure; 8. child accounting. 92 National Education Association Courage — The professional superintendent must have that courage which is begotten of a knowledge of his work, a student of the problems incident to his profession, not arbitrary, not dictatorial, not seeking vain and personal glorj^; but courage resulting from a careful analysis of the problems that confront him and the cultivation of a judicial-mindedness — the courage that will enable him after data are collected, organized, and conclusions reached, to march forward toward the goal, remembering that the world steps aside for the individual who knows where he is going. He should have then "no fear, no cowardice, no flinching under-fire." Such courage is the heart of ethics. I do not believe that a man can be truly ethical in his profession with- out courage. He should have that courage to resist being unfair or taking advantage of ignorance, inexperience, innocence, or stupidity. He must ever remember that in the beginning right is seldom always on one side, therefore he should be open-minded, willing to listen and evaluate the suggestions of others. It sometimes takes more courage to acknowledge that you are wrong than to maintain that you are right. You may have acquired in life the habit of always having your own way. It is barely possible that you might make a mistake. It takes fine courage to crush such a habit and quietly, unheralded, and unsung gain the vic- tory over self — and this suggests another attribute of the superintendent — selfcontrol. Self control — Not infrequently the attitude taken by irate parents, meddlesome propagandists, unfair taxation leagues, unscrupulous members of boards of education, unwise enthusiasts for a good cause, test the temper and control of the most philosophic, the most optimistic ; but if you can be calm, maintain peace, quiet, an element of reserve, reasonable silence, and firm selfcontrol, the chances are in your favor. Power of resistance — The superintendent of schools should have power to resist "purblind enthusiasts" who wish to have the school program set aside in order that opportunity may be given to promote personal propa- ganda, and keen, clever, astute commercial organizations, which, realizing the value of the schools as powerful advertising medium, insinuate them- selves into the schools under a pretense of educational contributions which these organizations are making to society. Human nature — The prince of poets, the greatest of dramatists, is credited with having had a profound knowledge of human nature. No qualification of the superintendent is more important than a knowledge and understanding of people. It was said of Goethe that he did not follow the regular course of study in his college life but that he did attain what was more important to him — knowledge of men. You will recall that in the first twelve months of the World War, America was asked to furnish munitions for France and England. Edward R. Stettinius was chairman of the commission which undertook the task of making a survej* of the plants in this country to find out which ones Department of Superintendence 93 could most rapidly and efficiently manufacture munitions. A survey was made of steel plants, automobile plants, locomotive works, etc. The con- clusion reached was that we should be guided less by the nature of the plant than by the character of the men at the head of the plant; personnel is more important than machinery and equipment; men are more important than material ; it is not a question of tools, but of brains and character. The commission of which Mr. Stettinius was the head proceeded on the theory that 97 V2 percent of the efficiency of any plant lies in its men and 2Y2 percent in bricks, mortar, and machinery. When Alfred Smith was president of the New York Central Railroad he stated that 95 percent of the efficiency of any organization was in its men and not more than 5 percent in materials, machinery, and equipment. What better evidence would you want than this? The superintendent needs to know and understand people. He must select and assign teachers, principals, supervisors, and directors. There is no member of the personnel of the organization who is not either directly or indirectly responsible to the superintendent. He must work with parents and pupils, members of the board of educa- tion, with leaders in social, civic, and economic life of the city. With all due respect and with the utmost consideration for members of boards of education who are sincerely devoted to their work and serve ably in this capacity, the superintendent should be able to know something about what the members of his board will be thinking a year hence. He should know their interests and tendencies, their hobbies, and sometimes their follies. Due credit is given to an assistant superintendent of schools who recom- mends that the superintendent should be most careful in the selection of his wife — that he should select as his life companion one who would be so brilliant and tactful that apparently she hears nothing, knows nothing, and says nothing about schools. Probably the idea in the mind of this assistant superintendent was that what one does not say does not get him into entangling alliances, or perhaps the thought was that gossip is the most dangerous trait of human beings. Personal- — Men and women forgive some of the shortcomings of the superintendent but they are not likely to forgive one who is not capable of managing his own personal affairs so that he meets his financial obliga- tions and pays his honest debts. The superintendent is expected to be honest, fair, and just in his deal- ings with pupil, teacher, patron, or member of the board of education. The same qualifications should be met in the management of his personal affairs and his business life. The superintendent of schools is recognized as a leader in his com- munity. He should make a good personal appearance. While clothes may not make the man, they evidence to some degree one's tendency. The superintendent should acquire fairly good taste in clothes, in manners, in language, and in social standards. The community is entitled to a 94 National Education Association cultured leader — one who does not dexiate decidedh from recognised standards of culture. An eminent member of your own organization suggests that the superin- tendent should be well born, that he should have or acquire habits of good breeding, engaging manners, refined speech, and freedom from pedan- tic conceit. Another states that he should have liberal culture, high ideals and a pleasing manner, acquired by extensive association with people of culture and refinement, a third that the superintendent should be generous- minded and have "an unselfish desire to serve humanity and wherewithal to endure contumacy, suffer defeat, and see without envy others no abler win financial success and greater esteem." He should devote himself un- selfishly to the cause of education and to the welfare of the community of which he is a part. An organizer — A professional superintendent should have a thorough knowledge of the best methods of organization. Ciood organization spells economy of time and economy of effort for the members of the personnel constituting the organization — obtaining maximum results with a niiiuinuni of effort. Organization is not for the day or the week or the month alone, but for the year and indeed the better organization, for five or ten years ahead, perhaps more. It is as necessary to budget your time as to budget your incom.e. As an organizer, the superintendent will surround himself with able associates, assign them to jobs for which they are especially fitted, have them proceed with authority, and give them responsibility. The good organizer does constructive thinking, makes careful plans, appreciates the efforts of others, discriminates between the essentials and non-essentials, and keeps faith with the organization. Leadership — We have already mentioned leadship as a requisite quali- fication of the professional superintendent. May we suggest a few char- acteristics of good leadership. 1. A leader should have the ability a. To think through an idea and reduce it to written form; b. To present orally, concisely, and definitely what he has thought out — to speak fairly well. 2. He should have mental alertness — a moving mind, moving to new thoughts. Mental inertia does not produce leadership. 3. He must know his business well and be ojieii-minded and always willing to learn more about it. 4. He must have the courage of his convictions. 5. He must be a man of action. A man who is doing something all the time and is right most of the time will get much accomplished. 6. He must have what someone has called "the gift of people." Possibly the biggest problem of life is getting on well with associates, making jiroper human contacts. 7. He must have the ability of getting others to think as he thinks, to see as he sees them, and to act accordingly. 8. The leader must accept responsibility, to be a iiuck receiver, not a buck passer. Department of Superintendence 95 Leadershii") rtHiuires a positixc persoiialit) — not nejiative. A positive personality enables its possessor to he an e.\eciiti\e — a director of affairs. The negative personalit\ makes him a follower. The positive personality makes decisions — the negative stands in doubt. The positive goes direct to the point — the negative wavers, qualifies, dawdles, vacillates. The positive personality' ventures in life. The negative is afraid to take the risk. The positive knows he believes a thing — the negative is not sure. The positive person is dynamic — the negative is static. The one has con- fidence, the other lacks it. The one plans his actions and puts them into practice — the other follows a beaten path. The one has energj^ courage, and conviction — the other weakness and indecision. Which way are we headed ? THE REL.rnOX or THE SUPERINTENDENT 01' SCHOOLS TO LAY CONTROL E. c. ii.AKrw 1:1.1., sli'i:rintenden'1' of schools, buff.m.o. n. \. Hoards of education are fundamental to democracy in school adminis- tration. We do not believe in America in benevolent despots. We are committed to a theory of government which defends the right of the people to make their own decisions and pay for their own mistakes. The fact that in many individual cities the public has failed to accept what may generally be regarded as sound principles of school operation must not make us unmindful of the great and general improvement which has gone steadily forward during the last twenty-five jears. As a group of superintendents we believe that the schools should be professionalh' administered by men technically trained for the work. This theory frequently finds itself in conflict with selfish, personal, and political considerations. Chicago, as an example, has made itself the laughing stock of the world, and Chicago is by no means the onl\ community in which the efficient management of the schools has been interfered w ith by organized and hos- tile influences. Whatever declaration of principles this Association ma\' adopt will only have value as the public may be persuaded to accept them. All that we can do is to declare what we believe to be the system of lay control best calculated to produce the most efficient results in educational service. Fixed responsibilit) in the hands of a superintendent trained for educa- tional leadership and secured in its exercise is a \\ise prescription for any communit\ desiring the best in educational results. A steamship is owned by the company stockholders; the policies con- trolling it are determined by a board of directors; it is operated by a captain. The functions and responsibilities of all three are clearl>- defined. Substitute for this arrangement a situation in which every employe on the boat froin stevedore to first mate, except the captain, is hired for 96 National Education Association life and paid on a blanket scale without regard to merit ; make every deci- sion of the captain in the operation of the ship dependent on the caprice of the board of directors; take a frequent plebiscite of the crew, the stock- holders, and the passengers; and then, to make confusion certain, divide the ostensible authority of the captain among two or three other officers and you will have a condition not unlike that obtaining in some of our American cities in the operation of their schools. PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF SCHOOL EXECUTIVES IN THE UNIVERSITY GEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION^ DI- RECTOR^ institute OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH^ DIVISION OF FIELD STUDIES, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY The profession of school administration has been developed during the past fifty years. Preparation for this most important service has been secured through apprenticeships; by the process of trial and success; and by training in our universities. There is evidence in the larger salaries paid to school executives and in the freedom with which they move from place to place across state and sectional lines of an appreciation of the service rendered by these executives. But it is still true that lay boards of education sometimes choose men without special training and without administrative experience for the position of superintendent of schools. We have been negligent as a profession, in setting up standards, the applica- tion of which would protect the public. Superintendents of schools have been responsible in large measure for laws and for regulations which control the admission of men and women to the teaching profession. There are few school executives who would be willing to employ teachers without professional training. Indeed it is becoming more and more evident that we must have specific training for each of the many different types of service to be rendered in the elementary and secondary schools. In one state it is necessary to have a Master's degree with highly specialized professional training in order to qualify for a position as high school teacher. It is clear that we have accepted professional training as essential for those who are to teach in our public schools. There has been a belief not always clearly expressed, that teaching furnishes a sound preparation for the work of the school executive. What- ever may be the importance of service in the classroom in giving an appre- ciation and understanding of the work of the schools to the administrator, it can be asserted without fear of contradiction that neither teaching nor the supervision of instruction will afford sufficient training for the school executive; not even the responsibility of administering a high school will afford the experience necessary for one who is to assume responsibility for the direction of the affairs of a school system. The major problems of Department of Superintendence 97 the school executive are unique. If he is to develop skill in the solution of these problems he must have hijihly specialized training; or he must acquire his skill on the job. Men and women in teaching or in minor administrative positions in the school system have often secured their preparation for work as superin- tendent of schools by virtue of an apprenticeship not fully acknowledged but nevertheless occupying a considerable part of their time and effort for a period of years. Training of this sort assumes highly specialized ability upon the part of the executive under whom they are working, that he has a large amount of time available for this purpose, and that he has an in- clination to undertake this important task. Even at best this type of training is likely to be limited to the special fields in which the chief executive is particularly interested at the time, and may be still further conditioned by the pressure for the solution of problems of purely local significance. The university school of education is in a position today to offer as significant a training for the profession of educational administration as it is to ofier professional work in law, medicine, engineering, or busmess administration. In none of these fields does the professional school send out a man whose training has been completed. It may equip the student in training with knowledge of his profession and with skills not yet fully perfected. The graduate of a professional school should have an apprecia- tion and understanding of the work to be done, knowledge of the methods which have proved most efficient, and command of technics and skill which will enable him to render important service. Professional training requires the application of theory to practice. No professional student is qualified for his life work until he has command of the technics employed by successful practitioners in his profession. In ever increasing degree professional schools are offering the opportunity for the solution of genuine problems and for practice which will develop skill. The engineering student works in the factory, on the railroad, or irrigation project, or in some other industrial enterprise as a regular part of his training. The medical student applies the theories that he has learned in classroom and laboratory in his interneship in the hos- pital. The student of law acquires ability in his profession by the study of the case presented for his consideration in the light of the decisions of the courts. Business executives are trained through the consideration of the problems of plant organization, personnel management, marketing, and finance. In like manner, training for the profession of school adminis- tration requires that we provide opportunities for the consideration of the varied problems of the superintendent of schools. The job analysis and problem attack as a method of teaching is not intended to substitute debate for knowledge of the field. Nothing could be more fallacious than to propose that students debate the issues of ad- ministration without command of all of the scientific knowledge available. The ad\antage of the problem attack is to be found in the organization 98 National Education Association of the scientific knowledge available witii particular reference to profes- sional problems which the superintendent of scliools will have to solve. It seems reasonable to propose that as a result of this type of organization the student will command the knowledge available more thoroughly than he \vould were he merely asked to read books or to report on scientific investigations. The solving of problems cannot take the place of the work which should be done in the laboratory or of the experience which can be gained in field work under systematic supervision. In order to learn to represent graphically the facts with which the superintendent of schools deals the student will have to practice the drawing of graphs and submit them for criticism. If the intending superintendent of schools is to become ac- quainted with the adaptability of calculating machines for the work of his office, he must have these demonstrated for him, and still more im- portant, he should practice upon them. To become thoroughly acquainted with modern practice in filing the student needs laboratory experience. Familiarity with photometer, the sling psychometer, the projecting lantern, or the moving picture machine is necessary for one who is to use these instruments, or to know of their availability for use by his stafiE. A thorough understanding of accounting will require that the student spend hours of work in the laboratory making entries and checking up on the accounts which he has developed. Familiarity with the reading of plans and specifications in the laboratory will furnish the only sound basis for the criticism which a superintendent of schools should be able to present to the architect or to his board of education. He must be familiar with all of the forms of records and reports in order that he may choose wisely in the development of the records to be kept in his school system. In like manner, many problems occur in the survey of school systems which demand the application of the scientific knowledge which the student has come to command in the solution of the problems which have been discussed in class. Each community has its peculiar problems of organiza- tion and administration. What is the relation of the school administra- tion to the general municipal, county or other local administration? What modifications in the school organization promise to add to the efficiency of the service? Which type of organization will make for economy? These are among the problems which recur in every field study. The local issues having to do with taxation and finance with which the student has come in contact in a school survey will bring to his atten- tion scores of problems which are identical with those with which he must deal later in his work. Variations which occur in the business ad- ministration of schools, the purchasing, storage and distribution of sup- plies, the maintenance and operation of buildings, budgetary procedure, attendance service, school health administration, the organization of the administrative and supervisory staff, and the like, will contribute most significantly to the more complete understanding of the problems which the superintendent of schools has to meet. Departmext of Superintendence 99 And so for practically cverj- other administrative problem, whether it has to do with forecasting the need for new school accommodations, tiie management of personnel, the classification and progress of children, the development of more adequate curricula and courses of study, the supervision of instruction or the relation of the school to the community, all become intensely practical problems in the situation which requires the student to do his best to iind the solution which is to be proposed and even more important to be carried out by the local school system. Practice in field work is the logical next step after the student has gained considerable command of the field through the solution of problenis in the classroom. We have in our professional schools now three groups of students: (1) Tile men who have had experience in the field of administration, and who desire further professional training. These men can ordinarily be ex- pected to profit by one or two years of intensive professional training. (2) Among the experienced group are a few who are interested in research. These men can with profit continue their work a third year during which they will spend a large part of their time on some special problem of investigation. The emphasis in these researches should be upon the problems of the superintendents of schools. There is a sharp distinction between the type of investigation which is entirely justified in the field of pure science and that which should characterize the advanced work of the professional school. Certainly research is not less worthy because it is devoted to the solution of problems W'hich confront the professional worker. It is most worthw^hle to inquire concerning the technics to be employed in the development of a school building program, the way to secure more ade- quate janitorial service, the most efficient organization of a department of census and attendance, the most equitable method of distributing state support, the necessary budgetary provision to be made for the equipment of new buildings, or the most efficient method of acquainting the people with the work of the school system. Indeed, it may be proposed that there is no detail of the work of the administrator that may not properly become the subject of intensive investigation by those who are candidates for the doctor's degree in the professional school. The third group, and one which I hope may grow larger, consists of young men with little or no experience in administration, who should spend one year in the university in preparation for an interneship in a superintendent's office. This latter group, if they are to gain the most from their one or two years in the field, should be placed where they may have a variety of experience under competent direction. It will not pay ordinarily to send them out to do a routine job. These young men, if they have been well selected, can go into a school system and accept a variety of assignments in the superintendent's office, with satisfaction to this executive. Their year of training will have equipped them with many 100 National Education Association skills. They need the direction and check that can be offered by the superintendent of schools or some member of his staff. The university has an obligation to keep in touch with them in order to know what progress they are making and of the type of opportunity which is provided for them. It is from this group of young men that I believe we will recruit our ablest superintendents of schools in the future. They will have had sound professional training before they attempt to meet the responsibilities of the school executive. They will have the good fortune to have had their first experience after having a sound background in knowledge of the field of administration and in skill in solving many of the problems which they must meet. The fact that they are placed with competent executives for their initial experience will guarantee them against making the mistakes which so often discourage the man beginning the practice of our profession. Training of the younger men might be even more adequate if we were able to arrange university courses and practices in the field for alternating months during a period of two years. This type of professional train- ing has been found most satisfactory in engineering. It would seem to be equally valuable in our field. We are able to get something of the same result through the field work which is now organized as a very im- portant part of our university courses in administration. The practice in the laboratory and work in the solution of problems also contribute their share. After this younger group has had from one to three jears in the field as internes or assistants, they should be brought back to the university to complete their professional training. They may reasonably be ex- pected, after one or two years more of training, to go into positions in which they will assume full responsibility as school executives. Some of them will, because of their intelligence and because of their personal qualities, move rapidly forward to positions of great importance. For those who remain in the smaller places the training which has been secured will guarantee a quality of service not now commonly available in these smaller school systems. It is of the utmost importance that the highly technical work of the specialized courses be paralleled with other training in the theory and practice of education. No one would seriously propose that a man was fit to be a superintendent of schools unless he was well grounded in the philosophy of education. Many of the administrative problems which he will have to meet will require a knowledge of the principles and of the results of investigations in the field of psychology and sociology. The success of the superintendent of schools will often be determined by his knowledge in the fields of public finance and municipal administration. Much light would be thrown upon many of the problems with which the superintendent has to deal by courses in comparative education. In addition to his study in these fundamental fields which furnish the background for the technical courses the superintendent of schools should Department of Superintendence 101 have contact with other professional work in the school of education. The more he can learn with respect to the subjectmatter and method of instruction, the more certainly he is acquainted with the detail of the work of principal or supervisor, the better qualified he will be for the general administrative position. The ideal situation would be one in which those seeking to qualify for the position of superintendent of schools would have brought to their attention the work of all of these specialists in rela- tion to the particular problems which the superintendent of schools has to solve. If the technical course is dealing with the problem of equippmg the elementary school building, the specialists in kindergarten and primary education, in household arts, in industrial arts, in library maintenance and operation, in physical education and health service, in music and art, should be called into conference and should propose and defend the recommenda- tions with respect to specialized equipment. In like manner, if the issue before the superintendents' group is that of curricula, subject-matter spe- cialists and supervisors responsible for the teachers' growth should play a large part in the solution of the problems presented in the professional course. It is important that the courses in psychology, the history and philosophy of education, in taxation and finance and municipal administration be presented from the point of view of the administrator. The examination of any one of these fields will make apparent the validity of this contention. It is not just psychology that the superintendent of schools needs, but rather the application of the principles of psychology and of the investiga- tions that have been made to the problems of the organization of schools, the classification of pupils, and the validity of methods of instruction. In the history of education the administrator needs most of all a discus- sion of the practices which have prevailed in the past and particularly those which have been developed in his own Held, rather than a consid- eration of historical theories. But the principal emphasis in professional courses for the training of suj^erintendents of schools must be upon the analysis of the work to be done, and the development of the technics essential to the adequate solu- tion of the problems the administrator must solve. The more certainly the student deals with genuine problems during his period of training, the more likely he will be to meet with success in the field. Knowledge of the facts of educational administration cannot be substituted for prac- , tice in applying these facts to the solution of administrative problems. It is certainly possible to provide definite professional training for the superin- tendent of schools. Has not the time arrived when superintendents themselves will propose the professional training required , of thv)se whp would enter their pro- fession ? , • • ' 102 National Educatiox Association THE TRAINING OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF SCHOOLS WHILE IN SERVICE ALBERT B. MEREDITH^ COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION FOR CONNECTICUT^ HARTFORD, CONN. In the evolution of the profession of teaching, it is becoming more and more apparent that a new technic of training is being developed — a technic which has hitherto been largely ignored in the established professions of medicine and of law, and which has not yet come into general acceptance in education. This technic involves two phases or steps, first, a preservice preparation, long adhered to, and second, an in-service or post-graduate training, which is the real characteristic of the new technic to which I allude. It may be, that in the field of public education we are particularly fortunate, because of public responsibility for the process, in that we are able to exercise a continuous supervision over those who practice the profession of educa- tion, Avhereas, other professions like medicine, law, and engineering are still matters of private initiative for which the state has, to be §ure, some responsibility, but by no means commensurate with that for public educa- tion. This concept introduces not only a right but an obligation which should be seized upon in educational circles, and which gives promise of carrying the profession of teaching, into a wider and more professional field than has thus far been generally done. Preparation for teaching has long been characterized by in-service train- ing. The enormous enrolment of teachers in our summer schools, and in extension courses, are evidences of this fact. Furthermore, expert super- vision of instruction by superintendents and principals has contributed to this end. Moreover, this in-service stage of our technic of professional training, especially as it relates to the superintendent, is not the result of deliberate and original planning, but rather, has come into prominence by force of circumstances. Inadequate funds for the support of public education as well as a limited supply of proper personnel — and these two aspects of public school admin- istration are closely related — have made it impossible to secure a suffi- ciently well trained body of workers for the public schools of the nation. Hy this I mean to say, that there are thousands of teachers, and hundreds of administrators throughout this country today, who have come to their tasks with limited specific preparation, and who if they are to be trained at all, other than by the fortuitous circumstances of their positions, must be provided with some sort of in-service guidance and help. To supply this need is a matter of simple justice to the children who arc compelled by law to attend school. On the other hand, \\\u) among us has not observed the tendency for the past decade or more for normal schools to extend their two-year cur- ricula to three and four years. and to bc.caUed teachers colleges! And who has not see'; the. teachers colleges and state certification requirements. Department of Superintendence 103 demand of prospective principals and superintendents longer periods of institutional training? Such demands reflect the broadened extent and increased complexity of the problems of public education. Nevertheless, the approach to the superintendcncy is not generally, by the longer route of undergraduate and graduate institutional preparation. A shorter method is taken with under- graduate work, followed by practical experience, and later the superin- tendent returns to the institution for graduate study. It is hardly necessary to call attention to the fact that such a relation- ship between an institution and the field has resulted in mutual benefit. The institution gets the corrective influence of intimate association with the everyday problems of the teachers and of the superintendent, with the result that its attitude toward the problems of the classroom, of admin- istration and supervision becomes less theoretical and less doctrinnaire. On the other hand the superintendent, with whom we are chiefly con- cerned here, with his numerous kaleidoscopic interests, has a means where- by he may keep* in closer touch with the results of the scientific study of education, and receive the benefit of a more impersonal consideration of his difficulties. Partly because of the impasse thus reached between preparation and sup- ply but more because of a growing and refined conception of the real na- ture of professional education, the idea of the necessity of in-service train- ing, for teacher, principal and superintendent, has been given increased attention, as a vital element in the true professional service of the edu- cator. Even a casual reading of the history of supervision of instruction, re- veals the fact, that this is a history of a continuously expanding idea, and of a persistent effort to provide continued training for teachers and for principals. The dark spots in the history of supervision have been caused in some measure by deficiencies and short comings in the supervisory person- nel. In addition, the clouded areas, as has already been suggested, are due partly to inadequate financial support and to insufficient preservice training. Furthermore, these spots may have been caused by the fact that superintendents have not generally availed themselves of the expanding opportunities offered through post-institutional programs of training. While supervision of instruction and the administration of school sys- tems have been, and are today functions to be provided locally through the superintendent's office, the in-service training of those who would ex- ercise this supervision, and of those who would administer local school systems, must be a responsibility of a larger unit, the state. This pri- mary agency, the state, has thus far been fulfilling this obligation of ofEering extended training, almost exclusively through the tax-supported teachers colleges and through the state universities, rather than through state de- partments of education. The, reason is that these departments have not been organized for this service. 104 National Education Association As to the right of the state to exercise general control of those interests which affect all the people — and public tax-supported schools are one of these interests — there is no longer any question. This authority has been established by constitutional provision, and statute law, supported by court decisions. The obligations of the state should be assumed as necessity seems to demand. It is at this point, therefore, that it would appear that the state depart- ment of education, under whatever title it may operate in the several states, has a distinct duty to perform in relation to all those matters which concern public education. It is at this point also, where the demand is imperative that the state shall provide a truly professional department with dynamic leadership. Should perchance that leadership be lacking, owing to untrained personnel, limited financial resources, or interrupted by brief and political tenure, you, the town, county and city superintendents representing the field should, I believe, be among the first to insist upon a change. Of course, in those states where the teacher preparation institutions are under the immediate administrative control of the educational depart- ment, the possibilities are greatly enhanced for coordinating, with the in- stitutional preparation of teachers and of administrators, all forms of In- service training. I am simply trying to emphasize the responsibility and the opportunity which belongs to a state department of education. It must concern itself wnth the whole range of interests relating to teaching, from the earliest academic preparation of the teachers and superintendent, on through the professional schools and out into the field of active service. After all, graduation from the best institution means only preparation to begin. Pro- fessional growth and skill come with the doing, and fortunate is the teacher or superintendent who may still have guidance and help, when needs arise. To the teacher, such guidance and aid come through a principal or super- intendent. Who is to help the superintendent? This, I repeat, is an obli- gation of the state educational department. No other agency is in an equally strategic position to render this unique service, and furthermore it is not too much to say, that this service may be properly regarded as one of its most important functions, viz., that of supervision or professional leader- ship, the others being administration, instruction, research, and publicity. To summarize the position taken thus far: It can be maintained that the state educational department is the one agency set up by law, to exer- cise general control and supervision of the educational interests of the state. Further, it is an agency to advise the legislature concerning wise state policy, so far as it is necessary to express that policy in statutes. Moreover, it should be clear, that in its relation to the local administration, the depart- ment's position is one of constructive leadership. Its purpose is to carry out the policies of the state, as these policies are expressed in law and de- fensible in practice. It must at the same time use its influence to encourage better and wiser legislation. In addition, the educational department Departmiint of Superintendence 105 is a means of securing such unity of thought and action among its local and delegated agencies, as may be necessary to make effective better edu- cational practices. Finally the department through its supervisory and technical staffs, should set up programs of attack upon specific problems of supervision, of organization of administration, and of finance. In the last anal)sis, the educational progress of the state depends upon the unified and cumulative efforts of its local officers. It is therefore to these local professional workers, the superintendents, that the department should bring stimulation and help by offering various types of in-service training, which shall furnish them with the best of the new thought in education, and help to show them how to make it effective in better school practices. So much then for the state's obligation. It may now be asked: What are the superintendent's obligations? Some have already been implied. Obviously institutional training cannot antici- pate all the conditions under which a superintendent must do his work. He is fortunate indeed if he leaves his professional school knowing how to attack a problem, and with a body of knowledge and vicarious experi- ence. Here it should be noted in recognition of a desirable tendency, that certain graduate schools of education are coming to equip students decreasingly, with vicarious experiences, and increasingly with specific technics designed from actual administrative situations. At best the super- intendent's preservice preparation will have developed a desire for growth, and have provided him with a method with which to make an estimate of a new situation, involving as it may supervisory, administrative or finan- cial factors, either singly or in combination. Furthermore, he will come to his task with the technics and skills that are necessary for securing the whole-hearted cooperation of his staff and the intelligent support of the public in carrying his plans into effect. The thesis would be easy to defend, that the more thorough his preserv- ice preparation, which should, of course, include graduate study, the more keenly alert the superintendent will be to the existence of possibilities for more effective administration, and the more willing and anxious he will be to receive help, from whatever source it may appear. A con- sciousness of a need of help is the first step toward securing such aid. It is at this stage that his true in-service or post-institutional study begins. The fact that he has a genuine professional attitude toward his work will keep him constantly a student of its possibilities, and furnish the necessary motive for action. Whatever the method by which a person comes to the superintendency, whether by the route of specialized training, or by the rapidly disappear- ing method of exercising mere political sagacity, or by transfer from a teach- ing position to an administrative post with increased salary, the need for a broadening experience \\ill be felt by all progressive administrators and supervisors. 106 National Education Association If the strategic significance of the position and its possibilities are sensed by those who have been better prepared to take up the duties of the office of superintendent, how much greater is the need for those who have come into the field of administration with only a meager professional equipment ? Consider for a moment how^ the science of education has grown, how greatly our knowledge of the mental and physical characteristics of human beings has increased. Scientific investigation has provided us with vast stores of information and knowledge, much of which is still unrelated to school life. We employ new instruments for measuring and appraising school processes and results. New methods of accounting have become standardized and available. The procedures involve pupil and teacher personnel, finance, and plant. In recent years more intimate relationships have been established between the school programs and the school buildings in which they are to be housed. Classroom equipment and teaching appli- ances have multiplied with astonishing rapidity. And so one could go on with the enumeration of the increasing facilities for the work of the super- intendent. .A knowledge of the foregoing becomes a legitimate part of the modern administrator's stock in trade. If a superintendent does not possess such professional equipment he w-ill be unable to adequately serve his public or retain his leadership among his more recently and relatively better trained teachers, and professionally equipped principals. Furthermore, the very isolation of a superintendent, often caused by the extreme localism of a system of schools, or by his own complete absorption in a routine of duties, has a tendency to cause him to fail to hold a proper perspective toward his task. In these situations the state department of education has a duty to perform and must exercise its rightful leadership. In concluding the discussion of the question, what are the obligations of the superintendent, I am strongly of the belief that it is primarily the obligation of more completely realizing what he already has felt, viz., that life itself means growth, and that broad and enriched experiences, includ- ing new and accurate knowledge, are agencies of such growth. The in- scription over the door of a New Jersey normal school, "He who would dare to teach must not cease to learn," expresses the attitude of the true superintendent. Given the obligation of the state department of education and also that of the superintendent toward in-service training and professional growth we may now ask, What are some of the means whereby this growth may be realized ? For obvious reasons the discussion of this phase of the larger subject can be but suggestive. I shall therefore indicate but a few of the elements of a broader program, and briefly discuss a concrete state department, in-service, supervisory project. The elements of such a pro- gram are these : 1. A state department of education so organized and defined by law as not to impede the Cdrrying out of its functions of educational leadership — This may involve constitutional changes but, certainly statutory changes, I)i:i'art.\ii:nt of Superintendence 107 ill some states. With the acceptance of the doctrine that education is a function of the state, then the state must provide the legal instrumentality for making that doctrine operative, in all its phases. 2. A personnel in each state department of education consisting of highly trained and relatively permanent experts in the several fields of education — The compensation of such officials should be commensurate with their educational worth. For such a staff of selected men and women removed from political control, there is probably no more feasible and economical use of extended state funds. For instance, one hundred thousand dollars added to each state department of education throughout the country would pro\ide in a single year ten additional leadership agents in each state with necessary expenses and clerical assistance. This would cost for the United States as a whole on the average about 3.7 cents per capita. What would not five years of such leadership produce? 3. An adequate program of activity — Such a program would involve (a) Fact finding, through a division of educational research competent to carry on either independent scientific investigations or to lead in coopera- tive enterprises with groups of superintendents; (b) Institutional effi- ciency, especially in relation to the preservice preparation of teachers. Where such institutions, normal schools and teachers colleges are integral parts of a state department of education, unity of purpose and of program becomes more easily possible. In any event, for a thorough-going program of in-service training coordination of all agencies is a basic necessity. A fourth and final element of the proposed program is effective publicity. This will involve presenting in various forms either through letters, bulle- tins, or monographs, the results of scientific investigations and the sum- mary of findings of the supervisory conferences and from other sources. These publications become the basis for further study and utilization. Further publicity should be provided of such a character as will serve to bridge the gap between the ever progressing policies of education as conceived and formulated in harmony with modern conditions and the public school as viewed by those who were trained under conditions other than those which now prevail. In conclusion, the state through its department of education has a re- sponsibility for the in-service training of its superintendents; the superin- tendent is increasingly conscious of his obligation to grow ; and finally, such developments of in-service training as have been made are but an earnest beginning. THE ENDOWED INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION —ITS RELATION TO PUBLIC EDUCATION JAMES R. ANGELL. PRESIDENT OF VALE UNIVERSITY, NEW HAVEN, CONN. Wliv a di\isi()n of the National t^ducation Association devoted to the interests of the public school systems should be asked to listen to an address from a college president, that most distressful of all educational function- 108 National Education Association aries, on a subject in which the members at best can entertain only a very mild and tepid interest, may well occasion critical inquiry. As to the first part of the issue, I am quite unable to satisfy your curiosity, although my assumption is that my presence on this program is due to the eccentricities of your program committee. The subject chosen is largely of my own responsibility. I desire to find, if possible, a topic sufficiently non-contro- versial to make my presence here safe, and sufficiently vague to allow opportunity for almost any observations which might suggest themselves to the ruminating mind. That either arrangement can be justified remains to be seen. By a delightful perversity of phrase, the English public school, so-called, would on this side of the water be designated private, and the private American college or university is essentially public, all of which goes to show how little there is in a name. Indeed, so far as concerns the Ameri- can institutions of higher learning, if the overworked traveler from Mars were to be introduced without previous warning into some of our larger metropolitan institutions on private foundation and were then suddenly transported to certain of our tax-supported universities, he could discern few or no material differences, either in aims or ideals or procedure, and certainly would encounter no external evidences of different sources of support. He would find both overcrowded with students; in both, many underpaid teachers; in both, an impenetrable thicket of student organiza- tion, largely monopolizing active student interest; in both, a rather noisy and naive student loyalty, chiefly centered in athletics ; in both, a pervasive faculty conviction that its members were boss-ridden by the administration and that the trustees were mainly opinionated absentee creatures of the Wall Street interest or of the local Tammany organization. In both he would find some, though not too many, brilliant and powerful teachers; in both, a small group of scholars of distinction ; in both, the great ma- jority of staff striving faithfully to discharge their full obligations. The privately endowed institutions undoubtedly contain a greater range of variation in the extremes of type represented than can be detected be- tween the two groups, public and private, taken enmass. In both groups there are instances of particular institutions with sharp individual peculiari- ties or characteristics. Before proceeding to certain more specific issues, it may be well to gain a general impression as to the relative magnitude of the interests involved in the two classes. The latest available report of the United States Commissioner of Educa- tion lists 913 institutions of higher education, a figure which is inclusive of professional schools of various kinds. Of the entire number, 769 are in private hands, and 144 belong to the public. In other words, the privately- supported group is more than five times as numerous. In the endowed institutions were 290,000 men and 176,000 women, a total of 460.000 or more. In the publicly-supported institutions were 167,000 men and 88,800 women, a total of 255,000. That is to say, of the entire number of stu- Department of Superintendence 109 dents, approximately 65 percent were in the private institutions and 35 percent in the public institutions. Taken in connection with the previous figures, the far greater average size of the public institutions is easily in- ferred. It should, however, be remembered that the dividing line between the groups, so far as concerns support, is not always sharp. Not a few institutions resting on private foundation receive, or have received, public funds. Indeed, in some states this circumstance has led to very unhappy and at times almost scandalous conditions. This may be true in the states, some of which are here represented today. Many state institutions have been the beneficiaries of large gifts from private sources and have accumulated considerable endowments of their own. The University of Michigan, the so-called mother of state univer- sities, oddly enough, received no direct money from the legislature of the state until fifty years after its legislative creation and thirty years after its actual opening. IVIoreover, insofar as the endowed institutions are exempt from taxation, and that is the general rule, they may all be said to be under a constant though indirect form of government subsidy. The figures just quoted disclose an astonishing contrast to the corre- sponding figures for secondary schools. I will not tire you with the sta- tistics, but suffice it to say, as is generally well recognized, the public high school is in the overwhelming ascendency over the private or secondary academy, both as to the number in existence and as to the number of pupils enroled. Assuming the accessible report to be approximately correct, about 93 percent of the children are in the public secondary schools. With- out more ado, this makes it clear that both public and private institutions of higher education receive the great mass of their students from these schools. A few of the older institutions on the Atlantic seaboard still get the larger number of their students from private preparatory schools, but in this respect, they are eccentric to the rest of the country. Historically, the endowed college is much older than the public institu- tion, and generally sprang from a religious motive. In the early colonial days, this was the desire to train a scholarly ministry. Later it has often reflected the wish to supply to the youth of the coming generation a college home in which there should be a strong religious atmosphere, and one reflecting the special tenets of some particular sect. In Western Europe, education of every kind was for centuries under the charge of the church. It seems doubtful whether if private initiative had not led the way, governments either here or abroad would have com- mitted themselves to the otherwise precarious experiment of public educa- tion as we know' it. When it finally arrived, the state university derived from essentially Jeffersonign principles, represented the political and philo- sophical conviction, that education is a fundamental interest of the state and that the state should provide opportunity for the most advanced studies in every and any field. 110 National Education Association This objection was combined, be it said, with distinctly continental ideals regarding the internal organization of the university, and with a marked aversion to the schoolmasterly methods prevailing in the American collegiate institutions of the day. Moreover, the tendency, since the foun- dation of the federal government to separate sharply the interests of church and state, led state institutions in general to eschew completely all effort to give training in the field of theology. On the other hand, be it said not a few state institutions have in practice conducted religious exercises and even of¥ered courses in the field of religion. We are so habituated to the public education idea that it hardly occurs to us that things were ever otherwise than they now are. Essentially, free public education and compulsory education up to a certain age has become a sort of fetish and is accepted as a cardinal principle in our political philosophy, which we challenge only when the bills begin to get uncom- fortably large, and 3'et not only have private foundations usually led in the past, but even in recent times much of the best and most fruitful experi- mentation in these secondary and primary field has been in privately-sup- ported schools. Indeed there are not many public school systems in which even now these more venturesome programs can be readily entered upon. On the other hand, while much excellent pioneering has been carried out in the endowed colleges and universities, the state institutions have, many of them, shown great energy and initiative in employing progressive policies. This is especially true of the last decade. During the preceding century we have in a large number of the states slowly worked out to essential realization the picture of a public education which takes the child at the earliest school age and puts at his disposal almost without price the opportunity for the completest education he is capable of receiving, ending in the most advanced university work of a pro- fessional character, and with no material exception save that of theology. In completeness of its provisions for everything of interest, in its genuine accessibility to children from every social and economic level, it has cer- tainly never had its equal, and indeed hardly its like anywhere in the world, and with all its shortcomings, most of them presumably incidental to the novelty and the magnitude of the undertaking, it is justly a source of unre- strained pride. It is easy to exaggerate the importance of the source from which educational resources are derived. Ultimately, the money all comes from the pockets of the citizens, in the one case more or less willingly and voluntarily, in the other case under the compulsion of taxation. Both groups are beholden to the constituencies which support them, the one group to federal, state, county, or city officials and the people behind them, the other to secondary agencies, to patrons or to alumni. If the one group is sometimes subject to outrageous political interference — and one naturally thinks at once of Mr. McAndrew and his experiences with the eminent historical scholar who presides over the destinies of Chicago — the other has at times suffered not less from the pausing hand of religious bigotry and Department of Superintendence m tlic industrious mcadlin^- of -raduates. Xo educational institution is or ever will be completely foolproof. So far as concerns the contemporary relations of the endowed and the tax-supported colleges and universities, there are obviously two contrasting forces, either of which might be defended. The endowed institution may simply share the white man's burden with the other type of institution, the two dividing the load between them and with no special effort to dift'erenti- ate the functions and the special service of the one from the other. Under the present conditions with the existing press of students, this procedure would certainly have much to commend it. On the other hand, if the endowed institution can achieve something essentially different from that open to the public institution, and vice versa, such a specialization of func- tions may well be desirable, for we certainly need wide variety in our edu- cational institutions. All avenues for potentiality should be kept open. As a matter of fact, both courses are apparently represented in the cur- rent practice. A few comments may make the matter clear. As I have already indicated, not a few of the endowed institutions are so similar in ideals and methods to state and municipal universities that their educational function can hardly be dift'erentiated from the latter. They may in some instances and at some points do their work better or less well than the public institution, but in any case they are serving a similar constituency by similar methods and their relations to public schools are in practice essen- tially identical. There are, however, many frankly sectarian institutions which are attempting to. reach ends that the public institution neither would nor could undertake. Certain of these have their main relations with sectarian academies and only in a minor degree with public schools. These colleges are serving a function which is forbidden in some parts of the world, but which can hardly be objected to under our Constitution. Moreover, the number of students concerned is relatively small. In some parts of the country the chief stock and trade of these colleges has been the allegedly Godless character of the state university, A third group is one emphatically to stress the conception of liberal edu- cation and to indulge in harsh language regarding whatever or whoever suggests vocationalism, and especially to shrug the academic shoulder and to lift the academic nostril at any mention of the school of technology or the state university or the state college of agriculture and mechanic art. It scrutinizes with peculiar ferocity any school record which hints that typewriting or stenography has been indulged in and bookkeeping comes in for a glance only a shade less black. These institutions regard them- selves as set to keep alive in a Philistine world the torch of pure learning. Liberal education is a fine thing, nothing finer when justly conceived, and if these institutions succeed in achieving it in a higher degree than the tax- supported institutions, they deserve every encouragement and an ungrudg- ing approval of all who are interested in producing the highest types of the human spirit, but whether it be earlier or later, there comes inevitably a time when liberal studies must give way to the acquirement of some type 112 National Education Association of specific proficienc\', and one may hardly condemn to utter oblivion the youth who begins this process at nineteen instead of at twenty-one, or the institutions which make it possible for him to do so. In a final group are found among others certain of the oldest and most powerful of the endowed institutions. They are called universities. Their entrance standards are in general the most severe now employed. Their academic ideals are high. They attract a very high type of student, along with some of lower moral attitudes. They have on their faculties, judged by the Cattell tables, much the largest share of the leading scientific men, and presumably an even greater proportion of the leading humanistic scholars. Their professional schools are literally in the forefront, and taken as a group, they stand by themselves in the distinction of their personnel and in the completeness of their scholarly equipment. It is said that they are not w'holly unconscious of the situation. And that they tend at times to a certain condescension of manner which is not the more gracious nor more popular for being largely justified. I see no reason to doubt that in general these endowed institutions, with the exception of the first group described, tend to stress more, and perhaps more successfully, the ideals of a more purely liberal education, and that as a group the tax-supported institutions emphasize rather more the early preparation for a particular cause, though I know not a few in which both the standpoint and the technic of liberalism is highly developed. These distinctions, such as they are, reflect neither credit nor discredit, except in the measure in which each adopts and. enforces severe and search- ing methods to gain its ends. No matter how valid and how worthy the ideal of liberal education, if the actual procedure by which a college at- tempts to realize this purpose, results in a thin, vapid, spineless course of study as it often does, it will leave its victims untouched by most of the finer values of a liberal culture and wholly despoiled of the discipline of severe, continuous and vitally motivated study. On the other hand, no vocational curriculum taught by trade school methods and with a merely trade outlook, can do what a college should do for its youth, whereas such a curriculum, illuminated by breadth of out- look, sound fundamental training and inflexible thoroughness on the part of the teacher may itself be essentially liberalizing in its effect, to say nothing of the admirable technical training which it may convey. Nor would I be understood in these comments to be criticizing the trade school, nothing is further from my intent, but its methods are not collegiate and should not be. The public and the endowed institutions alike have been facing one crisis upon which I wish to say a few words, namely, the overwhelming increase in students. There is a curious disposition which one sometimes encounters in dealing with this problem to assume that at last we have reached the peak of the load, and, therefore, we need not worry about the future. So far as I can ascertain, this, too, has almost nothing upon which to rest, provided we assume that substantially the same educational standards are Department of Superintendence 113 to be enforced as at present and that the economic conditions of the country are not to change markedly and permanently for the worse. This is neither the time nor the place to discuss the extraordinary details regarding the character and the distribution of this recent increase, but the fact of its occurrence is obstinate and we have by no means approached the upper limit. If I correctly interpret the reports of the United States Com- missioner, the college student numbers more than tripled in the decade from 1914 to 1924. The figures earlier quoted indicate that the endowed insti- tutions are already carrying the lion's share of this load, and while some of the weaker ones still proselyte and are keen for more students, many of the stronger ones have set limits and declined to receive applicants beyond such limits. The endowed institution obviously has two alternatives. It may take the position as some conspicuous institutions have until recently done, that it is under obligation to accept all properly qualified students who apply and thereupon proceed to try to secure the resources with which adequately to care for them and teach them. If the effort is made to secure the necessary means by runing up the tuition charges, the result is at once a deplorable social and economic selection, throwing out a large part of the children of the less well-to-do, a consequence which most institutions are loathe to permit, especially as those eliminated are likely to include the very de- sirable children of men in poorly paid professional groups, such as ministers and teachers and college presidents. Another possibility is to teach in huge classes, which as a general solu- tion of the problem is, educationally, extremely objectionable. It leaves untouched also the housing problem, which for many institutions is very embarrassing. If tuition increases be not resorted to, or only in minor measure, then additional endowment must be sought. Many institutions have preferred to choose the other alternative, although it has some dis- advantages not likely to be disregarded. They have accordingly set student limits beyond which they will not go. For example, the institution which I have the honor to represent has for some years limited its attendance and it rejects considerably more bona fide freshman applicants than it re- ceives, while in its graduate medical school it takes about one applicant in twelve. It has set these particular limits not because of any a priori preju- dices as to what constitutes an ideal number nor by any desire to assume a pose of aristocratic exclusiveness. Had such conceptions been determi- nated, doubtless a much lower set of limits would have been chosen. It has been guided solely by the considerations as to its actual existing facilities, beyond which it could not expand without greatly increased expense. I understand that other institutions which have adopted limitation have been guided by similar conditions. I cannot doubt that as time goes on more and more of the endowed institutions will be driven to this same policy, and just in proportion as this occurs will the burden on the public institutions increase. Personallv I 114 National Education Association do not believe that new endowed institutions will be created rapidly enough to take up the pressure and for a variety of reasons the existing ones will be reluctant or unable to expand with any appreciable rapidity. How the public institution will meet this situation remains to be seen. You gentle- men who conduct the great school systems will undoubtedly exercise a marked influence on the policies adopted and your colleagues in the state and municipal universities will have to settle the issue. You may resort increasingly to the "junior college procedure, despite the acrimonious criticisms which this system has elicited and the small favor which it seems to enjoy in part of our fair land. You may create new^ state universities or enlarge those which you have ; you may create new municipal universities, but unless college entrance standards are changed sharply and very appreciably upward, the problem will have to be faced much more vigorously than it has been up to this time. Just what the ultimate saturation capacity of the private institutions may be, I cannot predict, but we are certainly approaching its limit and in any event there are many students who wull not go to the endowed in- stitutions, at least not to those that are within their reach, geographically and financially speaking. Even in this state, where you can hardly put your foot down without stepping on a college, I understand there has more than once been a very vigorous effort to create a state university. I have long felt, and have more than once urged, without any gain in popularity, that whatever may be said for giving young people a sub- stantially free education through the high school period there should be appreciably more severe and essentially competitive selection of those who are to go on to higher education, and particularly if this is to be at the expense of the state. I entertain this view not less in the interest of the young people affected by the procedure than as an item in my political philosophy. Approximately free education at the taxpayer's expense is only warranted if the state actually gets back value received in trained discipline and public-spirited citizens. Merely to multiply the number of college youth who go back into the community ranks w'ith no vivid sense of obligation to capitalize for the benefit of the commonwealth the training they have received is quite as likely to prove a curse as a blessing for the state. Moreover, to tax the less gifted merely to afford the more gifted opportunity for sheer personal and selfish aggrandizement, whether of mind or of purse, com- mends itself to no thoughtful person. The mortality statistics of our institutions show a lamentably imperfect adjustment of entrance requirements to actual college demands, and whether responsibility for this fact be laid at the doors of the school where the college authorities place it or at the door of the colleges where the schoolmasters put it, or at both places, where some disinterested observers have placed it, the fact remains that somewhere along the line there has been a faulty process of selection. DlZPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 115 There is a very good story I would like to tell you if I didn't have to tell it through a loud speaker. Telling a joke through a loud speaker is a good deal like pumping up an automobile tire with a hand pump. It can be done, but — 1 will make it very brief. It runs this w^ay. Of course it is always the open season for abusing the colleges, you know, despite what Air. Gwinn said about the president. Somebody was abusing the colleges and it occurred to a college professor, being of an inquiring turn of mind, to follow this up. He found, of course, that all his college colleagues said that the trouble was with the high schools, that they were certainly rotten institutions, and they sent a very poor type of young person up to the college, and you naturally could not expect the college to do much with them. So he went to the high schools and inquired of the teachers and principals what about it. They said there was some, though not much, truth in it, but that if he would go down into the grades and see the young savages who came out of the grades into the high school and then saw what the high school was asked to do in four years, he would see how impossible it was to send on much better stuff to the colleges than they did. He thought that the trail was getting warm, so he went to the grade school and inquired of the principal what about it. She said, "There is a measure of truth in what the high-school principal said, but if you w^ill go down into the kindergarten and see these young barbarians who are sent in from the families for us to deal with, with absolutely no assistance from the families themselves, if you will see what we have to do with adjusting that mass, you will understand why we cannot pass on to the high schools very much better material." So the trail led to the kindergartener, and she said in turn that there was some truth in it, but if he would come into the room where these children are and see these unlicked cubs that were sent out from the families, he would understand how impossible it was for the kindergarteners to do anything. So he went back to the families to inquire about the unlicked cubs. The first place he called he found the mother, fortunately, at home. He went in and asked her about the matter. She said it was true that many of the neighbors' children were really very difficult, and of course William sometimes was a hard child to deal with, "but," she said, "after all, you know his father's people are all like that." But of course that is the great American game of passing the buck, and it is always the open season for that. That, of course, is part of this story about the mortality statistics, but I have a more serious set of observations to make, if not more truthful. Some of the schools desire to be exempted entirely from any responsibility on the score of college entrance preparation. If students wish to go to college, well and good, let the colleges take them if they will, but let it be recognized that the school's commanding obligation is to the great majority who do not go on to college and not to the small minority who do. Many school men, perhaps most of them, do not believe that the 116 National Education Association same course which is best for the college-bound youth is also best for the lad who is to stop his formal education on high-school graduation, and they accordingly wish to be free of any obligation for meeting college entrance requirements. The schools maintain that they have been terribly bullied in this mat- ter by the colleges. Doubtless in the past there has been some ground for this complaint, and it has been accentuated by the frequent and irrational unwillingness of the colleges to establish more uniform requirements, each desiring to be a law unto itself. But these good old times are in many parts of the country long past and the shoe is now rather on the other foot. The powerful metropolitan high schools at least are often delectably frank in expressing their concern about anything other than college entrance requirements. I do not know that in this matter the schools entertain more acrimonious sentiments towards the endowed institutions than they do to the public ones, though the former have doubtless been more conservative, but if their views should prevail, the first result would be a great develop- ment of private preparatory schools, a process that in response to rather different motives is already going on rapidly in certain parts of the country. These private schools are, to my knowledge, in many instances ac- complishing an admirable work and one which in many respects the public schools could under no conditions undertake, but I should regard it as nothing short of calamitous to have the high school adopt so arbitrary a position as to take it wholly out of the field of college preparation. After all, our college population is one of extremely great consequence for the commonwealth, relatively small though it be in numbers, and it would be tragic to have the high school alienate itself wholly from this connection. Some give and take there must be as between the schools and the colleges, but there should be no complete breach, and I do not believe that on second thought either the school men or the supporting public would endorse it. The college authorities must be accorded some competency to speak on this matter, and in my judgment at least the entrance require- ments of many of our collegiate institutions are educationally extremely reasonable, and if they err, I believe it is on the side of too soft and too superficial demands, but this is a matter on which there may be an honest difference of opinion. I should deeply deprecate anything which would aggravate social class consciousness, and to hand over college preparation exclusively to a group of private schools would certainly have this result. We have long heard much of the superficiality of our schools, of the diluting of our curriculum, of the great expense of public education, of the retarded delivery of the finished product, of the poor showing com- pared with Continental and English schools, and so on and so forth. In general, these criticisms seem to me rather unfair if they take no cognizance of the circumstances which have produced the present condition, although many of them reflect ideals which appeal to me as absolutely sound. I know it has been repeatedly demonstrated in American schools Department of Superintendence 117 that children can be better educated than is at present common practice with a saving of from one to two years in time. This is not a theory, it is a fact. I have no question, either, that more continuity of subjectmat- ter than some of our high-school curricula provide is per se intellectually newer, but now that the public schools have been staggering under a burden unparalleled anywhere else in the world, that the supply of really competent teachers and executives has been wholly inadequate, that the academic standards have, as a consequence, often been lax, that the funds necessary to secure and retain well-trained personnel and to do their work satisfactorily have often been denied, that political interference has at times been insufterably destructive, in general, with due allowance for grave shortcomings, I believe they have accomplished an extraordinary job. I think much the same series of statements, both critical and laudatory, could be made of many private schools as well as of our colleges and uni- versities, although in the case of private institutions, political interference would be rare and sectarian or individual interference more frequent. Schools are a good deal like folk, some are good and some are bad, and so far as concerns the actual achievement of the public schools, academically speaking, I was interested in the report of the elections to our Yale Chapter of Phi Beta Kappa last week in which, in an institution where the public school boy is in the ratio of about one to two with the private school boy, almost exactly half of the elections to Phi Beta Kappa were from the graduates of the public schools. It certainly is not my purpose or function on this occasion to criticize the schools. They may be as bad as some authorities declare, although as I have just indicated, I doubt it. But the whole political educational con- ception under which we are working is too largely that a college or uni- versity education is open at little or no cost to anyone of moderate capacity and still more moderate powers of application. There is little or no sense of privilege about it, and practically no sense of obligation. I understand that one state university is presenting to its students the view that they are in effect the employees of the state, being trained like the cadets at West Point and Annapolis, and that as such they are under obligation to give of their best in return. Failure to evince such purpose is, I assume, to be followed by ruthless exclusion. Moreover, I understand that this state expects, on the same principle, with the active cooperation of the high-school authorities, substantially to advance the qualifications for entrance. This program seems to me all very much to the good and if it can be enforced, it ought to produce highly desirable changes in student attitude. I believe that in all this matter the public school can most vitally help the college and the university, whether public or endowed, if it will assume as a part of its function a more active discouragement of young people who have neither the ability nor the attitude toward life and work to 118 National Education Association gain from the college anything of serious advantage. Many schools are taking on some responsibility for vocational guidance. Why in all con- science should they not advise against college those who are obviously unfit ? Perhaps they do. I hope so. They might serve a great public function and spare many a youth a wasted, unhappy experience. The colleges are all suffering from the invasion of young persons who have come for any one of a dozen motives remote from the desire to exploit those values that college is established to conserve and promote. Some are there because parents have made it so unpleasant that to go is the lesser evil. Others wane the athletic rewards the college holds out ; others the social rewards and the supposed social prestige. Many are persuaded that business and professional success are furthered by friends at college, if not by college training, and so they take as little college as possible in order to get as much of the social life as possible. The critic of our college inquires, "But why do you take these youth?" It is a fair inquiry, and the answer is that many of us will not take such students if we know the facts, but some of them are quite clever enough to get by entrance examinations and other hurdles set up by ingenious college officials, even in interview they may make a presentable appear- ance, and then having forced the walls of the educational Eden, they lie down in the lotus garden and are heard of no more until some time in the freshman year the garden gate clangs with them on the outside. And again the critic asks, "Why, having let the lad in, do you not stir his latent enthusiasm, appeal to his modern ideals and save him for a respectable academic career?" The reply is that we sometimes do succeed in just this process, but often we fail, and largely because the lad's own attitude is at the outset so essentially perverse. It becomes clear too late that he ought never to have come, and here again the experience of the public and the endowed institution are one. In this matter the public institution has, if possible, a greater stake than the private one, for it is on the average larger and its processes of academic digestion are by so much the more diflficult. Furthermore, it is often less able to protect itself by relatively arbitrary barriers and entrance. No one wants the hard working, seriously in- tentioned student robbed of his chance, but on the other hand, there is small reason for expending money and human efiFort on young people who deliberately mean not to cooperate with the institution or who lack utterly the traits, moral or intellectual, to gain from the college that which it is designed to give. After all, ladies and gentlemen, a country's greatest resource is the untrained talent of its rising generation. To search this out and give it full opportunity is surely a good philosophy for a democracy. Whether we represent endowed or the publicly-supported institutions, there rests on all alike the imperative obligation to exercise to the uttermost such creative imagination as we can command, such wisdom and energy and devotion to meet the bewildering educational needs of our time and Department of Superintendence 119 people. If the greatest experiment in self government ever undertaken by man is to avoid the pitfalls of pervasive vulgarity and meretricious ignor- rance, masquerading as sophisticated intelligence, if it is to survive the sinister influences of political corruption and commercial greed, if it is to come into its heritage of great intellectual and spiritual achievement which shall furnish the indispensable counterpart and complement to its unprecedented material accumulations, it is chiefly to education that we must look, and education whose development will call for all those human qualities of courage and vision and self-sacrifice which we justly esteem most high. W^c may well pray that we be not found wanting in this supreme test of our national life. THE STATE UNIFERSITY—ITS RELATION TO PUBLIC EDUCATION LOTUS D. COFFMAN, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS MINN. The state universities of America are an expression of the spirit of the pioneers who settled west of the Appalachian Mountains. True, they had their origin in democratic Virginia, but their expansion and development came with the growth of the Central West. Since then they have spread to the South and across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific coast. The state universities represent the culmination of democracy's effort to advance itself by education. They have thrived and flourished where democracy has thrived and flourished. Wholly unsympathetic with every attempt to transplant an alien university system to American soil, the great body of citizens in the Mississippi Valley, and later to the South and West, sought the establishment of institutions of higher learning, open to all, sensitive to public need, supported largely by taxes levied upon all, and designed and administered to promote the public welfare. The state universities and the public schools evolved out of the same set of conditions. The arguments f(jr the establishment of the universities were essentiall\- the same as those for the establishment of the public schools, only raised to a higher power. The public schools w^ere intended to be free schools; the state universities were intended to be as nearly free as possible. The doors of the public schools were to be wide open ; like- wise the state universities were expected to admit those who had completed the work of the next lower unit of the public schools. The public schools were maintained to provide for each individual that training by which he could profit most; the state universities offered additional training for those who were capable of pursuing their studies into still higher realms, lioth the public schools and the state universities were founded on the as- sumption that society's welfare is best promoted by providing as nearly free and equal educational opportunities and privileges as possible. Indeed 120 National Education Association from early colonial times this conception has been assumed to be one of the surest guarantees of civil liberty. But of late, a tide of criticism of the public schools in general and of state universities in particular has begun to flow. Today it is a report of one of the great corporations that arraigns the cost of the state uni- versities in most vigorous language and declares that they have become the victims of mediocrity. Tomorrow it is a report from one of the great foundations declaring that the students should pay the cost of their in- struction. The next day it is an address from one of the distinguished citizens of America in which the same declarations are made. Then follows another report, brilliantly written, comparing the best of European secondary schools with American secondary schools of lower grade, dis- crediting the work of the American schools. Then comes a report from the manufacturers' association calling for new limits on child labor legislation and the extension of the privileges of work for children. Then follows a report of the United States Chamber of Commerce presenting figures showing that education is costing too much. One cannot view an array of samples of this nature without stopping to think. If these criticims and others like them mean anything, they mean that we need to clarify and to redefine our philosophy of life and of education, for it is obvious, even to the casual observer or student, that a wide difference of opinion exists between the dominant philosophies with regard to education. The state universities and the public schools from the beginning have been maintained to provide freedom of opportunity. One of their funda- mental doctrines has been equal opportunity for all to reach their highest attainments. They have stood vigorously against class education. They have provided educational facilities for all alike, the rich and the poor, the boy and the girl, the Gentile and the Jew, the Fundamentalist and the Modernist, the Conformist and the Non-conformist, the Religionist and the Atheist. Free of denominational control, the state universities are nevertheless Christian in spirit. Christian in ideals, and Christian in fellow- ship. They are open alike to those of social station and to those without. Long ago they learned that genius and talent do not belong to any class based upon wealth or social position. The only differences they recognize are differences due to ability and to a desire to achieve. They recognize that not all can achieve alike or move forward at equal rates of speed. 'I'hey know that some must fall by the way and that some attempt that which they are not qualified to pursue. But they are not willing , to con- demn those of less talent merely because they have less talent. They pro- pose for them just what they propose for the more talented; that is that each shall be permitted to progress as rapidly as his abilities will permit to the approximate limits of his attainment. The student of few talents shall not be denied his opportunity while the student of many talents is given his. Department of Superintendence 121 The state universities and the public schools have persistently main- tained that they arc training the common people for the common weal. They have believed in the unlimited potentialities of the individual. In maintaining this as an ideal they have merely been expressing the spirit and philosophy of the free people who support them. Let the state universities set themselves up as class institutions and the support which they have hitherto received will quickly vanish and other institutions will arise out of the soil which gave them birth to take their places. All other criticisms notwithstanding, if the American people have any great passion, it is a passion for education. They may not all be imbued with a flare for learning, they may not all be endowed with a "divine afflatus" for truth, but of this one thing we may be certain, no matter how vigorous the criticism of college and university education may be, the people of this country, those who vote and pay the taxes and support its institutions, will not permit their children to be deprived of their inherent privilege to attend college. They will establish new ones if they have to, even though the taxes must be increased to support them. It is claimed that the average ability of the student bodies in these days is lower than it was fifteen years ago. This may be true ; but based upon a priori evidence, this claim is difficult to establish. The standards of admission to college and the standards of college work certainly are higher today than ever before in all of the history of American educa- tion. This is as true of the state universities as it is of the privately endowed universities. If one listens to much of the current criticism he despairs of the college student, but he takes heart when he observes on commencement day that thousands of those who were supposed to be mentally incompetent have completed to the satisfaction of the faculty all of the requirements for their degrees. And it should be remembered that those requirements for the most part are determined by those of alleged superior intelligence of a generation ago. We hear much about mass education, and the absence of the personal touch between university teacher and student. All of the teachers of a generation or so ago did not hold personal communion with their stu- dents either; a few of them did; most of them did not. A student then often got very little intelligent advice concerning himself ; today he gets advice scientifically determined concerning his health, mental makeup, emotional maladjustments, and vocational potentialities. We probably forget that there were not very many dynamic per- sonalities on the teaching force in earlier days. There were a few, praise be. and most of us ackno\\ledge their strength of character and personal influence. One of the educational myths is that all of the teachers were of this type. Far from it. We should remind ourselves that there are dynamic personalities who are forceful teachers on the teaching staf^ today and that twenty years hence, they, too, will be remembered with affec- tion by their students. 122 National Education y\ssociATioN Not all state university teachers are of the type which R. L. Duffus, a writer for the Sunday supplement, New York Times, January 8, de- scribes, "For himself (that is, the teacher in the state university) he needs the arts of the orator quite as much as those of the scholar. He must be ready with stories, with amusing illustrations. He must possess the ability to dramatize his subject, so that the dozing student in the last row will every now and then wake up and grasp a fact or prin- ciple." Without claiming that teachers should be entertainers, perhaps a little of the power of lucid presentation may be good for a teacher wherever he is. Experience has clearly demonstrated that men who place themselves rather than the materials of their subjects in the forefront, are condemned by faculty and students alike. In moments of great exultation Americans in general are disposed to praise their schools and the profession of teaching. They view with pride the public schools and the state universities as the agencies of the greatest experiment democracy has ever undertaken. It is the experiment of providing or of attempting to provide, largely by taxation, for the education of the children of all men and of offering to them, as nearly free as possible, equal educational privileges from the kindergarten to the university. The burden which the present generation has to bear in maintaining this experiment is incomparably lighter than that which our sacrificial forefathers bore to establish this great system of popular education. Certainly it is true that the torch of American civilization has been passed from generation to generation, not by tradition, but through the processes of an expanding education. Shall some generation in the comparatively near future witness the dimming of that torch because it provides the maximum opportunity for the children of the favored and denies the maximum opportunity for the children of the less favored ? Americans have long maintained that equality of opportunity is essen- tial to the development, the safety and the perpetuity of democratic in- stitutions. And by equality of opportunity none but the most uninformed have ever thought that it meant equality of ability. Equality of oppor- tunity has been relied on to produce a worthy democratic citizenship. Education has been supported as a social investment. It has been as- sumed that society's contribution to the education of its children is re- turned manyfold in service, progress, and wealth. And the facts, I be- lieve, fully justify that theory. One only needs to point to the states that have neglected education as contrasted with the states that provide generously for education, to find evidence in support of this assumption. If one will take the five states that have provided most liberally for education, and compare them with the five states that have provided most parsimoniously for education, he will find that the average earnings of the families in the former are almost twice those of the latter, that the amount per individual in the savings banks is nearly ten times greater per individual in the former than in the latter, that the number of books Department of Superintendence 123 in the libraries and the number of magazines and newspapers subscribed to is vastly greater in the former, and that the living conditions by and large are much superior in the former. One of the things we are sometimes prone to forget is that we pay for the things we don't have as truly as we pay for the things we do have, but we pay in a different kind of coin. One has only to sweep his eye over the world to find abundant support for this statement. The nations that have been unwilling to spend on education are the victims of ignorance, superstitution, destitution, and of all the wretchedness that comes in their train. America has achieved her station, not by a with- holding but by a generous spending. And she has done it by refusing to close the gates of educational opportunity. Generous donors and generous states have kept them open. Shall she now turn her back on the past and, heedless of its lessons, initiate a new philosophy, one which provides the best of higher education for the privileged few who possess the money to pay for it? Or shall she continue to hold steadfastly to the theory that democracy in the final analysis is a process of continuous education and that this nation can keep her place at the forefront among the nations of the world by providing more, not less, generously for the education of all ? If society is growing more complex, as most of us believe, its problems more numerous, more intricate and more difficult of solution, then more, not less, education will be required for their solution. How" tenaciously did our forefathers hold to the doctrine that the progressive advancement of democratic institutions depended upon an educated citizenry ! An able attorney said to me recently, "Mr. Cof^man, civilization has been ruined by education. Do yoii suppose you can make people competent to vote on public questions by giving them an education?" My only answer was, "I know of no other way." And if the education of a generation is to become increasingly more selective, as some advocate, so that only the gifted possess knowledge con- cerning the complex problems of modern life, which we are constantly called upon to consider and, we have thought, to assist in solving, if col- lege education is to be only for the select, then it becomes alien to the spirit which gave birth to public education and to the state universities. If pursued to its logical conclusion, this doctrine means that free govern- ment, based upon universal citizenship, cannot endure. We are not ready to admit, without adequate trial, that the great American experiment has failed. We are not yet ready to create by deliberate act an un- educated and uninformed proletariat. We know that there are many who maintain that too many are in school and that too many are being graduated from college. There does not appear to be any trustworthy information showing that the professions, in general, are overcrowded. And we do not seem to have too many persons with a knowledge of government and of the other in- stitutions of men. Where trained intelligence exists there we seem to 124 National Education Association have the best citizenship. And is not citizenship a function which all classes of people are expected to exercise ? Shall we deny those who are to traverse the humbler walks of life the outlook of the trained mind ? If we attempt to do it we shall probably find ourselves reckoning without our host, for as Lincoln said, "God must have loved the common people. He made so many of them," and they still rule in the land. The state universities and the public schools have had still another com- mon interest, an interest to which reference has already been made but which is deserving of further consideration. This interest may be best described by reference to an address which I heard a gentleman deliver recently before a distinguished midwestern club. He said, "College educa- tion, and perhaps secondary education, to some degree at least, should be based upon wealth. Those who are able to pay for it should be privileged to get it; those who cannot pay for it, should be denied it." Here we have a doctrine, stripped of all veneer, that education in its upper reaches should minister only to an aristocracy of wealth. It is a fact that there are almost no free universities any more in this country. The fees charged students by state universities have been in- creasing but they are not so large, nor have they increased so rapidly, as fees charged by private universities. If they must now be increased so that the students pay the full cost or approximately the tuition cost of higher education, then one of the original primary purposes of the state universities will have been defeated. The gentleman to whom I referred a few moments ago, declared that all education is simply a matter of charity and that the costs of educa- tion should be compared with the money given to charity. Viewed in this way it is clear that education is absorbing an unreasonable proportion of the nation's wealth. He stated also that the disintegrating effects of such charitable giving become even more pronounced in the case of stu- dents in colleges and universities and especially if the students are being trained for the more lucrative professions. He demanded that this pauper- ization should cease because of its deleterious social consequences. It re- quires a type of reasoning which I am as yet unable to comprehend to understand how those who have themselves been the beneficiaries of this social charity and who because of it have achieved wealth and recognition in their communities, should now suddenly discover its harmful effects and seek to deny the children of others and even their own sometimes, the advantages which they themselves enjoyed. Suppose it should happen that the great privately endowed universities should become even more select and that men of means and the great foundations should continue to endow them with increasing millions and the state universities at the same time were unable to make correspond- ing progress, then we should, indeed, have what some claim we already have, provincial education in the private institutions and a cheap variety of education for the less favored thousands in the state institutions. Far Department of Superintendence 125 be it from me to look with envy upon large gifts to private universities. I am especially happy to see them prosper, but 1 hold at the same time that the state universities, if the common weal is to be Served, should prosper in corresponding degree. Education should be looked upon as national, not as a local enterprise; as a common, not as a class under- taking. The country as a whole will flourish best if there are many rather than a few centers where distinguished men of art, of literature, and of science are perpetuating their own kind. The last proposition to which 1 wish to call attention is likewise one to which reference has already been made. Stated more directly, how- ever, the state universities and the public schools are unwilling to accept the doctrine of a self-appointed aristocracy of brains as their sole or primary function. They fully understand that there is a somewhat popular im- pression that wherever "mass" education exists, a term which I deplore, for I believe there is no such thing as mass education, but wherever it is said to exist, it is believed, there is no training for leadership and yet training for leadership is, in the opinion of many, the only justification for higher institutions of learning. Leadership, it should be remembered, is a relative term. Probably no one is a leader in everything ; he leads in some respects and follows in others. Intelligent followership may be quite as important in a democracy as intelligent leadership. There are those who maintain that the efficiency and value of the higher institutions of learning are determined by the selective and elimi- nating processes ; the fewer they admit and the more they eliminate the better they are. Some on the other hand measure their progress by the numbers of students they attract. Neither of these measures is adequate and neither can be applied without reservation to state institutions. A state institution will eliminate those who cannot do its work, but it will not refuse to give the individual who can do its work a chance to spend more than four years in accomplishing a given task if there seems to be good reason for it. It is unwilling to accept slowness as a sure sign of incompetency. And admitting large numbers of students does not mean that the state universities are not training for leadership. If they are not already doing so, they should be offering every opportunity for the talented and the gifted and they should be encouraging them in every possible way. In discoursing upon this matter former Dean Eugene Davenport of the University of Illinois said a few years ago, "We hear too much about educating for leadership. What the world wants is not leaders of whom we have a surfeit, but rather information and trained habits of thinking that it may select its leaders wisely. This all means the closest possible working relations between the institutions and the citizenship of the state, between those who, feeling the pressure of unsolved problems, realize the need of better information for those whose business it is to 126 National Education Association supply the need. A uni\ersity so guided will remain close to the people and close to its problems. A university that so functions will not come very far frorrt fulfilling its highest usefulness." Two documents dealing pointedly with this general problem have re- cently appeared. One of them is the January issue of Ginn and Com- pany's leaflet on "What the colleges are doing," and the other is the annual report of President Butler of Columbia University. The Ginn leaflet is a series of extracts from articles or bulletins, which reveal a com- mon theme ; they favor rigid selection of students. Among other things these authors have set up a new conception of social justice. They argue that fewer students should be admitted and more should be eliminated, because the mediocre students are trespassing upon the time and rights of a high-minded faculty who are giving gener- ously, and with high altruistic motives, of their energy and ability for the advancement of society; because the mediocre students are depriving the brilliant students of that opportunity which they covet of maximum achieve- ment, and because the mediocre students are defrauding their parents, friends, and society in general out of the greater returns and rewards which would accrue if society invested only in the gifted. The statement is made that "the stampede into college life today is in a great measure blind, ill-considered, and without high motive," that the college -market is saturated with mediocrity, that the keynote of the college world is the tragedy of the unfit, that the colleges are engaged in a wildcat exploitation of youth, that education for democracy should cease, and that education for aristocracy should take its place. One of the articles in particular seems to hold the colleges responsible for the ills and sins of society. "For not a third of all that graduate see in their own intellectual growth sufficient compensation for the labors of a college career. Most, on the contrary, feel that they have sacrificed time and energy, and for the loss thus sustained they mean to recover from society. Is the legal profession being prostituted by the practitioner who brings with him into practice the ethics of the bootlegger and the heart of the pawnbroker? Then the remedy is not in stricter require- ments for admission to the bar. The evil originates at the threshold of the law school or earlier, and there it is to be combatted or abandoned." I have long known that the schools of this country had their weaknesses but never before did I assume that they should be held primarily respon- sible for the sins of men. I knew that they had been forced to assume many burdens which did not belong to them but not until I read these articles did I understand that the colleges of this country because they have not been exclusive, are responsible for bootlegging lawyers and medical fishmongers. Were this true I should say that it were high time that Jehovah direct his destructive thunderbolts at these dens of iniquity. Department of Superintendence 127 The common tlu'inc niiiiiiii;^ tliroujzli the sciii-s of articles is education for the elect. To this doctrine we aj^rec that those who cannot profit by college training should not be permitted to attempt it or to remain at college. 'I'hose who can profit by it but will not, likewise should not be permitted to remain at college. Colleges should not be regarded as playhouses, eleemos\ nary iiistituticjns or rest stations. At the same time there are those of us who remember with gratitude that talent and genius were not the sole requisites for admission to college in our day. The authors of these articles say they are thinking in terms of social justice. 1 maintain that their doctrine is the doctrine of individualism concealed under the cloak of social justice. The conception of social justice advanced by these writers is new in the field of education. While it has been advanced here and there by writers, it never before could be dignified as a movement. The focus of our attention, educationally speak- ing, years ago was upon the individual; more recently it has been upon those things which minister to the common welfare. The scene in educa- tion has been shifting from man to his activities; from individualism to the common good; from personality to commonality; from what is best for the individual to what is best for the community. And the common good has not been conceived as depending upon the training of the gifted alone, but upon the training of all who are competent to profit by train- ing. In his annual report, President Butler distinguishes between univer- sities that reside in the sphere of liberty and universities that reside in the sphere of government. He defines the institutions of liberty as those supported by benefactions while the institutions of government are those supported by taxes. "Free men," he says, "have themselves erected gov- ernment and have given to it for domain and occupation a very small part of all that constitutes their activity, physical, intellectual, social, moral, economic, reserving the vast and unlimited remainder for them- selves as the sphere of liberty." And again he says, "The vast advantage which a university erected in the sphere of liberty has over a university erected in the sphere of government is in its freedom from bureaucratic control, from partisan political pressure and from those urgings which are the unhappy result of compromise between clashing convictions and conflicting public policies. A university in the sphere of liberty is master of its own destiny and is responsible only to its own ideals and to that larger public which has brought into existence both the sphere of liberty and that of government." The obvious inference from this is that state universities are greatly limited as to domain and occupation, that is as to the scope of their use- fulness, while the endowed universities are practically unlimited as to the scope of their usefulness. If it be true that the social justifications l\ing back of these two types of universities, possess these sanctions, then it is clear that these two types of universities do not operate and are not 128 National Education Association expected to operate in the same field. Furthermore, it is clear that we are dealing with differences in kind as well as with differences in degree when we think of the service these two types of universities render. It may be that society must rely even more heavily in the future than in the past for its leadership upon the dwellers in the sphere liberty, while institutions which it itself provides shall be for the training of citizens for the more modest and humbler walks of life. I suspect that if public universities can continue to develop citizens and, if 1 may dare to say it, "true leaders," as they have in the past and in increasing numbers, no imaginary line will ever be drawn between a school in the sphere of lib- erty and a school in the sphere of government. A second inference to be drawn from Dr. Butler's statement is that endowed universities sustain no interference with their freedom while state universities do. There is abundant evidence, I believe, in support of the opinion that endowed universities, generally speaking, are influenced, controlled and frequently governed quite as directly, oft times more obviously, by the donors of their funds than state universities are by the taxpaying public. The fundamental question of public concern is not that of control versus freedom, for all institutions are controlled. It is the question of whether the control always seeks to advance public interest. This distinction of President Butler's raises again, and from a new quarter, the question of the purpose and place of the two types of higher education in a democracy. No matter from what source universities receive their support, they should, in my opinion, seek an atmosphere of freedom in which to do their work and they should view with disfavor any movement or attempt, whether it be directed at state or endowed institutions, to curtail their freedom. The subservience of one institution must eventually menace the life of the other. A state university must, if it is to be worthy of the name university, be as truly a republic of minds where truth is fearlessly sought and taught, as is an endowed university. We cannot have two classes of true universities in America, one serving in the Empyrean fields of liberty and the other with its hands and feet of clay serving in the field of government. Each must serve in both fields, if both liberty and government are to survive. And now in conclusion let me say that both the public schools and the state universities represent the struggles of a free people to establish a system of popular education. The relationship between popular educa- tion on the one hand and democratic society on the other, is one which the American people still feel with responding devotion. The freer the political institutions of men the more widely scattered are the schools for everybody; the more restricted the political institutions of men the less widely scattered are the schools for everybody. The chief means of control in a democracy is some form of popular education. It is no mere accident of time and place that Americans have fostered public education for all. None recognized the truth of this more than Thomas Department of Superintendence 129 Jefferson who declared that a free government cannot endure without public education. He gave a migiity impetus to its cause. From then until now the public schools and the state universities have advanced, sometimes with uncertain and halting steps, but the movement in gen- eral has always been forward. Could our forefathers have looked into the future, they would have known that this great experiment in democracy was secure, for its foundations are rooted in the idealism of the people and in provisions which they consider wise for meeting the necessities of their social and political structure. THE RELATION OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS TO HIGHER EDUCATION MRS. SUSAN M. DORSEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. It is not my purpose on this occasion to strike a discordant note by dwelling on the shortcomings of either the public schools, or the institu- tions of higher learning. Those shortcomings are all too frequently set forth by the one or the other group from the angle of its respective grievances. It is a matter of common knowledge that the college de- plores the inadequate preparation of entrants, objects to their light and easy ways of life, their lack of seriaus purpose, their propensity to show more concern for athletics than for study, and their immediate and com- plete absorption on entering college in making a fraternity to the exclusion of the more important consideration of orienting themselves educationally and making a fine start on what is supposed to be the reason for college residence, namely, the furthering of the business of becoming educated. It is also matter of common knowledge that the proponents of the public school frequently inveigh against the domination of the higher institutions which seek to impose on the preparatory schools subjects and methods along with the scholastic standards and ideals of the university. The leaders in secondary school education criticize what they choose to call the desocializing and dehumanizing of instruction so prevalent in the lecture system and in some of the research work. They deplore the exclusion from college of large numbers of promising youth because of deviations in their preparation from what are decried as unimportant and meticulous academic requirements as set forth in the college prospectus. It is true that in the same breath in which the public school people com- plain of the exclusion from college of large numbers of deserving youth, they object to the crowds on the campus and the consequent lack of super- vision of college youth on the part of instructors. With none of these matters of controversy are we concerned today. This, rather, is our inquiry. What should be the common objective of all education and the respective relations of public schools and colleges to that common objective which, if discovered, will determine their rela- 130 National Education Association tions the one to the other? Of the many definitions of education (and they are as numerous as the books on that subject) there is one that states its own objective; education is the experience of acquiring and organizing knowledge for the purpose of conserving and increasing human excellence, our own and that of others. With such an objective before us in seek- ing an education for ourselves and in furthering that of others, it is ap- parent that some types of knowledge, experience, and instructional technic will further the end sought and others may prove a distinct hindrance. It must, therefore, be the constant effort of public schools and of higher education to discover and organize that knowledge, to provide those ex- periences, and master those technics that have definite value in raising the levels of human excellence. May I be pardoned the expression of an opinion that in recent years the public schools have been quite as keenly conscious of their obligation to function as promoters of the general good through education as have the schools of higher learning, perhaps even more so, nor do they deserve any special credit for their increased concern and activity in the direction of achieving something noteworthy by way of general improvement through education, for, as a matter of fact, a few years ago, with the enactment of compulsory education laws in many states, they found themselves con- fronted with the entire mass of the nation's children, with no right to pick and choose their clientele and with no power to exclude any save the dangerously diseased and the idiot; only recently in at least one state has it been made possible by law to exclude even the dangerously diseased and idiot. Under such conditions, the schools have been forced to find a way of breathing light and life into a chaotic mass of childhood, the brilliant and the stupid, the clean and the unclean, the strong and the anaemic, the capable and the handicapped, the fit and the unfit, or sink under the oppressive weight. Realizing that there was no possibility of escaping the uttermost handicap and difficulty of perverse, ignorant, neg- lected, and starved childhood, the public schools on the passing of com- pulsory education laws set to work with courage and determination to raise the levels of thought and behavior in their respective communities by clearing the path for childhood ; no matter what the hindrance — poverty, hunger, physical handicaps, mental disability, or depraved environment, the schools little by little have become brave to make the way plain for youth. It has been a great experiment and, I may say, an unparalleled demonstration in the conscious and controlled evolution of humanity, in- spired by an impelling belief in the improvability of human nature and life. It may be appropriate just here to make clear through a few references to public school efforts and projects just what is involved in this obliga- tion to receive all children and direct education so that their lives may be benefited and society improved. Perhaps no more impressive example of the organization of knowledge to the ends of human improvement can be had than the eager adaptation of the results of the scientific study of the human intelligence and the consequent improvement of instruction, Department of Superintendence 131 not only for the well-favored child, but more especially for the one men- tally handicapped. Not for one moment have the public schools permitted themselves to think that any child with a degree of mental inferiority at all educable might be shunted into tiie discards. Their whole-hearted allegiance to the proposition that it is the business of education to increase iiuman excellence has urged them to overlook no group, the neglect of whicii might lessen the chance of success in this great human enterprise. To this end, no time or effort has been spared in the adaptation of the materials and technic of instruction to the intelligence of the child of low mentality. One marvels, for instance, at the patient trials of devices in the interest of the non-reader; one marvels more at the successful results of those efforts, as evidenced in the acquirement of reading ability. To this same end, also, is the care taken to relieve children of the sense of failure by grouping them on the basis of their ability to progress, so that those who must advance slowly may use the time in acquiring the essentials of a particular grade, thereby securing promotion, while those who are able to progress rapidly are given enriched courses, or are per- mitted to cover the work of the grades in less than the allotted time. But human excellence is hard to attain and the public schools have found it necessary to draw upon all knowledge and expert skill in their efforts to lift the levels of life. Because the mal-nourished, tubercular, deformed child is a drag in the race for excellence, they have availed themselves of the most advanced knowledge and its best application to the requirements of health. As a particular instance of the special at- tention given to matters of health, it has been observed of late that there is a marked increase in heart disturbances of every sort, even in very young children. One of the great Mayo brothers of the Middle West, physicians of international renown, in a recent interview to w'hich much publicity was given, confirmed this conclusion and stated that, while diseases such as typhoid fever and tuberculosis were now largely under control, the stimulating influences, and especially the speed of modern life, were creating a new* health problem in the rapid increase of heart dis- turbances. An eminent diagnostician has recently given out a finding to the effect that one out of every twelve deaths is due to some circulatory diffi- culty. Those in charge of the health of public school children have for some time been concerned over this new menace to childhood. They have not, however, been content to accept the fact and rest there, but, true to their urge to improve life, they have set to work to establish a regimen for the relief, if not the removal, of this menacing physical handicap through proper food, exercise, and through moderation of the living pace of the young. Thus briefly I have referred to some of the evidences that the public schools are courageously undertaking the task of lifting the levels of human excellence, and that to accomplish this they have been forced to admit their obligation to receive all the children of the nation as their educa- tional apportionment, not merely "to have and to hold" for a period 132 National Education Association of years, but to transform into better human material, even at the cost of many a personal satisfaction on the part of teachers. My illustrations thus far have been taken from the remedial phases of public school work and have described efforts made to overcome such conditions as would inevitably depress the scale of man's accomplishments. The removal of the handicaps to progress, it must be admitted, does not insure an actual forward movement ; that can come only from the ad- vancing achievements of those who are ready to start at the signal. The great work of public education is, after all, its constructive program, by which the capable are made more fit through daily contacts with high standards of thought and behavior, as revealed in books, in the refinements of literature, music, and art, as gained through school activities, and above all through the teacher's attitude toward life and its possibilities. It is frequently said that "mediocrity is the curse of democracy." There is an element of truth in this statement. The schools of America, how- ever, are unwilling to admit that this must necessarily be true in every democracy and at all times. It is their constant ambition to demonstrate the improvableness of all human nature and the entire possibility of lift- ing the common man to new and higher levels of thinking and feeling. They have small patience with the determinists' doctrine that the intel- lectual fate and, to a large degree, the educational possibilities of every child are fixed at birth. Have they not lived through a quarter century of compulsory education, during which they have verified by successful demonstration the entire possibility of endowing the masses through various intellectual experiences, if not with greatly increased native intelligence, at least with an acquired intelligence that increases vastly the sum total of human achievement ? It should be further stated that these successful demonstrations have resulted in face of the initial handicap that a technic of social and educa- tional procedure for the improvement of so tremendous an influx of the unfit had to be set up almost over night and that the development of such technic was further complicated in the great centers of population by problems arising from the incoming hordes of the foreign-born, whose language handicaps made necessary still further modifications of educa- tional procedure. Recall the picture of the young teacher confronted with forty little children, not one of whom can speak a word of English. Her responsibility is to educate those children on schedule time in the intel- lectual skills needed for life, train them in correct mental habits, and inspire them with American ideals. To her everlasting credit, be it said that the public school teacher holds fast to her faith that education is for the increasing of human excellence, nor does she falter in her will to realize that ideal. Just at this point in its work, public education must plead guilty to at least one default. It is in not making the most of the super-excellent child, that child who, if educated to the full measure of his capabilities and consequent responsibilities, is the finest hope of future progress. The Department of Superintendence 133 grade routine of the public schools has been more or less of a leveler, per- mitting too little elasticity of program to take care of the higher degrees of intelligence and small chance for accelerating the progress of the one who should quicken his pace. Not the least of the embarrassments of the administrator in his efforts to meet the schools' obligations to the superior child is the lack of understanding teachers, those able to select the ap- propriate materials of learning for these eager minds and so guide their social adjustments as to keep these children on good terms with their kind and still mentally^ enriched and emotionally stabilized. At any rate, it should be said that the schools are at least awake to their possibilities and responsibilities in this most important particular. Everywhere there are stirrings that indicate a realization of a deficiency to be met and of an obligation to bring about such adjustments of school procedure as will make more possible the suitable and accelerated education of those of superior intelligence. Thus far in this discussion the relation of the public school to institu- tions of advanced learning has not been indicated, and yet such relation is implied. We of the public schools have the enviable opportunity — and I say that in sincerity — of helping all children to a fuller realization of their possibilities; we have the further obligation of determining in large measure who of all this vast throng have shown in the public schools an ability and disposition so to acquire and organize knowledge and interpret experiences as to conserve and increase human excellence, their own and that of others, since these, and these only, are they who should enjoy the great and costly privilege of four more years of advanced learning. They may be rich, they may be poor ; they may be brilliant, they may have only ordinary comprehension ; they may be socially experienced or other- wise ; they may be expressive or reflective in disposition — it does not so much matter as to their circumstances, their dispositions, or their mental acumen : it does, however, greatly matter whether they have grasped the significance of life and the meaning of education in terms of human ex- cellence, whether they have mastered in some small way, such as could be fairly expected from those who are still young, the art of discovering and assembling knowledge, of discriminating between the essential and non-essential in any situation, of holding judgment in poise until the evidence is all in, of tightening the leash on emotions until they can be expressed in appropriate and constructive behavior. The privilege of going to college, already great and costly, I would make exclusive, but exclusive not in terms of birth, social privilege, athletic prowess, intel- ligence quotients, or any single qualification, but in any combination what- ever that would insure to the world a college graduate who senses that the great business of the educated man or woman is the conserving and increasing of human excellence. None others can with justice claim the right to what should be held a mark of distinction. With so many in college without adequate preparation in the way of a mastery of the technic of the learning process, without any sense what- 134 National Education Association ever of the privilege accorded and of their obligation to society for the great opportunity, without any objective which they could state other than that going to college is the correct thing, that it gives one social prestige and makes desirable business contacts more assured for the future, is not cause for congratulation on the part of the public schools which pre- pare and recommend these youth. Nor do I think that such a standard as that indicated above, namely, an appreciation of the value of knowledge as an instrument of world progress would necessarily lessen the numbers seeking admission : it would, however, immeasurably increase the mental and ethical quality of the candidates, always granting that high-school principals undertake in serious fashion a program of college guidance early enough in the life of the student to capture his attention before it has been riveted upon less important matters. By this college guidance, I do not mean a mere setting forth of the number of units of this and the other subject that must be taken in order to enter the one or the other college ; that is important — but more important, both for the high school and the college, is that guidance which inspires in the students genuine respect for knowledge as the instrument by which forever the life of communities and states must be improved, if improved at all. The one great motive that should be urged for continuing the education of youth beyond that point where they have mastered the tools of learn- ing and have gained an understanding of their natural and social environ- ment is that they give fair promise of belonging to that group whose minds will be quickened and whose natures will be ennobled to react intel- ligently and constructively to the acquiring and organizing of knowledge for human betterment. How can we expect the young to attain this understanding if our talk of college is always in terms of subject units, if during those high school days there are always football, track, school paper, and school play assemblies, assemblies for all manner of "asides," but rarely or never a "going-to-college" assembly, if we discuss the ad- vantages of a college education in terms of social prestige, of enhanced business prospects, of pleasant memories, of "no more delightful way in which to spend four years of one's life," but exhibit little regard and less understanding and appreciation of the priceless value of the knowl- edge and thought power to be there acquired? However much the college may be found wanting in its service to youth, it still remains true that the public schools do not themselves prize knowl- edge and its use for the increase of human excellence so highly as could be desired. It still is true that our college guidance of youth is most faulty. I grant you that the institutions of higher learning are them- selves at fault for an overemphasis upon subject requirements, which amounts to a constant suggestion to high-school principals and teachers to forget other weighty matters of college guidance, which have been here set forth, and consider their work of direction complete when, after many a mad scramble, the college entrant makes his last subject hurdle and lands on the college campus. Department of Superintendence 135 To sum up the situation as regards the relation of the high school to the college in this particular, namely, who shall he entitled to attend the institution of higher learning, there is, as I see it, a need for more serious attention on the part of both the high school and the college to their common objective, the increase of human excellence. To secure this great objective, the high school should develop the right sort of col- lege guidance, and the college should relax somewhat of its too meticulous subject requirements in the interests of the student who is genuinely intel- ligent and understanding about the value of knowledge and its applica- tion to the betterment of life. And what of the place to be taken by higher education under this common obligation of the schools to raise the levels of human excellence ? I approach this part of the discussion I hope with modesty, as becomes one who is not in a way to make first-hand contacts with the educational attitudes and aspirations of the college and the university. From the point of view of the interested observer, my conclusion is that, despite the countercurrents that sometimes compel a notice quite disproportionate to their real importance, the great stream of higher education is pouring on majestically, that, while in its progress it may not leave so generous an outpouring of common benefits as could be desired, it is at least not devastating society with floods of propaganda based on irrational and insufficient premises; rather it seems that the stream of higher education is broadening with the broadening of human vision and that its depths will yet fathom the uttermost of human needs ; for the heart, as w'ell as the head, of higher education is in the main right. It is sometimes said that it is the business of higher education to train the leaders of the nation and that only on those fit to lead should the nation's money be spent in pr()\iding education beyond the common schools. We could hardly set before the colleges an educational aim that we should hesitate to reveal to the students themselves as one worthy to become their own objective. Granting that many college graduates are destined to become leaders, granting that the nation has a right to expect leadership from those who have enjoyed and should have profited by advanced education, one can hardly think of a college president ad- monishing its graduates to advance upon the world forthwith and proffer their services as leaders. That is not the spirit of the great and good anywhere; rather this, "Whosoever will be the chief among you, let him be \our servant." And that is the spirit of higher education, also; it commends to its graduates the consideration of such a legend as this, "To whom much has been given, from him shall much be required." It sug- gests that those who have enjoyed the privileges and advantages of higher opportunities owe to society a debt of service commensurate with society's investment in their young lives. As one reviews the achievements of higher education and their bearing on the problem of increasing human excellence, it may not be inappropriate to suggest that at this time additional emphasis should be brought to bear 136 National Education Association at two points, on the humanizing of knowledge and on the encouragement of the creative spirit, and that such added emphasis is almost sure to result in raising immeasurably the levels of human achievement. May I point out that largely in one line only, that of the physical and material, has the wealth of scientific knowledge gained through the past few centuries been organized and adapted to the improvement of human life. May I further suggest that too much of the vast accumulations, the result of scientific research, has not been made available for the use or understanding of ordinary men. If it is sometimes urged as a reproach that, in spite of the efforts of the schools to educate youth to an appreciation of choice literature and to establish habits of good read- ing, as soon as the teachers drop out of the situation, these same youth read only trash, may it not also be urged that less trash would be read if the interest and curiosity of the ordinary mind were met with books in which the knowledge gained by the higher reaches of intelligence were couched in more readable, understandable form? May it not be that higher education owes society an obligation to court its lofty isolation less assiduously and to express its findings, at least outside its own scientific caste, in less abstruse and baffling terms, in order that the common, busy men and women may also have an entree into the sacred precincts of learning ? There is surely great need that the knowledge now in the possession of higher education, that would be serviceable for the im- provement of the social attitudes and spiritual natures of men, be made understandable and available for such service to a degree, if possible, some- what commensurate with the contributions already made to the better- ment of man's physical environment through scientific discovery and in- vention. Such knowledge is needed by the ordinary man as a stabilizer, for there is nothing he yearns for quite so much as a sense of stability and security. In his search for this, with what ease, for example, does he fall prey to intellectual quacks and imposters who, under the name of psychology or mental hygiene, or other worthy title, peddle their wares to an inexperienced public, promising in a few lessons to make the learner successful in every affair of life. We are emerging, let us hope, from the period of the patent medicine fraud, but spiritual quackery was never more menacing. The common man, for the very stabilizing of his intel- lectual and spiritual nature, needs not the disregard, but the help of higher learning, needs to have the findings of that learning interpreted so that he can understand what it is all about and what benefit he should reap from the vast output. Pardon a very simple illustration, taken from one field of human activity, of how the simplifying of scientific findings may aid the busy person. A superintendent of schools is sometimes obliged to make this sort of ap- peal to his psychology department when that department has submitted a report all bristling with scientific terms that most skilfully conceal the information desired, "Now, just what are your findings, anyhow, just what do you mean ? What 1 want to know is whether spelling in this Department of Superintendence 137 grade, or reading in that grade, has improved, or not? Just where in this abstruse report, in this medley of technical terms, of graphs and symbols, are the simple facts of progress, degree of progress, or deficiency, set forth?" The administrator in business, in schools, in any line of work, has not time to struggle w-ith translations of the technical language of research, with which he is none too familiar, in order to secure a simple answer to a simple question, "Where do we stand now and in Avhat direction should we next proceed, and how and why should we proceed in that particular way rather than another?" Frankly, much, so much, of research does not justify itself because it ends in research; and never eventuates in the improvement of any attitude of the public mind or of the organized processes of life. If some of the instructors and assistant professors in our colleges were to find an outlet for their worthy ambitions not in a restless effort to get into the ranks of higher research, but in the equally useful function of interpretation of the findings of the research of others, they would bless the world in two ways : they would become better teachers of college youth and help the great intelligent public outside of the university to a few crumbs from the table of those rich in knowledge. At the present time the public must depend largely upon the journalists in the daily papers and current literature for scrappy, inexact, and sometimes grossly exaggerated and distorted statements of scientific findings. It is admitted without a question that higher education must under- take a double task, that of instruction and research; instruction (includ- ing interpretation), in order that students may have a fair comprehension of the life of the world into which they have been ushered and their place in that world ; and research, in order that new knowledge may be made available for the improvement and enrichment of human life. To maintain a fair balance between these two functions of higher education is the serious responsibility of college administrators. To sacri- fice instruction to research, especially if the socalled research is futile for any of the real purposes of society, must result in failure to meet the first obilgation of the college, namely, to educate youth ; to make no effort through research to push the confines of human knowledge yet a little further into the realms of the unknown is to doom civilization to stagna- tion and ultimate retrogression. At the present moment, many thoughtful people are confident that instruction lags; that certain types of inconsequential research are un- wisely stimulated. They believe that the function of research itself needs more careful definition and that only valid research should be encouraged and subsidized. They are furthermore of the opinion that the humanizing and interpreting of all knowledge, including the findings of real research, should be greatly strengthened in our colleges, so that the student body and society at large may constantly experience material and spiritual en- richment from its enormous investment in its schools of higher learning. 138 National Education Association One other contribution to the increase of human excellence it is pos- sible for higher education to make in larger measure than is now the case, namely, the encouragement of the creative ability of students. Learn- ing in these days is so wedded to research that there is great possibility that students may be content to stop with the finding of truth and fail to realize the importance of the next significant step, that step which recombines the results of research into a new invention, a new principle, a new social adjustment, a new earth, and a new heaven. It is not too much to claim that the cherishing, encouraging, and releasing of the creative spirit in youth is the ultimate reason for being of all schools. Is it ever true that higher learning becomes so absorbed in the pursuit of its own schemes as to minimize the possible contributions of youth, and, through disregard, to discourage utterly the stirrings of the creative spirit? Is it ever true that the research imposed upon the initiate is inconsequential in comparison with issues that might result if he were permitted to follow the stirrings and leadings of his own thought? May it not be that the very first responsibility of higher education is to dis- cover and encourage the creative spirit? My attention has recently been called to some anthologies of student verse issued, one each year, in a western high school. Most of the verse is without merit. One poem, however,. "The Prayer of Youth," because of its deep understanding of life and of its almost poignant beauty, deserves to live. Perhaps no Milton should ever be permitted to remain "mute and inglorious" with schools so abundant. It is not, however, to creative efforts along literary lines that I chiefly refer, nor yet along the lines of mechanical invention, for there is no lag in material improvements. The feats of many a Colonel Lindbergh will yet make our hearts beat high with pride and awe. The lag that needs attention arises from weakness and failure in the judgments, emo- tions, and spiritual aspirations of men. We have, ah ! yes, we have 20th century mechanical devices and conveniences in abundance, but we have only 19th century social vision and spiritual understanding. We try to legislate men into nobler living, but we lack the creative imagination to prevision how our laws will really operate and what new difficulties will develop through those same laws that in turn must be met. Life itself, in and through its institutions, needs to be reinterpreted, and to that end, its religious, social, economic, and political institutions must have the help of creative minds to rebuild them with proportions to fit the broader outlook of men and nations, that outlook that sweeps the world and faces the challenge of the oneness of all human life, accepts the fact that the fate of every man is in the keeping of every other man the broad world over, that no one can finally be well and prosperous and content until all are equally blessed. Recently these words of Tagore, the poet of India, came to my notice: "I strongly feel that, under the continued threat of impending catastrophe likely to involve the whole human world in desolating hostilities, every individual today should realize Department of Superintendence 139 his responsibility for training the mind of the present generation to enable it to see all its important problems in the perspective of universal man. For the most outstanding fact of our age is that the drama of our destiny today has the whole world for its stage." There must be more creative work in the actual equalizing of oppor- tunities in our own democracy, in making political and business life more ethical, and, most important of all, in creating a new philosophy that will more perfectly satisfy the soul of modern life and make a con- vincing appeal to youth, ever eager to fare forth on some great adventure. To higher learning we must look for the humanizing of the great accumulations of knowledge, and for the encouragement of the creative spirit that can alone vitalize knowledge and make it effective in raising the general levels of human intelligence and in securing the constant betterment of life. AMERICA THE BEAUTIFUL SINGING BY SCHOOL CHILDREN AND GREETINGS BY THE AUTHOR, KATHERINE LEE BATES President J . M. Gwinn — Now we are to have the singing of "America The Beautiful." As you know,' the author is sitting on this stage. So that it may not interfere with the children's singing, I would suggest that you restrain your tendency to sing until the last stanza. It is a matter of considerable interest that this chorus of girls represents twenty different nationalities, all singing "America The Beautiful." I now have the very great honor, and I am certain a pleasure for all of you, to present the author of these beautiful words, a woman who stands out in Massachusetts as one of the great educational leaders, for many years a distinguished professor in Wellesley College. Her service has done much in bringing the young people from this land and those who come from foreign lands to our shores into a better understanding of American citizenship and the meaning of this country to them. I am, therefore, presenting at this time Katherine Lee Bates, author of "America The Beautiful." (The audience arose and applauded.) Miss Katherine Lee Bates — It is a pleasure to meet here with my fellow teachers from all over our beloved country in the city of Boston. I want to thank you all, and especially these children, for the great part that you and they performed in singing "America The Beautiful." The greeting that you have given me is far beyond anything that I per- sonally deserve. It is not work to write a song, it is great joy, and this is, in reality, a very simple song, a simple framing of words. During the thirty years since I wrote it, I have seen such a love for America that Note: The opening address at the Sfventh General Session on Thursday afternoon, March 1, was delivered by William M. Davidson, Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa., on "Edu- cation and the Nation." This address will be publislied in full in X'olume 66 of the Pro- ceedings of the National Education .Association. 140 National Education Association it has been made something far greater than it ever was in its original inception. Dr. Gwinn asked me to tell you how it came into being. It is a very brief story, for I remember very little about it. It was thirty-five years ago, if my count is right, in the year of the World's Fair, that I made my first journey to the far West. My first great thrill was at Chicago. I saw America in the making, and this lovely city turned all men into poets, realizing that against the smoke-stained, sin-stained city of the day there lay the possibility of some spiritual invention that should give us cities that were all beautiful. We went out and crossed the prairies and the farm lands and the richness of the farm lands and the great wheat fields impressed the memory of those poets. Pilgrims from East to West who were building at such cost the material prosperity of our country, and we came at last to the Rocky Mountains in all their majesty, and climbed at last the mystic height of Pike's Peak. It was during our brief stay there that summer, looking out over that great expanse, that the opening stanza was promoted in my mind. Coming down to Colorado Springs where a band of eastern educators were working for a few weeks in a summer school, I remember writing the opening stanzas in a notebook that was traveling with me, a notebook that I did not open again for two years. It was not until the summer of 1899 that I came upon that notebook and copied out this song and sent it to a Boston concern which very kindly published it. To my great surprise, people began immediately that very year to write music for it. It has been sung to many tunes. When I found that you really wanted to sing it, I rewrote it in some respects to make it a bit more musical, and I suppose there is no line in that song but that I have received suggestions on how to improve the rhythm, and finally I had, I hoped, an authorized version. All through these years requests have come to use the song in one way or another in our colleges, in hymn books, in one form or another. I am only too glad to give it free as my own slight gift to my country, but my only condition is that they hold to the atfthorized text, so that we may not have as many texts as we already have tunes. One of the suggestions that was most insistently made in these later years was that I add a stanza to express international brotherhood. It has not seemed easy to do that, for although I long for world brotherhood and am among those who look forward eagerly to the day when the United States shall enter the League of Nations, yet the song is long enough already, and is written for one special thing. So the best sug- gestion I can make is that when you sing the first stanza, you think of "From sea to shining sea," as applying from the Pacific to the Atlan- tic, around the other way, and all the states in between, and that will include all the nations and all the people from sea to shining sea. Department of Superintendence 141 PROGRESSIfK EDUCATION IN ENGLAND BEATRICE ENSORj DIRECTOR, NEW EDUCATION FELLOWSHIP, EDITOR, THE NEW EDUCATION, LONDON, ENGLAND I feci the honor you have done me in inviting me on your main program to address this important assembly, and 1 am very conscious of the responsi- bility of being the only representative of England on your program. 1 feel this responsibility the more keenly because of certain comparisons which have been made during this convention, and also of a certain report re- cently issued, both of which I consider grossly unfair to the educators of America. I consider them unfair because they represent partial facts and not the whole picture. I believe that it is essential that the educators of England and the United States should work hand in hand together, should interchange views, should be willing to learn from each other, for we each have our strength and our we^lkness. Constructive criticism may be helpful. Destructive criticism can only be harmful in both countries. In reviewing the progress of education during the last ten years in Eng- land, one might make the survey from many different angles, I have chosen two today. First of all, from the administrative point of view. So emi- nent an authority on education as Sir Michael Sadler of Oxford said in his presidential address at the London University in January that Britain is to education what France is to painting. There has never been a time in which Britain's example has counted for more in contemporary educa- tion. That is a big claim, but Professor Bagley of Columbia the other day said that in his opinion the social stability of England during the years of post-war unrest was due to the mass education preceding the war, and I think that probably Professor Bagley was meaning that our educational system is not only used in that little tiny island of ours, but extends over the seas in many parts of the world, and, therefore, has relatively more im- portance than it would have if it was confined merely to England. The most outstanding event of our educational world of recent years is undoubtedly the Hadow report of the Consultative Committee of the Board of Education recently issued, which suggests the whole reorganization of our school system. It suggests that we should divide education into pri- mary or children under eleven, and secondary, or children over eleven, and in view of the controversies, it says that twenty-five percent of the children attending primary schools would be capable of benefiting by the ordinary academic instruction of secondary schools. Only twenty-five percent. They, therefore, suggest that the ordinary secondary schools as they are known today in England should become grammar schools and that a new type of school should be started to be known as modern schools, which would take every child in the nation up to fifteen years and more, and would be bene- fiting seventy-five percent of the children who would not be able to benefit bv the ordinary academic instruction of the secondary school. 142 National Education Association This is an enormous step, but it is made more important when the com- mittee goes on to recommend that these schools should be in touch with modern industry, that the curriculum should be a liberal one, that there should be a four years' course, and that a fourth year of vocational train- ing should be given. This, I believe, is going to mean a very, very great deal, for it is the consensus of opinion among thinking people that we must extend our educational facilities and also that we must have changes in the type of education. This, then, brings me to my second point of view, the point of view of progressive education from the standpoint of the organization I represent, the New Education Fellowship. That term "New Education," a most unsatisfactory term, is used for the want of something better, to designate certain definite principles of education which take cognizance of modern psychology, especially from the point of view of individual differences among children, and, therefore, the need of individual instruction or differences in the curriculum and in the method of presentation. It also takes in the need for the memory ; for the great reconstructive changes going on in industry, and for the wider vision that has come to many since the war. And here I think what your chairman said is of special significance, that maybe my presence here this afternoon is supply- ing to that beautiful song that we heard, the international aspect. The new education believes that in the great discoveries of modern years along scientific lines, the contacts of the world through better transportation and communication, that there must be a parallel in education, that education must be international in its point of view, that it must give to the children the attitude of internationalism, the attitude which will make them mem- bers of the League of Nations at heart, whatever their country may be doing in the matter. The new education, therefore, from our point of view is more concerned in freeing the children by the interplay of scientific methods and humanistic impulses, that it may release the creative forces formed within every child, but release him also for creative service of the highest type. This kind of education has progressed very largely in our country during the last few years, and I suppose as in your country the most advanced experiments may be found in private schools where these new ideas are tried out, and if found successful filter into the general system of the land. The best known of these schools are Oundle in Northamptonshire, Bradales in Hampshire, and St. Georges in Hertfordshire, so much spoken of by H. G. Wells. We look to these three schools to do some most useful research work along this newer type of education. In these pioneer schools we believe that the children are given more opportunity of developing from within, that in a freer environment the individual differences existing between children are able to develop in their own particular way. In this curriculum of these schools, art and music and drama play a very important part. They are generally selfgoverned. They have rules necessary for community living and maintaining the discipline within that Department of Superintendence 143 community, and they are as a rule miniature communities preparing the children to play their part in world citizenship. But experimental or pioneer work in England is by no means confined to private schools. Indeed during the last ten years there has been a silent revolution going on within the public system of education. The changes are far more noticeable in what we call our infant schools, that is, the schools for the children from six to nine years of age. These changes have been largely influenced by these individual methods used in many schools. In practically all these schools they use some kind of individual material for individual work. It is very interesting because practically nowhere in the states does one find material used in the same way as it is being used in England. Then in the upper schools Miss Helen Parkhurst's Dalton plan has had a very great deal of influence. Again it is most interesting to find that the Dalton plan has influenced the whole of England's education in a way when it has scarcely touched the schools over here. Many, many schools have some form of modified Dalton plan for their work and procedure in Eng- land. One can only account for it by the fact that we are far more indi- vidualistic as a nation and that, therefore, these individual methods have, as it were, taken in England in a way that they have not taken over here, but you see that you have given us something which has changed our whole school system, because we find that in the introduction of these individual methods the whole tone of the school gradually changes, the children have more freedom and the curriculum becomes more liberal, so there is a far more reaching effect than merely a change in method of procedure of actual teaching. The secondary schools have changed far less. I suppose we are in the same plight in England as every other country in the world. It is more difficult to change the secondary school as long as there are examinations at the end of the secondary school period which limit the courses of instruc- tion within the secondary school, and, therefore, there is now growing a feeling among many teachers that a combined effort must be made to try to change the examinations as they exist today and make them more in keeping with the spirit of the new education and advanced psychology. You may see from what I have said that the change in England is not spectacular ; there is nothing as spectacular, for instance, as the education which has been started in Soviet Russia. Nothing was so changed as the school system of Vienna, but there is in England a slow, steady, progressive urge toward this newer type of education. You know in England we work slowly, cautiously, toward a goal. Therefore, on the surface of things you may not see any drastic changes, any big revolutions in our educational system, but there is a tremendous change. I noticed this myself, perhaps because for years I was inspector of a board of education in England, going in and out of the public schools of England and then not going back for a number of years. Then again visiting the schools, I noticed the change very much more than those who have remained within the system con- sistently during the last fifteen years. 144 National Education Association In England, of course, we have not got nearly your extended facilities for secondary and university education, and, therefore, I think it is only understandable that in our secondary schools, when we select so carefully such a small percentage of the children for secondary and university educa- tion, that the standard of scholarship is higher than when one attempts to give to all the opportunities for secondary education. Also, one has got to remember that we are always trying to give not equality of kind of education, but equality of opportunity of education, that we believe tremen- dously that different types of children require different types of education and that our job in a system is just as much to provide the different types of education, the different types of schools needed, as it is the job of the teacher in the classroom to provide the different individual instruction, fitted to the individual differences of the children within that school. In the nation we have these same great differences, and, therefore, we must have all types of schools. We cannot have equality of attainment or achieve- ment unless we have equality of opportunity for the development of all that is inherent in the children of the nation. What we must guarantee as educators is that every child has a chance of developing the potentialities that lie within him. Alas! In England we have no teachers' college. We have very little research work in England, nothing comparable to the work of Dr. Harold Rugg on curriculum research. We have very little applied psychology in the schools. You will laugh when I tell you that very few teachers have ever heard of an I. Q. Only a very little psychology of that type has as yet been attempted. The changes in education in England come far more from individual incentive than from any lead of the educational authorities. It is individual teachers inspired, and often with great selfsacrifice, who are leading education into the wider channels which I have suggested this afternoon. We believe that education is the great need of the world today, that no country can say that it is spending too much money on education. Of course I feel very humble when I hear of j'our billions and your millions, because we have to talk in thousands and hundreds; nevertheless, we feel that education and more education is the need of the world today, but it must be the right kind of education ; it must be the type of education that gives the international attitude of life, and, therefore, friends, I feel that we here have an enormous responsibility. You in America with your millions behind you can give to the citizens of this great country that point pf view which will enable them to take the bigger point of view in the great problems of the world which beset us on every side. America and England working together can lead the world. It is very symbolic that you end your conference tonight by paying homage to a man whom you may well be proud of, because he symbolizes that bring- ing together of the nations in an interdependence which has never existed in the world before, and it brings home to us that all the discoveries of science may be used in two ways — for integration, for cooperation, for Department of Superintendence 145 brotherhood, for a great world of united nations, each contributing its particular note to the great symphony of mankind. Or, it may be used for the destruction of our civilization. H. G. Wells has said that we are witnessing a race between the power and force of destruction and education. Therefore, friends, we are the most important people in our countries, according to the type of education we give our children, according to the attitude of mind which the environment we provide in the schools is going to give the children of today; upon that depends the peace of the world, and the progress of civilization. I appeal to you in this country, so mighty, so powerful to influence the good of the world, that in your schools you have this attitude of brotherhood and cooperation and kindliness, and we in our way will do our best, that united we may give the children of today the chance of being citizens of the world, able to solve the great problems because they have something in them other than a revolution, which is faith and brotherhood of nations. THE DEBT OF NEW ENGLAND TO THE SOUTH AND WEST A. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR, JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS. It is a great privilege and honor to be upon this program at the close of such a week as this. When I was invited by your president to take a place upon the program, I chose this last word. I feel very keenly that we are very much in danger in New England of patting ourselves on the back and thinking we have done wonderful things, and we have, but we have been a thrifty people and we have got big interest on everything we have ever done for education in America. I want to say to you people that I am tremendously interested in what the South and the West are paying us for our contribution. We never wanted to do the things we have done — that is, the fellows who stayed at home didn't want to do them. Soon after Massachusetts Bay was settled they passed a law to build a highway, and they voted to build it as far as Newton Falls. They said that was as far as a highway would ever be needed, and we have lived on that theory ever since. We have always boasted, and rightfully, about what we were doing. We have boasted that we built the Michigan Central Railroad, and we did, that we built the Burlington Railroad, and we did, that we built the Northern Pacific Rail- road, and we did, and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, and we did, and the Mexican Central Railroad, and we did, but we never told anybody that while we were doing it we built up a great banking system in Massachu- setts, in Boston. Our financial standing in all these years started when we went into the railroad business, and there are people today who are living gloriously on the profit of those days. I want you to realize how dangerous it is to have scholastic inbreeding. Scholastic inbreeding is just as dangerous as biological inbreeding, and we have had some great returns. 1 have been running over in my mind the 146 National Education Association fact that today Maine has a commissioner that it found out in Nebraska, and the last commissioner before the present one we found in California, and we have been taking from the West and from the South great men who come here and do for us wonderful things. We have uni- versity presidents, many of them — Maine has had two, New Hampshire one, Connecticut has a great one now. Smith College has had one, Amherst and Williams, all of them — from the West ; we had one for our city super- intendent of Boston, Springfield had one, has one now, and Worcester had one. Providence had one, Manchester has one. We have had any quantity of them come here from the West, and all of them have given us a great deal of inspiration and a great deal of intelligent devotion. We have had them all along the line, and not only that, they have done a bigger thing for us, they have let us get out of the little circle in which we are. New England is as bad off scholastically as Italy or Japan. We have been seriously handicapped, but we have been furnishing college presidents all over the country ; we have been furnishing state superintendents and city superintendents everywhere, and it has been our salvation that they have had a place to go and leave some things here for those who remained. We have prospered when we have given our thought and our life to the outside world. Boston University has said less about itself than any other university here. It has today fortj'-three of its graduates as presi- dents of colleges, and it has twenty-three more living men who have been presidents of colleges, and there isn't anything to match that in the whole United States today. Why is it big? Because they have never lived up to the idea that they were a Boston institution. They took the name but they have never claimed the game. Ten years ago Boston University established a department of education. Seventy-five students studied there that first year. Today, twenty-four hundred students are studying education in that University, and why? Because the dean and all the professors, all the heads of departments of that school, have come from Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa, Arizona. There is a larger proportion of American brains in that University than in any other university in the United States, and that is why they have done it. I stand here today pleading with you, you New Englanders, to realize that this is a great land. I happened to be present for several weeks in a great university two years ago. They gave me a reception at the close. The governor was there ; every state superintendent was there. Every one of them made speeches. Every last one of them said, "Fellow Georgians, Fellow Georgians." It got on my nerves. That was my show, and when my turn came, I said, ''I don't know what in the world I will do when I get home and try to say 'Fellow Massachusetts-ians.' I like to say 'Fel- low Americans,' " and they cheered to the echo. I want no one to think that there is any state in this union or any sec- tion in this country that is big enough to have controlling power. We are today living as American people. I rejoice in my knowledge of America. I rejoice that the time has come when the spark plug and Portland cement Department of Superintendence 147 have made America, from Jamestown and Plymouth. Until within the last twelve years everything was going east and west. All your railroad systems were east and west, all your highways were east and west. We haven't today any combination of railroads that don't have a line north and south. We have more highways and boulevards north and south than formerly, and I want to say to you that it is of the utmost importance that you teach your boys and girls that the change from the east and west to the north and south is the greatest thing that has happened in your day in American history. That means something. We have talked about the South in the past. Five years from today anybody who talks about the South will be so far back in his knowledge that the people will wonder where he came from and when he died. The time has come when the whole thought of America is a unit, when our whole thought is bringing things together. I have been very greatly inter- ested in this meeting. I have attended more of these meetings than any- body else living has done, and I never was in one in my life that meant so much to me as this one. Do you realize what it means to have as Presi- dent of the National Education Association — the first woman who has ever gone from the classroom teacher into the presidency of the National Educa- tion Association? That woman is from Richmond, Virginia, and on the twelfth day of February, all the schools of Richmond closed, out of mem- ory to Abraham Lincoln. I want you to realize that things are moving tremendously today, and think for a minute what it means to have the president of this Department a southerner from California! That is a great combination of South and West in New England. I am not going to take your time ; it is a great temptation for me, but I do wanf to say one or two things more. You had some comments here on the high schools, some criticisms of the high schools, some inbreeding scholasticism represented, but I thank the Lord reverently that tonight in this room a high-school teacher will be honored as no other teacher in America has ever been honored, and that high-school teacher from the West is more appreciated than any criticism of education has ever been in the United States. Let's realize that ; it means a good deal. There is nothing in the world so silly as anybody who steps out and thinks that this country will for a minute bow to the dictates of people who think our schools are costing us too much. We have only just begun to buy educa- tion. I hope I will live just a little while longer to see these people who are so scared at the little cost of education, who are so scared lest some- body will do something that they don't know. It is absolutely useless to try to educate some people, but the world is going to know a great deal more than anybody ever dreamed of a little while ago. I have spoken of what the West has done for us, and the South. Two universities in the South carried the name of two Bostonians who have done more to reward Boston for what it has done than anything else that has ever been done. I had hoped to have on this platform this afternoon Bruce Payne. President of George Peabody College. George Peabody was 148 National Education Association a Bostonian. We have on this platform a man who came here to Boston forty-two years ago and carried back to South Carolina $1500, and that $1500 brought immortality to a man who provided that money, and then provided something more. I am going to be personal for a moment, for I think I have lived long enough to have a right to be personal just a little while. Forty-two years ago, Homer H. Seerley took over and built up the teachers' college at Cedar Falls, Iowa. He has built up the greatest teachers' college in the world. Forty-two years ago he did that, and forty-two years ago David Bancroft Johnson — 1 want him to rise and stand here before you now — came to my office, the happiest man I ever saw, because he had $1500 promised him to start the first normal school in the Atlantic South. I went to Winston College a few years ago and he was in the dumps. He w^as in an awful state of mind, physically and mentally. I said, "What is the matter?" He said, "I only got $465,000 out of the legislature." I said, "I saw you when $1500 made you the happiest man on earth." "Yes," he said, "it did, but things have changed since then." Forty-two years ago Homer Seerley started to build up that marvelous teachers' college, and David Bancroft Johnson started to build up the second greatest institution for education in the whole South, and that hap- pened to be at the same time that I became editor of the Journal of Educa- tion. I have known this South as nobody else has known it, and I never should have known it if it had not been for the privileges that came to me because of my association with the spirit and the purpose and the glory of 1886. INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT, THURSDAY EVENING, MARCH 1, 1928 JOSEPH M. GWINN^ president, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE I wish to call attention to the fact that I have a new gavel tonight. This has been presented to the President of the Department of Superin- tendence by Admiral Andrews. It is made of wood from the old ship Constitution. I wish to thank Admiral Andrews and all those who are interested in the great program to rehabilitate that grand old ship. I shall prize this gavel. If I may be permitted to take liberties with a line or two of a beautiful poem of a Scottish bard, I would say: Oh ! Young Lochinvar is come out of the West, Through all the wide border his steed was the best ; And save a smile and a stout heart he credentials had none, He rode all unarmed and he rode all alone. It is a far call from swimming the Eshe River when ford there was none by the first Lochinvar to leaping the broad Atlantic where bridge there Department of Superintendence 149 was none by our Lochinvar. It is a far call from the one fair Ellen which Scott's Lochinvar carried away behind him to the millions that follow in the train of our Lochinvar. He flew not alone to Paris but into the affections, ideals, and aspirations of the youth of the land, into the plans of governments and into the pro- grams of business, industry, and trade. His achievements have so power- fully stirred the mind and emotions of youth and have so tremendously influenced the adult world of business, industry, and government that edu- cation, which must ever respond to the changes that come, must give atten- tion to aviation. So, this program has been proposed as a beginning on aeronautical education. The Department of Superintendence of the National Education Asso- ciation is highly honored to have on this program as one of the speakers the man who made this program necessary, Colonel Charles Lindbergh. (The audience arose and applauded.) ADDRESS , COLONEL CHARLES A. LINDBERGH We believe in the aircraft industry that the coming generation will be greatly aftected by aviation. The people now are learning to fly. Those of tomorrow will grow up with flying as we have with the automobile. Our aircraft of today are entirely practical. They can be operated at a profit on commercial air lines. They are being used even today, we might say, extensively for private transportation. Tomorrow, figuratively speak- ing, the plane will probably have the same effect on the living conditions and upon the cities apd countries that the car has had. It is entirely pos- sible and will probably be true in a few years that the suburbs of our cities will be greatly extended through the use of the airplane. With flying fields situated close to the business districts, there is no more reason why a business man cannot live 100 or 200 miles from his work than there is for him to live less than twenty miles from his office as is the case today in so many instances. Aviation will afifect practically all of the subjects now taught in our schools. It will affect languages, inasmuch as it will bring closer foreign countries. It will affect science through the new conditions encountered in the mediums through which the plane travels and through the new in- struments brought into use. For instance, our weather forecasting will undoubtedly be improved through the coming of aviation. It will be necessary to forecast more accurately for aeronautics than it is today for agriculture. It will be necessary for the man who flies (and most of us will fly in the" future) to know more about the atmospheric conditions than is now necessary to know. As I have said, our planes have been developed to a high point of perfec- tion, yet, with the existing information we have, we can foresee a much 150 National Education Association greater development in the next few years. We can now fly through practically any conditions, with the exception of sleet. Ten or fifteen years ago we were held down by storm, rain or snow. Today we can fly through all these conditions, although we cannot fly in a dense fog. We must yet be able to see the ground in order to land safely. Rapid as the development has been in the last decade, we expect it to be still more rapid in the years to come. Consequently, I believe that it is a necessity to incorporate in our school system elementary aeronautics. It is not necessary to take aeronautics in detail, but every youth even today should have a general idea of the subject in order to be able to read intel- ligently and understand the newspapers. Tomorrow there will be a great deal more in print concerning this new means of travel than there has been in the past. Before closing, I want to thank you all for the attention you have given me tonight, and I hope that you will see fit to aid in incorporating in the schools of this country subjects, elementary subjects at least, on aeronau- tics. I thank vou. AERONAUTICAL EDUCATION w. F durand, member, national advisory council for aeronautics STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CALIF. I have the privilege to appear before you this evening to speak very briefly regarding the special subject of aeronautics in education, but before speaking of that subject, I would like to say a word about the proposed fund for aeronautics in grades below the college and university. A com- mittee has been appointed to make a survey. It so happens that I am a member of that committee. The president of that fund, Harry Guggen- heim, is detained in California at the present time, and he has asked me to appear here representing him and the fund. I am very sorry indeed that he himself could not be able to be here, and I can only express the satis- faction which I feel myself in the privilege to appear here and tell you very briefly something of how aeronautics fits into this picture. I want to take half a moment to tell you something about the Guggen- heim fund, because I find that so many people are not well informed as to just what that fund is or how it came to be originated. The picture is very simple. A gentleman of large wealth at one time had a keen insight into those trends and times of modern progress, with a definite desire to make a sincere and earnest and useful contribution to this day and age, responsive to the movement at the time. On the other hand, his son, who answered the call of patriotic duty at the time of the war, qualified himself as an aviator and saw service in France, and then began the organization of a fund for the promotion of aeronautics. That briefly explains the origin of the fund. Department of Superintendence 151 One of the first reservations after the fund was organized related to the field of activity, and it immediately determined that two of the chief ele- ments in its activities comprised those features which relate to the improve- ment of safety of aircraft port and matters pertaining to education. So that is how the Guggenheim fund happened to be interested in education, and how I happened to be here from California in the attempt to tell you in a very few moments something of this broad subject, of how we believe it may be fitted in without undue disturbance to the general program of schools or at least to point out certain features which we believe will be well worthy of your serious consideration. If you ask in a broad sense, What is education? we may very clearly dis- tinguish four aims and these I would particularly describe by saying first, education from the disciplinary standpoint aims to draw out those powers and capabilities with which we are endowed. Second, education from the viewpoint of providing the individual with a vision, aims to make individ- uals economically independent. Third, education for the purpose of culture in the particular sense of that term, education that we get outside of our- selves, that ranges over the field of literature and history, develops sympa- thetic contacts with the widest variety of human activity and endeavor. Finally, education is intended to make an individual a better citizen, be- cause no man can afford to live unto himself alone ; neither can he afford to live unto his own profession or calling alone. He must take part in the great movement of his day and age ; he must contribute something in the way of civic movement, matters of community, state, and national interest, and in order that he may do these latter things intelligently, he needs the widest variety of general information. So those things, as I picture the matter, represent four major aims of education. Now so far as aeronautic education is concerned, we should not be dis- posed to think of anything particular in aeronautic education as of disciplin- ary value, neither from the standpoint of culture in the particular sense of the term, but it does have certain very direct applications to education viewed from the standpoint of vocational education, and, on the other hand, that type of education which is characterized as general information. With regard to professional education in aeronautics, it means in- struction in aviation and in the subjects that pertain to aeronautic activities. Perhaps, at the present time, there is no subject so diversified and of such importance in the modern curriculum as aeronautics. It ranges over almost the entire field of educational activity, in- cluding such subjects as mathematics, physics, chemistry, mechanics and engineering of all sorts, psychology, physiology, meteorolog}^ astronomy, and navigation. On these matters I shall not speak more particularly be- cause they pertain in a peculiar sense to the higher levels of what we may call professional aeronautic education. They represent stages of the progress which will be beyond that with which we are concerned in the 152 National Education Association matter before us this evening. On the other hand, there are two very definite phases of this education wherein we believe the schools of the country are very definitely interested. The first relates to the gaining of economic independence by way of a trade or calling, and through the agency of those types of education which we call vocational or trade schools or manual training education. They are intended directly to provide the individual with means of gaining a livelihood, or for going on into the higher levels of aeronautic training. When this service in aeronautics is launched to a larger extent, as pre- dicted by the Colonel, there is going to be a demanjj for a larger number of young men trained in this useful service, and there will be a demand for direct vocational training, specifically intended to fit the young man for activities along those lines. Those are opportunities which the schools of the country, manual training high schools, will be called upon to provide. So, speaking for the fund, we believe that we are justified in calling this opening to your attention, and it is one that is well worthy of your serious consideration. Again, there is another field of general education about which I want to speak briefly. There is a wide field which is really necessary if we would enter into the current news items as they appear in newspapers or magazines or books and acquaint ourselves to some degree with this general detail of aeronautic affairs. There are at least three features wherein this line of activity might well be developed. The first of these relates to the lan- guage of aeronautics. The National Advisory Committee of Aeronautics has found it expedient to define some 565 words which have recently come into specific use in the designating of aeronautic affairs, words which have distinct and different meanings, words which for the most part are not found at all in the dictionary and which need to be defined in order that there may be some attempt made to stabilize their usage in the proper way. We believe that the average man should be acquainted with at least some parts of this vocabulary. Many of these words, of course, are highly tech- nical in character. At least two or three hundred of them should be in the vocabulary of the average man today. The language can be very easily taken care of in the ordinary schools of the country, and will be needed by the oncoming generation if they are to have the ability to read intelligently the newspapers and ordinary literature on the subject. Then there is the history of the development of aeronautics, a marvel- ously inspiring page of the general domain of historic development. We may go back to mythology and from there down we may find a marvelously interesting story of the development of aeronautics from those early days down to the present time, and those are things which, it appears to us speaking again from the standpoint of our fund, might in some way be interwoven, worked into the general program of the school, and without unduf dislocation or disturbance. DnPARTMliNT OF S UPKRINTENDENCE 153 Aside from all this I come again to this matter of what I call general information. General information, of course, begins everywhere and no- where and ends at the same point. It means everything and anything. Our attitude is simply this : That we believe it will be well worthwhile if the present generation of young men and women can be made better ac- quainted with some of these things, for example, some little idea of why it is that an airship can be made to sustain itself in the air, why it is that an airplane can be made selfsustaining, something about the construction of the airplane, how it goes together, how it gets up from the ground, how it is controlled in the air, how it may be directed to the right or to the left or up or down, how it may be navigated from one point to another; then about those things which affect the problem of navigation, something about the instrument that makes possible the control of the airplane and its safe navigation to the degree which we have attained at the present time. Again there are other phases as it relates, one may say, to the economic side of aeronautics. In spite of the many thousands of things that we may do, only those things are sure of a permanent place in our civilization which justify themselves in commerce. An economic test is inevitably the most certain and final test, and so we cannot justify these matters economically that are purely theoretical in their character. The economic phase of aeronautics depends upon the distribution of the weight, in particular how much pay load it will carry. Then it will be worth while for the individual to know something about the operative characteristic between the airship and the lighter than air craft and an air- plane and the heavier than air craft, something to determine the limita- tions, something to determine the particular thing which we may properly expect from these two entirely different things. These are some of the things which we believe will be worth while for all of us to know more about in order that we may take our place more intelligently and with a keener sense of the situation, of the great service that aeronautics is now rendering and is prepared to render. For many years, as you know, aeronautics has been rendering a very definite and significant purpose by way of air mail, but after all, we haven't come to really appreciate the advances which made possible that service, the tremendous problem that it was necessary to solve. As the Colonel said a moment ago, if nothing more, its service is going to be one of increasing magnitude, increasing significance, increasing importance. When you speak of a service to the communit\', a service to the state, a service to the nation, it immediately suggests two different classes of people. First, those who render the service, and second, those who re- ceive it. That again indicates the difference in the type of education that I spoke of a moment ago, because those who render tlie service must have an education of the vocational or professional type, but in order that this service may be properly rendered and may be properly set in the fabric of our modern civilization, there must likewise be an education on the 154 National Education Association part of those who receive, and the public is the recipient of this service. So we see very clearly that there is a definite significance in furthering the education of the public with intelligence to perceive and understand and put in place this great service that aeronautics is now rendering and the larger service which it is rapidly becoming prepared to render. I make it very clear that the board of directors of the Guggenheim fund have no desire whatever to probe themselves unduly in the affairs of the schools of this country and probe themselves in the affairs which are the responsibility of school teachers and school systems of the country. That isn't our attitude at all. Let us direct your attention possibly to certain opportunities, certain ways in which we may make your work a little more responsive to the lines of evolution and growth which would seem to us are going to characterize the years before us. Then, again, there is another point. We know beyond any question there is a tremendous enthusiasm at the present time in the youth of our country regarding the subject of aeronautics. There is a tremendous exhilaration all through the youth of the country in regard to this particular subject, and now it seems to us that it would be well worth while to educate the youth and try to capitalize that particular interest, and so again from the standpoint of the fund we come to you today to note this keen and living interest that the youth are taking in the subject of aeronautics. Is it worth while to capitalize that interest, make use of it, and turn it in as an effective agency in carrying out your program of education? So, then, these are the reasons why we believe that this is a timely subject: First, the ability to capitalize this very keen and definite in- terest of which I have spoken, and second, the opportunity to take ad- vantage of a real opportunity which we believe offers itself to better pre- pare the oncoming generation to take an intelligent and useful part in the great progress to characterize our advances in civilization. In closing, let me again thank you for the opportunity of appearing be- fore you on behalf of the fund and explaining in this very brief and sketchy way why we believe that these topics may be well worth your serious and careful consideration. EDUCATION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AERONAUTICS WILLIAM P. MAC CRACKEN, ASSISTANT SECRETARY FOR AERONAUTICS DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D. C. You have gathered at the concluding session of this great Department of the National Education Association to consider an addition to our edu- cational program and to pay tribute to an outstanding member of your profession. You have heard that great educator. Dr. Durand, who has devoted many years of arduous labor to aeronautical subjects, tell of the plans for the furtherance of aeronautical education. In the few minutes that I have, I want to speak very briefly about what education has done Department of Superintendence 155 for the development of one phase of aeronautics. I h'mit the subject to aviation, not because I lack any sympathy or any faith in the lighter-than- air program. I think it is as worthy of consideration as aviation itself, but simply because the subject of aviation, the accomplishment of flights in heavier-than-air craft dates back a few months less than a quarter of a centur>', and I think that perhaps that is sufficient for the time allotted. First of all, may I recall to your minds the fact that for a century man has yearned to soar through the air like the birds. At various times he has been taught that that would be utterly impossible ; not only that, he has been taught that the desire was sacriligious and should not be enter- tained. It remained for a school teacher of Dayton, Ohio, in conjunction with her two brothers, to solve the mathematical problems of aeronautics and to make flight in heavier-than-air craft a reality. That school teacher was Katherine Wright. Another one of the pioneers in aviation in this country was Glenn Curtiss. He received his education in the high school and grammar school of Hammondsport, New York, and from that took up the practical work in developing aircraft hydrocraft. It was not until as late as 1914 that what we call our institutions of higher learning first established a real course in aeronautical engineering. That course was established at the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology across the Charles River. Today, prac- tically all of the great engineering schools of this country are giving more or less extensive courses in aeronautical engineering and subjects pertain- ing thereto. Not only is it in the engineering schools but the economics of air transportation are being taught in the business schools and in the colleges. To go back just a minute, some of the outstanding airplane designers of today in this country are the men who learned this aerodynamics in their teens as members of what are known as model airplane clubs. As boys they built and flew these model airplanes. They never got outside of the secondary schools or the high schools as far as their general education is concerned, and so I want to stress upon you as strongly as possible the importance of inculcating accurate information in the minds of the boj^s and girls in the high schools with reference to this most important subject. We can't, in a brief quarter of a century, expect to have the general knowledge of this subject that we have of the subjects which have been taught for centuries back in our institutions of learning, but certainly it is true that the teachers of mathematics, of physics, and of kindred sub- jects have played a large part in making possible this great development in aviation, whether they know it or not. And it is equally important, per- haps even more important, that those \\ ho carry on the work from where they left off should do it, realizing full well the importance of their task, and so it is that Colonel Lindbergh, the Guggenheim fund for the pro- motion of aeronautics, and Dr. Durand are here advocating that this great organization take it upon itself to see not merely that a course in 156 National Education Association aviation or in aeronautics is added to the crowded curriculum of the secondary school, but rather that in all the courses, as I understand it, there shall be disseminated accurate information and knowledge pertain- ing to this important subject. In conclusion, may 1 state that the educators of this country may well feel proud of the fact that it was one of their important profession who made the greatest contribution to the cause of aviation in this country and in the world. Mrs. Evangeline Lodge Lindbergh has given to the world not only an illustrious son but by her^modest example, courage, and faithfulness to do has exemplified that age-old adage, like mother, like son. She has endeared herself in every mother's heart, and countless sons have been inspired to emulate her son, and I say without fear of con- tradiction that the greatest contribution that has been made to the cause of aeronautics has been made by her whom you honor and her son. PRESENTATION OF LIFE MEMBERSHIP AND EMBLEM IN THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TO MRS. EVANGELINE L. L. LINDBERGH Joseph AI. Gwinu — It is a source of distinct pride to the teachers of America that the youth whom the nation has so singularly lionized is the son of a fellow-worker, a teacher of science in a Detroit high school. For being the type of a mother that the nation needs to rear the children and for characteristics of modesty and devotion to duty, both as a mother and as a teacher, the Department of Superintendence of the National Edu- cation Association, as a slight token of the high regard in which Mrs. Evangeline L. L. Lindbergh is held by more than 180,000 teachers in all parts of the country, constituting the membership of the National Edu- cation Association, has the honor to present to Mrs. Lindbergh a life mem- bership in the National Education Association, and a medal, a specially designed badge of that membership. I recognize Superintendent Frank Cody of the Detroit Public Schools. Mr. Frank Cody — The Detroit school system is particularly honored at this time, and it is a pleasure, and an honor, Mr. Chairman, to present one of our staff, Mrs. Evangeline Lindbergh. (The audience arose and applauded.) President Gwinn presented to Mrs. Lindbergh the certificate of life membership and placed around her neck the specially designed chain and emblem. Mrs. Evangeline L. L. Lindbergh — Mr. Chairman, Mr. Cody, and Teachers — There are only two words with which to express gratitude — thanks and appreciation. I say them both to you sincerely. I should like to here pay tribute to two of our great living teachers, Calvin Coolidge and Myron T. Herrick. These men teach the doctrine of emancipation, emancipation from useless selfservice, and education to useful service and Department of Superintendence 157 appreciation and consideration and love for our fellow workers. I thank .\ou. Frisi(Je/it Gti'inii- — I received by air mail today a letter which I have been commissioned to hand to Mrs. Lindbergh, a letter of congratulation to her. This comes from the Cass Technical High School of Detroit, and it is signed by every member of the faculty, her colleagues, in that great school. The Department of Superintendence of the National Education Associa- tion is under great indebtedness to Mrs. Lindbergh for consenting to come to our convention and to receive this honor from our hands. We are also greatly indebted to her son. Colonel Lindbergh, for coming and con- tributing his part on this program, which is the first given to a considera- tion of aeronautics. We wish also to express our appreciation to the Guggenheim Fund for making possible a part of this program, and to the United States Govern- ment in providing ways and means as well as in sending the Assistant Secretary of Commerce to take part in this program. I now declare the Fifty-Eighth Annual Session of the Department of Superintendence adjourned. DISCUSSION GROUPS ABSTRACTS OF ADDRESSES AT THIRTEEN GROUP MEETINGS THE XEEDS OF AMERICAN ADOLESCENT YOUTH GEORGE .M. WILEY, ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, N. Y. The youth of today sees clearly something of the overwhelming diffi- culties in adjusting himself to his social environment. The youth of today puts more emphasis on social and civic responsibility and on the importance of moral training and ethical character than is apparent in most of our theoretical discussion. The complexity of modern life has developed with such astounding rapidity that it is little understood by those of mature years. How much greater does this problem appear to youth with its limited experience, confronted with the necessity of early adjustment or probable failure. Youth needs more than e\er the stabilizing influence and moral training of the finest type of American home. Youth needs counsel and advice offered in the spirit of sympathy and understanding. The statements of high-school boys and girls regarding guidance and vocational training indicate clearly an appreciation of the purposeful character of life. The fundamental philosophy of youth is sound in the essential relationship which he sees betw^een health and hygiene and all other activities of life. He pleads for a recognition of individual needs. He criticizes mass organiza- tion in tlie schools as well as in industrv. At the same time he senses 158 National Education Association something of the responsibility of participation in the social group and in civic affairs. He observes what he calls a "breaking down of moral tone." This tendency in public conversation and in material broadcast through the public press is to the youth very upsetting and confusing. The adolescent needs to be understood. It is a period of change in which understanding and sympathy are fundamental. The adolescent needs creative opportunity. He needs to become acquainted with nature, society, and self. Youth needs a living religion. THE NEEDS OF ADOLESCENTS AS A BASIS OF CURRICULUM REVISION WILLIAM C. REAVIS, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. The facts of growth and development during adolescence undoubtedly possess many implications of value to secondary education. The reorgan- ization of our traditional 8-4 plan of public education has been predicated in no small measure on the various changes incident to adolescence. The administrative device of classifying pupils in the secondary school into homogeneous groups for purposes of differentiated instruction likewise finds its strongest support in the facts of individual differences in physical, mental, and social maturity. The change of emphasis in physical educa- tion from formal calisthenic exercises to plays and games, and the develop- ment of corrective work in posture for individuals are justified largely on the basis of the known facts regarding adolescence. The efforts of the secondary school to provide counsel and guidance for its pupils are very largely an outgrowth of a recognition of adolescent needs. The en- couragement and development of extra-curricular activities in secondary schools in general, come from knowledge of the social interests of young people and their desire to associate in the furtherance of common ends. The encouragement given in very recent years to creative work in the secondary school rests on the known capacity of adolescents to do creative work and the importance of challenging their full powers. Finally, the conception of the secondary school as a laboratory for developing and testing civic practices is based on the knowledge that adolescents actually desire to participate in the affairs of school and community life and that they are capable of assuming and bearing civic responsibility. Factual data regarding the sensitivity of adolescents to sensory stimula- tion at different stages of development may throw light on the organiza- tion of curriculums in the arts which have for their objectives the cultiva- tion of discriminating tastes and appreciations. Knowledge of the intel- lectual maturity of boys and girls at different chronological ages during adolescence and their dominant interests may be utilized in organizing and Department of Superintendence 159 placing curriculums properly in the program oi studies. Understanding of social maturity in relation to certain end points in adolescence may facilitate both administration and teaching. Definite knowledge of ana- tomical development may prove useful in fixing the time and in specifying the training for pupils who desire to acquire certain neuro-muscular co- ordinations, and understanding of the emotional nature of adolescents may result in appropriate personnel guidance in the regulation and control of an individual's volitional responses. THE OBJECTIVES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION THOMAS W. GOSLING, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MADISON, WIS. Scholarship in its conventional sense is within the reach of only a part of our population ; for even this part something needs to be added to scholarship in order to make life purposeful, productive, and beneficent. I mean by this that the rapid change from a selective to a non-selective basis of enrolment is forcing the schools to recognize the importance and the significance of individual differences. We are passing through a peace- ful revolution, at the end of which we are likely to find a new conception of the importance of each individual not only to himself but also to society. The social philosophy which is evolving out of this revolution will make it impossible for us to ignore the claims of anyone, even the humblest, for his rightful share of public interest and of public concern. Whether a student is preparing for scholarship, for the mastery of technical processes, or for creative expression in the fields of art, or for manual dexterity whereby to earn a livelihood, there still is a purpose which will dignify his labor and bind together his scattered efforts and give him a real reason for living because he finds his own endeavors oc- cupying a due place in the great scheme of things of which he is a part. The activities in which the pupil engages from day to day will be deter- mined by the specific task he has to perform ; but whatever the task, it may be illumined by an understanding of its meaning and of its relation- ship to larger things. The fundamental objectives of all education are as follows: 1. To promote the development of an understanding and an adequate evalua- tion of the self. 2. To promote the development of an understanding and an appreciation of the world of nature. 3. To promote the development of an understanding and an appreciation of organized society. 4. To promote the development of an appreciation of the force of law and of love that is operating universally. 160 National Education Association DISCUSSION— OBJECTIVES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION MILO H. STUART, PRINCIPAL, ARSENAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS INDIANAPOLIS, IND. The report to which we have just listened, for which credit is due almost wholly to Mr. Gosling, the chairman, presents, I think you will agree, a bit of philosophy, universal in its application. It treats of all boys and girls in their teens. It takes the whole of early and middle adolescent life as the province of the secondary schools. It is as if we had an immense forest of young trees. We are not to strive to turn all the willows and sycamores into mahoganies and walnuts. We've tried that enough. We're not to cull out the willows either. It needs only a Corot to show us their tender beauty — only a basket weaver to let us know their use. Without grumbling at the species of trees, it's our busi- ness to keep every one of them alive, growing, pointed to the sun. That's not so simple. The air abounds in insect pests ready to attack them; the soil and water which a cypress needs would kill a mountain ash. We can not wholly understand any case. There are always roots, vital, deep down where we can not see. The definition of secondary education to which we have just listened presents a task elusive enough to challenge the best of us. The words bear repeating — "Secondary education is the organized effort of society through its schools to aid the normal processes of growth and development and to produce desirable changes in the attitudes, ideals, and behavior of youth during the period of early and middle adolescence." We quote again — "If guidance or counseling is interpreted in a sufficiently broad and liberal sense it may be accepted as the outstanding function of the sec- ondary school." It's like the flower in the crannied wall; if we could "understand it all in all we would know what God and man is." We can't do that, of course, but to approach the solution of the problem of guiding children into upward growth is the biggest thing we can do. Not merely the big- gest but the most urgent. Open the daily paper, any day, there leer at us from its pages the faces of those who have not been guided. They may have been told, but they have not been led. Every discordant home, every case of political corruption, every life that fails, is a challenge to us to find more effective ways of guiding. It is so self-evident that this is our one big objective that it seems queer that we should ever consider curriculums, college entrance requirements, technical skill, original research, any subject or line of work in any other light than means to an end — the guidance of the child in growth being the end. The one great service which such reports as the one of ten years ago on the Cardinal Objectives of Education and the present report on objectives of secondary education render, is to make us conscious of what is the goal we are seeking and what is merely the means. These studies into principles bring us back from things to the life for which things are used. Department of Superintendence 161 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE EDWIN L. MILLER^ ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS^ DETROIT^ MICH. After a careful survey of conditions throughout the country, our com- mittee presents a report, not of the shortcomings of the colleges and high schools, but of the efforts that are under way to improve their relations. Among the topics which are claiming their attention are the reduction of the percentage of freshman failures, the improvement of college entrance requirements, the clarification of the aims of college education, a solution of the overlapping of high school and college instruction, the adjustment of the difficulties arising from the substitution of the 6-3-3 plan in place of the 8-4 plan, better orientation and supervision of freshmen, the 6-4-4 plan, and the possibility of a national standard for college entrance. The most frequently suggested method of improving the relations between high schools and colleges is cooperation. Next come the establishment of a corps of advisers for freshmen and the segregation of college students into intelligence groups. Among the other devices proposed are the sub- stitution of high-school records, intelligence tests, and character measure- ments in place of entrance examinations, a two-year college course, more colleges, fewer and more earnest freshmen, a freshman week, higher tui- tion, consultation with alumni, the disregard of alumni influence, better college teachers, better high-school teachers, a national standard for col- lege entrance, the substitution of the 6-4-4-2 plan for the 8-4-4 and the 6-3-3-4 plans. DIFFERENTIATING CURRICULUMS FOR PUPILS OF DIFFERENT LEVELS OF ABILITY ARTHUR GOULD, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SgHOOLS LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Differentiation of material cannot be done intelligently unless we have clearly in mind the basis on which grouping of children has been done. At the present time all are satisfied that the IQ alone is not adequate for this purpose, for it does not measure certain qualities in pupils which make for success with school work. Therefore, schools are taking into account previous accomplishment of pupils and opinions of former teachers. Experience has demonstrated the wisdom of a small number of homo- geneous groups even in a large school in preference to a large number. Three groups are to be preferred to more and in a small school two groups are enough with which to secure desirable results. The principal reason for the smaller number of groups is that it is difficult to provide differen- tiated content on many levels in the same subject. In fact, it is often diffi- cult to provide even three clear-cut levels of material. Prindpal and 162 National Education Association teachers must be convinced (jf the value of the procedure and must be willing to put adequate effort into the work. Results will not just happen. It is fundamental that teachers must re- cognize the essential differences between bright and dull children. They must understand that dull pupils must be confronted only with short units of work, and that as far as possible such pupils must deal with concrete materials. The more complex mental activities must be eliminated from their work, and they must be given much repetition. On the other hand, bright children must not be cramped with many short bits of work. Rote and repetition are both unnecessary and deadly for the bright child. Consequently teachers must decide upon the minimum amount that each child should know if he is to receive a grade in the particular course under consideration. This minimum can be enriched somewhat for the average group and extensively for the best group in a way that will chal- lenge the best effort of each group without bringing discouragement. To carry out such a program requires a sufficiency of instructional aids in the way of library facilities and visual material, as well as constant exercise of ingenuity on the part of the teacher. DIFFERENTIATING CURRICULUMS FOR PUPILS OF DIFFERENT LEVELS OF ABILITY SIDNEY B. HALL, STATE SUPERVISOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION RICHMOND, VA. During the war thousands and thousands of tests were given to the soldiers. The compilation of the results of these tests indicated that there were levels of intelligence ranging from idiocy to genius. Accompanying and closely correlating the levels of intelligence from idiocy to genius, there were discovered certain levels of general ability comparable to the intelli- gence. To make a long story short, it has been demonstrated that, by and large, an individual with an IQ of approximately 70 or thereabout is bordering on what we now term moronity. It has been discovered further that an individual with an IQ, of 90 could complete the elementary school; similarly an individual with an IQ of 90-100 could complete the high- school grades; and the individual with an IQ of 110 or above could easily take college training. Even among this distribution there is a certain amount of overlapping among the abilities of the individuals. This over- lapping of abilities caused us to begin the great movement of homogeneous grouping. The idea of homogeneous grouping was carried so far that there resulted the inevitable average student. Very soon, however, educators discovered that there was no such individual as the average student, that even among the average or homogeneous group there still existed individual differences. Accordingly attention has turned somewhat in the last six or eight years from homogeneous grouping to provisions for individual differences even within groups. Attempts have been made to adjust the Department of Superintendence 163 school to individual differences in two wajs : First, attempts were made to adjust to individual differences while retaining the organization and the method of the class or grade system, and, second, by definitely breaking up class organization for individual work in common essentials. From the standpoint of the first attempts such ideas as coaching laggards, allowing extra time for slow pupils, the problem case, ability grouping and differen- tiated assignments were developed and tried. From the standpoint of the second scheme such plans as "Burks Individual System," the Winnetka Plan, the Dalton Plan, the Adjustment Room were developed. Statistical results from such plans seem to indicate very clearly the advantage and advisability of individualized instruction as well as differentiated curricula. Out of the contribution of the psychology of individual differences has grown the need for differentiated curricula. The ideal would be to have a a curriculum for each individual child. This, however, is impossible, and we have to turn again to certain types of curricula for certain general groups of individuals, the nature of the curricula being determined by the general level of ability exhibited by the individual members of the group. The problem of providing differentiated curricula for different levels of ability presents many perplexing questions. It resolves itself into two considerations: 1. The basis for determining different levels of abilit\' 2. Providing different types of curricula, the nature of which will administer to the levels of ability determined by such bases as may be set up. Educational literature reveals that several rather than one criterion for classifying students should be used. The factors to be considered in deter- mining different levels of ability are : a. IQ's b. School marks c. Teacher's judgment d. Other factors, such as determination, reliability, initiative, interest, and emotional, social, and physical status. No one of these factors is sufficient in classifying students for different types of curricula. There is great need for a composite score or complete estimate to be made of all of these factors in determining what curricula individuals should pursue. Further than these simple factors which have been mentioned, it is necessary that individuals have the opportunity of exploring and trying out certain phases of the various types of curricula before entering upon any definite curriculum. This should be done as a means of discovering the interest and aptitude of the individual. This statement makes us recog- nize that the function of the elementary school is to furnish the common tools of life; that the junior high school is to provide for the adjustment, exploration and trying out, and the selection of certain courses; and that the senior high school should provide for specialization and differentiation on a vocational level. 164 National Education Association EVALUATION OF EXTRACURRICULUM ACTIVITIES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS OSCAR CHARLES GALLAGHER^ SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS BROOKLINE, MASS. Education does not stop when the bell rings. The activities in which pupils engage in their school, community, and home life count greatly in their education. Things boys and girls do are the things they learn. The school, if it is to render its maximum service, must encourage every boy and girl to find satisfaction through participation in the life of the school and its community. Both the school and the larger society need contributions of youth. Student activities in an ideal school are spontaneous and lifelike. They reproduce within the school situations typical of social life, somewhat purified and idealized, but always vital. Extracurriculum activities fall into three distinct fields : Participation in government, including homerooms, class organization, etc. ; all activities that can grow out of the curriculum; supplementary school agencies, such as Boy Scouts. Every school needs to have a constructive policy for stimulating, guid- ing and, if necessary, limiting pupil participation in extracurriculum activities. Let's break down the distinction between student activities and student passivities. HEALTH GUIDANCE FOR ADOLESCENT BOYS AND GIRLS W. H. HOLMES^ SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS^ MOUNT VERNON^ N. Y. At the present time, adolescent boys and girls in senior and junior high schools, as well as those in part-time schools and those who have been left behind in the lower grades, are not being given sufficient individual atten- tion in regard to defects and diseases of the eyes, ears, nose, and throat, to orthopedic defects, and to mental kinks and conflicts that are retarding them. The writer knows that a large percentage of the boys and girls who take the physical examination to qualify for working certificates in New York State have many of the above defects — both serious and of long standing — that must have seriously reduced their vital energies and caused them pain, anguish, and worry of which they did not know the source. Many a boy and many a girl who has come before the writer for special consideration in regard to being allowed working certificate has shown defects of eyes, teeth, or tonsils so serious that they cannot fail to have kept such boy or girl from doing any work in their studies other than of mediocre quality. It seemed decidedly unfortunate that these individ- uals had not been advised or checked up in such a way that they would long before have been led to see or that their parents would have been led to see that such defects should have been remedied at the earliest possible moment. Department of Superintendence 165 Health guidance should of course begin at the very beginning of the child's school life; indeed it ought to begin with the preschool child, and all children who are to be admitted to school should in reality make ad- vance application so that through proper physical and mental examinations certain physical and mental defects could be detected and treatment begun before the child's entrance to school. Such counseling should go on with the cooperation of all concerned with the best development of the child up through the grades. In the junior and senior high school, while the stress on proper physical development should not be diminished and while care- ful attention should be given to seeing that boys and girls do not over- train and over-strain themselves in school games and contests, great stress should be laid on mental health. The mentall}- maladjusted child of adolescent years is one of the greatest school problems. Oftentimes, because such boys and girls do not have any physical defects or physical diseases, their difficulties receive almost no attention except in the way of punishment ; they are regarded as school offenders or nuisances and forced out of school as soon as possible. Too little account is taken by many school men and women of the fact that boys and girls who do not seem to be able to face the everyday problems of school life successfully are really mentally sick. No boy or girl who is mentally and physically strong w^ants to win anything but success. If he shows the opposite disposition there is something wrong with his physical or mental make-up and his case should be carefully diagnosed and proper remedial treatment prescribed. The chief lament of boys and girls in adolescent years who are failing in one way or another in school or in the home is that they are not understood. It is the work of the health coun- selor to understand them. EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE F. e. clerk, superintendent, new trier township high school WINNETKA, ILL. To teach children is more important than to teach subjects and one cannot teach children without practicing some form of educational guid- ance. If good teaching does anything at all, it stimulates those who are taught and whether they have been conscious of it or not all the great teachers of the past have been practicing educational guidance. It is not a question of introducing educational guidance into the cur- riculum as much as it is a question of organizing and giving definite pur- pose to the educational guidance inherent in any good program of teaching. The purpose of educational guidance is not to tell a pupil what subject he should take, what higher school he should prepare himself for, etc., but rather to help him to know himself and to know the educational opportunities that are available to him and then to know upon what prin- 166 National Education Association ciples to adapt himself to his opportunities in the light of his interests, abilities, ambitions, etc. Educational guidance is the function of every teacher, and every school should be organized to consciously promote it. Some of the most efiEective means of organizing a school for the effective exercise of educational guidance are: 1. Establishing a realization of tlie value and meaning of educational guidance in the mind of each teacher 2. Provision for supervised study 3. Promotion by subject 4. A schedule of studies offering an opportunity for selection and exploration under supervision 5. A plan for testing and studying individuals for educability, aptitudes, in- terests, etc., followed by a plan of remedial teaching 6. Special provision for dominant types intellectually, e. g. retarded, acceler- ated, etc. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE EDWARD RYNEARSOX, DIRECTOR OF DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL GUID- ANCE, PITTSBURGH, PA. Vocational guidance does not mean that pupils are to be taken out of school prematurely, but rather that they should be kept in school during the adolescent period in order that all inherent powers may be developed according to the capacity, needs, and interests of each individual. Guid- ance likewise has a message for the school because no teacher can truly promote the cause of education until he knows the mode of life for which that education is to prepare his pupil. The establishment of the Boston Vocational Bureau by Dr. Frank Parsons in 1908 was an outstanding event, especially so when it was con- nected later with the educational system of the city. Dr. Parsons made it quite clear that there was no attempt to' foresee the future by an occult power and that guidance consisted in aiding young people in choosing an occupation, preparing themselves for it, finding an opening in it, and building up a career of efficiency and success ; and to help any, young or old, who seek counsel as to opportunities and resources for the better- ment of their condition and the means of increasing their economic effi- ciency. The study of occupations should be a part of every course that includes social science. As men work together they form social contacts, therefore a study of the various occupations of men reveals those relations that make for unity and good citizenship. The more one knows about the occupa- tions of other individuals, or other coinmunities, the broader his S3'm- pathy becomes. The school does not wisli to select an occupation for the child but it does want to assist him so that he may choose wisely. 'I'he only phase of vocational guidance known to most people centers in the placement office. No system of guidance in tiic public schools Department of Superintendence 167 is complete without provision for placement and follow-up. It is only fair that much time, mone.v, and thought should be spent upon those who are deprived of the many advantages of school and who, in many cases, come from homes poorly prepared to assist children in the selection of their life work. The placement office should be one of the places where these immature, inexperienced persons may gladly come for advice and en- couragement. While this office may cost a little, it is far better to spend it upon them while in the 'teens, rather than to pay for correction, punish- ment, and mere inefficiency later. More sympathetic interest shown these children who are out of school may make them assets to society rather than liabilities. No placement office can discharge its full responsibility unless it follows up each case. Here is where there must be an intimate relation between the office and the employer as well as the employee. Readjustments must be made occasionally. The child is in a receptive mood for more guidance. The office discovers many problems for further investigation. ETHICAL GUIDANCE H.AROLD L. HOLBROOK, SUPERVISOR OF GUIDANCE, PENNSYLVANIA DE- PARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, HARRISBURG, PA. The mental and emotional equipment in the 'teen age of the indi- vidual pupil depends upon what has survived the battle of the years before, especially the first six years. Adolescence is that time in the life of youth when nature from out of thousands of years past says that youth shall go on its own. That is the keynote of the 'teen age, and applies both to the acceptance of ideals and self direction in conduct. Adult acts are con- ditioned by adult social usage, those of youth in considerable measure by those of other youth. For ethical guidance a school must therefore have a school spirit and ethical standards accepted and experienced by the school body. There must be opportunity for groups to discuss, to understand better, to accept and to habituate character elements. There must be wise personal counsel for pupils equipped with the half truth of many homes, to whom adolescence presents doubts and dangers. There are rapidly increasing numbers of state, county, district, and school plans for character education and for guidance. In Pennsylvania we in- clude a social studies program from the first to twelfth grades and the first state guidance program. Thirty-five counties and many independent districts are now undertaking guidance demonstrations and developments. In junior high schools and an increasing number of elementary and high schools we are centering on the home room and weekly home room period. We suggest that some topics be selected for the entire school by pupils rep- resentatives working Avith the guidance committee, others by home rooms, with weekly home-room periods conducted by pupils. Our state guidance bulletins suggest various devices, including a character selfrating scale. 168 National Education Association The school guidance committee chairman usually is or becomes student counselor. This entire movement is greatly on the increase in Pennsylvania, as it is elsewhere in America. THE INFLUENCE OF COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIRE- MENTS ON SMALL HIGH SCHOOLS JOHN RUFI, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, MICHIGAN STATE COLLEGE EAST LANSING, MICH. Since their very origin, our schools have been quite largely under the domination of higher education. The first secondary schools established here were for the sole purpose of preparing students for college and uni- versity. In spite of vigorous efForts to end or lessen this domination, it continues to a marked degree even to the present time. Entirely too many people labor under the delusion that the first duty of the high school is to prepare students for further schooling. They entirely disregard the fact that only a very small minority actually enter college and that, under the present arrangement, the needs of the large majority are seriously neglected. Instead of seriously attempting to meet the needs of all of its pupils here and now, the average high school's chief concern is that its work prepare the select few so that they cjgi successfully meet college en- trance requirements. The influence of college entrance requirements, while certainly not al- together bad has unquestionably hindered the development of certain im- portant phases of the American secondary school. This influence, bad enough in the large high school, has been positively pernicious in the small high school. Numerous investigations conclusively show that in most high schools enroling 100 or fewer pupils, the entrance requirement of the college rather than the needs of the pupils is the factor which deter- mines the curriculum. The tremendous influence of college entrance requirements can be ac- counted for in three ways. The first is tradition in the form of the re- quirements themselves. A precendent once established tends to perpetuate itself. The second reason for their great influence in small high schools is their definiteness. It is easier for the undertrained, underpaid, and over- worked teachers and principals of small high schools to meet or attempt to meet these requirements than to formulate curriculums which really meet the demands of their respective communities. The third cause for their influence is to be found in the limitations which are imposed by the size of these schools. A three-teacher school of 60 or 75 pupils certainly can offer little in the way of parallel curriculums. Variation is both expensive and difficult. Under present conditions, these schools are not to be too severely censured if they follow the line of least resistance. Department of Superintendence 169 There is only one real solution to the problem. That is the complete autonomy of the high school. Ultimately it must be recognized that the first function of the high school is to prepare its pupils for life. If it does this task well, such pupils as eventually do enter college will not be found lacking in preparation. EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF PUPILS IN SMALL HIGH SCHOOLS warren \v. coxe, chief, educational measurements bureau, state department of education, albany, n, y. Probably the most pressing problems in secondary school curriculums today are those which are being faced by the small high school. Ninety percent of the small high schools in New York State offer only a college prepara- tory' course. Out of every 100 students enroled in the first year of these high schools, ninety-five do not make use of this kind of training. It is probable that conditions are not much different in other states. I have made a study of the needs of these boys and girls who will not ask to be admitted to the traditional college. My findings indicate that com- mercial work, industry, and agriculture take a very large proportion of these pupils as judged by studying their later careers. This would mean that the high school course must be general in nature and give the pupils a chance to orient themselves in a number of different fields. A greater variety of offering in the small high school will tend to correct another defect. It was found that these pupils were not able to intelli- gently make choices of a vocation. More than half of them choose to enter a profession whereas less than ten percent have a chance of so doing. Practically none of the students wished to enter agricultural work but fully lifteen percent of them will probably become farmers. The high school should therefore encourage a much wider range of interests. The greatest need for modification in the small high school is in the first two years. The modifications will be in the direction of liberalizing the course of study. It is doubtful if adequate training can be given along many specific lines because of the small number of pupils, but it is possible to give an appreciation of a variety of activities so that the foundation will be laid for sane and sound judgments in choosing a vocation and in making other personal decisions in regard to a life career. INFLUENCE OF STATE DEPARTMENTS OF PUBLIC IN- STRUCTION UPON CURRICULUM PROBLEMS OF THE SMALL HIGH SCHOOL JAMES N. RULE, DEPUTY SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION HARRISBURG, PA. The comprehensive secondary school, one of the boasts of American secondary education, has been almost entirely a city development. 170 National Education Association Pupils living in the area of small secondary schools, cannot be said to have the same educational opportunity that is enjoyed by pupils in larger schools, either in the matter of building facilities, programs of studies, or teaching staff. If small, ineffective schools can be combined and facilities coordinated, a more comprehensive secondary school unit can be provided and a more satisfactory program of studies developed. According to data supplied by the United States Bureau of Education, there were in 1926 in the United States 18,157 high schools of which 10,999, or almost 61 percent, had an enrolment of 100 or fewer pupils. Equality of educational opportunity for the rural girl and boy will come only when there has been a general reorganization of rural school facilities in terms of a larger unit. EXTRA -CURRICULUM ACTIViriES IN SMALL HIGH SCHOOLS OF lOltA THOMAS J. KIRBV, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF IOWA, IOWA CITY, IOWA. Recently there has been a marked tendency on the part of those in charge of high schools not only to tolerate extracurriculum activities but to embrace them as a part of the high school educational program. A man who has been a principal of a high school for a long period of years recently remarked that fifteen years ago 90 percent of his time as a principal was given to the conduct and management of pupils in the regular studies of the high school such as English, mathematics, science, Latin, and history, but today he said a very large part of his time is devoted to the organization, administration, and encouragement of extracurriculum activities. Changes in our educational theory have had much to do with this change in attitude and change in emphasis on extracurriculum activities. We have shifted from a subjectmatter organization of our educational ma- terials to an organization around educational objectives such as developing in young people a regard for health, an interest in and a planning of their vocational future, a concern about the profitable use of leisure time, a working knowledge of the principles and practices of good citizenship, and a realization of the value of sterling character, together with a knowledge of its principles, and the practice of them in their own life. In response to a detailed inquiry regarding the organization and adminis- tration of extracurriculum activities, forty high schools in Iowa of one hundred pupils or fewer responded. There is no reason for believing that these forty are not a fair sampling of the small high school of Iowa. The presentation which follows is concerned with facts revealed from this inquiry. In the social-civic group of extracurriculum activities the following were found in the number of schools indicated : Civic clubs 2, assemblies 27, class organizations 35, informal socials 38, banquets 35, student coun- Uefartment of Superintendence 171 cil 7, girls' club 1, honor society 5, Bible study club 1, Y. M. C. A. and Hi-Y 3, boy scouts 12, girl scouts and campfire girls 7. In the athletic group the following appeared: Athletic associations 21, athletic honors 7, baseball 22, basketball 29, football 10, track 10, tennis 4, soccer 1, wrestling and boxing 6, other types 4. In the musical group were the following: Band 5, chorus 10, boys' glee club 21, girls' glee club 20, orchestra 16, musical club 2. In the literary-dramatic-journalistic group the following appear: Debate 4, declamatory contests 32, literary society 11, plays 34, public speaking club 6, school annual 2, school paper 6. In the departmental group were found: Agricultural clubs 4 and Latin club 1. The number of different extracurriculum activities in operation in any one of these schools varied from six to twenty-eight with a median of twelve. The activities in the order of the median percent of pupils par- ticipating were as follows: Literary society 100 percent; chorus 84 per- cent; band 42 percent; Y. M. C. A. 37 percent; basketball 33 percent; plays 33 percent ; baseball 33 percent ; girls' glee club 30 percent ; declama- tory contest 26 percent ; boys' glee club 26 per cent ; boy scouts 23 percent ; girl scouts 23 percent; track 21 percent; tennis 21 percent; orchestra 19 percent; honor society 19 percent; football 19 percent. This inventory reveals a rather ambitious program of extra-curriculum activities in these small high schools with a large percentage of pupils par- ticipating. It is surprising that so limited a teaching force, from 4 to 7 teachers, can direct so extensive a program. THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES IN THE RURAL HIGH SCHOOL EMERY N. FERRISS, PROFESSOR OF RURAL EDUCATION, CORNELL UNIVER- SITY, ITHACA, N. Y. The problems of peculiar importance and difficulty in the task of build- ing programs of studies for rural high schools may be grouped under three heads as they are related to: (1) The size of the school; (2) the char- acteristics of the pupil population; and (3) the environment of the school. Limited as it is in respect to size the rural high school cannot expand its program of studies beyond what can be offered by a small teaching staff. Its program must be the result of vigorous selection and many subjects desirable in some respects must be rejected in favor of others of greater value for the pupils of its community. To offer a program of studies that will adequately meet the needs of its pupils requires in many cases a care- fully worked out plan of subject alternation in order that the teaching staff may not be overloaded and that too many extremely small classes may not be scheduled. To adapt the program of studies in the rural high school requires the careful study of the children of high-school age in the attendance area of 172 National Education Association the school. The question as to the native intelligence of the pupils of the rural high school is highly important. The capacity of its pupils will be a determinant in what the rural high school can accomplish through its program of studies. This involves the whole problem of the characteristics of rural environments and their influence in shaping the mental develop- ment of rural boys and girls and in determining their interests, attitudes, ideals, and purposes. To fit its work to its com.munity and the experience background of its pupils, the program of studies of the rural high school should contain in some considerable degree materials and activities related to its environment. In the past, we have done but little in the rural high school to develop in pupils those interests and desires that would lead them in using leisure time worthily, especially through those activities practicable for the average individual living in a rural community. We have not in our courses in science led them out to observe and to enjoy the plant and animal life about them. We have not developed in rural youth interests in rocks and streams and the other natural features "of the world in which they live. The rural high school through its program of studies has given but little attention to developing habits of reading for enjoyment and especially to forming in its pupils tastes in the selection and reading of current literature although the bulk of the reading for leisure done by the average individual is and probably always will be in current books and magazines. FUNCTIONS OF THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER MERLE PRUNTY, PRINCIPAL, TULSA SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL, TULSA, OKLA. The greatest potential factor in a senior high school is the teacher. The functions of the teacher are many and varied. The first function is to bring to the teaching situation rich and fresh informational knowledge of the subject to be taught. Teachers must themselves know what they are to teach before they can hope to be teachers in any genuine sense. All too frequently one finds that teachers who possess strong scholastic qualifica- tions in a given subject of study are not assigned to the teaching of that subject. In a still greater number of instances teachers are scheduled sub- ject loads for the major pwDrtion of which they have had only minor courses in college and in still other cases, especially in the smaller high schools, they are allotted a variety of subjects for none of which they have made more than minor preparation and for some of which no preparation at all in collegiate study. The second function of the senior high-school teacher is to recognize in her teaching the comprehensive educational objectives of a modern high school and to select from her vast storehouse of subject knowledge the curriculum material for instruction which is relatively most significant as a means of harmonizing desirable learning experiences. The scope of available educational material in every subject of study is far greater than the teacher can hope to use. The motive for choosing instructional ma- Department of Superintendence 173 terial and training procedures is determined both by the immediate and remote objectives to be attained. The validitj' of the objectives sought will be determined by the soundness and adequacy of the teacher's phi- losophy respecting the social purposes of instruction in a modern high school in her community and by the recognition of the contribution which the teaching of her portion of the curriculum has to make to these objectives. The third function of the senior high school teacher is to know the nature of youth. The period of adolescence is characterized by physical, intellectual, emotional and volitional upheavals requiring very special and cautiously administered educational prescriptions. Adolescent years are primarily years of emotion. The function of the teacher is to translate youth's fundamental emotions into appropriate patterns of conduct that shall become the substance of adult years. The fourth function of the teacher is to employ methods of teaching and the use of teaching skills in the impartation of the most valuable subjectmatter which will cause all students intrusted to her instructional care to acquire socially desirable knowledge, appropriate attitudes, habits, and skills. This function makes of teaching a highly professional under- taking. The fifth function of the high-school teacher is to cultivate purposefully the acquirement of personal traits and attitudes which shall make her a powerful influence for all that is truest and best in her school and com- munity. The most dynamic and permanent influences ever exerted by a teacher are those which emanate from a great, broad, sympathetic teacher personality and which inject themselves subtly into the spirit of boys and girls intrusted to a teacher's directive care. It is the function of the senior high-school teacher to analyze her own personal traits, attitudes, profes- sional outlook and teaching practices and as a consequence to strive for the most enduring teacher success. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SENIOR HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHER EDWARD J. EATON, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION BOSTON UNIVERSITY, BOSTON, MASS. The older high-school boy has been the neglected child of the educational family circle. For some time the early adolescent has been receiving our attention and we are well on our way to better educational practices in the intermediate grades through the scientific development of the junior high-school. But the senior high-school teacher has occupied a position of isolation and hardly understands the language employed by those in the lower grades and kindergarten. By his close proximity to the college he has been dominated by the fetish of college entrance requirements and blinded to the requirements of youth. As subject-specialist he has of neces- sity knelt before the shrine of formal discipline unmindful of the real and immediate needs to be met by the older youth under his charge. 174 National Education Association A new era has dawned for the senior-high school as universal education has gradually crept up the incline. Legal enactments of one kind and another have given force to advancing public opinion, and the youth that formerly left school somewhere below the tenth grade is continuing on, and there is no denying him. Changed social and economic conditions are even more insistant than compulsory school laws, and the traditional formulas of education no longer work. Academic subjects must justify themselves for large majorities of non-college preparatory students. It is to this new task that the senior high-school teacher must address himself : To have a clear understanding of later adolescence, to know the proximate needs of the older boy, and to make the proper adaptations of subject and method to meet the dual relation. REQUIRED QUALIFICATIONS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS J. WILL FRENCH, PRINCIPAL, LINCOLN HIGH SCHOOL, LINCOLN, NEBR. There are four types of agencies setting up requirements which high- school teachers must meet. They are ( 1 ) , local or county boards of edu- cation, (2) state departments of education with approval of the state legislatures, (3) accrediting agencies, and (4) the federal government. To my knowledge no adequate study of requirements instituted by local and county authorities has ever been written. For the most part these re- quirements are identical with state requirements. In some large cities boards of education have made requirements in advance of those maintained by state law and by accrediting agencies and while large city practice influences certification requirements more than locally, yet they will have to be disregarded in this paper on account of the greater importance of the requirements made by state law and bv accrediting agencies. Federal government certification standards also will be passed over here since they have to do only with subjects taught with the aid of federal funds and affect comparatively few teachers and pupils in special subjects. Conse- quently we shall concentrate upon the certification requirements of the states and of various accrediting agencies. There is a tendency to increase scholarship and professional require- ments for teaching academic subjects in the high school. In thirteen states four years and in twenty others at least two years of training are required. The median number of hours of education required in the forty-eight states is a little less than sixteen hours for the highest certificates granted for teaching in the high school. Seven states grant life diplomas for teaching in the high school to persons without experience. The median number of years of teaching ex- perience required for the life certificate in the 43 states which grant life certificates is a little less than four. This gives us in a nutshell the pres- ent practice in certification of secondary teachers in the 48 states. Department of Superintendence 175 REQUIRED OUALlFlCAriOKS OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS GEORGE CHARLES MARSDEN, PRINCIPAL OF MILTON JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS, MILTON, MASS. What qualifications are essential for the success of senior high school teachers? The accurate answer to this query stated in the lucid diction specifically applicable to potential teachers in our school systems would do much to clarify the mental fog relative to the probability of success. Character, scholarship, and health are indispensable. Without them no teacher can be competent. Although physical efficiency, intelligence, and morality are minimum essentials, they do not insure success. The effective teacher must have the vision of teaching children. He must not be limited by subject. His influence must pervade far beyond the walls of the classroom and continue many years. He must understand and be sympathetic with youth of high-school age. He should know the society from which his pupils come and also understand the nature of the human mind. He must realize the relation of his own subject to the broad field of education. He must be able to select the basic issues from the sub- ordinate and budget his time accordingly. Creative leadership is a requirement of successful senior high-school instructors. The effective teacher must be one who interprets, one who reveals, one who inspires. A class that follows merely by rote or memor- izes textbooks is not adequately developing thinkers. The demands made upon high-school graduates so change from decade to decade that our teachers must dynamically pave the way for creative thought and flexible attitude. The successful teacher in senior high school should radiate worthy at- tributes. The child is an echo of his teacher. Teachers must have personal qualities desirable for citizens. The spirit of the teacher is contagious. The high-school pupil is impressionistic, idealistic, and plastic. The man- ner of the leader should abound in courtesy, serenity, simplicity, and sym- pathy. I conceive the successful high-school teacher as the illuminant whose rays encourage youth to press forward with confidence in their personal power, to guide their own destiny, to realize their own potentialities, to penetrate and reveal the unexplored regions of human possibility, and to achieve satisfaction in humble service joyously and courageously rendered. THE TRAINING OF THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER J. L. HENDERSON, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS. AUSTIN, TEXAS Before attempting any enumeration of present-day needs it may be proper to inquire why senior high school teachers should be treated as a special group with reference to teacher preparation. 176 National Education" Association In the first place it may be well to note that two new segments have been added to the public school system within recent years. The junior high school is being developed as an exploratory part of the system while the junior college is proposed as a common ground for acquiring the basic elements of a liberal education. The senior high school lies between the two new segments of the system. In some cases the senior high school and the junior college are organized together so that one faculty serves both di- visions of the system. While this may be only a temporary arrangement, it has introduced a very practical problem into the amount of preparation that should be required of a senior high school teacher. The first consideration in providing better teachers for the senior high school should be a better selection of students with which to begin profes- sional training. The competitive examinations for admission to the higher normal school in France insure the selection of a superior group for teacher-training. With us many students take education courses, especially when cer- tificates are based upon such courses, in order to secure a sort of insurance policy. They do not intend to teach unless forced to do so. Others, of course, intend to use teaching as a stepping-stone. Why not impose a cer- tain number of years of service and cancel the license of those who do not meet the requirements? This may be called un-American but it cannot be called unprofessional. A basic need in the training of high-school teachers is a better coordina- nated background of academic subjects so that teachers may be prepared for service in at least two related fields. While in the larger high schools it may be possible to assign teachers to a single subject, in the small schools many teachers will be compelled to accept assignments in different fields. Even in the North Central Association where conditions are most favor- able 42.8 percent of the teachers, in 1922, were teaching subjects in which they were partially or wholly unprepared. It is feared that many teacher- training institutions fail to plan curricula for the teaching in related fields or do not enforce their suggestions before the student-teacher's training is completed. While prospective teachers are taking more and more courses in pro- fessional subjects, both before and after securing license, many of these courses seem to be of little value in schoolroom practice. There is also a need for a better blending of academic and professional courses into what are known as "special methods" courses. Such courses give opportunity for working out teaching units in accordance with the best procedures. While progress is being made in the development of "special methods" courses there is still much to be desired, especially in the old regime col- leges. Too many of those who purport to give "special methods" courses look upon the work as a matter of conducting reviews in subjectmatter. They frequently know little of modern psychology and consequently do Department of Superintendence 177 little with modern methods. The solution for this problem seems to be met by the assignment of the "special methods" courses to those who supervise the practical work of student-teachers in the schools. THE TRAINING OF THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER PHILIP W. L. COX, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY What the best and wisest high-school principal wants for the improve- ment of his teachers, that all of us should seek for the professional growth of all high-school teachers. Recommendations of carefully chosen high-school principals who stand out as executive leaders form the only assured basis for progress. Students cannot judge what they have never studied, college professors are biased in favor of what they are best prepared to teach. But alert high-school principals know why the progress of their schools is retarded ; they alone can judge discriminatingly what are the qualities of these teachers who contribute to the pioneering efforts of their schools. Recommendations were obtained from twenty outstanding secondary school men in the Metropolitan area. The New York University pro- gram for the preparation of teachers in the secondary field is based on these recommendations. Answers were sought to the single question: What educational courses, both prior to service and during service, would be most helpful in pre- paring teachers for service in progressive pioneering high schools? The conclusions in which fifteen or more of those questioned concurred were these : 1. Teachers teach subjects: They need reasonable background of scholarship and special methods courses, both prior to service and from time to time after they enter service. Ability to teach successfully more than one subject is a great advantage to both the school and to the teacher. 2. Teachers are working with a changing curriculum; they should be helped to understand the philosophy and trends and technics employed in curriculum ad- justment, and to formulate for themselves programs of action in experimenting with their own courses of study and teaching methods. 3. Teachers all participate in the conduct of the school; they should be helped to understand its institutional nature and purpose, its relation to the home life, civic life, economic life, and leisure occupations of its community, how it is sup- ported, how it groups its pupils, how it cooperates with parents, public libraries, and with civic, religious, and other public and private welfare agencies. 4. Teachers are most valuable to our schools insofar as they understand chil- dren and become to them guides, philosophers, and friends. They need specific practice and help in the exploitation of school and individual undertakings to promote in pupils the desire and selfconfidence and ability to make successful positive contributions to the common will and to plan and direct their own present and future conduct. 5. Teachers sponsor clubs, home-room groups, assemblies, publications, student participation in school government, and the like. They need practice in such ac- tivities accompanied by reflective thinking regarding methods and results. 178 National Education Association 6. Teachers too often fear standard and "new type" tests or they permit them to dominate their teaching. They need rational, practical courses in tests and measurement, that they may appreciate both their advantages and their disadvan- tages, and that the}' may use them for diagnosis of needs and for motivation of learning in those aspects of education for which they are valid. 7. Finally, progressive school faculties have undertaken a program of self- improvement. In such schools, supervision as carried on by the principals is not limited to class-visitation, inspection, and criticism; principals do not permit, if they can help it, central office supervisors to interfere directly with their teachers' work. Teachers are encouraged to be self-critical ; they are helped to set up for themselves teaching objectives that are worth while and dynamic. In such schools principals stimulate, advise, and encourage them; principals cooperate with their colleagues and assume joint responsibility for successes and for failures. THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER AND SUPERVISION CHARLES FORREST ALLEN^ SUPERVISOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION LITTLE ROCK, ARK. In the practice of high-school supervision much is being attempted, more is being discussed, but little of a constructive nature is actually being done except in the larger school systems where there is probably less real need for supervision than in the smaller systems. High-school supervision has developed naturally from two causes : First, the unprecedented and heterogeneous increased enrolment has caused a more complicated system of organization that requires a greater care in coordination of departments to keep the child the end or aim of secondary instruction; and second, the reorganized objectives of education resulting from a changed educational philosophy have brought to educational leaders the task of bringing to teachers a new vision of their responsibilities. Many high-school teachers have accepted supervision as a form of "ad- ministrative meddling," and why should they not ? Tradition has decreed for decades that knowledge of subjectmatter was sufficient qualification for teaching such subject. Furthermore the type of supervision they have experienced has too often been by a superior official whose sole or chief merit of promotion was athletic prowess or other popularity rather than that of ability to supervise. The day has come when supervisors and teachers must stand on their ability to produce results. The teacher must have specialized training which the supervisory official has neither time nor ability to give. Likewise the supervisor must have specialized training for his duties. Theorizing and bluffing are giving w^ay before experimentation and standardized results. Likewise dictatorial supervision is giving way to a cooperative type of teacher participation in solving the problems of supervision. As the superintendent found his many duties overtaxing and employed the principal to assist in the details of administration, so is there develop- ing a need for a new type of supervisory official who will aid the prin- cipal. Department of Superintendence 179 As the new type of cooperative supervision proves helpful to teachers, as supervisor and teacher plan and prove their cooperative programs ever with the pupils as the end, the high-school teachers will welcome supervi- sion which will in turn be standardized and rated according to results ob- tained. HIGH-SCHOOL SUPERVISION JOHN C. ALMACK, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CALIFORNIA There are two important questions involved in any consideration of high-school supervision: (1) Do high-school teachers need supervision? and (2) if so, who should supervise them? From data which I have re- cently examined on four large high schools, there seems no doubt that supervision is needed. This conclusion is reached after an analysis of the teaching process based upon stenographic reports, observation of the teach- ing process, and an investigation of assignments, home study, examina- tions, and management. The teachers who use what experts call •modern methods are in the minority. Nearly all make oral assignments of the "take from page 80 to page 87" tj'pe. The forms of motivation employed include the traditional ones of examinations, grades, and discipline. The examinations are of the essay type, and are given frequently. Teachers do not use objective tests. Few of them supervise study. Still fewer employ visual aids such as charts, pictures, and objects. No more than five percent have adopted project and socialized procedures. Almost all the class exercises consist of drill. The stimuli addressed to the pupils are the familiar "tell," "state," "who," "when," "explain"; the responses consist of a single word "yes," and "no," single sentences and very infrequently a topical discussion. There is very little coordination among teachers of the same department, and none among different departments. Assuming that supervision is needed, there still remains the question who should do it. Two possibilities are usually suggested : The principal or the vice-principal, and the heads of departments. General supervision is criticized on the grounds that no individual has a mastery of the sub- jectmatter taught in the various subjects and departments. The result is that the supervisor over-emphasizes the subjects he knows, and neglects or misdirects those he does not know. Department head supervision is criticized on the ground that it has not succeeded, that present unsatisfac- tory conditions in high-school teaching have arisen under this form of su- pervision. It is also claimed that coordination among departments is im- possible, that worn out traditions and practices are perpetuated, it is unduly expensive, and that heads of departments lack training in supervisory technic. The Avriter believes the answer is to be found in a satisfactory combina- tion of effort. The task of coordinating the respective departments and subjects is clearly unthin the province and abilities of the principal. The 180 National Education Association principal should direct the technic of teaching. Subjectmatter essentials should be directed by the heads of departments in conference with their as- sociates. This is a matter of occasional rather than continuous concern and should not carry with it exemption from the usual teaching service. In smaller high schools, daily organized supervision should be a part of the principal's work; in larger high schools (forty teachers or more) there is enough supervision to require the whole time of one person. Intermedi- ate between the small schools with supervision by the principal and the large school with special supervision, is the stage where a competent per- son should be selected to divide his time between supervision and research. THE FOUR-YEAR PUBLIC JUNIOR COLLEGE WILLIAM F. EWING, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS OAKLAND, CALIF. Within the past twenty years there has been a rapid and far-reaching reorganization of American schools. Two of the most significant move- ments have been related to the downward and upward extension of the traditional four-year high school. The junior high school is now established in every state in the Union, By 1925, the total number of schools offering junior high-school courses was 2268. Of these, 879 were segregated junior high schools. The great majority of these schools (75 percent) had grades 7-8-9. In the segregated junior high schools, there seems to be a growing tendency to include grade 10. Six percent of these schools, had the four-year organization (grades 7-8-9-10). The growth in the number and size of private and public junior colleges has been almost as remarkable as the rapid development of junior high schools. McDowell in 1917-18 received reports from 105 junior colleges. In 1922 Koos found 200 junior colleges, and five years l?.ter (1927), Proctor estimated 300 junior colleges in the United States. During the Fall 1927-28 official reports from the 33 public junior colleges in California showed a total enrolment of 8900 students. The overcrowding of well-established four-year colleges and universities and the rapid increase in public junior colleges is beginning to affect the organization of large universities. Officials of two great universities — Stanford in tiie West, Johns Hopkins in the East — have been considering for some time the eventual elimination of freshman and sophomore classes. The majority of junior colleges now have a two-year organization (grades 13-14). This plan has been generally unsatisfactory. There is a tendency to reach down into the eleventh and twelfth years of the senior high schools, thus making the junior college a four-year institution (grades 11-12-13-14). The advantages of the four-year public junior college will be in the line of economy in administration, lowered overhead expense, elimination Department of Superintendence 181 of overlapping in content in courses, better teaching, and a more satisfactory completion of secondary school education. When this type of institution is fully developed, it should become the ideal school for later adolescence. THE FOUR YEAR JUNIOR COLLEGE JAMES MADISON WOOD, PRESIDENT OF STEPHENS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA, MO. It seems to be unanimously agreed that the secondary system should cover the eight years of adolescence, extending roughly, from the age of twelve to the age of twenty. It is confidently believed that possible reor- ganization of the curriculum within the junior high school and the junior college will ultimately cause the word "junior" to be eliminated from both. It IS the ambition of practically every father and mother that the son or daughter should have the practical and cultural advantages of a college education. Under the existing educational machinery, this has been re- served almost exclusively for an intellectual or social aristocracy. Under the proposed reorganization, the liberal arts college itself would open its doors in every community now able to maintain a junior college. Through systems of consolidation, it would be brought to the doors of practically every community. ECONOMY OF TIME THROUGH THE REORGANIZATION OF THE JUNIOR COLLEGE CHARLES H. J UDD, DIRECTOR OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO Up to the present time the junior college has been thought of as a part of the traditional educational system of America. It has been regarded merely as a transpl?.nted freshman and sophomore year. The transplanting has con- sisted in detaching the two years in question from the last two years of college. Sometimes the junior college has stood as a separate institution, sometimes as a relatively unassimilated part of a public school system. In view of the conservative attitude of educators, the curriculum of the junior college has been very commonly dictated by the conventional practices of colleges, all the courses offered being duplicates, so far as possible, of those given in neighboring four-year institutions. The time has arrived for a frank recognition of the fact that the whole American educational program is in process of reconstruction. The work of the lower schools has been so much improved that pupils are ready for mature advanced studies long before the end of the eighth school year. In like fashion, pupils who were formerly thought of as immature adoles- cents are ready for courses which formerly belonged in the college. It is a distinct economy of human time and effort to advance pupils into higher opportunities of study as soon as they are ready. The junior 182 National Education Association college belongs to the period of secondary education and should be attached to the high school. Pupils should be allowed to complete secondary educa- tion, including junior college work, earlier than is possible under the con- ventional plan of American education. Economy of time, as thus defined, does not in any way curtail the opportunity of individuals, but opens these opportunities at an earlier period in the individual's life. Economy of time thus means earlier entrance on advanced stages of study. WHAT THE SCHOOLS MAY EXPECT FROM THE SOCIAL AGENCIES ALFRED F. WHITMAN, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, CHILDREN'S AID ASSOCIA- TION, BOSTON, MASS. While the school is not always conceded to be a moral agenc\', the child welfare organizations of the country believe that the schools can go further than they have in the past in discovering and eliminating fac- tors that make for serious delinquencies in boys and girls. In every community where social work is well organized there are child-caring agencies, family societies, protective departments like the So- ciety for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, settlements, scouts, hos- pitals and clinics, all only too glad to respond to a request from a school teacher or master, a school nurse or visitor, an advisor to girls or a dean, for advice or more substantial service — sometimes it is a psychiatric exami- nation, sometimes it is a foster home to replace the poor home in which the child belongs, sometimes it is a Boy Scout suit and equipment, some- times a pair of glasses for a girl who is falling behind in her studies and losing interest because she cannot see across the room. Serious juvenile delinquency sometimes has its roots in such matters as inadequate curricula and defective vision which are not unrelated to dis- order in the school and not far from truancy, which in turn seems to be the hotbed for everything that results in later delinquency and crime. The schools, because of their universal contacts with all of our children, offer the greatest opportunity for the early discovery and treatment of in- cipient difficulties which may later prove most disastrous. Even though the school is essentially for education of children, the universality of these contacts places on school administrators a heavy responsibility which can- not be denied. WHAT THE SOCIAL AGENCIES MAY EXPECT OF THE SCHOOLS MRS. CORNELIA JAMES CANNON, PRESIDENT OF THE CAMBRIDGE PUBLIC SCHOOL ASSOCIATION, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. What the social agencies may expect of the schools depends on the quality of the social agency seeking help and of the school authorities giving assist- ance. Almost any degree of helpful cooperation is possible where both Department of Superintendence 183 groups are eager to better the lot of the children involved and indifferent as to which does the work or gets the credit. The two types of worker, social worker and educator, are peculiarly fitted to supplement each other. The social worker is trained with special attention to the family and to the community connections: the educator is an expert in child psychology and practical in character building in the individual. Their interchange of ideas and technic holds promise of much more effective work than either could accomplish alone. The schools have shown a great sensitiveness to the social demands of the time. The appointment of deans in theliigh schools, of psychiatric con- sultants, of visiting teachers, special classes for the deaf, the blind, the semi-sighted, the backward, the pre-tubercular, the crippled, the delinquent have not been for pedagogical purposes alone. The social value of such changes has been as great a factor in their establishment as their narrowly educational importance. The social agencies can expect from the schools an insight into the personality of a child, obtained through long observation of him in his social group, as well as in his intellectual struggles, successes, and failures. The agency can have the cooperation of an oversight covering months at a time, of an insight into home conditions reflected m the daily appear- ance and conduct of a child, and of an approach to the family, its strength and weaknesses, its pride and humility, through the easy and natural chan- nel of the teacher. The danger is that the usefulness of the school to the social agencies will be found to be so great that the teachers, whose chief energies must go to the training of the normal children, will be asked to carry too large a share of the special training of the abnormal which engrosses so much of the time and attention of the social agencies. A BILI TY GRO UPING R. R. BUCKINGHAM, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO The grouping of pupils according to their ability to learn is in the first instance an administrative matter. As such it should be carefully prepared for; and after its inauguration it should be the subject of continued at- tention on the part of the administrator. Modern conditions require the handling of large masses of pupils. Tu- torial instruction is a thing of the remote past. The huge classes operated under the systems of Bell and Lancaster are likewise relegated to the limbo of history^ The pendulum, swinging in an arc from tutorial instruc- tion at one extreme to the instruction of hundreds of pupils by a single teacher at the other extreme, is coming to rest in an intermediate position. No small attention is being given in these days to the oscillation of this pendulum. The topic of absorbing interest is the ultimate point at which it will come to rest. ' There are those who are passionately committed to small classes, who 184 National Education Association believe that the ideal conditions of instruction can only be met when each teacher is responsible for no more than ten or fifteen pupils. Many plaus- ible reasons are given for this position of the pendulum. Its oscillations, however, are governed by conditions quite beyond the control of the advo- cates of small classes. The researches of the past dozen or fifteen years have been almost unanimous in showing that the superiority of small over large classes is small or negligible. The financial question therefore be- comes of paramount importance. School districts might conceivably be willing to hire twice as many teachers if they could obtain large educa- tional advantages. When, however, these advantages appear doubtful these school districts will insist on keeping the cost of education somewhere near its present level. The ideal in teaching remains, however, as it was in the days of tu- torial instruction. Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as mass teach- ing. No teaching takes place unless learning is going on and learning is an individual matter. The success, therefore, of a teacher is the sum- mation of the learning which is attributable to the teaching. The individual appeal on the part of the teacher is and always will be the paramount consideration ; and the highest art in teaching will ever remain the teach- ing of the individual in the group. Perhaps it is more important in the attaining of this individual appeal that the instructional group should be homogeneous rather than that it should be small. It is diversity not size that makes teaching difficult. Ac- cordingly, modern administrative technic seeks to group pupils according to their readiness to take on instruction, leaving to academic discussion or perhaps to scientific research the question of the optimum size of class. If I were taking hold of an elementary school with the idea of adjust- ing it as closely as possible to the needs of the greatest number of pupils, I should seek to accomplish this purpose by a series of steps, each one of a more refined character than the one before it. In other words, I should lay out a systematic procedure in which the most obvious maladjustments would be brought under control first, the less striking ones second, and so on, with increasing precision of technic. The following are the steps I should take: First, the segregation of defective pupils in special classes; second, the regrading of pupils who obviously belong in a higher or lower grade than the one in which they are enrolled; third, the classification of pupils according to subjects; and, fourth, the grouping of pupils within grades — what we are here calling ability grouping. Having taken these steps, I should feel that I had made it possible for the teacher to do effective individual instruction. I do not mean that these administrative arrangements would guarantee effective individual instruction. No machinery can possibly do that. All it can do is to create favorable conditions. Department of Superintendence 185 INTELLIGENCE TESTS AND ABILITY GROUPING WILLARD W. BEATTV, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BRONXVILLE, N. Y. The greatest service rendered by the intelligence testing movement has been to establish with a degree of scientific accuracy the existence of funda- mental differences between individuals. Differences among individuals have always been known to exist, but for many years they have been ignored in planning our public courses. The greatest harm which has been done by the intelligence testing material has been the expression of these differences in ability in terms of a single numerical value. Lumping together an individual's reactions to a large number of tests and expressing this in a single numerical value has allowed us to ignore the fact that identical scores ma\ be made by pupils whose reactions to the constituent tests were utterly unlike. This fallacy has led to the acceptance of ability groupings as a satisfactory solution of the problem of individual differences. Ability groupings, by emphasizing the fact that differences among children justify different treatment, have made a break in the traditional lockstep schooling. If we accept all the evidence contributed by the intelligence tests, we will now set our energies to the problem of adapting our courses to the varying needs of the individual. PRACTICABILITY OF INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION A. J. STODDARD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SCHENECTADY, N. Y. Whatever may be the final place of intelligence and standard achieve- ment tests in educational procedure, they already have made a lasting contribution in exposing the absurdities of mass instruction. These tests have astonished us by showing how great is the variation in ability amongst children within the same school grade or at the same age level, frequently as great as six or seven years. This fact has led us to realize how ridiculous it is to carry on class teaching expecting more or less uniform achievement from the same assignment made to all the children of a grade. The expression "individual instruction" does not mean a return to the tutorial plan and has no relation whatever to physical segregation of the child. The individual instruction of a child involves the development of the proper social reactions in him just as much as the acquisition of skills and knowledge. This type of instruction shifts the emphasis to and focuses the attention upon the individual child. It substitutes the personal for education en masse. It measures the effectiveness of teaching not so much bv class averages and grade norms as by the progress each individual child has made in proportion to his ability. Taxpayers are not interested in averages but in indi\idual children. 186 National Education Association Every possible device must be used to determine the nature of aptitudes and interests and the extent of the ability and achievement of each child in order that instruction may be fitted to the needs of each particular case. Although at times a part or the whole group may be participating in the same activity, the checking and follow-up work must be individual. Con- stant diagnostic tests must be used to determine progress and results taken as the basis for the remedial work which is applied according to each child's needs. THE TRUE MEANING OF FREEDOM IN EDUCATION W. CARSON RYAN, JR., PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, SWARTHMORE COLLEGE SWARTHMORE, PA. Examination, school-marks, and a great deal of the mechanics of present schools will have to be abandoned if there is to be any real freedom in education. It is not that these things are necessarily bad in themselves, but that they are symptoms of an excessive emphasis on the routine of school keeping rather than on the real task of educating human beings. Three main elements emerge in any consideration of freedom in educa- tion. These are : 1. Freedom from the restrictions of a course of study, a content of edu- cation, a prescription, that has long been outgrown by America, if, indeed, it ever genuinely applied to us. Positively stated, this means freedom to develop a new content of education that shall be rich in its significance for children ; that will grow out of what we know of children and of society at its best. 2. Freedom from the needless conventional methods, the routine, the things mistakenly called discipline, that hamper us all in education ; positively stated, freedom for the creation of a new atmosphere for the school, a new relation between teachers and children such as our best teachers and our best scientists are working toward. 3. Freedom for the teacher himself or herself; that he or she may be a creative, responsible person, free from pettifogging external control, free to build a life ,so real and rich and human that a better education is bound to come from it. Of all the restrictions that operate in education throughout the world at present I am inclined to put the restrictions of a detailed course of study as the worst. The entrenchment of the old course of study, the "regular" subjects, the traditional content, is all the more incredible when we recall how comparatively new this old content is, and how long it has been abandoned theoretically by even moderate conservatives. THE PROJECT JS A MEANS OF SOCIAL LUANG r:i,i.swoR'in collings, dean, school of education, university of OKLAHOMA, NORMAN, OKLA. It seems to me that the study of life about us sheds important light on social living, 'l^he first important fact is that living is continuous pursuit DjiPARTMliN'l' OF SuPERIXri-NDIiNCl' 187 (if purposeful activity of some kind. There seems to be no exception to this finding, for purposeful activity of some sort is observable on all sides of us at all times. The second important fact is that change, development, growth take place in and through purposeful activity. This, too, seems to be the rule of life. The third important fact is that purposeful activity always takes place in and through an environmental situation. Life about us thus appears to be a form of social living which involves the growing of all together through the pursuit of differentiated activities each dependent in some way upon others. The outstanding characteristics of this form of social living are along three well dehned lines. First, it is active. It provides opportunity for each individual to pursue activities along his own lines. Second, it is changeable. It involves continuous growth on the part of all individuals along their own lines. Third, it is social. It de- pends upon the cooperation of all in some manner in the pursuit of activi- ties. Purposeful activity is, in this sense, the very foundation of social living; it is social Iving. Since the school is an institution established b\ society for the purpose to enrich child life it would seem in light of the foregoing that its most consistent function would be to provide opportunity for boys and girls to pursue purposeful activities. The curriculum of the junior high school of the University of Oklahoma is organized entirely around the purposeful activities of the boys and girls of this school. Fhe traditional school organi- zation is completely ignored in every particular. The function of this school, we believe, is to enrich the present lives of the boys and girls of this school in their own time and in their own measure. We have excursion projects, or purposeful study of community problems because investigation and exploration of their own and other people's environment is a normal phase of their expanding life. We have story projects, or purposeful communication through reading, story telling, dramatization, singing, and writing because at this age it is almost impossible to supply the demand for stories. Play projects is a vital part of the life of these boys and girls. The more vigorous and challenging the play, the more it appeals to them. Football, baseball, basketball, all forms of athletics are pursued by both boys and girls. And of course boys and girls like to make things; hence our construction projects in wood, metal, leather, repair jobs, cooking, sew- ing, and the like. Finally, we have discovered that boys and girls of this age want to be highl\" proficient in particular activities; hence our skill projects in typewriting, handwriting, mechanical drawing, dancing, instru- •mental music, debating, public speaking, oratory. THE LIMITATIONS OF THE PROJECT METHOD CARI.F.TOV WASflBURNE, SUPHRIXTl- XDKXT OF SCHOOLS, WIXXFTKA, II.T.. 'I he project method, carried to its logical conclusion, tends to defeat its own purposes, to give children a random, unscientific training, and to ignore the wide differences which exist among indi\iduals. 188 National Education Association The project method has been of great value in American education and will continue to be of great value. It is developing creative abilities, initiative, originality, and a spirit of cooperation; it is making school work real and interesting; it is unquestionably one of the most important factors in the new education of today. Yet with all its virtues, it may be carried too far. One of the slogans of the project method is "Never teach a thing until a child feels the need." Another slogan is, "Education is life, not prepara- tion for life." These slogans are plausible and have enough truth in them to catch the unwary, yet each is only a half truth. Education may be life, but it is also preparation for adult life. During the period of leisure and training of childhood there is an opportunity to prepare for adult needs that does not exist after a person gets out into the world. It is too late to find that rapid and accurate addition are necessary for a banking position after one gets the position. One cannot take time in the midst of a busy, highly competitive world to prepare one's self for a job while one is doing the job. One needs to make preparation in advance. Because even people teaching under the project method recognize vaguely that the chilren must have preparation for certain life activities, they strive to drag in a certain amount of arithmetic, of spelling, punctuation, and capitalization, of factual work in history and geography, and so on, to what- ever project they may have under way. Their knowledge that the child under a pure project method will only receive such training and informa- tion as may be incidental to the projects on which the children are working, makes them seek desperately to relate the project to every possible knowl- edge and skill. This tends to destroy the spontaneity and value of tht project. Originality, initiative, a true sense of cooperation, which are the legitimate products of well-organized projects, are in danger of being sub- ordinated in the attempt to give children a certain amount of knowledge and skill in connection with each project — in the attempt to organize the projects in such a way that they will make the child feel the need for knowledge and skill, instead of organizing them so as to develop the maxi- mum amount of those character qualities for which the project method is so well adapted. THE ADMINISTRATIVE ANGLE IN RELATION TO KINDER- GARTEN PROCEDURE JULIA W.ADE ABBOT, DIRECTOR OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION, PHILA- DELPHIA PUBLIC SCHOOLS Teacher, supervisor, administrator exist for the children, ^lle danger of the administrator is that the children may be forgotten in the scheme of tilings. This is the cardinal sin of administration. Erecting school buildings that suggest factories or palaces rather than work shops, making paper courses of study that never touch the well springs of youth, juggling statistics and forgetting that every figure represents a human soul, is the result of being apart from the life of childhood. Department of Superintendence 189 Creative classroom activities make a new demand on supervision. The teacher must be free to develop the creativity of the cliildren. Teachers should be the happiest creatures in the world because childhood demands happiness in which to grow. But "happiness" in the sense of indulgence is destructive and not creative, in Human Nature and Conduct, Dewey says, "To make others happy except through liberating their powers and engaging them in activities that enlarge the meaning of life is to harm them and indulge ourselves under cover of exercising a special virtue." The supervisor must reach the child through the teacher. To the extent that she is a well adjusted human individual will she be able to understand the teachers and help them in their relationship with other school officials, but most of all in their life with children. Understanding children is the basis for creative teaching. The most difficult thing for us to learn as supervisors and teachers is "passive following" and creative non-interference. But there is danger that the emphasis upon non-interference may be inter- preted as a policy of laissez-faire. Checking up on the establishment of habits, attitudes and skills is more necessary than it w^as in the days when teaching was a mechanical process. Record keeping is absolutely essential if non-interference is to be creative. Teacher-emphasis and suggestion is necessary' but it must be based upon intelligent, first-hand observation of children. Every course of study should be so flexible that it is always in the making. Teachers and supervisors should be constantly working together on prob- lems that are related to methods and subjectmatter. Supervision that is creative does not hand down opinions but formulates problems to be worked out in the classroom. BRINGING THE SUBJECT SPECIALIST AND THE GENERAL ADMINISTRATOR TOGETHER peter vv. dykema, professor of music education, teachers college COLUMBIA university, NEW YORK CITY Music education in the last decade has emphasized the necessity of ac- quainting the musician with general educational principles and procedure. The term itself is significant. Until only a few years ago music supervisors were trained in schools of music. Departments of music educa- tion were very rare. Even now when the name is being commonly used, the stress of training is frequently upon personal musical technic rather than upon professional education outlook. The general educator has increas- ingly questioned the wisdom of exclusive training in subjectmatter as the basis for teaching. The superintendent has frequently complained that the musician has had much music and little education. Consequently, the con- servatory graduate whose preparation has been predominately and frequently completely musical, has an increasingly difficult task in obtaining an appointment to a position in the public schools. Many school systems engage their music teachers, and scale their salaries, on the basis of the academic 190 National Education Association degrees which the applicants have gained. Many school administrators look with favor upon requiring a similar academic degree from all super- visors or teachers of special subjects. Many superintendents are surprisingly dogmatic regarding music today. In comparison with the greatly widened scope of music they probably are no more competent to pass judgment than were their predecessors of twenty years ago. But the uncertainty and modesty of those days have disap- peared. Have not the radio, the phonograph, and motion picture theater organ demonstrated the primary and universality of the pleasure of listen- ing to music? Has not the test and measurement movement proved that there are such variations in musical endowment that it is futile for many children e\ en to expect to make great advance in performing music? Such partial knowledge has made some of our superintendents confident of their ability to pass upon the validity of a program of music education which is so complex that even experienced supervisors with a good general and musical training are in doubt on many questions. Where shall we start to reach that mutual understanding which will aid administrator and subject specialist, united to move steadily toward the right goal ? Since sympathy and understanding are tiie basis of all effec- tive agreements, it w^ould seem that educators need actual experience with several phases of music. He who knows only listening will tend to exag- gerate the importance of that aspect. If he has sung or played he will have a better "basis for a larger view. But while it is never too late to enter upon the study of music, many superintendents will have to decide administrative questions relating to music before they can attain that pro- ficiency which musicians would wish them to have. But they can hold themselves open to music and they can aid in stressing the necessity of having in high school and college enough music for every student so that future administrators will be better prepared musically than many of our present courses of study permit. OBJECTITES IN MUSIC INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS WILLIAM M. DAVIDSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH, PA. 1. Development of pure, beautiful tone (as the first essential to de- veloping and sensitizing the ear; guarding and guiding the voice; develop- ing that pleasure in and fondness for beauty in the tonal realm which is known as appreciation of music). 2. Development of good singing (technically considered). 3. Development of knowledge and skill in relation to sight-singing. 4. Pleasure in music as manifested in reactions in the regular music hour. 5. A creative attitude that implies that music has become a vehicle for selfexpression : made manifest in free, earnest (animated or reverent) singing, absorption in the act of playing or singing, etc. Department of Superintendence 191 0. Recugiiitioii, encouragement, and development of all musical interests and aptitudes (in addition to those represented in general music — vocal) resulting in toy orchestras, "real" orchestras (instrumental ensemble) in- struction in specialized musical technic as violin, piano, etc., special vocal groups, composing of original tunes, etc. 7. Development of the social spirit through music, by means of mass chorus and instrurhental ensemble, and in cooperation in musical projects that include music. 8. Enlarged musical horizon represented by an interest in music that carries over into music in the community, outside the schoolroom and to compositions and facts about composers not included in the basic school music course. 9. Appreciation of music as the result of all the foregoing, and defined as (a) A pleasurable response to the beauty that is in music; (b) intel- ligent appreciation ; pleasurable response plus recognition of the factors that caused it. lU. Discovery and guidance of special talent. 11. Recognition of and provision for vocational musical interests. The general or humanistic aim of music instruction is to contribute to the character of the individual and society an additional measure of the idealism, the joyous preoccupation with unselfish interests, the elevation and purification of feeling, and the psychic health, as dependent upon abundant but orderly expression of emotion, that come from appreciative contact with, and the endeavor to create, or recreate the beautiful in music. THE COST OF MUSIC EDUCATION CHARLES H. LAKE, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS CLEVELAND^ OHIO The situation in Cleveland with reference to the study of music in the public schools probably is not much different from the situation in other cities. The values in music are quite generally accepted. We believe that music contributes definitely to the general objectives of education. It contributes to health. It has certain social values. Assuredly it furnishes a vocational outlet and may be considered a vocational subject, and it con- tributes definitely to the proper use of leisure. If we accept the study of music on this basis we are not giving enough time to it nor are we spending proportionately enough money on it as a subject in our school curriculum. In the elementary grades 1-6 we are spending for music about 5 percent of the total amount spent for instruction. The time consumed is approxi- mately 15 minutes a day, and probably a great deal of this time is wasted, due to poor teaching. It is my feeling that we should spend not less than 25 minutes a day on music and, of course, allow for the expenditure of the funds necessary to provide thoroughly trained teachers for the work. The proportionate cost will vary somewhat with the type of organization pre- vailing in the school. In the non-departmentalized school the cost of music will be in proportion to the time spent on the subject as compared with that 192 National Education Association spent on other subjects. In the departmentalized school or the school which is partially departmentalized, the proportional cost will be upon the basis of the music teacher's salary as compared with the building budget for instructional purposes. To secure the best results the work should be departmentalized. Then there is the question of supplies and supplementary books. There must be a variety of material for use in the elementary field. This, how- ever, need not be expensive. A well-developed program can be carried on, in my opinion, with a yearly expenditure of 8 cents a pupil for supplies and supplementary books. Musical instruments should be purchased for the schools to be used in grades above the third — $400 to $500 should be enough for each elementary school. About $2500 will be needed for a junior high school, and about $5000 for a senior high school. The purchase of these instruments can, and probably should, be worked out on a program covering several years. Most of the instruments, if well selected and cared for, will last 15 years and many of them will last indefinitely, so that the cost when distributed over a period of years will not be very large. A classroom teacher of music should be upon the same salary schedule as the teacher of mathematics or language. There should be no special consideration for such a teacher. It will be better for the subject, as a part of the curriculum, and better for the teacher if this be so. We should not emphasize music out of proportion to its value as compared with other educational subjects. But there is no danger of reaching that stage for some time to come. The situation resolves itself quite simply into this proposition : the cultural and vocational values of music should be appreciated by the educational administrator and recognized in his allo- cation of educational funds. COST OF MUSIC INSTRUCTION IRA CHAPMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ELIZABETH, N. J. It is but natural that persons engaged in public education should be asked to estimate costs when cost accounting holds such an important place in guiding expenditures for industry. Cost accounting for the public schools has usually had to do with per capita costs for current expenditures in large general headings such as elementary school, junior high school, senior high school, and the like. Of course, the analysis of costs for many years has dealt with administration, supervision, teaching, maintenance, etc., but only within the last few years has a more detailed analj^sis showing subject or activity costs been attempted. It would seem useless for me to state to you that superintendents of schools and boards of education are continually under pressure to distribute school funds in a way that may secure better pupil growth and attainment. Requests which may frequently be interpreted as demands for more time or more attention or both to any particular subject or activity of school Dkpartment of Super[ntendence 193 almost invariably mean a greater expenditure for that particular subject or activity. A jjreater expenditure naturally requires a larger budget or tbe curtailment of money allotted to other subjects or activities. I am sure that a strong case has been made for music in many cities. An anahsis of costs and time allotment for public school music in the United States for 1923, made under the direction of Professor Farns- worth of Teachers College for the National Music Supervisors' Associa- tion would, however, indicate that this was not true for many cities and smaller communities. There are evidently great irregularities both as to the attention given to music in the time schedule and in the enrolment of pupils, as well as to the financial support. This report from about 62 per- cent of the cities in the forty-eight states and the District of Columbia shows that nearly all pupils in the elementary schools in these cities have music in some form. The median for all the states and the District of Columbia is 97 percent. The lowest percentage for any state is 34. In high schools the proportion of pupils taking music ranges from 8 percent to 100 percent. The median is 46. The percapita cost in elementary schools and high schools for cities reporting in this study varies from $.06 to $3.17. The median is about $.91. The percentage of the expendi- tures for public schools assigned to music varies from one-tenth of 1 per- cent to 10 percent. The medium is 1.7 percent; cities in 28 states ex- pended 2 percent or less of their budgets for music. The report for about 50 percent of the counties in 46 states shows a median for enrolment of elementary pupils in music of 36.5 percent; for high-school pupils in the smaller high schools of the counties 53.5 percent, a median per capita cost of $.62, and a median proportion of the expenditures for music of 1.3 per- cent. These data clearly indicate that less attention is generally given to music, and consequently a smaller proportion of funds assigned to it in smaller communities than in cities. THE COST OF MUSIC EDUCATION CHARLES H. MILLER, DIRECTOR OF MUSIC, ROCHESTER, N. Y. Music is such a new subject in education that only a little more than half of the pupils of the public schools today have the advantages of music instruction, and much of that is but little better than none at all. These facts were obtained through the Bureau of Education after a canvass of 10,000 cities and towns in all the states of the union. We have reliable figures for 1914, showing that the people of the United States spent that year for concerts, musical instruments, and music, over $600,000,000 ; for music instruction alone, $220,000,000, which is twenty- five millions more than was paid for all education in all colleges, universities, private schools, and normal schools, for that year. In 1920 there was spent for all higher education in all universities, col- leges, and professional schools, $240,000,000. The same year there w^as spent for music instruction $300,000,000, which was $60,000,000 more than was sjient tor all higher education. 194 National Education Association Now let us compare the amount spent for music with the cost of all ele- mentary and secondary education in 1920. The total spent for education was $1,036,151,209. The same year there was spent for music in all its forms, musical instruments of all kinds, and music instruction, $1,178,- 000,000, which is over $142,000,000 more for music in all its forms than for elementary and secondary education. This seems unbelievable, but the facts are taken from the United States census reports of 1920. We are in- formed by the music merchants that more than $1,000,000,000 was spent the past year for radio, alone. So, you see, the people themselves have de- cided how valuable they consider music education. Since only one-fourth of the children can afford this education which is considered so valuable by the prosperous one-fourth of the population, is it not the duty of the public schools to supply this need for the other three- fourths of our pupils? During the past year, there was paid out for all instruction in the public schools of Rochester $5,326,000. Of this amount we pay to our music teachers, $175,385, which is a little over 3.25 percent of the entire amount, or an average cost of $3.29 a pupil. Our music faculty consists of sixty- two vocal music teachers, one director and six supervisors, thirty-one in- strumental teachers paid by the hour, two instrumental teachers paid by the year, and one music psychologist, eight piano teachers who are paid from fees by the children, and eleven accompanists for vocal music who are paid by the year. That gives us about seventy music teachers on full time, and a total of 122 teachers and accompanists. The Rochester system recognized the fact five years ago that the grade teachers found more difficulty in meeting the requirements of music teach- ing than in any other subject. And since so many additional responsibilities have been placed upon the grade teachers, it was felt by the administration that some relief should be given them. The logical conclusion was to fur- nish special music teachers for all grades above the third, which solved both questions. During the last two years we have had special music teachers in all our schools. In that time there has been a decided increase in interest on the part of the children and rapidl\' increasing efficiency in results. J PRACTICAL SYLLABUS OF GRANTING CREDIT IN JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS EDGAR B. cordon, PROFESSOR OF MUSIC, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON, WIS. The University of Wisconsin recently changed the entrance require- ments into that University so that it is now possible to offer a maximum of four units of music out of a required fifteen. The failure to secure a more liberal recognition for entrance into the state universities has not been due solely to the conservatism of the academic mind, hut it also has been due to a lack of standards and a definiteness as to content of high- school music courses ofifered for credit. Department of Superintendence 195 In the development of music courses in high school we must make a sharp distinction between curricular and extra-curricular music. Those of the curriculum type must be included in the regular high-school program on precisely the same basis as all (Jther subjects. The courses adopted for uiu- \ersity entrance credit by the University of Wisccjnsin are: Histor\ and appreciation of music, choral music, theory and harmony, orchestra, band, applied music under teachers accredited by the state department of educa- tion. The University prescribes the general content and conditions under which these courses must be given if they are offered for credit. I cannot conclude without a plea for the transfer of some of the intel- lectual energy of our American youth from the field of fact-accumulating, mental-disciplining activity into the equally important field of selfexpres- sive, personality-developing activities. My plea I shall present in the form of a statement from VV. F. Lorenz, M. D., Director, Wisconsin Psychia- tric Institute and Professor of Neuro-Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin, who saj's, "The practice of aiming at pure intellectual attainment without appropriate emotional play is, from a mental hygiene viewpoint, a serious error. Any means that cultivate, train, or bring forth healthy normal emo- tional reactions must be recognized as essential in the development of a social personality. One sees so frequently bright, capable, intellectually superior youths seriously handicapped and not infrequently precipitated into delinquent conduct because the much needed wholesome play of mind has been left unsocialized, selfish, or entirely dwarfed. ^ PRACTICAL SYLLABUS OF GRANTING CREDIT IN JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS JOSEPH E. MADDY, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN^ ANN ARBOR, MICH. For centuries music has been the Cinderella of education, without honor, credit, or recognition. Yet music is one of the most fascinating of subjects; inspirational always; practical, as it is the only subject which deals directly with the develop- ment of the sense of hearing; professional as it leads to one of the most popular and best paid professions; recreational, as it has become the most universal hobby ; permanent for one is never too old or too young or too tired to participate in or listen to music and it is never too dark or too rainy or cold or hot to enjoy music. Music has a direct affiliation with literature, history, geography and even arithmetic. A study of literature, history or geography is incom- plete without correlative work in musical literature, musical history or what may be termed "musical geography." Why, then, have educators until recently refused to recognize music as one of the basic subjects in education? Partly because of the attitude of musicians themselves, who held themselves aloof and caused music to be regarded as something for the chosen few who inherited the divine spark of musical talent, those long-haired domineering foreigners with bad tem- 196 National Education Association pers (called temperament) anil little knowledge aside from music, who sneered at the rest of humanity while they reeked with ill-breeding and ignorance in their efforts to show their superiority. And partl\' because of the attitude of educators in fields other than music \\ho spent their lives in concentrated scientific and literary pursuits to the exclusion of otiier forms of culture, who have failed, for lack of knowledge of the subject, to realize that music offers equal opportunities. Educators claim that musicians are narrow-minded, and they are usually right, but what of themselves? It is quite natural that people who devote their lives to the development of any particular field have little time to evaluate other fields. Our colleges and universities are controlled, and rightly, by people who have advanced beyond the ordinary limits of thought along the various lines of endeavor, music excepted. They are not inten- tionally narrow-minded. But when they meet in conference to discuss matters of curriculum each is intent upon bettering conditions for his par- ticular subject and, while willing to grant concessions to others present who demand concessions, they are not cognizant of subjects which are not repre- sented in the gathering, and music is seldom represented. If music is repre- sented at all in faculty meetings its representation is always limited to such an extent that it has practically no voice in shaping the policies of the institution. But before institutions of higher learning can provide for the higher education of their students in music they must first be able to definitely evaluate the music work done in the primary and secondary schools. I firmly believe the colleges and universities of the country are willing and ready to accept music as an entrance credit in the same ratio as other sub- jects when they can be definitely assured that a credit in music represents the product of an effort equal to that of a credit in any other subject. The task is one for the music supervisors of America to solve, with the help of the public administrators. That they are doing this is evident from the report of Professor Gordon and from the activities of the Music Super- visors National Conference and allied organizations. WHAT MAY BE EXPECTED FROM MUSIC IN THE TREAT- MENT OF RETARDED CHILDREN WILLEM VAN DE WALL, FIELD REPRESENTATIVE, BUREAU OF MENTAL HEALTH, DEPARTMENT OF WELFARE, HARRISBURG, PA. The great significance of music for the ungraded classes is, that if applied sagaciously it offers opportunities to all the types of handicapped children to partake in a socializing activity, to which they naturally incline, and which permits them to express, instead of repress, some of their youthful longings for spontaneous and at times exuberant release of emotional en- ergy; or for emotional quiet, or again, their craving for eminent success. The ungraded children, facing already at the outset of the struggle for existence continu(Jus conflict and defeat, are in dire need of moral support, Department of Superintendence 197 ami it is the music-teacher's privilege and duty to give that to them by giv- ing them w hat music in itself promises — an attractive and emotionally full and constructive music hour. What further has music to ofter? Our ungraded children, it ma\ safel\ he said, have been less favored by Providence with vital energies than tlie more fortunate brothers and sisters who left them behind. The re- tarded children incline to be sooner exhausted. To function even as well as some of them do, they have with less inherent strength, to struggle against their own organic, functional and social impediments. To over- come themselves, their physical lagging, emotional spasms of indifference, as well as restlessness, their mental inertia and socially often unfavorable environment, they need continuous physical, emotional, intellectual and so- cial stimulation and support, which the music session can supply in con- siderable measure. Music has been found to increase general physiological activity and thus to increase the impulse to become active. Music, the chosen language of many of the instinctive urges, has been noted to increase mental function- ing in general, cause a direct feeling of satisfaction, increase imagination suggest moods personally and communally beneficial. Its practice draws on forms of communication within the power of the most handicapped as well as the most intact individual, and it has a fascinating message for them all, not only musical per se , but of ideas and ideals of the most varying aesthetic content. MUSIC FOR MENTALLY CRIPPLED CHILDREN A. e. winship, editor, journal of education, boston, mass. What may be expected from music in teaching children who are out of step mentally ? No problem of public schools is more vital than that of helping mentally crippled children. It is as possible to perfect mental cripples as physical cripples and yet little attention has been given to this great achievement. We refer to one easy way of helping mental cripples to live happily and successfully through scientific sanity in public schools. Music is one of the greatest restorers of mental poise and personality. Rhythm appeals physically, intellectually, and spiritually to mental and spiritual cripples as does nothing else in the school program. At Pacolet, South Carolina, where the school assumes responsibility as a mental hospital instead of being merely a traditional educational work- shop, every child in every class when it comes to school chooses the way in which it will "keep time." There are drums, cymbals, triangles, tam- bourines, clappers and other instruments and the children select some one of the instruments and considerable time is used each day for the enjoyment of rh>thmic exercise. There is no child with an I. Q. so low that he does not enthusiastically enjoy the development of rhythm. 198 National Education Association Melody is entirely different from rhythm. Every child can establish rhythm in early school life that will be as natural as breathing as long as he li\es but melody does not function as universally, but its appeal is as uni- versal as rhythmic action when an emergency calls for it. No soul fails to respond to the charm of melody when everything else fails to thrill body, mind, or soul. Like the tingle of bell metal it vibrates the whole being when an emergency calls for it. On the eve before a battle the soldiers do not repeat the multiplication table, recite the Ten Commandments nor sing the Long Meter Doxology, but they sing songs that stir the heart and mind and body till the whole being throbs and thrills. This charm of melody should be in the atmosphere of the school from the kindergarten to the university. It must be the accompaniment of rhythm from the first. It is a tragedy that whistling has become a lost art in the twentieth century. Until this century boys whistled as gleefully as they played any game, and men whistled as they followed the plow and cultivator. One cause of the present agricultural unrest is the fact that a man on a tractor takes life too seriously. Work on the farm is "mass production" of respon- sibility and eliminates the whistling mood. HEALTH SERVICE IN SCHOOLS LE ROY A. WILKES, DIRECTOR OF MEDICAL SERVICE, AMERICAN CHILD HEALTH ASSOCIATION, NEW YORK CITY Those of you who are leaders in the field of education must decide upon the policies governing the development and administration of the various activities in your school systems. What then shall be your policy as to your school health service? What is the home responsibility and what is that of the school? How shall the health service be developed, by whom and how administered ? Concerning the home responsibility — As to the policy it is generally con- ceded that, as public funds are provided primarily for the school's educa- tional process, the children should enter school in good physical condition in order to profit most from all that the school has to give. Recently emphasis on treatment of correctable defects has been shifted. Now the pre- school child is to be carefully gone over and the parents have to be made to feel their responsibility for sending the child to school in the best possible condition. It is further the responsibility of the parent to have his child periodically examined by his family physician and the child brought to and maintained at his individual optimum status. The careful and thorough physical examination made, without the interference of the clothing, such as is possible in a physician's office or clinic, to be of greatest value must be supplemented by a carefully taken history of the case and the necessary laboratory tests. In many states such examinations are not legally, economi- cally, nor psychologically possible in schools except with parents present. Department of Superintendence 199 So-called "physical examinations" as conducted in most schools, are not the equivalent of the annual physical examinations advocated by health organizations and by the American Medical Association. In the prevention of the spread of communicable disease, the parent pla3's a most important part. The earlier stages of these diseases are the ones in which the danger of transmitting the disease to others is most pronounced. The indefinite nature of the signs and symptoms of these diseases in their earlier stages makes this danger the more difficult to mini- mize, but experience has shown that the loss of an occasional day at school is olifset by the lessened amount of communicable disease both within the school and in the community. Here, if ever, is "an ounce of prevention worth a pound of cure." Concerning the school responsibility — The school is especially interested in keeping clear and functioning as well as possible, the "portals of learn- ing," i. e., the eyes and ears, and improved tests for the detection of defects are now being tried out with promise of further successful development. Handicapped children whose defects are not remediable, are provided for in special classes, with programs and equipment suited to their individual needs. You are familiar with these classes for the mentally and physically subnormals and in most of these medical supervision is a distinct con- tribution. These children become fatigued more easily than those in regular classes, and more freedom is justly allowed them in the classroom. The responsibility of the school for the protection of the child himself .'.nd the investments made for educational purposes is, as I view it, defi- nitely limited to the provision of : 1. Safe and sanitary buildings, grounds and equipment, and their operation in accordance with hygienic principles 2. An organization for the control of communicable disease within the school system 3. Periodical physical inspection to screen out the children with remediable de- fects which interfere with the child's progress in school and thereby either raise the cost of education or lower its effectiveness 4. Plans for the administration of an educational program that will minimize (he hazards incident to school life, i. e., strain and fatigue PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN HEALTH EDUCATION FREDERICK RAND ROGERS, NEW YORK STATE DIRECTOR OF HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION, ALBANY, N. Y. Physical education is not a "subject" to be compared with other "sub- jects" in the school curriculum, but a general method of improving child behavior. Thus physical education may ha\e many "subjects" of its own, and its program ma\ be as broad as the entire mental education program. Physical education attempts to develop character through pupil activities which are predominantly physical in nature. It is especially effective 200 National Education Association method of education because pupils are so positively active and because they are usually so vitally interested. In the larger health education program physical education, through its program of large muscle activities, performs the vital task of developing general physical fitness. After all, health is improved largely through proper food, rest, and physical exercise, and the school can control the third element more effectively than the other two. Health education is concerned vv-ith social and moral health too, and it is here that phj'sical education makes one of its most significant contri- butions. Courage, initiative, perseverance, self control, courtesy, justice, honesty, cooperation, loyalty — these are definite character traits which may be taught in team games. Whether health and citizenship are taught depends on the time devoted to them and on the facilities available but most of all on the training, pur- pose, and character of the supervisors of physical education who direct the program. At its worst physical education may actually destroy health and develop immoral and unsocial character traits; at its best it is probably unrivaled as a method of preparing pre-adolescent and adolescent boys and girls to function as good citizens and normal happy individuals. METHOD OF PRESENTING HEALTH FACTS TO ELEMEN- TARY HIGH-SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY STUDENTS R. G. JONES, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, OHIO Three parties are interested in a contract which calls for the expendi- ture of levied, endowed, or personal funds for the purpose of promoting health education. The first is the individual, the second is the state, and the third is production, representing the ethical, social, and economic phases of life. There are three sufficient ends to be served if it may be shown that health is an active element in both the maintenance and advancement of the interests of each of the three contracting parties. The individual — The individual has reason to be willing to spend his personal funds directly or indirectly (through taxation) in order to learn the laws that govern the successful operation of his physical machine, be- cause it gives one entree to companionship at a higher level ; because it enables one to enjoy personal comfort ; because it contributes to one's self-esteem; because it enables one to accomplish in a larger measure; be- cause it is a guarantee for the greater worth of one's offspring, beyond which there can be no greater desire; and because it will yield the state that makes life and work possible, a fitting return. The state — The state is concerned on two grounds, at least. The state is concerned to have each individual capable of selfsupport, for every indi- vidual who fails in selfmaintenance becomes a charge against other mem- bers in the degree of his failure. Such charges are reflected in all agencies set up to preserve social welfare, including courts, hospitals, and infirmaries. Department of Superintendence 201 These agencies reflect direct loss. Failure in maximum performance, how- ever, is far greater, no doubt, although quite difficult to measure. The state may well be informed even at great cost as to the relative efficiency of prevention versus correction or maintenance of such disabilities. It seems that the state may well enter upon a program of health education by giving both moral and financial support. A state department of educa- tion might well assign the problem of health education for preparation, and possibly for promotion, to the state universities in the respective states. Production — Production is understood to include all branches of service — industrial, commercial, and professional. An interesting chapter appears in the report submitted by Secretary of Commerce, Herbert Hoover, in 1921 on "Waste in Industry." This report first cites the report on national vitality prepared at the instance of President Roosevelt in 1909 to this effect: Three million persons are seriously ill at all times in the United States meaning a loss of an average of 13 days each year per working person. It was estimated that 42 percent of such illness was prevent- able. Since that time the average number of days of illness has been reduced to eight. Mr. Hoover's own report states that 350 million days are annually lost because of illness. Of the 500,000 workers who die each year, possibly one-half of such deaths are postponable. In summary, the unnecessary ill- ness amounts to a billion dollars each year. These figures are based upon research extending to insurance, census, and army draft records. It would seem that the industrial interests might w^ell support the state and all branches of education in the promotion of a program for health education on a purely economic basis. ADMimSTRATIVE_SECTIONS abstracts of addresses at meetings of nine administrative sections OUR GOOD FRIENDS THE POLITICIANS ERNEST W. BUTTERFIELD, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION CONCORD, N. H. Ours is a republic, not a democracy, a monarchy, a theopracy, a bureau- cracy or a proletary, and we trust not to demagogs, tryants, soldiers, or adventurers, but to politicians. We, superintendents and department workers, our principals and our teachers, are technicians. Our school board members, our university trus- tees, our city councils and mayors, our state legislators and governors, are politicians. They, as representatives of the citizenry, run the state through our skilled services. On occasion we are prone to speak of politicians in terms of disapproval, though very happil_\" most governors are progressive and close friends of education. Half of the superintendents here present could rise and name 202 National Education Association in ringing chorus mayors who have shf)\vn themselves keenly interested in the work which we do. By any definition, all who seek office and all who by their fellows are elected to legislative, judicial, or executive offices are politicians. For- tunately for our nation most of ours, now as in the past, in spite of recurring misrepresentation and abuse, in which we join, are patriotic, able, and faithful servants of the state. In a republic politicians are a necessity. Most of ours are and even more of them would like to be friends of educa- tion and of the schools. Thank God for our politicians. MAKING THE SCHOOLS PUBLIC SCHOOLS C. B. GLENN, superintendent OF SCHOOLS, BIRMINGHAM, ALA. That the schools of Birmingham, Alabama, are really public schools is evidenced by the fact that of the 53,728 children attending school in that city, 50,730, or 95 percent are in the public schools. Among the reasons assigned for the popularity of the public schools may be mentioned the fact, first, that for 38 years previous to 1921 the same individual served as superintendent of schools of that city. He had the confidence of the public and succeeded in keeping the schools out of politics. The second reason assigned is the character of the individuals composing the board of education and their attitude toward the public and the school officials. The board has won the confidence of the public by administering the schools in a businesslike manner. The affairs of the board of education are financially sound. The public is kept fully informed regarding all receipts and expenditures, through an exhaustive audit published annually. Each year a slogan has been selected around which the curriculum and the work of the year has centered. The first of these slogans was "The Development of Character through Health — the Physical Welfare of the » Pupil and the Teacher." This was followed by "Sportsmanship," then, "The Development of Character through Work," then, "The Develop- ment of Character through the Love of the Beautiful." The present year the slogan is "The Development of Character through Thrift." In each of these slogans the community has cooperated with the schools. To a gratifying degree the interest of the schools and the interest of the com- munity has been unified. The last way mentioned in which the Birmingham schools have been made public schools is, through the attitude of the local press. Birmingham newspapers regard school news as the best kind of news and give it a prominent place in their columns. Reporters from each of the three papers visit the office of the superintendent of schools daily and are as ready to write up the constructive things as to tell of the troubles. This, in the opinion of the superintendent of schools, is a great asset to any school ad- ministration and has had a tremendous influence in making the Birming- ham schools in truth public schools. Department of Superintendence 203 MAKING THE SCHOOLS PUBLIC SCHOOLS THROUGH INFORMATION ROLLO G. REYNOLDS, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBL\ UNIVERSITY NEW YORK CITY A teacher alone is useless; a teacher of a child is better: but it takes a teacher, a child, and an understanding parent to make a real school. If we can judge by what they say in newspapers, magazines, and books, la\men are becoming tremendously interested in this experiement of uni- versal public education undertaken for the first time in the history of civil- ization by America. One who understands our problem can help in its solution ; one who misunderstands it hampers all progress. If America's teachers have one public and professional obligation above all others, it is to see to it that the American public, the fathers and mothers of our twenty-six million boys and girls, understand what American public education is all about. In the long run the schools of a democratic community will be what the citizens of the community want them to be. Neither worse nor better, if teachers want the schools to be better, they must make the citizens want them to be better. There is no other way. America is not concerned seriously with how much money her schools are costing; but she is concerned, greatly concerned, with what she is get- ting in educational values for her money. The real job of those engaged in public education today is to interpret it to the citizens of America. To make people want better schools for their children is the only way that schools can be made better. HO IV HOUSTON INFORMS HER PATRONS OF THE WORK OF THEIR SCHOOLS E. E. OBERHOLTZER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, HOUSTON, TEXAS The successful support of the public schools depends very much upon the confidence that the public has in its management, the intimate knowl- edge which the public has of the aims of its schools and the first-hand in- formation and acquaintance with the accomplishments of the public-school system. To provide this information for the patrons of our public schools, a com- prehensive program of publicity properly carried out is very effective. Such a program should be carefully arranged so that methods of presentation will exhibit at all times honesty of purpose and a frank discussion of both the points of weakness and strength. P^ffective publicity should avoid any semblance of propaganda. It should be regarded both an opportunity and a privilege for the leaders in education to bring to the layman full and complete information of public education as it is represented in the public schools, to show him how his children are faring at the hands of the public 204 National Education Association school system and how it is possible for them to fare better if the citjs county, and state live up to their full obligation. Most good citizens are desirous of giving the coming generation every possible advantage of the provisions made for education. Public sentiment is the pilot for the good ship of our public schools, and whether we go safely into harbor or out on the journey depends very much upon the potency of public sentiment, which arouses to action the body politic at the strategic time for decisions, usually at the election polls. Most publicity takes the form of the type of continuous publicity, or in the form of a drive. Both types seem to be effective and necessary for the larger public school system. Continuous publicity should aim at the things which can be secured only by persistent efforts over long periods. The drive should be employed whenever a definite and immediate public de- cision on some school matter must be sought. Continuous publicity must accomplish for our public schools what the same type of publicity is de- signed to accomplish in the business world. The business world has recog- nized the necessity of a continuous program of publicity and business sets up certain definite objectives for accomplishment. In general, these ob- jectives are much the same for our public schools as for the business world. Our public schools need "good will," created through an intimate knowl- edge and a sympathetic understanding of the work of the schools. Our public schools need the approval and leadership of the thinkers of the community, if these schools are to retain the gains already made and at the same time progress towards higher goals. Our public schools need to build the background, through proper publicity, for an understanding of new departures, new undertakings, or new phases of projected school work, just as any good business organization feels the necessity of acquainting the public, its patrons, of its success, enlargement plans and service qualities. STATE CONTROL OF TEACHER PREPARATION JOHN A. H. KEITHj STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, HARRISBURG, PA. The State has the primary responsibility for determining the qualifica- tions of those who teach. In the discharge of this responsibility it becomes necessary to establish institutions for the preparation of teachers. These should be under the control of the state. In recent years, development of direct certification by state authorities and the development of budgetary control through the state's chief educational authority has tended to place a larger measure of curriculum control of the state's own teacher-prepara- tion agencies in the hands of the state's chief educational authorities. The movement proceeds most rapidly in states where educational authority is already largely centralized and most slowly in states where educational control is decentralized. The obligation of the state preparing teachers for the public schools is not fully met by ownership and support — the obligation extends also to Department of Superintendence 205 control. We must recognize that our various legislatures have exercised their fundamental ohligation to control by providing for the control of these institutions by boards, commissions, state superintendents, etc. Occa- sionally we have had trustees, selected on political grounds. We have tried large boards and small boards, long terms and short terms, only to prove that a relatively small board with relatively long terms gives the best results. A relatively new idea considered in this connection relates to the advisa- bility of making all of the separate state-owned institutions for the prepara- tion of teachers members of a team for this purpose — making a system of them rather than emphasizing the individual institutions. Normal schools and teachers colleges are often characterized as one-man institutions. Another influencing idea is a part of the reorganization of state govern- ments into departments of state administration. In considering any plan of reorganization of state government the question of what is to be done about and with state supported education arises. The matter of state boards of education, which are really independent administrative state agencies, inevitably arises. If these boards are retained, the tendency is to make them administrative departments of state government. If this hap- pens, the state superintendent gives way to a Commissioner of Education selected by the state board. If constitutional provisions are in the way of such a procedure, the state board, if retained, is given a status within the Department of Education. When this question is settled, there next arises the question of what to do with state-owned and state-supported institutions for the preparation of teachers. Two other matters closely related to the ultimate solution of the problem are that of certification which is being placed with the state's chief agency of education— be it superintendent, commissioner, or state board and that of budget making and control. The agency of the state that ad- ministers the budget for these institutions, be it superintendent commis- sioner or state board, is again tied in with the institutions that prepare teachers and inevitably exercises control over them. RECRUITING TEACHERS H. C. MINNICH, DE.AN, TEACHERS COLLEGE, MIAMI UNIVERSITY. OXFORD, OHIO 1 o Staff the public schools with effective men and women becomes more and more the rnaf/nus opus of state departments of education. Re- cruiting as your president has called this staffing of the schools is the first step in the procedure guaranteeing the public schools to the state. It has become a system with its own modes and technics. The necessities during the late two-hemisphere social cataclysm and the ingenuity of clever prin- cipals and presidents of teacher-training institutions have expanded these devices probably as far as intellectual integrity will warrant. 206 National Education Association I desire, however, to speak of a few underlying principles which should furnish a basis of continual cooperation of the three agencies distinctly con- cerned with staffing the schools, namely: State departments of education, the teacher-training institutions, and the appointing officials of the various school districts and systems. In June, 1928, about 500,000 young people will graduate from the sec- ondary schools of America. From these 500,000 young people about 200,000 will enter upon a preparation for teaching in the public schools. Will that many apply at the doors of the schools organized to prepare teachers? We are informed that last year two thirds of all the graduates from the nine-year secondary schools in one of the states of Germany applied to enter teacher-training institutions. What shall determine the selection of this 500,000? Shall the choice be left entirely to them? If teaching was a life career to all, possibly such a plan might be trusted. If these young people were all of equal intellectual and social potentiality we could cast lots for them and the public schools could share with other occupational needs, but every intelligence rating in the past ten years reveals a vast range of capacities in these candidates. The greatest task in affording equal educational opportunities for all the youth is to provide for them teachers of equal ability, interest, and training. It is no longer defensible that one quarter of a state should be provided with teachers of lower level of intelligence or with less effective training than another. I do not believe that the republic as a whole can with safety further countenance such an educational policy. TRAINING TEACHERS FOR PROGRESSIVE SCHOOLS FRANK E. BAKER, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, MILWAUKEE, WIS. The training of teachers has developed rapidly during the past two de- cades. In 1908 there were not more than a half dozen teachers colleges in America; today there are more than a hundred. But, this progress has been more quantitative than qualitative. The process is still largely mechanical. Just as we fit children into a system instead of fitting the system to the needs of children, so we are training teachers to meet the needs of a system rather than the needs of children. Our objectives have been determined more by educational administration than by educational philosophy. But fortunately there are some in the field of teacher training today who hear a new call — the call for teachers trained for a new type of school. That there is a new school, better adapted to the new civilization of the western world and to the demands of modern democracy, we shall have to assume. Having made this assumption, we can proceed immediately to the dis- cussion of the training of teachers for these schools. In the new type of school the determining factor is the growing mind of the child and not sub- Department of Superintendence 207 jectmatter. That is, the teacher must be trained to deal with child activ- ities instead of organized courses of study. It is agreed by the best edu- cational thinkers of the present day that the curriculum of the modern school should consist of a series of life-like activities and that the knowl- edge and skills which, in the formal school, were the primary considera- tion are to come as mere byproducts of these activities, motivated and hav- ing their whole background in them. If this is a correct principle, and, if we may be permitted to reason by analogy, then the professional curriculum in the teacher-training schools should consist of a series of professional experiences, and the technic of teaching and the science and the philosophy of education should all come as a byproduct of these experiences, motivated and having their background in them. If the professional training of a teacher is to consist of a series of pro- fessional experiences, how are these experiences to be had? Manifestly they can be had only in actual teaching situations. On this basis, the business of the teacher-training school, from a professional standpoint, consists en- tirely in leading a prosepective teacher through a series of professional ex- periences. In choosing these experiences, the training teacher is guided by two principles. In the first place, those experiences are chosen that have the largest possible bearing on the later professional experience of the prospec- tive teacher. In the second place, only those experiences are chosen that can be immediately motivated in the professional interests of the prospective teacher. Built on this philosophy, a three-year curriculum for the training of elementary teachers will consist of two 3 ears of cultural education, followed by one year of professional experiences, the living through of a series of teaching situations rich in technics, child study, and the science and phi- losophy of education. ESTABLISHING TEACHERS C. L. PHELPS, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, SANTA BARBARA, CALIF. The teaching profession is still suffering from its ancestry. Coming from conditions of slavery, poverty, and physical inefficiency, its status in the estimation of the public has been fairly indicated by the statement that "he who can does, and he who can't, teaches." A profession with such a heritage and such a reputation among contemporaries is far from being attractive. People in such a profession are likely to suffer from an in- feriority complex. Many teachers are undoubtedly so afflicted, ami while under the spell of the malady they often resort to various forms of hy- pocris\ in their usuall\- futile attempts to escape professional recognition. Man\- of our best teachers have been led to abandon the profession after thev were well started for some other occupation which seemed to promise 208 National Education Association greater satisfaction. On the other hand, the limitations of the profession have tended to prevent the best young people from entering a teacher- training institution, the result being that the teaching force has been com- posed largely of dissatisfied transients and persons of second-rate ability who have not had the courage to enter competition in some other field. Both of these conditions have been barriers in the way of establshing the strong professional loyalties which the teaching profession so much needs. What is needed above all things in the teaching profession is selection from the best of our young people, for training and the retention of the best of them after they have been trained. If this idealistic conception of selec- tion and tenure could be realized, the stability and prestige of the profession would be secure. Plans for establishing teaching on any lower plane than this are not in harmony with the thinking of our leaders in education and must be considered as temporary expedients to be used only in a transition period and discarded as soon as possible. We are in reality rapidly approaching the end of a transition period during which educational standards for teachers have been so completely revised that they are no longer comparable with those of two decades ago. A few more years should end the period and satisfactory standards should then be as well established as they now are in law or medicine. THE COUNTY SCHOOL SURVEY AN INSTRUMENT FOR THE EQUALIZING OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES NORMAN FROST^ PROFESSOR OF RURAL EDUCATION, GEORGE PEABODY COL- LEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENN, There are at least fifty-seven varieties of educational inequalities. Some of these inequalities are beyond the reach of such local units as the county. Differences in buildings, in equipment, in the course of study, etc., may however, be made uniform within the limits of the country. To do this, three things are necessary: (1) To find the inequalities; (2) to make good plans for eliminating them; (3) to execute these plans. The county survey does the first two of these things and helps with the third. The survey consists of a careful gathering of facts that reveal the inequalities. On the basis of these facts, recommendations are made by a group of men selected for their special fitness in school work. This gathering of data which reveal educational inequalities and the making of recommendations for a procedure to remedy are the first part of the survey. The program having been made, the carrying out of the plan is left in the hands of the county superintendent. However, an ob- jective program is available which the county superintendent can hand in with a sureness that could not apply to his own individual opinion and without the charge of injustice or favoritism. In this way, the survey helps with the third and final step of equalizing educational opportunity within his county. Department of Superintendence 209 EQUALIZATION' OF OPPORTUNITIES THROUGH A RA- TIONAL CURRICULUM FOR RURAL SCHOOLS EDWARD J. TOBIN, SUPERINTENDENT OF COOK COUNTY SCHOOLS CHICAGO, ILL. It is high time to blaze a Lindbergh-path in rural education to replace the calf-path laid down a century' and a half ago. This new trail strikes out in a direct line for health, good habits, the art of government and happiness. It aims at tying school tasks with the life of the child. These tasks should be a part of his real everyday life. Cook county's achievement system has been developed as a means of teaching and the forming of habits by combining the doing of things with the study of things. The biggest idea and the greatest need in the world today is to make each school a working republic and thus teach the art of government by doing. The most important thing for our children in these United States to learn is how to govern themselves, how to ascertain and obey the will of the majority. There is not enough politics in the schools today. Politics is the art of government. Politics is the people in action operating the machine they themselves have created to run their government. In my opinion it is not much use in trying to change the grown-ups. ^'ou can't instill right ideas of government and leadership, by preaching, by lectures, by mass meetings and other hectic measures. The real underlying place to start the campaign for better government is in the schools of America. There is only one way to cure the ills of a republic, that is through training in the art of government — politics — in the schools of America. You cannot have a democracy without politics. Politics is de- mocracy. Good habits — The most important duty in education is the formation of good habits. What we need above all is a required course in doing things gaged for the work-a-day requirements of plain people with in- struction in it started in time to help pupils to form good habits of health, industrj', thrift, and selfcontrol. This would accomplish more than any other influence to bring happiness to the individual — to stabilize social conditions — to bring about industrial peace — to insure obedience to law and to develop loyalty to government. "Educate that you may be free" is accepted by all of us as necessar\ for the perpetuation of this free country. The school system established and maintained by this free country does little or nothing to have its prod- uct— our young people — form habits of earning, saving, expending, and investing money. No matter what the countr\ or the form of government, no man gets in touching distance of freedom unless he has won for himself a bank ac- count, by earning, saving, and investing. 210 National Education Association MORE EFFICIENT MACHINERY FOR RURAL SCHOOLS E. S. RICHARDSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF WEBSTER PARISH SCHOOLS MINDEN, LA. The entire business of education is the biggest business in the world, save that of our federal government. It exceeds the General Motors Com- pany which recently surpassed the steel mammoth in net profits. The business of education is even greater than the Standard Oil with its tre- mendous ramifications and departments. It is a business with billions of invested capital, an annual expenditure of millions, earnings that cannot be computed, with more than one hundred million stockholders, and a great army of workers of which we are a part. It is a business that is admittedly not yet thoroughly organized, and inefficient in many respects, but is a business that will never fail. Public school education is the greatest single contribution made by the American Republic to civilization. We are its originators and leading practitioners. No business spends its money with as little efiort toward true economy. We, who are styled educators, need to be more concerned with how we spend public tax moneys and with results obtained from them. The real truth is our schools have outgrown their swaddling clothes. Our original timeworn methods of administration and financing have grown inadequate, crude, and unjust. It should, and must be changed wholly or revised to meet growing public demands. May the time soon come when society will be far more interested in the welfare of the children than being so vitally concerned about the ultra demo- cratic form of school government. When our lawmakers and educational leaders give wider interpretaticjn to the meaning of democracy, education- ally, when they interpret its meaning in terms of the state's responsibility to the child, then and then only, will all the children of all the people of this union be given equal educational opportunities at equal cost. THE COUNTRY TEACHER AND HER JOB L. J. BERRY, SUPERINTENDENT, SAN MARCOS, TEXAS The chief factor in the solution of this great problem of rural education must be the men and women who understand rural needs and the nature of rural people. In these days when money and legislation and electricity do so much in meeting irritating difficulties, it is to be regretted that we cannot tune in on some social radio and bring into this situation the best harmonies of present-day life. But no machine will answer our purpose. Leadership is the vital need. And here, as has always been true, the more difficult the job, the stronger the type of individual required to meet it. There is no question that if able leadership could be secured gratis, rural difficulties could be met. But those who would be successful leaders have found towns and cities bidding more highly for their services and Def'Artment of Superintendence 211 have betaken themselves to these places to aid in the advancement of their educational interests. Because of capable leadership, the cities have kept pace with the progress made in various other lines. Here schools have met the social and economic demands. Missionaries of training and vision surrender ambitious prospects to go to Africa and other needy fields, but they are slow to choose a field near home. With few exceptions, only the inexperienced and inefficient go into the rural schools. The salaries, the living conditions, the lack of recreation, the absence of supervision, and the wide range of grades and subjects to be taught, all tend to make the country teacher's job less attractive than is that of her urban sister. But what is the job of the country teacher? If she accepts all that some educational leaders would heap upon her she would stand hopelessly amazed in the midst of her task. There are those who view with alarm the passing of much of the rural institutional life. In the absence of other leaders, these would rebuild the religious and other social life about the teacher as leader. There are those who lament to see going on, the deterioration of the soil. These would have the teacher terrace the hillside and teach rotation of crops that the soil might be saved to posterity. Others realiz- ing the necessity of growing two ears of corn where one formally was pro- duced, would teach, through corn clubs and vocational agriculture, the art of more intensive farming. Others, viewing with alarm this trekking cityward of the best and most prosperous country people, would have the teacher throw herself across the highway and turn back to the soil this productive army. It is true that some of the idealists would have her teach those things that tend to enrich life with its higher satisfactions, but would limit those satisfactions to such as could be attained by living on the farm. There are those who would hold the teacher responsible for the education of the adults, as well as that of the children. They would have her modernize country life to meet the best standards of living possible in these days of rapid advancement. Homes must be made over so as to retain their members on the farm. Whatever the task to be assigned the country teacher, it must be deter- mined by such conception of its purposes as may be in the mind of the employer of the teacher. Ultimately the state is the employer. The state assumes in its scheme the responsibility of educating its children, both city and rural. Whatever best contributes to the growth of the individual and to the integration of society, therefore, is the teacher's task. EQUALIZATION OF OPPORTUNiriES THROUGH A PROPER PROGRAM OF SCHOOL FINANCE GEORGE HOWARD, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT, ROWAN COUNTY SALISBURY, N. C. If, in speaking of equal educational opportunitv, the word "etiual" is taken to mean ''exactly the same, uniform or identical," there never has 212 National Education Association been, there is not, and never will be equal educational opportunity. Such equal opportunity would not be desirable. To offer the same, identical, equal educational opportunity to every boy and girl would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, financially. No one would be foolish enough to suggest that this equalization should be brought about by bringing down the urban child's opportunity to the level of the rural child ; but all would agree that it would mean bringing up the rural child's opportunity to that of the city child. It must be a level- ing up process and not a leveling down. If this is to be measured in terms of per capita expenditure, it would create a tremendous burden. Every child, whether rural or urban, must have the educational essen- tials. The rural child, however, is not discriminated against when the state is offering and providing for him an education that "is suitable to his capacities, appeals to his interests, and contributes to his life's pur- poses." The rural child is not discriminated against when the state fails to provide him with some of the luxuries of education. All things being considered, it is, perhaps, better for the rural child that his educational opportunity consists of what we might call essentials, and not luxuries. A discussion of this as applied to buildings, curriculum, instruction, and term will serve to illustrate the point. Buildings — Almost at the same time, within the same county, a city sys- tem built a high school at a cost of $800 per pupil, and a county system built a school for both elementary and high school at a cost of $170 per pupil. The rural building answers the same essential requirements that the urban building does. An equal building would have been an im- possibility; a fair, just, and proportionate building is a reality. Curriculufn — While the urban high school has a greater number of students and can offer a larger variety of courses, it is also faced with a larger variety of interests. Its students have a multiplicity of industrial and professional interests. If the ultimate aim of education is "to adjust the individual to his environment, not only present but future, and ideal" ; or "to fit the individual to do better those desirable things that he is going to do anyway," then the task of the rural high school is not so overwhelming as that of the urban. To a very large degree the student body of the rural school is more homogeneous economically and socially, and in other respects. Thus while it is impossible to offer identical or equal high school opportunities, it is not impossible to offer the rural child a fair, just, and proportionate sec- ondary education. Instruction — In instruction, which would include supervision, instruc- tional supplies, or any other factors making for efficient instruction, the opportunity of the rural child should equal that of the child living in the city. While there will be cases in which there will be differences in the number of teachers, there should be no difference in the quality of the instruction given. This is practical, and, at the same time, financially feasible. Department of Superintendence 213 Term — In the matter of term, as instruction, the opportunities should be equal. The matter of providing a longer term for rural children in many localities, however, will he not so much a matter of financing the educational offerings, as it will solving the economic and sociological problems. Almost all of the problems of equalizing educational opportunities resolve into the problem of adequate finance. When once this has been solved, the solution of the other problems will be much easier. EQUALIZATION OF OPPORTUNITY FOR THE COUNTRY CHILD THROUGH PROPER SCHOOL SUPERVISION ADA YORK, superintendent OF SCHOOLS, SAN DIEGO, CALIF. Education is now a profession as distinctly as is medicine, the church, and the law. It must be administered by trained, certificated professionals. Supervision creates ideals, gathers together for the use of all, the best thoughts and practices of individual teachers, disseminates this special in- formation, demonstrates teaching, unifies the system of which each school is an integral part. The expert art teacher takes to her work a wealth of special knowledge and skill. She is there to impart this special information to a teacher who is generally prepared for all of the subjects in the curriculum. She is there also to demonstrate teaching in her special subject. She is there to lay out suggested courses of study and assignments of work to be covered in specified time periods. She is an inspiration to better accomplishment. She is an appreciator of achievement, or, at least, of honest effort — and never as a patron, but always as a co-worker, sympathetic, and aware, too, of a shared responsibility. For both the teacher and the supervisor stand together in this special activity. So, instead of "supervisor," it has some- times seemed better to designate this type of service as that of the "special teacher." The result of the activity is the same; and the sense of higher and lower is annihilated. Because of the changing conditions of our complex civilization all of us — teachers, college professors, school administrators — must be ever on the alert or we shall find ourselves behind in the procession, for with greater poignancy than ever before do we realize that time and tide wait for no man. We have to be in training all the time that we are in service ! Supervision serves as does the clearinghouse in the exchange. It is the business of these persons we call "supervisors" to be in touch with the newest and the best in their specialty. We defer to their knowledge. They are employed by the public for this very purpose. Supervision creates ideals, points out definite ways and means to approach those ideals, and, in the last analysis, acts as a spur to urge our sometimes reluctant souls to make the effort necessary to get this good which is desirable for the schools — that is to say, for the children who are being instructed. 214 National Education Association KEEPING THE PEOPLE INEORMED JOHN LUND, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NORWALK, CONN. As school administrators we are interested in public support of educa- tion. In the last analysis we cannot do without it. The schools we ad- minister belong to the people — finally these schools of ours will be as the people want them to be. School people realize that the modern school is developing with un- paralleled rapidity. They fail to realize at times, the great need of con- stantly interpreting this rapidly growing school to the public. Too much of our publicity has been confined to special appeals for "putting over" a bond issue or an extra tax levy. The intelligent citizen becomes suspicious of the school administrator if he hears nothing concern- ing the schools except when money is needed. A sane continuous pub- licity program covering all phases of school activity will render unneces- sary occasional frantic appeals for public support. This has been amply demonstrated in many communities. Too much sentimentality and hysteria characterize many of our ap- peals for public support. Convince the public that we mean business, that the schools are functioning and that we know what we are about and we can safely depend upon the intelligence and the emotions of the people without excessive stimulation. There is no phase of the school problem, administrative, financial, or educational which cannot be made the subject of effective continuous publicity. The typical school report is not only uninteresting but often unintelligible to the average citizen. If the public fails adequately to understand and appreciate the needs of the schools, the responsibility rests squarely upon the superintendent and his staff. The expense incident to a sane continuous publicity program is just as legitimately a part of the school budget as the advertising budget of a pro- gressive business house. KEEPING THE PUBLIC INEORMED S. MONROE GRAVES, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS WELLESLEY HILLS, MASS. A community can have the kind of schools which the community most desires. Good schools cost much money, but the people are willing to support them if satisfied as to the school policies and the care exercised in the use of school funds. In a community which is well informed, good schools will be demanded by the people even if the costs are rather high. Following are ten suggestions for keeping the public in touch with the schools : 1. Be approachable as well as able. Department of Superintendence 215 2. Talk witli the parents and talk with the children in regard to good instruction and good school buildings. 3. Foster active parent-teacher associations, founded on hospitality and strengthened by regular achievement for worthwhile school projects. 4. Give regular school news items to the local papers, to the nearby metropolitan dailies and to an occasional column in a school paper. 5. Anticipate the questions of the municipal financial committees by clear statements of expenditures already incurred as well as cogent reasons for future appropriations requested. 6. Illustrate school facts graphically so as to be interesting and per- suasive. 7. Strive for helpful permanent attitudes as well as for success in meet- ing college board entrance requirements. 8. Visit schools in other communities similar to ones own and tell our voters what w^e discover. If it was inferior, speak with modesty, if it was superior still speak with meekness but without neglecting in either instance the application suggested for better school facilities at home. 9. Send letters to parents from the school committee, taking the public fully into confidence regarding educational affairs. 10. Cultivate carefully the attitude of the teaching staff. Often it is the individual classroom teacher who has the richest opportunity for es- tablishing public school goodwill without which no school system can do its very best for the individual child and the community. KEEPING THE PEOPLE INFORMED WILLARD H. BACON^ SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS WESTERLY, RHODE ISLAND Parents are entitled to complete information regarding their own chil- dren, but to no information about their neighbors' children. They usually are anxious for the former and occasionally they demand the latter. The t\pical report card is deplorably lacking in real information. It abounds in lists of subjects, laboriously prepared by conscientious teachers ; but for real information parents must go to the school, to the principal, to the teacher, to the child in the schoolroom. The majority of parents do not make these contacts unless they think an injustice has been done. The school must take the initiative in giving parents real information of their childrens' work in a personal way. Citizens (taxpayers) are entitled to full information about their schools — strong points, w-eaknesses, successes, failures, accomplishments, policies, expenditures, budgets. The majority care too little, or are too busy to take time to think about the school, or believe it unnecessary for them to bother with such matters. When special demands are made by the school authorities it is difficult to arouse the people to see the need, especially when it means greater expenditures. 216 National Education Association The best means of keeping them informed are the public press, espe- cially the small local papers; the annual report, which in the smaller towns goes into many houses; special bulletins mimeographed or printed, and sent to the parents by pupils; public addresses and demonstrations, ex- hibits, window displays, posters ; teachers who are so interested in the work that they enthuse all their friends. IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE HARRY W. LANGWORTHY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS GLOVERSVILLE^ N. Y. Providing for the improvement of teachers in service is among the most important of the manifold duties which a superintendent of schools as an administrator has to perform. Modern superintendents endeavor to formulate a teacher improvement program based on a cooperative super- vision involving the following points: 1. Select teachers who have capacity for continued professional growth. 2. Place teachers in positions favorable for continued development. 3. Aid local teachers associations to organize into professional improve- ment groups. 4. Cooperate with teachers colleges and normal schools to provide means for stimulating teacher improvement. 5. Make use of the index of training as a means of measuring staff growth. 6. Develop principals into actual supervisory officers rather than flurried teachers having a little time to devote to administration. 7. Allocate responsibility between principals and supervisors so that neither will be subordinate to the other. Make the principal responsible for results. Consider the supervisor as a specialist to aid the principal. 8. Avoid the fixation of a mental pattern to which all teachers must conform. 9. Judge teachers on the basis of what they are attempting to achieve rather than on the basis of what the superintendent thinks they ought to be achieving. As superintendents of cities of less than ten thousand can give but fif- teen percent of their time to supervision, the program outlined above seems fitted to the needs of the situations in which they are working. IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE FRED S. LIBBEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, FRANKLIN, N. H. Improvement of teachers in service must begin with a better selection of stock from which to make teachers. The principles of vocational guid- ance are poorly applied in recommending some high-school graduates for attendance at normal schools. Scholarship is not the only essential for Department of Superintendence 217 making good teachers: Personality, individuality, temperament, disposi- tion, and capacity for professional growth are essential. Many have been the suggestions given for improvement of teachers in service ; but one fact must be clearly recognized, that in the means used for improvement, care must be taken not to mechanize a teacher. A mechanical teacher is not an improved teacher, not a good teacher and never can be so long as she remains merely a machine. The essential thing to develop or improve in a teacher is that peculiar, animating, and inspiring principle, which pervades and tempers the con- duct of men and characterizes them or their work — the spirit of the in- dividual. The explorations of the superintendent should be to discover in his staff those who possess the teacher spirit, for they are real teachers. If the spirit is there it will be selfevident and selfdeveloping; if it is not there the first task of all is to create it by a proper selection of means employed. Helping the teacher to realize achievement, was mentioned as develop- ing teacher spirit. Achievement is always an incentive to greater accom- plishment and will develop faith and selfinitiative. Emphasizing the science of education was another means. The innate attraction for science and scientific principles, when seen in action will inspire and spiritualize the teacher. Another means was reward for real merit. The conviction that real merit will be recognized, stimulates to activities that will function toward higher and better things — a spiritual development. A teacher, improved by developing the real teacher spirit, has become an agent of service immeasurable. Has the teacher the real service spirit, will be the deciding factor in her employment a few years from now, not has she a degree. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE JOHN R. PATTERSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ATHENS, OHIO Not long since an assistant superintendent in charge of junior high schools of a large middle west city, a man to whose schools I have been promoting teachers for a decade, wrote me that he and his junior high school principals were about to have a conference devoted to a considera- tion of "Essential and Desirable Qualities of Teachers." That may not be the exact wording. The idea was that anyway. He invited me to arrange a category of six to ten desirable qualities, and weight the items. I worked on the problem a bit but couldn't approve the result. Finally I decided the thing would make sense and come out somewhere if I placed the qualities in two categories instead of one — category I, personal qualities, and category II, professional qualities. Men teachers, for example, usually have to be trained in the matter of the daily shave, clean linen, polished shoes — older women teachers need to be trained away from the 218 National Education Association notion that one single, serviceable dress is adequate for a season. These are samples involving "personal qualities." Your speaker desires to limit his discussion to the "in-training" of teachers in the matter of personal qualities. The content of a category of personal qualities leads us into the ugly aspects of staff life — matters we rave about to the high heaven to an audience of one — our wife, but ordinarily about which we are finding it difficult to do anything. "A higgelty-piggelty" pattern of enthusiasms, passions, prejudices, hates, likes and dislikes, in a cross section of "staff consciousness" exhibits a dis- integrated and therefore ineffectual thrust. The inescapable job of each school head is to analyze the "higgelty-piggelty" pattern. In a school system of 50-100 teachers the characteristic of the pattern is rooted in the "off-side" status of just a few teachers, 5-10 perhaps. Three prin- ciples are clear in regard to dealing with these few despoilers of harmony — (1) They must be either dismissed or taught to abide by the rules of the game. (2) The superintendent must deal with each separately and privately. The wrong thing to do is to call a general staff meeting and rave over the troublesome matters. "He that is well needs not a physi- cian." Often the disturbing element is a bad feeling between two mem- bers of the staff. In that case first see them separately, then bring them together in your presence. (3) The attitude of the superintendent must be wholly judicial and objective. He stands on "the good of the school," the welfare of the boys and girls — the ethical standards of the profession. I say to you, gentlemen, that once you "screw your courage to the stick- ing point" and act, the big half of the ugly job is done. While practice may not make perfect, it at least makes for improvement. We must cease to fear getting into such situations. A school staff must cohere. It must present a solid front to the public it serves. Each member must uphold all members and all defined policy. More school situations go on the rocks from internal schism and conflict than from pressure and storm from without. Each member of the staff must come to know the practical value that inheres in community of feel- ing, community of thinking, and community of acting. All must learn (1) the good sense of the closed mouth in school matters, and (2) the fine mutual service, as well as promotion of the good of the boys and girls, through talking persons and things up, rather than down. To at- tack such problems, to have a bit of courage, to not shy at what seems "too little to be harmful," all these things, my fellow superintendents, are a part of your job and mine in relation to the "in-training" of teachers. ADAPTING COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMS IN EDUCATION TO THE SMALLER COMMUNITIES JOHN J. MAHONEY, professor OF EDUCATION, BOSTON UNIVERSITY BOSTON, MASS. We know, of course, that communities both large and small are today promoting movements, programs, experiments of various kinds. Department of Superintendence 219 ^Vhat 1 have to say will be in the main an attempt to probe a hit into two questions: 1. Are these new courses of study, these new educational programs, as sound, as well validated in the light of educational theory, as they are commonly sup- posed to be? 2. Will it make better or worse the quality of the educational process if they are taken over without a very careful inquiry first into their real educational significance? It is rather an affirmation of what everyone knows — that in the degree in which a school system becomes large, in that degree it tends to take on the semblance of a machine. To make the machine go smoothly it must be highly organized. Specialists must be engaged to see that different parts of the machine function properly. Everything must be scheduled lest the machine stall. And the danger is alwaj's great that teachers and others will become concerned in too large a degree with this machinery rather than with children and their education. The /lew courses of study — Some of these are good, some not so good. Courses in arithmetc, spelling, elementary language, are distinctly good, in comparison with those of a few years ago. The educational investiga- tors have greatly improved these subjects in that they have indicated what we would better teach and what we would better omit. In these subjects there is today little waste, comparatively speaking. Aims have been fairly well established, content has been determined with an approach to scientific precision, standards of achievement have been evolved. There is no ques- tion as to the advisability of adopting and adapting w^hat the curriculum makers have worked out in these "tool" subjects. In other subjects, how- ever, no such happy situation exists. The social studies are especially chaotic. Despite all the feverish activity in this field, there has been com- paratively little progress made in determining the objectives of the social studies, and despite certain surface indications, the content differs in no significant degree from that of the courses of a dozen years ago. I am disposed to advise caution and investigation before regarding them as procedures that we may safely adopt. Certain educational programs — Speaking in the same conservative terms, I should like to question the educational value of certain plans that find much favor today. Everywhere departmentalization is spreading. The platoon-school is travelling east. Achievement tests are used more and more every year. Intelligence testing has become an accepted school pro- cedure. System after system tries out "Daltonized" plans of one sort or another. And all these programs have certain contributions to make to education. In putting them into practice, however, there are certain reservations we might well entertain regarding them. Consider, for example, the intelligence test. Through this scientific instrument we secure information about children that is very revealing. No one will question that this contribution of the educational psychologist is of incal- 220 National Education Association culable importance. And no sensible educator will refrain from using this, as one of several tests, for diagnostic purposes. But, once we have this information, what use shall we make of it ? For purposes of segregat- ing children into classes fast and slow? That would seem to be the ac- cepted procedure nowadays. And yet I make bold to say that the school- man who believes he is educating for democracy by thus segregating chil- dren would better think a great deal more about democracy, its nature and its need. ADAPTING COURSES OF STUDY AND PROGRAMS IN EDUCATION TO THE SMALLER COMMUNITIES M. E. HOUCK^ superintendent OF SCHOOLS, BERWICK, PA. The educational world is at the present time concentrating its atten- tion upon the curriculum. The teaching profession, teachers' colleges, pro- fessional organizations, educational foundations and public schools are in- augurating extensive research activities in the field of curriculum making, to the end that the subjectmatter and the method may be directed -toward the practical life needs of the individual. The curriculum in the public schools is the instrument for interpreting to the individual the useful experiences of the race to the end that he may function as a desirable member of society at all stages of his mental, moral, and physical development. Scientific curriculum study is demonstrating and emphasizing the fact that the subjectmatter of instruction and the method of presentation should recognize individual and group differences and needs. The learning pro- cess is essentially a sensory process and functions more effectively and economically through practice in expression than through repetition in im- pression. Worthy citizenship results from the operation of the curriculum process in direct proportion as it provides for participation of the individual in social, civic, vocational, and spiritual activities of society. Individuals and groups vary in experiences, interests, and ability. Dif- ferentiated courses of study and electives recognize these differences and use them to develop habits of successful study. Out of such habits come selfconfidence, interest, and initiative. Wasteful retardation, high-school mortality, and consequent discouragement tend to be eliminated by pro- visions for individual instructions and promotion. Thus in the modern school organization we find provisions for standard- ized instructions, directed study, project assignments, achievement promo- tion, vocational training, evening extension schools for workers, classes for mentally and physically handicapped children, and consideration for the special problems of rural education. Successful living in a democratic community demands training in self- control and in cooperation. It demands selfexpression, creative ability and individual initiative. It demands further the establishment of moral Department of Superintendence 221 standards, spiritual ideals, and a sense of civic responsibility. Education to integrate individuals into the social existence must develop the attri butes. History, a sympathetic understanding of the ideals explicit in our Declaration of Independence, in our state and Constitution and a knowl- edge of current civic procedure must supply the perspective of real patrio- tism. Thus we find in the modern school organization curriculum pro- vision for citizenship training through history, civics, and participation in student selfgovernment and the practical activities of the young citizen world, care of the preschool child through other schools in preventing undesirable later responses to school situations, immigrant education as a part of the school program, and extracurricular activities, such as debating societies, literary societies, musical organizations, school athletics, and num- erous clubs of the junior high-school grade. We are realizing that the child is a young citizen, and not merely preparing for future citizenship, and that character has its foundation in the practice of right habits. ADAPTING COURSES OF STUDY IRA S. BRINSER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEWARK, DEL. Public education demands a real living awareness of the aims, purposes, functions, means of achievements, and the attendant results, on the part of those in whom the special confidence and sacred trust of teaching is placed. Public education further insists that the teacher shall not only be a growing disciple in the mastery of subjectmatter, but in a wider, deeper, and more comprehensive sympathetic knowledge of children. Confusing indeed would be the outcome of public education unless the same general and specific outlook is maintained for each subject's relation with other subjects, and activities as well as with the whole field of public education. In adapting courses of study to pupils some of the same principles should apply which are in point in their construction. Among these principles and understandings some of the following may be worthwhile to keep in mind. 1. A good course of study, like successful living, is not a static thing, but a dynamic thing like life itself. 2. The pupil should be accepted as the center of interest, instead of the sub- jectmatter. 3. Great individual differences in the abilities, attitudes, interests, likes, and dis- likes, must be recognized. 4. Subjectmatter should be selected as near to real life as is possible. 5. "Failures'' should be reduced to lowest terms by diagnosing pupil difficulties and then apply the remedial measures of "catchup," makeup," and "keepup.'j 6. For each grade the work in hand must have present as well as assured fu- ture values. 7. The school should at all times realize the purpose for which the school exists, by providing its pupils ample opportunity for training in actual school citizenship and responsibility as well as to do and practice the desirable things of life which they will do anyway. 222 National Education Association Courses of study in their formation and dissemination should make clearer the work of grades in every subject to the pupil — teacher and par- ent. By mutual teamwork courses of study are kept alive and constantly healthfully supplemented by that which more nearly meets the need of the situation. The situation in which the pupil feels himself a living part and with which he wishes to and can deal successfully. APPROPRIATE FORMS OF PUBLICITY FOR PROMOTING THE BEST INTERESTS OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS THROUGH THE PUBLIC PRESS AND FORUM, CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, AND OTHER CIVIC ORGANIZATIONS. W. J. AVERY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ALEXANDRIA, LA. Reports from more than one hundred widely scattered cities show that a large proportion of the school systems under consideration have no regu- lar method of publicity, but that there is an awakening to the fact that it is as necessary to keep the public correctly informed about all matters per- taining to the schools as to advertise sparkplugs and chewing gum. The public is greatly interested in the school and in the youth of the land gen- erally. To be effective, scliool publicity should be continuous and systematic, free from propaganda, politics, and selfishness. Emergencies require special treatment in accordance with local conditions. The public press is the best medium of contact between the schools and the public, practically every daily being eager to publish all news of importance about the schools, going to considerable trouble and expense to procure correct information, willing in nearly every case to support laudable, practicable, school undertakings. The daily is read by all classes of citizens, forms school contacts with people in every walk of life. The newspaper as a mediuni of school publicity is too often neglected by school authorities, though its use is on the increase. Civic organizations rank next to the newspaper as a school publicity medium and at the head of these is the chamber of commerce. Member- ship on the part of school authorities is highly important. The forum, dependent largely upon civic bodies, is of much value, particularly during special campaigns made necessary by unusual conditions. APPROPRIATE FORMS OF PUBLICITY FOR PROMOTING THE BEST INTERESTS OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS THROUGH THE DEPARTMENT OF VITAL STATISTICS AND RESEARCH. L. C. BAIN, CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF CHILD ACCOUNTING AND STATISTICS CLEVELAND PUBLIC SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, OHIO Critics of the public schools who cite enormous increases in expendi- tures in the past decade, and who imply on the part of the schools accom- panying wastefulness and extravagance, do not tell all of the facts. Department of Superintendence 223 School expenses, of course, have increased, but in almost precisely the same ratio as expenses have increased for families, factories, stores, and the various divisions of government. While the family has grown smaller in this period, its expenses have increased enormously. Precisely the same thing has happened in the nation's public schools with the exception that instead of growing smaller they have increased in enrolment. The United States Department of Labor, issued in November, 1927, a statement showing that since 1913 the hourly wages of 73 trades in 66 large cities advanced until they are now more than two and one-half times per hour the wages of 1913. These figures tally almost exactly with the increase in school expenditures after the correction for the larger enrolment with its change in character has been made. This measure of the advance in wages is particularly significant because in'the case of the schools, approximately 85 percent of the schools' current expenditures is comprised of the salaries and wages of the teachers and other employees of the nation's boards of education. Moreover, wages are the large factors determining the cost of the materials, books, supplies, and equipment, which boards of education must purchase. These data show that the changes in social and economic conditions have operated to affect education as they have affected not only the wage scale of the trades but also practically all persons gainfully employed. Critics frequently attack a city school system by comparing its costs to those prevailing in other school systems. In a great many cases, it has been my experience, that such attacks are unfair for the reason that it is hard to find two school systems with the same system of accounting, or sharing the same burdens of expense. One, for instance, may have to provide playgrounds and community centers which in another city are covered by the municipal government budget. Another city may have to pay out of school funds hundreds of thousands of dollars a year to retire bonds whereas in other cities this expense is taken care of by other subdivisions of gov- ernment. APPROPRIATE FORMS OF PUBLICITY FOR PROMOTING THE BEST INTERESTS OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS THROUGH THE DEPARTMENT OF VITAL STATISTICS AND RESEARCH— DISCUSSION. M. R. KEVWORTH, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, HAMTRAMCK, MICH. The use of the term publicity is questionable. The term suggests a pur- posed attempt to advertise the schools as distinguished from the service which the schools should render with a fair appreciation on the part of the public of what such service merits. When the term is used to include such activities as school exhibits, the work of the visiting teachers, visiting days or open nights for parents, and the part the individual teacher is to play in this field, it is not properly descriptive. Public school relations is, I be- 224 National Education Association Heve, a term that more nearlj^ expresses all the functions of the activities included in the term, publicity, as used in this program. "Public school re- lations" also gives a better idea to the personnel of the school system of what each individual's obligation is toward it. In the Code adopted by the Hamtramck school system "Public Rela- tions" is considered as that activity which seeks to keep the community informed of the purpose, value, conditions, and needs of public education. The public relations program should be under the direction of the super- intendent of schools assisted by all the agents in the school system. The term research also needs consideration. "Research is the agency through which ( 1 ) objective information in respect to existing conditions may be secured; (2) the relative value of existing means may be deter- mined; (3) policy and procedure may be developed, and (4) appraisal may be made." Each branch of the school organization should possess the means for carrying on research. Hence, research information should come from ad- ministration, child accounting, personnel, the school plant, finance, and both administrative and creative instruction. It is the duty of the superintendent to utilize research information from the various sources for appraisal and policy making purposes, the results of which are valuable in public relations. Such a program is justified by the facts that (1) the people have a right to know all the facts concerning the public schools and (2) by the neces- sity for having the public understand the purposes and achievements of the public schools in order that the public may give the schools intelligent and unbiased support. APPROPRIATE FORMS OF PUBLICITY FOR PROMOTING THE BEST INTERESTS OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS THROUGH EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. DANIEL J. KELLY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BINGHAMTON, N. Y. "You can go just so far with any public question as public opinion will support you," is one of the many wise sayings credited to Abraham Lin- coln. In recent times we have seen the same idea brought into practical use in the business world. The most significant slogan of modern business is "Satisfied customers are our best advertisement." To develop confidence, therefore, is the great task confronting those who would satisfactorily fill places of leadership or carry on to success any undertaking, and in no place is the potency of this responsibility more apparent than in the greatest and most vital of all public institutions, the public schools. The question before the house then becomes, "How can we best develop and maintain public confidence?" Generally speaking, by causing people Department of Superintendence 225 to believe in us. Taxpayers, patrons, children and workers in our profes- sion must be satisfied that the returns they are receiving in the quality, quantity, and mode of service rendered are commensurate to the investment they are making in mone\ , time, energy or talent. Of course, there is ever an attempt on the part of the ignorant demagog, the unscrupulous poli- tician, the narrow bigot, or the plain fool to discredit us on any or all of these points. However, if we are delivering the goods to the satisfaction of those customers who are most vitally interested and who are intelligent enough to appreciate what they are receiving all the pernicious activities of the world, the flesh and the devil cannot prevail against us. True it is that there have been in the past many and today there are some tragic exceptions to this rule, but since in recent times we have es- tablished the fact that our schools are for our children, that their interests are paramount to any other consideration and that we are beginning to meet the needs of these children in a sane and effective manner, the Amer- ican people are becoming more and more sensitive to the welfare of their schools and are manifesting not only a willingness but a most intense and active desire to support them. APPROPRIATE FORMS OF PUBLICITY FOR PROMOTING THE BEST INTERESTS OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS THROUGH EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. JOSEPH H. SAUNDERS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS NEWPORT NEWS, VA. Under present industrial and social conditions any growing, developing expanding business, in fact any going concern must keep its stockholders intelligently informed and well satisfied with the dividends or returns on their investment. When satisfied that his investment is safe, sound, and profitable, the investor does not hesitate to put in whatever additional cap- ital is necessary for growth and progress. Our public school is such a con- cern in which each individual citizen is a stockholder. To secure the finan- cial support necessary to meet the present and ever-increasing demands of a constantly developing business the school must demonstrate to the public that it is paying dividends in producing a healthy, industrious, moral, pa- triotic citizenship with high ideals. I know of no better method of making such a demonstration than through the effective administration of the school system. The city I represent is a concrete example of this fact. Six years ago the schools were in a greatly disorganized state, the board and superin- tendent were at odds, the teachers were separated into antagonistic groups critical of the administration and critical of each other, the people were divided into factions, some favoring this group, others that group, and still others condemning the entire situation. Under such a condition it was impossible for the schools to progress or even to secure proper support. As 226 National Education Association then rated b}' the state department of education, the city, although fourth in population in the state, ranked eighth in the standing of its schools. In this situation the present administration came into existence. There was no blowing of trumpets nor was there any effort made to secure pub- licity by any of the well recognized and appropriate forms of publicity which are regarded as necessary to promote the best interests of city school systems. Instead the administration went quietly to work to har- monize the conflicting elements; to weed out the incompetents and improve the teaching personnel by securing a satisfactory salary scale based on pro- fessional attainments, service, and experience ; to secure needed buildings and equipment ; to enlarge play facilities ; to broaden and strengthen the curriculum, and in some measure to provide for the mentally handicapped children. The result has been that in six years the schools have advanced in the rating by the state department of education from eighth to third place, the school property has increased in value 300 percent, the annual expenditure for schools has increased 43 percent, the teaching corps has greatly increased in the percentage of college graduates, and the entire corps is working to improve its professional standing, for the first time in its history it has almost 100 percent membership in the National Educa- tional Association, its morale has improved to such an extent that there is scarcely a teacher in the corps who will not defend the administration from outside adverse critical comment, and the schools have the confidence and support of a large and influential majority of the citizens. In an\' community the teaching corps comes into such contact with ten or more percent of the adult population that they may largely shape the opinion of this considerable group of citizens. If the administration has the confidence of the teachers, if they are loyal, and if they are kept in- formed by the administration of its aims and objectives, they become the most potent factor in promoting the administration's program. Conversely, if the teachers lack confidence in the administration, if they are lacking in loyalty, and if they are lacking in information, they can and usually do nullify the best laid plans of the administration. By means of bulletins, group conferences and personal interviews, the superintendent can keep his teachers informed, advised, encouraged and stimulated to the point where they will obtain satisfactory results with the pupils committed to their care.* A satisfied customer is the best possible advertisement for any mercantile establishment. A satisfied patron is the best publicity exponent of any school system. PRESENT PROBLEMS IN ADULT EDUCATION— JTEM^- POINT OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT I,. R. ALDERMAN, SPKCL-XLIST IN ADULT EDUCATION, U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Adult education in this country is not new. All educated mature men and women have continued their education. "When a man ceases to edu- Department of Superintendence 227 cate himself he ceases to be educated." The term "adult education" is new. In general it means the education of grown men and women who, during their leisure time, pursue it under some guidance and in more or less continuous and consecutive manner. There is no agreement, so far as I know, as to the age when adult edu- cation begins. There is, perhaps, a tendency to have the term apply to those beyond compulsory school age who, for any reason, have discontinued regular schooling. Our biggest present problem in adult education is. How can we best take advantage of this leisure and the desire for learning? The evening school program offers the natural solution for elementary and secondary phases of adult education. On the one hand we have the desire to learn and the time for it. On the other hand we have the teach- ers, the buildings, and the organization that are essential to provide to mil- lions these tool subjects by which they may acquire education. Some of you have six times as large a percent of your population in evening schools as others have. Some of you have taken the evening school as one of your real opportunities for service and have found that this service is appreciated and that it gives strong support to every other phase of your educational program. The public schools, by furnishing this elementary and secondary education do their part. The colleges, universities, and other agencies of education then can do their part toward a complete program of adult edu- cation. We are more or less shocked at the showing which our drafted men made, jTt we know that never before in the history of the nation was the percent of illiteracy so low as it is today. Never before did we have so large a percent of our young people in school. Then why make all this noise about adult education? One answer is that never before did we realize that our functional literacy is so low. But the real answer is that adults are asking for educational opportunity. This no doubt is due to the fact that they have more leisure than ever before. The disillusionment of the World War has aroused millions of people who seek to discover the purposes of life. Our highly involved life demands education. Psychologists have told us that adults can learn. We saw on all sides evidences of this fact but we needed to be told by scientific men that the ability to learn did not stop when the human brain had reached its maximum size and weight. Teachers testify that it is refreshing, even after a hard day's work, to teach mature people because the work is in such contrast to that of teaching children who, in many cases, are surfeited with instruction. We have come to the time in our national history when the slogan "Edu- cate all of the children of all of the people" is not sufficient. We have not reached all of the children of all of the people and, partly on this ac- count, we should now offer the rudiments of education to all of those who have been neglected. 1 say parth on this account because even if we had succeeded in teaching all of the children there would still be need for the 228 National Education Association education of adults. When all of our people have acquired elementary and secondary education then will they have the educational tools neces- sary to continue their education in keeping with the opportunities offered in a great democracy. PRESENT PROBLEMS IN ADULT EDUCATION— VIEW- POINT OF THE STATE ROBERT C. DEMING, STATE DIRECTOR OF ADULT EDUCATION FOR CONNECTI- CUT, HARTFORD, CONN. Adult education is a barometer of the idealism of a nation's educators. The nation prospers or falls according to the ability of all its adults to read simple fourth-grade English with understanding. The problem is a great one in figures and in methods. Opportunities for citizenship train- ing must be offered to adults in hundreds of cities which now foolishly pride themselves on their good schools even when illiteracy steadily in- creases. What does it behoove a city to be 100 percent efficient in the education of its children if it lose in the race with illiteracy among adults? We must rededicate ourselves to the philosophy of education in a de- mocracy and in modern terms. A coordinated program must be offered — a peoples university giving the adult the curriculum subjects he needs, and offering him at minimum expense the extracurriculum subjects he de- sires. In 1930 we are striving for a literacy list in English in the U. S. Cen- sus, and we confer with the census advisory board and Mr. Hoover this summer for the nation's first great educational census. Adult education requires ideals and leadership, a leadership that says 'Tollow me" not "Where are we going?" A state's educational objective should be the greatest number of edu- cated adults who continue educated. ADULT EDUCATION FROM THE CITY SUPERINTEND- ENT'S POINT OF VIEW W. J. BICKETT, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TRENTON, N. J. In the past the preservation of national ideals and culture has been chiefly identified with schooling of childhood, but current opinion includes the education of adults as a public responsibility. The conscious educational program of every city bears indications that taxpayers and boards of edu- cation are increasingly looking to the public schools for assistance in the matter. For purposes of analysis, the policies relating to adult education may be classified under three headings: First, those activities which are voca- tional in nature and assist in making a living; second, those which are Department of Superintendence 229 cultural and have as their aim "how to live a life"; and third, those types of adult education, commonly called "Americanization." While recognizing the need for more technical schools, more mechanics' institutes and more high grade business colleges, yet training in the art of living constitutes the most essential phase of adult education. It is increasingly recognized that the school is a most effective agency in social progress and that the factor of age is only incidental to the broader aspects of education. Public expenditure for the education of adults is dependent on the acceptance of this principle. Taxation has been suggested as the one adequate means of financing adult education. There is an increasing tendency among state supported institutions to impose fees upon students in the field of higher education; in the field of elementary evening and extension schools, however, the opposite theory holds. It is advocated that federal grants be made for in- struction in basic literacy and naturalization work; that state appropria- tions care for adult education not of that group previously informed per- taining to health, sanitation, child hygiene, and responsibilities of parent- hood; that local taxation cover the costs of upgrading vocational training; and that small fees be charged for the time being for courses in adult education for living a life. SOME MUNICIPAL ASPECTS OF ADULT EDUCATION C. S. MARSH, DIRECTOR OF THE BUFFALO SURVEY OF ADULT EDUCATION AND THE EVENING SESSION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF BUFFALO, N. Y. Adult education falls into two classes, formal and informal. The formal education is carried on in the schools ; the informal is carried on in mu- seums, art galleries and by libraries, and most cities are making more or less adequate provision for the informal types of education. Further, the city recognizes the need of the adult for recreation and provides for him recreational opportunities in public parks. But by and large, municipalities are failing to make adequate use of plants and facilities already existing, for the further formal training of the adult. Probably every municipality represented in this group is doing something for the further education of its adults. No doubt, every munici- pality here represented could do a great deal more. According to the United States Census, 1920, 41 percent of our entire population is 19 years of age or younger. This includes approximately 9 percent which is within the high-school age (14 to 18). Why should the 59 percent beyond this age, only a slight proportion of whom (about 1 percent) go on to college, be denied the use of these school facilities dur- ing their spare hours? Why should a city like Buffalo, for instance, budget for next year over $1,000,000 on public parks, and playgrounds, $112,000 on museums and art galleries, $400,000 on public libraries, and then seek to reduce the funds available for the adult education program from 230 National Education Association $432,000 recommended hy the superintendent, to a mere $150,000? Is it of so little consequence that the adult should receive formal training for the more effective use of his leisure time, for better understanding of social, economic, and civic responsibility ? I believe that the answer is no. I believe that the education of the adults is of great consequence. The law has made us pay attention to the school needs of the child and the adolescent ; public interest has long recognized the wisdom of collecting the treasures of art, science, and history in galleries and museums ; and those interested in city planning and city beautification as well as those recognizing the recreational needs of the masses have seen to it that fairly adequate park areas have been established, and I have no quarrel with this. But few seem to be vitally concerned with the formal training of the adult who is beyond compulsory school age. The child has nothing to do but go to school. It does not follow, however, that childhood is the only learning time, though we have harbored that idea for many years. SPECIAL CLASSES AND CHILD ADJUSTMENT LOUIS P. BENEZET^ superintendent of schools^ MANCHESTER^ N. H. Ungraded rooms were first established in the Manchester schools in 1924. At first, pupils of different types were sent to these rooms and were sent under varying conditions. It frequently happened that two or three pupils in one grade were able to do normal work in all subjects save one. An arrangement was made by which they recited with their regular classes in all the other subjects, but went to the ungraded room teacher for special help in this one study. In some cases they took double work in this subject, reciting both with the class and as a small group to the ungraded room teacher. In like fashion, pupils who had been absent through illness for several weeks went for special help to the ungraded room teacher, these special help lessons ceasing as soon as the work which they had missed had been covered. In other cases, large or over-aged children (who had come to Manchester from overseas or from schools where they had not received proper atten- tion, but who were possessed of average intelligence) were seated for a term at a time in the ungraded room, and, in many cases, through the special individual attention given them by the teacher, covered two or even three semesters' work in one. The establishment of such a room is often hampered by lack of space in the building. I have found, however, that the regular teachers fre- quently were glad to take four or fwe additional pupils, if in exchange they were allowed to get rid of two or three mental defectives. In other words, a teacher will far rather teach forty-four normal, fairly homogene- ous children than a group of thirty-seven, two of whom are abnormal and out of step with the rest of the class. Department of Superintendence 231 Frequently 1 have been able to assign a teacher part time ungraded work. For example, at present in two of our schools there are teachers who have onh eighteen pupils regularly enroled instead of the customary thirty- eight. These eighteen are in one homogeneous section which occupies only half of the teacher's time. The other half of her day is spent in giv- ing help to pupils who are sent in from other rooms for this purpose. In 1924, fifty-one percent of the children in the Manchester grades were retarded. In many cases this was not due to the public schools them- selves, but to the fact that children had transferred from schools conducted largely in some foreign language. However, at the end of two years, thanks largely to the work of the ungraded rooms, this percentage had been reduced to forty. Meanwhile the number of accelerated children had gone up from three percent to nearly ten. One teacher, in a building hous- ing some six hundred pupils, used to meet and help seventy-two pupils a day. It was noteworthy that this school made the biggest change in its figures of retardation and acceleration. ORGANIZATION OF CLASSES FOR SUBNORAL^L CHIL- DREN IN BRIDGEPORT JOHN A. YOUNG, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS BRIDGEPORT, CONN. The first class for subnormal children was organized in Bridgeport in 1910 under the direction of Dr. Deane. This class numbered nearly forty pupils not all of whom were mentally subnormal. Before the close of the year, however, the size of the class was reduced to 25. Today we have 21 of these classes with an average enrolment of 18 or a total of 375 pupils all of whom are mentally subnormal. This number represents about 1.7 percent of the total elementary school registration. There is still need for 5 additional classes. Teachers employed have had special preparation consisting of advanced courses in psychology, physical training, handwork, and successful teach- ing experience before entering this field. In addition to the qualification necessary for certification these teachers continue study of problems related to this work. At present each teacher is making case studies of certain pupils in her class seeking causal factors and possible remedies. Salary maximums are greater than the maximum of regular teachers of the same training which gives a maximum of approximately $2300. The main objectives are : 1. A happy school experience for each child. This we consider to be the most fundamental of all our objectives for these children, since they have a most limited capacity to do the normal school work, or to engage in most of the activities of the normal child. 2. The special class aims to produce correct social adjustment and since these children are with the teachers through practically all of their school experience, correct behavior and those ideals and attitudes which contribute mt)st to the 232 National Education Association pupils' own happiness and to those about him become pretty well fixed before they leave school. 3. Achievement in school subjects so far as it is possible for each one to go. Probabl)' more emphasis is placed upon reading than upon any other one subject since we feel that if these children acquire fourth or fifth grade ability to read they may derive much pleasure and profit in the future. 4. Teachers try to discover the special aptitudes and abilities so that they may strengthen the interest of these children in the things that they seem able to do best. THE IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE THROUGH THE SALARY SCHEDULE FRANK W. BALLOU, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. C. The obligation of the teacher to keep herself qualified to render in- creasingly effective service throughout her period of employment is no greater than the obligation of the public to reward adequately such im- provement. Teaching must offer inducements to young men and women of exceptional natural ability to enter the profession. The public should provide for the teacher a satisfactory salary schedule, possibilities of additional reward in that schedule for increased prepara- tion and unusual teaching accomplishments, security of position during efficient service, and a satisfactory retiring annuity in old age or in the case of disability. The public should expect improvement among the members of the teaching profession only when it establishes worthy motives for selfimprovement and an income for the teacher sufficient to cover the cost of that improvement. As an inducement for the teacher to improve in her work, and as a con- dition which must be met before the public has a right to insist upon self- improvement among teachers, the salary schedule is of fundamental im- portance. An adequate salary schedule should include the following: 1. A beginning or minimum salary adequate to induce capable young men and women to make satisfactory academic and professional preparation to enter the teaching profession as a life work. 2. A provision for placement for previous service in teaching that encourages teachers of experience and proven merit to seek employment on an advanced salary. 3. Provision for annual increases in compensation sufficient to prompt teachers to continue in the teaching profession. 4. A maximum salary which shall constitute more than a living wage and suffi- ciently high to make it unnecessary for a first class teacher to seek administrative or supervisory work exclusively for financial reasons. 5. Provision for higher compensation to the teacher for unusual or exceptional preparation for her work or superior ability in the art of teaching. 6. Provision for leave with part pay for professional study. A salary schedule which is characterized by these elements will justify persons of unusual ability in entering the profession, will reward them for service faithfully rendered, and will give financial recognition to superior ability and accomplishment. Department of Superintendence 233 THE IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE THROUGH THE SALARY SCHEDULE W. F. WEBSTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. It appears to be agreed that teachers can improve during service. Water is needed if a boy is to learn to swim ; a machine will not answer. A class is needed if one is to learn to teach; books will not suffice. It may be assumed with safety that teachers learn more in the first year of service than they ever did at school or college. Dame Experience still presides over the most efficient school ; and it should be the aim of every superintendent to make this school alluring. The danger always is that when a passing degree of efficiency has been reached, satisfaction will set in, which re- sults in psycho-paralysis. Minneapolis adopted a single salary schedule six years ago. It is not as extended as some. That is, there are only two classes of teachers ; class one, those who have two years of training beyond high school ; and class two, those who have had four years of training beyond high school. The salary for class one begins at $1200, and advances to $2000; the salary for class two begins at $1500 and runs up to $2500. The board has adopted higher maxima, but they have not been paid ; the necessary funds have not been allowed by the board of estimate. Has anything resulted from this schedule? It should be remembered that a great university is placed in our city, and every possible considera- tion is given to the teachers' requirements. Classes are scheduled for teach- ers late in the afternoon and on Saturday mornings. Teachers by the hundreds avail themselves of these fine opportunities. Just how many more are there only because they seek the salary of the second classification, no one knows ; but no everyday human being can ignore the fact that an increment of $500 to one's annual pay checks has some influence on human behavior. To make a comparison: Six years ago, before this schedule was adopted, there were 28 with university degrees in the elementary schools; this year there are 38, 1 in the kindergarten and 37 in grades 1-6. Again the records show that 20 have passed from class one to class two in the last six years. It would seem that the root of all evil has been productive of some good, in spite of its unenviable reputation. Minneapolis has not carried the salary schedule beyond the B. A. degree. And for this reason : I doubt whether an increase of efficiency for ele- mentary or high school instruction due to a master's degree can be proved. Another powerful influence in Minneapolis is a sabbatical leave. This is granted by us after ten years of service, and gives the recipient half pay for five months. I think it should be for a year. This rest from active service has been a wonderful boon to many weary people, and often it has sent them forward to a flying start to a higher goal. Each year there are fifteen to twenty of our teachers enjoying the generous consideration of the city. 234 National Education Association THE IMrROl'EMENT OF TEACHERS IN SERflCE THR O U GH DEM ONS TRA TI ON CLASSES ISAAC O. WINSLOW, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PROVIDENCE, R. I. The fact that the city of Providence has a part in the conference upon platoon schools is especially significant since in the past, in common with other New England cities, it has had a reputation for old-fashioned methods in the organization and management of its public schools. One of the chief results of a reform movement has been the general adoption of the platoon plan for elementar}^ schools. The change has been almost en- tirely free from stress and opposition. Its adoption for each school sepa- rately has been in accordance with the free choice of the principal and the teachers. After two years of experience, a questionnaire sent to two hundred pla- toon teachers, calling for frank comments and criticisms, brought forth hearty expressions of approval without a single unfavorable opinion. A comparison of relative current expenditures indicates a slightly greater per capita cost in platoon schools than in other similar schools upon the old plan, but the increased length of the school day in the platoon schools is more than an offset for this difference, although the platoon teachers receive the higher salaries. In a consideration of the total comparative expensiveness, the overhead cost of the school plants for the two plans should not be overlooked. The constant presence of classes on the playgrounds, in physical training rooms, in assembly halls, and in other parts of the platoon building has the effect of materially reducing the per capita cost. In regard to results accomplished, the platoon schools show a low per- cent of failures, both in comparison with other similar schools and in comparison with the failures in the same schools before the adoption of the plan. It is the unanimous opinion that in many other particulars, that cannot be definitely measured, the results produced in the platoon school are decidedly superior. ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENTS AND THEIR DUTIES F. E. WILLARD, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SEATTLE, WASH. Many problems in the administration of city school systems grow out of the fact that their activities are steadily becoming more numerous and more complex; the more they are responsive to progressive educational tendencies, the more diverse become the services undertaken and the more difficult to direct their separate activities and evaluate their results. In the growth of cities, a time soon comes when efficiency requires some division of administrative labor. The supervisory function of administra- tion is the first to be delegated. So long as the purpose of education was conceived to be purely intellectual and pupils all of about the same pattern, the administrative organization could be comparatively simple. With the Department of Superintendence 235 help of supervisors, superintendents in all but the largest cities (.ould com- mand the educational situation with some dej2:ree of success. When edu- cational endea\or became distinctively social in its outlook, as it is today, and educational research showed the necessity of approaching problems of organization and administration in a scientific attitude, successful man- agement required a further division of executive duties. The rapid growth of cities accentuated this necessity. The position of assistant superin- tendent, therefore, developed out of a "felt need." It is a late product of organic evolution in school administration. The recency of its de- velopment becomes evident if one refers to the school codes of the dif- ferent states for some reference to it. State school laws are quite prompt to give statutory recognition to new types of organization that experi- ment discovers and experience finds desirable. However, of 39 states from which reports were received, approximately 80 percent of them are still legally unconscious of the position of assistant superintendent, or at any rate, do not specifically refer to it in their school laws. Several of these have no cities large enough to require assistant superintendents. In the others, school boards infer the authority to appoint assistant superintend- ents from general provisions of the law giving them authority to provide for the management and supervision of schools. Consequently, the de- velopment of the position has been almost entirely unaffected by legal restrictions or definitions of duties. Even in the rules and regulations of the different cities employing assistant superintendents, little attempt has been made to describe their duties, except in a few cities that are subject to special charter regulation. The name of the position is perhaps its best definition, and itself suggests wide latitude. There has apparently been no thought of standardization in the assignment of duties to newly created assistant superintendents, but each city has shaped the functions of the position to the immediate local needs that suggested its creation. All sorts of supervisory and administrative duties are attached to the office in different cities. The statement, "He shall perform such duties as may be assigned him by the superintendent of schools," is widely applicable. It suggests that practically any duty that devolves upon the superintend- ent's office, except perhaps that of working with the board on major policies, may be assigned to an assistant superintendent for initial con- sideration or final adjustment. The assistant superintendent is variously referred to as the "representative of the superintendent," the "field officer of the superintendent," or as assistants w'hose function is, as Dr. Bobbitt expresses it in the Denver Survey, "to build out the personality of the superintendent," so that the superintendent may, through them, "provide that leadership and stimulation needed ... by the various building principals of the city ; and needed in part even by the supervisors of special subjects." It was suggested that this discussion might be comprehensive enough to include the duties commonly associated with the position of assistant superintendent in the larger cities of the United States. In following this suggestion, the term assistant superintendent will be used in an inclu- 236 National Education Association sive wa_v, to represent a relationship designated by several titles. Assistant superintendent, first assistant superintendent, deputy' superintendent, and associate superintendent are terms used in different cities to express about the same functional relationship in the system, although any one of the last three when used with the first, may indicate a distinction in rank and administrative assignment. All are included in this discussion without any attempt at a segregation of duties. District superintendents, who seem to occupy a more distinct field, are not included. Two years ago, Dr. Fred Ayer, now" of the University of Texas, but then director of the department of research in the Seattle Schools, made a study of the organization of supervision in the schools of 44 cities of 100,000 or more population. Among the material collected for analysis, were reports from 55 assistant superintendents, containing lists of the duties performed by them. Having before him a lengthy summary of these lists, Dr. Ayer commented : "So divergent are the duties assigned to different assistant superintendents in different parts of the United States, that it is impossible to generalize wndely concerning them." In considering an approach to the present discussion of this subject, it seemed that a further collection of such lists of duties at this time would not be profitable. It was thought, however, that some common tend- encies might exist in the development of the position as cities grow in size and their administrative problems increase. Accordingly, the super- intendents of cities having 100,000 or more population were asked for information concerning (1) the organization of their staffs, and (2) the extent of the responsibility placed upon assistants in the execution of a few selected administrative functions. The second part of the inquiry was thus limited to make the returns in some degree comparable. It had reference to the duties of the position, rather than the duties of individuals. Replies, more or less complete, were received from 43 cities. The first point of the inquiry was to find out what general relation prevails between the size of cities and the number of assistant super- intendents employed. Ayer's report stated that "There seems to have been no particular stage of city growth which has indicated the need for the addition of an assistant superintendent to the superintendent's staff. Cities have usually added one assistant soon after reaching the 100,000 mark, and there has been something of a tendency, up to certain limits, to add another for each 100,000 increase of population." The rapid growth of cities makes a comparison based on the 1920 census unsatisfactory. It would seem that present school enrolment might be a better basis to use in considering the stages that seem to suggest an increase in the number of assistants. Answers to the inquiry concerning the number of assistant, deputy, and associate superintendents employed were listed in order according to size of school enrolment. So arranged, cities having assistants fall into three groups. The first is a group of sixteen cities, ranging in school enrolment from 16,000 to 30,000. Ten of these report one assistant superintendent. Department of Superintendence 237 four report havin*:; none, the other two have two each. After a city has passed the 30,000 mark in school enrolment, the usual practice is to add one or two assistants. In the second group, where this practice prevails, there are sixteen cities with school enrolments ranging from 32,000 to 70,000. One city in this group has one assistant, one has five, five cities have two, and nine have three. After passing the 70,000 en- rolment mark, the general practice is to employ four or more assistants, the actual number having little relation to comparative size. It is notice- able, however, that cities of more than 100,000 school enrolment show no consistent tendency to increase the number of assistant superintendents in proportion. There are eleven cities in the third group. Going toward the upper end of the scale, the last four in point of size report respec- tively, four, nine, five, and eight. Only five of the cities among those that reported have more than five assistant superintendents. These cities report in all a total of 121 deputy, associate, and assistant superintendents. Nineteen (16 percent) of these are women, 102 (84 percent) are men. The number of assistant superintendents employed in city schools and the number of cities employing assistant superintendents is evidently in- creasing. Most of the increase is in the smaller cities. Ayer reported that nine of 44 cities of 100,000 or more population reporting to him had no assistants. A recent report of the Bureau of Education states that all but six of 53 cities reporting of the same population group, have associate, deputy, or assistant superintendents, while 54 cities of less than 100,000, have such assistance. What kind of previous experience or preparation do the duties of assistant superintendent require ? What type of ability is most needed ? Superintendents were asked whether the work they expected of an assist- ant required more of ( 1 ) general administrative understanding and ability, or (2) general supervisory skill and knowledge of teaching technic, or (3) special preparation for some particular type of service. Thirty-nine replied. Eight placed general administrative ability first, eight placed supervisory skill first, six stressed administrative ability and supervisory skill equally, five required special ability in all three directions, while three combined ability in supervision with preparation for specialized service. Altogether, administrative ability was named alone or in com- bination with others 28 times; supervisory skill, 25 times; and prepara- tion for special types of service, 14 times. Considered in three groups, according to size of system, superintendents of the first group placed supervisory skill first, and administrative ability -second, in the ratio of nine to seven ; in the other two groups, the ratio is about the same, but reversed. The third group placed a little more emphasis upon administra- tive ability' than the second. Preparation for specialized service is named as a primary qualification more frequently in the larger systems, where dis- tinct types of work may be assigned to dififerent assistant superintendents. It is recognized that the value of the information to be gained from such an inquiry as this is limited by the fact that there is in practice 238 National Education Association little or no attempt to discriminate between administration and super- vision in thinking of executive functions. Both are necessary and are combined without thought of distinction in the actual execution of plans. Consequently, similar situations may be interpreted differently by different superintendents. The replies with which we are dealing show some evi- dence of this. Further light on the kind of preparatory experience desired in assistant superintendents may be inferred from the positions held by those now in service at the time of their appointment. In 39 cities employing 119 assistant superintendents, 84 percent (99) had been promoted to their positions from within the corps; only 16 percent had been selected from out- side the corps. Further reports on 99 of these showed that 42 percent (40) came to their present positions from elementary school principalships, 21 percent (20) from high-school principalships, 16 percent (16) from the superintendency of smaller systems, and 21 percent from a variety of other sources, for the most part from within the system. These include such positions as assistant principal, junior high-school principal, office assistant to the superintendent, teacher training work, vocational school work, high-school teaching, etc. While university training is frequently mentioned as an element that had weight in influencing the choice, there is little tendency to take candidates whose academic preparation is not confirmed by experience in the system. It appears that superintendents, when selecting assistants, are not looking so much for those who will introduce new departures or different points of view, as for those who understand the system as it is, and can help in its administration along familiar lines. For purposes of administration, some cities are divided into convenient administrative districts wnth an assistant superintendent in charge of each. There is, however, a noticeable tendency toward a different type of organization. When one assistant is employed, the most frequent assign- ment is to the elementary grades. As more assistants are added, the tend- ency is to divide the system horizontally into administrative divisions, such as high school, junior high school, and elementary school, with special and auxiliary services either distributed to different divisions or provided for under additional assistants. This type prevails in some of the larger cities, such as Cleveland and Detroit, each of which has four assistant superintendents. In Cleveland, "the first assistant has entire charge and responsibility for the senior high schools, as well as the work of the directors of English, music, industrial arts, and physical welfare ; the second is in charge of all junior high schools; the third is in charge of elementary schools, and general supervisors; and the fourth clears the work of most of the auxiliary divisions and bureaus, such as educational research, health training, psychological examiners, attendance, child ac- counting, clerical and library service." In Detroit, "the deputy superin- tendent has general responsibility under the superintendent, and has special charge of elementary schools, and of the building program, super- Department of Superintendence 239 vision, research, and teacher training; one assistant has charge of per- sonnel, appointment of teachers, etc.; one has charge of intermediate and high scliools ; and one has charge of educational expenditures, the budget, attendance, statistics, publications, and reference." Ayer's study of supervision led him to the conclusion "that it appears unnecessary to divide the educational work of a city school system into more than five major divisions on the basis of general systematic duties which are purely administrative in character." The organization of ad- ministration he had in mind would include an elementary school division, a junior high-school division, a senior high-school division, an extension division, and a special service division. Since an important function of the superintendent's staff is to provide leadership in line with admins- tration policies, and to secure the harmonious coordination of all the activities of the system, there are some obvious advantages in having a small group working in intimate understanding of the whole situation. Concerning the lists of selected administrative duties referred to, ques- tions were asked to ascertain whether superintendents expected their assistants to make recommendations to them and give advice that would aid them to make the necessary executive decisions incident to the per- formance of these duties, or whether they expected their assistants to assume personal responsibility for their performance ; that is, to make decisions on their own authority that would ordinarily be accepted as final in representing the superintendent's department. The first list was composed of duties almost purely administrative, such as the prepa- ration of the budget, approval of plans and equipment of new buildings, selection and apportionment of supplies, approval of changes in the or- ganization of school instruction, textbook changes, school boundaries, printing and publicity, disciplinary appeals, public relations, supervision of clerical help, etc. Because in present practice administrative responsi- bility is so often cooperative and the extent of duties undefined, the answers to these questions were often indefinite. Moreover, replies from some cities were in general form and did not attempt to answer the ques- tions directly. However, two things seem to stand out rather clearly. In most of the systems having one assistant superintendent, administrative matters are usually referred to the superintendent for decision. In the larger systems, while assistant superintendents assume more personal re- sponsibility, this varies greatly in different systems and with respect to particular items. In personnel management, which includes the selection, assignment, rating, and elimination of teachers, principals, and supervisors; and in the direction of activities that affect the general character of instruction, such as curriculum changes, research and testing programs, remedial and follow- up work, and the determination of general supervisory purposes and objectives, the load carried by assistant superintendents also varies greatly from system to system. In general, the assistant superintendent in the smaller cities seems to act chiefly in an advisory capacity. Replies gathered 240 National Education Association on these points seem to indicate that until enrolment reaches about 45,000, superintendents, while seeking advice and counsel from members of their staff, tend to reserve the making of most of the decisions affecting per- sonnel to themselves. Under the pressure of increasing size, there appears the tendency to delegate to assistant superintendents, first, the determina- tion of the efficiency of teachers and principals, together with some activi- ties that affect the general character of instruction, such as testing and follow-up work ; then follows greater responsibility for the selection and assignment of teachers; then direction of curriculum changes and the determination of general supervisory programs; and finally the selection and assignment of principals and supervisors. Decisions affecting princi- pals and supervisors are sometimes, and probably usually, made by the superintendents in conference. Reports on the degree of an assistant superintendent's responsibility for the improvement of teachers and principals in service show greater accord than on any other phase of this inquiry. The size of the system makes less difference. Both directly and indirectly, through personal supervision, and, in the larger systems, through a supervisory staff report- ing to them, with few exceptions, assistant superintendents are responsible for promoting the work of developing teachers and principals. It appears, therefore, that the large purpose that most frequently has led to the crea- tion of the first assistant superintendency in a growing city, continues to hold a dominating place among the duties that accumulate around the office. The special and auxiliary activities of school systems having 40,000 or more enrolment are usually under the direction of assistant superintend- ents. In some cities, they constitute the major responsibility of one or more assistants, who in consequence have a limited responsibility for general supervision. The relation of assistant superintendent to the superintendent of schools seems to be quite stable ; his relation to other divisions of the corps seems to be in state of transition as cities increase in size. Supervisors and directors perform many administrative duties in con- nection with their special subjects. When the first assistant superintend- ent is added, in the majority of cases as noted, it is primarily to provide for the supervision of academic subjects in the elementary grades. In the smaller administrative organizations, the supervisors are usually con- sidered a part of the superintendent's immediate staff, and report direct to him. In the reports received by Ayer from supervisors and directors, 40 percent of them stated that their relation to the principal of the school when visiting was that of an assistant superintendent, and 65 percent of them stated that they were directly responsible only to the superintendent. As a system increases in size and the superintendent's time is more fully occiip'ed with the larger policies and issues that arise, such an organiza- tion tends to become loose. This tendency is overcome by making super- visors and heads of special and auxiliary services responsible to assistant Department of Superintendence 241 superintendents. This is the practice in approximately one third of the cities from which reports were received. I^n another third, the assistant superintendent is responsible for the work of supervisors only to the extent of conferring with the superintendent concerning it; while in the other third, he has apparently no responsibility. The extent to which assistant superintendents carry the full responsi- bility for duties assigned to them is usually a matter of mutual under- standing rather than definition. The superintendent is the final authority. The actions of his staff are subject to his approval. The extent to which an assistant superintendent can relieve him of attention to administrative matters will depend upon his attitude toward decisions made by the assistant. The personal relationship existing between the superintend- ents and members of his staff is usually most informal. Many questions that require decisions are talked over and settled through mutual agree- ment. It is the common practice of superintendents to depend upon frequent conferences with their staffs to secure a common viewpoint and a cooperative understanding and support of school policies. A regular weekly conference was reported by more than half of the schools having two or more assistants. In some cases these conferences are of record. The superintendent often includes in this conference with the assistant superintendents certain directors and heads of departments. On the basis of the reports received, an assistant superintendent who would represent the practice that prevails in the largest number of cities of 100,000 or more population may be described about as follows: He would be a man, promoted from within the corps from the principalship of an elementary school. In his selection, equal weight would have been given to his administrative ability and to his supervisory skill and under- standing of teaching technic. He would have the supervision of the ele- mentary schools. He would meet in weekly conference with the superin- tendent and other members of the superintendent's staff. His responsi- bility in the determination of general school policies would extend only to the giving of counsel. In matters of general administration he would have authority to settle routine matters, such as questions arising from the entry, classification, and transfer of pupils; to decide appeals brought to the office; to supervise the clerical force of the central office and in the schools; and to supervise printing and publicity matters. In most other admininstrative matters, he would make recommendations to the superintendent, who would decide what to do. In matters more directly affecting teaching standards, he would give personal attention to building and classroom supervision, and to meetings with teachers and principals; he would direct work in testing activities and would initiate follow-up and remedial measures; he would rate the efficiency of teachers and prin- cipals, and finally, he would have the direction or supervision of several auxiliary or extension services. He would be asked to advise only con- cerning the selection, assignment, and retention of teachers, principals, and 242 National Education Association supervisors, and to make recommendations to the superintendent con- cerning curriculum changes and supervisory service. A questionnaire, however, discloses little besides mechanism. There is another side. An assistant superintendent's duties should be considered qualitatively as well as quantitatively. Whatever their form or extent, there are certain attributes that belong to all. An industrial age has found no way to minimize the personal element in education. A corps of teachers is highly sensitive to the influences emanating from the central office. It is essential that those influences be both dynamic and har- monious. Leadership that is educationally effective must be both wel- come and constructive. Successful administration looks first to the sources of its influence. It has been my own experience that the spirit that emanates from the superintendent's conference is felt to the most remote parts of the system. In Seattle, the superintendent's conference is held every Monday morning. It is probably much like similar meetings elsewhere. It includes three assistant superintendents, the director of primary methods, and the director of intermediate grade methods. Matters of all kinds are discussed with the utmost informality. There is entire freedom of speech. Plans are proposed and procedures suggested. Opposing views are expressed and may be defended vigorously. In the end, issues have to be settled. The common judgment is evoked. Under the superintendent's guidance, a decision is reached. Differences then cease. All unite in genuine sup- port of decisions reached. There are no issues taken outside the confer- ence iroom. In similar manner, the results of investigations and reports are con- sidered and their implications studied. Conclusions are not reached hastily, but when reached, they are given the weight they deserve in affecting the directive influences that flow from the superintendent's office. The purpose is to make dynamic every useful suggestion of im- portance, to transform it into action which represents, not the opinion of an individual, but the policy of the system. The conference serves another very practical purpose. The superin- tendent, whose time is necessarily occupied largely with general adminis- trative policies and measures that are receiving the attention of the board, is nevertheless required continually to meet all kinds of minor issues. He has need to be reliably informed concerning the personnel and accom- plishments of the corps — to have knowledge, not only of the quality of services rendered, but of incidental and special activities that are sig- nificant. Misconceptions that arise on the outside from partial or dis- torted information often are brought first to his attention. The stability of progressive measures is best insured by a preliminary frank and open discussion of their merits. It is essential that all discussions of the conference be unreserved, that they be sincere, and that they be impersonal ; for the spirit of the conference sets standards that are carried out from it into general super- visory and executive relationships. A school system is many sided, but Department of Superintendence 243 its directing heads need to acknowledge a common educational creed. Executive strength flows from the certainty that rests on comprehensive, joint understanding. This requires the pooling and sharing of the best thought of those who lead. in this situation an assistant superintendent's duty is one of impersonal cooperation — impersonal in the sense that the welfare of the system is the primary object of concern. Such cooperation is inconsistent with the assumption of proprietary rights in ideas or measures. The position is not satisfying to one who is more interested in gaining credit or recogni- tion than in getting things accomplished. The work is of the building rather than the promoting type. The shaping of a really fine and vital force which expresses itself through a responsive professional spirit in the teaching corps is one of the most worthy purposes that any school adminis- tration may hold. Such a professional spirit is not secured by request or bought with a salary. It is born of an enthusiasm awakened by a per- ception of spiritual values that may be found in daily work with children. It is sustained by satisfaction in accomplishment that receives generous but discriminating and constructive encouragement. The absence of such spirit is the cause of the most serious systemic ills that afflict the schools. An assistant superintendent's first duty, then, is to interpret school pro- grams and purposes in terms that lift them above the merely mechanical, the routine, and the incidental ; to give to principals and teachers a sense of confidence in themselves and freedom to be guided by fundamental principles rather than fixed rules; and to make conditions favorable so far as possible for satisfactory work. The value of any administrative act is measured by the degree in which it favorably affects teaching situations. The problem of securing its authentic translation in terms of school and classroom regime is a phase of administrative technic in which leadership is most in evidence. An active professional spirit in the corps of principals is the first essential to any adequate support of a progressive program. There is no real sub- stitute for this. A genuine responsiveness of such a kind on the part of the principals insures a sympathetic and constructive interpretation of administrative intentions. In the system with which I am most familiar, meetings with the prin- cipals, which are attended also by the supervisors, are held twice each month on Monday afternoons following a superintendents' morning con- ference. The superintendent of schools and each member of his staff dis- cuss with the principals the policies, the principles, and the activities that should receive their special study or attention. Uusually, also, one of the principals is asked to tell of some piece of w^ork or activity which he is known to be conducting with success. These meetings are ordinarily confined to subjects of immediate practical interest. The particular form of administrative organization, however, is not the most important thing. Different cities find different forms equally satis- factory. Yet this may be said of all forms. Every highly developed organization tends to subordinate all other purposes to the perfecting of 244 National Education Association its own machinery. Assistant superintendents are employed to make the organization function more efficiently. This one duty at least they have in common: to command, not be commanded by, the routine demands of this machine, and to make it serve first of all to promote throughout the system those finer human relationships through which alone educa- tion may really serve civilization. THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE CITY DISTRICT S UP ERIN TEN DEN T ARTHUR C. PERRY, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS^ NEW YORK CITY The Status of the city district superintendent derives, as does that of all other administrative positions, from the status of the teacher. Teacher is the generic term coming down from the time when the typical school was the one-room, one-teacher organization. All the functions, powers, duties, rights, and limitations of the present educational managers were vested in this person. The teacher has a fairly definite legal position in the social organization, at least theoretically. He has authority over pupils; he has independence from local interference; he has rights dele- gated him by the sovereignty of the state. All of his authority is inherent in the office of one who, acting approximately but of course not absolutely in loco parentis, directs, instructs, and trains a child or group of children. In the course of time the number of pupils attending a school became too numerous for one teacher to instruct. When a second teacher was employed it became necessary to name an administrative head of the com- bined organization and one of the two teachers was designated as in authority over the other. This inevitably brought about a transfer of certain powers and functions from the one teacher to the other so that the one should be appropriately subordinate to the other. As the school grew, this principal teacher came to have oversight over so many other teachers that he was relieved from classroom instruction and became, in common parlance, not the principal teacher, but the principal. In making this readjustment and creating this new office there was necessarily a further transfer of powers from teacher to principal. Along with the increasing size of individual schools, there developed the grouping of schools into systems. This necessitated the creation of a new position, that of superintendent. Again there was a transfer of authority, yielded by the teacher and principal to the new officer. Thus, in brief, have been derived the powers of the superintendent. Along with the evolution indicated, there has gone what we may call a reversal at certain points. For example, the principal has found himself in command of so large a school that it was necessary for him to have assistants in its management. Thus there was created the position of assistant-to-principal, to whom the principal, in turn, delegated some of his own powers. Correlative with this has been the development, later Department of Superintendence 245 in time, which has made necessary the creation of assistants to the superin- tendent, to whom have been assigned or delegated some of his pow'ers and duties. To arrive in orderly manner at the status of the district superintend- ent, then, it would be necessary but to note the chief functions of the teacher which have passed on to the principal, those which have passed from the principal to the superintendent, and finally those which have been reassigned from the superintendent to his assistants. At first the teacher was supreme in his one-room one-class school. He had comon law authority over pupils by virtue of his relation of teacher to pupil. He had statutory rights which, in general terms, may be stated to have given him absolute power over his pupils. When we say absolute power it is understood, of course, that such power does not involve license to violate the criminal code, although even here we see the statute, in defining assault, often specifically exempting the teacher when he exercises his authority over a pupil by way of a reasonable amount of physical ■ chastisement. When a number of teachers are grouped together in the same building, however, there is a certain common interest established, and the individual teacher must surrender some elements of his supremacy. It is on behalf of this interest that the principal must function. If every one of fifteen teachers, for example, were to teach such subjects as happened to come to mind in such ways as he chose at such time and under such circum- stances as happened to appeal to him there would not be a school, but chaos. The principal then must organize the school so as to coordinate the activities of all the pupils and teachers, correlate the teaching through- out the school into a systematic unit, act as intermediary beween the state and the teachers and between the parents of the pupils and the teachers. These functions of administrative and pedagogic direction are transferred from teacher to principal, and just in the measure that the principal acquires authority the teacher loses it. When the schools are grouped into a system such as a city school or- ganization, powers hitherto exercised by teacher and principal are carried over to the superintendent. He must be empowered to organize curriculums for the system as a unit, to establish uniform regulations in the adminis- tration of all the schools, to train teachers for service and maintain them in service, to be the intermediary between the public of the city and the schools of the city, and, in general, to be the spokesman for the schools and the pleader for their adequate support. Again, just in measure as the superintendent acquires authority, the principal loses that which he in turn received from the teacher. To sum up, a teacher exercising the authority and discretion of the tra- ditional teacher's position may make all necessary reasonable rules respect- ing the work and conduct of pupils. But when there is a principal in the organization, he may, must, and does, overrule the teacher at many points, through regulations which limit the exercise of discretion on the 246 National Education Association part of the teacher. vSimilarl}-, the scliool hoard or its executive officer, the Superintendent of Schools, may limit the discretionary field of the principal. Just how far does this limiting of the subordinate's power extend ? There seems to be an analogy here with the provision of the United States Constitution which settles the boundary between the sovereign states and the federal authority by prescribing that all rights and powers not spe- cifically transferred from the respective states to the federal government remain with the states. Similarly, the principal and the superintendent exercise only those powers that are transferred to them by the statute either directly by specific provision or indirectly through broader powers given by the state to the school board. These powers are by no means constant, and may and do vary from time to time. The state rernains the sole arbiter in this as in all other educational matters. Its constitu- tion provides for the establishment of a system of public schools and places its mandate upon the legislature to carry out this provision. Consequently the state itself, at any time, may either increase or diminish the degree of authority it has extended to school boards, and from school boards on down the line of superintendent, principal, and teacher. In practice we see that the superintendent of schools in the American city functions as the administrator of the schools through being the execu- tive director of a school board composed of laymen. When a city grows, as is the case in many of our present-day cities, so that the demands upon the superintendent become excessive, it is necessary for him to have assist- ants. In a comparatively small city one or two such officers are required. In our largest city there are forty such assistants. New York City can hardly be regarded as typical, but the situation is essentially representative, in theory at least, so that a study of that organization may be of profit. In any case, the functions delegated to an assistant by the superin- tendent may be grouped broadly into two classes — line and staff: the assistant may be assigned to supervision of a geographical unit within the city wherein he is virtually the acting superintendent of schools, or he may be assigned to city-wide duties along particular phases of school work. Possibly this distinction is seen in the different titles — deputy superin- tendent or assistant superintendent on the one hand and district superin- tendent on the other. In New York City the district superintendent, who is primarily a line officer, also serves quite frequently on the staff; that is, he is put on committees for investigation of certain problems common to all schools or he may be assigned to investigation of special phases of school work. Before describing further the work of the New York district superintendent it is necessary to note that this city has what is, I believe, an unique institution — board of superintendents com- posed of the superintendent of schools and eight associate superintendents. These associate superintendents are not merely an advisory group of staff officers, such as may be found in some of the other cities; they form a legally created body that enjoys certain statutory legislative powers. These Department of Superintendence 247 powers arc such that tlic eight associates share with the supcrintciiclent of schools many uf the functions ordinarily exercised solely by a superin- tendent, and have, in effect, the power of veto over many of his acts. It may be noted, in passing, that there is a substantial body of educa- tional opinion that would abolish the board of superintendents, as a board having statutory powers. It is felt it would make for increased efficiency if the associates formed simply a superintendent's cabinet — an advisory body — and were assigned chiefly to staff work, leaving the district super- intendents to cover the detailed field work under the immediate super- vision of the superintendent of schools. The district superintendents, in the language of the bylaws of the board of education, are, "under the direction and supervision of the superin- tendent of schools, assigned to supervise such schools or groups of schools or to such other professional duties as the superintendent of schools shall determine." Within his district each superintendent is, in the words of the superintendent of schools, the "city superintendent for that district." This is a rather academic statement, however, because under the bylaws associate superintendents assigned to divisions "have supervision of the district superintendents and other supervisors in their respective divisions." The practical result is that the district superintendent works with more or less freedom as to details, according to the practice of his particular division superintendent. At the present time there are thirty-two district superintendents, of whom five are assigned to special citj'-wide duties: two to high schools, one each to training schools and the city superintendent's office, to junior high schools, and to continuation schools. The remaining twenty-seven have charge of districts comprising from twenty to forty schools. Each of these has an average of about 1000 teachers and 40,000 pupils — the equivalent of a city the size, for example, of Omaha, Columbus, or Dallas. The functions of the district superintendent extend to all the educa- tional activities of his district. Aside from the senior high schools, super- vised by the two district superintendents with central-office headquarters, he supervises all types of schools — elementary, junior high, continuation, probationary, parental, etc. District superintendents are also assigned to inspection of evening schools, recreation centers, corporate schools, and vacation schools. They also pass upon the cases of those pupils who re- ceive instruction at home, either by private provision by the parents or by assignment of an official home-instruction teacher. Each district superintendent assigned to the field also functions as the adviser to two local school boards, each composed of five local lay mem- bers, and supplementing the authority of the board of education, which is a city-wide body of seven. Local boards meet at least monthly and to them the district superintendent reports on significant matters concerning the schools of the district. He has a voice but not a vote in their pro- ceedings. 248 National Education Association As to the field duties of the district superintendent it may be said in general that all matters in any way concerning the schools of the district clear through his office, ranging from questions concerning buildings and equipment to the interpretation of the course of study and the promo- tion of pupils. The recommendations of the district superintendent are sought and given consideration, usually by courtesy and by departmental practice rather than by any statutory requirement. 1 think it safe to say that, in the great majority of cases, the recommendations of the district superintendent are accepted by his official superiors — the division superin- tendent, the board of superintendents, the superintendent of schools, and the board of education ; he is responsible to no one else in the school system. Considering the duties of the district superintendent in greater detail, they may be grouped into three categories: (1) equipment and organiza- tion, (2) teaching personnel, (3) pupils. In the matter of equipment, the district superintendent reports annually, and intermediately as necessary, on the need for the acquisition of sites for the construction of new buildings. He recommends size of building and the layout of rooms; and passes on proposals for repairs, etc. Textbooks and other supplies are ordered by principals from an open list adopted by the board of education. Requisitions go through the office of the district superintendent, and he is expected to secure "efficient and economical administration of the schools." He recommends the organiza- tion of a new school into grades and classes, and effects the organization by the transfer of pupils from neighboring schools. He passes upon the application of a principal for a change in the organization of his school. In his relations to principals and teachers, the district superintendent is required to "advise and assist" them. All personnel are appointed for a probationary period of three years, continuance in service being condi- tioned on a vote of the board of superintendents. Both principal and district superintendent report on the character of service of these proba- tionary teachers as well as on that of teachers on permanent tenure who are eligible to an annual increment in the salary schedule. In addition to the special reports thus made from time to time, all teachers and prin- cipals are rated annually by the district superintendent. The principal is the only other person who rates teachers. The district superintendent is required to hold conferences of principals monthly and of teachers from time to time. He is obligated to give his special attention to weak and inexperienced teachers. No unsatisfactory rating may be reported by either principal or district superintendent with- out supporting data. It must be shown that the unsatisfactory rating is based on inspection of work during the current term and consultation with the teacher, and that every reasonable effort has been made to assist the teacher to improve her work. District superintendents report teachers and others for unauthorized absence from duty, neglect of duty, incompetency, inefficiency, or conduct Department of Superintendence 249 uiibecominj:; a teacher, or violation of bylaws, rules, or regulations. They prefer charges against teachers when so directed by. the superintendent of schools. They endorse teachers' applications for transfer from school to school. As to pupils, the district superintendent has general oversight over such matters as grading, rating, and promotions. The district superintendent examines into the scholastic progress of pupils. He passes upon principals' recommendations for graduation of pupils from elementary schools and he signs their diplomas. He attends graduation exercises and is usually on the program. The district superintendent inspects the physical conditions governing the welfare of teachers and pupils. He frequently observes fire-drills and advises principals concerning them and other safety measures. A principal has the authority to suspend a pupil for incorrigibility, and it is the district superintendent to whom this suspension is referred. He holds a hearing and disposes of the case by transferring the pupil to another school, or recommending to the superintendent of schools his commitment to a parental school or other institution, or in some other manner. Hearings on nonattendance or truancy, formerly held by the district superintendent, are now conducted by representatives of the Bureau of Attendance. Complaints made by parents concerning treatment accorded their chil- dren in school usually come to the district superintendent, either directly or by reference from the superintendent of schools or other officer. In some cases the district superintendent disposes of the case directly, making any adjustment necessary; in others, he reports his findings back to the officer from whom he received the complaint. Contrasted with the field duties just described, there are the duties of a staff character. Ths association of district superintendents, to which all district superintendents belong, is a non-official body, but is recognized very practically by the superintendent of schools. The superintendent frequently refers matters to either the association or to its president, asking for information, reports, or opinions. Through committees of this asso- ciation or through committees appointed directly by the superintendent of schools, many matters of general import are considered. For example, a committee of district superintendents has been working for over two years on the revision of the elementary-school curriculum. Committees have reported on practically all phases of school administration. They have made surveys of high schools, platoon schools, continuation schools. They cooperated with the school survey committee appointed by the board of education July 18, 1924, which was at work over a period of many months. Finally, attention may be drawn to various documents put forth by the district superintendents association, or by committees thereof, which have appeared as parts of the annual reports of the superintendent of schools, or have been published independently. The most recent of these have been composite digests of the addresses given by district superintend- 250 National Education Association cuts throughout the city on subjects assigned by the superintendent of schools — for 1926, use of voice and the art of questioning; and for 1927, teaching pupils how to study. The 1928 topic is the recently adopted new course of study in literature. THE JOB OF THE CITY ASSISTANT OR DISTRICT S UPERIN TEN DEN T JOHN C. MC GLADE, DEPUTY SUPERINTENDENT, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. In general, it may be said that assistant superintendents do all a superin- tendent is supposed to do with the possible exception of actual meeting with the board of education. This also is done in the absence of the superintendent. The general fields of assistant superintendents within the groupings, elementary schools, junior high schools, senior high schools, special schools and classes, business, personnel, and general, are as varied as the combina- tions of the manifold executive duties will permit. Only twenty-three broad lines of duties were mentioned three or more times by one hundred one assistant superintendents. The five lines of duties most frequently mentioned are in order : Time Duty Reported Supervision 83 Personnel 45 Conferences 42 Administration 33 Curriculum 32 Supervision is mentioned two and one-half times as often as adminis- tration and also receives nearly double the percent of time, 40 percent to 22 percent. However, there is probably a confusion in the use of these terms. There are eighteen different items which rank as first or chief duties among the one hundred one assisting superintendents, respectively. Duties mentioned most often as foremost assignments are in order : Number Chief Duty Reporting Supervision 47 Administration 16 Personnel 9 Curriculum 5 Thirty-one avenues constitute the channels of waste of time, energy, and patience. Those mentioned most often are : Number Wasteful Duties ^ Reporting Interviews 28 Questionnaires 8 Office routine 7 Department of Superintendence 251 No effort was made in this report to treat the qualifications, personal traits, attitudes, or philosophy of the assisting superintendent. However, since he is onl> the extension of the faculties of the superintendent, and since he holds his job simply because the superintendent cannot do every- thing and be everywhere, he is truly an assistant only as he carries out the functions and will of his chief. BUDGETARY PROCEDURE IN RESPECT TO SCHOOL SUPPLIES HAROLD F. CLARK^ PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL FINANCE^ UNIVERSITY OF INDIANA, BLOOMINGTON, IND. Until we get experimental evidence as to what quantity of instructional supplies should be used per child, what methods are schools going to use to estimate instructional supplies for budgeting purposes? In the absence of standard quotas of supplies, determined scientifically, we must use standards built upon the best judgment and practise available. If the teacher is to have the necessary amount of freedom, the original estimate of the supplies needed should be made by her, reviewed by the principal, compiled into one estimate for the building, and then sent to the superintendent's office. In the superintendent's office the teacher's esti- mates should be checked against standard ratios. Any teacher should be allowed more than the standard quota of supplies if she can show that her method of instruction calls for it. This allows freedom and still makes accurate estimates possible. The major step in making budget estimates of school supplies is the one that in many ways is most poorly done, that is, estimating the actual cost of the supplies needed. From widespread evidence it seems that budget estimates of the cost of the supplies are made in the spring and any time after that the supplies may be bought in almost utter disregard of what prices may be. In many ways the purchasing agents or superin- tendents are not to blame. They have no facilities for discovering the trend of the cost of school supplies. Even the most careful purchasing agent with all his other duties cannot follow in detail changes in supply prices. PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT AFFECTING SCHOOL SUPPLIES N. L. MILLS, BUSINESS MANAGER, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, HOUSTON, TEXAS Good school administration demands that every city school system have an absolute independent board of education, elected by a vote of the people. Under the old system of permitting the mayor to appoint the school board, too often have I seen bids opened with some fellow bidding way high, but immediately after the opening and before the award was to be 252 National Education Association made did I begin to get confidential tips as to how powerful Mr. High Man was in the last election. Of course, it naturally follows that the school board should have full authority to employ such administrative officers as are necessary to operate a school system. Members of the board, in my opinion, should never receive remuneration for their services. Employed administrative officers will have the necessary authority dele- gated to them by the board. One or more of them will be charged with the work of purchasing equipment. I do not believe in a purchasing com- mittee of a school board. THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL SUPPLIES ON CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION FREDERICK G. BONSER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY To remedy the almost intolerable bookishness and abstract character of public school education, the use of more adequate material equipment and supplies is essential. In school after school we find children bored almost to melancholy or discouraged to the point of outright failure by having nothing to make their instruction interesting, natural, or meaningful. They afe deluged with books and words, words and books. More than ten percent of the elementary school children in the elementary schools of this country are repeating grades. Most children have little capacity for abstract think- ing. Children can memorize words, and because they do this with some degree of success we fool ourselves into thinking they understand what they memorize and will apply it in life. That there has been an average of 1700 business failures a month in the United States during the last twelve years, and that but little of what students presumably have learned in school is applied in life, are evidences that education must be more con- crete and realistic if it is to be as useful and effective as it should be. Material equipment and supplies should be used for six definite educa- tional purposes: To satisfy and develop manipulative and constructive impulses and abilities. To clarify ideas and illustrate or reveal meanings. To develop investigative curiosity, cultivate a scientific attitude of mind, and provide exploratory experiences for guidance values. To develop creative ability. To cultivate appreciations for the products of the world's work and for the world's workers. To develop useful technic and skills in the activities of daily life. None of these purposes can be realized by instruction depending upon books alone. Public schools still treat children and students too much as if they were all members of a leisure class without practical interests or needs. The Department of Superintendence 253 school is responsible for developing abilities to meet the real and practi- cal problems of everyday life with efficiency, economy, and safety, as well as to provide for the more purely cultural phases of life. Abundant supplies of excellent quality for illustration and first-hand experiences are not a luxury — they are a necessity. JVHAT DOES THE SUPERINTENDENT EXPECT OF THE RESEARCH DEPARTMENT? FRED M. HUNTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CALIF. The superintendent of schools may be anything from a job-holder to a missionary. It is not venturesome to say that there are superintendents of schools in the cities of the United States who regard their responsibili- ties and functions as well defined by each of the following terms: Poli- tician, business man, reformer, social worker, teacher, professor, director of instruction, manager and supervisor in chief of the school system. The superintendent of schools of whom I am thinking in approaching this dis- cussion is a combination of a good many of these terms. He embodies elements of them all. But essentially he must be the chief executive officer of the board of education who is largely responsible for the development and recorpmendation of policies and who is wholly responsible for the administration of them after determination and action by his employing board. The typical bureau of research in city school systems was established in 1920; it has a staff of four persons, a director, an assistant, a general clerical helper, and a psychologist, if the director is not a psychologist himself. The director re- ceived a Bachelor's degree thirteen years ago, and since that time he has pro- cured the Master's degree. He receives a salary of $4150. For 1925-26 he had a salary budget of $7800 and an operating budget of $1500. In the list of functions the director of the median city bureau checked the following items: Achievement testing; school finance other than budgeting; curriculum revision; experimental study of curriculum and instructional problems; educational guidance; mental testing; psychological clinic; supervision of special classes; training teachers for special testing work; surveys and special investi- gations; classification of pupils; devising record and report forms; experimental study of special problems relating to administration. (From Organized Research in Education" by Harold B. Chapman — published by the Ohio State University Press in 1927). The school executive just defined is the most important public official in the community. This executive is the chief and leader of a staff which numbers well-nigh as many persons as all other departments of municipal government combined. In this staff is a group of able administrators whose functions must be clearly defined and efficiently directed. A cabi- net of experts in highly specialized lines works also at his right hand. His organization is complex and involves the management of the work of in- numerable committees and units of administration. 254 National Education Association The budget for which this officer is responsible allots an expenditure of funds which approaches the total for all other purposes of municipal government of the community. The value of property of the schools is approximately as great as the value of all other public property of the city. In addition to the physical and administrative aspects of the work of this executive, there is the responsibility for a program which has its purposes and foundations at the very roots of the life and vitality of the city. In modern society, economic prosperity and the universal happiness coming from a high standard of living are founded upon the cultural and spiritual background of the people. The school program, therefore, is more fundamental to the level of civilization which the city, present and future, will maintain than any other factor in its current life and progress. For this program, the superintendent of schools is responsible. To meet the problems of so important and so gigantic an undertaking, a school superintendent has imperative need of an efficient research depart- ment to afford him accurate and reliable data upon which to base decisions and recommend policies. Such a department is both fact-finding and ad- ministrative. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS, FEBRUARY 26-MARCH 1, 1928 OFFICIiKS President, Joseph M. Gwinn, SuperintenJeiit of Schools San Francisco, Calif. First Vicepresident, Randall J. Condon, Superintendent of Schools Cincinnati, Ohio Second Vicepresident, Frank D. Boynton, Superintendent of Schools. ... Ithaca, New York Executive Secretary, Sherwood D. Shankland. . . . 1201 i6th Street N. W., Washington, D. C. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE M. G. Clark, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1928) Siou.x City, Iowa Norman R. Crozikr, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1929) Dallas, Texas V,. \\. Lewis, Professor of School Administration. Ohio State University (term expires 1930) Columbus, Ohio Frank M. Underwood, District Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1931) St. Louis, Mo. SECRETARY'S MINUTES February 26 The fifty-eighth annual meeting of the Department of Superintendence opened Sunday afternoon, February 26, 1928, when six vesper services were held simultaneously. President Joseph M. Gwinn presided at Faneuil Hall. Other meetings were held at Old North Church, King's Chapel, Arlington Street Church, Park Street Church, and St. Paul's Cathedral. February 27 The first general session in Mechanics Hall was opened with praj^er by Dr. Samuel A. Eliot, minister of Arlington Street Church. President Gwinn then said : The father of Dr. Eliot was the great Charles Eliot, for a long time President of Harvard University, at one time President of the National Education Associa- tion. He made a great contribution to education in America. He has passed to his reward. I am asking you to stand in silence for one minute out of respect to his great service and in memory of his life. The audience then stood in silence. February 28 At the business session Tuesday morning, Edwin C. Broome, chairman, presented the final report for the Commission on the Curriculum, and on Mr. Broome's motion the Commission was discharged. The report of the Committee on Articulation of Educational Units was presented by Herbert S. Weet, chairman. The report of the Committee on Financing Educational Research was presented by Randall J. Condon, chairman, approved, and referred to the E.xecutive Committee for further action. The report of the Committee on Relation of Boards of Education and Administrative Officers was presented by E. C. Hartwell, chairman, and adopted. The report of the Committee on Records and Reports was presented by R. O. Stoops, chairman, and accepted. On request of Mr. Stoops, the committee was discharged. [255] 256 National Education Association The report of the Auditing Committee was presented by David A. Ward, chairman, and adopted. The report of the Executive Committee vs^as presented by M. G. Clark. The Committee's recommendation for the appointment of a standing Com- mittee on Relations of the Department of Superintendence with Lay Organizations was approved. Nominations for officers were made as follows : For president, Frank D. Boynton, superintendent of schools, Ithaca, New York: For second vice-president, Frank Cody, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Michigan; Edwin C. Broome, superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ; A, C. Eldredge, assistant superintendent of schools, Cleveland, Ohio ; and Frank G. Pickell, superintendent of schools, Montclair, New Jersey: For member of the Executive Committee for four years, Paul C. Stetson, superintendent of schools, Dayton, Ohio; W. W. Borden, superintendent of schools. South Bend, Indiana; David A. Ward, superintendent of schools, Wilmington, Delaware; and A. L. Threlkeld, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colorado. Mr. Cody, Mr. Broome, and Mr. Eldredge asked that their names be withdrawn as candidates, and it was so ordered. March 1 At the Thursday morning session the report of the Committee on Reso- lutions was presented by the chairman, A. L. Threlkeld, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colorado. A motion by Edwin C. Broome to substitute the w^ord "requested" for "suggested' in resolution No. 1 1 was voted upon and lost. William R. Barry, superintendent of schools, Ware, Massa- chusetts, moved that resolution No. 1 be eliminated. The motion was seconded, debated, and lost. The resolutions were then adopted. On motion of S. Monroe Graves, superintendent of schools, Wellesley Hills, Massachusetts, an expression of appreciation for the work of the Commission on the Curriculum was added to the original report of the Committee on Resolutions. The Board of Tellers presented the following report : Boston, Massachusetts, Feb. 29, 1928 To Joseph M. Gwinn, President of the Department of Superintendence, National Education Association. We hereby certify that the election of officers of the Department of Superin- tendence was held this day in accordance with the provisions of the constitution and bylaws, and that the following persons were elected: President: Frank D. Boynton, superintendent of schools, Ithaca, New York. Second Vice-president: Frank G. Pickell, superintendent of schools, Montclair, New Jersey. Member of Execiiti've Committee for a term of four years: Paul C. Stetson, superintendent of schools, Dayton, Ohio. Respectfully submitted, „ ,t <^ ^ ^ ' Claude V. Courter Walter T. Helms, Chairman A. S. Jessup Louis P. Benezet Arthur Deamer Department of Superintendence 257 President J. M. Gwinn announced the appointment of the Commission on Supervision, which is to prepare the 4930 yearbook. Those named were : Albert S. Cook, State Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Maryland, Chairman William H. Burton, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois George D. Strayer, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City Arvil S. Barr, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin Charles L. Spain, Deputy Superintendent of Schools, Detroit, Michigan The Commission was authorized to appoint, after the need has been ascertained, two other members, at least one of whom shall be a superin- tendent of schools. At the evening session, President Gwinn called attention to a gavel which had been presented to him by Admiral Andrews. A brief address on aeronautics, not scheduled on the regular program, was given by Col. Charles A. Lindbergh. President Gwinn, on behalf of the Department of Superintendence, presented to Mrs. Evangeline L. L. Lindbergh a certificate of life membership in the National Education Association, and a specially designed emblem and chain. A letter of congratulation to Mrs. Lindbergh, sent by her colleagues on the faculty of the Cass Technical High School, Detroit, Michigan, was given to her by President Gwinn. The final meeting then adjourned. RESOLUTIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF S UP ERIN TENDENCE Adopted March 1, 1928 COMMITTEE OX RESOLUTIONS A. L. Threlkeld, Chaiinian, Superintendent of Schools Denver, Colo. I. R. Barton, Superintendent of Schools Oklahoma City, Okla. A. B. Meredith, State Commissioner of Education Hartford, Conn. Charles L. Sp.\in, Deputy Superintendent of Schools Detroit', Mich. EsTALiNE Wilson, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Toledo, Ohio John _W. Withers, Dean, School of Education, New York University New York City Ada i'oRK, County Superintendent of Schools San Diego, Calif. The Curtis-Reed Bill 1. The welfare of the children now enroled in the schools of the United States is dependent upon our ability to make available to boards of educa- tion, to superintendents of schools, and to teachers throughout the nation the results of current practise, of experiments wherever they are conducted, and of the results of scientific investigation. The federal government has long accepted responsibility for conducting inquiries and disseminating information concerning the public schools. We hold that economy and efficiency demand that the activities of the federal government dealing with education be consolidated in a Department of Education under the leadership of a Secretary with a seat in the Presi- dent's Cabinet. We urge that adequate support be provided for this de- partment in order that it may conduct such inquiries and disseminate 258 National Education Association such information as will make for the highest degree of efficiency in all of our schools. We know that this service can be rendered without in any- way interfering with the constitutional right of the several states to con- trol, administer, and supervise their own schools. We, therefore, urge the Congress to pass the Curtis-Reed Bill which embodies the program which this Association has consistently advocated throughout its history. Character Education 2. The evidence taken as a whole does not justify the conclusion that the young people of today or that the people generally, are worse thUn they have been in any previous period of our national history. On the contrary, there is abundant reason to believe that in toto there has been a marked improvement. The public schools as well as the private are not indifferent to the for- mation of character as fundamental to all else. Character forming situ- ations are the rule not the exception in the school life of today. It is un- doubtedly safe to say that the typical school situation from the moral point of view, is decidedly above the average life situation in standards of ethics and personal conduct. Only those who look for moral education in terms which ignore the spirit or exalt the form fail to see this. But no matter how the present may compare with the past, there is vast room for improvement. We should emphasize the fundamental importance of the problem of right living to the extent that every teacher should be conscious of it as a primary objective in teaching. This implies support of research and of scientific experiment in evaluating technics of character education suitable to all levels of school life and to the ever-changing na- ture of the world in which we are living. A continuous professional study of view, is decidedly above the average life situation in standards of ethics and personal conduct. Only those who look for moral education in terms which ignore the spirit or exalt the form fail to see this. School Costs 3. Any just consideration of the cost of our schools must take into ac- count the depreciation in the dollar, the demand of the public for ever broader educational service, the ability of the public to pay, and, above all else, the vital importance of education in a democracy. It is only through the development of people that material values are enhanced. Only by such development is life as a whole made more worthwhile. Edu- cation, conceived of as an investment in life itself, justifies substantial ex- penditure upon it. . Extravagance is inexcusable. Every proposed ex- pansion of education facilities should be carefully studied. We should con- tinually weigh the results, so far as we can define them, against the costs, and, as individuals, and as a profession we should not lack the courage to take our place in the front ranks of the battle for better educational op- portunities for all people. There is no evidence that the standard of living has been lowered by the cost of education. On the other hand there is Department of Superintendence 259 every indication that it has been raised. As long as this is true there is no cause for alarm over the present percentage of our national income given to education. School Buildings 4. We note with satisfaction the growing tendency to place school house planning under the direct control of the superintendent of instruc- tion. Such an adjustment of relationships must ultimately make for effi- ciency and eliminate waste, provided school administrators acquire the expert training and knowledge necessary to meet the new responsibility. We believe that with intelligent educational guidance architects can and will erect efficient and also artistic buildings without excessive expenditure of funds. Are Too Many Seeking Admission to Higher Schools, Colleges, and Universitiesf 5. The committee feels that the issue presented by this question cannot be satisfactorily met by arbitrary systems of selection and elimination. In- stitutions and systems themselves as well as people must be tested. Until this is done we do not know what the possibilities are. In the meantime it is more constructive to give the benefits of doubts to human beings rather than to systems which are likely to be overly traditionalized. In the final analysis this is the problem of making scientific adjustment to all types of people. In all probability the higher educational institutions will have to continue to make broader adaptations to individual difierences among ever increasing numbers. Our American schools should not revert to a caste system philosophy. Caste systems have had ample time in which to prove their superiority, but what have they to show for themselves? Our school system is young, but it is based on the most persistent ideals we know, the ideals of democracy. The elementary school has been well established on this ideal. But let us not forget that this was not accomplished without a bitter battle. The same forces in the main which now are so alarmed over the growth of our higher schools, fought the establishment of the free tax-supported ele- mentary school. It has always been so. Our profession should lead the battle for ever better educational opportunities for all the people. Effective Publicity for Modern Methods in Education 6. Effective methods of publicity should be dc\ised of such a character as would serve to bridge the gap between the policies of education as con- ceived and formulated in harmony with modern life, and the concept of public schools possessed by those who received their schooling under con- ditions much different from those which now prevail. Partisan Politics in School Administration 7. The magnitude of modern educational systems and their importance as factors in the economic and governmental life of the nation have 260 National Education Association brought into existence, conditions which are full of hazards. Strong temp- tation has arisen in many quarters to exploit the schools for purposes en- tirely foreign to their true function which is the education of the children. Schools should be administered on the basis of sound and scientifically established principles. The administration of schools upon this basis should be safeguarded by statute against assault by any agencies which aim to utilize the machinery of the schools for purposes other than those of education. We believe that there are many instances of interference with schools due to the conception that the management of education is subject to the spoils system in partisan politics. Protective measures against the bane- ful results of such a misconception can properly be urged in view of the decisions rendered by the supreme courts of many states which decisions have declared in unequivocal terms that boards of education are independ- ent bodies created under the authority of the state with independent re- sponsibility for the conduct of the schools and that such boards and their officers must not be made subject in any of their operations to the caprices of local partisan control. Curriculum Prescriptions by State Legislatures 8. Technics of curriculum making are professional tasks. General objec- tives and policies, should, in the final analysis, be decided by lay bodies having been chosen by the public for that purpose, but technics by which such objectives may be met and such policies carried out should be con- structed by those professionally trained for this service. Enactments by state legislatures, frequently the result of high pressure lobbying methods used by well-organized minorities, are likely to violate this principle. The public should be warned against the danger involved in curriculum making by state legislatures and every effort should be made to see that this vital function is conceived of as a professional service under the general limitation above stated. Educational Opportunities in Rural Communities 9. It is recognized that an inequality in educational opportunity exists between rural and urban education. We state our belief that educational advantages available to rural children should be equivalent to those off- ered children in cities and towns and we recommend that definite steps be taken to make an appreciable approach to such equalization. Higher Standards for Admission to American Citizenship 10. Appreciating the cooperation now existing between the Bureau of Education and the Bureau of Naturalization, and recognizing that training for citizenship is a phase of adult education necessary for candidates seek- ing naturalization, the need of closer coordination of effort on the part of the Federal Bureau of Naturalization, the local courts, and the public schools appears urgent. There should be a closer alignment of these three Department of Superintendence 261 agencies to the end that the requirements for admission to American citizen- ship shall include a reading as well as a speaking knowledge of English and that there shall be an appreciable understanding of American history, American institutions, and American ideals on the part of aliens seeking citizenship in the United States of America. These standards should be nationwide. Educational Radio Program 11. In view of the influence that the radio is coming to have on school life it is suggested that the executive committee of the Department of Superintendence consider the practicability of appointing a committee to study the problem of perfecting an organization which will prepare and broadcast educational programs for school use. Appreciation of Courtesies 12. For the delightful hospitality and efficient management that have made this fifty-eighth annual meeting of the Department of Superintend- ence a notable success we extend our cordial thanks to the state of Massa- chusetts, to the Governor, to the Mayor, to the city of Boston and its citizens, to the officials, teachers, and pupils of the schools, to the churches, to the public press, and to all the many individuals and organizations that have so effectively given of their best efforts in our behalf. Appreciation of Curriculum Commission 13. On motion of Superintendent S. Monroe Graves of Wellesley Hills, Massachusetts, it was resolved to spread upon the records of the Depart- ment of Supterintendence an expression of deep appreciation for the w^ork which was done by Chairman Broome and the Commission on the Curricu- lum in its four years' study of curriculum problems. REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON THE CURRICULUM EDWIN C. BROOME, CHAIRMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS PHILADELPHIA, PA. The curriculum has been a major interest of the Department of Superin- tendence for a period of five years. During that period five yearbooks have been devoted to this subject. The first of the series was presented at the Chicago meeting, in 1924. It was a discussion of important prob- lems in relation to the elementary curriculum ; and was prepared by the yearbook committee, R. G. Jones, chairman. The last four yearbooks, including the one presented today, have been prepared under the direction of the commission on the curriculum. The original commission was ap- pointed at the Chicago meeting in February, 1924, in response to a resolu- tion offered at the Cleveland meeting of 1923 by the present chairman of the commission. 262 National Education Association The original commission of thirteen members has remained intact throughout this period of four years, and presents today, through its chair- man, its fourth and final report. Two years ago, with the authority of the Executive Committee of this Department, the commission added to its membership for the year the several chairmen of the special subcommittees. This plan worked well, as it brought the commission into close contact with the subject commit- tees, and familiarized the chairmen of those committees with the policies and working plans of the commission. The same plan was continued for the succeeding year, 1928. It seems hardly necessary to describe the contents of any of the four yearbooks, including the one which we now present, as every member of the Department of Superintendence has received a copy of each yearbook; and, if these yearbooks are not capable of speaking for themselves, noth- ing that the chairman might say in the few minutes allotted to him in this program would improve the situation. Let me present, however, a few sidelights on our work which could not properly be revealed in our published reports. The original commission, as said above, has remained intact through- out the four years, and its members have devoted a great deal of time with enthusiasm and earnestness to the problem. Our meetings have been exceptionally well attended, and the interest of the members has increased, rather than flagged, as our work has proceeded. Rather than feeling relieved, we feel regretful that the time has arrived for the presenta- tion of our final report. First, at the outset we realized that we must adopt certain definite policies. One of these was that in a great country like ours with vary- ing economic, social, and educational conditions, it should not be our func- tion to prepare definite, standardized courses of study, but rather to col- lect facts, coordinate research studies, discuss problems, and suggest solu- tions. Wherever definite courses of study have been included in our re- ports they have been introduced for purposes of illustration and sug- gestion. Second, after a year's experience, we concluded that curriculum re- vision must be a cooperative enterprise, that no central group could attack the problem effectively alone. For that reason the Commission presented at the Cincinnati meeting, of 1925, the "Cooperative Plan of Curriculum Revision." The response was prompt and encouraging. Over three hundred superintendents, state departments, and universities joined with us, and set up curriculum revision committees in their own com- munities. This plan has materially added to the value of the last three yearbooks. Third, after two years' experience we found that another important problem, which we were not fully prepared to handle, was growing out of our work — that of the articulation of the several divisions of the school system. We accordingly recommended to the Executive Com- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 263 inittcc ot the DcpartmeiU of Superintendence that a competent committee he appointed to stud\ this piohh-m. Such a committee was promptly es- tablished. It has been at work for about two years, and will present its first report today. So, it like the plurnix, we have burnt ourselves on our funeral pile, another committee has arisen to carry on with still greater vigor and usefulness. During the four years of its existence your commission on the cur- riculum has endeavored to accomplish four important objects: 1. To help establish scientific methods of curriculum revision in local school systems. 2. Through the Cooperative Plan of Curriculum Revision to make the achieve- ments of one community a benefit to all. 3. To put the results of scientific research on the curriculum into practicable and useful form and to make them available to superintendents throughout the country through the research bulletins and the yearbooks of the department. 4. To stimulate and encourage school systems to evaluate their present courses of study and to organize committees for Improving them. We trust that these efforts have been sufficiently successful to have justified the appointment of the commission. The 1928 yearbook which we now present is entitled "The Develop- ment of the High School Curriculum." It is the work of twenty-four committees with a membership of one hundred two educators. The first twelve chapters deal with outstanding issues which all school systems encounter when entering upon an extensive program of revision of the secondary school curriculum. The last twelve chapters summarize re- search findings in the fields of secondary school subjects. Two hundred fifty of such research studies are cited in this report. A more extended description of this yearbook would have to go into details; and there is not sufficient time at my disposal for this purpose. The Commission has placed two duties upon its chairman — the one, that of delivering the valedictory upon the completion of the work en- trusted to it ; and the other, that of pronouncing a salutatory to the De- partment of Superintendence as the Department makes its bow to new enterprises. What should these enterprises be? Here the chairman must speak for himself, but not, however, without sound advice that has been volun- teered by members of the Commission. The problem of curriculum revision is one of the major problems of school administration. It is a continuous problem, which presents new aspects concurrently with changes in social and economic conditions, and newly accepted educational theories. It is the belief of the majority of the Commission on the Curriculum that it is the peculiar responsibility of the Department of Superintendence to provide guidance, information, and stimulation for those who are endeavoring to adapt their curriculums to changing conditions; and that some provision be made at our head- quarters to assist them. It is the belief of your chairman that a paid 264 National Education Association expert, such as we now have, with the necessary clerical assistance, be continued from year to year, at the pleasure of the Department of Super- intendence, to be assisted by a small advisory and reviewing committee of members of the Department of Superintendence. Such committee might properly be selected as to residence so that it could meet at Wash- ington occasionally with little loss of time and a minimum of expense. The following are some of the problems towards the solution of which this central clearinghouse would give assistance: 1. New material in relation to old material in the curriculum. 2. Reorganization of the curriculum in response to changing ideals. 3. Encouragement of local research on the curriculum, and the collection and publication of significant research studies. 4. The place of the classroom teacher in the construction and interpretation of the curriculum. 5. Integration of curriculum material in the life of the child in order to give the child intelligent and sympathetic contact with the problems of a changing civilization. 6. Criteria to determine what pupils should take certain subjects. 7. The integration of social studies. 8. The curriculum in relation to the teaching load, to the use of textbooks and other instructional material, and the length and frequency of class periods in rela- tion to the several subjects of the curriculum. This committee might properly issue bulletins from time to time for the benefit of members of the Department of Superintendence ; and the more significant of these bulletins could be included in the yearbook. In closing it is a pleasure to give testimony to the many educators of the country who have so ably served on the several assisting committees, especially the chairmen. Altogether there have been over three hundred fifty-two who have thus served during our four years of existence. We furthermore especially commend S. D. Shankland, our secre- tary, for his efficient arrangements for our meetings, and the division of re- search of which Dr. John K. Norton is director. Dr. Margaret M. Alltucker, of the division of research, should receive the credit more than any other individual for whatever merit our reports have possessed. In presenting its final report the commission on the curriculum respect- fully requests that it be discharged ; and the chairman so moves. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON ARTICULATION OF EDUCATIONAL UNITS HERBERT S. WEET, CHAIRMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS ROCHESTER, N. Y. There is not a person in this department who does not thoroughly ap- preciate the splendid work that has been done by the Curriculum Com- mission. That c(jmmission came to feel two years ago that even though it might work out well a curriculum for the senior high school and one Department of Superintendence 265 for the junior high school and one for the elementary school, except as these were brought together and properly articulated into one contiguous whole the best interests of American education would not be served. The Commission on Articulation of the Educational Units has been asked to undertake that task. I will be very brief. In the first place we have no less a responsibility than that of preparing the next yearbook for the department. The Com- mission hopes to have that yearbook as clear and as intelligent a presenta- tion of the problems which those of us in the field are facing in this matter of articulation as it is possible to get it. That, in a general word, will be the scope and function of the yearbook, but that is only one phase of the work to be undertaken by this commission. The other phase of the work to be undertaken is to get underway studies of these major problems in articulation from one part of this country to the other. As a matter of fact, the commission very definitely registered its belief that except so far as those of us in the field in varying types of educational supervisory districts can undertake these studies for the purpose of ascer- taining how far we may improve conditions, we are not going to accom- plish the results that we hope to accomplish. That is going to be the second phase of the work. The commission will have its next meeting on the first day of April, and very shortly after that there will be sent out to the school men of the country certain communications bearing on this problem. What do we want? We want just this: we want the help and the cooperation of every school man represented in the department in getting this year- book ready and in doing the second line of followup work to which I have referred. The pamphlet which has been distributed just touches some of the major points. If you will be good enough to take it along with you and read it and then respond to what we later ask to be done, every member of this Commission and of the five subcommittees appointed by the commission will be very appreciative. REFORT OF COMMITTEE ON FINANCING EDUCA- TIONAL RESEARCH RANDALL J. CONDON, CHAIRMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS CINCINNATI, OHIO For four years, since the Commission on the Curriculum was appointed at the Chicago convention in 1924, the Department of Superintendence has been engaged in a great cooperative research study of the curriculum on a nation-wide basis. This has resulted in four yearbooks of outstanding /mportance: Research in Constructing the Elementary School Curriculum, 1925; The Nation at Work on the Public School Curriculum, 1926; The Junior High School Curriculum, 1927; and The Development of the High School Curriculum j in 1928. 266 National Education Association Many superintendents and other executives have been represented on the committees making these studies and a very large number of people in all departments of education have contributed to the results. In the preparation of the present yearbook, 240 cities and towns, ranging from towns of 2000 population to the great cities of Chicago and New York, from nearly every state in the union, are represented. State departments, private schools, higher institutions and other agencies bring the total number to nearly 300. No such wide-spread coopera- tive movement in education has ever before been undertaken — and the results of this research in the curriculum will profoundly affect the work of the schools of the entire country for years to come. This work could not have been undertaken or carried through without adequate financial backing. To cover the expense of the commission and the committees working under their direction a grant of $15,000 was allowed by the Carnegie Foundation. But this fund alone would not have made possible the outcome of this undertaking if the National Education Association had not contributed generously in the time of the staff of the Research Division of the parent organization. For the past year, that division has expended nearly $40,000, a material amount of which has gone into the work under the direction of the De- partment of Superintendence. The Department itself, from its own funds has expended approximately $14,000 in research and in the publication of the results — approximately $10,000 of which has gone into the publica- tion of the yearbook on the high school curriculum. As an offset to that expenditure, $8844 has been received from the sale of yearbooks, and $5325 from 212 subscriptions to the Educational Research Service, at $25 each. One hundred eighty-six of these subscriptions have come from boards of education. In addition there is the cost of mailing the yearbooks, and such part of the secretary's and stenographer's time as has been given to this service. The grant from the Carnegie Foundation has been used in the produc- tion of the four yearbooks on the curriculum. The expenses of future committees must be met from other sources. The committee of which Dr. Weet is chairman, who has just reported, with reference to the proposed yearbook for 1929; and the committee for 1930, who will deal with the subject of "Supervision of Public Instruc- tion ;" are at the present time charged with the responsibility of "making brick without straw." If they are to make the brick, it is our duty to provide the straw. At their first meeting of the year, the Commission on the Curriculum passed the following resolution : "The Commission is of the opinion that it would be advantageous for American education at this juncture to secure in a systematic way a sufficiently large educational foundation for the purposes of research, so that work similar to that which the Commission on the Curriculum has had the opportunity to carry on, may be projected in other lines. The Commission submits the outcome of DliPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 267 its own work as evidence of the fact that a relatively small fund makes possible a very much more extended inquiry than would be possible with- out such fund." When this was transmitted to the Executive Committee, they author- ized the president to appoint a committee to consider plans for financing educational research. A committee of five whose names are signed to this report was appointed. We have given careful consideration to the subject and submit the following recommendations. 1. That an attempt be made to create a permanent fund of $1,000,000 for educational research in the field of public school administration. 2. That the fund, when and as created be turned over to the trustees in charge of the permanent funds of the National Education Associa- tion to be kept as a separate fund for the use of the Department of Super- intendence ; to be invested in safe securities, with the income to be used for educational research, in such studies as the department may from time to time authorize and direct to be made. 3. That these studies be carried forward by commissions and com- mittees appointed by the Executive Committee of the Department of Super- intendence, and subject to their general direction, in a manner similar to that in which the Commission on the Curriculum and its committees have functioned during the past four years. 4. That no separate research department as such shall be created ; but that the income from the permanent fund and such other funds as may become available to meet the expenses of such commissions and com- mittees, shall be used, acting in cooperation with the Research Division of the National Education Association, for research in the field of ad- ministration. 5. That in creating a permanent fund for this purpose, no paid solici- tors be employed and no large gifts be sought. We believe it should be a genuine cooperative undertaking by which the superintendents them- selves, through sacrifice and devotion to the public welfare should under- take to create through many small gifts from the friends of public education, a fund sufficient to produce an annual income of $40,000 to be devoted to such research as will help to make public education more fruitful, more efficient in administration, and more genuinely dem- ocratic in meeting the needs of all the children. Larger gifts, if they are offered without conditions which will make them unacceptable, may be received, but always with the understanding that they are to be used in such manner as the Executive Committee may direct to advance the general welfare. With a membership in the Department of over 3100, which ought to become 4000 in a short time, we believe it will be comparatively easy to raise $1,000,000, if each member in his own community among his friends and acquaintances will undertake to raise $250 for this purpose. We recommend that the attempt be made to raise the fund in this manner, upon a democratic, nation-wide basis. 268 National EDUCAXioisr Association 6. While deeply appreciative of the grant that has already been made, without which the work of the past four years could not have been done, we do not believe we ought to have to depend in the future, upon such gifts. We should be entirely independent and we should have a fund under our own control, sufficient for continued and extensive re- search in the field of administration. We accordingly recommend that the plan proposed be approved by the Department, and that the Executive Committee be authorized to work "out the necessary details to carry it into effect. In closing, we desire to record our appreciation of the fine work in research that has been done by the classroom teachers, the elementary principals, and the high-school principals. Their yearbooks and other publications represent distinct contributions to the cause of education. We join with them in this great movement, in this study of our common and special problems ; a study that shall make a finer profession of educa- tion, and that shall make of every teacher, principal, and superintendent a "workman that needeth not to be ashamed." REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RELATION OF BOARDS OF EDUCATION AND ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS E. C. HARTWELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BUFFALO, N. Y. Superintendent Zenos Scott, Springfield, Mass. ; Superintendent Frank Cody, Detroit, Mich. ; Superintendent Paul C. Stetson, Dayton, Ohio, and Superintendent J. W. Studebaker, Des Moines, Iowa, join me in submitting the following statement of principles which if accepted would go far toward promoting a more efficient educational service. We believe : That the functions of the board of education should be legislative and judicial, which functions we understand to include the selection of a super- intendent and the approval or disapproval of policies and expenditures. That the superintendent of schools should be the chief executive officer of the board of education, that he should be elected for a term of years, and that he should sit as a non-voting member with the right of discussion in all board and committee meetings ; That all associate and assistant superintendents, supervisors, directors, principals, teachers, and those directly charged with business afifairs, should be directly responsible to the superintendent and appointed by the board of education only upon his recommendation ; That the adoption of textbooks, the approval of courses of study, school sites, and architectural plans, and the selection of school equipment should be made by the board of education only upon recommendation of the super- intendent ; That the superintendent should be held responsible for the preparation and presentation of the annual budget, building program, and salary schedule ; that he should have exclusive control of all transfers and assign- Department of Superintendence 269 merits of teachers, principals, supervisors, and other employees, as well as for the transfer, promotion, and classification of pupils; And that the aforesaid definitions of powers and duties should be pro- vided for by statute. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON UNIFORM RECORDS AND REPORTS R. O. STOOPS, CHAIRMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, YORK, PA. Sixteen years ago a Committee on Uniform Records and Reports rend- ered a final report to the Department. The United States Bureau of Education printed that report and distributed it as Bulletin No. 3, 1912. It did much to standardize procedure in records and reports for state school systems; records and reports for city school systems; pupil records with special reference to the cumulative record card; and the report of fiscal statistics. At the Cincinnati meeting three years ago a committee was appointed by the Department "to revise Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 3, 1912:" The committee decided to enlarge the scope of the original study, and to enlist a wide representation of the advanced thought in the several fields to be considered. As a result, the following assignments were made: Pupils' Cumulative Records — H. S. Ganders, Cincinnati, and A. O. Heck, Columbus. Census and Attendance — Frederick Emmons, Elizabeth, N. J. Personnel Records — W. S. Elsbree, New York City. Finance Records — N. L. Engelhardt, New York, Fred Engelhardt, Minneapolis, and H. S. Mills, Houston. Teachers' Reports to Parents— M. R. Trabue, Chapel Hill, N. C. Teachers' Reports to School Officers — H. E. Blair and Guy M. Wilson, Boston. Principals' Reports — W. P. Dyer, New Britain, Conn. Staff Officers' Reports — John Guy Fowlkes, Madison, Wis. Superintendent and Board Reports to the Public — M. G. Neale, Columbia, Mo. Superintendent and Board Reports to County or State — A. D. Simpson, Hartford. Conn. State Reports to the Public — A. B. Meredith, Hartford, Conn. State Reports to the Federal CJovernment — F. W . Wright, Boston. Federal Bureau Reports— Frank M. Phillips, Washington, D. C. The section on finance records has the approval of President Ivlills of the National Association of Public School Business Officials, and also the approval of Chairman Hammelbaugh of that organization's com- mittee on the revision of Bulletin No. 3, 1912. The report attempts to point out desirable procedures and to suggest types of forms to be used. References have been made to outstanding studies in the \arious special fields concerned, and a comprehensive an- notated bibliography has been appended. It is hoped that the smaller school systems will find the report helpful, and that the greater refine- 270 National Education Association merit of procedure desired by the larger cities can be effected in com- plete harmony with its suggestions. For harmonizing and unifying the materials submitted, and for the final preparation of the manuscript for printing, the committee is espe- cially indebted to John K. Norton of the headquarters' staff and Frank M. Phillips of the Bureau of Education. Under his direction this report will appear as a research bulletin of this department in April of this year. REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE DAVID A. WARD, CHAIRMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WILMINGTON DELAWARE One of the most valuable services of the Department of Superintendence is the educational research which is conducted through its executive office. This service is supplying a need to the school systems throughout the country and should be encouraged and strengthened. The accomplishments of the Commission on the Curriculum, with the aid of a fund of $15,000 granted by the Carnegie Corporation, has shown the wisdom of providing means for this kind of service. The imperative need of funds for con- ducting research from the executive secretary's office in connection with the yearbook is evident. The secretary and his staff have rendered the most faithful service. Through industry and economical management, they have accomplished a large amount of constructive work. The Executive Com- mittee has acted wisely in creating the Committee on Plans for Financing Educational Research. The report of the Auditing Committee, which is printed in the Sixth Yearbook, reads as follows : Washington, D. C, January 25, 1928. Dr. J. M. GwiNN, President, Department of Superintendence, City Hail, San Francisco, Calif. Dear Sir: We, the undersigned committee, appointed to audit the accounts of the Depart- ment of Superintendence for the year 1927, wish to report as follows: \. All items of receipts and expenditures as shown by the books of the secretary, S. D. Shankland, the bank deposit records, and the vouchers for expenditures have been examined. We find that the total receipts for the year were $39,252.56. The balance carried over from the previous year was $10,005.56, making a total of $49,258.12. The total expenditures were $39,883.44, leaving a balance of $9,374.68 in the treasury of the National Education Association to the credit of the Depart- ment of Superintendence. 2. This audit covers the calendar year 1927 as recorded in the books of the National Education Association, but it does not include receipts of the depart- ment for the month of December, which, under the Constitution of the Depart- ment, are not credited on the books of the National Education Association until January. The receipts and expenditures correspond with the several items in the accounts of the secretary, and we hereby certify them to be correct. Department of Superintendence 271 3. We found the books in excellent condition, and desire to commend the De- partment for its expert handling of the accounts. We particularly desire to express our appreciation of the cheerful and efficient assistance given by the secretary, S. D. Shankland, in making this audit. Respectfully submitted, Louis Nusbaum; David A. Ward. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE ISI. G. CLARK, CHAIRMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SIOUX CITY, IOWA The Sixth Yearbook, which is already in your hands, and the annual report, which will soon be in your hands, we hope, will constitute the real detailed report of the Executive Committee. However, at one of the recent meetings of the Executive Committee, two communications were received, one from the Junior Red Cross asking that a committee be ap- pointed by the Executive Committee, or by this Department, which should be able to establish certain relationships between this Department and the Junior Red Cross. A similar request came also to the Committee from the National Congress of Parents and Teachers. The Executive Committee in considering both these requests felt that to appoint a committee for each of the different requests that might come to us would be perhaps cumbersome, and after much deliberation they decided upon the following recommendations : Your Executive Committee recommends the creation of a standing com- mittee of five to be appointed by the incoming president of the Department, one member to be appointed for five years, one for four years, one for three years, one for two years, and one for one year, and one member to be appointed annually hereafter by the incoming president. This Committee shall be known as the Committee on Relations of the Department of Superintendence with Lay Organizations. The functions of this Committee shall be: 1. To examine into the purposes and merits of various lay organizations seeking the recognition of the Department and to report such as they approve to the Executive Committee for their acceptance. 2. To establish a working basis of understanding and cooperation between the Department and approved and accepted lay organizations. 272 National Education Association / Sunday Feb. 26 3:30 P. M. Arlington Street Church King's Chape! GENERAL PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE NATIONAL education ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Vesper Services Six vesper services will be held simultaneously this afternoon as follows: The Arlington Street Church, located at the corner of Arlington and Boylston Streets, is, in design, similar to the London churches designed by Sir Christopher Wren. The church organization dates from 1727. The present building was erected in 1860. This church is the successor of the Federal Street Church of which William Ellery Channing was minister from 1803 to 1842. Across Arlington Street from the church stands the beautiful Channing Memorial. Minister, Dr. Samuel A. Eliot Address Ada Louise Comstock, President, Radcliffe College, Cambridge, Mass. Music To Thee, O Lord — Rachmaninoff Praise God in His Holiness — Tours Be of Good Comfort, Arise — Cowen Soprano Solo Blessed is He Who Cometh — Gounod King's Chapel is located in King's Chapel Burying Ground at the corner of School and Tremont Streets. It was established as the first Episcopal church in New England in 1688. The present structure was erected in 1754. There has been little change in appearance for more than a century. The communion table, dating from 1688, is still in use. In 1787 King's Chapel became the first Unitarian Church in America. Minister, Dr. John C. Perkins Good Will Among Nations Wallace W. Atwood, President, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. Music Girls Chorus from State Normal Schools at Framingham and Salem. Mass., under the direction of Frederick W. Archibald, Instructor of Music Raymond C. Robinson, Organist and Choirmaster of King's Chapel Organ Prelude^ — Chorale in A Minor — Cesar Franck Mr. Robinson Meet and Right It Is — Ivan T. Gorokhoff The Lord is My Shepherd — Franz Schubert Sacerdotes Domini — William Byrd Veni Creator — Hector Berlioz O Lord Most Holy (Solo) — Cesar Franck Mr. Archibald and chorus Organ Postlude — Finale (Symphony I) — Vieme Mr. Robinson Department of Superintendence 21i Vesper Services (Continued) Christ Church (Old North Church), the oldest church edifice now standing in Boston, was erected in 1723, on Salem Street, at the foot of Hull. The interior of the church is little changed by time. One may still see the silver communion service dating from 1733 and the clock which has been in place since 1746. The tower chimes, which are still in use, were first hung in 1744. On a tablet, above the main entrance to the church, is the following inscription: "The signal lanterns of Paul Revere displayed in the steeple of this church April 18, 1775, warned the country of the march of the British troops to Lexington and Concord." Minister, Dr. Ernest J. Dennen Address Ellen F. Pendleton, President, Wellesley College, Weliesley, Mass. Music George Russell Loud, Organist Prelude — Strang Hymn 136 — St. Finbar Hymn 20 — Hursley Hymn 18 — Eventide Hymn 135 — Federal St. Offertory— "Solo" (Miss Gray) Postlude — Loud Old North Church Christ Church Park Street Church is one of the most picturesque and beautiful examples of nineteenth century ecclesiastical architecture to be found in America. This church, at the corner of Tremont and Park Streets, was erected in 1809 on the site of the town granary. In the Park Street Church, on July 4, 1832, our national hymn, "America," was first publicly sung. Here, in 1849, William Lloyd Garrison gave his first public address against slavery. In this church Charles Sumner delivered one of the greatest addresses of his career on "The War System of Nations." Minister, Dr. A. Z. Conrad Education that Glorifies the Commonpl.\ce Daniel L. Marsh, President of Boston University, Boston, Mass. Music John Herman Loud, Organist Park Street Choral Society under the direction of Amy Young Burns Sanctus — Gounod Inflammatus from "Stabat Mater" —Rossini Gloria — Mozart Park Street Quartet America — Smith Sung by audience Park Street Church 274 National Education Association St. Paul's Cathedral Church Vesper Services (Continued) The Cathedral Church of St. Paul is located on Tremont Street opposite the Common. This church, erected in 1820, was the fourth Episcopal church to be established in Boston. The church was designed by Alexander Parris, and the Ionic capitals were carved by Solomon Willard. The interior is beautiful in its simplicity. St. Paul's is located in the heart of the business district, and has served the cathedral church of the diocese since 1912. Minister, Dean Philemon F. Sturges The Official or the Man J. Edgar Park, President, Wheaton College, Norton, Mass. Music Processional Hymn (537): "Rejoice, Ye Pure in Heart" Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis in A — Lloyd Hymn (493): "O Master Let Me Walk With Thee" Anthems — "Jerusalem O Turn Thee" (Gallia) — Gounod "Ho, Everyone that Thirsteth" — Martin Recessional Hymn (480): "Jesus Shall Reign" Faneuil Hall Faneuil Hall, "The Cradle of Liberty," was constructed for use as a town hall and public market and presented to the town in 1742 by Peter Faneuil. It was burned in 1762. The present hall was erected on the walls of the original building in 1762-63. It was enlarged in 1805 under the supervision of Charles Bulfinch. James Otis, as orator of the day, in 1763, dedicated the building to the "Cause of Liberty." In 1826, Webster delivered here his memorable eulogy on Adams and Jefferson. Here in 1837 Wendell Phillips made his first anti-slavery speech. Presiding, President J. M. Gwinn Devotional Exercises Rev. Henry K. Sherrill, Rector, Trinity Church,' Boston, Mass. Religion and Education: Responsibility of Church, School, and Home Kenneth C. M. Sills, President, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine Music \ Quartet from Boston Choral Society Joan Parsons, Soprano; Nora Burns, Contralto; Thomas A. Quinn, Tenor; William H. O'Brien, Baritone John A. O'Shea, Pianist and Director Jesu Redemptor — Giorza Miss Parsons and Quartet Trust in the Lord (Elijah) — Mendelssohn Miss Burns Open the Gates of the Temple — Knapp Mr. Quinn I Trust in Thee — Wagner Mr. O'Brien and Quartet V Mechanics Hall Department of Superintendence 275 First General Session Monday Feb. 27 Music by the Jamaica Plain High School Glee Club 9.;^00 A. M. Invocation Samuel A. Eliot, Minister, Arlington Street Church, Boston, Mass. Greetings Malcolm E. Nichols, Mayor of Boston Response Milton C. Potter, Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee, Wis. Community Singing (Following President Lowell's Address) Led by B. Harold Hambiin, Assistant Director of Music, Boston, Mass. The Secondary School Provides Entrance Requirements For Higher Education A. Lawrence Lowell, President, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. For Business and Industry Alvan T. Fuller, Governor of Massachusetts, Boston, Mass. For HOiME Mrs. A. H. Reeve, President, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, Philadelphia, Pa. For Citizenship Jeremiah E. Burke, Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Mass. Discussion Groups f h"^7^ The Department will meet this afternoon in groups. 2:00 P. M. Faneuil Group I. The Program of Education for American Adolescent Youth Hall Presiding, Leonard V. Koos, Professor of Secondary Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. The Needs of American Adolescent Youth George M. Wiley, Assistant Commissioner of Education, State Depart- ment of Education, Albany, N. Y. Discussion A. J. Stoddard, Superintendent of Schools, Schenectady, N. Y. William C. Reavis, Professor of Education, School of Education, Chicago University, Chicago, 111. Objectives of Secondary Education Thomas W. Gosling, Superintendent of Schools, Madison, Wis. Discussion Milo H. Stuart, Principal, Arsenal Technical High School, Indianapolis, Ind. George S. Counts, Associate Director of the International Institute and Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. General Discussion 276 National Education Association Monday Feb. 27 2:00 P. M. Radcliffe Theater Cambridge Group II. Variations Found in Secondary School Curriculums Presiding, Albert H. Hill, Superintendent of Schools, Richmond, Va. Study of Curriculums Found in American Secondary Schools Edward D. Roberts, Associate Superintendent of Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio Relationship Between High School and College Edwin L. Miller, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Detroit, Mich. Discussion J. B. Edmonson, Professor of Education, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Appropriateness of High School Courses for Pupils Not Going to College A. L. Threlkeld, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. Discussion L. Thomas Hopkins, Professor of Education, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. General Discussion Monday Feb. 27 2:00 P. M. First Church in Boston Chapel Group III. Differentiating and Expanding the Secondary School Curriculums Presiding, Thomas R. Cole, Superintendent of Schools, Seattle, Wash. Differentiating Curriculums for Pupils of Different Levels of Ability Arthur Gould, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, Calif. Discussion S. B. Hall, State Supervisor of Secondary Education, Richmond, Va. Evaluation of Extracurriculum Activities in Secondary Schools Oscar C. Gallagher, Superintendent of Schools, Brookline, Mass. Discussion James E. Downey, Head Master, High School of Commerce, Boston, Mass. General Discussion Monday Feb. 27 2:00 P. M. Boston Trade School Group IV. Counseling and Guidance for Adolescent Boys and Girls Presiding, George N. Child, Superintendent of Schools, Salt Lake City, Utah. Health Guidance William H. Holmes, Superintendent of Schools, Mt. Vernon, N. Y. Educational Guidance F. E. Clerk, Principal, New Trier Township High School, Winnetka, 111. Vocational Guidance Edward Rynearson, Principal, Fifth Avenue High School, Pittsburgh, Pa. Social Guidance W. A. Wheatley, Director, Department of Education, State Normal School, Edinboro, Pa. Ethical Guidance Harold L. Holbrook, Supervisor of Guidance, State Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. General Discussion Led by John M. Brewer, Director of Bureau of Vocational Guidance, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Department of Superintendence 277 Group V. Curriculum Problems of the Small High School Presiding, A. T. Allen, State Superintendent of Schools, Raleigh, N. C. Introductory Statement Theodore Saam, Superintendent of Schools, Council Bluffs, Iowa. Monday Feb. 27 2:00 P. M. State House Influence OF College Entrance Requirements on Small High Schools ^^^^^^r John Kufi, Professor of Education, Michigan State College of Agriculture Auditorium and Applied Science, Lansing, Mich. ^^^«y\*?f'^^ ^^^^^ °^ Pupils in Small High Schools W. W. Coxe, Chief of Educational Measurements Bureau, State Depart- ment of Education, Albany, N. Y. > h What a State Department of Education can Do for the Small High James N. Rule Deputy Superintendent, State Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. Extracurriculum Activities in Small High Schools Thomas J. Kirby, Professor of Education, State University of Iowa. Iowa City, Iowa. ' General Discussion ^^Ithaca'^N^Y ■ ^^'"^^' ^''°^^^^°'" ^^ ^"'■^' Education, Cornell University, 2:00 P. M. Girls Latin School Group VL The Senior High School Teacher Monday Presiding, E. B. Cauthorn, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Dallas, Texas. ^^^- ^7 Ihe Functions of the Senior High School Te\cher Merle Prunty, Principal, Central High School, Tulsa, Okla. Discussion E. J. Eaton, Associate Professor of Secondary Education, Boston Uni- versity, Boston, Mass. Required Qualifications of Senior High School Teachers J. W. French, Principal, Lincoln High School, Lincoln, Nebr. Discussion George C. Marsden, Principal, High School, Milton, Mass. The Training of the Senior High School Teacher J. L. Henderson, Professor of Education, University of Texas, Austin, 1 exas. Discussion Philip W L Cox, Professor of Secondary Education, School of Education, New York University, N. Y. The Senior High School Teacher and Supervision Charles F. Allen, Principal, West Side Junior High School, Little Rock Ark. ' Discussion John C. Almack, Professor of Education, Stanford University, Calif. General Discussion 278 National Education Association Monday Feb. 27 2:00 P. M. New Lecture Hall Harvard University Monday Feb. 27 2:00 P. M. Agassiz House Radcliffe College Cambridge Group VII. The Junior College Presiding, R. J. Leonard, Director, School of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. The Four-Year Public Junior College William F. Ewing, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, Calif. The Present Status of the Public Junior College Frederick Eby, Professor of Education, University of Texas, Austin, Texas. Curriculum Development and Orientation Courses at Stephens College James M. Wood, President, Stephens College, Columbia, Mo. Economy of Time Through Reorganized Junior College Charles H. Judd, Director, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. General Discussion Group VIII. The School and Social Agencies Presiding, Nicholas Bauer, Superintendent of Schools, New Orleans, La. What the Schools May Expect of the Social Agencies Alfred Freeman Whitman, Executive Secretary, Children's Aid Associa- tion, Boston, Mass. Discussion C. E. Rugh, Professor of Education, School of Education, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. What the Social Agencies May Expect of the Schools Mrs. Cornelia James Cannon, President, Cambridge Public School Asso- ciation, Cambridge, Mass. Discussion Merle Prunty, Principal, Central High School, Tulsa, Okla. General Discussion Monday Feb. 27 2:00 P. M. Mechanics Hall Group IX. Adapting Elementary Schools to Individual Differences of Pupils Presiding, R. G. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio Ability Grouping B. R. Buckingham, Professor of Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Discussion Wiilard W. Beatty, Superintendent of Schools, Bronxville, N. Y. Practicability of Individual Instruction A. J. Stoddard, Superintendent of Schools, Schenectady, N. Y. Discussion William H. Kilpatrick, Professor of Philosophy of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. General Discussion Department of Superintendence 279 Group X. Group and Creative Activities in Education Presiding, Charles S. Meek, Superintendent of Schools, Toledo, Ohio. The Meaning of Freedom in Education W. Carson Ryan, Professor of Education, Swarthmore College, Swarth- more. Pa. Discussion Eugene R. Smith, Headmaster, Beaver Country Day School, Chestnut Hill, Mass. The Project as a Means of Social Living Ellsworth Collings, Dean, School of Education, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Okla. The Limitations of the Project Method Carleton W. Washburne, Superintendent of Schools, Winnetka, 111. General Discussion Monday Feb. 27 2:00 P. M. City Club Auditorium Group XL Better Understanding of Creative Activities: From Both p J?"^^^ Administrative and Classroom Procedure 2 -OOP M Joint Meeting with National Council of Primary Education , and Na- {J"/J**"^^°" tional Council of Kindergarten Supervisors and Training Teachers Presiding, Lucy Gage, Chairman, National Council of Primary Education, George Peabody College, Nashville, Tenn. The World Point of View of Creative Activities from Locarno Con- ference Speaker to be announced. Better Understanding of Creative Activities in the College Class- room . John C. Almack, Professor of Education, Stanford University, Calif. The Administrative Angle in Relation to Kindergarten Procedure Julia Wade Abbot, Supervisor of Public Kindergartens, Philadelphia, Pa. Better Understanding of Elementary School Activities Ruth Bristol, Elementary School Principal, Ann Arbor, Mich. Intelligent Cooperation Between Administration and Classroom J. L. Meader, Principal, State Normal School, New Haven, Conn. General Discussion 280 National Education Association Monday Feb. 27 2:00 P.M. Natural History Society Hall Group Xn. Music Education Presiding, P. W. Dykema, Professor of Music Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Bringing the Subject Specialist and the General Administrator Together P. W. Dykema, Professor of Music Education, Teachers College, Colum- bia University, New York City. How Can the General Supervisory Officers Evaluate Music In- struction? William M. Davidson, Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. W. F. Webster, Superintendent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. A. L. Threlkeld, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. What Is a Fair Cost of Music Instruction? Sources of Funds Charles H. Lake, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. Ira Chapman, Superintendent of Schools, Elizabeth, N. J. Charles H. Miller, Director of Music, Rochester, N. Y. A Practical Syllabus of Granting Credit in Junior and Senior High Schools Edgar B. Gordon, Professor of Music, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. J. E. Maddy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Results with Retarded Children Willem van de Wall, Harrisburg, Pa. William L. Tomlins, Boston, Mass. A. E. Winship, Editor, Journal of Education, Boston, Mass. Monday Group XHI. Health and Physical Education 2'00 P^M Presiding, D. J. Kelly, Superintendent of Schools, Binghamton, N. Y. Massachusetts Health Protection or Medical Inspection Normal School of Art Le Roy A. Wilkes, Director of Medical Service, American Child Health Association, New York City. Discussion Clothilda Patton, Director of Health Education, East Orange, N. J. Physical Education in Health Education Frederick Rand Rogers, Chief, Physical Education, State Department of Education, Albany, N. Y. Discussion Carl L. Schrader, Supervisor of Physical Education, State Department of Education, Boston, Mass. Direct Health Teaching R. G. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. Discussion Mabel C. Bragg, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Newton, Mass. General Discussion Department of Superintendence 28 Second General Session Monday Feb. 27 Music by Boston Public School Symphony Orchestra, Joseph F. Wagner 7:3© p. M. conducting Mechanics The Use and Abuse of Democracy in Education Hall W. H. P. Faunce, President, Brown University, Providence, R. I. Community Singing Led by Peter W. Dykema, Professor of Music Education, Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University, New York City The Inter-American Ideals Thomas E. Benner, Chancellor, University of Porto Rico, Rio Piedras, P. R. The Farmer and the Farmer's Child Adam McMuUen, Governor of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. Third General Session Tuesday Feb. 28 Executive Program — For Members of the Department of ^'^^ ^- M- Superintendence Only . Mechanics Music by Glee Club, Dorchester High School for Girls Financing Public Education Progressive Tendencies with Respect to Sources of School Revenues Fletcher Harper Swift, Professor of Education, School of Education, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. The Equali£ing Principle in State School Support Albert S. Cook, State Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Md. Efficiency in Expenditure of School Moneys Fred M. Hunter, Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, Calif. Community Singing Led by Will Earhart, Supervisor of Music, Pittsburgh Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. Report of Committees For the Commission on the Curriculum Edwin C. Broome, Superintendent of Schools, Philadelphia, Pa. For the Committee on Articulation of Educational Units Herbert S. Weet, Superintendent of Schools, Rochester, N. Y. For the Committee on Financing Educational Research Randall J. Condon, Superintendent of Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio For the Committee on Relation of Boards of Education and Ad- ministrative Officers E. C. Hartwell, Superintendent of Schools, Buffalo, N. Y. For the Committee on Records and Reports R. O. Stoops, Superintendent of Schools, York, Pa. For the Auditing Committee David A. Ward, Superintendent of Schools, Wilmington, Del. For the Executive Committee M. G. Clark, Superintendent of Schools, Sioux City, Iowa Nomination of Officers from the Floor 282 National Education Association Tuesday Feb. 28 2:00 P. M. Boston Public Library Administrative Sections The Department meets this afternoon in administrative sections. Section I. State Departments of Education Presiding, Ernest W. Butterfield, State Commissioner of Education, Concord N. H. Making the Schools Public Schools Through Cooperation — Our Good Friends, the Politicians Ernest W. Butterfield, State Commissioner of Education, Concord, N. H. Discussion— Birmingham's Way C. B. Glenn, Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Ala. Through Information — What the People Want to Know Rollo G. Reynolds, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City Discussion — Houston's Way E. E. Oberholtzer, Superintendent of Schools, Houston, Texas. Through Teacher Training — State Control of the Training Process J. A. H. Keith, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. Recruiting Teachers H. C. Minnich, Dean, Teachers College, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio Training Teachers Frank E. Baker, President, State Teachers College, Milwaukee, Wis. Establishing Teachers C. L. Phelps, President, State Teachers College, Santa Barbara, Calif. General Discussion Tuesday Feb, 28 2:00 P. M. Ford Hall Section II. County Superintendents Presiding, Kate V. Wofford, County Superintendent of Schools, Laurens, S. C. Equal Opportunity for the Country Child The County School Survey, An Instrument for the Equalizing of Educational Opportunities Norman Frost, Professor of Rural Education, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. Equalization of Opportunities Through a Rational Curriculum for Rural Schools Edward J. Tobin, Superintendent of Cook County Schools, Chicago, III. More Efficient Machinery for Rural Schools E. S. Richardson, Superintendent of Webster Parish Schools, Minden, La. The Country Teacher and Her Job L. J. Berry, Superintendent of Schools, San Marcos, Texas Equalization of Opportunities Through a Proper Program of School Finance George Howard, Superintendent Rowan County Schools, Salisbury, N. C. Equalization of Opportunity for the Country Child Through Proper School Supervision Ada York, Superintendent of San Diego County Schools, San Diego, Calif. Note: Following each paper there will be a discussion from the floor led by the Superintendent reading the paper. Each discussion will last five minutes. 6- r Department of Superintendence 283 • « TIT Sunerintendenl of Cities with Population Below 10,000 Tuesday Section 111- ^"1 Yeh. 28 siding, Philip H. Kimball, Superintendent of Schools, Brunswick, IMaine. 2:00 P. M. T-I7FPING THE People Informed „ ,, lohn Lund, Superintendent of Schools, Norwalk, Conn. S Monroe Graves, Superintendent of Schools, Wellesiey, Mass. Willard M. Bacon, Sujjerintendent of Schools, Westerly, R. I. UfPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE Harr-s- W'. Langwortln', Superintendent of Schools, Gloversville, N. V. Fred S. Lil)l)ey, Sui)erintendent of Schools, Franklin, N. H. lohn K. Patterson, Superintendent of Schools, Athens, (Jhio. Adapting Course.s of Study and Programs in Education to the Smaller *^john 1. Mahoney, Professor of Education, Boston University-, Boston, M E. Houck, Superintendent of Schools, Berwick, Pa. Ira S. Brinser, Superintendent of Schools, Newark, Del. General Discussion Section IV. Superintendents of Cities with Population 10,000 Tuesday to 100,000 Feb. 28 Presiduig, S. E. Weber, Superintendent of Schools, Charleston, W. Va. Huntington Appropriate Forms of Publicity for Promoting the Best Interests of City School Systems Through the Public Press and Forum, Chamber of Commerce and Other Civic Organizations . W. I. Avery, Superintendent of Schools, Alexandria, La. Discussion ]. R. Barton, Superintendent of Scliools, Oklahoma City, Okla. Through the Department of Vital Statistics and Research L. C. Bain, Chief, Bureau of Child Accounting and Statistics, Cleveland Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio Discussion M. R. Keyworth, Superintendent of Schools, Hamtramck, Mich. Through Parent-Teacher Associations M. G. Brumbaugh, President, Juniata College, Huntingdon, Pa. Discussion Mrs. A. H. Reeve, President, National Congress of Parents and Teachers Philadelphia, Pa. Through Effective Administration of the School System Daniel J. Kelly, Superintendent of Schools, Binghamton, N. Y. Discussion Joseph H. Saunders, Superintendent of Schools, Newport News Va. Hall 284 National Education Association Tuesday Feb. 28 2:00 P. M. Arlington Street Church Section ^'. Superintendents of Cities with Population from 100,000 to 250,000 Presidivg, Carroll R. Reed, Superintendent of Schools, Bridgeport, Conn. Supplementary Education Present Problems in Adult Education Viewpoint of the Federal Government L. R. Alderman, United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. Viewpoint of the State A. W. Castle, State Department of Public Instruction, Harrisljurg, Pa. R. C. Deming, State Board of Education, Hartford, Conn. Viewpoint of the City William J. Bickett, Superintendent of Schools, Trenton, N. J. C. S. Marsh, Director of the Buffalo Survey of Adult Education, Buffalo, N. Y. Special Classes and Child Adjustment Each speaker to discuss this problem as it exists in his own city, stating what has been done and what ought to be done. Charles S. Meek, Superintendent of Schools, Toledo, Ohio. H. S. Weet, Superintendent of Schools, Rochester, N. Y. L. P. Benezet, Superintendent of Schools, Manchester, N. H. J. H. Beveridge, Superintendent of Schools, Omaha, Nebr. J. A. Young, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Bridgeport, Conn. N. R. Crozier, Superintendent of Schools, Dallas, Texas. Tuesday Feb. 28 2:00 P. M. State House Gardner Auditorium Section VI. Superintendents of Cities of 250,000 and Over Presiding, David E. Weglein, Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Md. The Improvement of Teachers in Service Each speaker is limited to five minutes. Through the Salary Schedule * Frank W. Ballou, .Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C. William F. Webster, Superintendent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. Through Supervision R. G. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. Through Teachers' Meetings A. L. Threlkeld, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. Through Leaves of Absence for Study and Travel Milton C. Potter, Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee, Wis. Edwin C. Broome, Superintendent of Schools, Philadelphia, Pa. Through Demonstration Lessons Isaac O. Winslow, Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R. L Charles S. Meek, Superintendent of Schools, Toledo, Ohio Through Extension Courses and Summer Schools Randall J. Condon, Superintendent of Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio Ernest C. Hartwell, Superintendent of Schools, Buffalo, N. Y. Through Rating Systems Nicholas Bauer, Superintendent of Schools, New Orleans, La. Through Cooperative Professional Study H. B. Wilson, Director, American Junior Red Cross, Washington, D. C. Department of Superintendence 285 Section ^'II. For City Assistant and District Superintendents Tuesday Feb. 28 Presiding, F. M. Underwood, District Superintendent of Schools, St. Louis, 1:00 P. M. Mo. Y. M. C. A. Bates Hall The Job of the City Assistant or District Superintendent Assistant Superintendents and Theik Duties Frank E. VVillard, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Seattle, Wash. The Present Status of the City District Superintendent Arthur C. Perry, Jr., District Supcriii(endc-nl of Schools, New York City. General Discussion ked by George Melcher, Assistant Sui:)eriiitendent of Schools, Kansas City, Mo., and John C. McGlade, fJeinitN' Superintendent of Schools, San Francisco, Calif. Section YIII. Business Managers Feir28^ Presiding, -Stephen E. Kramer, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Wash- xi" *,.^* i " ington, D. C. Vj^V"^^' ^ History Society Hall Some Administrative Problems Relating to School Supplies Budgetary Procedure in Respect to School Supplies Harold Clark, Professor of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington Ind. Some Principles of Business Management Affecting School Supplies H. L. Mills, Business Manager, Houston Public Schools, Houston, Texas. The Influence of School Supplies on Classroom Instruction F. G. Bonser, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. Present Practises in the Selection, Purchase, and Distribution of School Supplies C. J. Anderson, Associate Professor of Education, University of Wiscon- sin, Madison, Wis. Some Needed Research Concerning School Supplies John Guy Fowlkes, Professor of Education, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. General Discussion o . X,- T>,. , ^ Tuesday Section IX. Directors of Research in Public Schools Feb. 28" T • T.^ • ■ r^ 2:00 P. M. Joint Meeting with Educational Research Association and National Sanders Society of College Teachers of Education Theater Harvard Presiding, William Webb Kemp, President, National Society of College University Teachers of Education, and Dean, School of Education, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. The Bureau of Research in Public School Systems What the Superintende.nt Expects of a Research Department Fred M. Hunter, Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, Calif. 286 National Education Associatio N Tuesday Feb. 28" 2:00 P. M. Sanders Theater Harvard Universit3' Tuesday Feb. 28* 7:30 P. M. Mechanics Hall {Section IX. Continued) The Place of Research in a School System S. A Courtis Professor of Education, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Mich., and Secretary, National Society of College Teachers of Educa' tion. '^" The Training OF Directors FOR Public School Research Bureaus John \\..\\Mthers, Dean, Scliool of Education, New York University New y ork City. - ' General Discussion Led by BR. Buckingham, Professor of Education, Ohio State Uni- versity, Columbus, Ohio. Fourth General Sessi'oti Joint Meeting with the Department of Secondary School Principals^ Music by Girls' High School Glee Club Supervision in the Secondary School Statement of the Problem and the Viewpoint of the Principal F. L. Bacon President, Department of Secondary School Principals Principal, J. Sterling Morton High School, Cicero, 111. From the Standpoint of the Superintendent William McAndrew, Editor, Educational Review, Chicago, 111. From the Standpoint of the Teacher Cornelia S Adair Teacher, Bainbridge Junior High School, Richmond Va., and President, National Education Association Can Supervision Be Made Scientific? Cliarles H. Judd, Director, School of Education, University of Chicago Chicago, 111. ^ ' Wednesda}' Feb. 29 9:00 A. M. Mechanics Hall Fifth General Session Music by Boston Public School Junior Symphony Orchestra The Profession of Educational Administration What is the Work of the Superintendent of Schools? W. W. Charters, Professor of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, The Qualifications of the Professional Superintendent of Schools John H. Beveridge, Superintendent of Schools, Omaha, Nebr. The Relation of the Superintendent of Schools to Lay Control E. C. Hartwell, Superintendent of Schools, Bufifalo, N. Y. Community Singing Led by Edgar B. Gordon, Professor of Music, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. The Professional Training of School Executives George D. Strayer, Professor of Educational Administration, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City The Training of Superintendents of Schools While in Service A. B. Meredith, State Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Conn. Ballot Boxes Open— Mechanics Hall and Registration Desk Votes for officers of the Department of Superintendence may be deposited between 11:00 A. M. and 6:00 P. M. I. V 1 V Di:)'arimi:n'j' of Su.i'J-rinjjindkncj- 287 SifihtseeinU and College Dinners 'I'licrc will be no session of the Department of Superintendence. This after- noon will l'(* reserved for allied departments, sightseeing, historic pilgrimages, ^ncl visitation of exhibits. As usual Wednesday evening will be reserved for college dinners. Sixth Genei'al Session Music h\ the Orchestra and Glee Club of iIk- Lewis School The Relation of Higher Educatiov to Public Education The Endowed Institution of Higher Education — Its Relation to Public Education James R. Angell, President, Yale Universit>-, New Haven, Conn. The State University — Its Relation to Public Education Lotus \). Coffman, President, University' of Minnesota, Minneajjolis, Minn. The Relation of the Public .Schools to Higher Education Mrs. Susan ]\L Dorsey, Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, Calif. Report of the Committee on Resolutions Seventh General Session Education and the Nation William M. Davidson, .Superintendent of .Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. Singing of "America the Beautiful" Greetings Katherine Lee Bates, author of "America the Beautiful" Progressive Education in England Beatrice Ensor, Director, New Education Fellowship, Editor, The New Educatwy:, London, England The Debt of New England to the South and West A. E. Winship, Editor, Journal of Education, Boston, Mass. Business Session Eighth General Session Music by Boston Public School Symphony Band Fortunate Sordillo, Coiidnctor Coronation March from "The Prophet" — Meyerbeer Overture, The Champion — George Wiegand Friendship — Harris Trombone solo by Mr. Sordillo Pilgrim's Chorus from "Tannhauser" — Wagner March— On the Mall — E. F. Goldman American National Melodies — Ascher Boston High School Cadet March — Sordillo Selections Massachusetts Institute of Technology Glee Club, Charles C. Mar- shall, Jr., Leader Aviation and the Public Schools Colonel Charles A. Lindbergh. Aeronautical Education W. F. Durand, Member National Advisory Council for Aeronautics, .Stanford University, Calif. Educ.\tion in the Development of Aeronautics William P. MacCracken, Assistant Secretary for Aeronautics, Depart- ment of Commerce, W'ashington, D. C. Presentation of Life Membership and Emblem in the National Edu- cation Association to Mrs. Evangeline L. L. Lindbergh President Joseph M. Gwinn ^^ ediiesdaA' Feb. 29 Afternoon and Evening TJiursday March l" '>:00 A. M. Meclianics Hall Tliursdav March l" 2:00 P. M. Mechanics Hall Thursday March 1 7:30 P. M. Mechanics Hall ■f 288 National Educatjon Association OFFICERS AND COMMITTEE MEMBERS, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE, BOSTON MEETING, FEBRUARY, 1928 Officers President, Joseph M. Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools San Francisco, Calif. First Viccprcsident, Randall J. Condon, Superintendent of Scliools Cincinnati, Ohio Second Vicepresident, Frank D. Boynton, Superintendent of Scliools Ithaca, N. Y. Executive Secretary, Sherwood D. Shankland, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W Washington, D. C. Executive Committee M. G. Clark, Superintendent of Schools Sioux City, Iowa Norman R. Crozier, Superintendent of Schools Dallas, Texas E. E. Lewls, Professor of School Administration, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Frank M. Underwood, District Superintendent of Schools. . .St. Louis, Mo. Commission on the Curriculum Edwin C. Broome, Chairjnan, Superintendent of Schools.. .Philadelphia, Pa. John L. Alger, President, Rhode Island College of Education, Providence, R. I. F. L. Bacon, Principal, J. Sterling Morton High School Cicero, 111. Frank W. Ballou, Superintendent of Schools Washington, D. C. E. B. Cauthorn, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Dallas, Texas Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, Superintendent of Schools Los Angeles, Calif. William F. Ewing, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Oakland, Calif. John M. Foote, Rural School Supervisor, State Department of Educa- tion, Baton Rouge, La. Oscar C. Gallagher, Superintendent of Schools Brookline, Mass. Thomas W. Gosling, Superintendent of Schools Madison, Wis. Arthur Gould, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Los Angeles, Calif. William H. Holmes, Superintendent of Schools Mount Vernon, N. Y. Charles H. Judd, Director, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. t Edwin L. Miller, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Detroit, Mich. Edward D. Roberts, Associate Suj^erintendent of Schools. . Cincinnati, Ohio Harold O. Rugg, Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City Theodore Saam, vSuperintendent of Schools Council BlufTs, Iowa Zenos E. Scott, Superintendent of Schools Springfield, Mass. Frank E. Spaulding, Dean, School of Education, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Paul C. Stetson, Superintendent of Schools Dayton, Ohio Willis A. Sutton, Superintendent of Schools Atlanta, Ga. A. L. Threlkeld, Superintendent of Schools Denver, Colo. George M. Wiley, Assistant State Commissioner of Education, Albany, N. Y. H. B. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools Berkeley, Calif. John W. Withers, Dean, School of Education, New York University, New York City Commission on the Articulation of the Units of American Education Herbert S. Weet, Chairman, Superintendent of Schools. . .Rochester, N. Y. Samuel P. Capen, Chancellor, University of Buffalo Buffalo, N. Y. Charles H. Judd, Director, School of Education, University of Chicago Jesse H. Newlon, Director, Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University', New York City. Carroll R. Reed, Superintendent of Schools Bridgeport, Conn. R. E. TiDWELL, State Superintendent of Education Montgomer}', Ala. John W. Withers, Dean, School of Education. ... New York University Department of Superintendence 289 Auditing Committee David \ Ward, Chairman, Superintendent of Schools Wilmington, Del. 1 GUIS NusHAUM, Assistant Siipcrintendonl of Sciiools Philadelphia, Pa. Committee on Relation of Boards of Education AND Administrative Officers r C H-VRTWEi.L, Chairman, Superintendent of Schools Buffalo, N. V. 7FNOS E Scott, Superintendent of Schools Springfield, Mass. Paui C Stetson, Superintendent of Schools Dayton, Ohio Frank Cody, Superintendent of Schools Detroit, Mich. T W. Studebaker, Superintendent of Schools Des Moines.Iowa Committee on Financing Educational Research R\ND\LL 1. Condon, Chairman, Superintendent of Schools, Cincinnati, Oliio Leonard P. Ayres, Cleveland Trust Company Cleveland, Ohio Frank W. Ballou, Superintendent of Schools Washington, D. C. Frank D. Boynton, Superintendent of Schools Ithaca, N. \ . Charles H. ]udd. Director, School of Education University of Chicago Committee on Resolutions A L Threlkeld, Chairman, Superintendent of Schools Denver, Colo. 1 R Barton, Superintendent of .Schools Oklahoma City, Okla. A B Meredith, State Commissioner of Education Hartford, Conn. Charles L. Spain, Deputy Superintendent of Schools Detroit, Mich. Estaline Wilson, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Toledo, Ohio Tohn W Withers, Dean, School of Education New York Universit>' Ada York, County Superintendent of Schools San Diego, Calif. Board of Tellers Walter T. Helms, Chairman, Superintendent of Schools. .Richmond, Calif. A. S. Iessup, Superintendent of Schools Cheyenne, Wyo. h. A. McDonald, Superintendent of Schools Sioux Falls, S. D. C. V. Courter, Superintendent of Schools Flint, Mich. Harvey S. Gruver, Superintendent of Schools Lynn, Ma^ss. M a. Cassidy, Superintendent of Schools Lexmgton, Ky. Louis P. Benezet, Superintendent of Schools Manchester, N. H. Arthur Deamer, Superintendent of Schools Cedar Rapids, Iowa Committee on Uniform Records and Reports R. O. Stoops, Chairman, Superintendent of Schools "^ ork, Pa. N L Engelhardt, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University .- New York City H. S. Ganders, Professor of School Administration, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio A. O. Heck, Assistant Professor of School Administration, Ohio State Uni- versitv Columbus, Ohio A. B. Meredith, State Commissioner of Education Hartford, Conn. Frank M. Phillips, Chief, Statistical Division, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. 290 National Education Association THE CONSTITUTION AND BYLAWS THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE CONSTITUTION Article I — Name The name of tliis association shall be the Department of Superintend- ence of tlie National Education Association. Article II — Object The object of this department shall be to promote the general educa- tional welfare in the field of administrative education and supervision, to make constructive studies, to further the effort and increase the efSciency of persons engaged in education, to foster professional zeal, to advance ednucational aims and standards, to protect and advance the interests of school administration, and to establish and maintain lielpful, friendly relationships. Article III — Membership Section 1. Membership in the Department of Superintendence shall consist of active, associate, and honorary. Section 2. All persons shall be eligible to active membership who are members of the National Education Association and who are engaged in supervisory and administrative positions — namelj-, state, county, and city superintendents, and associate, assistant, and deputy state, county, and city superintendents, and supervisory and administrative officers in city and county school systems exercising the functions of associate, assistant, or deputy superintendents; all state and national officers of educational administration ; the heads of teacher-training institutions, colleges, and universities having departments or colleges of education, the heads of these departments or colleges of education, and professors of school administra- tion or supervision in these institutions. Section 3. All members of the National Education Association, who are actively engaged in any phase of school work, may become associate members of this department by paying the regular membership fee, and shall be entitled to all the privileges of this department except the right to vote and hold office. Section 4. All members of the National Education Association, who have been engaged in supervisory or administrative positions, as defined in Section 2 of this article, and who have retired from such service, may have the privilege of honorary membership in this department upon recom- mendation of the Executive Committee. Section 5. The Executive Committee shall have power to pass upon the credentials of all applicants for membership. DliPARTMEN'J- OF S UPER) NJIINDENCE 291 Article IV — Officers Section 1. The officers of tliis department shall he a president, a first vice-president (who shall he the retiring president), a second A'ice-presi- dent, an executive secretary-, and four memhers of the Executive Com- mittee who, with the other officers of this department, with the exception of the executive secretarj-, shall constitute the Executive Committee. Section 2. The president and vice-presidents shall hold office for the period of one year from the date of election, including one full year's service in the promotion and operation of one meeting of the department. Section 3. The executive secretary shall be selected by the Executive Committee for an indefinite period. Section 4. Members of the Executive Committee shall hold office for four years, one member retiring each year. At the first election the mem- ber receiving the largest number of votes shall serve for a term of four years and the others for three, two, and one years, respectively, according to the number of votes received. Article V — Election of Officers Section 1. The procedure for the election of officers shall be as fol- lows: Nominations shall be made from the floor on the morning of the second da\'s session at a time previously agreed upon by the Executive Committee, and announced in the printed program of the meeting. Section 2. Method of halloting — The tickets issued bv the secretary of the department to the members shall be provided with a detachable stub, to be used as a ballot. Two places for balloting shall be provided, one at the secretary's head- quarters, the other at the entrance to the auditorium in which the general sessions are held. The ballot-boxes shall be open for voting from 11 a. isi. until 6 P. M. on the third day of the meeting. Those candidates receiving the highest number of votes for the respec- tive offices shall be considered the choice of the department, and declared elected. The entire procedure of balloting shall be in charge of the Executive Committee and secretary. Section 3. Announcement of the result of balloting — At the last regu- lar business meeting, the president shall call for the report of the secretary, announcing the result of the ballot cast for the several officers of the department. In case of a tie vote, the Executive Committee shall cast lots to determine the successful candidate. Article VI — Appointive Committees ^ The appointive committees of this department shall consist of a Resolu- tions Committee, an Audit Committee, and such other committees as may be authorized by the department from time to time. 292 National Education Association Article VII — Annual Meeting The annual meeting of tliis department shall be held on the fourth Monda}- in Februar)-, and the three succeeding da3'S. Article VIII — Amendments Tiiis Constitution may be altered or amended at any annual meeting by two-thirds vote of the active members present, the proposed amendment having been submitted in writing at a previous regular business meeting. BYLAWS Article I — Duties of Officers Section 1. It shall be tlie duty of the president to preside at all meet- ings and in conjunction with the Executive Committee to prepare programs for the annual meeting of the department ; to appoint all committees not otherwise provided for. He shall be chairman and a member of the Ex- ecutive Committee, and shall call meetings of this committee whenever he deems it necessary, or whenever he is requested so to do by a majority of the members of the committee. He shall perform all other duties ap- pertaining to his ofSce. Section 2. In the absence of the president, the vice-presidents shall pre- side in turn. In case of vacancy in the office of president, the second vice- president shall at once succeed to the office of president. Section 3. The Executive Secretary shall keep a complete and accurate record of the proceedings of all jneetings of the department and all meet- ings of the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the depart- ment, as provided by the Constitution and By-Laws, and in all matters not definitely prescribed therein be under the direction of the Executive Committee, and in the absence of direction by the Executive Committee, shall be under the direction of the president. He shall receive all moneys due the department and transmit them monthly to the secretary of the National Education Association; shall countersign all bills approved for payment by the Executive Committee or by the president in the interval between meetings of the Executive Committee. He shall have his records present at all meetings of the department and Executive Committee. He shall keep a list of members of the department and shall revise said list annually. He shall be secretary of the Executive Committee and cus- todian of all property of the department. He shall give such bond as may be required by the Executive Committee. He shall submit an annual report to the Executive Committee at each annual meeting. At the ex- piration of his term of office he shall turn over to his successor in office all money, books, and property of the department. He shall serve during the pleasure of the Executive Committee. DJ'I'ARI'MENT dF SUI'KRINTIINDKNCE 293 Article II — Duties of Committees Section 1. The Executive Committee shall assist the president in ar- ranf^Mng the annual program, and in arranging for tl)c place of the annual meeting. It shall select an executive secretary and fix his salary. The Executive Committee shall submit an annual report at one of the business sessions of the department, shall recommend lo the department the apptjint- ment of sj^ecial committees for investigation and research. It shall recom- mend the amount of money to be expended in such investigations, but in no case shall it incur debt. It shall decide what sections and dej^artments of the National Education Association may be affiliated wkh this depart- ment. Section 2. The Resolutions and Audit Committees shall be aiii)omted by the newly-elected president immediately upon his election and shall make their report at the next annual meeting succeeding their appoint- ment. Article III — Dues The dues of this Department shall be $5 per year for both active and associate members, and shall be paid annually to the Executive Secretary. In lieu of said annual dues, a six-year membership shall be issued by the Executive Secretary to any active or associate member upon the payment of $25 in advance. Article IV — Vacancies All vacancies occurring in any office other than that of president shall be filled by the Executive Committee. Article V — Rules of Order Roberts' Rules of Order shall govern in all business ineetings of this department. Article VI — Amendments These Bylaws may be amended at any regular business meeting of this department by a majority vote of the members present, the amendment- having been submitted in writing at a previous regular business meeting. CJLENDJR OF MEETINGS THE National Association of School Superintendents was organized at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, in 1865. This association became the Department of School Superintendence of the National Educational Association in 1870. In 1907 the name was changed to the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS, 1865-1870 1865— HARRISBURG, Pa. (Organization) -HARRISBURG, Pa August. BiRDSEY Grant NoRTunor, Chairman. L. \'an Bokkelen, Secretary. 1866— WASHINGTON, D. C, February. INDIANAPOLIS, IND., August. BiRDSEY Grant NoRtHROr, President. Charles R. Cohurn, \^ice-president. L. Van Bokkelen, Secretary. 1867- 1868- 1 869- No Meeting. NASHVILLE, TENN., August. Emerson E. ^^'HITE, President. Daniel .Stevenson, Vice-president. L. Van Bokkelen, Secretary. TRENTON, N. J., August. J. W. BULKLEV, President. Emerson E. White, V^ice-president. L. \'"an Bokkelen, Secretary. 1870— WASHINGTON, D. C, March. .Iames P. WiCKERSHAM, Pre.sident. S .S. AsuLEV, Vice-president. W. R. Creerv, Secretar3^ 1883- 1883- 1886- 1887- DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, 1871-1906 1871— ST. LOUIS, MO., August. W. D. Henkle, President. W. M. Colby, Vice-president. Warren Johnson, Secrleary. 1872— BOSTON, MASS., August. .ToHN Hancock, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. 1873— ELMIRA, N. Y., August. William T. Harris, President. John W. Page, N'ice-president. A. P. !Marble, Secretary. 1874— WASHINGTON, D. C, January. DETROIT, MICH., August. J. PI. BiNFORD, President. Allen Armstrong, Secretary. 1875— WASHINGTON, D. C, January. MINNEAPOLIS, MINN., August. J. Ormond ^^^ILSON, President. A. Adernethy, \'ice-president. R. W^. Stevenson, Secretary. 1876— BALTIMORE, MD., July. Charles S. Smart, President. A. Pickett, Vice-president. Horace S. Tarbel, Secretary. 1877- W.^SHINGTON, D. C, March. LOUISVILLE, KV., August. WASHINGTON, D. C, December. Charles S. Sm.^rt, President. Horace S. Tarbell, Secretary. 1878 — No Meeting. 1879— WASHINGTON, D. C, February. PHILADELPHIA, PA., July. James P. Wickersham, President. James H. Smart, Vice-president. R. W. Stevenson, Secretary. 1880— WASHINGTON, D. C, February. CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y., July. M. A. Newell, President. N. A. Calkins, Vice-president. S. A. Baer, Secretary. 1681— NEW YORK, N. Y., February. ATLANTA, GA., July. A. P. Marble, President. N. A. Calkins, Vice-president. Samuel Findley, Secretary. 1882— WASHINGTON, D. C, March. SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y., July. W. H. RuFFNER, President. N. A. Calkins, Vice-president. Henry S. Jones, Secretary. -WASHINGTON, D. C, February. SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y., July. N. A. Calkins, President. Horace S. Tarbell, Vice-president. Henry S. Jones, Secretary. 1884— WASHINGTON, D. C, February. MADISON, WIS., July. B. L. Butcher, President. D. F. DeWolf, Vice-president. Henry R. Sanford, Secretary. -NEW ORLEANS, LA., February. SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y., July. Leroy D. Brown, President. W. O. Rogers, Secretary. -WASHINGTON, D. C, February,^. TOPEKA, KANS., July. Warren Easton, President. A. P. Stone, Vice-president. Charles C. Davidson, Secretary. -WASHINGTON, D. C, March. CHICAGO, ILL., July. Charles S. Young, President. N. C. Dougherty, Vice-president. Charles C. Davidson, Secretary. 1888— ^^'ASHINGTON, D. C, February. SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF., July. N. C. Dougherty, President. Henry A. Wise, Vice-president. W. R. Thigpen, Secretary. 1S89— WASHINGTON, D. C, February. NASHVILLE, TENN., July. Fred M. Campbell, President, W. R. Thigpen, Secretary. Charles C. Davidson, Vice-president. W. R. Thigpe, Secretary. 1890— NEW YORK, N. Y., February. Andrew S. Draper. President. J. A. B. LovETT, \'ice-president. L. W. Day, Secretary. 1891— PHILADELPHIA, PA., February. Andrew S. Draper, President J. A. B. Lovett, Vice-president L. W. Day, Secretary. 1892— BROOKLYN, N. Y., February. Henry Sabin, President. X'lRGiL G. Curtis, Vice-president. L. W. Day, Secretary. [294 ] Department OF Superintendence 295 1093 boston, MASS., February. Ei)WABi> Brooks, President. loHN li. Bkadlev, Vice-presideiil. "l. H. pHiLLirs, Secretary. ]g94— RICHMOND, VA., ]-"ebruary. Jj. ]-,. KiF.HLi;, I'lesident. Waruun Easton, \ice-iiresident. Frederick Treudlev, Secretary. jg95 CLICX'KI.ANI), OHIO, February. WiU.iAM ]]. Maxwei.i., I'resicienl. Oscar T. Corson, Vice-i)resident. |.\MES M. Carlisle, Secretary. j89,;_1ACKSONVllvLE, FLA., February. Lewis H. Jones, President. J. ]L Phillips, \'ice-i)resident. KonERT E- DenFELu, Secretary. ]897_]NJ)lANAPOLlS, INJ)., February. C. B. GiLDERT, President. A. B. Blodgett, Vice-president. Lawton B. Evans. Secretary. ]898— CIL'VTTANOOGA, TENN., February. Nathan C. Schaeeeer, President. Frank B. Cooper, Vice-president. ^^'ILLIAM L. Steele, Secretary. ]899_COLUM]5LTS, OHIO, February. EucAR 11. Mark, President. George H. Conley, Vice-president. Tames H. Van Sickle, Secretary. 1900— CHICAGO, ILL., February. Augustus S. Downing, Piesident G. R. Glenn, Vice-president. Charles M. Jordan, Secretary. 1901— CHICAGO, ILL., February. Lorenzo ]J. Harvev, President. Arthur K. \\'iiitcomi!, \'ice-Presi- dent. ]m(ank B. Cooper, Secret:iry. ]902— CHICAC;0, ILL., February. G. E. Glenn, President. Henry p. Emerson, Vice-president. John W. Diettricii, Secretary. ] 90.^— CINCINNATI, OHIO, Felnuary. Ciiari.es M. .Iordan, President. Clarence F. Carroll, Vice-jiresident. .1. N. Wilkinson, Secretary. 1904— ATLANTA, GA., February. HiiNKv P. Emerson, President. IVDWiN B. Cox, Vice-president. John 11. Hinemon, Secretary. ]9n.S— MILWAUKEE, WIS., February. JunviN G. CooLEY, President. Lawton B. Evans, \'ice-president. Evangeline E. Whitney, Secretary. 1906— LOUISVILLE, KV., February-MarclL John W. Carr, I'lesidcnt. .L II. Phillips, Vice-president. Ella C. Sullivan, Secretary. 1907— CHICAGO, ILL., February. W. M'. Stetson, President. H. H. Seerlev, Vice-president. J. li. Harris, Secretary. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, 1907 1908— WASHINGTON, D. C, February. Frank B. Cooper, President. Stratton D. Brooks, Vice-president. George B. Cook, Secretary. 1909— CHICAGO, ILL., February. William H. Elson, President. David B. Johnson, Vice-president. A. C. Nelson, Secretary. 1910— INDIANAPOLIS, IND., March. Stratton D. Brooks, President. Wales C. Martindale, Vice-presi- dent. John F. Keating, Secretary. 1911- MOBILE, ALA., February. William M. Davidson, President. J. A. Shawan, Vice-president. Arthur D. Call, Secretary. 1912— ST. LOUIS, MO., February! Charles E. Chadsey, President. O. J. Kern, \'ice-president. Harlan Updegraff, Secretary 1913— PHILADELPHIA, PA., February. Franklyn B. Dyer, President. Samuel^ Hamilton, Vice-president. Burr W. Torre yson. Secretary. 1914— RICHMOND, VA., February. Ben Blewett, President. W. E. Ranger, Vice-president. Anna E. Logan, Secretary. 1915— CINCINNATI, OHIO, February. Henry Snyder, President. Paul W. Horn, Vice-president. Mrs. Ellor C. Ripley, Secretary. 1916— DETROIT, MICH., February. M. P. Shawkey, President. Lawton B. Evans, \'ice-president. E. C. W'arriner, Secretary. 1917— KANSAS CITY, MO., February. John D. Shoop, President. Fred L. Keeler, ^''ice-president Margaret T. Maguire, Secretary. 1918— ATLANTIC CITY, N. J., February. Thomas E. Finecan, President. A. A. McDonald, N'ice-president. LiDA Lee Tall, .Secretary. 1919— CHICAGO, ILL., February-March. Ernest C. Hartwell, President David B. Corson, ^■'ice-presidem. Marie Gugle, Secretary. 1920- CLEVELAND, OHIO, February. E. U. Graff, President. D. J. Kelly, Vice-president. Charl Ormond W'lLLiAMS, Secretary. 1921— ATLANTIC CITY, N. J., February. Calvin N. Kendall, President. Ernest A. Smith, Vice-president. Belle M. Ryan, Secretary. 1922— CHICAGO, ILL., February-March. Robinson G. Jones, President. \\'iLL C. Wood, Vice-president. Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary. 1923— CLEVELAND, OHIO, February. John H. Beveridge. President. Frank W. Ballou, A'ice-president Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary. 1924— CHICAGO, ILL., February. Payson Smith, President. I^I. G. Clark, Vice-president. Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary. 1925— CINCINNATI, OHIO, February. William McAndrew, President. John J. Maddox, Vice-president. Sher\vood D. Shankland, Secretary. 1926- WASHINGTON, D. C, February. Frank ^^'. Ballou, President. E. E. Lewis, Vice-president. Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary. 1927— DALLAS, TEXAS, February. Randall J. Condon, President. David A. W^ard, \'ice-president. Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary. 1928— BOSTON, MASS., February. Joseph M. Gwinn, President. Frank D. Boynton, Vice-president. Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary. 1929— Frank D. Boynton, President. Frank G. Pickell, Vice-president. Sherwood D. Shankland, Secretary.