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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at |http : //books . google . com/| i RBCBIVKD m ExCHAIrGE TblTsrslfy^of Mlii. Lltrary L /5 L /3 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION * ,V2 i/ ' . OF THE S^ I UNITED STATES PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE AT THE ANNUAL MEETING HELD AT MOBILE, ALABAMA FEBRUARY 23-25, 191 1 PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION 19" > Composed and Printed By The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. ^^.c CONTENTS MOBILE MEETING, 191 1 Secretary's Minutes— CaW PAGE 5 Topic: A Message of Achievement from the Southland A. The Progress of Its Schools — Willingham 10 B. The Ideals of Its People — Gwinn 13 C. The Glory of Its Children — Evans 19 InrMemoriam — ^Warren Easton — Aswell 23 William Wallace Stetson — Smith 24 Topic: The Present Status of Education in America A. In the Elementary Schools — Young 27 B. In the Secondary Schools — Graff 30 C. In the Colleges and Universities — Benton 35 The Standards of Professional Life as Applied to Teaching — Suzzallo Topic: Our Educational Advance and Improvement over the Past A. In the City — Chadsey B. In the State— Cary C. In the Nation — Brown Preliminary Report of the Committee on Economy of Time in Education — Stizzallo An Educational Epoch in New America — Maclean Topic: The Coming of the Humane Element in Education A. The Open-Air School — Kingsley B. The Training of the Mentally and Physically Unfortunate — Ayres C. The Peace Movement and the Public Schools — Andrews D. The Education of the American Indian — Peairs .... Report of the Conmiittee on the Mexican Centennial — Cummings 43 47 54 59 66 70 80 86 91 96 99 Topic: The Progress and the True Meaning of the Practical in Education A. In Vocational Training — Gibson 104 B. In the Balanced Course of Study, and the All- Year-Round Schools — Luckey iii Preliminary Report of the Committee on Uniform Records and Reports . . .115 ROUND TABLES A. Round Table of State and County Superintendents Topic: A Story of Achievement and Endeavor in Co-operation The County Superintendent and the Rural Communities — Lathrop . . 147 The State Superintendent^ the County Superintendent, the State Normal — Marsh 148 The State Superintendent and the General and Southern Education Boards — Cook 149 4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PAGE B. Round Table of Superintendents of Smaller Cities Topic: Unity of Ideals and Purposes in Teachers A. As Gained from Professional Training — Thompson . iS3 B. As Gained from School Supervision — Warriner 155 C. As Gained from School Administration — Hyre 163 Final Report of the Committee of the Department of Superintendence on a Uni- versal Sj^tem of Key Notation 167 Supplementary List of Active Members 175 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE MOBILE MEETING, FEBRUARY 23-25, 1911 SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST DAY MORNING SESSION— Thursday, February 23, 191 1 The Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association met in the Lyric Theatre, Mobile, Ala., at 9:30 a.m.. President William M. Davidson, superin- tendent of instruction, public schools, Omaha, Nebr., presiding. The session opened with a piano duet, after which were short addresses of welcome by Albert P. Bush, president of the Mobile Chamber of Commerce; P. J. Lyons, Mayor of Mobile; and S. S. Murphy, superintendent of schools of Mobile. The response was made by President Davidson. The program of this session was as follows: Topic: A Message of Achievement from the Southland 1. "The Progress of Its Schools" — ^H. J. Willingham, state superintendent of public instruction, Montgomery, Ala. 2. "The Ideals of Its People" — ^Joseph M. Gwinn, superintendent of city schools, New Orleans, La. 3. "The Glory of Its Children" — ^Lawton B. Evans, superintendent of schools, Augusta, Ga. In Memoriam: Warren Easton — ^James Benjamin Aswell, president, State Normal School, Natchitoches, La. William Wallace Stetson — ^Payson Smith, state superintendent of public schools, Augusta, Maine. (Read by Mason Stone, state superintendent of education, Montpelier, Vt.) At the close of the morning session President Davidson announced the following committees: Committee on Nominations A. E. Winship, editor. New England Journal of Education, Boston, Mass. Homer H. Seerley, president, Iowa State Teachers' College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. Guy Potter Benton, president, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. S. S. Murphy, superintendent of schools, Mobile, Ala. Samuel Hamilton, superintendent of public schools, Braddock, Pa. Committee on Resolutions A. H. Waterhouse, superintendent of schools, Fremont. Nebr. Mason Stone, superintendent of education, Montpelier, Vt. Leonard Ayres, secretary, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y. James B. Aswell, president. State Normal School, Natchitoches, La. Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo. AFTERNOON SESSION At 2:30 p. i(. President Davidson called the meeting to order, and after a piano solo by Miss Ruth Rosenbaum, the following program was presented: 5 6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IMobile Topic: The Present Status of Education in America 1. "In the Elementary Schools" — ^EUa Flagg Young, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. 2. "In the Secondary Schools" — Ellis U. Graff, principal of high school, Omaha, Nebr. (Read by J. A. Doremus, superintendent of schools, Auburn, Nebr.) 3. "In the Colleges and Universities" — Guy Potter Benton, president, Miami University, Qxford, Ohio. General Discussion — Leaders: S. L. Heeter, superintendent of schools, St. Paul, Minn.; John W. Abercrombie, president, University of Alabama, University, Ala. "Preliminary Report of the Committee on Uniform Reports and Records" — George D. Strayer, professor of educational administration. Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity, New York, N.Y. Discussion — ^Leaders: Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D.C.; William H. Allen, director, Bureau of Municipal Research, New York, N.Y.; Willard S. Small, principal, Eastern High School, Washington, D.C. EVENING SESSION The evening session was called to order at 7:45 o'clock, President Davidson pre- siding. Owing to the unexpected absence of Bishop G^lilor, who was to deliver the address, brief addresses were given by the following: Henry Suzzallo, professor of philosophy of education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. Ella Flagg Young, superintendent of schools, Chicago, III. John MacDonald, editor, Western School Journal, Topeka, Kans. James B. Aswell, president, State Normal School, Natchitoches, La. SECOND DAY MORNING SESSION— Frtoay, February 24, 191 1 The meeting was called to order by President Davidson at 9:30 a.m. After a vocal solo by Miss Mattie Gusman, the following program was presented: Topic: Our Educational Advance and Improvement over the Past 1. "In City"— Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo. 2. "In State" — Charles P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis. 3. "In Nation" — Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United States Commissioner of Educa- tion, Washington, D.C. General Discussion — ^Leaders: Leonard P. A)rres, secretary, Russell Sage Foundation, New York City; J. George Becht, principal. State Normal School, Clarion, Pa.; M. L. Brittain, state superintendent of public instruction, Augusta, Ga. "Report of Committee on Economy of Time in Education" — Henry Suzzallo, professor of philosophy of education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. The annual business meeting followed the program. Several invitations were presented for the meeting in 191 2, and it was voted to hold that meeting in St. Louis, Mo. The report of the Committee on Nominations was as follows: For President, Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo. For First V ice-President , O. J. Kern, superintendent of schools of Winnebago County, Rockford, 111. For Second Vice-President, H. J. Willingham, state superintendent of public instruc- tion, Montgomery, Ala. For Secretary, Harlan Updegraff, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. The report was unanimously adopted and the nominees declared elected. The report of the Conmiittee on Resolutions followed: Supointendenccl SECRETARY'S MINUTES 7 Report of the Committee on Resolutions Resolved: 1. That this Department recognizes the steadily increasing value of the United States Bureau of Education in gathering and making available educational facts and statistics. It recalls with satisfaction the prominent part taken by this Department nearly half a century ago in bringing about the creation of the Bureau of Education. It endorses the earnest efforts that members of this Department and other friends of education are making to increase further the usefulness of the Bureau as defined by the organic act under which it exists, and hereby authorizes the outgoing president of this Department to appoint a committee of five, of which he shall be chairman, to be known as the Committee on the Bureau of Education, which shall co-operate with the similar committee of the National Education Association in furthering the interests of educational progress thru the United States Bureau of Education. 2. The question of the extension of die amoimt and the character of federal aid given to education is assuming great importance and demands the earnest consideration of all interested in education. This Department recommends that this question be given a place upon the next program of the Department. 3. It is the sense of the Department of Superintendence that uniform school records and rei}orts are essential to the intelligent comparison of school systems for the purpose of increasing the efficiency of educational administration. It therefore recommends the adoption by school authorities of ther forms of record and reports as submitted by its Committee on Uniform School Reports, provided that said forms shall be modified and improved as may be found expedient from year to year by conference of the United States Bureau of Education, the Bureau of the Census, the National Association of School Accounting Officers, and the Committee on Uniform School- Records and Reports of the Department of Superintendence. 4. The Department of Superintendence recognizes that the present lack of uni- formity in nomenclatiure found in texts in English grammar is confusing and unnecessary. It therefore authoriises the president of this Department to appoint a committee of five to formulate and report at the next annual meeting of this Department a system of nomen- clature for texts in English grammar, and recommends that publishers of such texts use this system if adopted by the Department. 5. The Department of Superintendence approves of the use of school buildings as community centers and recognizes in this movement a socializing force of immense significance. Genuine increase in efficiency is possible only where there exists the heart- iest co-operation on the part of all agencies aiming at social advancement. The estab- lishment during recent years of many organizations and societies devoted to the solution of various specific educational and social problems is most encouraging to all devoted to the public. 6. The Department is most heartily in sjonpathy with the policy of the Bureau of Indian Affairs to promote and encourage the attendance of Indian children in the public schools, and authorizes the outgoing president to appoint a committee of five to investigate the present conditions of the Indians with reference to their relation to the public schools for the purpose of determining what co-operation or supplemental work is practicable. 7. The thanks of this Department are hereby expressed to the local committee, the press, and to all concerned for the many courtesies shown to the officers and members of the Department. Respectfully submitted, A. H. Waterhouse, Chairman Leonard Ayres Mason S. Stone James B. As well Charles E. Chadsey CommiUee The report of the Committee on a Universal System of Key Notation was then read by Homer H. Seerlejr, president, Iowa State Teachers' College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. It was voted that the report be adopted and the committee discharged. Henry C. Cox, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, offered the following resolution, which was seconded by E. O. Vaile, of Oak Park, III., and adopted. Resolved, That a committee of five be appointed by the chair to bring the report on a Uniform Key Alphabet before the active members at the San Francisco meeting, to urge in behalf of the Department of Superintendence the adoption of a resolution dedar- 8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iMobflc ing £he needs of uniformity of our key notation for indicating pronunciation in our cyclo- pedias, dictionaries, textbooks, and all other publications, and endorsing for that purpose the key alphabet just adopted by the Department of Superintendence. AFTERNOON SESSION— 2; 30 P.M. The afternoon was devoted to the respective round-table conferences, with programs as follows: (a) round table op state and county superintendents Leader — ^John Grant Crabbe, president, State Normal School, Richmond, Ky. Topic: A Story of Achievement and Endeavor in Co-operation (a) "The State Superintendent, the Educational Conunission, and the Legislature" — E. T. Fairchild, state superintendent of public instruction, Topeka, Kans. Discussion by John W. Zeller, state commissioner of common schools, Columbus, Ohio; J. J. Doyne, president. State Normal School, Conway, Ark.; and Harlan Updegraff, Bureau of Educa- tion, Washington, D.C. (b) "The County Superintendent and the Rural Communities" — ^Miss Edith A. Lathrop, coimty superintendent of schools. Clay Center, Nebr. Discussion by Lawton B. Evans, superintendent of schools, Augusta, Ga., and A. L. Cook, county superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Md. (c) "The State Superintendent and the People — ^The Educational Campaign" — Charles G. Maphis, secretary, Virginia Educational Commission, Charlottesville, Va. Discussion by McHenry Rhoads, superintendent of schools, Owensboro, Ky. (d) "The State Superintendent, the Coimty Superintendent, and the State Normal" —Charles P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis. Discussion by James B. Aswell, president. State Normal School, Natchitoches, La., and J. Frank Marsh, supervisor of institutes and publications, department of schools, Charleston, W.Va. (e) "The State Superintendent and the General and Southern Education Boards" — George B. Cook, state superintendent of public instruction. Little Rock, Ark. Discussion by P. P. Claxton, professor of education, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn., and Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D.C. (b) round table of superintendents of larger cities Leader — ^John H. Phillips, superintendent of schools^ Birmingham, Ala. Topic: Some Problems of Economic School Administration (a) "Economic Aspects of Organization and Covirses of Study" — F. B. Dyer, super- intendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. (b) "Methods of Classification and Standards of Promotion in Their Relation to Retardation" — ^J. A. C. Chandler, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Va. (c) "The Problem of the 'Repeater'" — ^James H. Van Sickle, superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Md. (c) ROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF SMALLER CITIES Leader — E. E. Scribner, superintendent of schools, Ishpeming, Mich. Topic: Unity of Ideals and Purposes in Teachers (a) "As Gained from Professional Training" — A. C. Thompson, principal, State Normal School, Brockport, N.Y. Discussion by Mrs. Eulie G. Rushmore, Northern Normal School, Marquette, Mich. (b) "As Gained from School Supervision" — E. C. Warriner, superintendent of schools, Saginaw, Mich. Discussion by George A. Works, superintendent of schools, Menomonie, Wis. (c) "As Gained from School Administration" — Mrs. Sarah E. H5Te, member of Board of Education, Cleveland, Ohio. Discussion by L. L. Wright, state superintendent of public instruction, Lansing, Mich. Suptfrintendcnccl SECRMTARY^S MINVT&S EVENING SESSION The meeting was called to order at 7:45 p.m. by President Davidson. After a violin solo by Miss Aline Rosen, George E. MacLean, president of the State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, gave an address on "An Educational Epoch in New America." The session closed with a vocal solo by Mrs. C. B. Hervey. THIRD DAY MORNING SESSION— Saturday, February 25 The Department was called to order at 9:30 a.m., and the following program was presented: Topic: The Coming of the Humane Element in Education Music: Song by pupils of the public schools. 1. **The Open- Air School" — Sherman C. Kingsley, general superintendent. United Charities of Chicago, Chicago, 111. 2. "The Training of the Mentally and Physically Unfortunate" — ^Leonard P. Ayres, secretary, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y. 3. "The Peace Movement and the Public Schools" — ^Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews, Boston, Mass. 4. "Education of the American Indian" — H. B. Peairs, supervisor in charge of Indian Schools, Lawrence, Kans. "Report of the Committee on the Mexican Centennial" — Horace H. Cununings, general superintendent, L.D.S. Schools, Salt Lake City, Utah. After the program, President Davidson announced the following committees: COMiaTTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Calvin N. Kendall, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind., Chairman. Charles S. Meek, superintendent of schools, Boise, Idaho. Frank E. Spaulding, superintendent of schools, Newtonville, Mass. Ernest O. Holland, superintendent of schools, Louisville, Ky. J. H. Francis, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, California. This committee is to co-operate with the committee of the National Council on the same topic. COMMITTEE ON UNIVERSAL SYSTEM OF KEY NOTATION James H. Van Sickle, superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Md., Chairman. J. A. Shawan, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio. Ben Blewett, superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis, Mo. Livingston C. Lord, president, State Normal School, Charleston, 111. Vernon L. Davey, superintendent of schools. East Orange, N.J. COBfMITTEE ON UNIFORM NOMENCLATURE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR C. R. Rounds, State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis., Chairman. Ella Flagg Young, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. Stratton D. Brooks, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass. A. F. Lang, head of Department of Education, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. Henry F. West, assistant superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Md. AFTERNOON SESSION The last session of the Department was called to order at 2 : 30 p.m.. President David- son presiding. The following program was given: 10 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Mobile Topic: The Progress and the True Meaning of the Practical in Education Music: Selections by the Misses Sterling. 1. "In Agriculture" — P. G. Holden, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. Discussion by £. £. Balcomb, Department of Agriculture, State Normal School, Providence, R.I. 2. "In Vocational Training" — Carleton B. Gibson, president of Mechanics Institute, Rochester, N.Y. Discussion by Carroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. 3. "In the Balanced Course of Study, and the All-Year-Round Schools" — G. W. A. Luckey, Department of Education, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. At the close of the program the meeting adjourned. Arthur Deering Call, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS TOPIC: A MESSAGE OF ACHIEVEMENT FROM THE SOUTHLAND A. THE PROGRESS OF ITS SCHOOLS HENRY J. WILLINGHAM, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION OF ALA- BAMA, MONTGOMERY, ALA. This is an easy subject. Everybody likes to talk about what he has done and usually very few people are interested in hearing him tell about it. We in the South are willing to admit that ours is the best part of the United States, and that fact makes it the garden spot of the world. There are many evidences that this country in the Southland was the final and crowning work at the hands of the Creator. In referring to the progress of the schools of the Southland, dealing with a subject which covers nearly a million square miles, I shall necessarily be confined to broad and general terms. In 1865 the people of the South found for themselves more to do and less to do with than any other people in the history of the world. On every hand was utter destruction. All was gone save honor and hope. Our remnant of men who had not been left on the battle field found it necessary to rebuild first their homes before they could rebuild their schools. Previous to that time, thru the training received in their academies and seminaries and colleges and universities, the well-to-do and the great middle class in the South had been directing, in a large measure, the affairs of the nation. Our people, except those known as the "poor whites," were prosperous, contented, and happy. Whatever else the Civil War may have done, it created the equality of opportunity for all our people and resulted in the establishment of a real system of public education main- tained for all alike. While removing the ashes to begin the erection of new schoolhouses and higher institutions of learning it was realized for the first time that ours must be a dual system — one system for the white Superintendence] PROGRESS OF SCHOOLS OF SOUTHLAND II children and anotter system for the negro children. Why this was so at that time, why it is still so, and why it will be so a hundred years hence, need not be discussed here today. Reference is made to our dual system of education only for the purpose of pointing out one of the difficulties peculiar to this section. I am happy in the belief that this difficulty will always be one of the educational problems of the South; because, under the directing hand and the wise counsel of native white men, the negro, as a race, must work out his own civilization. Looking back thru the period of years during which the South has been developing and maintaining a system of public education we find much cause for rejoicing and for making us to look with hope and good cheer toward the future. In the olden days a child's education was thought to be a matter wholly within the discretion, and subject to the financial means and also to the inclination, of his parent. We have come now to know that the public welfare requires a proper education and a suitable training of all the children at the public expense. Furthermore, the recognition of this fact has caused about half the southern states to take the additional step of requiring the parents to send their children to school, and within a few more years the seven remaining southern states will write upon their statute books a compulsory attendance law just as it is now in every state of the North, the East, and the West. In those days private schools were the dependence for the instruction of the children in the common branches. Now free public schools supported by taxation dot the South in reach of every child. In those days academies and seminaries were maintained for the few. Now there are hundreds of public high schools thruout each of the southern states and open to all alike. In those days denominational colleges were expected to provide in a large measure for the higher education of a limited number. Each southern state is now spending milUons in providing for the higher education and for the technical training of the many. In those days three bales of cotton and one himdred bushels of corn could be obtained from the work of one mule in cultivating twenty acres. Now we can grow three bales of cotton on one acre and one hundred bushels of corn on another acre by means of the scientific methods taught in our agricultural colleges. In those days an education was considered necessary only for those boys who were to enter one of the professions. Now the South knows that a proper education and a suitable training are indispensable to the highest degree of success in any of the vocations of Ufe as well as the professions, and, therefore, we are beginning to make provision for the industrial training of the children of the Southland. About every ten years the states of the South approximately double their investment in' public-school buildings. This ratio of increase is approximately maintained also in the total amount expended on public education. The good example set by other states of making large invest- ments in the cause of public education is beginning to have a good eflEect n NAttONAL ^DVCATIOM ASSOCIATION iMobfle on the states of the South. Nature was so lavish in her gifts to this section in soil and in climate, in water and in mineral, in field and in forest, that our people may have been somewhat excusable in not fully reaUzing the necessity of providing ample educational facilities for their children. During niost of the period since the South began constructing a system of public schools, o\ir people have depended largely on the state governments to furnish the revenue. In recent years most of the southern states have come to know that while the state as a unit of government should furnish its part by taxation for the maintenance of a system of pubUc education, the county as a unit should furnish its part and the school district should furnish its part. You, my fellow-teachers, from the North and from the East and from the West, come from sections where the smaller divisions like the district and the county raise by taxation the greater part of the revenues for the support of the public schools; but we in Alabama, the home of William L. Yancy, have been such strong "States' Rights Demo- crats" that we believed in letting the state do nearly everything, while we as individuals returned the favor in full by continuing to vote the Demo- cratic ticket. We now realize that democracy and home rule ought to have taught us long ago to let the counties and the school districts assist the state government in maintaining a system of public education. These brief, passing references bring to our minds a review only of those greater movements in educational developments which have transformed the old South into the South of today. These changes, these evidences of marvelous growth, inspire us with hope and courage and confidence for the future. Of achievement, the schools of the Southland could sing a won- drous story; but they look not to the past, they look to the future. Another cause for gratification is the fact that all our educational problems and our educational institutions may be unaffected in future by sectional lines; because all sectional lines are wiped out now. They are always wiped out every time the North and the South participate in a public meeting. The latest proof that those sectional lines are almost completely obliterated was offered a few days ago when the metropolis of the South, New Orleans, situated almost in sight of the Panama Canal, was really seriously considered as a competitor with San Francisco, three thousand miles away, as the "logical point" for holding the Panama Exposition. Another important fact in connection with the growth of education in the South is the apparent admission on the part of most of the philan- thropists of the North that the native white man of the South understands the negro better than they do. In providing for the negro youth a common- school education together with an industrial training we earnestly desire the sympathy and co-operation of the North, but not its advice. We welcome its benefactions, but not the absolute direction of these expendi- tures. Supcrintendcncel IDEALS OF PEOPLE OF SOUTHLAND 13 You of the North and you of the East and you of the West have your problems of foreign immigration. We sympathize with you, but we know you can solve these problems better without our advice. We are not familiar with the difficulties, while you are. Why should we of the South undertake to advise you on a subject which from the very nature of things you know more about than we do? In like manner we probably imder- stand better than you do the problems of the South. • But best of all, my brothers, we are coming really to understand and to appreciate each other. We of the South and you of the North are coming to feel that your heroes and our heroes are the heritage of a common country. The deeds of your brave men and of our brave men, of your chieftains and of our chieftains, are transmitted as a glorious legacy to the children of America. To the keeping of the American school teacher is committed not only the destiny of individuals but the ideals of the nation. May he be true to his trust and equal to his responsibility. B. THE IDEALS OF ITS PEOPLE J. M. GWINN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW ORLEANS, LA. It was a great son of the South who in 1776 penned that immortal Declaration which proclaimed to the world the ideals of a new nation and set Liberty Bell ringing thru all times and to all lands the notes of freedom, liberty, the rights and powers of the people. Eleven years later another great son of the South wrote, " We, the people of the United States." While he wrote representing the whole people he had behind him a southern ancestry and training and was influenced by southern ideals and traditions. Owing to the strength of the South at the time of the Constitutional Conven- tion, and owing to the character of the men who represented the southern colonies, the expression of political ideals set forth in the Constitution was dominantly southern. Southern thought and southern 'ideals played leading parts in laying the foundation and in raising the superstructure of our nation. We, the people of the South, are of the people of the United States and hold with you of the East and North and West those ideals which have given individuality and character to this nation and made it a power for good in the world and which have directed the course of our national life and made the form of our government a model for other nations to imitate. The South has held these national ideals more sacred and inviolate than any other section of the country, for the South is essentially conservative and holds dear the foundation principles enunciated by the makers of the Constitution and applied by the builders of our nation. It has cherished and kept these ideals and its people have ever been ready to Uve and labor or fight and die, if need be, for their protection and maintenance. In times past to some the South has seemed a problem and its people a 14 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobfle peculiar people. To these the North has appeared to represent the nation. It is true, due to causes well known to all, that no southern man has been the executive head of the nation in many years, but it should be recalled that before i860 nine of the fifteen presidents were from the South and in other branches of the national government the South contributed its due share of leaders. But a better day dawns when the South shall come again into its own in national leadership and be represented in the highest offices in the government. The next Speaker of the House is a man of southern blood. Within the past few weeks a great son of Louisiana has been appointed head of the national judiciary by a great son of Ohio. The American ideals, they are the ideals of the people of the Southland. The ideals of the people of the South! A mighty theme, its vastness appalls me as does my inability to treat it in any adequate way in this brief paper. For the South is a mighty empire stretching from beyond the Potomac to far El Paso, from the Ohio to the Florida Keys, with a popula- tion of 30,006,000. Geographically, the South is diverse with its Coastal Plain, Appalachian jregion, great and alluvial river valleys, and wide prairies and plateaus; with its cotton areas, its tobacco areas, its sugar areas, its rice and tea areas, its com areas, its great forests and wealth of coal and iron and petroleum. Historically, the South is no less complex with its Colonial pettod, the Ante Bellum period, the period of War and Reconstruc- tion, and the New South which is just now emerging with a wealth of ideals inherited from each epoch of the Old South. A history, long, complex, romantic, and tragic, wrought by a people of many nationalities and of different bloods, by Cavaliers of Maryland and Virginia, Huguenots of the Carolinas, the Scotch Irish of the mountain and interior states, the Spanish from Florida to Mexico, the French of all this lower coast and especially of Louisiana, the Germans in Texas, by thousands of Indians and millions of negroes. The South believes that differences exist among men due to nature, to economic and social conditions, and to social heredity, and that these differences should be recognized in the treatment of the different classes. These differences are recognized in most countries of the earth includmg the leading nations of western Europe. An erroneous conception of democracy m and a faulty psychology have led a portion of the people of our country into an attempt to treat all men alike. The Indians must be given the white man's education and social order and transformed into white Indians. That the Indian is not a white man with a red skin has been learned at an enor- mous cost in dollars and a frightful waste of energy and life. When the negro slaves were freed, they became, to some, white men with black skins, so that all that was needed to make them equal to the whites was to give them the white man's privileges and the white man's education. This attempt has likewise failed. The same faulty notions led to an attempt to give the country child the same education as the dty child, the trades- Superintendencel IDEALS OF PEOPLE OF SOUTHLAND IS man's son the same as the son of his rich employer, the girls and women the same education as the boys and men, the illiterate adult the same as the child in the first grade. The failure of all these attempts, together with the teachings of modem psychology and sociology, has brought the whole country to accept the doctrine that differences do exist among men and that men should be treated accordingly. While the South has not been free from mistakes in education it has stood for vocational education*, for agricultural schools in the country, for differences in education due to sex, and, in the main, for separate colleges for men and women, and for an education for the .negro suited to his nature and social and economic needs. Eighty-five per cent of the people of the South live in the coimtry and by farming. Their ideals are naturally the ideals of field and farm. Con- ditions in the North tended toward commerce, toward organization, toward cohesion and centralization, and t6ward the development of great cities and the submergence of the individual. In the South, due to separateness on farms and plantations and the absence of great cities, the tendencies were toward individualism and guarding rights. Measured by the standard of dollars, the South has lagged behind. But the South has not cared so much for storing up wealth. "The South," says Dixon, "is raising men rather than money." Channing said, speaking of the Virginians, "They love money less than we do Patriotism is not tied to their purse strings." The South has been criticized for being slow, for lacking the hurry and bustle of the North and West. The South takes time to cultivate those individual graces and social virtues which have made the southern woman and the southern man famous the world over and purchased for the South a reputation for unequaled hospitality. It is a wealth of worth rather than a worth of wealth that is characteristic of southern ideals. To be able to produce a character like that of Robert £. Lee is esteemed of greater importance than to produce an army of millionaires. The South stands for the development of the individual, for his integrity, for the individual's personal worth. This individualism is needed in social progress to oppose the centralizing tendency of the North. A kindred ideal for which the South stands and has stood thru all the years is that of local self-government. This Anglo-Saxon principle is dear to our hearts. Of it President Dabney says, "The South's best contribu- tions to the cause of democracy was its ideal of local self-government." With this ideal goes the ideal of the integrity of the state. The people of the South stand and have stood for the indestructibleness of the states and for their rights to govern themselves. The war between the states settled once for all that this is to be "an indestructible imion of inde- structible states." Life on the farms and plantations tended to magnify the home. The l6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tMobile planter belonged to an aristocratic class and was proud of the blood in his veins. The plantation afforded all the necessities of life and many of the luxuries, so that life in the plantation home was almost ideal. The ideal of home is strong in the Southland, family ties are close, and social position and leadership depend more on one's family than on wealth or political or professional position. If the home is a mighty influence for good in the preservation of a nation, the Southland has contributed and will contribute more than its share. With the love of home and family naturally goes a reverence for the past. For .... in the land ob cotton, Old times dar am not foigotten No, old times are not forgqjtten in the South. Thousands of faniilies lost their wealth during the War and have never been able to regain the standards of living to which they were accustomed. To all such the glorious days of the distant past are sacred memories. In wealth and in strength of her manhood the South is just now abreast of the mark she had reached in i860. Many states have lost rank which they can never regain. Under these circumstances it is but natural that old times should not be forgotten. Then there were great principles contended for by our fathers, and national leaders went up from the South and great names were conunon in those days. Why should the South forget the glories of the past ? It is learning to forget many of its dark hours, but it will never forget its heroes and the principles for which they stood. The South is said to be conservative and exclusive and more or less sus- picious of strangers. If the South were ever suspicious of strangers that day is now past. If this suspicion existed it was pathological and absolutely foreign to native southern character, for the typical Southerner is of simple and straightforward mind with an open-handed hospitality unsurpassed. While the South is loyal and true to its friends, the warmth of its welcome and the genuineness of its hospitality to strangers stand out as conspicuous expressions of the ideals of her people. During the dark hours of the War and the darker days of Reconstruc- tion the South had many experiences with strangers which taught her that strangers meant danger. The attempt to force a solution of southern prob- lems by a method and on a.pattern foreign to southern ideals and experiences crystallized the South into the "solid" So>uth and dried up for a season the natural springs of hospitality in south'sm breasts. But the North has learned that these problems cannot be *so solved and that southern men with southern methods must work thf*m cut. Force has been replaced by education and by constitutional provisions regulating the franchise. Thus peace, security, prosperity, and an opportmiity to develop in its own way have been guaranteed to each raceu This Jias put the South at ease and has started again the native springy of JjOSipitality to strangers. Rooted SupcrintendenccJ IDEALS OF PEOPLE OF SOUTHLAND IJ in the old stock and out of the richness and grandeur of the old South thru the travail of the changing years the New South is born. She stands with open arms and gives the warmest welcome and offers the richest opportu- nities to strangers from all lands and especially to the sons of the North who wish to come to find a home. And they are coming by the hundreds and thousands, buying farms, building factories, directing and developing industries, and furnishing a supply of superior labor. Let them come in increased numbers for their good and for ours! We fear no strangers for, as Thomas Nelson Page says of the South, "There is something in the air which charms all who come within her borders." "Let men but breathe the air of the South and they are Southerners forever." When men become Southerners they are no less Americans and especially so now, for the New South is filled with the spirit of nationalism — ^not a new spirit but a revival of the spirit of the Old South, of Washington and Madison, of Marshall, of Jefferson and Jackson. The spirit of sectionalism has passed. A signifi- cant thing occurred in New Orleans and in other cities of the South ten days ago. Lincoln's birthday was celebrated by the closing of the banks and the cessation of business by the commercial exchanges. The spirit of nationaUsm shines with undimmed splendor in the galaxy of southern ideals. The political rather than the commercial and industrial aspects of society have been emphasized in the Southland. The average Southerner is likely to be considerably interested in poUtics, and politics play a large part in conmiimity life. The southern youth is taught that it is his duty to take an active part in politics and he is instructed in the party principles from boyhood. Rhetoric and oratory are natural concomitants of this emphasis on politics, and the ability to make a rousing speech dealing in generalities is of more importance than an ability to present the detailed facts or make a scientific research and exposition. In no field has the South achieved more than in the realms of its educa- tional ideals. The story of the rise of our present-day ideals needs not to be rehearsed by me, for the ideals are best seen in what has been done and is being done. Educational ideals are being made real at a greater rate in the South than elsewhere. The marvelous achievement of the schools of the South, when all the facts are kept in mind, is a theme every southern man delights to discuss. The facts of educational achievement and prog- ress have been ably presented to you today by the state superintendent of this state. It is therefore not necessary for me to dwell on our educa- tional ideals. I need but reiterate that a system of free public schools open to all, of whatever race, and giving to each the amount and kind of education best suited to his nature and needs, is the ideal of the people of the South. The people of the Southland believe that this life is worth living and that one should take time for enjoyment; time for social intercourse, for feast days and festivals; that one should be happy and whole-hearted and i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobflc - not permit the pressure and grind of wealth-getting to crush all the bright- ness and sweetness out of life. With this ideal goes emphasis on excellence of manners and a warmth of hospitality unsurpassed. The Southerner knows how to select a good dinner and he has sense enough to take time to enjoy it. He is a master of the art of conversation; he loves music and art and all other means of wholesome enjoyment. If he lacks somewhat in persistence, in application to business, he possesses the grace of living and the ability to enjoy the good things of earth. This meeting, I am told, is to be one of hope, of optimism, for the recounting of the good that has been done rather than for the parading of faults and failures. This being true, it is not becoming that I should men- tion our mistakes and shortcomings. The people of the Southland make no claim to perfection, for failures and shortcomings are many, but we know you will draw over them the mantle of charity and hold to us the hand of a brother to aid us to overcome them. While the war between the states was a physical defeat for the South, in many respects it was a spiritual victory. It saved to the nation the prin- ciple of local self-government and the indestructibility of the states. The South has developed the individual as a bulwark against the centralizing tendencies of the North and so contributed one of the two essential elements in social progress. It has held fast the graces and virtues of the individual and produced the man of worth as complementary to the captain of industry. In many ways the South has perpetuated and developed the ideals needed by our country in its proud course at the head of the nations of the earth in establishing a world peace and brotherhood of man in a true democracy. Thru the ages past till now the star of empire has taken her course west- ward. The circuit of the earth is now complete and around the shore of the Pacific the civilization of the Western world has met that of the Orient. In the meantime man had conquered the equator and marked out a new course for the progress of that star. The opening of the Canal will put the South on the highroad of the world whether east and west or north and south. The mighty Father of Waters courses his way southward and calls the commerce of the world to ride on his bosom. Millions of fair acres of inexhaustible richness lie waiting a tenant. Hospitable doors stand wide to welcome strangers. The tide of immigration has already set in, and the industrial development of the South is at hand. Southward the star of empire takes her course, and, with wealth created adequate to meet the needs for the development of her ideals, the Southland will come into the heritage that a prodigal nature has left her in store. SuperintcndenceJ GLORY OF CHILDREN OF SOUTHLAND 19 C. THE GLORY OF ITS CHILDREN LAWTON B. EVANS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, AUGUSTA, GA. So long have speakers been accustomed to apologize for conditions in the South, to explain why they are not better, to deplore the lack of educa- tional interest among the people, that one has naturally come to expect, upon any occasion when the educational interests of the various parts of our coimtry are under consideration, to see a self-satisfied smile of glorious achievement from the East, to hear a roar of exulting greatness from the West, and a meek apology from the South. But now the South needs no longer to apologize. The record of its growth and achievement in every particular of commercial, agricultural, industrial, and educational enterprise is at once a source of pride to its citizens and of gratification to its friends. The difference between ten-cent cotton and thirteen- to fifteen-cent cotton has meant a difference of one hundred and seventy-five millions of dollars in favor of the southern farmer. The increase of the number of cotton mills in the south, the increase in the output of coal and pig iron, the growth of the fruit and vegetable industry, all have so greatly increased in the last few years, that the wealth of the South is now to be taken into account. A capitalist of a western city recently said in my hearing at a dinner that time was when the South clamored to borrow money at any rate, but now the southern farmer and manufacturer not only did not need to borrow money, but actually had money to lend. The improvement in agricultural conditions in the South is one of the most hopeful signs of its prosperity. With the coming of the rural mail delivery, the extension of the long-distance telephone system, the improve- ment of coimtry roads, and the possibility of the motor-driven wagon, the southern farmer finds himself in daily contact with market reports, in instant communication with commercial centers, and with easy means of delivering his products. In the state of Georgia as many as five thousand miles of improved rural roads have been built in the past few years, reducing the cost of hauling from twenty-three cents per ton per mile to nine cents. What is true of Georgia is true the South over. We still invite our friends to come and spend their millions in the South. The water power going to waste sings its song to the cotton field along its banks and prophesies of still another mill before the season is over; the breeze shakes the pine forests and they murmur of ship timber and naval stores; the birds call from truck farm to peach orchard; and the coal turns over in its bed and says to the iron sleeping by its side. Let us be up, for the long, dreary night is over and it is now the broad daylight of prosperity in the South. And for all this possibility of a greater South, we are now rearing a genera- tion of children whose eyes are no longer set back to the past glories of their 20 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Mobile fathers, but whose minds take hold of the present, and whose eyes behold . the future, and whose hands are trained to skilled labor. The latest available statistics furnish some interesting facts about the distribution of children. Where the population is the densest the per- centage of school children is the smallest. In the North Atlantic states, where the population is 130 to the square mile, the school population is 24.4 per cent. In the Southern states generally, where the population is about 30 to the square mile, the school population is 32.8 per cent. In the North generally one-fourth of the population is of school age. In the South generally nearly one-third of the population is of school age. Rhode Island, having 407 persons to the square mile, has 23 . 5 per cent of them of school age, less than one-fourth. South Carolina, having 44 persons to the square mile, has 34 . 6 per cent of them of school age, over one-third. I believe it can be safely assumed that, family for family, there are more children around the hearthstone of a southern home, especially if that home is a cabin, than there are in a nursery of a northern home, especially if it is a brownstone front. Henry Grady said somewhere that the farmer's home was as fidl of children as the nests were of birds, and if I should be asked to say what is the glory of the children about which I am supposed to speak, I should answer that the greatest glory is that there are so many of them. Eliminating the city child, whose problem is practically solved every- where, we address ourselves to the rural child of the South. They constitute about 85 per cent of all the children and are concerned with the main indus- try of the South. They are the farmers' children. We live on what they raise in the fields, and as they prosper or decline, we improve or fail. Con- sequently, the thought of the South is turning strongly toward agricidtural education in the country schools. We are now inducing the farmers' boys to stay on the farm and be good farmers instead of going to town to be poor lawyers and worse politicians. Therefore we note the great increase of agricultural colleges in the South. In Georgia one has been built in each Congressional district; Alabama has made noted progress in the same direc- tion. The state colleges of agriculture are campaigning by pamphlets, field agents, reports, by demonstration work, exhibition trains, and farmers' institutes, until the country boy now begins to feel that he also must go to college, and that there is a college for him also. In the schools of my county, I am now sending to the state college of agriculture to get principals for the consolidated rural schools, instead of as heretofore to the state university, and I find that they are no longer insisting on Latin, Greek, and the history of the Egyptians, but turn their pupils to cotton, corn, and the history of the Texas boll weevil. If the agricultural college will hereafter provide principals for rural schools, it will go a long way toward solving the agricultural education of the rural child. The organization of boys' corn clubs has been a great stimulant. Some Supcrintcndcncel GLORY OF CHILDREN OF SOUTHLAND 21 of the results have been remarkable. In Mississippi one thousand boys were organized into clubs and each planned his acre on his father's farm. The goverimient furnishes the seed, the farmer furnishes the land and the tools and the boy, the merchants furnish the prizes, and Nature does the rest. One boy raised 120 bushels of com on his acre, where the average yield had been 14 bushels. Another boy in South Carolina broke the world's record for boys by raising 228 bushels on his acre, which was more than many farmers around him did on ten acres. To say that there are fifty thousand boys in the South today interested in increasing the com yield per acre and setting a new standard of cultivation is not to exceed the facts. It is an exceeding glory to the southern boy that he holds the record for corn, good old corn: Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard! Heap high the golden com! No richer gift has Autumn poured From out her lavish horn! In the mral districts the schools are being consolidated, and pupils are being hauled in wagons to the central schools of high grade. We have come to the just conclusion that a one-room schoolhouse is a failure, but that a three- or four-room house, graded, with a library, agricultural laboratory, experimental garden, kitchen, and sewing-room, with an up-to-date principal who knows his business and loves the country, is a success. And so there is a readjusting of ideals of the pupils and practice of the teaching forces. We no longer are educating state^pien and candidates for president, but are educating farmers and their wives. Now let me approach the subject about which there is much yet to be done, and that is the child of the mill. It seems that every section has some such problem. The sweat shops of the East Side and Hester Street, the district messenger-service, the cash-boy service, the child in the mines of Pennsylvania, the child in the southern mill, all cry out to us for help. It seems that we cannot hide the innocents where the hungry hounds of modern commerce will not trail them. It seems that we cannot place them where the bloody fangs of the dividend-maker will not fasten upon their hearts and fatten upon their lives. The nation over, the children cry for protec- tion against their parents, and their would-be employers. Therefore the extension of child-labor laws prohibiting the employment of any child who is under twelve years of age is to be greatly urged. Such laws do now exist in many of the southern states, but since it is of no public interest whether they are enforced or not, and since it is of interest for parent and employer to disregard such laws, I greatly fear the benefit is more imaginary than real. The cure is to be foimd in compulsory education, which not only saves a child from the curse of an employer, but also from the slavery of his own parents. It makes but little difference to a child whether he slaves for another, or for his own father. It makes a vast difference to him whether 22 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile he goes to school or not. And the sentiment for compulsory education is growing in the South. Kentucky and Arkansas have such laws. Virginia and North Carolina have such laws, but leave it to the local communities to put them into operation. One-third of Tennessee is operated under compulsory attendance laws. Georgia and South Carolina are laboring with the passage of such laws. And if we could see plenty of money in sight to pay for compulsory education, we would sweep to it unanimously, carrying the negro and all. I believe that, taking it all in all, the mill children are better off than they once were. Settlement workers, educational influences, and popular opinion have made better conditions for mill hands, young and old. There are many humane presidents and superintendents who provide comforts and pleasures for their hands and protect the helpless from the cruelty of those who would oppress them. I would not be a true southern orator if I did not say something about the negro. We have heard a whole lot about the incubus, the black cloud, the race problem, etc., but I have to say this about the negro. Next to the blessed sunshine, the fertile fields, and the blue blood of the native whites, the greatest blessing the South has today is the presence of the negro. He is not a curse, he is not a menace, he is not a danger. What would become of our cotton fields, our rice swamps, our sugar plantations, our turpentine mills, our lumber industries, were it not for the strong, willing, tractable black hands of the negro ? All waste and desert, gentlemen — at least for a while. Of the three problems, the foreigner in the North, the Chinaman in the West, and the negro in the South, commend me to the negro. Now, ladies and gentlemen, let the negro alone. He will find himself in time, and no amount of worrying, prophesying, guessing, or abusing is going to hasten the Almighty's plans for the final racial adjustment of the negro. He is rapidly coming into his own social status, for he is finding a society of his own. He still lacks moral standards, but as for that, certain white people do also. He is getting his industrial education and getting it fast. H^ has long since found his industrial adjustment, and that is for labor, intelligent, skilled, independent labor, well paid and highly respected. Now let us get together and stop making educated loafers out of the negroes, bulf make educated laborers out of them. And so, ladies and gentlemen, the glory of the children of today is the hope of the South for tomorrow. In thirty years we shall all be gone, and the school children of today will take our places, and the country shall then be as we are making it now. The future of the South waits on the educa- tion of its sons and daughters, and they are crying to us from field and moun- tainside to give them a chance. Superintendence] IN MEMORI AM— WARREN EASTON 23 IN MEMORIAM A, WARREN EASTON JAMES B. ASWELL, PRESIDENT STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, NATCHITOCHES, LA. During twenty-five years, Warren Easton was absent but once or twice from the annual meetings of this Department of Superintendence. His place is now vacant and his voice is silent forever. It is, then, proper and beautiful that this great gathering of the school men of the nation should pause a moment in its considerations of the practi- cal educational problems of the day, to do honor to the memory of one who did well his part in the rich constructive educational period of this vast region of our southern country. It was a time when the South was bring- ing to the republic its own contributions of youthful spirit, purposeful effort, courage, and confidence, which have resulted in a new era of educa- tional endeavor and adequate adjustment. Warren Easton, who passed out of this life on October 17, 1910, was a actor in this period of educational opportunity and achievement. He was born in 1848, in the city of New Orleans, was educated at the state university, was a successful teacher in the public schools, state superintend- ent of public education in Louisiana, leader in the establishment of the State Normal School, organizer of the Louisiana state institutes and summer schools, for twenty-two years the trusted and beloved superin- tendent of schools in the city of New Orleans, once president, and, for a quarter of a century, an honored member of this body. He was a teacher in the turbulent days of the Reconstruction in the early 70's, and so well was his skill as a disciplinarian recognized that he was moved from school to school to straighten out diflScult situations. He believed and demonstrated that a group of apparently incorrigible boys can be controlled, inspired, civilized, under the influence of music. He was the first to advocate publicly and introduce the teaching of singing and drawing in the public schools of his native city. Hundreds of prominent men in New Orleans today speak tenderly of Warren Easton because he led them and compelled them as boys to obey. I have yet to meet a former pupil of his who does not love him and who does not say, "I am Easton's friend because he helped me when I was a boy" — and after all, this is the test and the finest asset of a teacher's life. As superintendent, beginning with little money and an uncertain public sentiment for public education, he advanced the New Orleans schools with amazing rapidity. He increased the public funds to more than a million dollars, doubled the efliciency of the schools at every point, and established them firmly in the confidence of all the people of his city. Easton had a princely bearing — ^he was always immaculately dressed, courteous, cordial, jolly. He had faith in his people and in his work — ^he 24 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION [MoMe believed he had the best schools in all the world. He kneW his eight hundred teachers personally, could call them by name, and locate the school and grade of each. It was his good fellowship, his diplomacy, and his buoyant hopefulness that made his co-workers love him. The children liked to meet him. To be elected six times to the chief executive school position, and hold it for twenty-two years, in a great, growing, progressive city like New Orleans is within itself not a matter of small consideration in estimating the life of an individual. It is an achievement worthy of a man. Warren Easton gave forty years of active, continuous service to the public schools, and he was never ashamed to be called a teacher. He joined every movement to promote the cause to which he had early conse- crated his life, and few men rejoiced more in the educational advancement of our people. His devotion to this Department of Superintendence, his keen interest in educational affairs generally, and his long rich experience gave him a progressive conservatism of great value to the school forces of the country, and reveal today characteristics that give his life a high place in this memorial service. But the quality in Easton's life that will perpetuate his memory was his unusual ability to hold his friends. To be once a friend of Easton was to be always Easton's friend. His friends never deserted him. He was large hearted and loyal — ^his friends knew him, trusted him, and depended upon him. This, then, is the life we honor today, and it emphasizes the fact that in real achievement of permanent value a man may become a great leader in the nation's life, as well by service to childhood, as by subtlety in argu- ment, shrewdness in business, or courage in war. It renews our hopes and gives us strength to be unafraid in consecrating ourselves anew to the sacred task of opening the way and directing the youth of this land to a wide and liberal future of service to country and to humanity. B. WILLIAM WALLACE STETSON PAYSON SMITH, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, AUGUSTA, MAINE After a lingering illness of many nionths William Wallace Stetson died at his home in Auburn, Maine, July 2, 19 10. Mr. Stetson was born in Greene, Maine, June 17, 1847, ^.nd spent his boyhood in the wholesome environment of a New England farming town, attending the district school near his father's farm and later Monmouth Academy and Edward Little Institute. He began his work as a teacher, as so many of our great educational leaders have done, in the district schools, teaching his first school at the age of fifteen. In 1868 he went to Illinois where, after attend- Superintendence] IN MEMORI AM— WILLIAM WALLACE STETSON 2$ ing Monmouth College, he taught in district, high, and normal schools and began his experience as superintendent of schools. In 1884 Mr. Stetson returned to his native state where he was to render the notable educational service that was to win for him a far more than local reputation. Upon returning to Maine he became principal of the Webster Grammar School of Auburn and later superintendent of schools of that city. He served as superintendent of schools of Auburn for ten years during which his great executive ability, his broad grasp of school problems, and his intuitive skill in devising methods of teaching won increasing recognition, so that his promotion in 1895 to the chief educational office in his state came as a ready and natural consequence. Mr. Stetson held the office of state superintendent of public schools of Maine for a period of twelve years, the longest term with one exception enjoyed by an inciunbent of that office in the history of the state. Several important educational reforms were instituted during his administration of this office. Among the more important may be named the abolition of the district system with the adoption of the present town- ship system, a provision for the consolidation of schools and the conveyance of pupils, the adoption of the free textbook system, the extension of free tuition privileges in secondary schools to all pupils of the state, the state certification of teachers and the adoption of a plan of union supervision which is designed to extend the advantages of expert direction to the schools of all towns. The Maine School Reports prepared by Mr. Stetson were among the most widely circulated and most generally quoted educational documents of the decade during which they appeared. His terse, graphic style serves to command ready attention to the clearly developed conclusions of his educational philosophy. This style, appearing not only in his written reports, but dominating Ukewise his expression in speech, won for him a cordial welcome on the public platform, and his services as a lecturer on educational topics were constantly in demand. His skill as a speaker made him a powerful advocate of any cause in which he might enlist while his progressive ideals found him readily sympathetic toward any forward movement. As a result he gave generously of his time, strength, and abilities to the promotion of advanced educational plans both of his own and other states. While Mr. Stetson held foremost his work for the public schools, he was likewise always to be found in the forefront of any movement affecting the welfare of the community in which he lived or of the state of which he was a citizen. Service was the keynote of his Ufe and the opportunity to serve was the goal of his ambition. Recognition of Mr. Stetson's broader educational activities is to be found in the record of his connection with such organizations as the New England Superintendents' Association, the American Institute of Instruc- 26 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION IMobflc tion, and the National Education Association. He served as president of the first two and of the Department of Superintendence of the last. Mr. Stetson received the degrees of A.M. and LL.D*. from Colby College, Maine, and the degree of LL.D. from Monmouth College, Illinois. In this brief outline of the life and activities of Mr. Stetson one touches only upon his larger public acts and services. To those whose privilege it was to know him there remain the tender memories of a large, whole- souled man who loved to open his heart to friends, who found his greatest joy in the opportunity to share another's burden or to lighten another's toilsome way, and looked always for those deeds and words of other men by which he might justify his own broad and generous faith in human kind. In his passing many men and women in many walks of life feel the loss which is beyond recompense — the loss of a frank, courageous, heart-Hfting, sympathetic friend. At no time did Mr. Stetson show more clearly the beautiful characteristics that dominated his Whole life than in the months when, wasted and weakened by disease, he awaited the last summons. The philosophy of service which had guided his public career and his private relationships endured to the end, and even in the last days no friend left his presence who did not feel that he had himself received the strength and the blessing of the interview. It was in these last days that Mr. Stetson wrote a greeting to his friends — a greeting which was to be likewise his farewell. In this is the essence of his philosophy of life. In the "Joy of Serving" which is quoted in con- clusion, he delineated an ideal which, tho high, he attained and which he leaves, with the manifold words and deeds of a richly abundant life, to be at once the consolation and the continued inspiration of those who miss his kindly presence. THE JOY OF SERVING Souls grow lean if they think much of self or the recompense they should receive for exhibitions of concern for others. They are victims of a poverty no riches can relieve or conceal. They are barred from those sanctuaries where the heart sings the songs of peace. As the days loiter to their close they discover life is a sleepless torture. They refuse to learn it is not what you have that makes for happiness but the sacrifices made and forgotten that bring joys which abide. Life yields the largest dividends when you serve as spontaneously as you breathe and with as little aftermath of reflection. Then you will walk with those who travel in lonely paths, place a lifting hand beneath weary- ing burdens, give unregretted dollars to carry sunshine into shadowed lives, dispense home brewed hospitalities and nerve the elect with your hail and God-speed. Such service will tint the dawn when your lovers are legion, shed around you "the light that never was on sea or land," sing anthems in the chancel of your soul, and let you whisper, as the canvas of the Lord slips down the west, "I hope to see my Pilot face to face When I have crossed the bar." Supcrmtcndencel EDUCATION IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 27 TOPIC:- THE PRESENT STATUS OF EDUCATION IN AMERICA A. IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS ELLA FLAGG YOUNG, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL. [Stenographic Report] The subject before us may be viewed from several different standpoints, at several different angles. Upon first thought, in considering the present status of elementary education, one would look to the statistical side, seeking for the advance in the number of those who are being educated in the elementary schools today, in comparison with the number ten years ago. The figures for 1910 are not ready, and when they are presented in the admirable report which our Commissioner of Education sends out to us, it will be much more satisfactory to study statistics from the printed page than to attempt to take them in rapidly thru the ear. One might also consider this question from the financial side, and it would be interesting to note the increase in the amount of money poured out by the people of this country today for the education of the children in the elementary stage over that of ten years ago. There is another side, however, which appeals to me more than the statistical side of the number attending or of the finances, and that is the side which deals with the change in the interpretation of the meaning of elementary education, as understood today and as understood ten years ago. It is true that ten years ago leaders in the theory and principles of educa- tion in this country were forging ahead, discussing points which we workers in the field had scarcely touched upon; but with all their discussion, the ideas which they had grasped were not generally accepted in the elementary schools. There is nothing more wonderful in the history of this country than the remarkable strides made in the last decade by those who are in the field— superintendents, principals, and teachers— in their understanding of what is meant by elementary education. It has long been customary to say that education deals with the physical, the mental, and the moral development; but let the men and women in this room think back ten years and compare the practice of physical educa- tion in the elementary schools then with that of physical education today, and they will say that it was merely a matter of lip service that we had so short a time ago, compared with what we are doing today on the physical side for the development of children. It is true that thirty years ago in France they had reached the point where the school medical inspector, in Paris at least, visited the school each morning to inquire whether the children were in condition to be in school and at work during the day, deciding whether this child or that child might in some way infect with disease other children in the room. 28 - NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION {Mobile But we had not reached that point ten years ago; and yet today all over this country, in the large cities and towns, special effort is made'to get at the physical condition of the children and see that they neither injure each other nor are injured by the surroundings of the school. The school patrons who form a department in the National Education Association are making tremendous efforts toward carrying this idea of the physical well-being of the children into every school in the land, and they will succeed, because those women are in earnest. Think of the exercises that we had for the children ten years ago that we called physical exercises, when the little things stood and put out their arms as if they were trying to draw them out of their sockets; then think of the games, the gymnastics for these children today, suited for their age, and suited for their stage of development. There is a third phase on the physical side. We call it industrial or vocational training. We are still somewhat timorous about it, and yet we are beginning to realize that there are many boys and many girls in the schools who will not long continue to be interested in the purely academic or book work, whose whole being leans toward material construction — toward the doing of things with the hand; and there are many who thru economic conditions will be obliged to turn into industrial lines. In the elementary schools today we are studying to know what we can do to enable our schools to do their duty toward those children. On the mental side there is a marked change. We certainly are much nearer to psychologic method than we were ten years ago. All method has not been advance, however. I know it is a dangerous thing, Mr. Chairman, to say here, but many of the subjects which we have introduced into the schools, manual training and household arts and science, are taught in most places as formally as arithmetic, spelling, reading, and writing are still taught. With the new studies there has not always come psy- chologic method. But if we chance into a school in which old methods obtain in full force, we realize that in advanced methods altho we have not learned to open always the way so that the minds of the children shall play naturally in approaching and exploring the subject, yet there is something of Horace Mann's idea that the minds of the early learners should play about the subject as the waters lap the shores of an island. On the moral side we are working on perplexing problems. It is easier to advance physical education than mental; mental than moral. This whole question of instruction in morals has become most complicated for us with the great influx of peoples from all nations, with varying stand- ards of morals and ethics. This whole question, as I say, has come upon us in such a way that it is most difficult for us to know just what to do. Here we have one side, indicated in an address made by Judge Lindsey a week ago, to the effect that it is not the child that has all the little school virtues who is always the good child. Then we have the other side, open- Supermtendencej EDUCATION IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 29 ing up into that tremendous question, which does not originate in any weakness and which does not originate in any fault in the school, but which the school at last sees that it, for the sake of the nation, must take up and handle. I refer to the question of social hygiene but shall not be able to consider it in the time allotted to me. With that first question we are troubled, because it necessitates a change in ourselves. With the strong men and strong women who have taught in the elementary schools and who have laid the foundations for sterling manhood and womanhood in the boys and girls, it is true that to a large extent the measure of goodness of a child has lain in his conformity to the ideal that the teacher has as to what a boy or girl should be as his or her pupil. I remember the first shock I had with regard to that question after I had taught school four or five years. A boy who had been a model boy, who had always locked the wardrobe door and unlocked it, who had gathered up everything at night and seen to it that the room was in excellent condition, who knew all the bad boys and what they were doing, and told me that such a boy was not so good as he ought to be, had left school and been free out in the world. Alas! I soon learned, in hearing of his career, that he had simply the vir- tues, the methods, the customs that suited me in my school; that he had not been strengthened to go out and meet the temptations of life that appealed to him. It was then that I began to study the question as to whether virtues that are simply school virtues have lasting value. Do I mean that the children who are rebellious are the good children ? No. But there is something which we must yet learn, an ideal which must be developed in our minds as to what is strength of character, and how strength of character is developed. Two years ago I went to one of the large cities in this coimtry, and was called upon by the newspaper reporters. It seemed as if they had got together before I arrived and planned to ask me one question. This was the question: How do you explain the fact that all the aldermen and con- gressmen that have gone astray are graduates of the public schools ? Of course, I did not attempt to explain it. I told them that they must first show me the statistics upon which they based their question. We know that somehow we have not thus far succeeded in laying those foundations which make for a great nation, which make strong men and strong women. We are doing a great deal, but there is more for us to do. Last October the Mayor of Chicago asked me to be one of the delegates from Chicago to the International Prison Congress. At first blush I thought it a little odd for me to go to a prison congress. On second thought I believed I should go there to find out how it happened that any of our boys and girls go to prison. What an experience I had in that congress! Those men and women in that congress were bent on studying, not how to punish, not how to reprove, but how to get nearer the good which lurked yet in this boy or that girl and to give it play. It was a wonderful lesson. 30 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IMobflc With all our ardor for developing goodness, we have much to learn about that art. The superintendents in the elementary schools of America into which the streams are pouring from countless nations are far from an understanding of moral education as a means of strengthening and purifying the stream of civilization — ^we need another decade before the status of this work can be presented. J8. IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS ELLIS U. GRAFF, PRINCIPAL OF HIGH SCHOOL, OMAHA, NEBR. The public high school occupies a place of peculiar importance in our system of American education. Not only does it bridge the gap between the elementary school and the college, but it also bridges the gap between the elementary school and the active duties of life. The resulting multi- plicity of demands gives rise to a conflict of aims diflicult to reconcile. On the one hand, those who believe in practical training and the social service- ableness of the high school have felt that college preparation has had too large a part in the plans and purposes of the school; they have raised the cry of "college domination," which has been so often heard of late, and have pictured the college as a huge giant with a big stick labeled "entrance requirements" clubbing the high schools into submission. On the other hand, the colleges have felt that the schools have imduly broadened their courses under the pressure of local needs and included subjects which are not worthy of recognition for college entrance; that the interest of the school is not primarily in thoro and accurate scholarship, and that a great deal of superficial and inferior work is being offered as preparation for college. Both of these views contain some truth, but the solution of the difliculty lies in a compromise between them. The high school needs the steadying influence of the higher institution with its scholastic ideals; the college needs the socializing effect which comes from relationship with an insti- tution in contact with the people. Recent signs indicate that this problem is being considered in a spirit of co-operation and that a better understanding is being arrived at. The high school with all its demands for autonomy is preparing more pupils for college than ever before. The college is showing an increased liberality in regard to entrance requirements and entrance examinations. A significant example of this tendency is the recent pro- posal of the Harvard faculty to admit pupils on certificate and an examina- tion in four subjects, instead of an examination in all subjects, as heretofore. This indicates an increasing willingness to accept the work of the schools. In the midst of this stress and strain of conflicting demands, what has been the effect upon the development of the secondary school? The most significant fact in the current history of secondary education has been the remarkable growth and progress in all its departments, especially during Superintendencel IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS 31 the past two decades. The last report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1909) shows that the total number of secondary students of high-school grade for the year ending June, 1909, was 1,034,827. This is the first time the number has reached the million mark. The nmnber in pubUc schools was 841,273. This represents an increase, in twenty years, from 202,963, or over 400 per cent. Not only is the number larger than ever before, but the rate of increase from year to year is greater than the rate of increase in population. An additional evidence of growth is found in the increase in the number of schools from 2,526 in 1889 to 9,317 in 1909; and in the number of teachers from 9,120 to 37,491. These figures are significant. They indicate a remarkable growth, and show that in spite of criticisms which are often made and difliculties which are admitted to exist, the high school, as a whole, is fulfilling an indispensable function in our national life. In addition to these figures, growth is further shown by the increased expenditures for buildings and equipmwit. While no exact figures are available for this item, yet it is apparent that many fine buildings are being erected in various parts of the country and the equipment is being elaborated to a point of greater efficiency. It is true that in some cases money is spent for outer ornamentation and other features of mere show rather than in the direction of fireproof construction, good Ught, fresh air, well distributed heat, freedom from dust, etc.; but as a whole the movement for better material equipment has been in a forward direction. Yet the condition of an institution cannot be measured by numbers alone nor in terms of material welfare. Dr. John H. Holmes has well said, "The real test of the vitality of an institution is not that of nvmiber but of the influence which it exerts upon the controlling forces of human life." What can be said of the influences of the high school ? There are many signs of unrest even in the midst of the present growth and prosperity. A careful study of our school population shows that a large part of our youth after the age of fourteen is out of school. A study of this subject by Mr. Arthur J. Jones^ presents figures to the effect that the probable maximimi enrollment by age in all educational institutions of our country is as follows: 14 years, 83.87 per cent; 15 years, 57.65 per cent; 16 years, 39.64 per cent; 17 years, 23.84 per cent; 18 years, 14.74 per cent; 19 years, 9.99 per cent; 20 years, 6 . 93 per cent. If these figures are even approximately correct, it indicates that over half of the young people between fifteen and twenty years of age are not in any educational institution. The dissatisfaction which results from a contemplation of these figures does not arise so much from the feeUng that the school is responsible for the dropping-out, nor that it should make greater efforts to retain its pupils, since much of the dropping- out is necessary; it is rather caused by a feeling that the school should do ' BuUelin No, i, 1907, U.S. Department of Education. 32 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile more for these pupils before they drop out; that too much that is given them is given because it will benefit them in their higher grades if they continue in school. In other words, the feeling is that the school is conducted too much on the plan of the tontine insurance policy — the rewards are all yours if you are fortunate enough to be able to persist thru the tontine period; if not, you obtain little, if anything. There is a reasonable basis for this feeling. Of course no plan can ever be contrived which will give to a pupil who discontinues his school work as much benefit as he would have obtained had he remained in school; but it is not asking too much that the work should be presented from the standpoint of its use and its bearing on vocation as well as from the standpoint of its being preparation for further education. Correlative with this unrest over the large number dropping out is a feeling of concern on the part of teachers at the apparent lack of interest in scholastic work on the part of those in school. In a high-school teachers* meeting which the writer attended this year a paper was read by a high- school teacher who deplored the current lack of interest in scholarly pursuits on the part of the pupils and the impossibility of securing the same interest in Latin, algebra, and English as is bestowed upon athletics, social activities, and amusements. This is a fact which is apparent to all thoughtful stu- dents of modern educational conditions. The recent utterances of two prominent university presidents furnish a striking illustration of this fact. The first quotation is from an article by President Hadley of Yale in the New York Times for August 28, 1909. He says: The growing complexity of the American social organization, the increase of wealth and the comforts and luxuries which wealth brings with it, the development of games and sports of every kind, and the great stress which all branches of society lay upon proficiency in those sports create a set of very distracting conditions in college as well as out of it. They lead the student who has no special intellectual interest, but comes to college for the sake of general culture, to seek that general culture on lines of least resist- ance. But if our definition of culture is correct, we can hardly expect to obtain it in this way. The student who looks only at the immediate interests of the moment is becom- ing uncultured rather than cultured — ^is being trained to narrow angles of vfsion instead of wide ones. Of similar import is an address on **The Spirit of Learning" delivered in June, 1909, by President Wilson of Princeton. He says: The field is cleas for all these little activities, as it is clear for athletics. Athletics has no serious competitor except these amusements and petty engrossments; they have no serious competitor except athletics. The scholar is not in the game. r • These analyses of the situation may be said to apply with cc- , ! e to high-school conditions, with this difference, that in college the sc' ^ 'ana ' other outside activities are an intrinsic part of the college world, while in the high schools, since the pupils live in their own homes, they are to a SuperintendenccI IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS ^3 greater extent a part of the social life of the entire community. These views are not expressed in a spirit of criticism, but they imply a criticism of educational institutions in that they have not somehow^made scholarship as attractive as amusements. Thus far our survey of the status of secondary education has shown two apparently contradicatory sets of facts: first, a remarkable growth and progress; and second, an undercurrent of feeling that the needs of today are not being met by suitable kinds of training. What causes or forces underlie these facts which will harmonize them and show them to be but two phases of a single problem ? . ^ The sociological basis of education is well understood by the teachers of today; it has been thoroly discussed in the educational literature of the past decade. They accept as self-evident truths such statements as this of Ruskin : No teacher can truly promote the cause of education, until he knows the mode of life for which that education is to prepare his pupil ;' or this, from Dr. Paul H. Hanus: Together with this improved adaption of the school to the needs of each individual there is also a growmg recognition of the important social function which the school has to fulfill .... the primary social function of all education, and in particular, of secondary education, is to adapt every individual to the civilization of his time.* Yet the assumption of this task by the school is the largest single work undertaken by any institution in American life today, and the carrying- out of the task involves Herculean labor. So complex and so shifting are the conditions of modern life, that to attempt to prepare for them is like trying to paint a picture with pigments which change their color as they flow from the brush. By the time the product of the school is ready for life, the conditions demand something different. Compare for a moment the present decade with that of a generation ago. The first characteristic which strikes the observer is the increase of wealth and of luxuries. This is the age of electricity, of automobiles, of airships, of machinery. It is easier to do the work of the world than ever before. Man's victory over the forces of nature is so nearly complete that he is no longer obliged to struggle directly to secure food, warmth, shelter, and clothing. Thru machinery all is changed. The same kind of effort is not required as formerly. The emphasis today is on ingenuity and quick- ness rather than upon mere effort or industry. The second characteristic is that this is an age of organization. An indiv ) longer struggles by himself but, as Dr. George E. Vincent P' .e does team work." Individual power and ability count for less * Crown of Wild Olive ^ essay on "Work." ^ Educational Aims and Educational Values, p. 79. 34 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile relatively. The emphasis is placed upon the relationships which the indi- vidual sustains to other members in the complicated machinery of life. This has produced a certain impersonal attitude in society. Things are done by large organizations of men which cannot be done by individuals. Also, many misdeeds are committed from which an individual would shrink but which an impersonal organization would perform without compunction. Organization and system have taken charge of the productive industries of our day. They are no longer carried on in the homes as formerly. This removal of productive industry from the home has taken away from the youth a valuable form of training which ha& not been replaced. It has left many of them without occupation for their leisure hours. It has allowed them to mature without development of self-reliance, and has made it diffi- cult for them to be of service in the home life. This has resulted in a cer- tain immaturity in the youth which is fevident in their school life. They are not so teachable as formerly because they are not so mature and not so self-reliant. Emerson has truly said: No man can learn what he has not preparation for learning God screens us evermore from premature ideas. Our eyes are holden that we cannot see things that stare us in the face, until the hour arrives when the mind is ripened — then we behold them, and the time when we saw them not is like a dream. These changes have a direct and vital bearing upon education. Instead of providing intellectual training as a supplement to the skill and develop- ment obtained from labor in the productive industries of the home, the school is now face to face with the problem of supplying the foundation of personal development upon which to build the superstructure of intellectual attainment. The pupil must not only be taught, he must be trained; and he must not only be trained, he must be trained to some definite purpose. This implies that the school shall minister not only to cultural aims but to vocational aims as well. How this work shall be undertaken is the present pressing problem. Some think, with ex-President Eliot, that a system of trade schools will be built up; others, that technical high schools will fill the need. Mean- while, numerous supplementary schools are being established, Y.M.C.A. schools, correspondence schools, schools conducted by employers like that of John Wanamaker of Philadelphia and of Sears Roebuck Co. of Chicago. These eflforts are undoubtedly indicative of the need which exists, and they point to a possible solution of the question; tho it is doubtful whether any but public measures can ultimately minister to so general a demand. Of one thing we may be certain: whatever type of public secondary education may develop, the aim of general culture will not be supplanted nor superseded. It seems most probable that the present type of education will be supplemented with the necessary elements of training for twentieth- century civilization. SupcrintendenccI IN THE COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 35 The whole situation is well summarized by Commissioner Brown in his last report.* He says: The dangers of the situation as regards the high schools are no less acute. These schools are affected by forces pulling upon them, not only from the colleges above and the grammar schools below, but from the varied life of the community which they serve. The new demands, which may be roughly grouped under industrial and commercial education, must give them anxious thought. There are those who fear that the high school as an institutional type may fall into disfavor unless it can readily adapt itself to the new needs of the time, as the Latin granmiar school of colonial days declined before the rising academies, and less than a century later the academy declined before the new popularity of the high schools. Either a modified and broadened high school or a school of different type altogether may fairly be expected to dispute the pre-eminence of the high school as it is today. But the high school is still on a rising tide, and its possibilities of readjustinent to new needs are very great. In conclusion, it may be said that the present status of secondary educa- tion is one of great prosperity; the future, of wonderful opportimity. To fulfill this opportunity the high school must continually readjust itself to the needs of a changing society. It must thoroly analyze and understand the conditions of modern life, its needs and its demands, and it must supply the training which will fit the youth of its day and age to meet these conditions. C. IN THE COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES GUY POTTER BENTON, PRESIDENT OF MIAMI UNIVERSITY, OXFORD, OHIO If status means a standing which is in any sense permanent, then there is no status of higher education in the United States. That there may seem to be no wandering from the subject, let us assume, then, at the outset, that those responsible for this program have commissioned us to discuss the present condition of higher education as represented by institutional standards and by the opinions and policies of educational leaders. In the beginning wfe may as well make full confession of the truth and admit that there are no Universal standards or fixed policies for higher education in the United States. Before we can hope to have a permanent status which will command for our institutions of higher learning the respect of the world of scholarship ever5nvhere there must necessarily be certain agreed definitions of terms. The whole system of education in our country, from kindergarten to university, is subject to indictment for capriciousness. The American incUnation to novelty is nowhere more manifest than in the teaching profession. It is time that those of us who are charged with the high responsibility of training childhood and youth should awaken to a solemn realization of the danger which lurks in ill-considered experi- mentation. The attempted practice of half-digested theories and the superficial imitation of the spectacular work of educational visionaries * Report of U.S. Commissioner of Education^ 1910, Vol. I, p. 19. 36 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile are menacing the coming manhood and womanhood of America. The average teacher or educational leader is in such fear of being held answer- able to the charge of antiquity that, in utter disregard for the rights of the taught, he makes mad rush to get into the limelight with the rest of the educational crowd. Some prominent school superintendent pipes and those of lesser importance all dance. Some distinguished college or university president theorizes and presidents of smaller stature run to practice. Some great specialist poses as a critic of the existing order of things and the average college professor feels that, to be in the fashion, he must become iconoclastic. The greatest university president in America proclaims the need of a larger freedom of electives with three years as sufficient for the baccalaureate degree and the rest of us submit tamely to his leading. A pyrotechnic professor of English in one of our largest universities denounces all the hymns of the church as doggerel, and the collegiate critics of hjonnology have multiplied amazingly. Twenty years ago the National Education Association was almost wholly psycliological in its convention program. "Apperception" was the chief subject of discussion and **a pot of green feathers" was always in evidence. Pedagogical tyros presumed to discuss great psychological questions with all the assurance of studied specialists, and the storerooms of educational book companies were flooded with works on psychology which could never hope to meet approval in the councils of thoro scholarship. The convention program of the National Education Association in our own day is largely agricultural, industrial, and vocational. We have passed from the realm of the spiritual to the realm of the material, and who is so bold as to prophesy what the subject of discussion in these meetings will be ten years hence ? In elementary and secondary schools, courses of study are constantly taking to themselves more subjects and the college curricula are becoming more crowded with every added year. But the denunciation of all advanced educational thinkers as "faddists" is an easy Way of escape for those who are opposed to progress. It is the subterfuge of the indolent. The educa- tional "stand-patter" is a worse sinner than the educational "insurgent." The reactionary is, after all, the chief culprit among the many educational offenders. If compelled to make choice between two evils there is no ques- tion but that, with the end in view of the largest and best service to yoimg life, we should choose progressive agitation rather than ultra-conservatism. Out of this seething caldron of new ideas there may remain a residuum of refined educational principles. Out of this ferment of discontent may arise an educational policy universally accepted as worthy of permanency and one which will bring contentment to all who are interested in education. Then intensive work will be possible, and, by our constant growth and health- ful development, we shall make the American educational system increas- ingly effective. The destructive critic never accomplishes anything which Superintendence! IN THE COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 37 is worth while. In spite of all the just criticisms which have been lodged against educational work in America, the thoughtful and fair-minded per- son must admit that there has been a distinct advance made with every added year of our history and that our record on the whole is one of progress. The difficulty with us all lies in the fact that no generally accepted definition of the real purpose of education has yet been foimd. The earnest prayer of every progressive teacher of our own times should be for poise, for balance, and for real sanity. When that prayer is answered the attitude of the true teacher toward every proposed reform or suggested advance in methods of education will be that of the scientist working in his laboratory. The scholarly investigator never accepts the half-tried theories of others as final. The research scholar submits his crufn original theories to the same tests he requires of those originating with others and announces nothing as true until, step by step, he has established himself in absolute and final conclusions. The upturned, expectant faces of the rising generation constitute a silent, pathetic, aiid impressive appeal to those who teach them to advance with the assurance of worked-out cer- tainty, to be progressive without fanatical superficiality. Since this particular time is set apart for attention to the status of higher education in America we may dismiss, for the moment, all considerations of the weaknesses or excellences of elementary and secondary schools and devote ourselves to a critical study of present conditions and policies in our colleges, and in the graduate and professional schools of our universities. The American college is a transplanted institution. It can lay small claim to originality. A$ we have it in our country today the college is an educational hybrid. It found its beginnings in an attempted imitation of the aristocratic college of culture as grown in the English university system. Upon the original root have been grafted two very different shoots — one a sickly German imiversity sprout and the other a somewhat healthful sprig of American originality. The situation which confronts us, however, is by no means hopeless. There is strong ground for belief that out of this rooting and grafting there will soon come a vigorous tree, under whose umbrageous, protection all educational leaders and followers will be pleased to find shelter. There are about four hundred and fifty so-called colleges or universities in the United States. All stand committed in various ways by different requirements to the English conception of the humanities as a necessary basis for the baccalaureate degree. There is a smattering of the German university system in all, with evidences everywhere of a liberal adoption of the half-tested theories of one or more American educational theorists. The result of it all is an American college and university system which is a composite of requirements, electives, and groups, with conceptions of methods of instruction and standards of educational measurements as numerous as the colleges and universities themselves. 38 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [MobUe It is not alone in the undergraduate colleges where the goal is the Bach- elor's degree that these different views and varying policies are found. In the graduate colleges and professional schools there is similar dispute as to methods and there are differing notions of aims and purposes. Take one concrete example, for instance. In the Law School of Harvard University the baccalaureate degree is required for admission and the case system is used exclusively as the method of instruction. In other reputable law schools a high-school certificate will suffice for admission, and the textbook method is exploited as the only proper system of teaching. Then there are those who try to strike a balance between the two. The distinguished dean of the Law School of Yale University recently made manifest his desire for safe passage between "Scylla and Charybdis" by advocating a com- bination of the case and the textbook system of instruction. Miiltiplied examples might be given in proof of the proposition that higher education in America is not built on many foundation stones of common agreement. Nevertheless, the institutions of higher learning in America have been mighty forces in the development of our civilization and, with all their differences and uncertainties, they could not be dispensed with without untold loss. In spite of divergent policies their present value is simply inestimable. The paramount reason for the lack of the largest efficiency of our colleges is found in the fact that the attitude of college and university men is too largely one of independence and of separation from the elementary and secondary schools. Apparently they do not recognize that the largest educational efficiency can be realized only thru an educational system which is a unified whole. The institutions of higher learning must be closely related to the public schools and must be linked up in sympathetic co-opera- tion with those who are responsible for the effectiveness of the elementary and secondary schools if higher education is to mean all it may mean by way of everything that is best in our American life. The value of college and university training, if it have a value, must make itself manifest thru the college professor or instructor. It is a safe statement that the most serious obstructionists in the way of real educational progress today are the ultra-conservative college professors in many of our institu- tions of higher learning. The sense of security felt by too many occupants of college chairs has a tendency to make them comfortable in laziness. Running in a groove requires so little exertion that those once started are loath to get out of it. The complacent satisfaction of too many college workers is a curse rather than a blessing to education. It will be admitted that every great specialist should be primarily concerned with his own line of specialization, but he cannot accomplish the utmost possible in his chosen field unless he understands the relation of his particular department to that of all other departments. He will fail of the largest accomplishment where he works if he is without sympathetic knowledge of the relation his work Superintendence! IN THE COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 39 bears to education in general. The proper attitude of the college worker toward this general educational problem should be that of the scholarly investigator, of the truth seeker. His chief effort should ever be to corre- late. The difficulty now is that we are narrow; we are running in circles; we are jealous of our own departments. Let us make shamefaced con- fession that it is because of this narrowness that the colleges are not filling the largest possible place in the American school system and are not partici- pating as it is their privilege to do in solving the problems of progressive education. The educational system does not consist of disjointed and competitive parts. "We being many are one body" in education, "and every one members one of another." It is a tremendous mistake to regard the college as isolated and inde- pendent. The inexcusable arrogance of the college professor in affirming the independence of the college and its right to dictate to the secondary schools has a tendency to thwart the fullest effectiveness of our entire educational system. My plea is for greater sympathy between educational workers in all departments of a great system not broken, but united. There is no sadder spectacle than that of bargain-counter competition between departments in what should be one great educational corporation. The only rivalry should be such as exists in a great general store where each particular department strives to surpass the others in the efficiency of service rendered to the employer who heads the entire concern. Co-operation is essential among the various and several departments of our educational system. We can never have this co-operation so long as those responsible for the secondary schools, animated by jealousy, or goaded by self -induced feelings of inferiority, assume the scornful or ffippant air of defiance toward those who teach in the colleges. Once more, we shall never have this co-operation so long as college professors are snobbish and take refuge in a self-opinionated and false sense of their superiority. There is often little ground for this superior claim of college professors. Too many of them have no pedagogical point of view. It is not disputed, I think, that information is the first necessary possession of him who would teach a given subject, but knowledge alone is not sufficient. It has been well said by another that "a college professor may be a great man and an honored member of many societies and still be, as a teacher, woefully incompetent." I have often wished that I might take some college professors on a pilgrimage to the room of some good primary teacher in order that those who pride themselves on belonging to a higher grade of educational workers might learn how to teach to the best advantage. If elementary and secondary teachers will adapt, as fully as is possible, to a young class of pupils the scientific and laboratory methods of the college, and if college professors can catch some- what of the enthusiasm of the elementary and secondary teachers, added to the pedagogical knowledge which makes the public-school teacher now 40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobfle more generally successful as an instructor than the college professor, we shall have the very best teaching in all departments of one great educational system. Qualifying adjectives are unnecessary in describing teachers. A teacher is a teacher whether working in the kindergarten, the grades, the high school, the college, or the university. No higher honor belongs to one than to another. Each is important in his place and should regard his position one of the greatest possible honor, provided only that he does the work committed to his hands in the best way possible for the growth and de- velopment of those committed to his teaching. The dawning of the perfect day will bring a unified educational system, knowing no distinctions as to rank, but binding together, in sjnnpathetic co-operation all those who teach, • with all lowliness and meekness, with long suffering; forbearing one another in love; endeavoring to keep the unity of the spirit in the bond of peace. The foregoing conclusion is in no sense a digression. It grows directly out of the subject assigned me. The status of higher education in the United States is not what it might be because of the fact that the institutions of higher learning have not properly related themselves to the educational system as a whole. They can never be all that they may be in efficiency while they exist in isolation and in the fancied security of their own superiority and independence. The hope of a unified educational system in our country lies in the state universities of America. We have no national universities. That state- ment is made without any desire to harrow the pride of the few who boast- fully claim that their institutions are national in character. It will readily be admitted that there are some American institutions which are more widely known than others. It is equally true, however, that the state university which is chiefly a product of the great Central West happily belongs in a peculiar way to the public-school system. State universities are receiving larger support every year and as those responsible for their management come more and more to realize the close relationship that should exist between these institutions and the high schools and elementary schools below we shall approximate, as fully as may be, in the United States, the ideal educational system of the world. Education is becoming increasingly democratic. A recent editorial in the Saturday Evening Post declares: The older endowed colleges, of course, originally were, and still pretty largely are, aristocratic institutions. They were meant for gentlemen. They contemplate that their graduates should be ornaments to society. The public schools grew up in conformity with the entrance requirements of the colleges — although it was obvious that a great portion of the public-school pupils would have no time to ornament anything except possibly their own picket fences with a coat of paint. The state universities may stand — and rather increasingly do stand — in a different relation to the public schools. They may stand for a system built from the bottom up rather than from the top down. Superintendence] IN THE COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 41 The state universities in the various states of the Union, by collabora- tion with state superintendents of public instruction, city superintendents, high-school principals, and county superintendents, may so weld university and college in with the high school and the grades as to give us an educa- tional system which will produce in our country the largest social efficiency. The great public-school system of America unified, then, in completest possible form from kindergarten to university, evolving policies which will give to our elementary and secondary schools a status challenging the con- fidence of the American people, will also establish standards of higher education that all endowed ihstitutions, whether supported by some branch of the church or by private benefaction, will be obliged to follow. If there be any such thing as a status of higher education in the United States at this time it is on the few points of agreement to which all reputable colleges and universities now subscribe. In higher education we are at present, we may safely say, agreed on three things: first, that a completed secondary-school training shall be required for admission to college; second, that preparatory work shall be followed by further study in a college course of cultural and disciplinary studies; and third, that graduate colleges and pro- fessional schools shall be maintained for advanced study and higher degrees. This is really all there is to the status of higher education in the United States at this moment. In nothing else is there an approach to unanimity of opinion. In making this statement, I, of course, speak only of standards of scholarship. In matters of conduct, standards of character, and ideals of public service, the institutions of higher learning in our country are more nearly in agreement. It is the generally accepted conviction, I believe, among college authorities that higher education is a failure unless it shall be able to boast as its best product a potent social force. So far as matters of scholarship are concerned, while we are generally agreed that there must be a completed secondary-school training with advanced study thereafter in a college course of cultural and disciplinary studies, all to be succeeded by graduate and professional training, we are in disagreement about nearly everything else. We have constant contro- versy as to the purpose of a college course for instance, and at the present time there is little prospect of a satisfactory solution of this problem. The discussions as to whether the college curriculum should be predominantly utilitarian or cultural and disciplinary in character is more lively today than ever. It promises to wax warmer until, by co-operation of the leaders in all branches of a imified public-school system in America, we shall be able, thru careful investigation and by painstaking, cold-blooded weighing of results, to reach conclusions which must be accepted by all as final. In considering the status of higher education in the United States we are also obliged to admit that there is wide difference of opinion as to the proper length of the college course between the high school and the profes- sional and graduate college of the university. In all frankness we are 43 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IMobilc bound to say that there is no immediate likelihood of agreement with President Baker, the distinguished head of the University of Colorado, in the position taken by him at the recent meeting of the National Associa- tion of State Universities when he said: The thing to do with the liberal arts college is to abolish it, frankly and quickly, in its present form. If there was ever an absurdity in the history of civilization, it is the present status and use of the college of liberal arts in this country. And you gave the whole system away when you inaugurated the double degree scheme. Neither is there large and enthusiastic agreement with President Baker as he further declares: It is time for us to say frankly that preparatory education should end at about twenty years of age and there begin our university work; and then we should have none of these discussions. Another subject of difference among the leaders of higher education in this country is that which has to do with the character of college curricula. To what extent the vocational and scientific studies may properly be regarded as disciplinary and cultural, and how far the pure mathematics, linguistics, and the humanities may be regarded as practical are questions to which the most earnest and thoughtful of our educ3,tional leaders have been unable to find a common answer. Having in this somewhat desultory fashion set forth the points of agree- ment and disagreement in the scheme of higher education in the United States and having been driven to the conclusion that there is no present educational status in our colleges and imiversities that can properly be called such, I believe I have fully met the obligation placed upon me by this subject. May I not, however, in conclusion venture to prophesy that a larger ground of common agreement will soon be found ? The National Educa- tion Association has appointed a committee of five to deal with the whole subject of the reorganization of American education, and at the recent annual meeting of the National Association of State Universities in Wash- ington there was appointed a standing committee on "Reorganization of Education," consisting of Presidents Bryan of Indiana University, Schur- man of Cornell University, Hill of the University of Missouri, Strong of the University of Kansas, and McVey of the University of North Dakota. It is not too much to hope that these two committees in co-operation, represent- ing unitedly the great cause of public education in our country, will reach conclusions which will give to higher education in the United States a real status commanding the respect of the world. Personally, I dare to hope that these committees will conclude that the four-years' college course should be retained between the high school and the university, thereby prolonging the infantile period and guaranteeing a later increased social efficiency. Superintendence] STANDARDS OF PROFESSIONAL LIFE 43 THE STANDARDS OF PROFESSIONAL LIFE AS APPLIED TO TEACHING HENRY SUZZALLO, PROFESSOR OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. [Stenographic Report] We are in the habit of calling some types of work professional, imply- ing that Others are not. At the same time our phraseology carries the implication that one is more respectable than the other. Of course if there are inevitable stratifications in jobs as there are in men it is necessary to recognize the fact and act accordingly. The purpose of this discussion is to raise and answer the following questions: What are the valid distinc- tions between professional and non-professional employment? What constitutes the practice of a profession? More particularly what does or will make teaching a truly professional service ? There are the four traditional professions — ^law, theology, medicine, and teaching. There are, too, some occupations that verge on the professional circle, or are recent recruits. Sucli Are engineering, journalism, nursing, settlement work, and the like. On the other hand, we do not ordinarily include unskilled labor, the mechanic, and the business man among our professional servants. At once we feel the tendency to give greater praise or blame to professional men and women, as tho their work is more difficult or more important. The reason for this suggested superiority or importance of professional service lies in the fact that there is greater power for general human weal or woe united with professional service than with business or unskilled and even skilled labor. A man who plants a field well gets a larger crop. The man who does it ill spoils a field of clods and some grain. But a good lawyer earns not only his daily bread, but at the same time protects some- thing precious— as property, life, liberty, or happiness. The bad lawyer, the unprofessional one, quibbling over technicalities and bullyragging witnesses, juries, and judges, earns his daily bread to be sure, but he has violated the spirit of ancient laws, destroyed reverence for courts and jus- tice, and walked rough-shod over the sanctities and rights of men. He has earned his bread, but he has incidentally destroyed institutions. In a rough way society tries to protect itself against the abuse of these large powers which are incident to the earnings of a livelihood in profes- sional service. It demands more general culture preliminary to the study and practice of a profession. This merely means it requires that the pro- fessional practitioner, because of his peculiar powers and temptations, must be given a fundamental knowledge of those values, ideals, traditions, which are fundamental to our social life. Hence the boy may go to a trade or a business at the close of the elementary school, but the youth may not start his work as a teacher, lawyer, doctor, or nurse before he has passed thru the high school. The secondary school means a broader and more 44 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile intensive view of life in general than the elementary school. The profes- sional work is not merely more scientific and complex than non-professional service — ^it has intimate connections with the fundamental values of life- It ramifies into the greater movements of our civilization. Hence the need for a wider, more intensive general education, which will foster a knowl- edge of, and a reverence for, human rights and institutions. If the practice of professional life must rest upon a foundation of broad general culture, what then are the special internal qualities which mark it off from other forms of service ? We would suggest four characteristics of professional life: First, It is a ministry to crises. Second, It is an expert service. Third, It is a social servantship. Fourth, It is an ethical co-operation. It is with particular reference to showing how public-school teaching realizes and fails to meet these standards that we are entered upon this discussion. Our purpose is never merely to find fault, but to get at the frank truth of the matter and to suggest helpful lines of advance. A man who spends his life in the ever-repeating and monotonous busi- ness of working the lever of a machine in a shoe factory has little oppor- tunity to meet new problems. It is not normal for him to be facing and solving new situations, mental crises that require resource and thought. The very nature of his situation makes it impossible for him to become what every professional workman is — a master of crises. No such limiting situation exists in teaching. The teacher is master of the school, unless he makes of it a machine which masters him. Every child is in degree different from every other, and so is every class, and every day with the same class. Always there is some new ignorance, doubt, hope, or discouragement to cope with. Here the resource and the tact of the teacher are called for fully. He must know and identify the situation, organize his resources, so as to bring it to bear definitely upon the novel problem before him. As a lawyer is called in to redeem a client from a situation which jeopard- izes property, liberty, life, or happiness, as a doctor protects life and health, as a minister faces down the danger of spiritual sin, so the teacher protects the divine potentialities of childhood, conquers the deathlike touch of error and discouragement, fosters intellectual courage and the passion for goodness. The teacher is in short a minister to the intellectual and moral and spiritual crises of childhood. At least it should be so, if teaching is rightly practiced. If our teaching becomes a monotonous drill and grind, that the child feels to be of little moment to him, then teaching is not a professional service. Schools cannot become "locksteps" and "machines" and at the same time render professional service. Superintcndencel STANDARDS OF PROFESSIONAL LlfE 45 The crucial nature of all teaching of the young is frequently missed because we are dealing with children and not with adults. The difficulties of children are in most cases solved for the adult, and hence the adult misses their significance. Because childhood's troubles are solved situa- tions to the adult it does not follow that they are not important to the child. Children's troubles are very real to them. Thru their solution comes growth in thought and action. To deny a child's curiosity as it pokes around in the world may be to commit him to slow intellectual starvation. To hush up his play and his garrulousness is to cripple his ultimate power to act, express, and control himself. It is also true that a child's troubles come close together, as they do not in an adult's world. He is a baby ushered into a great confusing uni- verse. Nothing is old to him; everything is new. The very commonness of new problems in his life hides their crucial nature from us, who look for a new problem to appear only now and then. Only as we approach childhood with the traits of full sympathy and versatile imagination can we serve little children, ministering to their difficulties so that their poten- tialities have a fair chance to reach a full stature. As teachers we are set aside to perform a specialized duty. We should not have schools if homes could do the work as well. Teachers must have more power about their business than ordinary laymen. Otherwise we are not expert in our workmanship. The authority with which we speak should be based not upon more years of service, tho that ought to go far, but upon superior scholarship, a fuller command of mental processes, and an excelling personaUty for stimulating thought and checking action. In a world full of intelligent people, we shall have to stir ourselves to keep ahead in a work which has so much to do with life in general, a field in which all men play some part. To be expert necessitates (i) a superior command over the wisdom of life and (2) a superior power in bringing it to bear upon hiunan subjects. Each of these elements in teaching efficiency has a double mode of operation. Our worldly wisdom may be simply an intellectual possession or it may be firmly organized in the web and woof of our personalities*. As our truths and values are possessed in one or the other of these ways, it has to be brought to bear upon childhood in one of two general ways: thru conscious and technical methods of instruction and thru the subtle and more or less unselfconscious reactions of the teacher's personality. Expertness in teaching, therefore, consists in four t)q>ical superiorities: (a) in a scholarly command of subject-matter; {h) in a better organization of character; {c) in a larger and more versatile command of conscious modes of transmitting facts and ideals; and {d) in a more potent and winsome, forceful, and sympathetic manner of personal contact with other himian beings. We must work always with regard to the social effects of our teaching. We are not teaching just arithmetic, reading, writing, and the rest; we 46 NA TIONAL .EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION IMobfle are making men, the pillars of social institutions. The final significance of all our teaching is social. Our danger as teachers is not that we shall become unprofessional, but that we shall remain non-professional. Like the minister, we have entered on our mission with the vow of poverty on our lips. A salary system inadequate in its provisions restricts our tempta- tion to get rich. The fee system of the doctor and the lawyer is a tempta- tion we do not have. We are not likely to neglect the plain social duty that we behold to be ours; we are simply likely not to behold it at all. Our monastic vision, along with that of ministers, may make us scorn the world a bit, when it is in that same world our product must be tested. To be social and not bookish, practical and not pedantic, is our profes- sional salvation. We cannot with safety ever let teaching be solely a means of livelihood. The spirit of social service must dominate us, and we must trust that the world will somehow let us live in decency, for teaching is not primarily a business, a way of gaining worldly goods, however necessary these may be; it is primarily a profession of faith in large ideals and the willingness to enlarge their operation in the world. A more vital danger than the temptation to look upon teaching as mere means of livehhood, is the danger that we may shut ourselves out from the world we are alleged to serve. Pedagogical aloofness and academic cock- sureness are only modern forms of monastic isolation that check the fullness of our social servantship. School teachers need social contact and social information; they need to derive their inspiration and their standards of eflSciency riot so much from their own vocational ancestors as from the struggles and aspirations of the very real world that throngs around the school. Only thru such intimacies with real life can teaching become a true and real social servantship. And last I would call your attention to the liberal way in which educa- tion should be conducted. As a creative work, teaching builds with precious human stuff. In building ihstitutions and civilizations with men a new principle enters that does not play a part in erecting buildings of stone, mortar, and other things. Children are our equals, they are like us in sensibility, they are blood of our blood. We should not, indeed, we cannot, successfully educate our fellow-humans unless the co-operation is considerate and complete. We have the right to manage and manipulate our children only under the guidance of well-established ethical principles. We may use children but we must not "use them up"; we may use them but we may not "abuse" them. Teaching is not a matter of might, but of right. It should not be a veiled coercion, the influence of which disappears when we are gone. Chil- dren for the most part should be led and not driven. The martinet makes only two species of human beings with his overuse of authority and power; a servile man with no will of his own who will become a henchman to the first ward boss he meets, or an obstinate reactionary who will disregard all Superintendence] OUR EDUCATIONAL ADVANCE IN THE CITY 47 authority once he gets free, becoming anarchistic or licentious, as his unrestraint expresses itself against government or virtue. If our children are to be free men and women, they must be given freedom enough to learn self-restraint. They must go toward the freedom of adult life by degrees and not by a single plunge. It is a paradox in the growth of human life that true obedience to authority in adult life is the product of a properly directed liberty in youth. Let the child's impulse play free while he is yet in awe of this world and its human masters, then he will take to heart the failures which his impulses register as they strike against other human personalities. Lead children into life, and guide them. They are not much conscious of right and wrong in the beginning, they merely wish to express themselves; give them the better way you know, else they will use their own crude manners of meeting life. The leader of men is he who reads the discontent and eagerness of men, and gives them voice. The teacher leads children by understanding their needs and offering, out of his greater wisdom, adequate ways for expressing them. If he adjusts to their vague, mumbling desires with only his own selfish interests in mind he is a cheap politician. If he gives outlet and form to their vague emotions, always with regard to the child's own ultimate good and the final good of institutions, then he is a statesman. Teaching is only a form of statesmanship where the personal and public opinion of childhood is molded to the good of the state. It is different in one fact alone, that it is the leadership of little men and women for a future good, rather than the leadership of grown men and women for a present good. It is for us as teachers to bring the qualities of professional life into our daily teaching practice and to make the term "teacher" mean four things in one: master, expert, servant, and leader. TOPIC: OUR EDUCATIONAL ADVANCE AND IMPROVEMENT OVER THE PAST A, IN THE CITY CHARLES E. CHADSEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLO. To assert that the problem of the city school is now far more complex than it was a few decades ago is merely to give utterance to a truism. Originally the city-school system was merely a multiple of individual schools, just as the large building was at first simply an association of schools of similar types and ideals. When the function of the school was confined to the attempt to secure reasonable familiarity with the "funda- mental" studies, the administration of whatever school system existed was very largely a matter of routine business and disciplinary control. Coincidentally with the general industrial expansion of the country 48 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Mobile and the increasing complexity of business and social life came the modern school system. It widens yearly its sphere of usefulness and attempts courageously the solution of every problem which a people inclined to socialistic remedies passes over to its province. A typical school system is rapidly becoming an organization difficult to describe or even to appreciate. As its foundation it still adheres to an elaborately organized grade system in which teachers work with large groups of pupils of comparatively similar general preparation and age. This ideal is found governing lower grades almost without excep- tion. The higher elementary grades in many school systems and high schools everywhere have substituted for the grade teacher a specialist in some subject or group of subjects. This substitution has been made upon the assumption that the more specially trained teachers can thereby- secure better results. This assumption has been sufficiently successfully realized to justify the acceptance of the dejiartmental system as typical in high school and upper elementary grades of the normal city school system. If, however, this group of schools where pupils are assembled together by a mechanical system of gradation and promotion was representative in any adequate sense of the modern school system, educational advance over the past would be far simpler to describe than, as a matter of fact, it is. Even if this were true it would still tax the limits of any paper to attempt more than a highly inadequate description of genuine advance along numerous diverse lines of activity. It should include advance in architectural construction of buildings, improved professional prepa- ration of teachers, and higher requirements of admission to the ranks of city teachers. It should not overlook the fact that we are securing better equipment, genuine compulsory education, more intelligently organized courses of study, progress in form and content of textbooks, the beginning of more adequate pension systems, and the securing of materially higher compensation to teachers. Such a resume also should call attention to the elimination to a very considerable extent of the more offensive forms of political inter- ference and the establishment of effective methods for the selection and appointment of teachers on the basis of merit only. It should finally emphasize improvements in the business and educa- tional administration of the schools, including the acceptance of the small, representative, effective Board of Education and the recognition of the city superintendency as an office which can be filled capably only by an educational expert. In omitting all consideration of such topics as these just enumerated and of many others which might easily have been included, I do not wish to imply that the advance along all these lines is not of tremendous Saperintendencel OUR EDUCATIONAL ADVANCE IN THE CITY 49 significance. A complete consideration of educational progress would very properly include extended treatment of each as a special subject. Nearly all of these topics illustrate a progress which has been going on for decades. They are striking illustrations of the general truth that with each added complexity of life and civilization there come corresponding adjustments on the part of all existing institutions to meet the new needs. In reality none ot these advances, marked as they are and significant of a far more adequate and intelligent handling of our problem, con- stitutes the really vital difference between the t3^ical school system of the past and the present. I should describe this difference as the developing of the power to appreciate the needs and demands of the individual. To furnish to each boy or girl the opportunity to secure the particular training most demanded by his ability, limitations, tastes, aptitudes, and presumable future activities is now the great problem of every progressive school system. This problem is attacked in almost every conceivable way. Naturally many of the schemes, devices, and methods now offered in the effort to solve this problem are hopelessly inadequate. The real advance over the past lies in the recognition of the necessity of bringing about in numerous different ways a genuine flexibility in the gradation, assignment, and advancement of the individual pupil. The purpose distinctly in mind is to secure the overcoming of the lamentable waste of time and energy which characterizes any school system wedded to the traditional forms of classification and promotion, undefiled by the modern special school, special teacher, and special plan of organization designed to make the training actually fit the child. What are the specific forms thru which the city school of today differs from the mechanically perfect yet lamentably rigid school system of the past ? They are the practical realizations of nearly all the sub- jects assigned for special discussion at this and almost every educational meeting of the past decade. Not all, of them are found in every school system. Local conditions have frequently prevented their establishment even where from many standpoints a high degree of educational efficiency has been secured and maintained. But everywhere we find educational administrators alive to the need and hopeful that the end sought, more genuine efficiency, will soon be realized. The modern school system is dynamic to the core and the superin- tendent not fully alive to the necessity of carefully and continually revising and adding to his point of view is doomed to failure. Every community realizes with daily increasing clearness the nature and importance of educational efficiency and demands with growing 50 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IMobUc persistency the establishment of specific forms looking to the fulfillment of their hopes. The recognition of the place of industries in education, the idea of the school building as the community center, and the establishment of the department of physical education as of equal dignity and impor- tance with that of so-called intellectual training mark one side of the humanizing of the modern school. The other manifestation of the effort to present opportunities thru which the child of any environment, heredity, aptitude, or limitation may secure that which is for him the most effective training is found in a variety of plans each marking a distinct variation from the tradi- tional graded system. Among these can be mentioned the ungraded school found in many school buildings, the rooms or buildings for children of foreign birth, unable to speak the English language, or badly retarded in th»ir work thru a late start in American schools, and the various types of evening and continuation schools. We should notice also the school for the backward child, and the special school or group of schools for children retarded thru ill health, irregularity, or absence from school. Of equal importance is the school for the gifted child, he who can easily accomplish more than the curriculum plans as the work for the normal child. Not unimportant in the general scheme are the schools for the feeble-minded, the epileptic, the crippled, the deaf, and the blind. Distinctly significant and promising are the open-air schools for the anaemic, the tubercular, and even for the normal child whose parents believe in a purer, fresher air than that found in the ordinary school- room; the parental or truant school, the school for the juvenile delin- quent, the elementary industrial or commercial school, the manual- training movement now developing into the technical school and the trade school. Many variations of these efforts could be enumerated, the difliculty being the determination of a genuine distinction as to t)rpe. All are alike in their underlying purpose of securing more genuine efficiency. Among the efforts to accommodate the city school to the needs of its constituency, the one most prominent in educational discussions and most conscientiously studied by all interested in education is the establishment of vocational education. This paper cannot attempt to present this problem, yet a resum6 of educational advance must not fail to include this movement for genuine industrial education. Only a few cities have attacked seriously this problem but the great interest excited everywhere in their experiments indicates clearly that within a few years we shall have many tjrpes of vocational schools in our larger cities. These schools are developing along three lines: Supcrintendencel OUR EDUCATIONAL ADVANCE IN THE CITY 51 II First, the elementary industrial school designed for those who will not go beyond the elementary schools and whose limitations or obvious future activities are such as to make the customary work of the elemen- tary school comparatively valueless. A school providing some academic work and emphasizing strongly training designed to furnish fundamental equipment for many kinds of manual activity offers a partial solution for one vexing and discouraging problem of city schools. Second, the technical or industrial high school with intensive training for a number of vocations combined with fundamental mechanical training and narrow but effective academic work. This type of school offers a most promising variation from customary secondary training and bids fair to furnish a practical vocational education far less vulnerable to a certain kind of criticism as to public-school efficiency than any heretofore connected with the system of secondary education of the public schools. Third, the pure trade school, offering to young men and women at the public expense and as an accepted department of the public-school system specific narrow training for definite trades or occupations, with the intent that these young people can become wage-earners in their trades with a training which will enable them shortly to become skilled workmen. This, while the most discussed and most strongly demanded type of vocational education, is found in only a few of our American school systems. That the trade school is destined to play an important part in the modification of the schools to fit the needs of the individual is unquestioned, but this particular differentiation will be a characteristic of the future city school system rather than of the present. The movement for a wider use of the school plant, involving the idea that every school building should eventually become a genuine com- munity center, devoted to all that makes for a more efficient citizenship, while yet in its infancy bids fair to become a most important factor in the modification of many matters connected with school organization and management. This extension of the use of the school plant, the idea of the school building as the community center, is resulting from an increasingly general acceptance, by the public, of these fundamental facts: first, that the education of the individual is a process not culminated at any particular time or place; second, that education at public expense is in the last analysis a wise investment of public moneys; third, that the continuation of the education of the individual into maturity, whether physical, social, intellectual, or moral, brings economic and social benefit to the entire community. Recent years witness marked advance in city school systems in the physical welfare of the children. This is manifesting itself in many 52 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [MobUc different ways. The overcrowded schoolroom with an insufficient supply of pure air is being replaced everywhere by rooms having a smaller number of pupils assigned, more ample floor space, and equipped with modern systems of ventilation assuring a continuous ample supply of fresh air. Even more recently has come the gospel of the open-air school, designed in some places to assure conditions within the room closely approximating at least the idea of a schoolroom on a porch protected overhead and on two sides. Such rooms enable pupils and teachers to work during large portions of the year under hygienic conditions not essentially different from outdoor life. Some school systems have already been able to go even farther and to carry on during portions of the year schools actually in the open. Schools of this type have been designed to enable children of enfeebled physique, unfortunate heredity, or unfavorable hygienic environment to overcome as far as possible their original handicap and improve their physical condition while incidentally holding their own in educa- tional development. These schools are rapidly passing out of the experimental stage and winning for themselves an assured place in the public-school system. Details of management, the medical inspection involved, the amoimt of trained nursing necessary, the character of the food furnished, and the amount of additional expense justified by the results are matters far from standardized. The fact that the special school of this type will soon be found in all effective school systems must be admitted. The installation in the city school system of medical inspectors and school nurses marks another effort to provide more effectively for the physical welfare of the child. Thru their skilled services, the danger of the presence in the school of those who are physically unfit is avoided, defects and disease are remedied, suitable segregations become possible, and a general improvement in all hygienic conditions results. We shall soon secure thru these agencies systematic records and studies of the individual child which will point the way to still further effectiveness in securing more ideal physical education and environment. The supervised school-playground movement shows wonderful activity and promises much that is most helpful and valuable. This movement is receiving such enthusiastic support from all interested in civic betterment that one finds difficulty in determining with any degree of definiteness its possible future extension or its probable limitations. Out of it will certainly result conditions far more favorable to the existence of true sport, of fair play, and to extended participation by our boys and girls. The danger of evil associations, too often the menace of the unsupervised play, will be greatly decreased, and the physical growth and betterment which accompanies proper sport and Superintcndcncel OUR EDUCATIONAL ADVANCE IN THE CITY 53 the physical activity of the outdoor game will be insured to a far greater degree than heretofore. The varieties of special schools now found in connection with city systems, all designed to furnish the specific training needed by the individual child, are too numerous to permit of anything approaching effective description. The recent emphasis given to retardation is resulting in efforts not only to overcome the causes and so greatly to lessen the amount of retardation, but to establish schools planned to cater directly to the needs of those who have accomplished less than they should and have fallen behind in their educational advancement. These schools are demonstrating most conclusively how often the child hitherto discouraged and a laggard will respond when placed in more favorable environment, under teachers whose sole duty it is to find the seat of the trouble and to remove it, if possible. Another form of special school tending to increase the flexibility of the graded-school system is that designed for the pupil able to do more than normal work. Under the unmodified system of gradation and promotion the unusually gifted child suffers. The extent of injury to those of this class is as yet scarcely realized either by parents or teachers. In numerous places, however, we now find tentative efforts to meet the needs of this class and to prevent thereby the deadening of power and the temptation to the formation of habits of idleness or worse. This type ©f school will at least lessen the unnecessary waste of time, which constitutes a present vital criticism of the public school. Finally; a complete recognition of the possibilities of extended use of the special school for the retarded, the backward, the bright, and the^ misfit will result in such a breaking-down of the old grade system that the oldtime adherents will scarcely recognize it. Any school system having definitely committed itself to depart- mental work and to special schools or teachers for the various t)q)es of pupils differing from the average or normal soon will be forced to the final step away from that which up to very recently has distin- guished the elementary from the secondary school. Promotion prac- tically by grade only is still the custom in the former. Promotion by subject has long characterized the latter. Most of us still work and reason by custom and hold to our tradi- tions. But change and advarfce, generally permanent and effective, have come so rapidly that before long the fetish of the grade as the necessary mechanical system of a public school, without which all would be chaos, will have lost its grip upon us and we will have realized fully that which is the characteristic of the educational advance of city schools in recent years, the breaking-down of mass education and the substitution of the problem of the intelligent treatment of the individual child. 54 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION [Mobile B, IN THE STATE CHARLES P. GARY, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MADISON, WIS. This is a large topic for so brief a time. When the history of educa- tion in America comes to be written in future years the period thru which we are now passing will doubtless be regarded as little less than an educational renaissance. No great revolutionary changes are occur- ring, but evolution is proceeding with unexampled rapidity. Enor- mously increased appropriations, both local and state, have almost ceased to be matters of comment. States that sustain state universities and normal schools have doubled, trebled, and even quadrupled their appropriations to these institutions within a decade. State distribu- tions of money to the common schools are steadily and rapidly increasing in volume. In this respect the states vie with one another, north and south,' east and west. New schools of various kinds are added at every legislative session in most of the states of the Union. Agricultural schools of various types seem to predominate, but training schools for teachers, industrial and vocational schools of various sorts are rapidly multipl)dng. In nearly every state of the Union there is a marked tendency to increase the qualifications for teachers. It seems to be the ultimate and not very distant aim everjrwhere to require professional training of all teachers, with the possible exception of college and university teachers. The proper training of country teachers is the most troublesome problem to be solved in the most of our states, but the experiments that are in progress everywhere indicate a determined effort to solve the difficulty. Fortunately no state in the Union is content to contemplate the develop- ment within its boundaries of a class of uneducated tillers of the soil, whether white or black. With some notable exceptions our farm popu- lation the country over seems to educational leaders to be apathetic with respect to education beyond the meager elements found in the textbooks devoted to the common branches. They are disinclined to spend money, beyond the meager necessities of the case, in school buildings, school equipment, and teachers' salaries. As a result there are going on in every state that is educationally awake campaigns of some sort designed to stimulate the interest and pride of the farming population in their schools. Sometimes it takes the form of whirlwind campaigns, sometimes school-board conventions held in each county in the state, sometimes contests of one sort and another planned for the purpose of stimulating the interest of the farm boy and girl and thru them the interest of the community. There is no greater educational problem in America today than that of reaching and rousing the agri- cultural population to the tremendous importance of suitable schools Superintendence] OUR EDUCATIONAL ADVANCE IN THE STATE 55 and competent teachers. State departments of education are keenly alert to the situation, but doubtless inventive ingenuity will discover many new ways of carrying on the missionary work which is so greatly needed. I doubt if any of us yet have utilized as fully as we should the public press in carrying on our campaigns of enlightenment. I doubt if we have yet done as much as might be done thru pamphlets, bulletins, public addresses, and local organizations. If I had but one word of exhortation to give to my fellow-workers it would be, Let no day go by without racking your brains for new ways and more efficient ways of enlightening our country communities as to the value of the right kind of education and stimulating in them the desire to secure for their chil- dren the most in the way of education their circumstances permit. There is a notable tendency, particularly in the South, to increase local taxation for school purposes. The educational leaders of the South have rendered splendid service to the cause of education by developing the sentiment of local initiative in this respect. When communities begin to tax themselves for educational purposes they are on the highway to all sorts of educational progress. The more they do for themselves, the more they want to do. Notwithstanding the grum- bling that we hear everywhere as to taxation, there is nothing that tends more strongly to educate a community in the right direction than discussions with respect to the proper expenditure of money raised by taxation for school purposes. Another tendency that is rapidly developing thruout the nation is that of taking educational affairs out of politics and putting them on a professional basis. This is particularly noticeable with respect to the chief school officer of the commonwealth. The state of Pennsylvania, for example, has at the head of her school system a man, an honored member of this department, who has been appointed again and again by successive governors regardless of politics. When his present term expires he will have served for a period of twenty years. The state of New York has appointed a man for life to a similar position. The state of Massachusetts has taken for her chief officer a man from the faculty of Columbia University, not even a resident of the state. These are a few of the more notable instances of the complete subordination of politics to the cause of education. City superintendents today are rarely, if ever, selected on a political basis. County superintendents are likewise rapidly escaping from the political yoke and are coming to be regarded in the most progressive states of the Union as professional men and women of high standing. It is to be hoped that the time will soon come when every state and county superintendent who is efficient and who does not meddle with politics in a partisan way will be regarded by his educational equals as filling a position that they would no more think of attempting to displace him from than they would think of 56 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile attempting to displace, for their own benefit, a man who fills any other educational position. In other words, professional honor and courtesy should be extended to state and county superintendents the same as to any other sort of educational workers. Along with increasing qualifications of teachers may be noted a more or less rapidly increasing salary scale for teachers, supervisors, and superintendents. While salaries are still far below the level that we believe should exist, the change that is in progress in most states is highly encouraging. In the last analysis the salary question is the most vital question involved in our educational progress. Increas- ing salaries will draw into the profession men and women of larger ability and better training than those they displace. Stationary or decreasing salaries will drive from the profession all except those who have a passion for teaching and those of such indifferent capacity that they cannot hope for anything better in any other field of effort. Medi- ocre teachers must ever be associated with moderate salaries, but high salaries will attract talent in this profession as in any other. The higher salaries are the result of increased intelligence and interest in education and these are the result, in large measure, of intelligent state activity in the cause of education. Even more than in the case of teachers, the salaries of supervisors and superintendents are increasing. The most progressive states in the Union are today making special efforts to train a body of professional superintendents and supervisors of education. It should not be forgotten that with a greater appre- ciation of the superintendent's function there goes an increased amount of clerical help which enables the superintendent to be something more than a mere clerk dealing with educational statistics and school supplies. It is coming to be keenly felt by the educational leaders in many of our states that anything more than a common-school education is likely to become rather rare for any except those who have the good fortune to possess wealth. Educational departments and legislatures the country over are interesting themselves in securing, so far as possible, equal educational opportunities for all. Equal wealth for all seems out of the question under the present economic order, but society should leave no stone unturned to bring the highest educational opportunity to the door of those who care for it. The country high school has become a necessity; and if the people immediately concerned are indif- ferent to it, it should in some way be thrust upon them by society at large. There should be state aid to weak school districts, both- for common-school education and for high-school education, and there is a strong tendency toward a larger unit of taxation. Compulsory education laws and factory laws are rapidly assuming effective form the country over. Fourteen years of age is the usual limit of compulsory education, but I have little doubt that sixteen Superintendence] OUR EDUCATIONAL ADVANCE IN THE STATE 57 years will be the lower limit in most of our states within the next decade. Children from fourteen to sixteen, just entering the adolescent period, are hi the most susceptible stage to educational influence of any period in their lives. If they are not educated in the schools they are likely to fritter away their time, get into occupations that have no future outlook, or develop habits of idleness that a lifetime cannot cure. The idea of continuation schools and night schools is rapidly growing, and yet we have everywhere great cause to be distressed at the lack of effi- ciency and sufficiency of such institutions. We are rapidly coming to see that education of an exclusively literary type is adapted to com- paratively few children. The industrial or vocational side makes a more immediate appeal to many and can readily be made educational to a remarkably high degree. To this idea and to the industrial and economic necessities of the case are due the rapid development of agri- cultural schools, trade schools, and the like, to which reference has already been made. There is a growing conviction on the part of our people that education must be brought nearer to common, everyday life. The idea is rapidly developing that our education has been of too bookish a character, that it has far too much ignored the natural, spontaneous interests of the child in his contact with his environment, and that it has too greatly neglected proper attention to the social efficiency of the child after he leaves the school. I cannot omit even in this brief sketch allusion to one of the most marked characteristics of our time: namely, state interest in the health of the people. Health campaigns are in progress everywhere. In some cases the stimulus comes from the state board of health, sometimes from the state department of education, or from still other sources, but there is a rapidly growing tendency to require medical inspection in our schools, to require ample playgrounds for school children, to prohibit the common drinking-cup, and so on thru a long list of details. State efforts to stamp out tuberculosis, the hook-worm, typhoid fever, and many other ills that afflict humanity are so common as to impress ^ven the casual observer. State legislatures and state departments of instruction are coming to insist upon the proper construction of build- ings, including especially the proper lighting and ventilation. The state interests itself in the site of schoolhouses and is ready to condemn unsanitary buildings and unsanitary sites. The concentration of authority and responsibility in the state departments of education is a marked tendency that has not escaped the attention of educational writers. There is a growing desire for a unified system of education. Courses of study, the licensing of teachers, the construction of .buildings, the distribution of state aid, the super- vision of the training of teachers, the inspection of all kinds of public education are rapidly passing into the hands of the chief school officer S8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iMobae of the state. Rapidly, but not rapidly enough, needed assistants are being added to the superintendent's department. His function is one that can be satisfactorily executed only by an educational expert of wide experience, reliable judgment, and statesmanlike breadth of view- He should be surrounded by a staff of educational experts. Dr. Henry Pritchett, head of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, is undoubtedly right when he says in the Atlantic Monthly for December, 1908, that — the absence in nearly all states of the Union of any form of supervision over higher educa- tion is a singular feature of our educational history. The absence of any rational super- vision or even of any provision for fair criticism or review of our higher institutions of learning is in part due to the attitude of the colleges themselves. College professors have been not a little inclined to look down on those who supervise state schools. The worst feature of the attitude referred to by thjB head of the Carnegie Foundation is the insistence everywhere of our state universities that they shall be treated as independent organizations having no relation- ship with the educational system except in the matter of financial support. They insist upon fixing their own entrance qualifications regardless of the state system of schools and of keeping inspectors in the field for the purpose of shaping secondary education to meet the assumed needs of the university. In some states they have entirely prevented state inspection and supervision of high schools. In a few cases where they were hard pressed or foresaw they might be, they have secured thru the legislature an anomalous compromise with the state in th6 nature of a board whose function is to determine courses of study for the high schools of the state and direct the inspection of schools. Such a board is a snare and a delusion and is brought about by the efforts of the university to hold its own in the state against the tendency to increase the authority and responsibility of the state department. Such a board tends to produce a fixed order of things as unchangeable as the laws of the Medes and the Persians and little adapted to meet the changing needs and conceptions of the communities that support high schools. This is a tendency that should be emphatically checked in every state in the Union, for it is the sort of thing that will inevitably be resorted to, if possible, by state universities in their efforts to preserve their autonomy in relation to the educational affairs of the state. One board of this type determined the course of study and then saw to it that the legislature enacted that course of study into law. The board then went about its business and gave itself no further serious trouble. In another state the board is, so far as this part of its function is con- cerned, of no effect so far as I can discover. Tho I have been repeatedly assured that the schools enjoy the utmost freedom in the making-up of their courses, I finally discovered by sheer accident, as it were, after hours of talk on the subject, that the university would accept only what Supcrintendcncei OUR EDUCATIONAL ADVANCE IN THE NATION 59 pleased it in the last analysis and unhesitatingly rejected anything that it regarded as unsatisfactory. Such a board as some of our states are at this time contemplating would be at best little more than a debating society for the edification of the menibers. To meet modern conditions and modern needs the adjustment of courses of study and other educational afifairs of state interest should be left in the hands of a capa- ble state supervisor of education of. the highest type of professional ability, who can in a rational but not arbitrary manner stimulate here and hold in check there and thus preserve that fluidity that is essential at this time to educational evolution and for the prevention of the necessity of educational revolution. C. IN THE NATION ELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCA- TION, WASHINGTON, D.C. Our educational advance in the nation consists in the advance of the idea of national responsibility in educational affairs.. The concep- tion of such responsibility has been hammered into us by the friendly criticism of foreign nations. Foreign criticism charges us with educating only a portion of our population, leaving great numbers of our citizens either without schooling, or with schooling for so brief a period and under so unfavorable conditions as to count for little. Foreign criticism charges again that we do not fulfill in the higher grades of our schools the large promise of our lower grades. Doctor Muthesius of Berlin, for example, has reported as follows regarding American instruction in drawing: The results of the instruction .... in the lower grades exceed all expectations. In the advanced grades, however, they do not wholly accord with this auspicious begin- ning. While the work of the children of eight or nine years is so admirable the pupils of fifteen or sixteen often offer .correspondingly little that is satisfactory. We should expect from the pupils of the highest grades that in drawing from nature they would have the ability to see form clearly and to apprehend an object accurately. But instruction has failed to develop a disposition to see clearly; the plant drawings of the sixteen-year- old pupils frequently present the same schematic picture as those of the lower grades. Manifestly, this is due to the fact that instruction wholly neglects exercises in accuracy. Foreign criticism yet again calls attention to the lamentable uncer- tainty as regards the significance , of our academic and professional degrees. The English Journal of Education for September i, 19 10, contained the following declaration: There is a real evil in connection with the use of American diplomas in England, be it by American or by English citizens. And these facts seem to be beyond dispute, (i) In the United States honorary degrees are conferred in such numbers that they have no real meaning' or value. (2) No distinctive mark separates in usage the honorary from the earned degree. (3) The degree by examination is sometimes conferred under conditions that are simply farcical. (4) Many of the institutions from which degrees 6o NA TTONA L EDVCA TION A SSOCTA TION f Mobflc proceed are far below the rank of even the smallest European universities, and possess no reputation that can be injured by laxity in bestowing their distinctions. We speak only in defense of our own people. It is the genuine graduates of genuine American universities .... that have the greatest interest in effecting a reform. Even in our neighbor republic of Cuba, a government commission, reporting recently to the Secretary of Instruction on the recognition of foreign degrees by the Cuban National University, referred to the fact that many American institutions gave degrees with relative facility, which are not regarded as sufficient even in the state in which the institution is situated, as the authorities require an official examination before the holder is entitled to exercise his profession. It is evident that the reference is mainly to our professional degrees. The commission recommended a restricted recognition of such degrees as given in this country. The chief significance of this foreign criticism is that it calls atten- tion to defects in our system of education from which our own people are the chief sufferers. The sting of adverse comment from abroad may awaken us to a sense of obligations at home to which long custom had hitherto blinded us. But such foreign criticism has a further significance: It shows that we are dealing with a national, and not merely a local, question. Both our place among the nations and our duty to our own citizens are involved — a nation-wide imperfection or misfortune calls for a nation-wide remedy. But let us not use the word national hastily nor carelessly. In speaking of education in and for the nation, I am speaking as a firm believer in the educational rights and responsibilities of the several states. Our national education is the sum total of education in the states, with something cohesive added thereto. That something added is an increasing measure of helpful activity from the side of institutions, both public and private, which are either Federal or distinctly national in character. National results are not to be accomplished by Federal action merely. They are to be accomplished by Federal agencies in co-operation with mutually co-operating states, with a good deal of non-governmental nationality thrown in. This is a situation that calls for patience, since our national improvements are not to be forced by a stroke of the pen at one single governmental center. But can we not see the over- whelming advantages of such a situation ? I believe it offers the finest promise of a rich and varied and spontaneous educational development that is enjoyed by any people. If everything seems to hinder, with insurmountable obstacles, it is equally true that everything helps. An improvement in any corner pf the land is a contribution to national improvement. Now, with such a nationality of many in one, what progress have we been making in this twentieth century toward the correction of such Superintendence] OUR EDUCATIONAL ADVANCE IN THE' NATION 6l V inadequacies as those already mentioned ? What progress have we been making toward better things than the preceding centuries have found attainable ? While my answer to this question will have in it the bitter herb of frankness regarding the things we have not yet attained, it will none the less be in full accord with that hopefulness which is the dominant spirit of this meeting. The mere bigness of our achievements is a familiar story. We know that we have a billion dollars invested in our public-school "plant." We know that for education of all kinds, from the most elementary to the most advanced, we are now spending over half a billion dollars a year. We know that our high schools now enroll over one million students annually, which is more than one per cent of our whole population, while our various institutions of higher education have more than a fourth as many in attendance. We are so familiar with this talk of bigness that we have begun- to tire a little of mere magnitudes. Right here we may find one of the evidences of genuine progress. We are inquiring with a little more earnestness than ever before what these magnitudes shall mean. Nu- merical statements are sifted and analyzed a little more closely; and the inquiry is made more insistently: What quality is represented in these quantities ? Some of the ways in which this attitude has of late been manifested are seen in the movement for the improvement of our educa- tional statistics; in the inquiries concerning laggards in the school grades; in the efforts to provide for more individual instruction, with varying rates of promotion ; and in the provision that is making in many directions for the training of exceptional children. The meeting of this department last year at Indianapolis signalized the change that is here referred to, partly in its emphasis upon individual differences among pupils, and partly in the appointment of a committee on uniform statistics. If we could say without reserve that the interest in American education, from the kindergarten to the university, has been definitely shifted from quantity to quality, we should make one of the most hopeful and inspiriting declarations that could be made. I do not venture to make sifth a declaration; but I believe such a shifting has plainly begun, and some of its finest beginnings are to be credited to the first decade of the twentieth century. It should not occasion surprise that the movement toward more accurate and comparable statistics should be viewed as a sign of the shifting of emphasis from quantity to quality. It is indeed a most important indication of such a change. We are losing interest in statis- tics which simply give us ground for indiscriminate congratulation or indiscriminate condemnation. Our statistics are to help us find our way in the face of recognized difficulties. They are to be unimportant in themselves; but they are to be increasingly helpful in the effort 62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [MobHe toward improvement. They are to enable us to locate definite weak- nesses; and they are also to give us a more precise statement of any- good thing that has been done anywhere, and so make it possible to spread improvements more surely from city to city and from state to state. The first decade of the twentieth century has seen the growth of a nation-wide interest in our educational standards. This is undoubtedly- one of the most remarkable developments of the period under considera- tion. The first steps have been taken toward removing the reproach which has lain against our academic and professional degrees. This company is very familiar with those steps, and they need not be reviewed at this time. It is generally known that the most influential agency in the "standardizing" movement has been the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, which has done great and unexpected things on the way to an answer to the simple question, What is a college ? Various other voluntary bodies have worked together to the same end. In an important sense, this work is already a national work. It is manifest, however, that it cannot become a permanent and universal work till it has passed over into the sphere of government. And it can become fully established in the governmental sphere only by the concurrent action of the state governments, which are the source of all power to grant degrees within their several jurisdictions, and of the Federal government in so far as its jurisdiction over the District of Columbia is concerned. Is it beyond hope or belief that the several states will act in unison in this matter ? A few of them, with New York in the lead, have already undertaken to regulate the granting of such degrees. I venture the expectation that the rest will follow in time, till the purchased diploma and the unearned scholastic title shall be alto- gether unknown in our land. Some of the obvious difficulties in the way of such a program will be lessened, if it be understood that an immediate adoption of one standard for all states and all institutions is not to be considered. The thing to be desired at the outset is an agreed scale of standards, upon which states and institutions may range themselves according to their condition and^the needs of their people, their place upon such a scale being known to all and freely acknowledged. A further suggestion should be added. The more mechanical and outward determination of scholastic standards is merely a clearing of the way for the finer, more intangible, and more vital standards which, while they measure spiritual achievements, cannot themselves be measured by any quantitative scale. Such standards are chiefly supplied by great teachers and by groups of great teachers. It would be difficult to say whether the past decade has shown an advance in these finer standards or not. It is a significant fact, however, that SupcrintcndenccI OUR EDUCATIONAL ADVANCE IN THE NATION 63 -^ -' ' — - - ^ — — — — • T — - I I — I it is a decade in which there have passed from this earthly scene such teachers as Shaler and Sumner and William James and Harris and Le Conte and Harper and Mclver and Curry (for I am using the term "teacher" in some of its wider meanings) and Alice Freeman Palmer and a large company of their inspiring associates. Just at this time I am particularly interested in American standards of elementary education. We are coming only by slow degrees to any general agreement concerning the norms by which a common school or a system of common schools may be judged. Some beginnings have been made in the application of definite measurements in this field. For the most part, however, we try to gauge its successes in a rather broad way, by reference to prevalent practice in progressive communi- ties, by general conceptions of the aims and possibilities of education, and by the common-sense which emerges from wide experience. There is a prevalent tendency, manifest in some recent articles, to measure the progress of a city system of schools by the agencies organized for doing things beyond the ordinary scope of the schools. I cherish a strong belief in those activities which are referred to as the wider uses of the school plant, and I have been reading, with special pleasure and satisfaction, Mr. Perry's book upon those wider uses. But I think it cannot be denied that the wider uses may be most safely and effectively cultivated in a system of schools which is sound and strong in its main, central core. It is no easy task to judge fairly of the strength and sound- ness of that central core, nor is it easy to say, with precision, whether real progress has been making or what progress has been making within a decade as regards the central and essential excellence of our teaching. I believe, however, that substantial progress has been made and that such progress will continue thru the years that are to follow. Our cities play so characteristic and leading a part in our national civilization and their influence and standards are so largely independent of the boundary lines of the states, that the things which concern their eflS- ciency must be regarded as a national interest, and their co-operation for the improvement of city-school standards generally must appear as a patriotic and national service. There are four lines of improvement respecting fundamental facts of school education which call for emphasis. They are school attend- ance, teachers, buildings, and supervision. In these fundamentals, any national improvement is dependent almost wholly upon the inde- pendent efforts of the several states. From the side of the Federal government, only information, with incidental advice, can be offered. It is encouraging to note signs of positive improvement in these par- ticulars within the decade past. The percentage of our school popula- tion enrolled in the schools has not greatly changed. But school attendance is more regular and for a longer annual term. In the larger 64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iMobHe cities, attendance for the first half of the elementary course is now in a fairly satisfactory condition. With all of their differences in detail, the statisticians agree that attendance in the latter half of the elementary course, even in the larger cities, still shows a lamentable falling-oflF. The area of compulsory school attendance is gradually widening, and it seems inevitable that before long all of the states will agree in provid- ing for such compulsion. The dovetailing of compulsory school attend- ance with provision against unsuitable employment of children is gradually coming to greater effectiveness. Great improvements in schoolhouse construction date from the CoUingwood fire. Supervision has made notable gains; indeed, some of the most hopeful signs of progress are to be found in this part of the field. Normal schools, state and city and county, are prospering, and our teaching force is gradually working toward the point where all of its members will have had some measure of professional training. One of the most interesting efforts toward definite co-operation between the states is the effort to arrive at a satisfactory basis for interstate comity as regards the granting of teachers' certificates. Taken altogether, the past decade has been a time for overcoming mere state and sectional and institutional isolation. There is still isolation — too much of it altogether — and the defects that arise from isolation. But there is less of isolation, and more of conscious unity, than there was ten years ago. The sense of a common cause is here. All of the aspirations and obligations of nationality lend force and sacredness to that common cause. We are helping each other a little more than we did, and each receiving a little more help from the rest. We are keeping step together, not under military compulsion but under the joyous consciousness of common aims and mutual support — keeping step — keeping step — and marching forward, all over our common land, to ends that are our country's, our God's, and truth's. DISCUSSION Leonard P. Ayres, associate director, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y. — The Department of Superintendence has always believed in the United States Bureau of Education, ever since bringing about its creation nearly fifty years ago. During the past year members of this Department have been engaged in an attempt to secure larger Federal support for the Bureau, and of this movement and its results I wish to give some account. Former attempts to widen the activities of the United States Bureau of Education have failed largely because the requests have been in the nature of general appeals for the enlargement of that bureau. Members of the United States Congress have never been greatly interested in enlarging the United States Bureau of Education. Another reason for the failure has been the fear of the states that the govern- ment might encroach upon their rights in the field of public education. The 'hope of the present movement consists in the fact that the appeal is not a general appeal for enlargement, nor in any way an interference with the rights of the states. Those directly interested in promoting the eflficiency of the United States Bureau of Educa- Superintendence! OUR EDUCATIONAL ADVANCE IN THE NATION 65 tion at this time aim simply to secure a field force of expert scientific investigators for the purpose of ascertaining more adequately the facts of present practice and making . available to each school worker the experience of all. The efforts put forth to convince legislators have assumed the form of letters, literature, personal effort, and telegrams. There has been a splendid response from many quarters of our country, especially from the educational people. The Commissioner of Education and the Secretary of the Interior have united in working for the appropriation of $75,000 for the establishment of the corps. The reconmiendation was approved by the subcommittee of the House of Representatives and by the general Conmiittee on Appropriations, altho the ten specialists asked for were reduced by them to two.. When the matter was brought before the House of Rep- resentatives it was discussed for a longer period than any educational measure of recent years. The Senate Committee seems to be favorably disposed and it now seems probable that Congress will provide for three specialists. The work in behalf of the measure had been of great interest and enlightenment to the legislators and has made possible a fine advance. In conclusion: There is a need for a committee of this Department on the Bureau of Education, and I bespeak your support for the resolution which will be submitted by the Committee on Resolutions relating thereto. J. George Becht, principal, State Normal School, Clarion, Pa. — ^Within the past quarter of a century the lines of advancement have been in the direction of finding a national basis for the training of children and in a sensible appreciation of what scientific method and management may accomplish when applied to the common arts of life. The truth of this last statement is significantly reflected in the periodical literature of the day as never before. The standard literary magazines are giving over their columns to the propaganda that education to be efficient must relate itself to these common arts of life; that education means adjustment and conservation; that adjustment means adapting one to his environment and conservation means eliminating the waste of human effort. This widespread discussion on the part of the laymen in educational practice is one of the most hopeful signs in the educational firmament. It is a just appreciation of what science may do when practically applied and will in the end work a moral, social, and economic revolution, Frederick W. Taylor, a pioneer in this direction, shows in a very conclusive way what may be accomplished by appljdng the principles of scientific management to the activities that range from carrying a hod to the highest expressions of physical labor. As an illustration he takes the trade of brick-laying, which has been carried on in the same way since the days of primitive man. But science steps in and asks. Why lower a hundred pounds of human flesh to lift a four-pound brick? Why shall a brick-layer toss a brick three or four times to find its best face ? Why tap it three or four times to get its proper level? Why stand in a position that requires a half-dozen movements when one would suffice? And science gives the answer. Build the platform for the bricks so that it can be easily adjusted to the height of his work. Lay the bricks on the platform with the best face in position, make the mortar of uniform consistency and a single tap will be sufficient; and take a position that will eliminate useless movement. M. L. Brittain, state school commissioner, Atlanta, Ga. — In the general progress, which has been shown I desire to emphasize two subjects in particular in which the development has been marked during recent times. One of these is the increasing attention paid to health and hygiene. It was Herbert Spencer, I believe, who was really responsible for much of the empha- sis which our schools now place upon the study of our bodies and the art of right living. In his Essay on Education he refers with fine scorn to those who have so persistently exalted the merely ornamental over those studies which are so vitally worth while. We are learning the lesson the great philosopher taught and not only have placed physiology 66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile almost universally in the courses of study of our public schools, but of late are striving to reach the subject in still more practical fashion. "Health Days" and "Cleaning Up " anniversaries are being celebrated, and special occasions are being used to direct public attention to these important matters. They are even yet, however, not well enough emphasized altho history and common-sense show their importance. The Greek mind — the greatest of the centuries — ran most swiftly along the pathway of literature and learning when it dwelt in a body which thru training and culture was the wonder and admiration of the world. The other point to which I shall refer is the increasing attention paid to the teaching of agriculture. The rapid growth of urban life and depopulation of our farms have been brought forcibly to our attention, not only by the figures of the Census Bureau, but by the increased cost of living as well. Nearly every man who comes to the city from the country becomes a consimier instead of a producer. The increase in the first class and the loss to the second naturally have an important effect on the cost of food and clothing. This injures everybody concerned and yet the migration is unnecessary and frequently undesired even by those who make the change. Our books and courses of study have tended cityward in their influence and are yet too much inclined to give instruction on stocks and bonds instead of fields and crops. If we had devoted some of the educational money we have been spending to make doctors, lawyers, teachers, preachers, and mer- chants toward giving instruction in agriculture it would have been better for us all. The very subject in which we are most vitally interested has been a sort of Cinderella, sitting disconsolate in the ashes while her haughty sisters flaunted their proud plumes thru the culture courses of the average ciuriculum. It is perhaps as important for the urban child to acquire some knowledge of Nature and her products as for the one living in the country, for it was no meaningless myth which the classic story told of the renewed life and vigor which came to the wearied Antaeus from contact with his Mother Earth. But to make this teaching effective we must bring to it the same interest and energy which have achieved success elsewhere. Above all there must be enthusiasm in the work. PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION GIVEN BY PROFESSOR HENRY SUZZALLO IN THE ABSENCE OF PRESIDENT JAMES H. BAKER, CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE The chairman of the Department of Superintendence has given me only ten minutes in which to make a preliminary report for the Com- mittee on Economy of Time in Education. Any thoro report is, there- fore, out of the question, and I shall confine myself to the presentation of the three important conclusions of the committee that bear on the motion to be presented at the conclusion of this presentation, namely, that the Department of Superintendence appoint a Committee of Five on Economy of Time in Elementary Education to work in connection with the general committee appointed from the National Council. A SHORTENED PERIOD OF GENERAL EDUCATION Our first proposition is that the period of years now allowed to general cultural or liberal education by the existing organization of our school system is too long, and should be abbreviated. The committe especifi- Supcrintcodence] COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION 67 cally recommends that the period of general education should close by the twentieth year. There are many substantial arguments for such a recommendation, of which only a few may be mentioned here. In the first place, the period of plasticity during which a human being can be profitably educated is not coterminous with life. People may be flexible and educable to the end of life; but the period of greatest educability closes for most by the end of the twenties. There is con- siderable variation in individuals, but, in general, a man who has not found his work and place in life by the time he has reached his thirtieth year is indeed unfortunate. His chances of success are greatly dimin- ished. If the period of plasticity is thus confined, it is essential that every important and requisite mode of training fall within the period of plas- ticity. Now the modern contention is that a man's adjustment to the world in which he lives is dependent upon three tjrpes of training: (i) A general or liberal education which will give him a command over those human institutions in which he holds a membership in common with other men; (2) a specialized vocational education which will fit him for his particular economic function; and (3) an apprenticeship to his specific work and station in life which will snugly fit his theoretic educa- tion to the concrete and practical situations which he must meet. If our scheme of general education takes till the age of twenty-two, vocational education and apprenticeship, at least for those who go into professions, must be crowded into the six or eight remaining years of plasticity. This would seem to be a disproportionate allotment. More often than is desirable, if observation counts for anything, the college graduate is left without the eagerness and adjustability to pursue his vocational education and to undergo the specific and somewhat trying apprenticeship thru which the world insists upon passing its young. The ordeal of doing practical work in a subordinate position ought to be presented a year or two earlier to most boys, say at the age of twenty. That such a plan is wise on theoretic grounds is appar- ent; that it is a feasible practice is proven by experience abroad and at home. For the most part, England, France, Germany, and other less impor- tant European countries have a system of school organization which provides for a completion of the period of general education by about the eighteenth year. There are variations in the cases of both individual persons and particular institutions, but the general practice proves the accuracy of the contention that the period of general education may be closed earlier than is the case with our general American practice without any appreciable loss of efficiency and, indeed, with an appreciable gain. The American school organization is, in its lengthened period of 68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile ' general education, an anomaly among national systems of education — an anomaly created by an accident of history. Once the American youth completed his collegiate training four or five years earlier than now. This period has been extended by an increased standardization of the academic attaiilments of the lower schools enforced by higher institutions. The German university and the English college, once parallel developments and roughly covering about the same age period, are, in America, treated as institutions of diflFerent grades, the German university being superimposed upon the Americanized English college. Such attempts as have been made in the United States to shorten the period of general training by two years substantiate the European experience. Wherever the professional training has been provided at the beginning of the junior year of college we are led to believe that the articulation has been successful. So successful has it been in the eyes of the university administrators that the association of state universities has declared for a distinct articulation at the close of the second colle- giate year. On these three grounds your committee on economy in education believes that the period allotted to general education should be shortened two full years: (i) In order that vocational education and practical apprenticeship be given a fairer share of the period of plasticity; (2) because European experience proves the feasibility of such a plan in general ; and (3) because such preliminary experiments with a shortened period in our American schools determine its feasibility for American students. A NEW ARTICULATION OF OUR SCHOOLS Our second proposition is that the period of general education should be differently subdivided — more specifically, that six years be given to elementary education, six to secondary education, and two to that collegiate training requisite as a proper introduction to professional education. Careful investigation of all the distinctions made between elementary, secondary, and collegiate education fails to reveal any large functional differences. Collegiate education is an intensification and expansion of the culture of the secondary schools, as that of the secondary schools is an enlargement of the liberal training given in the elementary unit. Another substantial difference is, that each higher school presents an increased degree of variability that personal ability and ultimate vocational placing may be taken into account. It is because lawyers, doctors, ministers, and teachers in higher schools, more than any non- professional class, harve a far-reaching influence on the fundamental institutions of life that we demand of them a preliminary education extending thru the college. It is because the skilled craftsman and the Supcrintcndcncei COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME IN EDUCATION 69 larger man of business have a more general influence on common affairs than the unskilled workman and the commercial shop-clerk that one usually goes thru high school and the other does not. The articulations express the degree of general training which society in its rough wisdom decrees as necessary to protect the wider social interests which tend inevitably to be affected by the spirit and method of a particular voca- tional group. If such is the real distinction between elementary, secondary, and collegiate education, then there are many reasons for believing that a divi- sion of the first twelve years into two six-year periods is better than the unequal eight- and four-year division we now have. In the first place, such expert testimony as we have indicates the presence of considerable waste time and energy in the elementary school. There is a very widespread belief among school men that the fundamental facts, habits, attitudes, and ideals demanded by the general needs of our civiliza- tion can be fixed in the nervous system of the child in six school years. In the second place, the compulsory education law under our present organization gives society control of the child only long enough to guarantee the abler child eight years of general training. It cannot guarantee him the additional years of vocational education required to make him an eflScient, self-supporting, and self-reliant citizen. To shorten the elementary school to six years without impairing its efficiency is to allow two further years of control that will guarantee every child, who does not go to the high school, some vocational education. The need to guarantee some vocational education to the retarded students is so important that many careful students of social conditions are ready to say that the compulsory school age must be extended to sixteen years so as to carry the least able elementary school children who now get no further than the fourth, fifth, or sixth school year, thru one, two, or three years of vocational education. In the third place, the six-year articulation is regarded not only as a better ending-point for the general elementary studies but as a better beginning point for the secondary studies. There are certain inner physio- logical changes that usher in adolescence that now occur at about the time when the average child makes the transition from elementary to secondary school. The strain of outer and inner conditions are more or less coincident. Therefore the resulting school mortality is likely to be larger than it ought to be or school life is continued at a larger physical and nervous cost than ought to be the case. It would be a distinct gain for a child to get fairly well started and adjusted to his new school life, vocational or secondary, before the full weight of physiological and nervous changes are thrust up>on him. The two adjustments can be better cared for in series than together. 70 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobflc Again, it is the opinion of schoolmasters in general that, for those who have the peculiar mentality to go on to the ordinary academic high school, it is decidedly more profitable to begin the foreign languages at twelve than at fourteen years of age. The same advantage may be held in other subjects where a large acquisition of facts is necessary to , successful work. In the case of those children who are more given to action than to abstraction it is equally profitable to begin to center their intellectual work about an active vocation early. To begin vocational education, with its practical life-career appeal, at twelve rather than at fourteen is to save many children from truancy and disinterest. It will extend their school life so that they are not too early driven into unprofitable and future- less employments. They will still take up much general training parallel with their broad study of vocational work. A six-year articulation will force a needed economy in the elementary school; it will permit the state to guarantee some vocational training as well as some general education; it will permit the child to get started on his school adjustment slightly before adolescence overtakes him with its strain of inner recoi^struction; it will permit an earlier differentiation that will better meet individual and class needs. Our third proposition is that the elementary-school curriculum should be rearranged so as to shorten the time distribution by two years. The advantages of such a step have already been argued. It is now merely a question of practicality. We have only to turn to the concrete efforts in this direction that have already been made by American school men. Such experiments as have been tried in American schools and school systems under practical operating conditions prove with certainty that the ele- mentary school may be reduced to seven years; and that there is an almost equally strong probability that the articulation at the close of the sixth year would be fully as efficient. The main requirement at this point in our progress is to investigate the waste in the elementary schools and to make definite proposals for eliminat- ing the archaic and least useful materials of the course of study and to pro- pose more economical methods of teaching. To this end, I move that the Department of Superintendence appoint a Committee of Five on Economy of Time in Elementary Education, this committee of practical superintendents to co-operate with the general Committee on Economy of Time in Education. AN EDUCATIONAL EPOCH IN NEW AMERICA GEORGE E. MACLEAN, PRESmENT, STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA, IOWA CITY, IOWA The general topic of this Convention, and its admirable program, have proven that the first decade of the twentieth century is an educational Superintendence! AN EDUCATIONAL EPOCH IN NEW AMERICA 71 epoch in New America. In the language of the stars an epoch is the point at which a star seems to halt and from which its future orbit is calculated. This decade is a turning-point in the star ascendant of education in the starlit firmament of New America. Isn't it a glorious time to go star- gazing together? There have been other brilliant epochs bringing in the new, but none greater than ours, for they all have been preparing ours and shine thru it. Paul, the greatest man of history, who beheld a heavenly vision, exclaimed, "Behold, all things are become new," and his compeer, John the seer, beheld a new heavens and a new earth. Therefore the new and, necessarily, progress have characterized the Christian era from that epoch to this. The epoch of adventure and exploration incarnate in Columbus discovered a new world, led our forefathers on as pioneers, made us discontented until we discover the earth's poles, and in the field of truth never-resting pilgrims of progress. The epoch of settlement tied down the new to the old nationalities — ^New Spain, New France, New England, New Amsterdam, Nova Scotia, New York, New Brunswick, and even New Jersey. Naturally Harvard was planted at Newtown, later Cam- bridge, Yale -at New Haven, and Kings' (Columbia) at New York. The epoch of 1776 with Washington and the Revolutionary fathers gave us a new repubUc, a United States of America, in reality only a con- federacy of the new old colonies. The era, however, of political liberty was insured. The twenty-five hundred living graduates of the nine colonial colleges at the outbreak of the Revolution were leaders of the sons of liberty, furnished about one-half of the field officers of the militia, the larger share of those in the Continental Congress, and four-fifths of the signers of the Declaration of Independence.^ What wonder that the attempt was made in the Federal Convention of 1787 to give Congress powers over public education, and that the endeavor to provide for a national university at the seat of government was not only made in that convention but fostered by the six successive presidents of the United States? Washington led the way in his messages, and by a bequest in his will. In this Jefferson held hands with Washington. Jefferson's epitaph put as the climax of his Ufe "founder of the University of Virginia." The educational epoch of the Revolution was, as usual, in conjunction with the poUtical, and introduced the era of the founding of state uni- versities as well as of many endowed colleges. In a high sense the most original American contribution to the educational history of the world has been the rise and progress of state universities, inspired by their Magna Charta in the Ordinance of 1787 in the words "Religion, Morality, and Knowledge, being necessary to good government, and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." The original federal land grants made possible the state school systems, crowned by the state universities. C. F. Thwing, Higher Education in America^ pp. 172 ff. 72 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Mobile The epoch of the civil war that added political equality to the liberty of '76 witnessed another conjunction of an educational epoch with a civil. The Federal land grants to state universities and conunon schools had prepared the way for the second greatest era in American education — the industrial. In 1862, when Abraham Lincoln signed the Morrill Act inau- gurating land grants, from which have sprung sixty-five colleges of agri- culture and mechanic arts in every state and territory, he became Lincoln the Educator as great as the Emancipator. Washington and Lincoln teach that eternal education is the price of liberty and equality in the nevsr nation Washington dreamed of and Lincpln died for. The new Nation, nursed by John Marshall, came to self-consciousness in the adolescent pains of the war for the Union. * Ours is the glory of the third great political and educational epoch, and of the Spanish- American War. The cry "Cuba Libre" was not raised for conquest, but to free suffering brothers from cruelty. It brought in the era of fraternity between North and South. They were reunited in their unselfish devotion to mere human brotherhood, a cause of war unknown before in the history of nations. With the appearance of Uncle Sam as a big brother among the nations known as "world-powers," begins the realization of the ideal of the brotherhood of nations. The new nation is of necessity involved in international relations which naturally tend to breed a new nationalism at home. As educators we can safely leave the problems of new nationalism to time and the statesmen. We will deal with what is unquestionably here — the New America. It is, first, the hemispheric America. The Pan- American union of twenty-one republics is a potent fact, as its commercial conference of the last week shows. It only remains that the proposed trade reciprocity agreement with Canada should draw British North America (in the extreme terms of Mr. Chamberlain) "from the imperial orbit into the vortex of [American] continental politics, and the interests of the United States." With the Panama Canal completed, and the reciprocity and continental policies of President Taft, inspired by the fra- grance of McKinley's memory, carried out without entangling political alliances in the bonds of peace and trade, there will be a commercial con- federacy of republics and peoples from Cape Horn to Peary's pole. This is indeed our New America, bounded on the north by the Aurora Borealis. Beckoned on by the fraternalism of all the American peoples the New America far transcends the trite title of "world-power," for leadership in bringing the fulfillment of Tennyson's vision of "the federation of the world." It stands for international fraternity on the sure foundation of the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. This is the New 'America, whose vision and voice our southern poet, Sidney Lanier, saw and heard in the Centennial Meditation of Columbia in 1876: Supcrintendencel AN EDUCATIONAL EPOCH IN NEW AMERICA 73 Now Praise to God's oft-granted grace, Now Praise to Man's undaunted face, Despite the land, despite the sea, I was; I am; and I shall be — How long. Good Angel, O how long ? Sing me from Heaven a man's own song! Long as thine Art shall love true love, Long as* thy Science truth shall know. Long as thine Eagle harms no Dove, Long as thy Law by law shall grow. Long as thy God is God above, Thy brother every man below, So long, dear Land of all my love. Thy name shall shine, thy fame shall glow!' The era of the Prince of Peace will come, tho Army and Navy remain for police powers and to execute the decrees of the permanent high court of international justice. This day is heralded not only from The Hague, but also by the hand-clasp of the Kaiser, war-lord of Germany, with our peace-war-lord, hero of San Juan hill, dictator of the peace of Portsmouth, and holder of the Nobel peace prize. He is the apostle who has preached the gospel of our New America in Europe, Asia, and Africa. He is the third person in th^ trinity of world-wide known Americans — Washington and the epoch of liberty, Lincoln and the epoch of equality, Roosevelt and the epoch of fraternity! The corresponding educational epochs and successive eras have been associated with central persons. Washington is the first, the father of the idea of a national university and national education, from which proceeded the era of the establishment of state universities and. common schools by national land grants, and the multiplication of colleges by church and private endowment. Lincoln is the second, the reviver of Federal land grants, specifically applied to colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts, from which has proceeded the era of industrial education, and that of the differentiation of universities as contra-distinguished from colleges. Roosevelt is the third, the reformer, preacher, and the teacher by tongue and pen of political, economic, and social doctrines in a complex and in what some consider a chaotic, but, we believe, a culminating, educational epoch, to be succeeded by an era of social education, with national and world- standards, correlating and unifying all social forces. The responsibilities of our educational epoch are stupendous, if we are to meet the demands of the New America. Impressed by the very magni- tude of the figures summing up our work we become overconfident and grandiloquent. A standard journal, remarking upon the United States as the international schoolmaster, tells of the attendance of a hundred thousand school children in Porto Rico, and of a million and a half in the Philippines, and enlarging upon the influence of American teachers and * The Poems of Sidney Lanier ^ p. 256 (Scribner). 74 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile schools in the Orient and even Europe, entitles the article "The United States Teacher for the Universe." We have almost the disposition to annex the new world in making revealed by the Mt. Wilson telescope and photographed in a swirling mass of gases, five hundred billion miles in diameter. We exult that the photograph shows a spiral nebula, apparently disproving the hypothesis of the Frenchman, La Place, and substantiating the American hypothesis of Professor Chamberlain of the University of Chicago. American schoolmastering is counted almost powerful and prac- tical enough to guide and teach the Creator the most approved methods of making a new world. The epoch indeed has colossal statistics. The total attendance of pupils has increased from seventeen millions plus at the beginning of the decade to nineteen millions. The teaching force has increased to 495,463, a gain of 14 per cent as against 9I per cent gain in the number of enrolled pupils. The average monthly wages have increased for men from $47.55 to $62.35, for women from $39.17 to $51.61. The actual increase in salaries is greater, as the average length of the school term has been extended from 143.7 d2 ^^ wage- earning power per hour 30 . 8 cents. That school is in the serious business of preparing its students, thru academic training and a specialized trade, for intelligent citizenship and good earning power in industrial occupations. Its work continues thruout the year, 8 hours a day, five and one-half days a week. One of the beneficial effects of instruction in agriculture and the mechan- ical trades promises to be greater conservation of opportunity in education thru the reduction of tinxe lost in vacations and short daily sessions, which in the old forms of education seemed to be necessary. A practical school of agriculture cannot well succeed when the school is closed during the months of growing crops. The graduates of a trade school will not easily and gracefully link themselves to trade conditions if the trade student has accustomed himself to very short daily hours, full holiday each week, and a long vacation thruout the summer. This conservation of opportunity will mean a considerable financial saving in that the nimaber of hours of shop and classroom instruction per year may be greatly increased and the number of years of twelve-month periods necessary for preparation may be proportionately reduced. The increase of hours per year may safely be made much greater than the necessarily resulting increase in annual expenditures for education. It is interesting to find the pubhc-school systems of a few progressive cities leading in this movement of such tremendous economic importance. Superintendence! VOCATIONAL TRAINING 109 DISCUSSION Cahroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. — ^Within a decade practical education, as typified in vocational training, has established itself as a part of our public educational system. Previous to that time, the general sentiment among school people was against the plan of making education practical to the extent of training young people for vocations by which they might earn money. But within ten years the obliga- tion to do this has become so generally acknowledged that it may now be considered as accepted that our educational ideal includes schools where yoimg people can be trained in handicrafts and other employments by which they can earn a livelihood. We have long recognized the propriety and necessity of providing schools in which those seeking to enter the learned or highly skilled professions — ^law, medicine, engineer- ing — ^might be prepared for their work. The proper education of persons who were to exercise these callings has been thought so important that the public has very generally been willing to bear the expense of schools in which this training might be given. Uni- versities supported by the public quite frequently include colleges of law, medicine, civil, mechanical, electrical, and mining engineering, and, of late years, colleges of agriculture. At the same time the public demand for vocational training has led the secondary schools to provide courses in which young people are trained to earn money as bookkeepers, cashiers, and stenographers. These '^ commercial" or business courses in our high schools have been well patronized and have supplied an evidently felt want. More recently some of the agricultural colleges, and in some states special schools of agriculture of secondary- school grade, have been giving to the yoimg people from the farms, and to others who wished to learn the elements of agriculture, an opportunity to fit themselves for this work. But we are only now beginning to establish and to include in our educational system schools where yoimg men and yoimg women can be trained in handicrafts — where they can learn mechanical trades and become skilled craftsmen and craftswomen. A few of the large cities have schools of trades for boys or schools of trades for girls, and a very few cities have both. In the best of these schools young men and young women are taught all departments of the work of the trade; they are taught to use all the tools of the trade, including machine tools; and further, they are not confined to one, or two, or three, or a small part of the processes of the trade, but each student in the apprentice school is taught to do all the things which a competent and skilled workman at the trade should know, as well as to Use all the hand and machine tools required for the most successful practice of the trade. These schools are fighting their way; they are also winning their way. So-called "trade schools" of cheap and inferior quality maintained by private per- sons, preparing young persons hastily in a part of the knowledge and practice of a trade, have done much to injure the standing of trade schools. This standing the thoro and well- planned trade schools are gradually regaining thru the excellent work of their graduates. There has been a prejudice against these schools on the part of the proprietors of shops who perhaps have had experience with the poorly prepared product of private "com- mercial" trade schools. There has been a prejudice against graduates on the part of the foremen of the shops and factories who learned their trade in the old method by long apprenticeship and who also have suffered from the poorly prepared students sent out from the commercial trade schools. There has been some feeling against these schools too, on the part of mechanics, some of whom feel that not all the parts of the trade can be learned in a school. While it is true that in the building trades experience in the erection of buildings and in the putting together of their parts must be learned in some of its features "on the job," after leaving the school, yet the advantage which pupils in the trade school have, thru the fact that they are taught by skillful mechanics who are at the same time careful teachers of the processes and applica- tions of the trade, more than offsets the lack of practice upon the work. The speed which the journeyman mechanic needs, and experience in putting materials into place on the job, no NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile are quickly acquired by a well-trained trade-school graduate who has been taught all the processes of the trade and knows also, in theory, how the construction work should be carried on. Another cause has prevented these schools from enrolling as many students as they shoidd have; boys who are old enough to begin the learning of a trade are also old enough to go into some imskilled employment and earn a few dollars per week. Too often the temptation of the present few dollars is great enough to make the young people and their parents disregard the much greater advantage which comes from a thoro groimding in some good trade, and the boys and girls are allowed to enter employments as messengers, cash girls, unskilled workers in factories, and other employments which, while furnishing a small amount of ready money weekly, do not lead to improved positions, and do tend to keep the young people from rising into the ranks of more skilled and better-paid labor. The. sentiment of many mechanics has also been adverse to these schools; sometimes because they feared that too many craftsmen would be turned out. The more intelligent among them, however, do not seem to fear this. They are aware that in other lines of labor more people enter than can at all times find profitable employment. The number of graduates turned out from trade schools cannot, for many years, be such as to overstock any trade. Only a few cities are likely to have trade schools and not all the graduates of these schools are likely to settle down in the town where they learn the trade. They will be scat- tered about the country. But, while we have accepted, and are acting upon the principle that we may properly teach handicrafts to young people who have finished the work of the elementary schools and have reached the secondary-school age, we are not prepared to accept the principle which is now being advanced that the teaching of vocations ought to be carried down into the elementary schools. The common or elementary schools ought to be the training- ground for all the citizens of the state, for those who enter the learned professions, the skilled handicrafts, commercial employments, agriculture — all the various walks of life. Such training as is given in the elementary schools should be of educational rather than vocational character. If we can so revise our courses of instruction in the elementary schools that the boys and girls who finish the grammar grades shall have a better knowledge of the English tongue and better power to use it correctly in oral and written speech, this will certainly be a great advantage to our young people into whatever vocation they enter. If we can also give them some better training in the fundamental principles of arithmetic, and teach them to perform more promptly and more accurately and intelligently the com- putations which are required of them in the various common relations of life, we shall have done something for all vocations. If we can give to all the boys and girls such training of the hands as shall make them skillful in the use of the elemental hand tools and some ability to work upon materials of different kinds, we shall have done something of real value, no matter what vocation is followed in later life. And if we are able to give to all the girls in the common schools such training in the arts of the home, in cooking, sewing, care of the house and its inmates, as shall make more capable and intelligent housewives out of the 80 or 90 per cent of girls whose lot it is to assume the care of a home, we shall have done much, not only for these individual girls but for the state of which the families over which these girls are to preside form important basic imits. So far we are all prepared to go with those advocates of more and better training in the elementary schools; but beyond this we refuse to be carried. It is no part of the duty of the public educational system to train boys or girls in a little of a trade or occupation in order that they may enter factories and workshops and be from the first more profitable employees to the factory owners because they have been given a little training in perform- ing one or two of the processes carried on in the factories. It is the duty of a public educa- tional system to lay down its course of instruction in these subjects so as to make well- rounded craftsmen, if it enters upon this duty at all. The constant pull of commercial conditions draws enough boys and girls into employments where they acquire no skill. Superintendence] BALANCED COURSE AND ALL-YEAR-ROUND SCHOOLS III where their work from year to year does not develop them, and does not open to them any future. If we are to teach a vocation, let it be a real vocation, one that it is worth while to teach. Let us ground upon ourselves the proposition that children have a right to their childhood and that the state has a duty to see that they are not robbed of it; that the boys and girls of the nation are to be kept in the schools at least until they have com- pleted the work of the elementary grades; and that only after this has been done, with full opportimity for learning those things which the common schools can teach to foster good citizenship, should they be allowed to take up the work of preparing themselves for specific vocations. We, in planning our educational system, must be wiser than those owners of forests who allow the small trees to be cut down; we must be wiser than those breeders of hbrses who put two-year-olds upon the race track. We must allow our boys and girls to grow out of their childhood, at least into the early years of their youth, before we begin in the public schools to classify them according to the occupations which they plan to follow thru life. Let us never lend ourselves to the pressure which will be many times applied to induce us to train our boys and girls of tender age in the common schools into deft mill hands to feed the maws of those factories where boys and girls, men and women, spend days and weeks, and months and years in repeating over and over and over again coimtless thousands of times, the same set of motions in the tending cf a machine or in the performing of a single process which the complex organization of our modem system of manufacture sets apart from them. While, no doubt, hands will be foimd to do this work so long as these great institutions are organized upon their present basis, yet it is no part of the duty of the public schools to so shape our boys and girls in the elemen- tary grades that they may feed the long files that pass within the factory doors to engage in this stultifying, deadening, poorly remunerated labor. B, IN THE BALANCED COURSE OF STUDY, AND THE ALL- YEAR-ROUND SCHOOLS G. W. A. LUCKEY, HEAD PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, LINCOLN, NEBR. Recent years have increased our knowledge of the laws of nature and of life, and yet we seem far removed from the solution of the riddle of existence. When man was created we know not, how he was created is more of a mystery, but that he is, lives, and desires to live we are most certain. As a child of Nature .he is subject to certain, definite, physical laws, some of which we know, more of which we may know. It is the province of education to bring man into harmony with these laws, to enable him to understand them and to use them to the betterment of him- self and of others. In the study of education it becomes necessary to know the nature of man, to have a standard of values, a philosophy of life. What is the meaning of creation, and the purpose of humanity? Why are we here? Why are we given such a short period in which to accomplish the world's work? The more we study the problems of life the deeper our conviction that the hand that made us is divine. In creation, man is the finished product. 112 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobflc Everything seems adapted to his needs, his comfort, and his spiritual good. Limited in body, he may become imiversal and eternal in soul. For man's highest success and truest happiness, but one thing seems absolutely demanded — to develop in harmony with this world-order of which he is a vitalizing part. The thing that is greatest in this complex whole, and that for which everything else seems planned, is life. Men come and go but life continues always. To conserve the life he has, to increase and enrich it, and to give it to others, is, I believe, man's highest mission. In fulfilling this truly he receives the truest and most lasting happiness. Nature has provided for this by making possible healthy reproduction, but to truly live means more than being born well. It means to discover the laws of life, to enrich the soul and become spiritually dynamic. Here is the work of the teacher, the inspirer of youth. Hence in the truest sense education is the development of life, the arousing and bringing into control and efficiency latent possibilities. It is the process of teaching one how to live, of giving the psychic control of the physical, the soul control of the body. Education always means change in the functioning of an organism and this change to be vital must take place at the time of growth and in harmony with the natural laws of development. Eating may cause growth but it is exercising, thinking, and willing that make character. Where there is no life nor growth there can be no education. It has been found, however, that a veneer can be given which simulates education but in no way modifies or affects human action and culture. To make education real it must occur in connection with nascent periods and the desire or impetus must be aroused from within. Hence in the education of children it is important to know how to strengthen and increase life and to make it self-directing and self-sustaining. We are interested in the physical only as it affects the spiritual, but the relation is close and the interaction important. So far as we are aware perfection of soul can occur only in perfection of body. Education and nature must go hand in hand. Both are conservative and tend to establish norms. Too great variation from these norms means death, while slight variation if in the right direction may mean greater life. In this connection the most fitting man seems to be the balanced man. He is the more tenacious of life. He transmits more permanent qualities to offspring. He is nearer the universal tjrpe, the genus homo, and exerts upon others a more immediate influence. The healthiest life is the balanced life and the education that is strongest and best parallels physical growth and development. The body as we know it is an exceedingly complex organism. Beginning with a single cell it soon becomes an organized community of billions of highly diflFerentiated cells acting as a unit. In this growth there is law and Superintendence] BALANCED COURSE AND ALL-YEAR-ROUND SCHOOLS 113 order, all parts do not develop simultaneously, some grow first, others last. All individuals follow closely the same order and have most in common, however growth furnishes many abnormalities and variations from the type. Faulty education tends to increase these. The physical variations or abnormalities of children seem to be greatest between the ages of eight and nine, and become less pronounced with the adjustments of growth during adolescence. Habit variations are probably the greatest at sixteen or seventeen. Abnormalities ai;e greatest in children who are below grade. Defective body structure must mean defective brain or nerve structure, and hence defective psychic life. All this seems to point toward the necessity of a balanced course of study, worked out in harmony with, and according to, the needs of natural development. In harmony with the laws of physical development there seem to be at least four rather clearly marked stages of mental development. The first covering the period from birth to six or seven; the second extending to fourteen; the third to eighteen or twenty; the fourth continuing thru the rest of the plastic life. There are overlappings and some elements and needs common to all periods, but the distinctions are sufficiently marked to be carefully noted in all true education. The first is the kindergarten period, in which the child thru the exercise of instincts gains intelligence and acquires a limited amount of muscular control. As Froebel has said, it is the period par excellence for rendering the inner outer. The second is the period par excellence for gathering simple facts, concrete material; for gaining fundamental muscular con- trol and acquiring the use of the fundamental instruments of education, e.g., reading, writing, drawing, music, numbers, and the elements of lan- guage and science. The third is the period of youth, the period of organiza- tion and construction, of generalization and the perceiving of relations; the period of transition from boyhood to manhood, from being self-centered to altro-centered. The fourth is the period of specialization, of research, of purer and clearer thinking, and of constructive willing. It is the time of service, of vocational activity, of the Master's business, and the world's work. During the first two periods the necessity of a balanced curriculum seems unquestioned and in a large part of the third it is almost as essential. Dur- ing these three periods most of the physical and much of the mental become established and to a large degree fixed. From this time on there is less need of a balanced curriculum. If the foundation has been rightly laid the thinking will be of the highest order. Investigation and research will lend a peculiar charm. The student will perceive himself as an atom in a world whole. In the true school three things are necessary: organized play for all, motor activity in constructive work, and wisely directed mental effort. We have learned thru the open-air schools that dull, unhealthy children 114 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [MobUc can be changed in a single year to bright healthy children thru change of nourishment, more fresh air, play, motor activity, and but one-third the time given to mental effort. We might have anticipated the results as many did, but what shall we say of the more fortunate children who are now devoting from a third to a half more time in mental work than is foimd necessary for the dull? We need a balanced curriculum but we need also a school organized and planned in harmony with the present thought of the necessity in education of work and play. I agree with Superintendent Elson that the lengthening of the school year is in accord with present-day thought. In the first place it has been found to work favorably with non-promoted children to have a lengthened summer term. Many have made in a few weeks or months what would have otherwise necessitated a year's difference in grade and have acquired better health in doing it. Mental retardation often indicates physical retardation or weakness. If anyone should be free to have a more outdoor life in the summer, it should be the physically weak or mentally retarded child. Since a lengthened school year is found advantageous to the non- promoted child it certainly will be found more advantageous to the healthy vigorous child. School work should never become drudgery and with more play and motor activity the lengthened school term will add to the child's pleasure. The processes of learning are going on all the time in every healthy child. Mental growth, like physical growth, is a continuous process. Edu- cation, to be vital, must take place during the nascent period. Since growth does not stop during the summer, there is no good reason why the education should. It would be a difficult thing for the child to eat enough during the first nine months of the year to last him, without eating, during the next three. It is just as unreasonable to do without mental foodj and especially so during the years when the child is growing and changing so rapidly. The school is the child's workshop and recreation center. Here he acquires the habits that give meaning and direction to his after-life. When in business, his shop will not close for a summer vacation, and neither should he form habits in youth which would make a prolonged vacation seem necessary. Not only is there a beautiful and expensive school plant remaining idle many months of the year, but the accumulating physical and mental energy of the children is being wasted for the want of direction; or what is more discouraging, the city children are fornung the habits of the gang, the loafer, and the hobo. The lengthened term would add to the moral tone, better the health conditions, save both money and time, and strengthen the mental product. Superintendence! COMMITTEE ON UNIFORM RECORDS AND REPORTS 115 PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON UNIFORM RECORDS AND REPORTS To the President and Members of the Department of Superintendence of the National Edttcation Association The Committee on Uniform Statistics begs leave to submit the following preliminary report: Your committee has endeavored, thru the co-operation of school super- intendents thruout the country, to bring before this meeting for considera- tion tentative plans for uniformity in records and reports. The work that we have done has been made possible thru the co-operation of the United States Bureau of Education, which sent out our proposals and received replies with regard to the propositions which we have advanced. In the case of the schedule for reporting fiscal statistics the Bureau of Education, at the request of your committee, invited representatives of the Bureau of the Census, of the National Association of School Accoimt- ing Officers, and of our own committee to meet in Washington. Two such meetings were held. As a result of these conferences, the forms which we recommended come before you with the indorsement of all of these bodies, as well as with the approval of a great many superintendents thruout the United States. The foundation of all statistics concerning pupils is established in the records made by teachers in the schoolroom. Unless these records are expressed in common terms having a definite meaning the data gathered from them are not comparable. School statistics as at present compiled and compared are unreliable and of little value, and they will continue to be so until agreement can be reached not only as to terms used and the definite meaning of these terms, but also, to some extent, as to the method of recording and arranging the original data upon which school statistics are based. The first work of the Committee on Uniform Statistics consisted of a careful investigation of the subject of school records, and this resulted in the submission of an elementary school record system, thru the co-opera- tion of the United States Commissioner of Education, to school superin- tendents thruout the country. Altho several forms were offered for the purpose of getting criticisms and suggestions, and for the sake of illustrating the complete working-out of a system of school records, chief emphasis was laid on the cumulative record card which was framed to serve as' a permanent and progressive record of the pupil's kindergarten and ele- mentary school career. The form recommended follows: ii6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobfle 1 1 ELEHEnARY SCHOOL RECORD SYSTEM— PRORIOTIOH RECORO This card is to pass from teacher to teacher or from school to school as the pupil is promoted or transferred. It is to be filled out and sent to the principal's office when any chang^e Is made reqoiiiaK * chaa^ in the office records. It is then to be sent to the teacher who has the pupil. a School b Date of Admission C Age Sept. I Years Months d Grade e Room f Days Pres- ent Health h Con- duct 1 Scholar- ship * » « A (over) 1 1 • 1 z. Last name 2. First name and initial ELEMEHTARY SCHOOL RECORD SYSTEM— ADMISSIOR. DIS- CHARGE, AHD PROMOTIOH CARD 3. Place of birth 4. Date of Birth 5. Vaccinated To be kept for every pupil and sent with the pupil when he is transferred to any school, either public or private, in the . city or outside the city. Great care should be used to have the names COMPLETE and CORRECT. Write all dates as follows: 1912-9-25. 6. Name of parent or guardian 7. Occupation of parent or guardian 8. RESIDENCE. (Use one column at a time. Give new residence when jJUpil is transferred.) 0. Date of Discharge xo. Age Years Months ^ • When a pupil is permanently discharged to work, to remain at home, or because of death, permanent illness, or commitment to an institution, this card is to be returned to the principal's office and a full statement of the cause of the pupil's discharge is to be made in the blank space remaining above. a-304 ' After an examination of more than five hundred replies to that part of the commissioner's circular relating to a cumulative record card the committee finds as follows: 1. That there is substantially unanimous assent to the following general proposition: A cumulative record card should be kept for every child thruout his entire kindergarten and elementary school career. 2. That suggestions made by correspondents have not shown a preponderance of opinion in favor of any specific increase or decrease in either the size or contents of the card. Superintendence) COMMITTEE ON UNIFORM RECORDS AND REPORTS 117 3. That in view of those conclusions the card submitted has been adopted as best representing the consensus of opinion on the matter of a cimiulative record card, and the committee recommends the general use of this card, or one in substantial agreement with it as to the essential facts needed for statistical data and school administration. The committee desires to call attention to the following suggestive list of uses to which the card may be put: 1. Amount of attendance of individual pupil for one year. 2. Comparative rates of progress in schools having seven-year, eight-year, or nine- year elementary courses. 3. Classification of pupils by age and grade. (Note that a standard date for comput- ing ages is established, viz., September i.) 4. Classification of pupils for enrollment data: * a) Duplicate enrollment in the school. b) From other public schools in town or city. c) From other public schools in state. d) Original enrollment from all other sources. 5. Number of times child has been detained in a grade. 6. Foreign birth as afifecting progress. 7. Kindergarten training as afifecting progress. 8. Attendance in other schools as afifecting progress. 9. Absence as afifecting progress. 10. Numerous inquiries having to do with individual school management. Diverse opinions as to the necessity of certain items on the Admission, Discharge, and Promotion Card, as, for example, item "Conduct," are not necessarily barriers in the way of the imiform use of the form of card recommended; for in any school system such an item may be omitted by direction of the superintendent, or left optional with principals. The value of a imiform card lies chiefly in three considerations: 1. Universal adaptability for use in whatever system of schools the pupil may enter. 2. Decreased cost because of printing in large quantities. 3. Establishment of common practices of record making and common terms for the expression of facts valuable for statistical investigation. It is believed that any general record card recommended for imiversal adoption should not include a detailed statement of facts needed for an adequate study of individual cases of physically abnormal and retarded children. For such a purpose a special form should be used providing for yearly records of defective eyesight, hearing, condition of teeth, and other physical characteristics, and for records concerning nutrition, environment, specific cases of illness, special aptitudes, and such other facts as are likely to be desired. The exact form of such a card may well be left for future consideration. The general cumulative record card and this supplementary card will represent the minimum and maocimum requirements of the individual cumulative record. It seems inadvisable at the present time to submit for general agreement any specific form for the recording of daily attendance and for monthly and yearly reports of the same; but certain general principles ought to be given careful consideration, and there are some particulars in wjiich uniformity of practice is very greatly to be desired. Ii8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION {Mobile The daily register or daily summary should show four groups of admitted pupils as follows: a) Pupils previously enrolled during the year, including transfers, within the school or school district. (This item is thrown out in computing the number of different pupils enrolled during the year in a given school or district.) b) Pupils previously enrolled during the year in some other school or school district in the town or city. (This item is thrown out in computing the number of different pupils enrolled during the year in a given town or city.) c) Pupils previously enrolled during the year in other towns or cities in the state. (This item is thrown out in computing the number of different pupils enrolled during the year in a given state.) d) Pupils not previously enrolled during the year in any town or city in the state. (These are original enrollments included in all reports.) It is not useful to attempt a classification of discharged pupils into four groups corresponding exactly to the four groups of admitted pupils. The following classification is suggested as a desirable one: a) Pupils temporarily discharged, and transferred within the school or school district. b) Pupils transferred to any other school, public or private. (Graduates separately.) c) Pupils permanently discharged to go to work. (Schooling discontinued before completion of elementary-school course.) d) Pupils discharged for other reasons. (A relatively small number whose schooling is discontinued before completion of elementary-school course for accidental reasons.) More important, at the present time, than forms for recording attend- ance and enrollment data, is the securing of a common terminology for certain conditions of attendance and enrollment. The following defini- tions are submitted as representative of the best practice: 1. Age and grade classiUcatibn. — For this purpose the age on the first day of Septem- ber should be used. This is the age at which, approximately, the pupil enters upon the work of a new grade. There are good reasons for taking it in preference to January i, the day on which the work of the grade is partially completed, or July i, the approximate date on which the work of the grade is &iished. It is commonly used in school census enumerations, and is conveniently near the time at which a great majority of pupils enter school. If once recorded on the Admission, Discharge, and Promotion Card it can be made a matter of record for each succeeding year with practically no effort and with little likeli- hood of error. 2. Number enrolled. — It is generally understood that this item means the number enrolled exclusive of duplication, in whatever school unit it is reported for. The way in which this number may be ascertained is indicated under " Enrollment Data," above. 3. Number belonging. — As soon as a pupil is known to have left the school without intention to return he ceases at once to belong and he is not thereafter included in the number belonging. // absent under any other circumstances he is carried on the rolls as "belonging," and marked absent /(?r five consecutive days (or until he returns if his consecu- tive absence is less than five days in duration). He is "temporarily discharged" at the end of five consecutive days of absence, and then ceases to "belong" until he returns to school and is "readmitted." Five days (ten half-day sessions in schools having two sessions a day) constitute one week in a great majority of schools, and represent a fair compromise between extremes of practice in this particular. N.B. — "Average number belonging" means the same as "average membership." The average number belonging is found by the same process as the average attendance. 4. Average attendance. — ^The average daily attendance during the school year (which is the average number of pupils actually present each day the schools were in session) may be computed as follows: a) For a single school: Add together the number of days each pupil was present during the year or the number of pupils present each day during the year, and divide the sum (which is the "aggregate attendance in days") by the number of such school days. b) For a group of schools having the same number of days in the year (as the schools of most cities have) : Divide the combined aggregate attendance in days of all the schools by the nimiber of days in the school year. Supcrintcndencel COMMITTEE ON UNIFORM RECORDS AND REPORTS IIQ c) For a system of schools having different lengths of school year (as, for instance, those of a county) : Add together the average attendance of the component schools and groups of the system as ascertained by the foregoing rules. For larger systems, as those of a state, the summing-up process is continued in the same way. Note. — ^In systems of schools where monthly reports of attendance are called for the general principles of a, 6, and c, above, apply to the finding of monthly averages. The sum of the monthly averages of attendance in the schools of most cities, divided by the number of months, is approximately the same as the average attendance for the year found by the methods given above. 5. Average number of days in the school year. — In a school system having different lengths of school year in its various units (as in c, above), the average number of days in the school year is foimd by dividing the combined "aggregate attendance in days" of all schools of the system by the "average attendance" as ascertained by the method given in c. The second recommendation of the committee has to do with the form of reporting fiscal statistics. With the variation in record and report which we now have, it is impossible to make any adequate comparison of the cost of education as among any group of cities, and usually it is not easy to determine the cost for any particular unit within the school system itself. The form of report recommended by the committee provides for such differentiation as will enable any one to make adequate comparisons among the several cities of the United States, and, at the same time, calls for a S)rstem of accounts which will make it possible to discover the cost of particular types of schools within the system itself. In some of our cities as much as one-third of the entire city revenue is devoted to education. The demands from all departments for more funds are insistent. Increased expenditures for education must be justi- fied by showing the maximum of return for money already granted. Such evidence of efficiency calls for a system of accounts and of reports at least as elaborate as that which is required to fill out the schedule of fiscal statis- tics recommended by the committee. The schedule recommended for reporting fiscal statistics follows: A.— PAYMENTS I. — EXPENSES (Cost of Conducting School System). EXPENSES OF GENERAL CONTROL (OVERHEAD CHARGES). 1. Board of Education and Secretary's Office 2. School elections and school census 3. Finance offices and accounts 4. Legal services , 5. Operation and maintenance of office building , 6. Offices in charge of buildings and supplies Total Salaries Other Objects 7. Office of superintendent of schools 8. Enforcement of compulsory education and truancy laws 9. Other expenses of general control 10. Total tlATIONAL EDVCATTOK ASSOCIATION 1 1 II 11 i 1 1 P 1 i fi Mil I 1 i §1 I z i 1 i ■i ) 1 .E 1 1 ■s 1 ° 1 s 1 ii "1 1 i J .■j 1 i ■s 1 1 s ^ 8 1 i Si Z 1 a » ] i Supcrintendencel COMMITTEE ON UNIFORM RECORDS AND REPORTS I2i • 1 ta. Other exoenses of maintenance of school olant 4 4 I t 1 ■5 < C H 1 1 » 1 • 1 EXPENSES OF AUXILIARY AGENCIES LIBRARIES '^'2. Salaries •. 1 9 J ► If IC •1 •< H n ■S :l •E3 '1 ) 3 • c • u Ic • -JVC -5 f Pi s O J a Ic ■5 W 1 » > ) < 1 c 1 •i MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES AO- Pavments to nrivate srhnols C •> •c 1 = t4H 1 c '1 C » -4- i tr > -4- p. H , cr J 3 i.S .s ( \^ 1 4 S 1- '"d 1 >< 0) t/: P S J "a !^ 1 » \/ 4 \ ■J 1- < h II. — OUTLAYS (Capital acquisition and con- struction). ii7. Land i c t: "o )^ 1 < c 1- '^l 1 1 b 1 'B c W NO «4M o > •r! en P .1 en bo 1 o . • M » 4 i O H • 1/ ^ 122 NA TtONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Mobfle III.— OTHER PAYMENTS $^, Redemption of bonds $ , . . 54. Redemption of short-term loans 55. Pa)naient of warrants and orders of preceding year 56. Payments to sinking funds 57. Payments of interest 58. Miscellaneous payments, including pa5mients to trust funds, textbooks to be sold to pupils, etc 59. Total 60. Balances at close of year at $ 61. Total payments and balances B.— RECEIPTS REVENUE RECEIPTS 62. Subventions and grants from state $. 63. Subventions and grants from county 64. Subventions and grants from other civil divisions 65. Appropriations from city treasury , 66. General property taxes , 67. Business taxes (licenses, excise taxes, taxes on corporations, taxes on occupations, etc.) 68. Poll taxes 69. Fines and penalties 70. Rents and interest 71. All other revenue , 72. Total revenue receipts NON-REVENUE RECEIPTS 73. Loans and bond sales % 74. Warrants issued and unpaid 75. Sales of real property and proceeds of insurance adjustments 76. Sales of equipment and supplies 77. Refund of payments 78. Other non-revenue receipts 79. Total non-revenue receipts 80. Total receipts $. 81. Balances at beginning of year 82. Total receipts and balances Superintcndencei COMMITTEE ON UNIFORM RECORDS AND REPORTS 123 These two forms of record; namely the cumulative pupil card and the schedule for reporting fiscal statistics, are each made more significant by reason of existence of the other. It is to be supposed that these accurate records of the attendance, promotion, retardation, and elimination of pupils will be used in connection with the fiscal statistics in order to deter- mine the cost of education per pupil in any school, or if the fiscal schedule be somewhat elaborated, in any subject. The report has thus far considered the problem of uniform records and reports as affecting cities. The problem of comparison among the several states was also considered by your committee. The value of educational statistics for purposes of comparisons between states depends largely upon the degree of uniformity and the form and method in which they are reported. Such value also depends in great measure upon the extent to which the terms employed are commonly accepted and definitely understood. To secure such uniformity of method and form the following recom- mendations are suggested: 1. That the terms and definitions used by the Bureau of Education be accepted and employed in collecting and reporting all local data by the states, supplemented with such other terms and definitions as the statutes of the individual state may require. 2. That the blank forms employed by the state departments for collecting statistics be based, so far as practicable, upon the arrangement used by the United States Bureau of Education. 3. That all the facts of educational interest tabulated by the United States Bureau of Education be fully and uniformly reported by the states. 4. That the printed reports of the states cover, so far as practicable, for each state the same scope of educational activity as that covered by the reports of the Bureau of Education for the entire nation. COMMENT ON RECOMMENDATION NUMBER ONE The first of the foregoing recommendations calls for mutual agreement to accept and employ somewhat arbitrary definitions and terms now variously interpreted as, for example, "school enrollment," "average attendance,'* "truancy," "school age," etc., etc. Such definitions should be made by a committee representing the states, but should, so far as possible, conform to any majority practice already accepted, and should be submitted to a referendum of the state departments. COMMENT ON RECOMMENDATION NUMBER TWO The advantage of emplojdng forms as nearly as possible uniform in arrangement would be the more rapid acceptance and understanding of the items required under any given subject. The use of such forms by local reporting oflScers would tend rapidly toward a general and imiform understanding of items now variously understood because they are reported from various points of view. 124 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile The blank forms should constitute the subject of further investigation by the Committee on Uniform Statistics or a similar committee and should be subject to a referendum of the state departments. COMMENT ON RECOMMENDATION NUMBER THREE An examination of the state reports and those of the Bureau of Educa- tion reveals a considerable lack of uniformity in certain fundamental matters reported by the Bureau of Education. The third recommendation would call, therefore, for the extension of inquiry on the part of the states. The following items are selected as representative of facts reported by a majority of the states, but not collected and reported by all of them. A. School Census. a) Not taken by three states. h) Sexes not enumerated by thirteen states. B. School Enrollment. a) Lack of imiformity of definition. h) Sexes not enumerated by twelve states. C. Average Attendance. » a) Statistics uncertain because of lack of uniformity of definition. D. Teachers' Wages. a) No differentiation between sexes by nine states. h) The distinction between elementary and secondary schools is not clearly indicated by many states. E. Private Schools. a) Statistics for the majority of states are inadequate. Seven states report no statis- tics. Other states gather such statistics, but not imiformly in time or method with those for public schools. A number of states give approximate figures only. F. School Revenues and Expenditures. a) Methods of gathering and reporting these figures vary greatly among the states. Suggestions for improving these form the subject of another section of this report. G. Classification of School Expenses. a) See note under F. COMMENT ON RECOMMENDATION NUMBER FOUR An examination of the state reports reveals no general practice relative to the publication in school reports of statistics of educational movements and institutions not under direct public control. It is apparently the practice of many states to include in the public- school report figures and statistics relative only to those items which are specifically controlled by state or local public-school authorities. The committee would suggest the proposition that it is desirable that each state report shall cover all essential particulars of the varied educational activities within the state. Among the features not reported uniformly by all states are: A. Private elementary schools. B. Academies, seminaries, and other private secondary schools. Superintendence] COMMITTEE ON UNIFORM RECORDS AND REPORTS 125 C. Colleges other than state universities and land-grant colleges. D. Schools for defectives and delinquents. E. General educational movements, as, for example, public playgrounds, school hygiene, etc. The committee suggests that the use of the state report as a clearing- house of educational information would simplify the task of gathering information on the condition and progress of education among the states and that reasonable uniformity of treatment would simplify the interpreta- tion of the facts reported. As a basis for such uniformity the committee suggests the adoption by the states of the general form of report adopted by the Bureau of Education. The recommendations of the committee with regard to the type of record to be kept become significant only in proportion to the use which can be made of the statistics gathered in the organization and administra- tion of our schools. The discussion and illustrations which follow fur- nish the best argument which can be made for the adoption of more adequate records and reports. USE OF STATISTICS IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION FACTS VERSUS OPINION When the school was small, consisting of one or two teachers, or at most of one or two buildings, definite knowledge with reference to school needs and the work done was easily acquired. With the development of school systems, involving expenditure of millions of dollars, comprising thousands of teachers, and hundreds of thousands of pupils, direct knowl- edge of what should be done, and of what is being done, is rendered more or less impossible, yet the necessity of positive knowledge of actual school needs and conditions is imperative. Teaching is at best only becoming a profession. Perhaps in no other line of activity do custom and tradition play such a prominent part. The same activities are carried on today because they were carried on yesterday. The same emphasis is given a study now because this was the emphasis formerly given. The same topics are taught in the subject because these were previously taught. In a word, we are just beginning to study the reasons for this and that activity, and for doing this and that type of school work. At best, theories of education are difficult to define and to determine. Our attitude toward foreign languages, toward science, toward formal grammar, toward the time and place given to arithmetic, our ideas of where to begin the teaching of formal spelling, or of writing, or of geogra- phy, rest not upon facts, but very largely upon opinions — opinions which in turn are determined to a large extent by education and temperament. Not only in the work of administration are our larger policies a reflec- tion, to a greater or less extent, of personal bias, but even in the smaller matters, if they may be so called, the personal point of view dominates 126 . NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tMobfle to a considerable extent. We arbitrarily assume that our children profit by the study of Latin, by the study of science; we arbitrarily assume that the high school is doing all that it should for its pupils; we arbitrarily assume that pupils are efficient in reading, that this style and typfe of writ- ing is preferable; that our children are good or poor in spelling; that the work in history and geography is effective; we arbitrarily assume that proper emphasis is placed upon each of the studies, and these given their time-value and proper emphasis in the advancement of children through the school. Seldom indeed in the past have school men measured by any definite criteria, or proved by systematic investigation, any of the above assumptions. If the administration of the public school is to be elevated above the plane of personal opinion, if our theories are to be given foundation in fact, if our assumptions with reference to lines of work, methods of instruction, mastery of subject-matter, and skill in manipulation are to be displaced by positive knowledge, data must be collected with reference to actual social conditions, with reference to the effect upon children of certain lines of instruction, and with reference to the effectiveness of given methods of teaching. In a word^ if school administration is to be rescued from the dominion of tradition and personal bias, systematic and scientific study must be made of school methods, and of school results. For only as facts take the place of opinion, assumption gives way to definite knowledge, mere personal point of view yields to established principles, will the administration of our schools be placed upon a firm footing, and education be made scien- tific and professional. DETERMINING THE WORK OF THE SCHOOL The annual reports of given school systems may show an increase in the number of children receiving their education at public expense. Yet in centers of rapidly increasing population the school registration may be increasing and still the public school be losing ground. The basis of determining whether a given system is reaching a larger and larger propor- tion of children of school age, or of determining what part of its whole task a given school is doing, lies not in the enrollment, but in the relation this enrollment bears to the total school population. To know the whole work of the school, it is therefore necessary to secure an accurate school census by ages. A comparison of this data with the total enrollment in public^ private, and parochial schools will reveal the part of the whole work which is not being covered by any school, also the part of the whole work being done by the public school. Table I. shows the school census by ages of the city of Cleveland for 1 908-1909, the number enrolled in public, private, and parochial schools, the number in no school, and the percentage of all the children of the city in the public school: SuperintendeiKx] COMMITTEE ON UNIFORM RECORDS AND REPORTS 127 1-1 < -^f «o c» ? OC ) 1 4 to to 00 H 00 ■3 ^ '^ t^ « t>. • #^ •^ «N> •\ *S to to H M M 10 ^ 8> to C4 10 *^ t^ 00 •^ nil w Ov Ov 00 CO t>» 00 H 00 . • ^ c« 10 t>. t>- C» M ^. »o 00 CO 1^ VO to • 00 M VO M <* 10 M VO tN. ^ ^0 M NO 00 s VO • •^ •\ •% «s 00 M 00 H w VO M 10 . ^ ^ 10 to -^f • 9% »% •\ ^ «« ^J 00 W c» «o •^ PO VP v8 M M Ov to M to VO hS 00 »o «o W • ^^ 00 9^ VO 10 0^ W to t^ 00 VO v> C« »o «>. M 00 ♦0 00 r>. rf M PO •» w f*. Ov PI • ^^ M *« •^ 9s, VO Ov CO VO Ov w H 00 *>. »^ t^ W to t^ M M to r* PO 0^ TO • *« #% r^ *« 00 « VO 0^ t^ CI 00 1 PO 00 . VO • Ok c» vO t>* «o 't to 00 0% VO t>. w w M PO M ^ «o VO Ov to H 00 10 t>- 00 VO M • •« •* ms *^ 1 « ^0 Ov 1 »o 00 ^ w PO 0^ to w to 99. r^ "^ t>» w CO M '^ tN. • VO 00 s »o ■* VO to VO 0^ s M M to >o « t^ to w • o*^ M 9\ M 00 M 1 r? i Ta : (A . private, 51908-9 • I <> § T in private an schools 1908-9 U ' li K mber in public, nd parochial school M 1 S a a N 1 ■2'a -JO'S £ it aa g Sv Jj 1" H M r Z A*' 128 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile J?0 3t Ht S6 40 U 96 ^t Itn ChUdren Six Children Seven Children Eight Children Nine Children Ten Children Eleven Children Twelve Children Thirteen Children Fourteen Children Fifteen Children Sixteen Children Seventeen Children Eighteen Fig. I. — Black shows percentage of all the children of Cleveland of each age from six to eighteen not attending the public school in 1908-9. DETERMINING WHERE THE SCHOOL BREAKS DOWN In the administration of the public school, new problems have arisen within the last few years, and new standards of efficiency have been raised. The most important of these new problems is the one of educational waste. The work of the school up to the present time has been judged in large measure by the number of its graduates and by their intellectual attain- ments. Little or no account has been taken of the number that withdrew before reaching the sixth grade, to say nothing of those dropping out before completing the elementary or high-school course. In a word, the problem of withdrawals has been ignored. The public school ought to be so attract- ive and so eflfective that once a child enters he will continue until he has at least finished the elementary course. We are, however, at present far from attaining this degree of efficiency. But to what extent we are failing to hold our children cannot be known until definite data are collected with reference to withdrawals; moreover the public school has not done its full duty by the child until the causes of withdrawal are ascertained, and those lying within the school eradicated. Again, the public school ought to be so organized that the child entering at the age of six will be able to complete his elementary education by the end of his fourteenth year, and his high-school education by the close of Superintcndenccl COMMITTEE ON UNIFORM RECORDS AND REPORTS 129 the eighteenth. To measure the efficiency of the school in this respect, it is necessary to know the number of retarded children. By a retarded child we mean one behind his grade for his age. So to order our records that the degree of retardation and the causes may be known, and that by the proper use of these data children may be advanced thru the school on time, is one of the pressing problems of the day. The elementary school is divided into eight grades and the high school into four, each representing a unit of work which supposedly is to be covered by the child in one school year. When a child fails to do the work in a given period, he is compelled to go over it a second time, and becomes thereby a repeater. The school, as it is now, is far from being able to carry the child thru its twelve units of work in twelve years. That school is, however, the most efficient — taking just standards of attainment into consideration — which has the fewest repeaters, and it should be the conscious endeavor of every system to ascertain the number of repeaters and the causes, and to reduce repetition to a minimum. Just as the outcome of repetition is retardation, so the direct cause of repetition is non-promotion. That is, children fail to be advanced from one division to the next higher, or from the highest division of one grade to the lowest of the next grade. Non-promotion results of course from failure in studies. To reduce retardation, it is therefore necessary to know the number and causes of non-promotion and the studies and the grade in which children fail, to the end that external factors, such as physical defects and irregular attendance, may be eradicated, and that materials in the studies of the school may be better adapted to the age and capacity of pupils, or the requirements in these studies lessened. If, therefore, the problems of educational waste as measured by with- drawals, retardation, and repetition are to be squarely faced, and the efficiency of the school in these respects increased, there is imperative need of the collection and the use of data in making the schools more attractive, in adjusting its requirements to the abilities of children, and adapting its course of instruction to their needs. The following tables upon withdrawals and causes, upon retardation, upon repetition, and upon non-promotion and causes, collected with reference to the Cleveland public schools, are typical of data that must be collected and used in meeting the above problems. Table II shows, for each of the last ten eighth-grade classes of all ele- mentary schools, the total number of pupils enrolled in the first grade, the number of these reaching the second, the third, and so on to the eighth grade; it shows also the percentage of the total enrolled in the first grade advancing to each higher grade, and the percentage of the total withdrawing by the end of each grade: I30 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile TABLE II Grades J^lementary School Year Year in Entered 8th Grade First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth i8q2~3 9,341 7,123 7,185 6,853 5,789 4,637 3,512 2,555 I 899-1 900 1893-4 9,422 7,103 7,061 7,120 5,875 4,640 3,548 2,472 1900-I 1894-S 9,976 7,527 7,339 7,267 5,957 4,849 3,583 2,519 1901-2 189S-6 10,830 7,908 7,851 7,751 6,454 5,278 3,837 2,708 1902-3 1896-7 11,720 8,074 7,908 7,782 6,522 5,108 3,893 2,820 1903-4 1897-8 12,257 8,129 8,164 8,108 6,671 5,511 4,312 3,222 1904-5 1898-9 12,442 8,581 8,581 8,357 6,900 6,051 4,568 3,515 1905-6 1899-00 12,561 8,653 8,763 8,952 7,424 6,178 4,567 3,245 1906-7 1900-1 12,619 8,558 8,838 9,256 7,645 6,362 4,592 3,254 1907-8 1901-2 12,860 9,094 9,352 8,914 7,860 6,389 4,974 3,709 1908-9 Totals 114,028 80,750 81,360 80,360 67,097 55,003 41,368 30,019 Total * 70.81 71.07 70.47 58.84 48.23 36.29 26.32 t 29.19 28.93 29 -53 41.16 51-77 63.71 73.68 * Percentage of enrollment in first grade advancing into each grade. t Percentage of enrollment in first grade withdrawing by end of each grade. The data here used are taken from the official records of the Board of Education. The percentage of withdrawals is, however, without doubt, too high, due to the treatment in past years of first-grade pupils and to including transfers. Withdrawing before fourth grade Withdrawing before fifth grade Withdrawing before sixth grade Withdrawing before seventh grade Withdrawing before eighth grade Fig. 2. — Black shows percentage of all children enrolled in the first grade of the ele- mentary schools of Cleveland for the ten years between 1892-93 and 1901-2 withdrawing before reaching the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. Table III shows the number of withdrawals in 1909-10 in each grade of the elementary and in each class of the high school, the whole number of withdrawals in each school, and the total in all; it shows the enrollment and percentage of withdrawals on enrollment for each grade and class, also the enrollment of the elementary and the high school, the percentage of withdrawals in each, and the percentage of withdrawals on enrollment in both the elementary and the high school. Superintendence! COMMITTEE ON UNIFORM RECORDS AND REPORTS 13 1 < u..a • '* c* giS vO vO w 00 NO • ^«8 •«1- ^ vi NO ^■^ 00 NO 1 c* o> 00 00 0* • 10 jg t^ On 00 ♦J iO t^ •4 M 1 00 1 fO NO On » NO « . H c 1 M NO CO a •* ^ 2 CO f^ S cs 00 • CO NO M •M "* "* M s Th w s^ ^ • J^ •I* On H NO ^ *§ 10 « to 1 ^ M • CO NO l^ >J J ,a On pO to •a .♦* c< 1 c* 10 g 1, • 1 oc > CI -«*■ 1 1 «H 1 « 9\ * M tM 00 V 10 w "* •M NO > »o t«* t>. • H 00 •§ H OC M 5J NO 00 Jl On • 1 NC > On « CN 1 10 • 1 Tj- On to "^ to vC • • • > P«M 3 Ov »0 O^ »0 s ^ « »0 M 1 ^ K Wa4 oc > to to H 1 t>. 00 to 1 t>. t^ 0^ 0^ CO nC to C< 1 ON ^ OC > NO NO • ^ O^ to H >^ •^ 1 to H lO H I so %^ _ -* Eighth Normal Age 13-1 8. t to H ) 1 H 1 to M «^ 1 M t>. «0 t>. 00 **5 H 11 « V g H M 1 G ) to to M ^ M M 1 VC > to CS M 00 o» ^ 1 M o> • ■^iS| H ^ c« n 1 Sixth Normal Age ii-i NO On •* H tO 1^ M M 1 S » 1 C( NO s 8 -^ to H M H < Ci H NO • r to ' to 5 1 ifth irmal lO-II «o •* OC W fO H 1 o> "* to t^ nO ^ M to ji to On to OC 1 C( 1 ' • • <^&^ H 1 c< 11^ OC 1 1- 1 OC 1 Tj- H ts to M 1 OC ( cs 1 G > ^ c< to ^ t^ •^ Ci 1 OC 1 C( • 0^ P H 1 c< 1 OC ' to ^ 59 ^« t^ CM NO H 1 *>. SC 1 M t>. VC > CI M > to to to vC » to P< 1 10 t>> • 1 p|^ H 1 c< 1 OC Second Normal Age 7-8 OC 1 CI 1 10 1 to G 1 w OC 1 (O to to C4 1 VC > to H . ^ •- H 1 On On M- 0; 0. First Normal Age 6-7 ? n ^ ) r^ 00 rs. NO Tj- On I-* OC 1 . M 1 H H to *o M " • • • V 'p __ u . « M » £ • 5 i 3 c c 2 -c "S c a ! u 1 § 2 1 '^ 1 > T ^ * it 1 1 4J 1 -8 Us . 1 ) 0. 1 J i 1 ^^ 1 1 *•> 1 •E 1 »- : 1 ^■* c 4 > 0. ! ^ o; • c oS Pi i Pi i P< P4 h 1 w fs I I I 134 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile pq < 12 OG 00 NO NO "^ b; H NO • flfl o 4 fs i : o M OH VM w NO 1^ 1 ? g "^ i ^ ^ '^ 1 00 ON ON lO t^ »o 1 !3 00 • hj £ VO 8 • §i 1 "2 00 fO 00 On PO ^ o 1 ^ i - ON 1 CJ ^ t^ CO »o O 1 M "^ • 1 ^ H ^ ON "^ »o 1 »i-> to 00 1 M NO • (^ 1 ^ to vO X Tf "rt ^ VO On •« r>* vO • S VO » H NO - o •s 1 c > PI X -* t^ O 1 hi H t 00 CO *^ •5 •* •* »o to «N c* gi J^ "^ M 00 CI • •4 CO <^ •* i NO H VO • - O M <§ CO « H CO VO 1 i o t •£ ^ i lO « -<*■ H 00 CN to H 9 t^ . t^ • 1 H OQ -^ 00 •o Tf 00 g H VO M On 1 I H On )i t^ ^^ cs Ov rf .s t^ lO M 1 H H -« (^ 4 CS M • (n C o • fh ■«-> o • » « B o M Ph tf C a o •X2 Z > .(-J E o c • c •4-J * g c p JC • c a> "^ W fU I ^ 3 » Superintendence! COMMITTEE ON UNIFORM RECORDS AND REPORTS 135 dyke and Dr. Ayres. The normal ages according to Dr. Ayres are as fol- lows: First Grade 6 to 8 years Second Grade 7 to 9 years Third Grade 8 to 10 years Fourth Grade 9 to 1 1 years Fifth Grade 10 to 12 years Sixth Grade 11 to 13 years Seventh Grade 12 to 14 years Eighth Grade 13 to 15 years Table VI shows the number of non-promotions in each grade of the elementary and in each class of the high school, the enrollment and per- centage of non-promotions in each grade and class; it also shows the total number of non-promotions, the enrollment, and the percentage of the enrollment non-promoted for the elementary and the high school; also the same for both taken together. Table VII shows the causes of non-promotion in the elementary and high school, the number non-promoted in 1909-10 for each cause in each school, the percentage of non-promotions in each school due to each cause; it also shows the number of non-promotions in both schools due to each cause, and the percentage of non-promotions in both schools due to each cause. TABLE VII Irregular attendance Physical defects Personal illness .... Incapacity Indifference Outside work Other causes Total Elementary School Number Non- Promotions 1,416 375 128 3,922 733 172 6,746 Percentage AU Non- Promotions 5.56 1.90 58.14 10.86 2.55 High School Number Non- Promotions 55 7 42 129 159 37 13 442 Percentage AU Non- Promotions 12.44 1-59 9.50 29.19 35-97 8.37 2.94 ElEMENTA&Y AMD Hi(m School Number Non- Tromotions 1,471 382 170 4,051 892 37 185 7,188 Percentage AU Non- Promotions 20.46 531 2.37 56.36 12.41 •52 2.57 Table VIII shows the amount of repetition in the elementary and high school for the year 1909-10. ADJUSTING THE SCHOOL TO ITS WORK The school exists for the accomplishment of definite results. The social conditions determining the ends and purposes of the school undergo change. These changes necessitate corresponding adjustments of the school to its work. DETERMINING THE LENGTH OF SCHOOL YEAR The opportunity which a municipality offers to its youth to gain an education within a reasonable period of time, is determined in part by the 136 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [MobUe < §3 8 g S d 8 1 3 I 3 (S O CO <0 O 00 O OS to O NO vO NO. On O <0 VO 00 M NO W 00 CI to 00 O NO ON ON •T3 73 • d c4 ^ ■s 9 1 1 • ^. 0) fi ! a •^4 •^ 4J 2 8 : nrollm class . P< M 00 CO d M 00 00 »o 3 On c^ 00 £ •* - On <«o r>. ,9 M On • J^ 9% CO •§ CO 0. « Ol w .S CO M • C/3 VO to ;9 "8 PI On CO r* NO M (X4 9S 00 On VO d M On o> o PI o^ 0\ 00 VO o^ « hi o 1^1 a a» I C/3 .H (/3 S3 (14 o lis <0 H «o 5 *o t>. 00 M 10 <>0 00 00 <0 CO o VO M *H ^. a JJ» .4 c ;= M> c r? S a w ;z;fe 10 M VO P* M M M Qv «o VO W 10 M NO »o ai s a »o VO t^ Ov M « to 8 vO to NO M o\ r^ 00 00 o 00 N M 00 o to M 00 M M t^ t>» ^ VO w to to NO PO vO • -i- fO «o N M ? «o Ov 00 o M Qv 00 to «o Ov rj- Ov Ov M O o o 00 VO 00 VO vO 00 VO VO 00 vO VO vO VO VO vO Ov to to o to M o> to 0> VO 00 VO 00 to bO ^ •a a* 4 s' s (/I & 00 I 2 bO 00 I 2 (A 3 146 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile value should be such as to actually put the emphasis on that study rather than that the pressure on one study, when measured by the time allotted, should be two to twenty times as great as upon another. Table XI shows the fundamental studies in our elementary school, the enrollment and the failures in each by grades for 1909-10. Table XII gives the enrollment in first-year Latin, English, algebra, and natural history, the number dropping out and failing in each high- school class for 1909-10. TABLE XII Latin English Algebra Natural history •2 1,302 1,528 1,671 76 'a a o §C/3 192 269 IS u a 1,068 1,336 1,402 61 ^1 IIS SI 239 2 ■§■& CO «J rt-g. p 349 243 S08 17 o.s 10.76 3-8i 17.04 327 £ 26.80 15-90 30.40 22.36 STANDARDIZING INDIVIDUAL SCHOOLS A school, like an individual, acquires a reputation. One is reputed as being good, another poor. Quite often such opinions have no reality in fact, and the school reputed poor is in truth a good school, and vice versa. There is also wide variation in the standards of the different schools of the same system. For example, in one the failures in arithmetic mount to as high as 25 per cent; in another, doing the same work, there are none. In our high school, those failing and dropping out of first-year Latin in 1909-10 range from 26 to 41 per cent of the enrollment, in algebra from 26 to 46 per cent, in geometry (second-year study) from 23 to 45 per cent. Such variations in standards in a single system are scarcely to be countenanced. That schools should be rightly judged with regard to their work, and that there should be reasonable uniformity in the require- ments of different schools of the same system, there can be little doubt. Yet, before this can be done, data must be collected with reference to the failures in different schools; upon these city-wide standards fixed, and the requirements of individual schools equalized and their work judged. DETERMINING MODE AND METHOD OF PROMOTION No one factor penetrates so deeply into the life of the school as method of promotion. For this involves standards of attainment and modes of advancing children from grade to grade as well as from school to school. Supcrintendenccl COMMITTEE ON UNIFORM RECORDS AND REPORTS 141 From a promiscuous method of promotion, prevailing even now in country districts, there has been advance to annuail promotions. Certain large cities have, however, of late broken away from the annual plan and adopted semi-annual promotions. A further step is now being advocated, that children be advanced at the end of each term of twelve or thirteen weeks. Such a plan, it is argued, will go far toward reducing repetition and retarda- tion. To a very considerable extent plans of promotion have been determined in view of the easy organization and administration of the school, and in view of the pleasure of the teacher. Whether the given plan conserved the best interests of the child and permitted him without undue hindrance to advance thru the school on time, has been little considered. The time, however, is at hand, when the efficiency of modes of promotion must be measured in view of effect upon educational waste; and a promotion plan devised which will enable children as a rule to complete the elementary- school course on the average in eight years, and the high-school course in four. Such a plan must rest upon a careful study of withdrawals, retarda- tion, and non-promotions. It must be so flexible that each child shall be permitted to advance thru school according to his ability. It must permit the bright child to advance in less than the average required time; and even tho the slow child may take longer, the average, when all the children passing thru the school are taken into account, should not be more than eight years for the elementary, and four years for the high school. Data which may be used in measuring efficiency of old methods, and devising new methods of promotion, are found in the above tables. DETERMINING AND EQUALIZING SCHOOL EXPENDITURE The growing diversity in public instruction and the increased cost of education renders increasingly difficult the administration of our schools. The increasing cost of education makes necessary more detailed knowl- edge of the results derived and more detailed knowledge of the cost of each type of school work, and ot the different lines of instruction, to the end that there may be a better weighing of needs and a ftiore careful determina- tion of educational values in the expenditures of public money. For in the development of our schools activity after activity has been added with the assumption that the money to carry each forward would be forthcoming. The day is, however, even now here when the claims of each separate activity must be set over against those of every other, and each line of work sup- ported and advanced according to its worth in relation to all the other interests of the school. Table XIV shows the cost of instruction, the enrollment, and per capita cost of instruction in each type of school in the city of Cleveland for the year 1909-10. 142 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile TABLE XIV Normal ' High schools Academic High School Technical High School High School of Commerce Elementary schools Regular Elementary Special Elementary Backward School School for Blind Boys* School School for Cripples School for Deaf Elementary Industrial. . . Special Schools Kindergarten Evening schools Evening High Schools Evening Elementary Schools . Summer schools Summer High School Summer Elementary School . . Grammar School Primary School Manual Training School . Boys* School Kindergarten Playgrounds Cost of Instruction \ 18,470.00 395,360.4s 288,103.72 71,569.60 37,687.13 1,344,926.17 1,298,977.60 45,984.57 8,224.64 824.25 9,040.99 650.65 9,954. 39 6,631.24 10,622.41 69,598.22 27,092.50 13,617.00 13,475-50 9,226.79 1,008.75 6,929.39 4,338.75 2,114.39 288.75 187.50 996 32 292.33 Enrollment 205 5,996 4,436 1,102 458 63,164 61,668 1,496 328 12 657 13 97 152 237 5,537 6,673 2,06s 4,608 3,968 258 2,431 1,027 1,133 131 140 536 743 Per Capita Cost of Instruction $ 90.09 66.27 64.94 64.94 82.28 21.29 21.06 30.71 25.07 68.68 13.76 50.05 102.62 43.62 44.82 12.56 4.06 6.59 2.92 2.32 3-90 2.85 4.22 1.86 2.20 1.33 1.85 .39 MEASURING PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT Under present conditions it is no longer suflScient for administrative purposes to know the total enrollment in all schools of a system, the total number of teachers, and the total expenditure for a given year. Further- more, it is not sufficient for purposes of publicity, or for administration, merely to report year by year the facts about the teaching force, about the enrollment, and expenditure for instruction. Nor to report year by year the facts about the number of pupils per teacher, the per capita cost of instruction in different t)rpes of schools, or to report the facts about retarda- tion, withdrawals, non-promotions, failures in studies, number going to high school and to college, or the time taken on the average to complete the course of a given school. There is need that these separate facts for each year he correlated, and those for a series of years be brought together and so arranged as to bring to view the movements and developments both within the system as a whole, and within each separate type of school. Only in some such way can a correct idea of growth and progress be acquired sufficiently definite for administrative purposes. The following tables are illustrative of such data: Table XV shows cost of instruction — that is, amount paid for salaries of supervisors, principals, and teachers in all schools and in each t)rpe of SuperintendBK.! COMMITTEE ON UNIFORM RECORDS AND REPORTS ii I i^im \uim\mm\\m 'm uwmfmmim I ii piiaiSigjiiiiBiiMsg mmmums^ inniM^n^Nnniiin^ I il I II «iiii!8psi||:iift|iiS!B ■ffii nHSK'H!:n;ii;;':;' paiiiSpiiyiJiipiSPSI PiiPilf IMPPS i i i 144 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile school for the years 1906-10, the percentage of total spent on each type of school, and percentage of increase in 1910 over that in 1906. Table XVI shows the enrollment in the regular day elementary school, for the years 1 901-10, the ntmiber of teachers in the regular day elementary school, the number pupils per teacher, the decrease in number pupils per teacher over preceding year, and the percentage of decrease in number pupils per teacher in 19 10 over 1901. TABLE XVI Decrease Over Enrollment Regular Day Elementary School* Teachers in Regular Day Elementary Schoolt Pupils per Teacher in Regular Day Elementary School Preceding Year in Number Pupils per Teacher m Regular Day Elementary School Percentage of Decrease in Number Pupils per Teacher 1910 over 1901 I900-I90I 52,oyi II21.5 46.41 . I90I-I902 52,870 II34.6 46.59 .17 (increase) I902-I903 54,118 1223.0 44-25 2.34 ( I903-I904 55,430 1232.0 44-99 . 74 (increase) I904-I905 56,718 1 290 . 43-96 1.03 1905-1906 59,072 1378.0 42.86 1. 10 I 906-1 907 59,294 1403.0 42.26 .60 I 907-1 908 58,967 1471.O 40.08 2.18 I 908-1 909 59,285 1514-7 39-13 •95 I909-I9IO 61,668 1515-7 40.68 1-55 (increase) 12.34 * Exclusive of transfers and the enrollment of all special schools other than backward schools. t Includes aU teachers in day elementary school except those in Deaf School, Boys' School, special schools (Defective), and School for Cripples. Table XVII shows cost of instruction in special schools for physically and mentally defective children, the enrollment, per capita cost of instruc- tion, the number of teachers and the average number of pupils per teacher, for the years 1906-10. TABLE XVII Cost of Instruction Special Schools Enrollment in Special schools Per Capita Cost of Instruction Special Schools Number of Teachers Special School Number Pupils per Teacher Special Schools 1905-6 1906-7 1907-8 1908-9 1909-10 $ 6,179.35 8,625.62 9,488 . 09 9,928.31 10,622.41 130 150 213 210 237 $47 - 53 47-53 44-54 47-27 44.82 8 10 12 13 13-4 16.25 15 17-75 16.15 17.68 Special schools were first organized by the Board of Education during the school year of 1904-5. MEASURING EFFICIENCY OF INSTRUCTION The present-day school differs from that of two or three generations ago. Old studies have received new content, new studies have been added, and methods of instruction improved; in a word, the spirit and purposes of the school have changed. The reasons for the differences between the school of the present and that of the past not being readily understood, Superintendence] COMMITTm ON UNIFORM RECORDS AND REPORTS 145 IIM ■■■■!■ IIB.I »■■ — ^^^ ■^■^^M ^^^B^— ■■» ^MMl ^^^^^ . ■^»^^ I I the present-day school comes in for criticism. It is affirmed that children do not read as well, spell as well, or write as well as in the past, and that they have not the same skill in arithmetic as formerly. Such criticism is, of course, the eternal protest of the old against the new. Yet for school men to go on year after year denying this protest, and affirming that present-day instruction is even better than in the past, will no longer suffice. Public criticism must be met by facts, and the affirmations of school men must rest upon positive knowledge. One of the means, at least, of testing efficiency of present-day instruc- tion is thru the giving of old examinations. In our system, fortunately, there were ready to hand the questions and the results of examinations given in the schools of Cleveland five and even fifty years ago.. The regiving of such tests has, of course, its limitations. Still only as data are collected and presented which are a reasonable measure of efficiency, will the public be made to believe that there is increasing power in the imparting of knowledge, and that the schools of the present are more effective than those of the past. The following tables are tj^ical of the data that may be collected relative to the efficiency in present-day instruction: Table XVIII shows the number of children taking the spelling examina- tion of 1858 and taking the same examination in 1909, the average number of misspelled words per pupil, and the average percentage of efficiency in both years. TABLE XVIII Pupils Examined Avg. No. Misspelled Words per Pupil Avg. Percentage of Efficiency Examination of 1858 .... Same in 1000 143 3240 5.215 4.307 73 92 78.46 Test of X858 ^TO Same in 1909 Fig. 4. — Black shows percentage of efficiency for spelling test given in Cleveland schools in 1858, and for same regiven 1909. Table XIX shows the number of pupils taking the arithmetic examina- tion in 1856 and taking the same examination in 1909, the average number of correct answers per pupil, and the average percentage of eflSciency for both years. 146 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile TABLE XIX __, Pupfls Examined Avg. No. Incorrect Answers per Pupil Avg. Percentage of Efficiency Examination of 1856 Same in 1000 162 3081 10.258 8.074 48.21 59 63 Test of 1856 bO loo ] Same in 1909 Fig. 5 — ^Black shows percentage of efficiency for arithmetic test given in Cleveland schools 1856, and for same regiven 1909. ENLIGHTENING THE PUBLIC Not only are carefully collected and well-organized statistics vital to the judicious administration of the school, but such data serve as the most eflfective means of enlightening the public with reference to educational needs and conditions. The growing complexity of modern-city-life mili- tates against parents having to any extent first-hand knowledge of the school. Indeed, the average citizen knows little of the purposes, range of activities, and methods of modern education. The necessity of systemaUc effort toward acquainting the public with the problems and needs of the school is now felt on every hand. In such a campaign mere assertion, personal opinion, personal bias have little weight. The public only takes seriously those presentations of school needs and conditions which are based upon carefully collected and well-interpreted facts. Only by the use of such data, set forth by means of tables, colored circles, curves, black-line graphs, or other graphic repre- sentations, can the people be made acquainted with the whole work of the school, be made to realize where the school breaks down, be brought to understand the necessity of certain adjustments within the school, be brought to appreciate the propriety of expending such large sums of public money upon education. Only by these means can the public be convinced that the modern school, despite its wide range of instruction and activities^ is more effective than the school of the past, and is seeking as never before to serve all the children and ail the people of the community, {Signed) Payson Smith, Chairman George D. Strayer, Secretary William H. Elson E. C. Warriner Chas. M. Lamprey Superintendence] THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT 147 ROUND TABLES ROUND TABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS TOPIC: A STORY OF ACHIEVEMENT AND ENDEA VOR IN CO-OPERATION THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT AND THE RURAL COMMUNITIES EDITH A. LATHROP, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OP CLAY COUNTY, CLAY CENTER, NEBR. Authors of modem education agree that there is very little of real supervision among rural schools, and that the county superintendent is underpaid, unskilled, and inefficient. Since these statements are true to a great degree, one might believe that the county superintendent has no story of achievement. Yet there is at work a little leaven which in some states has made statutory provisions for a deputy, thus making it possible for the county supervisor to promote things educational. Again, school people are universally becoming agreed that the office of county superintendent must be taken out of politics, and that there must be a higher standard of qualifications. Some states make provision that a non-ptartisan board shall appoint the county superintendent, and even in the states where politics yet enter into the election, the spirit of the hour is to evade party lines in the choice of this officer. The last deca4e has called more county superintendents to the educational platform and to larger fields of labor in higher institutions of learning than ever before. This means that there is beginning to be an educational future for the rural- school supervisor. Why should it not be possible for a county to call for its educational leader outside of its own county or even state? Cities do this. Why not counties? The country schoolhouse is no longer the social and literary center of the community wherein meet the spelling-schools, the literary societies, and the grange, together with the Sunday meetings. The school interest of the rural conmiimity is dead because the school has not kept pace with the general improvement. The rapid means of transit and com- munication brought to rural communities thru the automobile, telephone, and rural mail service have centered the interest in the towns. The rural school must once again be the rallying-point of the rural community, but it must be the modernized rural school. The building and environment must be in keep- ing with twentieth-century progress. The new education would make the centralized rural school such an educational center. Consolidation has proven good. It is the only way that equal educational rights can be given to both rural and city child. It has proven that it increases the school term, the attendance, and that it provides better teachers and an enriched course of study. It is economical because money is spent to better advantage , and with less waste. Consolidation has come to but few country schools. Children will for a long time to come be taught in the little red schoolhouse of the East, and the box-car building of the West. What is the story of endeavor for the one-roomed country school? There are in these schools today more teachers who are better qualified than there were ten years ago. Many counties in Nebraska, for instance, are fast attaining the ideal that the country teacher must at least be a graduate of a twelve-grade high school. There is an improvement in the architecture of these one-roomed buildings. Many of the new structures are scientifically lighted and heated. Many rural schools have basement furnaces. Aesthetic culture, which has long been a part of the city-school environment, is coming to the rural school. It is creating a desire for beautiful school grounds. The old time white walls, blackened by the dust of years, are being decorated by paper or paint. We see within these one-roomed buildings window shades, clean sash curtains, \ 148 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION mobile and freshly blackened stoves. The cheap calendar and gaudy chromo decorations are being replaced by well-framed copies of real masterpieces of art. This awakening of a love of order, cleanliness, beauty of form, and harmony of color in both the exterior and interior surroundings of the rural school is real education. A child nurtured in these surroundings will soon reach that degree of culture where nothing else will satisfy. The* only way to quench the dying interest of the rural school is to raise that school to a higher plane and then place therein a living teacher. Next to the teacher the county superintendent is the greatest factor in rural-school progress. Where both have been devoted to the betterment of rural conditions, these many points have been won for the one-roomed country school. THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT, THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT, THE STATE NORMAL J. FRANK MARSH, ASSISTANT STATE SUPERINTENDENT, CHARLESTON, W.VA, In this discussion I wish briefly to mention two or three fundamental principles of co-operation in the fields indicated by the topic under consideration and with your per- mission use my own state, West Virginia, to make plain what I mean by these propositions. I. The law governing school administralion should provide for a system thai is non- conflicting, simple, and strong. Previous to 1908 each state institution, including the state university and six normal schools, in my native state had a large board to look after its peculiar interests and pro- tect it against the encroachments or progressiveness of any other similar institutions. These boards, composed of some good school men, some good politicians, and many just ordinary "also men," met many times and at many places. The law creating these nine boards of regents and sixteen boards of directors, aggregating 168 members, made very unfavorable conditions for co-operation. Our state, suffering under this load of a too cumbersome organization, threw off this weight "that did so easily beset us." We now have a bi-partisan State Board of Control composed of three high-salaried men appointed by the governor. This board has complete charge of the business affairs of our twenty- one state institutions. They pay teachers and officers, make repairs, buy furniture and food, in fact, carry on all the business from bujnng breakfast bacon for the reform school to building an agricultural hall for the state university. Besides saving the state about $250,000 annually, this board saves much confusion, and makes business co-operation compulsory. For example, under the previous plan, when the session of the Legislature came there came also many members of faculties, and normal-school principals demanding that their respective schools and sections of the state get their share of the public money. This condition brought about a kind of " Rob Peter to pay Paul " method of appropriating for the state schools and therefore destroyed co-operation. Under the Board of Control method of supervision, the school principals and teachers remain at their professional posts during the Legislature, feeling secure with the assurance that the Board of Control with well-kept records and carefully worked-out recommenda- tions will see that all institutions are cared for in a business-like way. A similar change was made for the betterment of the professional management of the state schools. A bi-partisan Board of Regents, appointed by the governor with the state superintendent of schools as president, has full charge of the university and normal schools, as to employment of officers and teachers and the fixing of salaries. Thru this one board the normal-school principals work out a unified plan in regard to courses of study, placing of teachers, and general policy. Under such management former irregularities and jeal- ousies have disappeared and hearty co-operation has taken their place. I am aware that many states are similarly organized and am also aware that many states still have laws and organizations which do not tend toward co-operation. As stated in my first proposition, the organization should be quite simple. Too many boards Superintendence] STATE SUPERINTENDENT AND EDUCATION BOARDS 149 for this, and boards for that, and committees and subcommittees divide responsibility, dissipate energy, and destroy conditions for harmony. Where such a process is needed, the lawmakers should draw the legislative rake thru the school system, straighten out the kinks, and gather up for elimination all superfluous and conflicting organizations and officials. 2. Law and custom directing educational affairs should provide for reciprocal pull and push among school officials. For example, lines of communication and responsibility between the state* superin- tendent and county superintendent shoidd be numerous and strong. If the law does not make specific provision for this condition, those in authority should assume such relation- ships. By means of reports, conferences, campaigns, appeals, publications, and much correspondence continuous help should flow from one to the other. I believe in the people and local initiative, but on the other hand I believe in a strongly organized government from the head down, with every link so strong that the officials can, if necessary for the general good, shake the uninformed people out of their boots, provided of course the boots are old and out of date. 3. School officials and other school workers should he hound together by an educational enthusiasm that carries them heyond the narrow limits of law. Being a Methodist, I can best express my idea on this point by sa3ring that we should "get educational religion" that will set us on fire with zeal. In my state the brethren have been stirred up to good works by (a) a campaign for more professional reading outlined in teachers' reading circles; {h) teachers' county and district institutes; {c) round tables; {d) School Improvement League; (e) school federations; (/) coimty super- intendents' conferences; {g) county mass meetings of members of township boards; (A) conference of institute instructors; (») school visitation; (7) annual education conference at summer school of state imiversity; (k) state education association; (/) many field campaigns carried on by co-operation of county superintendent, state superintendent and his assistants, normal-school principals, and other educational leaders; and (m) extension schools of the college of agriculture. The effects of these means for personal contact, followed up by an abundance of literature, ought to be to make educational spirit as universal as ether. While these remarks are confined to state work, I am not ignorant of the fact that educational enthusiasm knows no state boimdaries. Let every one of us, like Absalom's conspirators, kindle our bonfires and blow our trumpets from the hilltops when the call comes from Hebron, so long as the call is worthy to be passed to others. THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT AND THE GENERAL AND SOUTHERN EDUCATION BOARDS GEORGE B. COOK, STATE SUFEHINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, LITTLE ROCK, ARK. This subject is one that presents certain difficulties in attempting to review the rela- lions of the General and Southern boards with the state departments of education, as briefly as necessary to do on this occasion. There is the constant temptation to relate the statistics, setting forth in detail just what these boards are doing in the several states. Again, this is a subject with which those assembled here are generally familiar, and there is very little to be said that is new. Furthermore, it is scarcely fitting to bestow upon those who are devoting their time and money so generously and so effectually to this work the praise they so richly merit but which they do not seek. There is, however, a great object-lesson in the very fundamental principles which actuate both the General and the Southern boards. Firsty there is the close relation between these boards: thoro understanding of just ISO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile what each board is specifically doing; no overlapping of efforts or funds; no waste by duplication. Again, both boards have taken every means to know existing conditions and needs. Their preliminary investigations have been thoro and far-reaching, and upon this solid foundation of fact have they builded so wisely for both the present and the future. Then, their efforts are stimulative and corrective rather than purely creative. That is to say, these boards have taken advantage of every initiative on the part of the people and the states for educational advancement. They are elevating and standardizing those phases of educational development, and the attendant institutions, with which the people are acquainted and which have the support of public sentiment, already more or less clearly defined. And, finally, every gift from the General or Southern Education Board has been placed without the least affront to the self-respect of the people or the institutions receiving these gifts. There is no tendency to pamper or make dependent the recipients of their generosity. These boards are composed of men who not only represent, but who are, the highest types of our civilization — ^men who have dealt with and handled successfully the larger affairs of life; men upon whom rests a great responsibility, and one which they realize, a responsibility not only to the present but to future generations; and in the work of the General and Southern boards is this great responsibility being discharged to the better- ment of mankind for all time to come. The men who compose these boards have associated with them other men of equal merit — ^men who have been selected from the millions with a view solely to their peculiar and special fitness for the mighty work to be placed in their hands — ^men of acute and specially trained minds and, moreover, men with pure hearts and noble motives. In the hands of such men have been placed the execution and administration of the affairs of these boards. While these two boards are so closely cognated, their work is somewhat divergent but always harmonious. The General Education Board was chartered by Congress in 1903, and the original gift of Mr. Rockefeller of $1,000,000 in 1902 was increased by $10,000,000 in 1905, and by $32,000,000 in 1907. The statement of the fimd, as published in the 19 10 report of Dr. Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United States Commissioner of Education, shows approximately twelve and one- third millions, with an income of over one and one-quarter millions, in the special fund under the direction of Mr. Rockefeller and his son; while the general fund is over thirty millions, with an annual income of four and one-third millions of dollars. The broad purpose of the General Education Board reads in its charter: "The pro- motion of education within the United States of America, without distinction of race, sex, or creed." The practical application of its beneficences is divided into three important heads: 1. The promotion of practical farming in the southern states. 2. The development of a system of public high schools in the southern states. 3. The promotion of higher education thruout the United States. The activities of the General Board, along the three lines just named, are very clearly set forth in the report of Doctor Brown for 19 10. This review presents to the thoughtful reader a most remarkable array of facts. All of us are familiar with the wonderful progress toward practical farming that has been made thruout the South during the past five years — ^how hundreds of communities have been awakened in every southern state; how 200,000, or more, farmers are working under the direction of some 200 farm experts; how tens of thousands of boys have been enrolled in the boys' com clubs; how nearly all of us in the South have accepted, at their proven value, the practical application of scientific facts in farming and stock raising; Superintendence! STATE SUPERINTENDENT AND EDUCATION BOARDS 151 how, during this short ti^e, the farmer who sneers at ''book farming" has ahnost becofne the exception, instead of being the rule. This work, accomplished thru the United States Department of Agriculture under the wise direction of Doctor Seaman A. Knapp — ^than whom none is greater in our genera- tion — ^has been made possible by the unostentatious and generous contributions of the General Education Board. In view of what has been accomplished, what is now being done, and what the future promises, it is scarcely an exaggeration to say that this one phase of the work of the General Board is the basis of the most effectual industrial revolution of modem times. But this is not all. In the promotion of public high schools the work is equally significant and effectual. Thruout the South, our educational systems were not in reality systems at all. There was an almost impassable chasm. We were extending our elemen- tary schools, and broadening our colleges and imiversities, but the weak point was our want of secondary schools. This burden was placed as a millstone about our institutions of higher learning. They were weighted down and held back by preparatory departments. The General Education Board has come to our rescue by establishing professorships of secondary education in each southern state. Approximately one thousand high schools have been established and the expenditure of $7,000,000 in high-school buildings and equipment has been effected, and our institutions of higher learning relieved on one hand, while on the other a new impetus has been given the elementary schools. This brings us logically to the third phase of the work of the General Board, the promotion of institutions of higher learning, which reaches the entire nation. The permanent endowment of colleges and universities places these institutions above the temptation of conunercialism, and enables them to develop along the highest lines, intent only upon the single purp>ose of their existence. The direct contribution of five and one-quarter millions of dollars by the General Education Board, in the eastern, western, and southern states, used as the basis for stimu- lating local effort, will result in a grand total of $23,000,000 in permanent endowments. In order to cover fully the entire educational field, the General Board is estabKshing state supervisors of rural and elementary schools. So we have presented a comprehensive plan for material, aye, and for spintual, uplift. By promotion of practical agriculture, productiveness is increased, values enhanced, and the ability to support our enlarged educational systems is given, with the siure reaction of giving back to the states for life's struggles young men and women better, and ever better, trained in heart, mind, and body. The Southern Education Board was organized in 1901, after the Fourth Conference for Education in the South. Following a preamble setting forth the importance of imi- versal, practical education, the needs above existing conditions, and the imusual oppor- tunities for progress presented with the beginning of the new century, this resolution was adopted, and serves as the basis for the activities of the Southern Board in lieu of charter, constitution, and by-laws: Resolved, That this conference proceed to organize by the appointment of an executive board of seven, who shall be fully authorized and empowered ^to conduct: 1. A campaign of education for free schools for all the people, by supplying literature to the newsi>apers and periodical press, by participation in educational meetings and by general correspondence; and, 2. To conduct a bureau of information and advice on legislation and school organiza- tion. For these piuposes this board is authorized to raise funds and disburse them, to employ a secretary or agent, and to do whatever may be necessary to carry out effectively these measures and others that may from time to time be foimd feasible and desirable. The powerful influence this board has exercised in creating public sentiment and affecting the crystallization of this enlightened sentiment into activities and laws cannot be measured. IS2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IMobJle Thru the direct influence of the annual conferences for education in the South and the various campaigns, conducted under the auspices of the Southern Board, the very , term "education" has come to mean something very different from the older, vague, indefinite conception. Education has come to mean training for life's work, the upbuild- ing of efficient citizenship of real men and real women, equipped physically, mentally, and morally to live happy, healthful, helpful lives in harmony with their environment. In his annual address before the Conference for Education in the South last year, Mr. Robert C. Ogden, the president of the conference and board, whose name is called to all our minds whenever the Southern Board is mentioned and whose grand and noble life has so largely made this great work possible, stated that during the last seven years the public appropriations for education in the states under the influence of the Southern Education Board have increased 1 16,000,000 per annum. Indeed, I am very much inclined to believe that during the year now nearly elapsed since Mr. Ogden made this very conservative estimate, this figure has become much too small. Yet this is only one expression of the results accomplished very largely thru this board. The several state-wide campaigns for educational revival, the organization and support of education commissions, and the school improvement work have, one and all, been potent forces in arousing and directing public sentiment for public schools. And I believe that it is not entirely out of place to remark that this great campaign, this new understanding of the duties of the several states to educate and equip its citizens, this acceptance of education as the training for work, has done much toward the solution of our bi-racial problem; and our people, to a very great extent, have taken a different view on the question of educating the negro, for the education they are now getting is rapidly coming to be more carefully adapted to their needs, calculated more specifically to make them useful, cleanly, and industrious. This work has shown no short cut in this long and difficult problem but it seems to have indicated the practical application of a great fundamental principle, long overlooked. Closely associated with these major activities are the Jeannes and the Slater funds specifically for the education of the negro. Then, there are many foundations and funds for civic, social, moral, and physical uplift, which are aiding thru every avenue but which are not so closely allied to the state departments of education. I do not feel that I should conclude these remarks without calling to mind the great forerunner of these beneficent enterprises, the Peabody Foundation, now so nearly to the close of its active existence by name and organization. The South can never adequately express its debt of gratitude to the founder and to the administrators of this fund, which during the past half-century has done so much to give to our public schools teachers trained for their work and which is to have as its lasting monument a great Teacher's College as one of the priceless jewels of our Southland. Those who compose this Department of Superintendence know and appreciate the great work of the General and Southern Education boards and, I am sure, every member stands pledged to the uttermost to lend every co-operation to this noble cause of noble men for humanity — this great cause that has for its purpose nothing less than enriching a nation with material wealth and the far greater wealth of a citizenship with trained minds in whole bodies, directed by pure hearts. Supermtcndcnccl UNITY GAINED FROM PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 153 ROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF SMALLER CITIES TOPIC: UNITY OF IDEALS AND PURPOSES IN TEACHERS A, AS GAINED FROM PROFESSIONAL TRAINING ALFRED C. THOMPSON, PRINCIPAL OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, BROCKPORT, N.Y. The commissioner of education of the state of New York in a recent address said: Of course the main educational concern of New York is that her people shall be trained in common honesty. Where that is accomplished, much of the other training takes care of itself. If it is not assured, the other training is of little avail. Substitute the word "nation" for "New York" in this noble sentiment and you have the keynote of all that I shall say. Unity of ideals and purposes can be promoted by professional training if elemental honesty is the precept and practice of those who direct and instruct, and if it is the mainspring of all thought and action. The commonest defect in our social organism is that men, who would not rob a neigh- bor of the loaf of bread upon which he nourishes his babes, will unhesitatingly steal all of the grain in the world, from which the bread is made, even if it should mean the destruc- tion of all of the babies in the world. We may quibble about educational creeds and methods. With equally good inten- tions one may seek good results in one way and another in another way. We can never settle definitely the means by which teachers may secure the desired ends. David could not fight in Saul's armor. There can never be uniformity of method, but there may be and shoidd be unity of purpose. We are dealing with the souls of men. Ideals determine the destiny of souls. Hon- esty should be the essence of all ideals and purposes set up by professional training. Not the anaemic honesty that manifests itself in sentimental emotions and hysterical bursts of spectacular charity; or, in other words, the kind that men have who do good Sundays and "do" their neighbors all the rest of the week; but the kind that makes people good to live with and safe to do business with; the kind that gives men a broad perception and appreciation of the situation and interests of those remote from them in distance or sodal rank, whose lives their conduct influences for good or ill. Professional training has much to do with creating ideals because intellectual content is vitally essential to the ideal since the ideal must contain the particular knowledge fitted to arouse thought and control action. No longer than a generation ago it was the chief purpose of teachers to teach subjects rather than pupils. Even today in many schools it is safe to say that there is more teacher study by pupils than pupil study by teachers. It is undoubtedly the first duty of professional training to start the teacher on the right track inspired with the purpose to know and teach children and to help each child attain his highest possibilities. Professional training must make it clear that knowledge is good, but that wisdom is better; that a learned man may be a fool and a knave, but a wise man never; that it is a much greater thing for one to be good because he wants to, rather than because he must; that the will cannot be forced, but that it can be led; that the teacher's province is less to instruct than to guide; that it is not a teacher's business to lay down precepts, but to teach pupils to discover them; that the quality of effort one makes is worth vastly more than what he gets as the result of the effort; that ability to think and to direct one's efforts economically will do vastly more toward giving one a position in life than a knowl- edge and control of any specialized symbols of learning; and finally, that the teacher's responsibility is to arouse a life-long interest in the things in which the pupil ought to be interested, in order that, when the training of the school is over, the education of life may continue such training as long as life lasts. 1 54 A^^ TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION (Mobile One of the purposes of a teacher should be to cultivate the spirit of thrift in himself and in his pupils. I do not mean thrift as it is popularly understood and practiced. Under the name of thrift great masters of finance and corporations have adopted question- able methods and have devised subtle means and dishonest ways of misleading, in order to compel those who must buy the commodity they control to buy at unfair and excessive prices, that they may wring from the helpless piu'chaser inordinate gains for themselves. This spirit has permeated our commercial life and in some measure all classes of our people. I mean honest thrift which offers an honest article and demands a fair price. Is it not a very proper part of professional training to set a fair estimate on its own product ? It is not very long ago that the notion obtained that the only necessary qualification for a teacher was the missionary spirit and the schools were regarded as eleemosynary insti- tutions in consequence. The missionary spirit is most commendable, but the time has come when school work is not missionary work. There is nothing more vital to a nation's welfare, and its very existence, than education. It is not only a nation's chief defence, but its cheap defence. The most economical insurance a nation can carry is education, and the nation must not be relieved of supporting education by shifting the burden onto the shoulders of missionaries. In my opinion, the low financial estimate put upon education by our nation is respon- sible in large measure for the small number of men engaged in this work. Not only is the pecuniary compensation forbidding, but a person's social standing and influence are too often based, not on the character of his work, but on the amount of pay that he gets for it. Certain it is that pedagogicus mascidinus is fast disappearing in our country, and unless conditions change it is very likely that he will at no distant day become as extinct as the great auk. It is most unfortunate that the inducements to enter the teaching pro- fession are not sufficient to lead able young men to make the sacrifice in time and prepara- tion which the work demands, for the teaching profession will never receive the recognition which is its due until more men enter the ranks. I do not want this interpreted as belittling in any way the splendid work women are doing, but teaching must be a man's as well as a woman's job. Children can be best fitted to take their places in the social organism only thru the instruction of both men and women. I believe that all of us will accept this without argument. There are many more reasons why men do not voluntarily go into teaching. I believe it will be germane to this discussion to introduce two or three of the most prominent ones. Tenure of office is very uncertain. From statistics covering quite a wide field, it appears that the teniu-e of office of men in the teaching profession is less than three years, and in almost all places teachers must be subjected to the humiliation of annual election, when all of their shortcomings are raked over by school officers and aired in the conmiimity. This nomadic existence with its attendant worries is not likely to induce contentment and a frame of mind suited to the best intellectual effort. When young men about to choose a life's work see school men and school women, thru no fault of their own, going down and out, for causes too numerous to mention, the prospect is not alluring. School work has not yet attained the dignity of a business. The business sense is pretty strong in most men. They like to engage in callings whose management is dignified, where authority and responsibility are commensurate, where there are large opportunities and large outlooks. Again, statistics show that less than 3 per cent of men teachers receive what is gener- ally regarded as a "living" salary for a family. I firmly believe that the altruistic spirit controls most teachers and that very few are governed by mercenary motives, but the biological end of existence, which is to perpetuate one's kind, impels a man to choose a life's work which is likely to afford the means of supporting a family. Superintcndencel UNITY GAINED FROM SCHOOL SUPERVISION ISS It is my firm conviction that all of us engaged in the work of education should do all in our power to improve the condition of the teacher financially and otherwise. A reason- able spirit of honest thrift will not lessen the teacher's quality of effort. It will not pre- vent him from trying to improve his skill in teaching and to make his field of learning more extensive and accurate. It will not lessen his desire to perfect himself in fine manners. He will seek just as earnestly to raise the standard of his character. He will be even more likely to strive to make himself the desired professional teacher. We may be sure that nobody will put a higher estimate on our work than we do our- selves. I believe that to try to better our financial remuneration and general condition by every honest means in our power is compatible with the highest purposes and noblest ideals. Unity of ideals and purposes may do much to strengthen a public sentiment in favor of those methods which are best for our country's welfare. But how bring about unity ? Unity is not made. Like Topsy, it grows. In trees there is unity; in telegraph poles, imiformity. The first is one of the highest expressions of a divine power. The last is man's work. Undoubtedly, if there is to be unity it must be in that subtle something we call char- acter in both its subjective and social phase. What we are, pertains to the real, true self. What we do, has its influence on those about us. A young child acts imder the inspiration of suggestion, and when he is older, under the inspiration of ideals. As the chameleon's color changes with the color of the objects about it, so is the child's character acted upon by what we teachers are and by what we do. This faculty of being easily influenced surrenders children to the mercy of their elders; therefore we, the elders, the teachers, must have the single purpose of surrounding children with the influences that will lead them to aspire to the things that are honest. In all of our ideals and piuposes, it seems to me that this should be the ultimate, the supreme aim. Heavy demands are made on the several educational agencies for professional train- ing which are endeavoring to meet the exacting requirements that are set for teachers. It is most fitting that there should be among these agencies a unity of ideals and purposes, for certainly the requirements asked would tax genius and divinity. I have made an attempt to collate from different sources some of these requirements for a successful teacher. A teacher to measiure up to the demands must have the learning of a college president, the consecration of a clergyman, the executive talents of a financier, the humihty of a deacon, and the craftiness of a politician. He must be an angel for tem- per, a demon for discipline, a chameleon for adaptation, a diplomat for tact, an optimist for hope, and a hero for courage. He should have the wisdom of a serpent, and the gentle- ness of a dove, the grace of Gk>d, the patience of Job, and the perseverance of the devil. Let such teachers bring to our schools the cultures that make for a noble citizenship, but let the people bring to their support the utilities that make for a material success, without which citizenship is a mockery and democracy a farce. B. AS GAINED FROM SCHOOL SUPERVISION E. C. WARRINER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SAGINAW, MICH. A short time ago, the head of the department of modem languages in one of our normaF schools offered the following criticism on the course of study in their training school. "What do you think my boy, now in the second grade, is getting ? " he said. "I asked him the other day what he was studying in school and he replied, ' Twice a week we have manual training and three times a week we have primitive arboreal man.' Now what do you think of that ? Even if we have risen thru the cave-dwelling and the tree-dwelling and the man-eating stages, I'd like my child to get thru those epochs just as soon as possible IS6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tMobae and get to living in the world today. I*d like my boy to have some instruction in pen- manship, which he doesn't receive, and I'd like him to read about the twentieth century A.D., not the twentieth century B.C.'' I confess that I sympathize freely with my friend, but I believe the dawn of a better day is visible. We are nearly thru the woods. I use this incident to introduce this query. How far should luiity in a school organization extend ? Should a teacher be required to teach what does not appeal to him ? In think- ing over my friend's criticism, I asked myself, what shoidd I do should I find myself in a teacher's position and required to teach first- and second-grade children about primitive arboreal man ? Should the course of study be fixed or fluent, compulsory or optional ? My answer to this query is, the course of study should for the most part be a fixed quantity, while the methods of teaching should be optional. Supervision should say what is to be taught — the individual teacher should determine how this subject-matter is to be taught. Election of studies in the high school has gone too far in the past fifteen years, with disastrous results to the mental caliber of our high-school product. By analogous reasoning, the elementary course of study has been poisoned with freedom of choice on the teacher's part, which has brought forth indefiniteness of knowledge, superficiality of knowledge, and lack of knowledge in pupils who have finished our elementary schools. The supervising officers of a school system should not specify each day's work or each week's work but they may well mark out the studies by monthly or two-monthly periods. Latitude must be given the teacher's judgment as to what tomorrow's lesson in arithmetic shall be, but the course of study should say what topics are to be taught this month. This should not be left to the teacher's judgment. Perhaps the course of study may name twenty stories for a three-month period from which the teacher may choose twelve to tell in the second grade, or the course of study may enumerate ten poems from which the teacher may select two. Perhaps a half-dozen third readers may be listed from which the teacher may choose — I say "perhaps" because I am not sure but that even in these mat- ters there should be a imity which can be secured best by prescription. It is undoubtedly true in story-telling and poem-teaching, less so in reading, that a teacher will teach well only what appeals to him as meaningful and forceful. If teachers are consulted, however, in the group, as to their choice of literature, an agreement can be reached which will be satisfactory to four-fifths of them and thus a unity be given even to these subjects. In arithmetic, geography, history, spelling, grammar, penmanship, I see no reason for giv- ing teachers any choice as to what is to be taught. Supervisors may very wisely consult the experience of the classroom teacher as to what is best fitted to the child's age, but doubt- ful points should be judged by the supervisor, and always the final decision should rest with him. To hand over without reservation to a group of teachers the absolute and final decision as to course of study or textbooks is a dangerous policy for the welfare of the schools. The teaching group has the best of meaning, but they lack two things, possessed by the supervisor, which are essential to a determination of any important cause in any walk of life, namely, responsibility and breadth of view. Unless supervisors are charged first and foremost with the duty of saying what is to be taught and unless the supervisors are men and women of broad training, wide experience, and keen observation which shall make their judgment of value, there can be no excuse for employing them at large salaries. Two factors should decide what is to be taught in school, the child's capacity and the needs of the times. The study of primitive arboreal man may satisfy the first requirement as being adapted to the child's stage of development, but it is so out of harmony with the second criterion, the demands of the age in which we live, that it should be condemned if it is to be considered an essential part of a curriculum. On the other hand, arithmetic and geography contain in themselves the subject-matter adapted to the age and capacity of children of different grades. There can be no choice as to what the fourth-grade child should learn in arithmetic — ^he should learn the multiplication tables and long division. Why should any option be given in the fourth year's course of study of arithmetic? Geography may offer wider scope for difference of opinion as to what the fourth year's Superintendence! UNITY GAINED FROM SCHOOL SUPERVISION 157 course should be, but it is the supervisor's part to say what the topics shall be for his school system. It is then the teacher's part to teach what is found in the course of study as best he can. As has already been said, reading, literature, and language study allow m6re ground for freedom of choice without loss of value. Yet even here, it seems to me there is a best choice of books to read and of stories and poems to learn. And my opinion is that more satisfactory students will be brought out of our schools if the supervisor lays down a course of language and reading to be adhered to pretty closely. This supervisor will be the superintendent for most branches of study in the smaller city and the supervisor of special subjects in the larger cities. The part of the individual classroom teacher is to instruct, to inform, to educate the growing children conmiitted to his care, using as material for this purpose what the super- visor has laid down in the course of study. In this teaching the greatest liberty, the widest latitude as to method should be granted the teacher. He should be encouraged to test new methods, to plan new devices, to base his teaching upon recognized principles. The supervisor, from his deeper knowledge of these principles, from his wider observation of good teaching, and from his own skill in teaching, may reasonably be called upon from time to time to show the classroom teacher how to teach. But this is not the first nor the sec- ond function of the supervisor. His first function is to say what shall be taught, his second to see that it is taught. The supervisor of music, for example, should decide what music is to be taught in his schools. This he should plainly outline to his teachers and explain it to them in teachers' meetings. He should then visit the individual teachers to test their schools, to learn what has been accomplished, to offer suggestions for correcting and improving the results, and perhaps to give a model teaching exercise for the teacher's benefit. Modem city school systems are in great danger of over-supervision. The rural school is most needy from the lack of any sort of supervision. The city system has gone to the other extreme, with its superintendent and special supervisors of music, drawing, pen- manship, manual training, primary methods, natiu^-study, language and reading, etc. No wonder teachers are bewildered in trying to serve so many masters — no wonder hardly a day passes without having the regular program interrupted by the visit of a "special." With advanced and more extensive requirements as to the training of teachers, the time will perhaps come when our smaller cities can eliminate the visits of supervisors of special subjects. We may look forward to the time when teachers will be so trained in drawing, music, and handwork that they will be prepared as well to carry forward the teaching of these branches as of reading, writing, and arithmetic. At present the technical character of these subjects of study, coupled with the inadequacy of the teacher's preparation, makes necessary the classroom visitation of the supervisor. But let us see to it that this visi- tation is not so frequent as to become dwarfing and deadening in its effect upon the teacher. Weekly visits of any supervising officer, be he superintendent or special teacher, are too frequent. Once in two weeks, three weeks, or four weeks is often enough — ^never should scheduled visits of the supervisor be oftener than fortnightly. This will leave the teacher alone long enough to lay out a plan of teaching and to carry it into execution. Too frequent visitation is like the classic example of pulling up the beans to see whether they have sprouted. Having now pointed out that a system of schools should have unity in its purposes, as set forth in its course of study, it remains to speak more closely of how this unity may be idealized and then carried out into living reality in the life of the school and of the com- munity. To this the most important answer is — it can best be accomplished thru the personality of the supervisor. The supervisor includes the superintendent as well as the supervisors of special subjects. The ordinary means of supervision are well known and call for no conunent here, namely, written outlines, teachers' meetings, school visitation, model lesson exercises, etc. But back of all these methods and above them lies the char- acter of the supervisor himself. A supervisor of a special branch should be chosen first I S8 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION (Mobfle for his knowledge of his subject. Nothing will take the place of this. He should have studied the subject-matter long and thoroly, he should have studied methods of teaching it and then he should have taught it under circumstances similar to those under which he is supervising the work. Unless the supervisor has taught in the classroom he will fail to appreciate the difficulties of the teacher's problem. The supervisor should also be a constant student. He should go on to perfection in his art. If he is a supervisor of draw- ing he should have continued practice in the art of drawing; he should be acquaihted with the history of drawing and of fine arts, both past and present; he should be familiar with the theory and practice of art instruction, as carried on today in the schools of our own land, both public and private, as well as those of foreign lands. Besides this knowledge and skill the supervisor should have a sunny disposition which shall bring joy and inspira- tion to the teachers whenever they come in contact with him. His visits to the classroom should be like a summer breeze, bringing rest and refreshment. Now what has been said of the supervisor may be demanded of the superintendent a fortiori. We have truly said in the past, "as is the teacher, so is the school." We may as truly say today, as is the superintendent, so is the school system. The true answer to the question before us, how to secure unity of ideals and purposes in teachers, is thru the personality of the superintendent. The ideals of the superintendent should inspire sup)er- visors and teachers alike. In every city having no more than three or four himdred teach- ers, the superintendent should come closely enough in touch with the teachers to make his personal influence felt. This influence should be an educational force, not merely a com- mercial relationship. Fifteen years ago, when considering the advisability of givhig up the high-school principalship for the superintendency, I talked the matter over with one of my college professors. He discouraged me from making the change, saying of the super- intendency, ** It is after all only a business." His manner and voice indicated his estimate both of the superintendent's work and of business in general. Connected with the super- intendent's work are many commercial details, but they should be made as few as possible. Happily the tendency is to relieve the superintendent more and more of the selection of tablet paper and the repair of broken windows. To be sure every part of the school administration is of interest to the superintendent. He must have enough native business ability and he must have given enough attention to school-board business to make his opinion of value to his board, but this opinion should be asked for only in emergencies. The questions which the board of education should ask of the superintendent are. Can our eighth-grade pupils write a business letter? Do our sixth-grade pupils have a legible handwriting ? Superintendents should more and more train our boards of education to provide some other way of looking after janitors, schoolhouses, and school supplies than thru the superintendent. Granted now that a school system should have unity, and that the superintendent is the unifying agency, how is his influence to be carried into effect ? In the first place, the superintendent should have a policy, a progressive policy, probably not too progressive, and an aggressive policy, certainly not too aggressive. This policy will of course assume different aspects in different places and at different times. It may be the improvement of teachers in service, the awakening in them of a professional zeal; it may be practical education, making a vital connection between the school and society; this year it may be the improvement of teaching reading, next year of arithmetic, next year of composition, and so on. But the superintendent must have a definite policy, he must himself be con- scious of what this policy is. and it must be recognized by the teachers. For getting before the teachers large questions of purpose and policy, nothing takes the place of the general teachers' meeting, on Saturday morning or on an afternoon when school has been dis- missed for this purpose, never after four o'clock when teachers are tired and i>erhaps cross. Respect for the superintendent is the center about which unity of Ideals and pur- poses should cohere, and the nucleus of this respect must lie in the superintendent's policy. He should be a leader, the educational leader of the community, but he should not there- Superintcndencel UNITY GAINED FROM SCHOOL SUPERVISION 159 fore assume to know it all and resent any suggestion of school betterment. Every fiint should be welcomed by the superintendent, carefully considered, and judged on its merits, whether it come from members of the board of education, teachers, business men, or even from the newspapers. The superintendent should keep just a little in advance of his board and his teachers and his conmiunity — one or two years in advance, not ten or twenty years in advance — this makes him unpractical and a dreamer, but he never should be behind his constituency — ^not even a month — ^if he is, time for his retirement has come. Having a policy* well defined and well known, respect for the superintendent arises from several other factors. 1. As was said in regard to the supervisor, nothing will take the place of knowledge in commanding respect and even obedience. Knowledge of subject-matter is the best cure for nine-tenths of the classroom teacher's troubles with discipline, and so it is the solvent for the superintendent when he finds a lack of loyalty among his teachers. It is manifestly impossible for one man to have scientific knowledge of all or even of many of the particular branches of instruction. But the nearer the superintendent approaches to this knowledge, the better for his standing among his teachers. Even if not familiar with the latest data in all the sciences, he should at least be familiar with methods of teaching every subject. He should know the literature of methodology in every school subject and should be able to refer teachers to the sources. Moreover he should see that teachers study this literature and have opinions in regard to it. For example, the super- intendent should know of the Aldine and the Natural methods of teaching reading, he should know what topics recent writers would eliminate from arithmetic, he should know what emphasis to lay on war in teaching history, he should know why ancient history is taught in the first high-school year, he should know how algebra is taught graphically, why so few pupils take physics if an option is offered, why the natural method of teaching German and modern languages is advocated, how to make botany appeal to an increasing number of students — all these topics of current interest the superintendent should be familiar with, as a means of inspiring his teachers to know them too. 2. Respect for the superintendent grows also from a knowledge among his acquaint- ances that he is absolutely devoted to his profession. This devotion is of course evident from his knowledge of his subject, but it may also be judged from the time which the superintendent gives to his work and from the way he spends his time. The proper divi- sion of his time is one-half to school visitation, one-half to study. The superintendent needs to spend half his time visiting schools in order to know the needs of the pupils and the difficulties of the teachers, and he needs to spend the other half in study in order that he may have something more than platitudes to offer to the burdened teacher when he does visit her. Further, the superintendent should spend some time each year in visiting contemporary school systems. School boards are wisely learning to bear the superin- tendent's expenses in such visitation, but even at his own charge the superintendent cannot afford to pass a year without this source of information and suggestion. 3. A third source of respect for the superintendent is his teaching ability. The only adequate preparation for the superintendency is a degree or degrees, supplemented by actual classroom work, preferably first in the country school, then in a graded system, and last in a high school. One may be able to recognize poor teaching without having been a teacher himself, but one cannot show the unhappy teacher how to teach well without hav- ing taught. The classroom teacher invariably says to herself, and frequently to her next- room neighbor, "It's mighty easy for the superintendent to come in for twenty minutes once a month and find fault because the class doesn't know more, but why doesn't he take hold and show me how to do it ? Because he can't." And, too often, fellow-superin- tendents, this is true, we can't do it. We ought to try our hand at teaching, teaching classes, or teaching a half-day at a time, enough to be able to show our teachers that we can teach and that we do appreciate their hard places from having trod them ourselves. If a superintendent's life among his teachers is such as to command the respect I l6o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobile have been describing, the result will be a unity of ideals and purposes because the teachers will make the ideals and purposes of the superintendent their own. The wise superin- tendent will gather his principals and teachers about him, take them into his confidence, ask them their opinion about everything, and, if possible, he will agree with them about everything. If, however, he must disagree with them; if he must ordain a course of study at variance with their wishes, the only possible way to have it taught is by teachers who respect the superintendent's knowledge, devotion, sincerity, and teaching ability, even when disagreeing with him. If then the course of study calls for primitive arboreal man, the teacher must teach it, but he will pift no spirit into his teaching unless there exists in the system that esprit de corps which gives a unity of endeavor to all the teachers, derived from a respect for the policy of the school, as determined by the superintendent's life and character. DISCUSSION George A. Works, superintendent of schools, Menomonie, Wis. — ^In the discussion of this topic, we are made to face the fact that the superintendent who wishes to secure unity of ideals and purposes in any corp)s of teachers, must himself be in possession of definite, clear, and rational ideals of education. These ideals are of two classes: First, the broad general aims which underlie the work of the public schools as a factor in educa- tion. These ideals should be rationally progressive, but with all so firmly anchored in the best educational theory and practice, that their possessor will not be swept away by every wave of pedagogical reform, either of a local or coimtry-wide character. Second, the superintendent must also have clear and well-defined ideals of what constitutes high- grade classroom instruction, management, organization, and spirit. Lack in either of these respects means that the school system having such supervision will not reach the highest possible degree of efficiency. Granted that the superintendent is well fitted for his supervisory duties so far as ideals are a factor, he still has important functions to perform in getting these ideals before the teachers so that they may comprehend them, desire to make them their ideals, and to realize them in practice, in showing teachers how to attain these ends in practice, in following up this work to determine the degree of success with which teachers are meet- ing, and giving them encouragement when the results will justify it and further help where it is needed. A rough classification of teachers may help in deciding upon the best methods of solution for these questions. There is in every school system a small percentage of exceptional teachers — people' who have a vital interest in their work, and a thoughtful attitude toward it. They are people who would do good work without any or even with poor supervision. Such teachers need little more than the encouragement and loyal support of the supervisor in order to do the very best of work. When well grounded in pedagogical principles, they should be allowed and encouraged to make experiments in educational practice so long as they do not nm counter to rational doctrine. Too frequently teachers of this group are held so closely by the machinery of the system that they lose the vital interest in their work that is essential for the best results. A few words of explanation may make these last two statements more definite. In the graded-school system, each teacher has certain results to accomplish that the work of the grade may fit in with what has gone before and what is to follow. This may not alwajrs be the subject-matter that the teacher likes best to present, but whether or not it shall be used, should not be left to his determination. In general, the teacher's individuality becomes an impertinence when it determines what is to be taught over any considerable period. There is ample opportunity for the exercise of the teacher's judgment in deter- mining the method of presentation. When teachers are lacking in individuality, the superintendent must at times enter even this field and insist that his methods be used. Upon this basis, individuality may be developed in the teacher's work. Superintendence] UNITY GAINED FROM SCHOOL SUPERVISION i6i The second class, which comprises the majority of teachers, are those who render a medium or fairly good quality of service. Conscientious, frequently to a fault, they fall a little short of the first group because of lack of initiative and thoughtfulness. Such teachers need frequent encouragement and inspiration from the supervisor to keep them from losing faith in themselves and their work. The third and last group are the poor teachers. Here is to be found the teacher of some ability, but devoid of interest in her duties. Frequently it is impossible for the superintendent to substitute interest in the school affairs for the social or other extraneous interests which already occupy this teacher's attention. There likewise belongs to this class the teacher who is so weak in discipline or some other fundamental characteristic, that in spite of all the help the superintendent is able to give, he is not able to cope successfully with the daily problems of the school- room. In fairness to the pupils and these two kinds of individuals they should be dropped from the service, and unless a superintendent is free to do this, he should not be hdd respon- sible for their work. In this same group are found teachers completely lacking in initiative but who, by imitation of others, do passable work. The proportion of this kind that has to be retained in a system depends on the salary schedule. There is also in this group the weak teacher who is capable of considerable growth when subjected to proper stimulus. With these two kinds of teachers, there is much need of frequent individual conferences with the superintendent, a possibility in the small school system. There rests upon every superintendent a solemn obligation to do his. best by each teacher that works under his direction. When a teacher is failing badly, it is the duty of the supervisor to make the best possible analysis of the failure and discuss the causes fully and frankly with him at an early date. The teacher should not be permitted to go thru the year without warning and then dropped unceremoniously or foisted upon an innocent superintendent in some distant dty. We should realize fully our opportunity for helpfulness to the weaker members of the teaching staff. From this part of the. discussion, it is evident that we believe a great deal in the per- sonal conference in securing proper ideals in a teaching force. But even in the small school S3rstem, not all can be accomplished by this means. Further help may be secured thru the different kinds of teachers' meetings. There should be the general teachers' meetings about once a month so that the superintendent may have an opportunity to impress on his co-workers his views of education, to keep them in touch with the best peda- gogical thought, to commend that which he has found in his visitation that may be worthy of commendation, and to offer constructive criticism where it is needed. When pedagogical literature is made the basis of study, the results obtained will be greatly improved by pla- cing in the hands of the teachers thought-stimulating questions when they are preparing on the subject-matter. At these meetings the topics of discussion should be of such a character as to appeal to all teachers, and have in them something of help to all. There is no virtue in teachers meeting for the sake of formality. Some of the complaints that are registered against teachers' meetings come from our most conscientious and loyal co-workers because we give them stones when they ask for bread. If all of our teachers belonged to the first class described, there would not be great need for more than the general teachers' meetings. The large number of teachers in groups two and three, however, make very necessary the meetings by grade and by subject. In the first of these meetings the teachers of a given grade are brought together to consider questions peculiar to their grades, and in the second the teachers working with a particular subject in two or more grades meet for consideration of the subject. It is well to let the teachers know in advance what the topic of the meeting is to be so that they may come prepared to take part. Occasionally these gatherings may be devoted to a consideration of some of the general criticisms the superintendent has brought together as a result of his visits to classrooms. A plan that has proved very helpful is for the superintendent to group the criticisms he has to offer so that a fundamental weakness imderlies any given group. A thought-stimulating question or series of questions based on each weakness l62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IMobfle may then be prepared and placed in the hands of the teachers. They are reqiiired to answer these questions in writing in advance of the meeting. Some of the answers may be read and made the basis of discussion. They are all given to the superintendent, who goes over them with care and indicates by notations wherein the teacher fails to grasp the problem, and perhaps indicating some article or book that his wide range of reading leads him to think will be helpful to the teacher. In the small school system, it is possible and desirable to have these meetings partake of the nature of the conference in which the pres- entation of some topic or the subject-matter called for in the course of study is given consideration. In these gatherings, the teachers should be made to feel perfectly free to express their opinions. The superintendent needs to guard against two things. He must not mistake the criticisms offered as personal matters when they are intended only to apply to his plan, nor must he allow the trend of discussion to get out of his control. These meetings frequently give the superintendent an insight into the perverted philosophy of a teacher that it would be impossible for him to get in a more formal meeting, and which he might not discover in several visits to the classroom. In these conferences, the super- intendent will find that the teachers of the first group will be able to render material assistance. The number of these meetings that are handled by the superintendent in person will depend on the size of the system and its organization. In closing this discussion, let us again refer to the individual conference with teachers of which we do not make enough. These interviews may be made an opportunity for indicating to the teacher helpful literature to be read by him and discussed later with the superintendent. This practice gives a purpose to the teacher's reading that is frequently lacking in the general reading. We need to make a fuller application of the policy of the successful life insurance agent who does not attempt to sell life insurance en masse. These personal conferences should be made occasions for the fullest and freest of helpful criticism. Too frequently we make the serious mistake of not telling teachers plainly wherein they are failing, and showing them how to improve. A supervisor need have no fear of talking with absolute frankness to teachers of their weaknesses when they reahze that he intends to treat them with fairness and when they know that the interest of supervisor and teacher lie in the same direction. The superintendent who because of his ardent desire to have things running smoothly neglects to face weak teachers with their failings makes a serious mistake. So common an error is this on the part of the super- visors, that it seems a good custom to have the supervisors of special subjects hand to the superintendent written statements regarding the work of each teacher under his super- vision, so that where adequate progress is not being made by a teacher, arrangements may be made for a meeting of teacher, supervisor, and superintendent. Frequently this method results in a marked improvement on the part of the teacher. It has a further value, in that it shows the supervisor the necessity of candor in discussing work with teachers, and results in a marked diminution of the occasions for the superintendent taking part in such cases. It is well, in case of serious failure on the part of the teacher, to have a written statement by the supervisor, of the criticisms that have been offered, accompany the general estimate of the teacher's work. At the bottom of the failure to discuss frankly with teachers the respects in which they are failing lies the fear of hurting their feelings. The teacher who is worth while is not only glad to receive criticisms, but seeks them when they are given with candor and sincerity. These methods, joined with loyal support of teachers on the part of the superintendent because the teacher who is good enough to keep in the system is good enough to support, will secure unity of ideals and purposes as far as such unity is desirable, leave sufficient latitude for the exercise of the teacher's originality, and free the school system from the working at cross-purposes that sometimes characterizes it. As is readily seen, to carry out this plan means that the superintendent must be free to spend much of his time in visitation and not attempt to supervise at long range. Superintendcnccl UNITY GAINED FROM SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 163 C. AS GAINED FROM SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION MRS. SARAH £. HYRE, MEMBER OF THE SCHOOL BOARD, CLEVELAND, OHIO The subject which the chairman of this department has given me is so large and my time so short that I shall have to confine myself strictly to the assigned subdivisioili. My own experience and observation as a teacher, parent, and member of the Cleve- land Board of Education for the past six years, during which time I have had intimate association with the teacher and public, lead me to say that the administrative work of a board of education may aid in securing "Unity of Ideals and Purposes" in teachers in the following ways: 1. By establishing in the minds of teachers and the public this fact — ^that each and every official act alwa3rs receives thoro and just consideration by the board members, according to the best information obtainable and based upon the merits of the question imder discussion. 2. By giving thought to questions of public education so that legislation affecting the teacher's work and welfare of the child will show intelligent study of these matters by board members as well as some knowledge of the great responsibility of the teacher, and a material appreciation of the profession of teaching, fitter! to rank with other pro- fessions. 3. By encouraging and promoting ways and means for bringing the community nearer to the teacher and into closer touch with the great problems of the public school. The yoimg teacher graduated from normal school, imbued and inspired by her study of the philosophy and history of education, carrying with her the high ideals of the profes- sion she has chosen, believing that all the world must pay honor to her calling, is employed in some school system by a school board and is assigned to a building. Around her she sees silent, patient, plodding, faithfvd teachers. The principal is wise and discreet. Most of them had been there for years and thru those years the changes that had come led them to believe that the school boards, which had come and gone, possessed little knowledge of the teacher's work and the demands upon her in the interest of the child. They had observed that the places occupied by these honorable members, in many cases, were used as stepping-stones to higher political honors, or to some personal advan- tage. They had naturally concluded, after watching the combinations which for years had worked to the advantage of everybody else but the child and teacher, that "pull," not merit, that "schemes" as well as "ideals" must form a part of their service, which they render for that meager salary which is generally less than that paid to the clerk or type- writer or bookkeeper in a reliable business house. Is it strange that teachers under these conditions lack faith in those who administer the system and that they soon impart it to the new teacher ? Is it any wonder that the confidence of this young teacher should be disturbed? That the faith which she had acquired during her normal course in her teachers, in her profession, in the splendid work of the public schools as she had conceived it, should have been shaken ? There are grand and noble teachers whose minds and hearts are so poised that no influence, however great, can turn them from their high ideals and purposes, but most of them are like the rest of us, simply human, and are affected by the standards and examples which those in authority set for them. ^ It is not that a board of education must enact legislation which is agreeable to the teacher, nor that it must canvass the views of teachers upon questions of administration, but in my judgment, it is necessary and vital to a unity of ideals and purposes in teachers that they shall believe that, whatever the action of their administrative board may have been, it was true to a conviction and inspired by a desire upon the part of the board mem- bers to do the best thing possible for the schools. A board of education must make its rules and regulations governing groups of teachers uniform. There must be no discrimination. Equity must mark every official act of privilege and salary, if confidence in the administrative board is to inspire the teacher. l64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IMobOe « I once heard an able and scholarly teacher, who was an authority upon educational topics, say: I do not always agree with a certain member of our board. I would not always vote as that member does if I were in the same position, but I believe in the honesty of purpose of that member, and his desire to do the best thing for the schools, and such a one can alwa3rs be trusted to finally come to a proper solution of school problems. My own experience leads me to say that teachers are reasonable, that by the nature of their work they are patient with those who err in judgment, so long as integrity is manifest, but the ideals of the teacher are easily distiu'bed when confidence is shattered. Most boards of education do the best that they know; the trouble is that the average board is not equipped to decide educational questions. In some localities members are elected to the board because they are politically ambi- tious and deserve recognition and there is no other place where the party can locate them. And then there is another type of school board which has numbers of good people on it who are capable business and professional men, but are not prepared to analyze the serious problem of educating children. They have made a great success in their business or profession, but they have never given more than a passing thought to the schools. At a state meeting of school-board members, a teacher was reading a paper and referred to "elementary," "grade," and "secondary" schools. A newly elected member turned to me and asked, "What does he mean by 'elementary,' 'grade,' and 'secondary'?" The tendency of school boards is to undervalue the work of the teacher. It is not a studied or intentional lack of appreciation, but simply a lack of knowledge as to the years of preparation a teacher must undergo, and the responsibility which said teacher must assume in the schoolroom. If a member is an employer of labor including clerical people, he is likely to rate the teacher's work by the hours he puts in and the wages the employer pays his people, con- trasting the hours of work for his office force from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. with those of the teacher from 8 : 30 a.m. to 3 p.m. It is often hard for him to see why he should pay his bookkeeper $100 . 00 for eight hours' work for six days a week, and then vote one himdred and fifty dol- lars salary per month for a teacher who teaches high-school pupils from five to five and one-half hours a day for five days a week. We ought not to be too hard upon these mem- bers. It is the commercial viewpoint, but honest as it may be, it neverthpless works havoc with the "Unity of Ideals and Purposes" of the teaching force. Teachers who enter upon their work equipped for it must spend as many years of hard work and expend as much money as is required to prepare for law, medicine, or the ministry, and yet the dignity of "profession" is denied the calling and it is looked upon as just "school-teaching," an "easy job." Until men and women engaged in teaching shall combine to have their work recog- nized as a profession, until boards of education and the community shall look upon teach- ing as something more than an easy way of earning money out of the public treasury, the ideals and purposes of teachers are bound to be a fluctuating quantity. T am one of those who believe that teachers place efficiency of their work before its money value, that their first concern is the child and what they can do for him, but again teachers are just hiunan, and must provide for the necessities of life. Many of them must support families. They must dress well and must seek means of professional im- provement in up-to-date methods, as no other profession requires. The teacher is not only charged with the duty of imparting knowledge to the child, but is expected to fill in where the home fails. There is not an hour in the day in which the successful teacher is not adding to the moral, civic, and social development of the pupil. The state and the nation look to the home and public school for its citizenship. The home may fail to do its duty, but the public schools dare not falter in their pur- pose if this nation is to be permanent. Superintendence] UNITY GAINED FROM SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 165 The representatives of government at Washington, coming from all parts of the coun- try, are not suj£ciently impressed with the importance of the public schoob and their administration, nor the responsibility of the teacher in the making of American citizens, or else they would have given before this to the National Department of ^ucation a suitable building and equipment and an endowment fund for research work. This act alone would impress local boards of education with the dignity of teaching as a profession, thereby helping the teacher to maintain the ideals which he acquired during his years of training. It reflects no discredit upon any person elected to a board of education that he is not an expert upon pedagogy or is not familiar with questions of public education, but being elected, it is his most sacred duty to inform himself and to seek the councils of those who think and write upon these subjects, in order that he may give intelligent support to -the superintendent in the carrying-out of his policies. If research work could be conducted by the National Department of Education and reports furnished free, it would place at the disposal of boards everywhere statistics and facts which would keep them in touch with educational progress and would qualify them to enact such school legislation as would best suit the needs of their respective conmiunities. ^ It would help them to realize, as few boards do, that the teacher's real work is the making of citizens who shall have acquired not only a certain amount of knowledge, but other training which will make of them trustworthy, self-sustaining members of society. If we are to have unity of ideals and purposes in teachers, we must have unity of ideals and purposes in boards of education, who will make the teacher comfortable in the thought that he earns every dollar that he gets and many i^ore than the local board is able to pay him, and that his calling is the noblest profession of all. But even- if boards of education were made up of ideal members fully qualified for their responsibilities, there is still another element that must be placated — the public. No board of education, nor any other board elected by the popular vote, can go much faster than it can carry the people — the taxpayers — along with it. If bonds are to be issued to build fireproof, modem buildings, if money is to be put into remodeling and renewing old buildings in order to make then light, iattractive, sanitary, if up-to-date seats are to supplant the badly adjusted ones; if new machinery for heating and ventilating is to take the place of the old inadequate equipment, then the taxpayer must be convinced that these things are necessary to the health and welfare of those confined in the schoolroom. If money is spent for the medical inspection of every child in the system for defects which retard his development and hinder the work of the teacher, the taxpayer must be made to realize the benefits to accrue to the child from such inspection. If thousands of dollars are expended each year for soap and towels in the various buildings, then the taxpayer must believe in the civilizing influence of soap and water. If special schools for backward and defective children, separate schools for deaf, for blind, for crippled and tuberculous children are maintained out of the overburdened con- tingent fimd, then indeed must the taxpayer know not only of the benefits that will come to the children so afficted, but of the relief that will come to the normal child and the teacher. In other words, a board must not only educate itself upon these points, but it must educate the public as well. If the profession of teaching is ever to receive proper financial recognition, commensurate with the years' of preparation and responsibilities which it implies, parents must know the teacher at first hand, they must understand that the teacher of their child is a co-partner with themselves in the making of his 'character and the upbuilding of his manhood. The Cleveland Board of Education has found that there is no better way of interest- ing the parents in the school problems of the dty than thru the use of its buildings for free lectures and entertainments. This year, 1910 and xgxi, more than two hxmdred are i66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [MobOe scheduled, to which parents and patrons are invited by card. There are also about forty mothers' clubs in connection with the different elementary schools, to which speakers go upon invitation to explain any proposed innovations in school plans. The use of school auditoriums for community meetings cannot help but bring the parent closer to the teacher. Discussions of public welfare, of patriotism and topics related to the home and school will arouse in any dty a keener interest in school problems, and will bring a heartier support to the administrative board. In conclusion I want to say that it is my belief that with mutual professional confidence between boards of education and the teachers they employ, with closer relations between parents and teachers, with an intelligent imderstanding and co-operation between the community and its elected representatives, there can be no doubt but that an administrative board which lives up to its responsibilities may be a great aid in securing "Unity of Ideals and Purposes" in the teachers they employ. FINAL REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE ON A UNIVERSAL SYSTEM OF KEY NOTATION^ To the Department of Superintendence, National Education Association: Your committee, appointed in 1903 to invite and join with like committees from the Modem Language Association and the American Philological Association to prepare and reconmiend a key alphabet for uniform use in indicating pronunciation in all our cyclopedias, dictionaries, gazetteers, text and reference books, begs leave to submit this special report at this time with the privil^e of adding a supplementary report at the next meeting of the department. We regret to be obliged to report that as yet the efforts made in accordance with your instruction in response to our report of February 25, 1909, to secure if possible the agreement of the other two spdeties to a compromise on the few remaining points of difference then existing between us, have not been successful. But all three conunittees are in such entire accord on so large a portion of the key, and your committee are so fully convinced as to the forms in the disputed cases which will most satisfactorily meet the practical, inunediate demand for such a key, that it seems clearly best to lose no more time in seeking for complete harmony, so much to be desired, but that we should at once recommend for your adoption the key which in our judgment is the best solution, all things considered, of this perplexing problem possible at this time. The key which we here submit for your approval is substantially the one contained in the Report of the Joint Subconunittee, which was distributed to the members of the Department at the Milwaukee meeting in 1905. This key was quite satisfactory to your committee, as we reported at that time. It had the cordial indorsement, indeed, it was the product, of the representatives on the joint committee of the other two societies, men of the highest standing and influence as experts in their field. But when it came up for approval in their societies changes were made which we could not indorse or advise you to indorse. On these disputed points the key we now recommend is exactly the same as in the Report of the Joint Subcommittee handed to you in 1905. However, during the subsequent years of effort to compromise on these points of disagreement, above referred to, your committee has become satisfied that the practical adoption and use of this key would be greatly facilitated by making four changes, adopting digraphs composed of present letters instead of the more ideal and logical single signs which the Joint Subcommittee, tho not without some hesitation and debate, decided to recommend. The practical advantage to be gained by these concessions so clearly outweighs the loss in theoretical consistency, in our judgment, that we do not hesitate to approve them, particulariy as all the experts who prepared the alphabet in the first instance concur with us. The key here submitted adopts the alphabet, so far as that alphabet went, recom- mended by the American Philological Association in 1877, under the lead of those eminent philologists Professors Whitney, March, and Haldeman, which has already gained some 'For record of appointment and work of this committee see Boston Volume of Proceedings (xgoj). pp. 140-41; St. Louis Volume (xgo4), pp. ag, 175-76; Volume for 1905, p. xs8; Los Angeles (zgo;) Year- bpckt p. 60; Proceedings of 1909, p. 163, and Boston (xgio) Yearbook, p. 55. 167 i68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [MobUe headway as a pronoiincmg key, and which we deem it important to adhere to. Nothing could be more fatal to the success of a uniform key alphabet than to have the expert recommendations of one generation overturn or discredit those of a previous generation. In this matter steadiness and stability are of prime importance. The other items completing this key alphabet, including the four concessions above referred to, have been adopted with the full and careful consideration and approval of several of the most eminent scholars and workers in the field of linguistic science, and they indorse this eclectic key as being the most happy combination of the scholarly and the practical which it is possible for patience and compromise to evolve from the mass of mere personal opinion or prejudice that embarrasses this subject. The limits of this special report permit of no explanation in detail further than to say that this key provides a separate sign for each of our forty-four generally accepted sounds, not one of the signs being a distinctively new letter or having a foreign look. Excepting the last two supplementary letters, the added letters are so formed as to obviate criticism on the part of the type-maker and the practical printer, as well as to be easy to write and to connect with preceding and following letters. The experts agree that the discrimination of sounds in this alphabet is sufficiently delicate and precise for all practical purposes. It should be noted that the last three letters are required only, and will be used only, by the lexicographers in order that they may carry out their too realistic theory that it is the dictionary's function to record the facts not merely of our precise, formal, more or less ideal speech, as approved by edu- cated and cultured people regardless of their speech habits, but the literal facts of our ordinary rapid, or careless, or incidental colloquial utterance in which precision and distinctness are not thought of. It is important for the practical educator to realize that the sounds which these last three letters are intended to stand for are so confessedly lacking in distinctive character and quality that they cannot be clearly identified or be named. No experts attempt it. They merely describe these sounds as "obscure," or "weak," or "neutral," "tending toward i in pin** or "toward e in set** "intermediate between a in art and a in am** etc. Of course, such indefinite, indeterminate soimds, no matter how often they occur in our colloquial and hasty speech, cannot be taught to beginners in reading or be used in oral or syllabic spelling; nor is it necessary, and certainly it is not desirable, that they should be, even if it were possible. This alphabet without these last three letters is complete and fully adequate for common everyday use and for the ordinary needs of the learner and the teacher. In such use these three letters are needless and should be wholly ignored. This key discards all diacritic marks but one, the macron, which has one invariable use, viz. : to indicate the long sound of whatever letter it is used with. In the main this key alphabet conforms to international usage. For the pupil who should become accustomed to it the task of learning to pronounce Latin and German and most other European languages would be a comparatively small matter. The for- eigner among us would find great help in a re-spelling of our words in this alphabet. It would fiunish the primary teacher who wishes to use the phonetic method in teaching beginners to read, an authorized and complete alphabet, simple and easy for the children to learn to use, a tool never furnished to her before. In order to have this key find its way into general use, there must, of course, be a call for it. Publishers must discover that the teachers of the country, those who come most directly in contact with the children, and who realize most fully the embarrassments and difficulties attending the use of the present diverse and complicated sjrstems of key notation, desire and would appreciate the adoption of a simple uniform key system in all our books, and especially in our schoolbooks. Publishers cannot be expected to introduce such an improvement without feeling sure that there is a demand for it sufficient to justify the expense and risk involved in adopting it. It is for the teachers of the country to say whether such a call for a uniform key alphabet shall be clearly heard, and whether Supcrintcndcncel FINAL REPORT ON KEY NOTATION 169 the royal seal of the National Education Association shall be placed upon the alphabet here recommended so that it shall always remain common property, perfectly open and free for use by all who will, and leaving no ground for business jealousy to make changes in it or refuse to adopt it on the claim that some rival publisher by earlier use has pre- empted it and thus put his private stamp upon it. Any request for information in regard to this alphabet or its use, and any suggestion that may add to the value and helpfulness of our forthcoming final report will be wel- comed and carefully considered. The capitals and script forms will appear in that report. Boston, Mass. July 6, 19 10 To the Department of Superintendence ^ National Education Association: Last summer at Boston at our request the Board of Directors of the National Educa- tion Association permitted your committee to file with the general secretary a special report containing the key alphabet on which we had agreed, and instructed him to print and send it to all active members as soon as practicable, which was done. Also several periodicals published the alphabet. That was an advance portion of our final report and is to be taken in connection with this portion as constituting that report and will be so printed. The mass of educated people, when they think of the matter, are agreed that one standard key to pronunciation should be used in all our books. Convenience and economy long since established a standard uniform gauge for our railroad tracks, a standard uni- form keyboard for our typewriting and typesetting machines, a standard thread for our bolts, pipes, etc. In a matter so important to the comfort and convenience of so many of us, particularly teachers and children, as the quick and correct apprehension of the signs of pronunciation, diversity in those signs as used in any of our books should no more be tolerated than would diversity in any of the products above refeved to. Today any nut which you may chance to pick up will fit any bolt that you may find of the same diam- eter. A typist is at home on the universal keyboard of any of the standard typewriters, and the typesetting machines are adopting the same keyboard. In the same way the public good demands uniformity in our system of indicating pronunciation, so that when we have mastered the key in one book we shall know it in all books, whether dictionaries, cyclo|)edias, spelling books, reading books, or what not, and no matter who made them. Professor Greorge Hempl, of Leland Stanford University, formerly of Michigan University, one of the foremost linguistic scholars and dictionary workers of the world, very cogently put the case thus in discussing this very alphabet at the Louisville meeting of this Department in February, 1906: The movement [to adopt a uniform key notation] originated in the minds of members of this Association, and in response to a great need felt by all practical teachers. No one or two dictionaries now hold the field and wield authority. The growth of scholarship and the development of the English-speaking world have demanded and made possible the preparation and sale of many good dictionaries. These have different systems of indicating pronunciation. When it is necessary to look up a word and compare authorities, the searcher is at once confronted by the task of deciphering and interpreting the various letters and diacritic marks employed, and these are so different and so differently used in the various dictionaries that it is often almost impossible to find out and remember what the authorities have to say on the subject. If teachers and other adult users of diction- aries find this process beset with difficulty, what must it be to the children in our schools ? How serious this matter is and how real the trouble, one may estimate when he learns that practical dictionary workers, the men who make dictionaries and are daily employed up>on them and who are supposed to know the different systems thoroly, constantly find themselves misinterpreting and confusing the signs employed. Professor Calvin Thomas, of Columbia University, chairman of the joint subcommit- tee which prepared the report and the alphabet distributed to you at our Milwaukee meeting in February, 1905, thus stated the situation: lyo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mobfle . We need, the world needs, now, without further waiting, an adequate, simple, precise, unambiguous, and generally accepted notation for the sounds of the English language; a notation that we can teach to the young in school, thereby training their vocal organs and leading them to pronoimce the language more accurately and more intelligently; a nota- tion that will at the same time facilitate our learning of foreign languages and tJ^e learning of English by foreigners; a notation, finally, that will enable the educated adult to con- sult whatever good dictionary comes to himd and find out how the word is pronounced without referring to a special and peculiar "key to pronunciation." It is highly improbable that uniformity in our system of indicating pronunciation would ever come about by the spontaneous agreement of rival publishers. Here is a practical key, based on the essential principle, one letter one sound, the product of the foremost language students of our country, and pronounced by leading expert lexicographers to be without an equal in scholarly and working qualities. This alphabet cannot be copy- righted or claimed by any publisher and therefore will be absolutely free to all. If it receives the indorsement of this body, representing the working, controlling, practical force in the field of education, your committee believes that it will be adopted in due time by all of our publishers of dictionaries, gazetteers, cyclopedias, and textbooks. Indeed, upon the ai^>earance of our special report of last July, the publishers of one of our leading dictionaries, then in the process of revision, who had devised an entirely new pronouncing key of their own, the types for which had all been cast, threw away this new type and the pages already set, and started in anew, using this alphabet as their key to indicate pro- nunciation. This in itself is a good start for this alphabetic key. The attention of your committee as practical men thru these years of labor was con- centrated on the practical features of the alphabet we were working for; i.e., on the specific signs for the forty-four distinct and recognized elementary sounds of our speech. In the July installment of this report, in order to meet the desire of experts, special letters were submitted at the end of our recommended alphabet to represent the weak or obscure vowel sounds; but«t does not seem wise to reconunend alone these special letters for ordinary use in re-spelling to show pronunciation. These weak sounds are so indefinite and elusive that they do not need to be taught as separate sounds, for if the beginning learner is trained to place accent and emphasis properly the weakening of the unstressed vowel will follow naturally, if not inevitably. If there is occasion to indicate these neutral sounds, it may be done as well and as simply and clearly by placing the circumflex beneath the letter the sound of which is obscured, the ends of the circumflex turned down to indicate a weakening tending toward u in butj and turned up to indicate a weakening tending toward i in pit. This device was introduced by Professor March many years ago and has been in constant use. Its distinctive and obvious merit is that it does not con- ceal the proper and correct spelling of a word by substituting a sign of indefiniteness in place of the regular and proper letter. The adding of this alternative mode of indicating the neutral vowel, leaving each user to make his own choice, will satisfy both those who wish to use special symbols, and likewise those, possibly the larger number, who would avoid adding to this simple alphabet extra or superfluous|letters. Your conunittee recommends for your adoption the following: Supcrintcndcnccl FINAL REPORT ON KEY NOTATION 171 PHONETIC KEY ALPHABET N.6. — The name of a vowel is its sound uttered distinctly. The systematic name of an explosive consonant and of h, y, and w is its sound followed by i; of any other consonant, its sound preceded by e. In the case of five consonants, however, the common names are submitted as optional. In the digraphs dh, di, &, th the component letters should not be thought of or named. They are tied together expressly to indicate that the combinations are to be recognized invariably as single characters, as units, a habit more easily acquired by children brought up on the new alphabet than by adults obsessed by the old. The character di, for instance, is not to be thought of or called c h, but as a single sign named dhi. So of the others. In the script digraphs there is the same need of the liga- ture; but it would necessitate an additional stroke of the pen and is therefore omitted, the letters being clearly joined at the base. Philologists agree that it is best to use the same letter for a short vowel and its long in ordinary print, distinguishing them by a diacritic only when it is especially necessary to indicate precision. The capital letters for dh, di, fli, th serve well in the ordinary initial position. But when the entire word is to be printed in capitals it is probable that digraphs consisting wholly of upper case forms will be preferred, like our present JE and (E. Roman Script Names Key-words a Q UL eu art a a CL cu artistic Qi ai CLO CLyt^ aisle, find Qu an (Muy CLuy out, thou A a d s. air A a d a. at B b £ / bi be Ch dh LJu cJu dhi chew D d 4^ di day E e Cp -^ prey E e C ^e/ men 172 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [MobUe Roman Script Names Key-words P f G g -7/ ef gi (not jl) fee go H h hi he i I xJ' .yty marine I lu iu K L M N D 01 P R S Sh k 1 m n o e ei P r J y<.^lyi^ /'T^e^ y^KL/ v. ^ ^ el em en ei3 pi es ei^ tin mute ji (or je) jaw ki (or ke) kin let met net sing note poetic nor not oil pit er (or flr) rat set ship Superintendence] FINAL REPORT ON KEY NOTATION • 173 Roman Script Names Key-words T t J^ tl ten Th fti CP^J^ efh thin Th 1h f^^fty ..t^ efti that fi Q LA^ .,4^ mood . U u (Ay .yUU push U V ^ urge • U u V ^ hut V V 1/ ^ ev (or vi) van W w of ^ wi win Y y Z z U^ z ez (or zi) yes zest / es azure 'w subscript indicates obscuration toward the sound of i in 'pity as added, honest. ^^ subscript indicates obscuration toward the sound of u in \mty as about, over. Alternative Mode a for a in ask j " a " about 8 ( " e ^' over ( " i " honest I ] *' e " added Your committee having completed to the best of its ability the work assigned to it submits this its final report and asks to be discharged. Respectfully submitted, E. O. Vaile, Chairman^ Oak Park, 111. T. M. Balliet, New York University, New York City. CommiUee { H. H. Seerley, President, State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, la. Melvil Dewey, Lake Placid Club, N.Y. Wm. H. Maxwell, Superintendent of Schools, New York City. Mobile, Ala. February 24, 191 1 SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF ACTIVE MEMBERS ENROLLED SINCE THE PUBLICATION OF THE YEARBOOK FOR IQIO-II, DECEMBER 20, 1910 ALABAMA iQio Frank Abbott. Superintendent of City Schools, Jackson. George R. Bancroft. XO09, Principal of E. L. Russell School, Mobile; res., Whistler. TonuiiN Gaines, M.D., Univ. of Ala. 1890, Medical Inspector of Public Schools of Mobile County, 4 N. Claiborne St., Mobile. C. Baker Gamble, A.B., Marion Military Inst. igix, Superintendent of Schoob, Greenville. F. Hall, A.B., '04, A.M., '05, Univ. of Ala. 19x0, Superintendent of City Schools, Opdika. John Butord Hobdy, M.Sc., *o8, Ala. Poly. Inst. igox, President, Seventh District Agricultural School of Alabama, Atbertville. Hilary Herbert Holmes, Ph.B., '04, B.S., '10, A.M., 'ix, Columbia Univ. xgxo, Principal of Geneva County High School. Hartford. Lycurgus Leftwich, A.B., '08, Howard Coll. xgxo, County Superintendent of Education, Clay County, Ashland. James Bothwell Lockhart, A.B., '96, Univ. of Ga. igo7, Superintendent of City Schools, Florence. W. H. MgDANiEL, B.Sc.,'05, Mercer Univ. Superintendent of Schools, Roanoke. Edward Andrew Miller, M.Sc., '03, Ala. Voly. Inst. xgo6, President, Ninth District Afi^icultural School, Blountsville. Robert G. Patrick, A.B., Furman Univ.; D.D., Howard Coll. X896, President, Judson College, Marion. Elijah Stewart Pugh, A.B., '95, Univ. of Ala. X898, Superintendent of Public Schools, Thomasville. J. H. Sams, A.B., Howard Coll. igog, Superintendent of Schools, Lineville. Harvey Owen Sargent, B.S., M.S., 'ox, Ala. Poly. Inst. President, Sixth District Agricultural School, Hamilton. WnxiAM Barnard Smith. Principal of Emerson Institute, 266 S. Scott St., Mobile. 191 X J' A. Baxley, A.m., Southern Univ. Principal of Graded School, Greensboro. Stanley C. Godbold, A.B., '04, Marion Military Inst. xgxo. Superintendent of City Schoob, Auburn. Albert F. Jackson, A.B., Southern Univ. xgxo, ' Superintendent of Schools, Eutaw. Henry Thomas Lile, A.B., '85, Univ. of Va. President, Second District Agricultural School, Evergreen. Homer Linden Reeder, B.Sc, Univ. of Ala. xgxo. Superintendent of Education, Lauderdale County, 425 Poplar St., Florence. James W. Watson, A.B., Southern Univ. President, First District Agricultural School, Jackson. ARIZONA igxo W. D. Baker, A.B., '93, A.M., 'g4, Univ. of Mich. xgo8, Superintendent of Schools, xxx S. Mt. Vernon St., Prescott. R. H. H. Blome, Ph.D., '00, Jena Coll. President, Northern Arizona Normal School, Flagstaff. O. Staley, A.B., '06, Indiana Univ. xgxo. Superintendent of City Schools, Globe. ARKANSAS xgxx Robert Cleveland Hall. Superintendent of Schools, 7x2 West 25th St., Little Rock. CALIFORNIA 19x0 Harriet E. Huggins. xgxo, Associate Principal of Oakland Kindergarten Training School, Room D, 2xxg AUston Way, Berkeley. zgii J. H. FRANas, A.M., Otterbein Univ. xgxo, Superintoident of Schools, xxx7 Elden Ave., Los Angeles. 175 1 76 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION (Mobile COLORADO 1910 Carlos M. Cole, A.B., Iowa CoU. Superintendent of City Schools, Colorado Springs. Thomas Harvey Robinson, A.B., 'oq, A.M., 'xo, Univ. of Denver. 19x0, Superintendent of Schools, District No. 2, Brush. Eugene C. Stevens. 1899, Principal of Clayton School, Denver. CONNECTICUT X9X0 Albert L. Grapfam. 19x0, Head of Machine Department, State Trade School, 222 John St., Bridgeport. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 191X Arthur Colehan Monahan, B.Sc., '00, Mass. Agri. Coll. 1910, Specialist, United States Bureau of Education, Washington. FLORIDA 1910 Walter P. Cunninghah. X910, Educational Director, Y.M.C.A., Pensacola. J. T. Diamond, L.I. Superintendent of Public Instruction of Santa Rosa County, 4 Billy Hill, Milton. GEORGIA 1 910 Robert Stafford Nash. Southern Manager, American Book Company, Atlanta. Clifford L. Smith. Superintendent of Schools, 138 Broad St., LaGrange. X9XX Fred M. McMurray, B.Sc., '10. X910, Superintendent of High School, Mansfield. EwELL Eugene Treadwell, A.B., Univ. of Nashville. X902, Superintendent of Public Schools, 129 Sycamore St., Decatur. IDAHO X9X1 Thomas W. Potter. County Superintendent of Schools, Twin Falls. • institutions 1910 Library of the Academy of Idaho. Principal, Miles F. Reed; Librarian, Gretchen Smith, Pocatello. ILLINOIS 1892 John K. Stableton, B.Sc., '82, A.M., '87, Ohio Wes. Univ. X897, Superintendent of City Schools, xxx E. Locust St., Bloomington. X9X0 Clara S. Alun. X907, Promoter of the Introduction and Sale of Educational Works, 5450 Prairie Ave., Chicago. Ella R. Connell. Principal of Chicago School, Irving Park Blvd. and 47th Ave., Chicago. Elizabeth F. L. Costello. X909, Teacher in West Pullman School; res., 6553 Minerva Ave., Chicago. Mabel F. Doty. X9XO, Teacher of Household Arts, Lake High School; 562 N. Pine Ave., Chicago. Helen G. Dwyer. X903, Supervisor of Public School Kindergartens, 4x6 Lake St., Evanston. Sarah A. Fleming. Principal of Jungman School, x8th and Nutt Sts., Chicago. Annie Weaver Jones. Teacher of Art, 3247 Monroe St., Chicago. Katherine E. Mayes. X903, Teacher in Mulligan School; 5426 Sheridan Road, Chicago. Gertrude A. Maynard. X906, Teacher, Noyes Street School; 1633 Chicago Ave., Evanston. Isabel Moore. Teacher in Public School; X0906 Prospect Ave., Morgan Park. William R. Snyder, A.M., Pa. Coll. X909, Superintendent of Schools; 5x5 Galena Ave., Dixon. Mary E. Yorks. Teacher in Linne School; 132 S. Sacramento Ave., Chicago. X91 X Mary M. Abbe. Free Head Assistant, Marshall School; 6619 La Fayette Ave., Chicago. William A. L. Beyer, A.B., '06, A.M., '08. Ohio SUte Univ. X909, Instructor, State Normal University; xoo6 S. Fell Ave., Normal. Delos Buzzell, M.Sc. 1890, Principal of fielding School; 3930 Lowell Ave., Chicago. Chester C. Dodge, M.D.. Chica^go Homo. Med. Coll. x88x. Principal of Mitchell School; 125 N. Sacramento Blvd., Chicago. Superintendence] SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF ACTIVE MEMBERS 177 ILLINOIS— ConHnued 191 X Walter J. Hasrower. Principal of Felsenthal School; 413 East 6otli St., Chicago. Henry H. Hilton, A.B., A.M., Dartmouth Coll. Educational Publisher, 2301 Prairie Ave., Chicago. Thomas C. M. Jamieson, Ph.B.. '10, Univ. of Chicago. ZQio, Principal of Jones School; 432 Oaldey Blvd., Chicago. G. A. OSINGA. 1892, Principal of James Otis School; Armour and Ohio Sts., Chicago. WiLLiAif F. Roberts, Amherst Coll. Owner, William F. Roberts Co., Educational Publishers, The New Karpen Bldg., Chicago . William M. Roberts. 1902, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 614 Tribune Bldg., Chicago. Fred J. Watson, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Beloit College. X907, Principal of Dore School, Chicago; res., 320 Thatcher Ave., Oak Park. Edward F. Worst. 1910, Superintendent of Schools, Joliet. INSTITUTIONS 1910 Free Public Library. Librarian, Mrs. Alice G. Evans, Decatur. Public Library. Librarian, Lorena N. Webber, Jacksonville. CHICAGO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 1910 John Farren School, Wabash Ave. and 51st St. Principal, Florence U. Colt. Charles G. Hammond School, 21st Place, bet. California Ave. and Douglas Blvd. Principal, Mary E. Tobin. John Kinzie School, Ohio St. and La Salle Ave. Principal, Azile B. Reynolds. Robert Morris School, Barry Ave. and Bissell Street. Principal, Luella Heinroth. Elizabeth Peabody School, Augusta St., bet. Noble and Holt Sts. Principal, Mary H. Smyth. William K. Sullivan School, 83d St. and Houston Ave. Principal, Ada D. Semphill. 19x1 Parkside School, East End Ave. and 75th St. Principal, John Edward Huber. INDIANA 1 910 Robert E. Cavanaugh, A.B., '08, Univ. of Ind.; A.M., '09, Univ. of Chicago. X909, Superintendent of Schools, Salem. 191X Frederick M< Shanxun, B.Sc., '94, A.M., '98, Wabash Coll. X909, Superintendent of Coal Creek Township Schools, New Richmond. institutions 1 9 10 Public Library. Librarian, Annette L. Clark, New Albany. Purdxte University, Library. President, Dr. W. E. Stone; Librarian, W. M. Hepburn, Lafayette. IOWA X910 R. H. Belknap. County Superintendent of Schools, West Union. X9XI E. C. Meredith. 1910, Superintendent of Schools, Boone. ROLLAND Maclaren Stewart, A.B., B.Didac, Iowa Univ. Z911, Instructor in Education, 308 Ronalds St., Iowa City. KANSAS X910 Claude E. St. John. Superintendent of City Schools, Marion. KENTUCKY 19x0 A. C. Burton, B.Sc., '91, So. Ind. Nor. Coll. X908, Superintendent of Schools, Mayfield. Thomas J. Coates, A.B., '95, A.M., '97, So. St. Nor. Sch. X910, Supervisor of Rural Schools for Kentucky, 113 Broadway, Richmond. H. C. McKee. Superintendent of City Schools, Frankfort. W. D. Reynolds. X910, Superintendent of City Schools, 172 Elm St., Ludlow. W. N. Shackleford. X908, Superintendent of City Schools, Forest Hotel, Russellville. 19XZ Laura Antoinette Frazee. X907, Supervisor of Training School, Western Kentucky Normal School, Bowling Green. 178 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION {Mobile LOUISIANA xgxx Paul B. Habans, B.E., 'gs, Tolane Univ. XQio, Aasistant Superintendent of Public Schools, New Orieans. MASSACHUSETTS xgio JosEFHnrB Makston. igo8, Teacher in Dudley School; X05 Pembroke St., Boston. Louise Towmsend. X906, Teacher, Hugh O'Brien School, 44 Dana St., Cambridge. Masy S. Wemtworth. xgio. Principal's Assistant, Gooch School, ^^ Beverly St., Melrose, xgxx C. G. Persons* Superintendent of Schools, Pittsfield. Gertrude S. Stoddard. Corresponding Secretary, Roxbury Women's Council, 40 Kingsdale St., Boston. MICHIGAN xgio G. L. Jenner, A.B., 'og, Univ. of Mich. xgxo. Superintendent of Schools, 60 Matthews St., Pontiac. xgxx E. E. Fell, A.B., 'oa, Alma Coll. xgio, Suiwrintendent of Schools, 6og State St., Holland. MISSISSIPPI xgio Bailey T. Schumpert, L.I., Peabody Coll.; A.B., Univ. of Nash. • Superintendent of Schools, Brookhaven. William H. Smitb, B.Sc., 'go, Miss. Nor. Coll. igix, President, Mississippi State Normal College, Jackson. James Eluott Walmsley, A.B., 'ga, A.M., 'g4, Randolph-Macon Coll.; Ph.D., '07, 111. Wesleyan Univ. xgo3. Professor of History, Millsaps College, 1275 N. President St., Jackson, xgxi Charles F. Capps. xgo7. Superintendent of Schools, x6 E. Westbrook St., West Point. Joe Cook, A.B., Vanderbilt Univ. xgox. Superintendent of City Schools, 123 N. gth St., Columbus. Guy D. Dean, A.B., *g^^ luka Nor. Inst.; LL.B., '03, Univ. of Miss. Supenntendent of Jackson County Schools, Pi^scagoula. MISSOURI xgio Clara G. Biscofp, Nor. Grad. Ex-Principal of National Normal College, Rosario, Sante F^, Argentine Republic, S.A.; res., 42x1 Russell Ave., St. Louis. Ernest Forrest Bush, B.Sc., Univ. of Mo. xgo4. Superintendent of Schools, Welbton. igil ESTELLE HiNTON. xgoo. Primary Supervisor of Training School, State Normal School, xo6 East Broad St., Warrensburg. Philip ELirwan McHarry. Salesman, Jos. Dixson Crucible Co., 50X Victoria Bldg., St. Louis. William L. C. Palmer, A.B., '78, Univ. of Ga. xgox. Superintendent of City Schools, 406 N. Pleasant St., Independence. John L. Shouse, A.B., '05, A.M., '06, William Jewell Coll. xgo8, Vice-Principal of Westport High School, 3g34 Central St., Kansas City. Ross Albert Wells, A.B., A.M. xgog. Superintendent of Public Schools, xo6 West 7th St., Fulton. NEBRASKA xgxo A. E. Fisher, A.B., Bellevue Coll. Superintendent of Schools, Aurora. S. H. Wood, Ph.B., '02, Drake Univ. xgog. Superintendent of City Schools, Falls City. xgxx N. C. Abbott, A.B., 'g6, LL.B., '00, Univ. of Ncbr. xgxx. Superintendent of City Schools, Plattsmouth. R. M. Campbell, B.Sc., 'g2, M.Sc., 'g^, Franklin Coll. xgxo. Superintendent of City Schools, 1422 Platte St., Columbus. Joseph A. Doremus, A.B., Gates Coll.; A.M., Univ. of Wis. xgog. Superintendent of City Schools, Auburn. Robert I. Eluott. Superintendent of City Schools, Broken Bow. Mary E. Foster, A.B., '05, Univ. of Nebr. xgo7. County Superintendent of Schools, Plattsmouth. R. Clement Harriss. Superintendent of Public Instruction of Jefiferson Co., Fairbury. Edith A. Lathrop, A.B., '03, Univ. of Nebr. xgo8. County Superintendent of Schools, Clay Center. J. M. Matzbn. County Superintendent of Schools, Fremont. Joseph Sparks, B. Ped., '8g. President, State Normal School, Chadron. Superintendence] SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF ACTIVE MEMBERS 179 NEVADA 19x0 George Ordahl, Ph.D.. '08, Clark Univ. zgog, Professor Psychology and Education, University of Nevada, Reno. NEW JERSEY X906 John Reuben Beachler, A.B., '06, Earlham Coll.; A.M., Columbia Univ. Superintendent of Schools, Mountain View Ave., Nutley. XQio WnxiAM A. AcKERMAN, A.B., '94, A.M., '97, Lafayette Coll.; Ph.D., '02. Columbia Univ. 1905, Superintendent of Schools, Somerville. 19XX Sidney G. Firican, B.Sc., Ped.M., 'o<;, New York Univ. Z9X0, Superintendent of Schools, 76 Osbom St., Glen Ridge. Albert B. Meredith, A.B., '95, Wesleyan Univ. X904, Superintendent of Essex County Schools, Court House, Newark. PUBLIC SCHOOLS X9Z0 School District Library, West New York. Supervising Principal, H. W. Maxson; Librarian, Chas. Swensen, 565 Bergenline Ave., West New York. NEW YORK Z889 Thomas Franqs Kane, A.B., '93, Cornell Univ. 1899, Teacher of Mathematics, George Wm. Curtis High School, Richmond Borough, 5 Castleton Park, New Brighton, S.I.; express office, St. George. X895 Ida C. Bender, M.D., '^, Univ. of Buffalo. 1893, Supervisor of Primary Grades, 807 Auburn Ave., Buffalo. X906 Charles Payson Gurley Scott, A.B., '78, A.M., '8x, Ph.D., '81, Lafayette Coll.; Litt.D., '07. X883, Philologist, Etymologist, Lexicographer; Etymological Editor of the "Century Dic- tionary" 1906, Secretary of the Simplified Spelling Board, i Madison Ave., New York; res., 150 Woodworth Ave., Yonkers. 19x0 Matthew P. Adams, S.B., '04, Harvard Univ. 19x0, Superintendent of Schools, New York Children's Aid Society, X05 East 22d St., New York. W. F. Brainard. Vice-President,- Newson & Co., 27 West 23d St., New York. Ira Morris Gast, Ph.B., '01, A.M., '04, Ind. Univ.; Post Orad., Columbia Univ. X908, Superintendent of Schools, Saranac Lake. Abby Porter Leland, Pd.B., Albany St. Nor. Sch.; A.B., A.M., Columbia Univ. Fellow in Education, Columbia University, Women's University Club, New York. Morgan T. Riley, A.B., '07, Yale Univ. X907, Teacher, Philippines Civil Service; 125 West 92d St., New York. Lucy A. Yendes. Institute Lecturer and Teacher of Private Pupils; 154 East 175th St., New York. Z9ZZ John B. Pratt. President, The A. S. Bauer Co., xx East 24th St., New York. NEW YORK PUBUC SCHOOLS* (BOROUGH OF BROOKLYN) Z9XO PuBUC School No. 27, Nelson and Hicks Sts. Principal, Purvis J. Behan. OHIO 19x0 Mrs. Barbara R. Atkinson, B.O., B.Sc., Teacher of Oratory, 127 West Market St., Urbana. Leota E. Clark. Principal of Grammar School, 2x9 S. Warren St., Dayton. Matilda A. Neeb. Supervisor of German, 419 Hickory St., Dayton. Mary-Belle Westfall. X882, Principal of School, 1514 East Third St., Dayton. X9XX Frank Appel, A.B., '94, Ohio Wesl^ran Univ. X898, Superintendent of Public Schools, 40 East 8th St., Portsmouth. William Prinz. Principal of Jackson School, 169 Allen St., Dayton. institutions 19x0 The Cleveland Normal Training School. Principal, James W. McLane; Librarian, Ethel I. Burwell, Qeveland. The State Normal College of Ohio University. Dean, Henry G. Williams, Athens. OKLAHOMA 19XX Leslie T. Hoffman. T909, Superintendent of Schools, 341 West Monroe St., McAlestcr, l8o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [MobUc OREGON igzo L. R. Aloeucan. 191 1 , State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salem. 191 X J. W. G&OV£S. 1910, Superintendent of City Schools, 704 Thompson St., Roseburg. H. C. SZYMOUS. 1908, Superintendent of Polk County Schools, 706 Hayter St., Dallas. Feed Alfred Tiedgen, A.B., Olivet Coll. 19x0, Superintendent of Schools, Marshfield. A. H. Yooer, B.Sc., Valparaiso Univ.; Pd.M., Colo. St. Nor.; A.B., A.M., Univ. of Denver. X910, Superintendent of Schools, Woodburn. INSTITUTIONS X9ZX Oregon Library CoinassiON. Secretary, Cornelia Marvin, State House, Salem. PENNSYLVANIA X906 FRANas R. Coyne. Z905, Boro Superintendent of Schools, Old Forge. 1908 George Preston Eckels, M.E., '92, St. Nor. Sch., Shippensburg, Pa; M.S.C. '97, Duquesne Coll. X905, Head of Department of Commercial Geography and History, Commercial High School, 7x40 Kedron Ave., Pittsburgh. 1910 George A. Mincemoyer. X908, Supervisory Principal of Schools, Renovo. Raymond W. Sies, A.M., '08, Univ. of Iowa. 19x0, Professor of School Administration, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh. zoz X David W. Phillips, A.B., '05, Lafayette Coll. X905, Teacher, Technical High School, 6xa S. Main Ave., Scranton. SOUTH CAROLINA 1910 Virgil C. Dibble, Jr., A.B., '95, Coll. of Charleston. X908, With Rand McNally & Co., 76 Wentworth St., Charleston. A. Burnet Rhett, A.B., A.M., '99, Univ. of Va. Assistant Superintendent of City Schools and Principal of Memminger High and Normal School, St. Philip St., Charleston. TENNESSEE X910 Wharton S. Jones. Acting Superintendent, Public Schools, Board of Education, Memphis. Edwin F. Rowland. X9X0, President, Sweetwater Preparatory College, Sweetwater. X91 X Sam E. Hill. Secretary, Eastern Tennessee Educational Association, 7x5 Walnut St., Knozville. Mabel C. Williams. 1909, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Shelby County, Memphis. TEXAS 1910 J. H. Burnett, A.B., *oi, Univ. of Nashville. 1909, Superintendent of City Schools, 643 Jeannette St., Abilene. Randolph Lee Clark, A.B., Texas Christian Univ. X9X0, Superintendent of City Schools, Anson. B. B. Cobb, A.B., '10, Univ. of Texas. X910, Superintendent of City Schools, 404 W. Burleson St., Marshall. Alvin Dille, A.B., Ohio North. Univ. X908, Principal of High School, 946 Mobile Ave., Port Arthur. R. D. Green. X9X0, Superintendent of City Schools, Baird. J. C. Pyle, Litt.B., '94, Baylor Univ. Superintendent of Public Schools, Sherman. 191 1 George Washington Austin. Superintendent of Public Schoob, Whitewright. James Evans Binkley, A.B., Southwestern Univ. X909, Superintendent of City Schoob, cor. 7th and Cherry Sts., Orange. R. L. Bower. With American Book Company, Houston. S. M. Byrd, Ph.B., Emory Coll. Superintendent of City Schools, Box 339, Amarillo. J. P. Glasgow, A.M. X909, Superintendent of Schools, 7 S. Grand Ave., Gainesville. VIRGINIA 19x0 P. S. Barnes, B.Sc, '96, Nat'l Nor. Univ. 19x0, Supervising Principal of Public Schools, South Second St., Pulaski. Harry A. Hunt, L.I., '00, A.B., '01, William and Mary Coll. 1909, Superintendent of City Schools, Portsmouth. 191 X Harry J. Deyarmett. Superintendent of Trade School, Hampton Institute, Hampton. Superintendence] SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF ACTIVE MEMBERS l8i WASHINGTON iQio Maude E. Drake. Supervisor of Training School, State Normal School; 700 Forest St., Bellingham. WISCONSIN IQIO Harry E. Coblentz, A.B., '94, Ind. Univ.; A.M., Lake Forest Univ. 190Q, Principal of South Division High School; 673 Walker St., Milwaukee. Frank Kroening. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 828 Lajrton Blvd., Milwaukee. Albert A. Johnson, B.Sc., '07, Univ. of Wis. Principal, La Crosse County School of Agriculture and Domestic Economy, Onalaska. C. R. Rounds, Ph.B., Univ. of Wis. 1903, Instructor in Reading and Grammar, State Normal School: res., 135 N. Prairie St., Whitewater. • 4 iQix Frank M. Bruce, A.B., '06, Univ. of Wis.; A.Mi, '10, Marquette Univ. WiUi the "American School Board Journal," 439 Hanover St., Milwaukee. Charles CooLmGE Parlin, A.B., 'o^, Univ. of Wis. 1896, Principal of High School, Wausau. Foreign CHILE INSTITUTIONS Z90X Library of Congress of Chile. librarian, Adolph Labatit, Santiago.