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Q hi n PROCEEDINGS OF THE Department of Snperinteiideitce f t H national educational j|$$ociatlon At its m*«tiBg ia CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 1 9 O 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE AT THE ANNUAL MEETING HELD AT CHICAGO, ILL., FEBRUARY 25, 26, AND 27, I902 ■* • • = ^ mo"-, • » • >• V * * • * ^ PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION 1902 PRINTED BY XTbe XinivcxBit^ ot Cbicago pteea I992< i: « • •» • ♦ C-JljUjOaJj-^cy^ CONTENTS CHICAGO MEETING — 1902 PAGE Secretary's Minutes -* 5 Obstacles to Educational Progress — Hanus 11 Discussion — Fowler 25 Value of Examinations as Determining a Teacher's Fitness for Work — Cooley - 28 Discussion — Stetson, Soldan^ et al. - - 33 Practical Application of All Learning to Better Living — Kiehle - - - - 36 Discussion — Vincent, Schaeffer, Mrs. Meredith, Treudley - - - - 43 Influences That Make for Good Citizenship — Emerson 46 Discussion — Hatch, Siefert^ Mac Donald, Emerson - - - - - 52 Ideal Normal School — Payne 57 Discussion — Jones, Boone, Carroll, Greenwood, Miss Parson - - - - 65 Danger of Using Biological Analogies in Reasoning on Educational Subjects — Harris - - -- ----69 Discussion — Hall, Harris - -75 ROUND TABLES Round Table of State and County Superintendents : Topic — Instruction in the Elements of Agriculture in Rural Communities — Harvey, Mrs. Meredith, et al. 76 Topic — Financial Phase of the Consolidation of Rural Schools — Van Matre, Schaeffer, Bayliss, et al, - - - -- -- - - -78 Round Table of City Superintendents : Topic I — Four Minor Duties of a Superintendent — McNeill - - - 84 Topic II — Modernizing the Course of Study — Hester - - - - 87 Topic III — How to Meet the People — Nash 91 Round Table of Normal Schools and Training Teachers : Conference A — Normal Schools : Topic I — What Aspects of Psychology and Child Study Are Suitable Subjects for Normal Schools? — Putnam, Seerley, .Salisbury, Lord, Green, Keith - 93 Topic II — Shall the Instruction in Psychology Be Oral, or Shall a Text-Book Be Used? — Karr, Gentle 100 Conference B — Training Teachers : Topic — Criticism — What Shall it Be ? — Russell, Wilkinson, Maxwell, Miss Walter, et al, lOi Progress of Education in Porto Rico — Brumbaugh - - - - - -107 Altruism as a Law of Education — Tompkins - - no High School as the People's College — Hall 114 Discussion — Leviston, Harris, Hall 122 College Graduates in Elementary Schools — Balliet 126 Discussion — Poland, et al. 133 Psychology and Ethics of Fun — Hill - -140 Supplementary List of Active Members 152 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE CHICAGO MEETING, 1902 SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST DAY MORNING SESSION.— Tuesday, February 25, 1902 The Department of Superintendence was called to order in University Hall of the Fine Arts Building, Chicago, 111., at 9 : 30 A. M., President G. R. Glenn, school commis- sioner of Georgia, in the chair. Prayer was offered by Dr. W. F. King, president of Cornell College, Mt. Vernon, la. Professor Paul H. Hanus, of the department of theory and practice of education. Harvard University, read a paper on " Obstacles to Educational Progress." The discus- sion was led by W. K. Fowler, state superintendent of public instruction, Lincoln, Neb. Superintendent E. G. Cooley, of Chicago, then read a paper on "The Value of Examinations as Determining a Teacher's Fitness for Work." The discussion of the paper was opened by W. W. Stetson, state superintendent of public schools, Augusta, Me. Others participated in the discussion, as follows : Miss Margaret A. Haley, of Chi- cago ; Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, of St. Louis ; Superintendent Charles R. Skinner of New York ; Superintendent L. E. Wolfe, of Kansas City, Kan.; Superintendent }. F Keating, of Pueblo, Colo.; Superintendent J. M. Greenwood, of Kansas City, Mo.; Superintendent C. G. Pearse, of Omaha, Neb.; and Dr. E. E. White, of Cincinnati, O. The committee appointed by the department at its session in Chicago in 1 901, on constitution and by-laws for the department, made a report thru its chairman. Superin- tendent Aaron Grove, Denver, Colo., as follows : STATEMENT In the absence of a constitution, the Department of Superintendence has had a varying: policy, and its early aims and purposes have been frequently foi]^tten. Special committees have been created from time to time to do certain things which would have been done better by permanent (institutional committees changing: but part of their membership annually. The president of the department has had no constitutional guide, and the programs have frequently reflected the personality of the president rather than any established aim and policy of the department. In inviting attendance of all classes of teachers the tendency has been to offer programs that scatter discussions over all classes of educational topics rather than to the concentration upon topics relat- ing to supervision. The conviction of the committee is that the department should withdraw from this practice of scattering its efforts, yet continue its policy of welcoming to its meetings all who are interested in the dis- cussion of the problems of superintendence. PROPOSED CONSTITUTION FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION ARTICLE I — NAMB This organization shall be styled the Department of Supbrimtbndbmce of the NATioMAf. Educa- tional Association. arncle ii — membbrship Active and associate members of the National Educational Association who are engaged regularly in supervising educational work, as state, county, city, district, town, and village superintendents, including assistant and associate superintendents, may become members of the department upon signing the constitu- tion and by-laws, providing that active members of the National Educational Association only shall have the 6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago rigfht to vote and to hold office in the department; also providing that nothing in this section shall be so con- strued as to deprive in any way those who are at present active members of this department from taking part or participating in and sharing fully the duties, responsibilities, and privileges of such membership. ARTICLE III — OFFICERS z. Officers. — ^The officers of this department shall consist of a (z) president; (a) first vice-president ; (3) secretary. Each to serve one year. 2. Executive board, — An executive committee of five, consisting of the president, first vice-president, secretary, the retiring president of the department, and the pern^inent secretary of the National Educational Association. 3. Committee on nomination, — A standing committee of seven on nomination of officers, consisting of the president of the department as chairman ex officio^ and six members to be elected by the department, whose term of office shall be three years, the terms of two members expiring each year. The terms of service on. the first election shall be determined by lot. It shall be the duty of this committee to nominate one or more names for each vacancy to be filled, and to report to the department at the close of the morning session of the second day of the annual meeting. 4. Committee on program. — A standing committee of five on the annual program, consisting of the president of the department as chairman ex officio^ and four members to be elected by the department to serve two years, the terms of two members to expire each year. It shall be the duty of this committee to prepare an annual program and supervise its execution. Only subjects directly relating to the supervision of [schools shall be placed upon the program; but, in assigning essays, the committee will not be limited to members of the department. 5. Election of officers. — The election of all officers shall be by ballot and shall occur at the close of the morning session of the second day of the annual meeting, at which time the report of the nominating committee shall be presented. ARTICLE IV — MEETINGS The place of meeting shall be determined by the voting members of the department on the morning session of the second day of the annual meeting, and two-thirds of the members present shall be necessary for a decision. Should the department fail to reach a decision before the adjournment of that session, the executive committee shall determine the place of meeting for the next ensuing year. The executive committee shall have power to call special meetings of the department. This constitution may be altered or amended at the regular meeting by the unanimous vote of the members present, or by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided that the alteration or amendment has been substantially proposed in writing at the previous annual meeting. Aaron Gove, R. G. Boone, W. H. Maxwell, Committee, After the reading of the report, President Glenn stated that the report would be referred to the directors of the National Educational Association. Superintendent Gove appealed from the decision of the chair, insisting that, if the report was to be of any value to the department, it should be acted on immediately; to refer it to the directors of the National Educational Association would be to prolong its con- sideration one year. Superintendent E. H. Mark, of Louisville, Ky., desired the report examined by a proper committee before voting upon it. Superintendent Gove's appeal from the decision of the chair was then put to the department. The chair was not sustained. A motion was made and seconded that the committee's report be made the special order for Wednesday morning at 9 o'clock ; the motion prevailed. The meeting then adjourned until 2 o'clock P. M. AFTERNOON SESSION The afternoon session opened promptly at 2 o'clock, President G. R. Glenn in the chair. After several announcements of a miscellaneous nature, the program of the afternoon was taken up. Dr. D. L. Kiehle, professor of pedagogy ift the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn., addressed the department on the subject, ** The Practical Application of All Learning to Better Living." Professor George E. Vincent, of the University of Chicago, and Superintendent N. C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania, led the discussion of Dr. Kiehle's paper. Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 7 Superintendent Henry P. Emerson, of Buffalo, N. Y., was introduced by the chair, and read a paper on " Influences That Make for Good Citizenship." The discussion was led by William E. Hatch, superintendent of schools. New Bedford, Mass., and H. O. R. Siefert, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. Mr. John MacDonald, editor of the Western School Joumctl, Topeka, Kan.; Mrs. V. C. Meredith, of St. Anthony, Minn.; and Superintendent F. Treudley, of Youngstown, O., also participated in the discussion. After several miscellaneous announcements, the meeting adjourned to 8 : 15 P. m. EVENING SESSION The evening program consisted of an address delivered by Dr. Frank Gunsaulus, president of Armour Institute, Chicago, 111., on " Technical Education and its Effects on General Edscation." SECOND DAY MORNING SESSION.— February 26 President Glenn called the meeting to order at 9 o'clock, as per resolution of the preceding day, which also provided that the consideration of the report of the Committee on Constitution and By-Laws should be taken up at that hour. In response to a request ^rom the members of the department. Superintendent Aaron Gove, of Denver, read the proposed constitution and by-laws. Superintendent C. G. Pearse, of Omaha, moved that the constitution and by-laws be read section by section. Carried. On motion of Superintendent Joseph Carter, of Champaign, 111., Art. I of the pro- posed constitution was unanimously adopted. After a somewhat extended discussion of sec. 2, Superintendent J. W. Carr, of Anderson, Ind., moved that the proposed constitution be printed, and that its further con- sideration be postponed until 9 a. m., February 27. Carried. The first subject of the session was " The Ideal Normal School." The paper was read by Dr. William H. Payne, professor of the science and art of teaching. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. The discussion was led by Frank L. Jones, state superin- tendent of public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind., who was followed by R. G. Boone, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, O. The general discussion was participated in by Superintendent C. F. Carroll, of Worcester, Mass.; Superintendent J. M. Greenwood, of Kansas City, Mo.; and Miss M. Elizabeth Farson, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C, was then introduced by President Glenn. The department paid Dr. Harris a tribute of respect by rising when his name was called by the president. The subject of his address was " The Danger of Using Biological Analogies in Reasoning on Educational Sub- jects." The paper was discussed by Dr. G. Stanley Hall, of Clark University. The discussion was closed by Dr. Harris. The president then announced the- following Committee on Nominations for the ensuing year : Superintendent £. H. Mark, Louisville. Superintendent Irwen Leviston, St. Paul. Superintendent H. M. Maxson, New Jersey. Superintendent Henry P. Emerson, Buffalo. Superintendent H. O. R. Siefert, Milwaukee. The department then adjourned. AFTERNOON SESSION The afternoon session was devoted to round-table meetings, as follows : A. ROUND TABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS The meeting was called to order at 2 o'clock by the leader, Frank L. Jones, state superintendent of public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind. 8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago First topic : " Instruction in the Elements of Agriculture in Rural Communities." The discussion was led by L. D. Harvey, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis., who was followed by Miss Virginia C. Meredith, of the School of Agri- culture, St. Anthony Park, Minn. The general discussion of the topic was participated in by Superintendent Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania; Superintendent Barrett, of Iowa; Superintendent Carrington, of Missouri ; Superintendent Olsen, of Minnesota ; and Superintendent Roberts, of Peoria, 111. Second topic : " The Financial Phase of the Consolidation of Rural Schools." The discussion was led by Charles A. Van Matre, county superintendent of schools, Delaware county, Ind. Superintendent Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania ; Superintendent Bayliss, of Illinois ; Superintendent Bonebrake, of Ohio ; Superintendent Fall, of Michigan ; Super- intendent B. E. York, of Kingsville, O.; Superintendent Collins, of South Dakota; Superintendent Bright, of Cook county. 111.; and County Superintendent W. G. Hart- ranft, of Seattle, Wash., participated in the general discussion. A short business meeting followed the discussions, at which the following officers were elected : President — Mrs. Helen L. Grenfell, state superintendent of public instruction of Colorado. Secretary — R. C. Barrett, state superintendent of public instruction of Iowa. The round table then adjourned. B. ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS Leader, James M. Greenwood, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo. Sub- ject : " Minor Problems." Topic X — Sjmopsis: {a) Selection of teachers. (3) Elimination of teachers who are intellectually incompetent, (r) Elimination of teachers who are not morally prepared, {d) Stimulation of teachers to follow right ideals. I. C. McNeill, president State Normal School, Superior, Wis. Topic 3 — Synopsis : {a) The crack of the college professor's whip. (3) The nervous woman writer's tirade on the " crowded curriculum." (c) The conclusions of the notoriety -seeking schoolroom experi- menter, {d) The demands of the old-school men that all be eliminated except the " three R's." W. A. Hester, superintendent of schools, Evansville, Ind. Topic 3 — Synopsis : (a) How to meet the people. (3) Grade meetings, (jc) Pay-rolls and financial statements, {d) Use of the teachers' association. Louis p. Nash, superintendent of schools, Holyoke, Mass. C. ROUND TABLE OF NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS Conference /, Normal Schools. — Leader, Livingston C. Lord, president Eastern Illinois Normal School, Charleston, 111. Topic I — " What Aspects of Psychology and Child Study Are Suitable Subjects for Instruction in Normal Schools?'' The discussion of this topic was led by President Albert Salisbury, State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.; President Livingston C. Lord, Eastern Illinois Normal School, Charleston, 111.; President Homer H. Seerley, State Normal School, Cedar Falls, la.; Professor Daniel Putnam, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich.; Principal James M. Green, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.; Pro- fessor John A. H. Kent, Northern Illinois Normal School, De Kalb, lU. Topic 2 — " Shall Instruction in Psychology and Child Study Be Oral, or Shall a Text-Book Be Used? " The discussion of this topic was participated in by Professor Grant Karr, superintendent of practice, State Normal School, Oswego, N. Y., and Thomas H. Gentle, director of the training school. State Normal School, Platteville, Wis. Conference 11, Training Teachers. — Leader, James E. Russell, dean of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York city. Topic — "Criticism — What Shall it Be?" The leader. Dean Russell, introduced the discussion of this topic, and was followed by President J. N. Wilkinson, State Normal School, Emporia, Kan.; Professor Guy E. Maxwell, State Normal School, Winona, Minn.; SuperintendenceJ SECRETARY'S MINUTES 9 Ji 'and Miss Sarah J. Walter, State Normal School, Willimantic, Conn. A general discus- sion followed by Principal Theodore B. Noss, State Normal School, California, Pa.; Presi- dent Z. X. Snyder, State Normal School, Greeley, Colo.; Professor Edwin C. Page, Northern Illinois Normal School, De Kalb, 111.; Professor Frank M. McMurry, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York; Professor John H. Glotfelter, State Normal School, Emporia, Kan.; President Livingston C. Lord, Eastern Illinois Normal School, Charleston, 111.; and Piofessor N. A. Harvey, Chicago City Normal School. EVENING SESSION The program of the evening consisted of an address on " The Educational System of Porto Rico," by Dr. M. G. Brumbaugh, commissioner of education for Porto Rico. THIRD DAY MORNING SESSION.— Thursday, February 27 The department was called to order by President Glenn at 9 : 30 o'clock. After making a number of miscellaneous announcements, the president announced the following Committee on Resolutions : W. W. Stetson, Maine. G. W. A. Luckey, Nebraska. W. D. Parker, Wisconsin. J. M. Greenwood, Missouri. J. S. McCIung, Colorado. President Glenn expressed the regret of the department because of the absence of Colonel Francis W. Parker, occasioned by impaired health, and stated that he thought the department was very fortunate in having present so excellent a substitute for Colonel Parker as Dr. Arnold Tompkins, of the Chicago Normal School, who would address the depart- ment on "Altruism as a Law of Education." The report of the Committee on Nomination of officers for the ensuing year was then called for. The report of the committee was made thru its chairman, E. H. Mark, of Louisville, Ky., and the following officers were recommended for election : President — Charles M. Jordan, superintendent of schools, Minneapolis, Minn. Vice-President — Superintendent Clarence F. Carroll, Worcester, Mass. Second FiV/-/'rfj'/(i>«/— Superintendent Warren Easton, of New Orleans. Secretary — ^J. N. Wilkinson, president of the State Normal School, Emporia, Kan. The report was unanimously adopted. Dr. H. R. Sanford, of New York, moved that the directors of the National Educa- tional Association be most earnestly requested to provide an official stenographer for the next session of this department. After voting down several proposed amendments, the original motion was unanimously carried. The selection for the place of the next meeting of the department was taken up, and nominations were presented from New Orleans and Helena, Mont. The claims of Helena for the next meeting of the department were presented by State Superintendent W. W. Welch. Superintendent Warren Easton, of New Orleans, La., presented an invitation from the educational institutions and other organizations of his city. New Orleans was selected by the unanimous vote of the department. Dr. G. Stanley Hall, president of Clark University, Worcester, Mass., was introduced by the chairman and read a paper on " The High School as the People's College versus Fitting Schools." The discussion was opened by Irwen Leviston, superintendent of schools, St. Paul, Minn. The general discussion was participated in by Commissioner Harris and closed by Dr. Hall. lO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago The Committee on Resolutions then offered the following report, which, upon motion, was unanimously adopted : Resolved^ That it is a sense of this department that the subjects discussed should bear directly upon supervision in all of its phases ; and that it welcomes to its meetings all who are interested in the investiga- tion of its problems. That a committee of nine be appointed to formulate, upon a sound educational basis, contemporary educa tional doctrine ; submit statements covering contemporary educational experience ; and indicate the tenden^ cies of contemporary educational methods. That all speakers discussing a paper shall speak without manuscript. That the committee on program should make more ample provision for " round-table conferences." That women should be represented on the general program of this department. That the thanks of this department are tendered to the president for the rare intelligence manifested in the preparation of the pn^ram and the courtly dignity with which he has presided ; to the secretary and other officers for numberless helpful and considerate courtesies received at their hands ; and to the several speakers for the superior quality of the papers presented. W. W. Stetson, J. M. Greenwood, G. W. A. LUCKBY, J. S. McClung, Comtnitiee, Superintendent John Richeson, East St. Louis, 111., moved the adoption of the following resolution, which was seconded by Superintendent Arthur Powell, Steuben- ville, O.: Resolved^ That, in order to secure facts and opinions bearing upon nchool administration, the president of this department shall annually appoint a committee of three to serve one year, whose duty shall be to receive questions which can be briefly answered, and have them printed in the form of a ballot to be distributed at all section meetings in the afternoon of the second day of the annual meeting, and to report the results during the forenoon session of the third day. Amended, so that the members shall serve for three years, one being appointed each year after the first year. The amendment was accepted by the mover and seconder. The resolution, as amended, was referred to the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association. Miss Mary McCowen, supervising principal, Chicago Day Schools for the Deaf, extended an invitation to the members of the department to attend a series of meetings exemplifying the work of the Chicago schools for the deaf. After several miscellaneous announcements, the department adjourned to meet at 2 p. m. AFTERNOON SESSION The department convened at 2 o'clock, President Glenn in the chair. After a number of announcements, the chair introduced Superintendent Thomas M. Balliet, of Springfield, Mass., who read a paper on "College Graduates in the Elementary Schools." The general discussion of Superintendent Balliet's paper was participated in by the following: Superintendent Eugene Bputon, of Pittsfield, Mass.; Superintendent A. K. Whitcomb, of Lowell, Mass.; Superintendent William J. M. Cox, of Moline, 111.; Superin- tendent W. F. Slaton, of Atlanta, Ga.; State Superintendent Delos Fall, of Michigan; Dr. H. R. Sanford, of New York ; Principal A. S. Downing, of New York ; Professor E. O. Sisson,. of Bradley Institute, Illinois; Dr. E. E. White, of Columbus, O.; and John MacDonald, of Topeka, Kan. Before declaring the meeting of the Department of Superintendence closed. Presi- dent Glenn thanked those who were on the program for the careful way in which all addresses were prepared ; the secretary and other officers, for their hearty co-operation in making the meeting a success ; Superintendents Cooley and Lane, for so kindly looking after the details with reference to the place of meeting, hotel accommodations, etc.; and the members of the department, for their patience and willing co-operation during all of the sessions of the meeting. President Glenn then declared the session of the Depart- ment of Superintendence for 1902 closed. Superintendence] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS II Subsequent to the close of the meeting President Glenn appointed as the Committee of Nine provided for in the report of the Committee on Resolutions the following*: Hon. Frank A. Hill, secretary of the state board of education, Boston, Mass. Superintendent L. H. Jones, Cleveland, O. Superintendent C. B. Gilbert, Rochester, N. Y. Superintendent C. H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn. Professor George H. Locke, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Professor D. L. Kiehle, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Superintendent C. N. Kendall, Indianapolis, Ind. Superintendent J. H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Ind. Professor Elmer E. Brown, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. John Dietrich, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS PAUL H. HANUS, PROFESSOR OF THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF EDUCATION, HARVARD UNIVERSITY In the following paper I limit myself to discussing obstacles to progress in three phases of educational activity; and in the time allotted to me I shall be able to treat in some detail only one of these three. The phases referred to are the making of school programs or " courses of study," the organization and administration of school systems, and the training of teachers for elementary and secondary schools ; and of these I can treat only the first in some detail. First, the obstacles to improvement in school programs or courses of study. The recent history of attempted reforms in school programs is quickly told. About twenty years ago the elementary-school program, with its narrow content and overwhelming emphasis on the school arts — reading, writing, arithmetic, and English grammar — was seen to be inadequate and formal. It provided some acquaintance with the school arts themselves, but afforded little real education. It prepared for an elementary education, but did not furnish it. Accordingly, rather more than ten years ago we began to increase the scope of elementary-school programs. We sought to improve them by " enrichment." To the school arts, the formal studies, we added " thought studies" — literature, history, nature study, and an improved geography. To the narrow field of the traditional arithmetic we added elementary alge- bra and geometry; we laid more stress on the drawing, music, and physical training already represented in the schools* occupations ; and we intro- duced manual training, and occasionally a foreign language. But the result was far from satisfactory. We had become convinced that enrich- ment was necessary, and had' acted on our conviction. But the enrich- ment had involved us in new difficulties that proved to be formidable 12 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago obstacles to progress. Our programs were congested, especially in those portions of the new programs most affected by enrichment — the earliest and the latest pre-high-school grades. The middle ground was and remains, justly I think, tho perhaps not always intentionally, the territory where the school arts are supreme. Then it seemed that the elimination of " nonessentials " from the old programs would solve our difficulties. Such elimination, it was asserted, must precede and accompany enrichment — which was true; and it was also announced, with something of a flourish and a good deal of insist- ence, that " correlation " would accomplish the rest. Correlation was interpreted to mean such a grouping of the subject-matter that each study could and should be so pursued as to cover, incidentally, adequate instruc- tion in others. Examples of such grouping would be history and geog- raphy, history and literature, reading and " nature study," nature study and arithmetic, English grammar and foreign language, elementary alge- bra and geometry and arithmetic, manual training and drawing. This solution of our program difficulties also insisted on a subordination of the formal studies to the thought studies. The school arts were no longer to be pursued solely as ends in themselves, but primarily ^.s means to ends — as the instruments by which education is deepened and ulti- mately extended, but not as embodying an education themselves. So promising and important did the solution of our program difficul- ties by means of correlation seem that, when this association, in 1893, appointed a committee on elementary-school studies, it was understood that one of the committee's most important duties should be to set forth, clearly and in detail, to what extent the problem of our program difficul- ties could be solved by correlation. The Subcommittee on Correlation of the Committee of Fifteen did not solve this problem, however, i^or did they attempt it — altho they did something of as great or greater V importance, as I shall point out later on ; and to this day we are without the guidance that a thorogoing study of the interrelations of the ele- mentary-school studies would afford. I mean such a study as would show to what extent parts of any one of them are naturally, necessarily, and adequately covered in the satisfactory pursuit of another or others. This important study is still awaiting the leisure and inclination of broad- minded students willing and able to devote a long period of time to it. By this time we had attempted "enrichment," "elimination," and "correlation;" this had effected a more or less thorogoing revision of the program of elementary studies from beginning to end ; and the result was chaos. There is no better term to describe the infinite variety, com- plexity, and instability that resulted from the successive tinkerings to which the elementary-school programs had been subjected. And chaotic they remain. But it is no longer a discouraging confusion. Before this stage had been reached, we had gradually come to see that what we needed Superintendence] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 1 3 was guiding principles. Without them, it was clear that we should only make confusion worse by further changes. Out of this demand for guiding principles arose the Committee of Fifteen on Elementary-School Studies, the duties of which, it soon appeared, must transcend even the principles that underlie program - making. To make our educational endeavor effective, good teaching and wise organization and administration are needed, as well as good pro- grams of study based on sound educational doctrine. Hence, the Com- mittee of Fifteen divided its work into three sections, covering respect- ively educational doctrine, the training of teachers, and the organization and administration of school systems. Before the elementary-school programs had been transformed to any considerable extent, and while they were still substantially what they had been since the beginning of the last century, strong dissatisfaction had been felt with the narrow training furnished by our secondary schools. Altho designed to meet the needs of all who could prolong their school education beyond the elementary-school stage, our secondary-school programs were determined chiefly by the small fraction of this number who could go beyond the secondary school to the college. Until within the last ten years, preparation for a college course leading to the bachelor of arts degree was everywhere either strictly limited to little else than a drill in the elements of Latin, Greek, and mathematics, or such modifications of these requirements as made it more difficult to prepare for college with the alternatives than with the traditional requirements ; and, as just stated, these subjects occupied the lion's share of time and attention in secondary education nearly everywhere. The narrow and formal character of such a secondary education was gradually perceived to be, like the elementary education that preceded it, chiefly preparation for education, not education itself. The elementary school deferred the pupil's real education to the secondary school ; the secondary school deferred it, once more, to the college. Consequently we began to transform the secondary-school program as well as the elementary-school program — by enrichment. All this was gradual, but none the less real. As it proceeded, it became evident that no pupil could do serious work in the modern subjects and at the same time continue his classics. Twenty-five years ago we already had a bifurcation of the program into classical and non-classical divisions or "courses of study," dating from 1821, when the Boston "English High School " was established for those boys who were not going to college ; and this bifurcation gradually developed into a division of the program into several parallel groups or "courses of study," each group or "course" consisting of a combination of studies comprising both, or one, or neither of the classical languages. To obtain the diploma of the school the pupil must select his group or " course of study," and adhere 14 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago to it thruout the usual four years of secondary work. The prestige of the traditional classical studies was, however, so great that the non- classical divisions were for a time inferior to the others, and on this account they were avoided by the socially and intellectually ambitious pupils. The inferiority of non-classical studies has rapidly diminished, however, because of a more just appreciation of the intrinsic value of those studies, and a great improvement in the method of teaching them, and particularly because of a growing recognition of thein by the col- leges for college-admission purposes. We had now transformed our secondary- school program by"enrichT ment" and by a multiplication of "courses of study." And these changes had led gradually and naturally to the elective system. The result was, however, far from satisfactory, (i) because the courses con- sisting of the modern studies were in dignity and seriousness of pursuit too often inferior to the classical course, and (2) because these courses could not be brought up to the standard of excellence of the classical course until the conventional estimate of the efficiency of a school by the community should be based on its general excellence, and not chiefly on its success in preparing pupils for college thru the classical course. That is to say, our program changes had grown out of the demand for a good secondary education for every pupil, whether he went to college or not. A natural corollary to this demand was that just as good work should be done in non-classical as in classical courses of study. But this demand had not been satisfied. Out of this demand arose the report of the Committee of Ten. That report was to tell us how to combine a good modern with a good classical education ; to tell us what a good non-classical secondary education is ; and finally to promote uniformity among college-admission requirements thruout the country. And this it attempted to do. The attempt was made to give expression to a body of educational authority on the scope of each of the principal " studies " that had come to be generally recog- nized as appropriate to secondary education ; on the time that should be devoted to each of them ; and on the best methods of teaching them — all this whether a given study was to be used for college-admission pur- poses or not. The report was a magnificent document. For the first time in the history of American education the attempt was made to col- lect, on a national scale, and to give an organized expression to eminent professional authority on an educational question. The influence of the report was decided, immediate, and far-reaching. Its good effect on secondary-school programs was felt everywhere, but it probably benefited the smaller high schools of the country most by suggesting the desira- bility of limiting the scope of their work to what could be adequately accomplished, and by emphasizing the important principles of continuity and adequate intensiveness in the pursuit of all studies undertaken. Superintendence] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 15 The Committee of Ten did not, however, define what a good modern secondary education is, except as that definition was implied in the pro- grams recommended by them. The report was lacking in an illuminat- ing, well-defended educational doctrine ; it was rich in educational authority. It did, however, state two principles of procedure so clearly and ' mphatically that they could not be missed or misunderstood, namely: (i) that most of the studies theretofore regarded as secondary- school studies should be begun by pupils before the secondary-school age was reached; and (2) that a study should receive precisely the same treat- ment for pupils who are not going to college as for those who are. These two principles were intended to promote the solution of two important difficulties in program-making that the rapid changes in both elementary- and secondary-school programs had developed, namely, the articulation of elementary to secondary education, and the articulation of the sec- ondary school to the college, respectively. The enunciation of the first of these principles did much to promote desirable program changes in pre-high -school grades, altho it found rather scant recognition in the report of the Committee of Fifteen, which, as everybody knows, was prepared after the report of the Committee of Ten. The second principle has also found general acceptance thruout the country. It has promoted the widespread consciousness of their function as independent educational institutions which the secondary schools now possess and maintain ; it has been emphasized in another important report, the report of the Committee on College- Entrance Requirements; and finally its influence has been felt by the colleges themselves, which now manifest a steadily growing inclination to accept the proposition that any good secondary education, either with or without the classics, is a good preparation for college. This last point — the present attitude of the colleges — received spe- cial treatment in the latest of the three reports on school studies emanat- ing from the National Educational Association, namely, the report of the Committee on College-Entrance Requirements. The demand for guid- ance in our educational endeavor had now reached the point at which it was felt that a general improvement in secondary education would result if we could establish national norms or units of work for each study, each of which, no matter what the study, might be accepted by any college toward satisfying its admission requirements. The attempt to formulate these norms was made by the Committee on College- Entrance Require- ments. It is too soon as yet to estimate the specific influence of this report on school and college work; but it was another comprehensive and decidedly creditable attempt to bring order out of chaos; this time especially by the articulation of secondary to collegiate education. Inci- dentally also, in no small degree, it has tended to overthrow shams and superficial work by setting up a reasonable standard of achievement by units of work in all secondary schools thruout the country. 1 6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Now, it is clear that all this while, amid the chaos of experimentation and imitation in school programs, what we have been seeking is guid- ance. Out of this demand for guidance have arisen the three reports already referred to. Out of the same demand has arisen in this country, during the last ten years, a volume of educational literature in periodicals, books, and special reports by individuals and associations, the like of which for quality and quantity we have never seen before. The question which we have to ask ourselves is this : Why is it that after twenty or thirty years of unparalleled educational interest and activity there is still so much vagueness about our aim^, so much indecision about the adaptation of means to ends (programs and methods), and so much uncertainty about our results, that even today we still seem, as of old, " always bound nowhere under full sail"? I think the answer is found in a single sen- tence : We have not yet organized our educational doctrine ^ we have only formulated it piecemeal ; and we have not organized our educational experi- ence — we have not gathered the fruits of experience as we went along. Each of the documents to which reference has been made, for example, is an isolated piece of work, without any reference to, certainly without any correlation with, the others. • Each of them was formulated as if there were no other educational literature deserving recognition for work done in its own field, or to which its own peculiar subject-matter sustained important relations. A similar statement applies, almost to the same extent, to the writers of the great body of the educational literature referred to. Each writer seems to regard himself as having received a special revelation of the educational gospel, vouchsafed to him alone ; so completely do most of them ignore their fellow-prophets, who of course reciprocate by similar apparent indifference. I have already reminded you that the significance of the work of the Subcommittee on Correlation of the Committee of Fifteen lies in the fact that they — or rather he — declined to bring order out of chaos by a more or less mechanical readjustment of the conventionally accepted studies of the elementary-school program. Dr. Harris set himself the task of setting forth an educational doctrine — the task of formulating the guiding principles that underlie educational endeavor. He therefore pushed the study of correlation beyond a mere inquiry into the relief of congested programs by means of a readjustment of the various branches of study to each other, to a more fundamental inquiry, namely : What is the educational significance of each study ? What contribution ought each study to make to the education of a modern child ? What is the edu- cational value of each study in correlating the individual to the civiliza- tion of his time? That this was the problem of problems was clear to most persons as soon as it had been pointed out, and after the disappointment over what the report did not do had subsided. If further proof is needed, it is Superintendence] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS I? . « furnished by the fact that today the progress we are making and the obstacles we encounter in planning our elementary-school programs all . center in the problems of educational aims and educational values. When we, teachers and laymen, see clearly what an equipment for modern life means ; how much of this equipment it is feasible and desirable to attempt in the elementary school ; and what each branch of study con- tributes in knowledge and power to this equipment ; we shall possess the key to the solution of our program difficulties, whether they pertain to the distribution and interrelation of studies and time allotment,^ or to adaptation to local needs, equipment, or teaching force. Dr. Harris' report was and is, therefore, a great report. But it has a great weakness : it is the work of but one man — a strong man, but nevertheless only one. The report could, therefore, possess only the strength of that one man. It came with the accumulated momentum of years of educational leadership on the part of its author. Nevertheless, it was not and could not be generally accepted as a contemporary solu- tion of the important problem with which it deals. It had paid too little heed to the earlier and contemporary discussion by others of the same problem. It did not adequately represent collective professional insight. The earlier report — that of the Committee of Ten — and the later report — that of the Committee on College-Entrance Requirements — did not possess this particular weakness. The report of the Committee of Ten presented an overwhelming array of educational authority, and had in consequence, as already remarked, an important and widespread influ- ence in promoting the improvement of secondary-school programs. The fundamental weakness of that report consists in the absence of a thoro- going formulation and exposition of contemporary educational doctrine, to which all good secondary- school programs must conform. Had the report set forth such an educational theory, its strength woifld have been seen to lie chiefly in T^ble I, and not in the subsequent tables, and least of all in the specimen programs of Table IV. Yet so strong a hold had the habit of program-making acquired that those programs were seized upon as the real fruit of the committee's labors. Table I not only embodied the important articulation of secondary to elementary and col- lege education, to which reference has been made above, but also exhib-* ited the subjects that ninety well-selected professional teachers regarded as essential to a satfsfactory modern school education. Table I therefore embodied the real results of the committee's labors, and not Table IV. No one saw more clearly than the chairman of the committee that the programs of Table IV could not be a permanent solution of secondary- school program difficulties. President Eliot said repeatedly that he regarded them merely as "scaffolding," as temporary structures; that they must give way to other and better ones as soon as further study should make clear just what selections and combinations from Table I 1 8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago schools could offer, or local or individual needs should demand ; and this view is clearly indicated in the remarks of the committee on Tables II and III, pp. 37-44- Had the Committee on Correlation of Studies " correlated'* its report with the work already done by the Committee of Ten, the result would have been a much more important and serviceable document than either produced alone. Educational theory based on experience and reflection would have criticised and illuminated educational authority based chiefly on experience ; and out of the two might have been produced a body of educational principles the overwhelming weight of which in directing educational practice would no doubt be conspicuous everywhere. That is to say, such a body of educational principles could not fail to unify our educational endeavor by a general adherence to common aims clearly understood, while it would not attempt to make it uniform in respect to either means or methods. In the absence of such generally accept- able unifying educational principles, our experiments in program -making have continued to be largely imitative instead of intelligent, and hence our programs are unstable to the last degree. In the report of the Committee on College- Entrance Requirements we have again an important document that absolutely ignores the work of its predecessors, and once more collects contemporary educational opinion de novo. The Committee on College-Entrance Requirements had the advan- tage, however, of formulating its resolutions in the light of the opinion and experience that had followed the publication of the two earlier reports, altho' there was no explicit attempt to correlate the work of the committee with that of either the Committee of Ten or the Committee of Fifteen. Its most important contributions to guiding principles are its approval of electives in secondary-school programs, its recommenda- tion of a unified six-years' high-school course, its emphatic insistence that any study well taught diying a sufficiently long peripd should be accepted toward satisfying college-admission requirements, and its attempt to define national norms or units of work in the several studies of the secondary-school programs. As already stated, I think the influence of the report of the Committee <3n College Entrance Requirements, like that of its predecessors, has been considerable. Besides the good it has accomplished, it has however, like those other reports, also complicated the educational situation by not explicitly taking into account what the earlier reports had already done ; and in failing to incorporate as explicitly in its resolutions and exposi- tions the cumulative influence of the best educational literature that had developed since the agitation which led to the other two reports com- menced. Like the others, the report of the Committee on College- Entrance Requirements is therefore an isolated document. Like them it must fail to exert, as it might, that unifying influence for guidance Superintendence] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 19 which we need so much, and which is still a consummation devoutly to be wished. Incidentally these three reports have failed in another way to become the unifying influence which they might and should have become. Each of them not only ignored the other two, but each of them set itself the impossible task of solving program difficulties by studying only a limited portion of the pupil's educational career. Once at work, however, each committee found it impossible to limit its field so narrowly. The Com- mittee on Correlation necessarily dealt, incidentally, with secondary- school problems, and the other two committees similarly found it necessary to consider, to some extent at least, problems of elementary education. Taking the three reports together, there is probably no single defect that has been so effective an obstacle to their use for guidance as this want of unification of their subject-matter in harmony with the interdependence of the problems with which they deal. We have had a body of educational doctrine that covered elementary education, and one that covered second- ary education, as if the two were distinct and independent. We need an educational doctrine that covers the entire school period, and so may serve as a guide to practice at each stage of the pupil's school career. We are, therefore, still seeking definite guidance. The want of it has led and still leads to economic and educational waste; and hence to uneasiness and vacillation within the teaching profession and dissatisfac- tion in the community. How can we expect the great body of teachers to accept the program changes which we recommend in the only spirit that will render them valuable — the spirit of interested, or at least intelligent, co-operation — as long as we have no such definite guidance ? How can we expect the community to be impressed with the wisdom of changes that run counter to all tradition, to be interested in them, and to display the patience that must be exercised before such changes can commend themselves alike to all concerned ? And how can we expect the schools to be free from persistent, usually well-meant, but pernicious meddling with the details of school work by school committees, parents, news- papers, and other lay influences ? The remedy for such obstacles is not far to seek, but experience thus far seems to show that it is difficult to secure. It is this : we need a new formulation of contemporary educational doctrine, that will serve to clarify our own conception of what a modern education means, and there- fore serve as a guide to intelligent, co-operative, and prolonged experi- mentation on a large scale. Such a formulation of educational doctrine would be based on our present knowledge of social needs ; and it would be formulated in the light of the best educational literature that the last dozen years or so have brought forth, to say nothing of the educational classics of earlier generations. Such a body of educational doctrine would be more generally and more seriously studied than any formulation 20 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago of educational doctrine has ever been studied ; and it could, therefore, be expected to furnish an insight and a purpose into the now too generally imitative and chaotic experiments in program -making with which we are familiar. Educational experiments are desirable and inevitable ; my plea is for a more rational experimentation than we have yet had ; and, as I shall point out in a moment, for an experimentation that enables us to gather the fruits of experience as we go along. With an educational doctrine thoroly assimilated and consciously adhered to — no matter whether it achieves universal acceptance in all its details or not — superintendents, principals, and teachers can face the community with a professional consciousness that must triumph over ignorant or meddlesome obstructions, repeatedly break down indiffer- ence, and occasionally promote enthusiastic co-operation, until it is clear just what can and cannot be achieved by it. By that time we would demand a fresh formulation of our educational doctrine; new experi- ments would follow, but not a repetition of former errors. In this way progress would be steady and sure, in spite of errors ; not random, hap- hazard, and uncertain, as it must be now. It appears, therefore, that we need to repeat our formulation of educational doctrine at intervals — say once in ten years — often enough to embody in it the new insight that changing social needs, a careful study of the best educational literature, and our practical experiments afford. , But a satisfactory educational doctrine is not enough to promote edu- cational progress. Doctrine must achieve success in application over a wide area to be really effective. Now, just as we have not organized and adequately assimilated a generally accepted educational doctrine, so we are without a body of recorded educational experience. Results actually achieved and collectively presented constitute a force that is capable of sweeping away superficial criticism and paralyzing skepticism on the one hand, or meddlesome interference and impatient clamoring for premature results on the other. Isolated successes have been advertised, to be sure; and failures, more or less obvious, have sometimes been frankly con- fessed, and sometimes unwisely suppressed. But in neither case have we had an orderly presentation of both successes and failures over a wide area. We have had plenty of experiments; indeed, as I have intimated, our whole educational activity for nearly a generation has consisted of experiments. But we have had little co-operation. Just as every educa- tional theorizer has worked by himself without taking due account of the labors of his fellow-workers in the same field, so every superintendent has pursued his way apparently in blissful indifference to what his fellow- superintendents were doing, multiplying instances and varying conditions ad libitum. How is it possible to extract any confirmation of alleged results from such a heterogeneous procedure ? And we never can get such confirmation until we abandon our absurd extreme of individualism Superintendence] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 21 in these experiments and work together for the attainment of the same ends. No physicist or biologist would ignore his fellow-workers in the way here condemned. When Roentgen announced his discovery, other physicists confirmed his discovery. The facts of embryology and their bearing on the theory of evolution were similarly confirmed by each biolo- gist under the conditions which led to their discovery. The principles of science once established in this way, no one can doubt or belittle them. Each experimenter, then, sees clearly what conditions must be observed to secure certain results, and the application of principles proceeds intel- ligently, no matter how varied the circumstances under which the appli- cation is made. So must it be in education, if we are ever to escape from the quagmire of random and isolated experimenting in which each worker seeks to find the way out for himself, disregarding the landmarks and sign -posts that have already been set up by his predecessors. Briefly, then, we must organize our educational experience just as we must organ- ize our educational doctrine, if we are to make real progress. Let me give two or three illustrations of what I mean. Every school system having five thousand or more children, and many smaller ones, is and should be, among other things, an educational experiment station. Suppose that in twenty-five school systems of this country the attempt were made by the superintendents acting together^ under ordinary condi- tions of teaching and equipment, to discover just what the accomplish- ment in the three R's is with a given time allotment, agreement having previously been reached, for the sake of the experiment, as to the condi- tions under which the experiment was to be tried. Suppose the conditions to be something like this : five hundred or a thousand pupils in each city to begin the study of arithmetic in the first year ; a similar number to begin it in the second year; and a third similar group to begin it in the third year of school. At the end of the sixth year of school compare the attainments of the three groups of pupils. Would not the conclusions reached by such experiments have a convincing value which no amount of assertion beginning "in my schools," or "so far as my experience goes," or "I believe," or "in my opinion," could possibly have? Suppose, again, that in the same twenty-five school systems the study of algebra, geometry, foreign languages, and elementary natural science were undertaken in two pre-high-school grades, with substantially the same aims, equipment (books and apparatus), time allotment, and teach- ing force. That is to say, suppose that it were understood that these studies, if undertaken at all in pre-high-school grades, were to be under- taken seriously. Suppose, further, that this experiment were continued for not less than five years. If the twenty-five superintendents should then make a collective report on the results of the work, would not such a report have an overwlielming force in determining public opinion within and without the profession, making future progress less doubtful and future experiments more profitable than is now the case ? 22 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Or, again, suppose that our contemporary independent experiments with the elective system were correctly reported on and the results so far attained duly appraised by competent investigators. Would it not be possible to find twenty- five important schools that, for the sake of the educational interests at stake, would be willing to sink minor individual differences in the administration of the elective system, and consent to act together ? Or, if we couldn't get twenty five, could we get ten schools to undertake this co-operative enterprise for at least five years ? I do not believe that such co-operation is impossible. Why should ft be ? Experiments similar to those suggested are everywhere in progress ; co-operation in large enterprises of all kinds is possible. Why should it be impossible only in education ? Under such circumstances we could then face the profession and the public with facts^ instead of opinions. The enormous difference between the weight of these two very different things in educational affairs still remains to be experienced. When we consider the obstacles to progress in the organization and administration of school systems, we find them similar to the obstacles already considered in the fields of educational theory and practice, altho not identical with them. We have two important documents embodying collective expression of opinion on wise and efficient organization and administration, but we lack any collective presentation of recorded experience. We have one important document on organization and administration in the report of the Committee of Fifteen, and another in the report of the Chicago school commission. What we need is a clear statement of the- improvements effected in various cities thruout the country during the last six or eight years ; of the old difficulties that remain unsolved, and of the new difficulties encountered in attempting to carry out the revised administrative policy. The collected experience of Toledo, St. Louis, Cleveland, Indianapolis, New Haven, New York, and the proposed plans for reorganization in Chicago, Boston, Detroit, and other cities, afford material for such a presentation of a wise administra- tive policy, and the beneficent results that flow from it, or to be expected from it, as we have not had and could not have until now. Shall we not take steps to procure it ? The chief obstacles in the way of better organization and administra- tion of our city school systems are the failure of the public to recognize the educational expert as such, and the corresponding unwillingness to trust him when found. The chief reasons why this recognition of tech- nical knowledge and skill in the field of education is too often difficult to secure, and the wisdom of following the professional leadership is not realized, are : (i) the unfortunate lack of a genuine professional knowl- edge and a well-considered administrative policy on the part of many superintendents, even when they have had much practical experience ; and (2) the want of courage and initiative on the part of many well-equipped Superintendence] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 23 and otherwise efficient superintendents. Such men fail to enlighten their respective constituencies on what a wise organization and administration means, and also fail to insist, even to the point of self-sacrifice, that such an organization and administration shall prevail. In other words, the teaching profession cannot expect recognition for professional knowledge and skill until its members take pains to possess it, and unless they possess also the energy and the courage of their convictions. Lawyers, physicians, and engineers were not accorded professional standing, could not achieve the confidence of the public they wished to serve, until they could prove by their practice, based on adequate training, that they deserved it ; and so it is in our profession. All teachers, but especially superintendents, must show their fitness to lead, not merely by an appar- ently successful routine practice of their profession, but by a professional career that is based on a professional consciousness born of adequate training — a training that lends significance to every phase of practice and furnishes a safeguard against the presumptuous or ignorant assump- tion of technical duties by either meddlesome and spoils-hunting or well-meaning but misguided laymen in educational affairs. With a pro- fessional consciousness born of a professional equipment, lay interference in organization and administration will not be tolerated. Courage- to insist on what ought to be done will be as natural and easy for the super- intendent and principal as for lawyers, physicians, and engineers to insist on the wisest measures in their several fields. And, so far as self-sacrifice is concerned, are we not justified in saying, at least to the younger super- intendents : Do not court opposition ; try to cultivate public opinion in behalf of wise measures ; be patient and long-suffering, but in the end you can afford to lose your place, if it comes to that, because you insist on what is right. The man who loses his place because he insists cour- teously, intelligently, patiently — in a word, wisely — will not need to wait long for employment ? We are fortunately not without illustrations of the truth of this proposition, and of the practical wisdom of the recom- mendation based on it. I have time for only a few words on the obstacles to progress in the third division of the educational field mentioned in the beginning of this paper, namely, the training of teachers for elementary and secondary schools. The greatest obstacles to real progress in the training of elementary teachers are want of scholarship on the part of both students and teachers in normal schools, and the want of insistence on good professional train- ing by school officers and employers of teachers. We have had at least two authoritative recent documents emanating from the National Educational Association which set forth the aims, equipment, and methods that should prevail in normal schools for the training of elementary-school teachers. And there seems to be substantial 24 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago agreement on the advisability and feasibility of the practical realiza- tion of what these documents recommend. We have a normal-school doctrine that seems to be fairly acceptable, but have we a normal-school practice in harmony therewith, or an adequate normal-school practice anyway? It is not uncommon to hear the normal schools and their product disparaged. What ground, if any, is there for such disparage- ment ? Has anybody collected the testimony of superintendents and other competent persons concerning the relative efficiency of teachers trained in our normal schools and of teachers not so trained ? What agency, either by states or otherwise, has set itself the task of ascertaining the actual working efficiency of our normal schools ? If we had a thoro- going report on that subject, say from a dozen normal schools chosen from the country at large — such a report could be made without mention- ing in the report the name of a single school — what an incentive it would afford to efficiency! How clearly it might show just what the obstacles are that thwart or obstruct the progress of their work, or some- times defeat it altogether ! On the basis of such a report, public opinion within and without the teaching profession would soon demand the best professional training attainable, and unwavering recognition of it when obtained. What I have just said about the failure to demand adequate scholar- ship of elementary-school teachers cannot be asserted to the same extent in the case of secondary -school teachers. But, much more than in the case of elementary- school teachers do we find the lack of a demand for adequate professional, i. e., technical, training in addition to scholarship. Nothing is a more obstructive influence in secondary education than the want of proper professional training of the teachers. Of course, they will not seek such training until it is demanded, not in a half-hearted and after-all-it-doesn't-matter-much sort of a way, but in an unmistakable, insistent fashion. If you as superintendents have no confidence in what you think we who are training secondary-school teachers are doing, take steps to find out what we are doing, tell us our shortcomings, and point out what you believe ought to be added to what we are now doing. As soon as your demand for the right kind of professional training for secondary-school teachers is strong, persistent, and widespread, such training will be forthcoming. At present a college student who has taken pains to add technical training for his profession to his academic attain- ments finds himself just as likely to be passed by in the competition for places as one who has not. Under such circumstances the best possible provision for technical training can reach only a comparatively small number of college graduates who become teachers. I cannot close without expressing the hope that this association will ere long take steps to organize our contemporary educational doc- trine and our practical experience in some such way as has been suggested Superintadenoe] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 25 in this paper. May I not commend to you the words of the Chinese dele- gate to the peace conference at The Hague! That conference, you remem- ber, took place shortly after Admiral Dewey had destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila. The Chinese delegate to the peace conference listened to the eloquence q{ his colleagues for some time, and then remarked : "Too much talkee, talkee; too little do-ee, do-ee." DISCUSSION William K. Fowler, state superinteodent, Lincoln, Nebraska. — I have not recently delved into the reports of the Committee of Ten, of Fifteen, and of College- Entrance Requirements, tho I wish to claim the credit of reading them several years ago. Nor have I read any other reports or documents or publications preparatory to this dis- cussion. I do not desire to be classed with those mentioned by Professor Hanus as work- ing absolutely independent of all others, however, for I have conferred with school people and laymen on these and similar matters, and I desire to present for consideration and discussion topics that I hear mentioned daily as I go out among the people of my own state ; out into the cities and villages and rural communities of the commonwealth. Once upon a time a farmer was impressed with the argument that only by averaging might the best results be accomplished. He heard that one extreme in either direction was very generally condemned, and he was told that for the best results, practical and progressive, the two extremes must be used, thereby securing a fair average. With that idea fairly impressed upon his mind, he hitched to his plow, side by side, an ox from New England and a finely bred, high-stepping, 2 : 10 trotting horse from Kentucky. The great heterogeneous mass of the people is thus driving the public schools. Is it any wonder that our " gee ! whoa ! haw ! git ap !" is no more effective, or that our furrows are none the less crooked ? Our ox takes the furrow and keeps it, in the rut, while our trotting horse prances about, making but little impression on the unbroken sod. Sometimes we find the combination illustrated in the contrast between the rural schools that have remained unchanged thru three generations and the finely supervised or over- trained city school S3rstem ; sometimes we find the two existing in the same place under different administrations — at one tfme traveling the hard, stony, well-worn and well- known path of the past, and at another endeavoring to make new paths and new by-ways on virgin sod, on unbroken prairie, seeking out untried and untrod paths and pastures. Some demand of us that we dispense with the services of our high-stepping, over- strung trotting horses, and return to the yoke — of oxen, of course. They charge that we teach less thoroly than formerly, that we attempt too many subjects, and give but a smat- tering of each. We may seem to be tending somewhat in that direction, but we are driven to it. The pressore is from without, not from within the schools. The medical men demand that a regular system of physical training be used ; the Grand Army of the Republic wants military science and drill ; the Tumverein asks for gymnastics ; the cler- gymen insist that morality be inculcated by line and precept ; the Woman's Christian Temperance Union has succeeded in introducing formal teaching of the effects of alcohol* tobacco, narcotics, and stimulants ; the women's clubs beg for domestic science ; the sew- ing guilds for needle-work; the trades for manual training; the business world for stenography and typewriting; the editors for current events; the artists for picture study ; the musical worid for music ; and the farmer for the elements of agriculture. One of the gravest problems presented to our rural school-teachers and their county superintendents is the desire of many school boards and patrons to introduce into the 26 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago rural schools high-school subjects. School people generally understand that these sub- jects cannot be taught there without great detriment to the work and instruction of the little folks. I have found many rural districts where it is demanded of the teachers that they instruct classes in algebra, civics, and physical geography, in addition to thirty or more classes in reading, arithmetic, spelling, geography,, etc. The demands of our modern civilization are great. Two or Ihree generations ago it was not necessary for the youth to study the sciences — there was but little known of them to study. Today the well-educated youth must be familiar with modem machinery, with common business practices, with affairs of state, and with the latest scientific discoveries. With the telegraph and cable connecting all the cities of the world, with the telephone soon to connect all its farmhouses, with the steamships and steam cars and electric cars connecting all its cities, great and small, with million-dollar bridges spanning all its great rivers, and with its vast commercial enterprises, there is no end or limit to the practical knowledge that may be gathered. There is poor and indifferent work as well as excellent work done in the school- rooms of Nebraska, and this is true in every state in the union, in every country of the world, and it always has been true. There is always good, bad, and indifferent work in every other walk and avocation of life, in every other profession and every trade, and with less excuse for such a condition; for in the other professions and in most of the trades there is more regular, systematic, and careful training for the work than we find for our important work of training the youth of the land. And low salaries accompany unskilled labor. In the 8,000 schoolrooms in Nebraska this year, and every year, we find nearly 2,500 teachers who have had no experience whatever, and not one-sixth of the number have had any special training for their work. Obstacles ! Nebraska employs annually over 9,000 teachers, in less than 8,000 schoolrooms. Many teach only three months ! They meet with obstacles. And so do the pupils — obstacles to progress. Our 9,000 teachers include only 2,000 male teachers, whereas eleven years ago the state employed 2,800 male teachers. The average school year in the state is six and three-fourths months, and the average salary is $38 a month, something like $255 a year. There are scores of principals in the state receiving $585, $630, or $675 a year, less than the labor of many unskilled workmen. The average life of the school-teacher in Nebraska, as a teacher, is less than four years. Yes, we have our obstacles ; and yet we can boast of our very low percentage of illiteracy in Nebraska. How is it with you, neighbor ? Some of the obstacles in the way of educational progress have Jaeen placed there by ourselves, some by the public generally, and still others thru co-operation. I desire to enumerate a few briefly, leaving the removal of them to be discussed by. others. Within our ranks we have established and permit to exist the following obstacles to educational prftgress : A lack of unification in our educational forces. This includes a laclc of harmony between universities, colleges, normal schools, business colleges, etc., in many essential particulars. A low professional interest among teachers. To increase the interest we must improve the teacher, and the public should demand a higher standard of requirements. Too many preparatory schools for higher schools, at least in comparison with the number of preparatory schools for happy, useful lives. Perhaps the number of the latter can be increased without decreasing the former. The attempt to create or manufacture Instead of train and develop; to turn out money -making machines instead of well -developed, manly, and womanly characters. In this connection also we may include the scattering fire caused by too many aims. Too many persons in the work who are without educational opinions, and too many others in the work who are educationally opinionated. Too much emphasis placed on forms and methods. Mixture of standards and transition of ideals — the yawning Scylla and Charybdis of the pedagog — generating much pressure and nervous strain. This strain is so tense that the tendency is that the teacher loses the best of himself, his .poise, his courage, and his full joy of life. To hide his loss, he becomes a recluse, which militates decidedly against a unified ideal among teachers. This is in itself an impediment to progress. If, however humbly and truly, the teachers are the servants of the public, they must at length Superintendence] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 27 become a sort of composite Moses, to lead the public out of the educational wilderness into that glad Canaan which awaits. The general public has kindly assisted us in rolling in the following obstacles and hedging them 'round about our public-school system : Misunderstanding the nature of education, the purpose of education, and the results that should be e xpected ; establishing false and pernicious ideals. There is a widely different point of view between the public and the teaching world. Neither the general nor the teaching public, as a whole, has a clear idea of what it wants or what should be expected. A clearer comprehension of what education s, or should be, must precede any marked advancement in securing the same. There are too many aims in education on either side, and fusion here has simply aided and emphasized confusion. The lack of unselfish feeling, partnership, and co-operation between parents and teachers is a great obstacle to educational progress, which in this case had better be expressed as the chtltTs progress and well- being. With this should be included the oft-recurring conflict between parental and state authority as to what a child's minimum education should be, what he must study, and the governmental or disciplinary authority relatively of parent and teacher. Another obstacle is the neglect of physical education that would develop bodily conditions, that would support a vigorous mentality. Overcrowded courses of study, with scattering fire instead of concentration, prevents substantial progress. Last, but not by any means least, among the obstacles to educational progress for which we are all responsible, whether within or without the ranks of the teaching profession, is the unprofessional standing of teachers and their low salaries. I feel that the one who accepts a low salary — an amount far below what his services really are worth — is equally guilty for evil results with the one who offers the same. Now* I am going to make a series^ of bald, perhaps gray, statements of obstacles to educational progress, the removal of which is chiefly in the hands of the public. We must ask them to remove them. Many of them are beyond our power and jurisdiction : Decentralization. Outside the great cities the school officers outnumber the teachers five to two. The seven thousand schools of Nebraska are managed and controlled by twenty -two thousand school district officers. This is lack of concentration with a vengeance. There is too much divided responsibility. We, superintendems, are willing to assume more. There are too many small schools and smaller classes. Irregular attendance is a great obstacle. In many parts of the country there is a lack of sufficient funds properly to conduct the schools. Some states place a limit on the legal amount of school taxation and bonded indebtedness of school districts, and upon nothing else ; probably upon the theory that the people in their grea{ interest in the welfare of their children may expend too much upon their education and general welfare, while there is no fear whatever that too large an amount will be expended upon the care of the streets and the improvement of roads, upon a sufficient amount of drinking water and plenty of gas ! We ask for a higher appreciation by the public of the importance of school work, and a willingness to contribute more freely to the support of the legitimate work of the public schools. The public demands specialization before fundamentals are mastered. They demand the teaching of too many subjects. The demand for one specialty is made by one profession, for another subject by another profession or a trade, and so on, and the public does not realize the sum total of our unhappiness in this respect. One of these demands is for short, abbreviated, hotbed business courses, and too many high schools are offering a course that gives little or no training, and affords in six months' time no more information than a young man might acquire in a bank or lumber yard in two weeks. There is too strong a demand from without to get the children thru school in too brief a time ; too much commercialism ; too much love of tl^e almighty dollar. A popular notion prevails that an education is an extraneous equipment which may be bartered for a livelihood. The present social conditions and the demand for society or social life for mere school children interfere greatly widi solid, substantial, progressive school work. One of the greatest obstacles to educational progress, at least in certain portions of the country, is the great lack of professionally trained teachers, and the lack of facilities for training them. There is a lack of strong men and able women in the ranks, caused by lack of appreciation, of adequate pay. of stable conditions. There must be better pay, and a surer, longer tenure of office to draw and retain imen especially of ability and character. The powers that be must cease to foist upon the schools their dependent and unqualified relatives. The great mass of the people, the great middle class, the practical, progressive people with a good, common- school education and common -sense ideas and ideals, must awake to the real needs of the schools and show less apathy to school work. I believe that the addition of school gardens, gymnasiums, and manual-training schools would remove many obstacles to educational progress. 28 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago My own experience emphasizes the lack of efficient supervision for rural schools, a cure for which would be the centralization and consolidation under township organiza- tion. A county superintendent has written me : " Our rural schools have everything the city schools lack, and they lack everything the city schools have." Would that we could make a happy combination of the two ! I wish to indorse and second the request of Professor Hanus for a committee of the National Educational Association, or of this department, on the reformulation of educa- tional doctrine, systematic experimentation, and unification of educational forces, with emphasis upon the last. THE VALUE OF EXAMINATIONS AS DETERMINING A TEACHER'S FITNESS FOR WORK EDWIN G. COOLEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL. This is a day of examinations. Examinations as a means of selection of public servants are becoming more and more popular. The movement for the reform of the city, state, and national civil service by examinations seems irresistible. We have used them as a means of selecting teachers for many years, and the introduction of this topic as a subject of discus- sion at the superintendents' meeting seems rather startling, just when people are beginning to accept an examination as a panacea for all sorts of public ills. The subject, however, is a timely one, just because we seem likely to go too far in the advocacy of examinations. If a man or woman is wanted to do a piece of work, the ideal way to select such a person is to have some disinterested third person, who is well acquainted with the nature of the work to be done, select, after care- ful observation and examination, the one best fitted to do it. This practice, however, in a large system would inevitably degenerate into a condition of things where the men who made this selection would know very little about the nature of the work to be done, and would care less. They would be, however, intensely interested in the persons who ask for the job; in other words, it would be likely to degenerate into a system of **pull," a sort of bargain and sale affair in which the various positions would be given to people on account of the quid pro quo they or their friends were able to offer. Sooner or later this interest in the person and indifference as to the way the work is done becomes evident to all and leads people to realize the necessity for introducing some machinery that will reduce the personal element involved. Written examinations have been the machinery most commonly employed. As Latham says, " an exami- nation serves to make smoother the personal relations among people employed in a given system of work by shifting the duty of selection from individual shoulders and putting it on a relentless piece of mechanism." The same principles are called into play when we introduce the mechanism of examinations that are called into play when any bit of machinery is employed to do the work formerly done bare-handed, so to Superintendence] THE VALUE OF EXAMINATIONS 29 speak. The man who undertakes to invent or make a machine that will do the work previously done by hand begins by analyzing the work to be done, and he selects machinery that will deal with certain essential and typical parts of the operation, and do this under typical circumstances. He sees the necessity of disregarding th« exceptional case. He realizes that his machinery is bound to fail at some point or other ; that it can deal only with the average situation. The man using the machine is compelled to pay attention only to the average sort of material with which he works. The machine cannot be adjusted to suit the various sorts of materials with which a hand-worker might do a good piece of work. The machine always spoils good material if it happens to be out of the ordinary. It is spoiled on account of the character of the machine, on account of its inability to adapt itself to exceptional material. The examination is subject to the same sort of limitations as other pieces of machinery. It can really test only a few qualities, the number depending on the character of it. An examination may test one*s accuracy, the fullness of one's memory, and one's power of concentration. As Latham says, in his classical book on Examinations: Behind these qualities lies something which a mental physiologist would call massive - ness or robustness of brain, or which we may call energy of mind. Of this, so far as it is brought out in dealing with books and ideas, we can judge fairly from a written examina- tion. We can see that knowledge has been got and know that brain work has been done to get it, and, in addition, note indications of strength or feebleness of will, and we can find out pretty well from a set of papers whether a man knows his own mind or not. On the other hand, examinations do comparatively little to test the moral qualities. While they will test the intellectual power, and such moral qualities as diligence and obedience, they cannot test one's sense of duty or interest in the work one is doing. An examination will never test sympathy, or the power of working with and influencing others — powers that are absolutely essential to a teacher. In other words, an examination cannot test the whole man. It is necessary to discriminate between the two uses of this test. Latham says that examinations have two uses: (i) "that in which the object is to select the most suitable person for a certain purpose, or the man of the most general ability;" (2) "that in which the object is purely educational." This separation is, however, ideal rather than real, as the use of examinations as a means of selection necessarily affects the sort of education that will be offered. It is impossible to discuss adequately examinations as a means of selection without considering them to some extent from a purely educational standpoint! In education intended to fit for an active career, instruction and acquirement are very important, while for fitting for a competitive exam- ination they are everything. The proper education for a boy must include — besides getting knowledge — growth in character, gaining the 30 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chiago power of doing the thing he wills, and in getting on with other human beings in other relations. No examination can aid in bringing this about ; in fact, they may check the growth of these qualities on account of the difficulty of obtaining these two elements — knowledge of the work and disinterestedness. So far, » however, we seem to be unable to get along without examinations as a means of selection, whatever we may think of them from a purely educational point of view. In spite of these limitations, however, I feel that many of the protests against the use of examinations are ill-considered, to say the least. They seem to be a protest against all tests. One might think we were about ready to return to the old scheme of substituting individual, capricious judgment for systematic tests. There is a fallacy in the scheme, for judg- ments— no matter how capricious they may seem to be — are based upon experience, observation, examination of person, and circumstances. But how is this judgment to be formed ; upon what is it to be based, if it is not upon judgment as to what one knows, upon judgment as to what one can do ? Can this be ascertained by a knowledge of physiognomy, phrenology, social standing, good clothes, or general personality ? To some extent I think it can ; but no matter by what names people may call this test, they will always be compelled to make some examination, formal or otherwise, as a basis of selection. They will always be com- pelled to apply some test. Perhaps some people can judge best by the lines of the face, the size and contour of head and jaw; but for the ordinary man a written examination seems to me to be less objectionable than any- thing else that has been proposed for general use in selecting teachers and other officials. Back of any theory of examinations there seems to lie a presupposi- tion that there is some relation between knowledge and power. People unconsciously work on the theory that the man who knows is the man who can do, even if they do deny Bacon's aphorism that " knowledge is power. " Dr. Dewey says that on the evolutionary theory of develop- ment we cannot explain the selection and preservation of brain power on any other supposition than that it enabled its possessor to do something — except on the theory that it has some value as a means of preservation in the struggle for existence. The animal with the greater intelligence or the greater knowledge has an advantage over his competitors in the struggle for existence. Evolution seems to teach that knowledge is power. It seems natural, then, when it is impossible to submit the appli- cant for a piece of work to a test of doing, to make him submit to a test of knowledge. m .We must admit that an examination in many cases will determine not so much the applicant's ability to do the thing desired as his ability to tell how it should be done. This can sometimes be learned from books. People may learn from books something about how schools should be Superintendencel THE VALUE OF EXAMINATIONS 3I taught, but the skillful examiner can, I think, always tell the difference between the applicant who speaks from experience about doing a thing and the one who has merely " crammed " books on pedagogy. One would have to admit the impossibility of picking out a Mark Hopkins by an examination which called for information about pedagogy. Still there must be a certain sort of relation between knowledge and the ability to do some piece of work based on that knowledge. The man who has the knpwledge is apt to be interested in doing the thing. This knowl- edge has usually been acquired in doing the thing. The one who has the best assortment of knowledge about a particular piece of work is, other things being equal, the best prepared to do it. I believe that there is a closer relation between having the knowledge and doing the thing in the case of the teacher than there is in the case of the policeman or some other public official. Teaching calls for ability to state clearly what one knows. This is part of the equipment of a teacher, while the ability to talk on the part of the policeman may have very little to do with his efficiency. As " Sammy Weller *' says, " on the contrary it*s quite the reverse. " But the teacher who is dumb in the presence of a problem demanding solution, who lacks the power of expressing himself definitely and accurately, must in some degree be unfitted for the work he has undertaken to do. We hear a good deal about the inability of teachers and others to do themselves justice in an examination. This is given as a reason for abandoning them as a test. To my mind there is very little in this proposition. A successful teacher must have self-possession and self- mastery. He must be able to do, under trying conditions and under time conditions. A teacher who is unmanned by the presence of a difficult thing to do, who loses his self-possession and self-mastery, con- fesses judgment so far as his ability to be a successful schoolmaster is concerned. No matter how much force we may be inclined to give to this matter of nervousness in an examination of delicate children in a public school, we should not give it any weight in a test of applicants for the position of a. teacher. The teacher must have self-control enough to meet this test, or he will be worth little to us in the schoolroom. We hear an'd read a good deal about " cram." People use the word " cram " as a substitute for thinking, for argument, and it enables them to damn almost any sort of a thing they do not approve of. It is often assumed that almost any preparation for examination is, to some extent, a hasty, crude, and dishonest preparation. It is taken for granted that the power to prepare for an examination in a definite time is not a thing worth testing for; but, to my mind, a man or a woman who has the ability really and thoroly to prepare for an examination has in him the right sort of stuff of which to make a teacher. The teacher as well as the lawyer must possess the power to go to the right place for material, and 32 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago to use this material when he gets it. If cramming means only hasty and crude work, we shall condemn it, and I believe an examiner will detect it. If cramming, however, means simply the ability to go to the sources of information, select the proper materials, and prepare thoroly to meet the test of a certain situation, the power to cram is a power that everyone should wish for, and no one more so than the teacher, who should pre- pare for his lessons every day of his life. Again, it is impossible, if we mean by " cram " hasty and crude study, to cram for many of the subjects in a good examination. Many of the lists of questions are tests of the power to do things. If one prepares for examination in mathematics, in the sciences, and in many other sub- jects, he must do something besides hasty and crude work ; he must have made long and continuous effort along definite lines, and in the doing of this he must have acquired power that is valuable to one in whatever business he may be. I think, then, that " we should clear our minds of cant," as Carlyle would say, and stop and ask ourselves the question as to what we mean when we talk about " cramming " for examination. There is much to be said for the use of oral examinations to supple- ment the written ones. An oral examination will permit one to probe deeper along certain lines of power or knowledge that the applicant seems to possess than a written examination. In a written examination we have to aim at things in a more general sort of way. In an oral examination we can adapt our questions to a particular preparation, a particular power, of the individual, and we can sometimes come much nearer in getting a clear judgment of him than we can in a written examination. But the oral examination must necessarily be discontinu- ous and fragmentary. If there is any unity and sequence in an examina- tion, it will be because it is put there by the teacher. One who reads the dialogs of Plato will readily see that whatever of unity or sequence is given in an argument is given, not by the person questioned, but by the questioner, Socrates. If you wish to test one's grasp of a whole subject, the written examination will serve you better than the oral examination. Conceding the value of examinations as a means of selection, it is still true that the results are chiefly negative, and selection based upon au examination never entirely proves fitness for a piece of work, and, in many cases, examinations will even fail to demonstrate the unfitness of the applicant. Teachers should never be fully and finally admitted into a system of schools as a result of an examination. Some trial must be given them before they are assigned to permanent positions, some test of their ability to do (as well as their ability to talk about doing) must be made, if we hope to keep the unfit from our schools. In Chicago we have two classes of elementary teachers, i. e., those who enter from the normal school after a two-years' course, and experienced teachers who come in from the outside as a result nf a n f^ vamination . In both Superintendence] THE VALUE OF EXAMINATIONS 33 cases teachers are compelled to demonstrate their fitness during a proba- tionary period of four months. In both cases the certificates given them are good for one year only, the superintendent having the power of refus- ing to renew them. Only after two renewals are teachers in Chicago given permanent certificates. We have come to the conclusion that, while examinations are a necessity as a means of protection against imposition, the examination must be supplemented by actual test in the schoolroom. DISCUSSION W. W. Stetson, state superintendent of public instruction, Augusta, Me. — I trust I am saying nothing unconventional when I remark that the paper presented by Superin- tendent Cooley impresses me as one of unusual merit. I realize that I am saying nothing, startling when I observe that I agree with the facts stated and the gospel preached. I must be excused, however, from attempting to discuss this question from the Chicago altitude or the vantage ground of Illinois, but instead I must be content to consider it from the Maine standpoint. There are four items which, it seems to me, we may consider as settled : (i) We can- not gain much information as to a teacher's fitness to be licensed by asking her questions she cannot answer. (2) We ought not to forgive ourselves if we indulge in that form of idiocy which asks for details no intelligent teacher should be expected to know. (3) The candidate has a right to a fair chance to tell what she knows. (4) What she has done and what she can do should be considered in granting a certificate, and these items should be placed to her credit, in definite form, on her certificate. The following plan has been used in Maine during the past five years. Its success has more than vindicated its usefulness. That its fairness has appealed to the teachers of the state is proved by the fact that nearly one-fourth of the members of the profession have applied for certificates, and that more than one-sixth of our teachers have been licensed under this system. The plan may be briefly outlined as follows : A preliminary examination blank is sent to each candidate, upon which she makes a record of her name, age, post-ofiice address ; the schools she has attended, with the time she was a member of each ; the schools she has taught, with the time she had charge of each ; the official positions she has held, with the term of office of each ; the subjects in which she has received special training ; the branches she prefers to teach ; the titles of at least five books she has read on history, science, literature, aixd pedagogy; the names of the magazines and professional papers she reads regularly; the names of the educational associations of which she is an active member ; and the names of Bve persons who are not related to her by blood, or connected with her by marriage, or associated with her in business, and who have a knowledge of her schoolroom work, and are capable of giving an estimate of the same. The candidate may be asked to give an abstract of one of the books she has read, and a judgment of its merits, together with a brief biography of its author. She also may be required to give such a description of some one of the magazines or papers included in her list as will indicate the intelligence and regularity with which it is read. If it is evident from the preliminary examination that a teacher has limited her read- ing to trashy literature, this evidence of unfitness must be overcome before the depart- ment will issue a certificate. The teacher may not have read all the latest books on pedagogy, but she is forgiven if she has read the chapter on " Old Domsie " in Beside tht Bonny Brier Bush, has caught the spirit embalmed in The Evolution of Dodd^ and 34 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago has learned to sympathize with Sentimental Tommy. She is even told to go her way and sin some more — along these lines. Slips containing the following explanations and questions are sent to three or five persons named by the candidate as references : State of Mains: Educational Dbpartmbnt. M of has referred to you as one not related to her by blood or marriage, nor associated with her in business, and as having personal knowledge of her character and worth as a teacher. Will you please fill the annexed blank » using one or more of the following words in giving answers to all subjects of inquiry except the last, namely, »' Excellent," " Good," " Fair," " Poor," " Very Poor "? If your answers are favorable, your name will be placed upon the back of the state certificate for which the person named is applicant; if unfavorable, your name will not be used, and your answers will be held strictly confidential. For the benefit of the candidate this return should be made at once, W. W. Stetson, State Superintendent of Public Schools, ESTIMATE OP CANDIDATE'S FITNESS (x) Moral character? (2) Success in gaining co-operation of pupils and parents ? (3) Tact in directing and controlling pupils? (4) Interest in work? (5) Energy? (6) Enthusiasm? (7) Skill in instructing? (8) Power in stimulating pupils to do their best ? (9) Influence over pupils out of school ? (xo) Efforts for self- improvement ? (xi) Extent of general reading?' (la) Manners as influencing those of pupils? (13) Capacity for work ? (14) For what kind of school would you recommend the candidate ? Signed. P. O The candidate does not know which three of the five references are interviewed. The replies received are averaged and recorded on the face of the certificate in a column numbered i, and a record is also made of the preliminary examination on the back of the certificate. This document, when properly filled out, gives a complete pedagogical his- tory of the person holding the same, together with the estimates of three competent judges who know personally of the holder and her work. It also includes a license to teach in primary, grammar, common schools, or public schools, and is valid for one, three, or five years, or for life. On a day previously announced, the candidates assemble at convenient centers, and written examinations in the several studies are given. These papers are returned to the department and are ranked, and the credits are entered upon the certificate in the column numbered 2. It will be seen that three items are taken into consideration in licensing a teacher : first, her personal and professional record ; second, the testimony furnished by three com petent persons as to her ability and her success in the schoolroom ; third, her scholastic attainments as manifest in her written examinations. The following advantages are claimed for this system of issuing certificates : first, it is just to the candidate ; second, it reveals to the applicant, in tangible form, her merits and defects ; third, it gives full credit for ability, scholarship, experience, effort, and skill ; fourth, it furnishes school officials with a reliable statement of the quality and power of the person applying for a position. Miss Margaret A. Haley, of Chicago. — I should like to ask Superintendent Stetson if he can get teachers with all the accomplishments he has mentioned for $38 per month. Superintendent Stetson. — Many are giving their time and their best knowledge and culture for a sum so small that they are unwilling to reveal it. Miss Haley. — Do the graduates of Smith and Wellesley Colleges support themselves on the small sum mentioned ? Superintendence] THE VALUE OF EXAMINATIONS 35 Superintendent Stetson. — These persons are native-born, Simon-pure maniacs, and are waiting for an opportunity to marry men with money enough to support them and supply them with the necessary amount of money to carry on their work. Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, of St. Louis. — Examination of principals and teachers brings to light other important points aside from determining the academic profi- ciency in the studies he or she is expected to teach. Examinations aid the superintendent and examining committee in determining traits of character and the moral proficiency of the candidate. These traits of character may not always be determined directly, but indi- rectly. It is sometimes true that the teacher who receives the highest per cent, on an examination is the weakest teacher, but this is the exception, not the rule. It is not gen- erally true that those teachers who pass the best examinations are among the strongest teachers. Under our rules for examining teachers, we hold an oral examination as well as a written. The oral examination always follows the written. We use the oral examina- tion to find out what a teacher really knows about the subject, and thru this medium, by a careful method of questioning, we are enabled to discover something concerning the teacher's personality and power. For instance, the teacher is asked to read a certain selection and encouraged to talk about it. He is asked what his favorite book is, and he is given a chance to tell what he knows about the book. We find it an easy matter to have the resident teachers of our own cities or state take the examination before election to positions in our schools, but it is often impracticable to ask those who live a long way from St. Louis to come and take the examination in advance. The trip is expensive, and we cannot guarantee them a position in advance of the examination. For these reasons our board of education has adopted the plan of permitting principals and supervising teachers to come into our schools, after looking them up, and occupy positions upon proba- tion. This gives us an opportunity to gain a knowledge of their practical work and special fitness for the work to which they have been assigned. If at the close of the intervals of probation their work is satisfactory, they are allowed to take an examination and certificates are issued to them. Superintendent Charles R. Skinner, of New York. — How does your plan for examining inexperienced teachers differ from that of examining experienced teachers ? Superintendent Soldan. — Inexperienced teachers are not permitted to enter the schools upon probation without an examination, while experienced teachers are. Superintendent L. E. Wolfe, Kansas City, Kan. — Is it really worth a teacher's time and efforts to cram for an examination ? I think that examinations should be so set that they will parallel the necessary preparation. Appoint a committee upon examina- tion to prepare a set of questions that will test a teacher's skill on what she will be required to teach. The questions usually prepared in reading are not at all a test of the teacher's ability to teach reading. This same criticism is more or less applicable to many other branches upon which teachers are examined for certificates to teach in our city schools. Superintendent J. F. Keating, Pueblo, Colo., asked Superintendent Soldan why he required a teacher to take an examination after she gave evidence of her fitness as a teacher. Superintendent Soldan. — Real scholastic ability goes beyond the ordinary requirements of a schoolroom. A teacher should be broader than the text-book and the mere outline of work she is expected to present to her pupils. Superintendent Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. — I should place the names of teachers and principals resident in the city who have given evidence of careful prepara- tion and skill for the work on the approved list. Superintendent James A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal., asked Superintendent Soldan for what time he appointed principals without examination. 36 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Superintendent Soldan. — For the remainder of the year at the close of which an examination will be given him. If he is not prepared on all the subjects in the usual list, substitution of studies of equal value is often permitted. Superintendent C. G. Pearse, Omaha, Neb. — Examination of teachers should be held to protect those whose duty it is to employ them. Dr. E. E. White, Cincinnati, O. — We have not yet discovered the best method of examining teachers. So long as we make no discrimination between the beginner and the experienced teacher, so long will the profession be unrecognized and unformed. A qualification in one state is not usually indorsed in another. The profession of teaching ought to recognize permanent qualifications for the work. A certain degree of prepara- tion and certain tests that may be made from time to time should be allowed to take the place of any future examinations. Our custom is to continue to examine teachers too long. THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF ALL LEARNING TO BETTER LIVING DAVID L. KIEHLE, PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Life is the supreme treasure of humanity. Whatever it contains, whether much or little, it is still the most desirable of all things. "All that a man hath will he give for his life." Even when reduced to mere animal existence, it is still his precious treasure. And the history of the human race may be comprehended in the single aim, to make life more worth living, to enlarge the content of the ideal, and accordingly to appropriate or utilize man's environment to this end. Education, as the handmaid of civilization, may be comprehensively defined as a preparation for living. It has never been dissociated from this dominant idea of life, and therefore has always, in some sense, been practical. The form which education has assumed at various times has likewise been determined by the form which these two ideals have assumed, namely, (i) who are entitled to a living, interpreted in its highest meaning ? and (2) in what does living consist ? In general, we may say that the governing class — those who represent the institution in its governmental and social capacity — have claimed for themselves the right to represent in themselves the highest ideal of living. This they have claimed in its honors and comforts. They have not only excluded all others from the privileges they have enjoyed, but they have made all others contribute to their living by every necessary sacrifice of comfort, of convenience, and even of life itself. Education has therefore always been for the recognized dominant class, who have alone been given the opportunity to prepare for living. We shall find in our study of education that, with the expansion of this idea of the dominant class, the forms of education have changed to include the new classifica- tion, tod also a change in method to prepare for corresponding life. Superintenaencei APPLICA TION OP LkARMWG TO ME TTER LIVING 3 7 * — ■ Introductory to our discussion of modern education, let us recall a few prominent historical illustrations. The Athenian state was a pure democracy. The citizens of this city- state numbered some twenty -five thousand, and were the governing element of a community ten times as great, consisting of slaves, peasant farmers, tradesmen, and the like. The high ideal of these free citizens was philo- sophic leisure. To this end their education provided a most complete and harmonious culture — physical, intellectual, and social — in the palaestra, the gymnasium, the military service, the games, the theater, and the forum. But this most remarkable system was confined to the few citizens of the state, citizens who were relieved of toil, trade, and all occupations of industry, these being left to slaves and foreigners. Their system of education, so complete when considered with reference to their ideal, was correspondingly .narrow. Gymnastics for the body, and music for the culture of the soul in aesthetics and philosophy, comprehended the entire range of their education. Commerce, manufacturing, and domestic arts being occupations of slaves, foreigners, and women, the subjects themselves could find no place in the curriculum of freemen. Passing now to the Middle Ages, when the Christian church was the educator of the world, the clergy were the dominant class. Life for them was religious, and education was especially for them as guides and teach- ers of the people. In this period philosophy was made the handmaid of theology. The product of Roman civilization in Roman law was made the foundation of canon law, even as temples and basilicas of pagan Rome were transformed into the churches of Christian Rome. Later, as in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, as state governments began to form and take somewhat independent direction of affairs, Roman law became the foundation of civil law. Thus it was that the universities of Europe developed a curriculum intensely practical in the interest of the two great and dominant classes, the clergy and the secular aristocracy. This curriculum culminated in philosophy and theology, canon law, and civil law, to which should be added the no less practical one of medicine. Again, as in the sixteenth and seventeen centuries, the democratic spirit began to appear, as the people began to realize that life was for them as well as for their lords, and that a share of the comforts of life was for them also ; they began to claim for themselves the advantage of education in gaining a livelihood. They instituted guilds for the pro- tection of labor, and schools for the better instruction of the laboring classes: These schools, so imperfect in their beginnings, grew to be the Burger- and Realschulen of Germany, the manual-training and polytechnic schools of America. Harvard and Yale and Princeton each provided an education of immediate and practical advantage to the clerical and legal professions, following the traditions of the past. If the representatives of labor — and in this I include all secular occupations of trade and the 38 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago mechanic arts — pursued these collegiate courses, it would be for the gen- eral culture afforded by them, and not because they expected to make any practical application of learning to their several callings. During the past century our school system, culminating in the univer- sity, has been greatly modified and expanded to satisfy the demands of industrial life. In the University of Minnesota we have colleges of law and medicine, of pharmacy, dentistry, civil engineering, electrical engi- neering, mining engineering, and mechanic arts, and, last of all, agri- culture. So bountiful has this provision become that it seems as if no form of productive labor had been overlooked in the educational facilities of the state. If, now, you will recall the history from which we have selected our illustrations, you will observe that as the people have gained freedom and recognition as citizens, with the rights of freemen, the system of education has gradually expanded to give practical preparation for the several inter- ests which citizenship represents. First, you will also observe that there have been two stages of devel- opment ; the first was that of education for the governing classes, social, secular, and clerical. The second, and that with which we have to do, is that of labor, or productive industry — not to supersede the first, but rather to supplement it and give it a more extended application. Thus far, too, the progress of education, as we have considered it, has been confined to men, because citizenship has been for men. Authoritative direction in affairs of church and state, in matters social and industrial, has been limited to men. Accordingly, education in all its history has been for men. In the earlier periods women were without either social or political consideration, and were consequently excluded from all privileges of edu- cation. It is only in recent times that the rights of woman and her position in state and church have come under serious discussion. As her rights of citizenship were recognized, she was admitted to the public schools, and the era of coeducation began. But the schools to which she was admitted had been planned for the ruling classes. What she was to get was because of jvhat she was, and what she wished to pursue, in com- mon with men. This education began in the elementary grades, where study, like play and work, is quite the same for boys and girls. Later, as women have been admitted to colleges of academic and technical instruction, they have found the courses those that are demanded by men in the professions and the industries. As women emerged from the seclusion and the limitations of domestic life to assume the responsibilities and to discharge the duties of citizen- ship, they first asserted their industrial rights — the right to work for pay, to undertake enterprises requiring skill — according to their own prefer- ences and abilities. The industries and the technical schools opened to Superintendence] APPLICATION OF LEARNING TO BETTER LIVING 39 her were planned for men, and from them she must choose those adapted to her tastes and capacities. This condition has prevailed and still pre- vails thruout state institutions with few exceptions. In the University of Minnesota we have colleges of law, medicine, dentistry, several colleges of engineering, and one of agriculture, including instruction in dairying, horticulture, and general farming. From these women are free to select instruction on equal terms with men, and on the same terms offer their services to the public. Surely this is great progress, and in which our own country takes pre- cedence over all others. And yet this is not the goal for women and their education. The significance of what we have done is that, in so far as men and women have common abilities, common rights, and common aims, they may study and labor together; but beyond the point of differ- entiation, in a department of life which belongs pre-eminently and exclu- sively to woman, namely, the home and motherhood, no provision has been made. So noticeable is this neglect that the criticism has been pro- voked that we are educating shopkeepers and artisans — money-makers of our daughters, instead of wives, and mothers, and home-makers. It is doubtless true that in the development of civilization the first attention is given to the forum and the arts of government and conquest; after these come the shops and the trades for the acquisition of wealth and the material comforts. But all this is only the beginning — the preparation for a living that is worthy the name. Until wealth brings its treasures from the shop and the bank to the home, in forms of use for the comfort of the family; until art learns to beautify the dwelling-place of the family life as well as the cathedral and the capitol ; and until science devotes itself to the healthful rearing of children and the hygiene of the home, all these forces of our modern civilization of which we are so proud fall far short of their highest service, and that to which they were destined. And this final and noblest application of wealth and learning must be effected in the education of women. With equal rights to do what they may do in common with men, they must be permitted to continue their education in preparation for their higher duties of the home, which they alone are able to make and adorn. I do not hesitate to affirm that, if the subject is to be estimated from the standpoint of science and education, there is as much intelligence and good judgment required in applying science to the care of home and its children as to the care of the stock on the farm ; and that it comports with the dignity of any educational institution to apply the principles of chemistry as well to the making of wholesome bread for the maintenance of health, as to the mixing of drugs for its restoration when lost thru ignorance of the laws of health! So far in this discussion the progress we have noted has been in our 40 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago higher institutions, and for the training of specialists of high grade in the several industrial lines of modern life. This demand of our times that our education should contribute to the better living of the people has found tardy response in the high schools of our states. These high schools are the colleges of the people. They must not only fit the few for the higher institutions, and for the special courses, but they must give the final prep- aration for practical life to the majority of its students. The positions to be filled by those who are graduated from these high schools are, in the main, common forms of business, the trades, farming, and, for young women, the duties of home life. That the high school and every other school should, in its appropriate way, represent and keep before its pupils the highest aims of education must not for a moment be lost sight of. Its spirit should be to encourage every youth to make the best of himself and the most of life by the highest culture which his circumstances will allow, and by his intelligence and skill to make himself a part of the largest world of human interests and activity of which he is capable. Nothing would be more calamitous to our high schools than to close the avenues to a high culture, and to give undue prominence to mere money-making occupations of life. Having guarded this aspect of the high school, I may say, without being mis- understood, that, inasmuch as life must be lived by the largest portion of the people without the privileges of a collegiate education, it is the duty of the high school to educate this body of its students to the best ideas and the most practical application of them to the station they are to fill. This is especially important in regard to the industries. Until the era of popular education, the educated classes were occupied with social, govern- mental, and professional duties. The industries were followed by the uneducated classes. The aristocratic application of education, more prop- erly named training, for the improvement of menial service did nothing toward popularizing industrial life, and in giving it rank with the occupa- tions of the cultivated classes. These young people who are in our high schools will not enter the class of menials, no matter how excellent the training. If, however, the useful industries, as manual training and the domestic arts, are given an educational and a culture value in the curricu- lum of our high schools, the problem has found a solution. The claims of such commercial courses as bookkeeping, typewriting, stenography, and the like, that are now being urged upon our schools, in educating and social value, are not to be compared in importance with those I have named, and for reasons such as these : 1. They are urged by the spirit of trade — a spirit which is already a dominating one in our American life. 2. The elements of commercial transactions ought to be provided as a practical application of, and within the time given to, writing and arithmetic. Superintendence] APPLICA TION OF LEARNING TO BE TTER LIVING 4 1 3. In educational value the subjects I have named are immeasurably superior. Domestic science requires skillful application of the best results of the sciences of physiology, hygiene, and chemistry. Manual training is an application of geometrical conceptions of forms, in accu- rate observation, comparison, and judgment, in forms of wood and metal, and also an aesthetic adaptation of the same to useful ends. 4. But, above all other considerations, these subjects foster those forms of life which, for reasons already given, have been in disrepute, and yet are most important to comfortable living. We are already under the influ- ence of a money-getting, commercial spirit, which is intruding upon the quiet comforts of home life, and diverting our youth from occupations which require diligent and steady application to employments that promise moderate yet certain and steady returns in profit. Our young women have already too many encouragements to take positions of public service in shops, stores, and offices; and oup schools as promoters of high ideals of life and service owe it to themselves that these subjects receive the attention they deserve. The educating policy of continental Europe has been to improve the intelligence of the people in order to make them more efficient in their respective spheres of life, and thereby to increase their usefulness to society above them, as well as to add to their own happiness, but without disturbing the traditional class distinctions as they exist. In America the opposite idea has largely prevailed ; those in humbler life have been taught that education is the avenue of escape from the sphere of life into which they have been born, and with which the evils of life have been associated. Under this impulse our educational system has fostered a general migration from domestic and industrial life. Our daughters are headed away from the home fireside, and are strung along the way from the merchant's counter and stenographer's table up to the practice of law and medicine. Our boys have dropped the hoe and the hammer, and are headed for the town to become clerks, doctors, lawyers, and legislators. Now, it is not in my mind to condemn this view of education or to oppose it ; but I do urge that we enlarge our views to include that other idea, that education has for its aim a preparation for a life of comfort and honor in every walk of life. It is to furnish our youth with culture of mind and heart that will make them noble men and women, and with the necessary skill of hand that will make home a place of refinement and health, and the shop a place of intelligent and remunerative industry. It is to make all industry of cultivated life honorable, to encourage every young man and woman to seek and to occupy the largest place of useful- ness to which he is by nature adapted, to avoid none as if it were menial, and to make home life the center to which art, science, and wealth make their final and choicest contribution. It is not only that education should prepare for a better living, but it 42 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago should teach what a better living is. Next to living, the greatest problem of life is, what is good living ? And the greatest obstacle to a good sys- tem of education lies in the misconception of society respecting the kind of a living that is most worthy of our seeking. No one can object that man's first effort is for bread for himself and his children ; and until this demand is satisfied it is useless to interest him in anything else. But having bread, he should learn that the delights of life do not increase with the accumulations of bread in the forms of money and bonds. Our schools and our learned men have also to learn what the proper service of education is, and what the final end of its acquisitions in use. Explor- ers and searchers for things new, whether it be for new continents, new laws of science, or new philosophies of life, are great contributors, and deserve great honor, but these do not rank highest. They are but the forerunners of those who apply things new to the better living of the people ; those who colonize the new worlds and establish governments of freedom of the oppressed ; those who utilize science for the improvement of social conditions to make more people happier and better, and who multiply happy homes with happy children. Our great men, in great institutions, have too often forgotten this. They have risen so high into the sphere of the general and the abstract that they have forgotten their highest mission. The aimlessness of the study of philosophy was exposed by Malebranche in the confession that if he held truth in his hand he would let it escape that he might enjoy the pleasure of its pursuit. Modern science, in a like spirit, assumes that all that is not pure science is' impure. A German professor objects to applying calculus to concrete things as falling bodies and other physical phenomena. Another professor has introduced some new phase of mathematical science to his audience after this fashion : " Gentlemen, I am pleased to assure you that this is a chapter in mathematics which can not be applied to any practical purpose." Those men who devote them- selves to investigation and discovery must not forget that their honors will not be awarded until they or others have given their discoveries value in some practical application to living. In our day it is the people who are supporting education, and not princes nor a scientific aristocracy. The people are interested in nothing so much as living ; and they who are nearest the people are the men who take the crude material of discov- ered truth, which these miners have sent up from the dark chambers of their hidden lives, and have reduced them to forms of utilitarian beauty, to increase and to improve the happiness of men. And this test is being applied to our entire educational curriculum. Humanity has no use for " art for art's sake," for culture as an end in itself, nor for a science that disappears with its votaries in the realm of the abstract. The supreme test of educational values is : How do these things relate man to life ? What better interpretation of living do they give ? And how do they contribute to better living ? Superintendence] APPUCA tlON OF LEARNING TO BETTER LIVING 43 DISCUSSION Professor George E. Vincent, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. — I am glad that my extemporaneous remarks are not typewritten and in the custody of the secretary, for Dr. Kiehle's comprehensive discussion drives me to the refuge of the university man — the field of the doctrinaire. Bear with me, therefore, while I philosophize briefly in what may seem far from a practical fashion. At the outset let me assert that in all this world the most practical, accomplishing force is the ideal. This is the one thought which I shall try to elaborate in the few minutes assigned to me. Three words in the topic of the hour I select as significant and as involving the questions at issue. These words are " practical,*' " application," and " better." - What is a practical MSQ of all learning; what is involved in its application; and what is better \\y- ing ? These are the problems. It is our habit to think of the mechanism of life as the chiefly practical thing. We naturally pride ourselves upon the railway, the telegraph, and the telephone, upon the factory and the printing press. But these are, after all, merely the machinery, the means of life, not life itself. To exalt the mechanism above the ends which it serves is to blun- der sadly. The real motive power, the force which brings things to pass, which is truly practical, is the imagery which fills the minds of men, the pictures which arouse their enthusiasm, the visions which inspire them to effort. The fundamental problem is to translate knowledge into ideals, to transmute learning unto an inner light. Every society is to be judged finally, not by its beautiful wares, its cunning contriv- ances, its treasures of art, but by the mental pictures of character, conduct, and destiny which arouse purpose and activity in its men and women. The chief task of a nation, then, is to energize its knowledge, to organize its learning into leading. The word " application " has for me an unfortunate suggestion. It somehow seems to imply an external, inorganic relation. One thinks of something fastened on or added from without. This may seem merely a quibble about terms, but I fancy a misconception lurks beneath the word. The learning which becomes truly practical cannot be applied or added to either individual or institution or society. It must be taken up into the life of persons and people. It must be a growth in the very fiber of the citizen and the state. The teacher who regards the studies of the school as external entities to be applied to the pupils is hopelessly a machine. Literature, history, art, science become a living, organic whole in the personality of the true teacher. Nor can any educated cl&ss in a nation apply learning and art and idealism to their humbler fellow-citizens. These things must live in the minds of the many. Leadership and suggestion i^e powerful forces, but there is no alchemy by which " leaden instincts can be fused into golden conduct." A people becomes wise and brave and just only as the imagery of truth and courage and righteousness fills the minds of its men and women. The glory of democracy lies in its faith that the many may live this richer, fuller life. Nevertheless, the few must discover the truth, translate it into ideals, and put these at the service of all. It is an inspiring task that may well arouse the noblest souls. Think of the devotion of these explorers ! I am not wholly content witK Dr. Kiehle's imagery of the miners at work in their deep shafts, if that implies narrowness of view and inter- est Nor can I feel that ** truth for truth's sake " is not a noble quest in itself. It may be a subordinate aim in the hierarchy of purposes which the ideal of social service domi- nates, but it rises far above many of the practical and sordid ends which men and women are far too prone to seek. May our scientists never cease the pursuit of truth as an ideal end, as well as a means to a larger life for all mankind ! But knowledge cannot in itself fire the imagination and urge men to action. Senti- ment must provide the motive force. Ideals are impotent unless they arouse instant response of emotion, resolution, and effort. We cannot neglect this all-important factor, 44 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago this passion for realizing the nobler pictures which pass before the mind. However we may conceive religion, its essential part in the life of men cannot be denied. In these days when theological formulae sire being revised or translated into the new " language of the times," the thoughtless may fancy that religion is passing ; but those who peer deeper see that the fundamental facts of religion, ideals of righteousness and fervent purpose to realize them, were never more potent than today. Religion as the passion for perfection, seeking the divine truth, and pressing ever toward loftier planes of individual and com- munity life, is a permanent force in social evolution. I need not dwell upon the meaning of " better living." Life is to be judged finally by the imagery, the ideals which pass in ceaseless panorama before the minds of men. In so far as these pictures present the richer, nobler aspects of conduct and aspiration, existence passes over into living. Thus again we reach the assertion that the most fun- damentally practical task of every people is to produce and diffuse the imager}' which will inspire its citizens to the highest aims. Truth, purpose, and effort, then, are the necessary factors of achievement, of practi- cal accomplishment. In a general way, this is no time for nice discriminations. Science, philosophy, and religion stand for these three things : science gathers facts and formu- lates laws ; philosophy unifies these into a theory of life ; religion transforms this theory into dynamic power. Not one of these factors can be neglected. Each is essential. The absence of science means ignorance and fanaticism ; the neglect of philosophy leads to mental anarchy ; the decline of religious fervor s|>ells apathy and stagnation. We rejoice in the conquests of science because they contribute to an ever truer philosophy of living, a more and more accurate picture of what is, a loftier and more imspiring vision of what may be. Philosophy — and with this I include theology — becomes increasingly a social philosophy. All knowledge is brought to bear upon the common life of men, not only to produce more goods, but to give each one a more vivid image of himself as a member of. society. Thus the old artificial individualism yields to a truer picture of social solidarity, and the person thinks himself in terms of his fellows. Religious enthusiasm, a zeal for righteousness, seizes upon this new ideal and infuses new fervor into daily duty, civic loy- alty, and public service. This in brief outline is the mighty movement by which deeper learning passes into richer living. Let us not overlook this fundamental task — the most vital and practical which we can further. Nor should we waste time in idle disputes as to the relative value of science, philosophy, and religion. It is vain to give precedence when all are essential and interdependent. Science furnishes materials for the ideals of life and con- duct which philosophy creates and which religion urges into action. These ideals are the practical forces which bring things to pass. They are the ends which mechanism serves. They are, in Watson's phrase, " the things that are more excellent." The c^race of friendship, mind and heart, Linked with their fellow heart and mind ; The stains of science, g^ifts of art, The sense of oneness with our kind ; The thirst to know and understand, A lar;ge and liberal discontent. These are the goods in lifers rich hand, The things that are more excellent. N. C. ScHAEFFER, State superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. — Teaching consists in getting another to learn. The word " learning " may mean the activity by which the mind acquires knowledge, or it may mean the results of that activity and thus be synonymous with the knowledge imparted at school. Using the term in the latter signification,' we may say that, as applied to better living, all learning falls under three categories. First, the learning that exerts no influence upon living. In the days when Cicero Superintendence! APPLICATION OF LEARNING TO BETTER LIVING 45 spoke and Vergil wrote, there were men so rich that they dissolved pearls in goblets of wine to make the drink more costly. The names of these millionaires are almost forgotten. To teach their names exerts no influence upon the lives of the students. What application to life can be made of the knowledge implied in questions like the following : Name the English king who died in a carriage ; the spy who was caught in the attempt to carry a message in a silver bullet to General Burgo3me ; the soldier who escaped at the battle of Thermopylae. Is it the duty of the superintendent to exclude from the curriculum all knowledge that does not conduce to better living ? Secondly, there is the knowledge that is helpful in bread-winning, in money-making. Talk against bread studies as much as you please, the struggle for existence com- pels most pupils to seek knowledge that will be of use in making a living. When man's powers are exhausted in the struggle for existence, as during war, the very name of let- ters is a mockery. The demands of the body must be met if there is to be leisure for the things of the mind and the higher life. Thirdly, there are kinds of learning or knowledge which conduce to the higher life of thought, faith, hope, love. That which makes life worth living is love of kindred and friends, of home and country, of truth and of God, and of all that is highest and best in God's universe. The kind of knowledge, for instance, that stimulates patriotism is of supreme importance in the curriculum. The lessons in civil government should beget a love of country that will make the boys and girls willing to contribute their share of tax for the support of the government and the education of the people. Education is the common religion of the American people. We all repudiate Herbert Spencer's doctrine that the taxation of one man to educate another man's children is robbery. We all firmly believe in taxation for school purposes, but we prefer to let the other fellow pay the taxes, even if it is necessary to do this thru the coffers of a corporation. Tax-dodging has become a fine art. The school should inculcate the knowledge which bears upon this and other duties of a citizen. Learning may signify the activity by which knowledge is acquired. The test of good teaching is thinking. In the act of learning, thinking gives rise to permanent knowl- edge. No one has been fool enough to advocate the introduction of chess into the cur- riculum, altho a game of chess begets intense thought. Good teaching canno^ rest satisfied with learning that culminates in mere knowledge. Knowledge of history must be applied to life's duties : its lessons must cause a pupil to love his country, make sacri- fices in its behalf, and, if necessary, die in its defense. Thru the transformation of knowledge all learning should conduce to better living, not merely to the enjoyment of physical comforts, but also to the enjoyment of the things of the mind and the higher life. This is the problem that keeps the superintendents awake at night, and is of infinitely more consequence than the little details of supervision to which some would confine the discussions of the Department of Superintendence. Mrs. Virginia C. Meredith, St. Anthony, Minn. — Dr. Kiehle sounded an impor- tant note when he spoke of the education of woman for the duties of the home and motherhood. The home protects the child. The home is an important institution ; the women who are to direct the affairs of the home should receive special and ample prepa- ration for their work. The knowledge woman possesses regarding the economy of the home will determine the proper expenditure of money for the needs of the home ; hence the importance of a careful training for a wise direction of home affairs. Superintendent Frederick Treudley, Youngstown, O. — I wish to speak of the spiritual frontage of life. All living that is possible to the individual is organized from the plains of life. Women should know more of the lives of real spiritual characters and possess their strength in order to perform the functions of mother in developing child life in the home. Fathers should remember the duties of the home and society, and by their conduct should quietly and unconsciously shape the lives that come under their influence. 46 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION rChicago INFLUENCES THAT MAKE FOR GOOD CITIZENSHIP HENRY P. EMERSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION, BUFFALO, N. Y. Last September I observed for half an hour the proceedings in the trial of Leon F. Czolgosz, the murderer of President McKinley ; I heard the prisoner say, in answer to the usual questions in regard to his age, occupation, and education, that he was born in the United States, and had attended public and parochial schools. Taken in connection with his oft-repeated assertion that he considered it his duty to kill the presi- dent, this answer naturally made a deep impression upon at least one person who had given over twenty-five years of his life to the work of training the young. Believing, as I always have, that a public school is in itself a social community where the child learns, if he learns nothing else, the necessity for subordinating his individual will to the welfare of the whole, I determined to learn more, if possible, as to the school life of the assassin. Eminent alienists declared him sane, but all that he said or tried to say bore evidence of illiteracy and neglect. His very appearance indicated weakness of mind and body. He seemed to me a type of character that some of us have become familiar with in city truant schools. Czolgosz stated that he had lived in Cleveland, Detroit, and Alpena. Replies which I received from the public-school authorities of the above-named places make it evident that no public school, and probably no parochial school, is responsible for this abnormal and defect- ive character. He attended an evening school in Cleveland for a few weeks only. So far as I have been able to learn, this is the only school- ing he ever had. But, even if no school is responsible for Czolgosz, it is a serious question whether the communities in which he lived while he was of legal school age were not responsible for his lack of training. Our compulsory-education laws are based on the theory that a community, for its own protection, as well as for the good of the child, must make it impossible for any boy or girl to grow up in ignorance, a stranger to the ennobling influences which every good school exerts. Without regard to who was responsible for such a product as Czolgosz, the terrible tragedy of last September ought to give new importance to the question whether we are doing all we can in the direction of moral tratining and preparation for life ; whether we are doing all we can to make the young appreciate the necessity for government as a guar- anty of law and order and liberty ; whether we are imparting right ideals as well as information ; whether we are giving as much thought to the work of inspiration as to the work of instruction. I admit that any attempt to secure these higher results in education is sure to meet with obstacles. In the first place, there are always timid souls who fear that the conscience is to be interfered with. A leading Superintendence] INFLUENCES MAKING FOR GOOD CITIZENSHIP 47 newspaper of one of our large cities has recently asserted that it is danger- ous and un-American to make any attempt to influence the character of the young. Such people somehow confuse religion and morality, and claim that it is the business of the state simply to teach facts. They would secularize education to such an extent that even the emotional nature is left untrained and atrophied. One obstacle is found in the lack of co-operation on the part of the home. I am naturally an optimist, and it is hard for me to believe that people at large are less moral or live upon a lower level than thirty years ago ; but it is plain that there is less moral instruction in the home ; that there is more frivolity ; that life is taken less seriously than a generation ago. You will remember how forcibly Herbert Spencer sets forth the inability of the average parent properly to train the child, the bungling and often cruel methods adopted to enforce discipline in the family. He evidently believes that, as a rule, the parents are more at fault than the children. Certain it is that when we consider the selfishness, dishonesty, and brutality of men as recorded in the newspapers and in police courts, and then remember that many of these people are charged with the training of families, we cannot wonder that the schools do not always succeed in turning out good men and women. The proper province of the school is to strengthen and extend the work of the home in the training of character, but, if this important matter is neglected in the home, it is all the more true that the welfare of the country is in the keeping of the schools. Another obstacle in the way of this higher kind of education is found in a mistaken notion of school discipline. No school can exert a proper influence on the character of the young if the teacher is a mere martinet who looks upon good order, not as a means, but as an end. Moral train- ing will never result from mere precision and perfection of system. Rigid courses of study and programs and electric bells will not alone build character. There must be at work the power and personality of a large-minded and large-hearted teacher interested in the welfare of the children. The school that runs like clock-work is not necessarily the best. To the ordinary lay mind fine buildings, showy architecture, steam heating, and expensive sanitation are the all-important things about a school system. They are important, but, after all, they amount to very little apart from the life and character of the teachers. Machinery is helpless unless the right motive power is applied. There is a tendency in all teaching to drop into mechanical methods, to become narrow and bookish, to make more of words than of the reality behind the words, to forget that the letter killeth but the spirit maketh alive; and a school or system of schools is successful in the best sense only in so far as it over- comes this tendency. We turn to a pleasanter phase of the question when we consider the 48 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago influences that help in the making of good citizens. Every good school does a work that we can' hardly overestimate in building character. Habits of neatness, order, and punctuality; respect for, and obedience to, properly constituted authority; the training in attention when attention is necessary; lessons in application, in industry, and systematic method of doing things; the mutual concessions which are essential in school life — all these are training in character and preparation for citizenship. The simple fact that children form the habit of dressing for school, of keep- ing clean, of being on time, of performing certain duties at fixed times and in regular ways — these things influence ciiaracter. Every recitation, if conducted in the right spirit, affords opportunity for direct or indirect building of character. Biography, history, and literature afford the best means of moral culture, but the teacher who understands how to handle children can make them feel and enjoy the moral power of a principle in arithmetic or a rule in grammar. Any study, if rightly treated, is productive of ethical influence. Whereverthe teacher succeeds in inspiring a love of truth, and honest effort in search for it, there character-building is going on. A school should give the young something elevating to think about* It should awaken an altruistic sentiment, an interest in the general wel- fare apart from selfish considerations. Such a school will be a power for good in the community, altho no preaching is done, and the children never suspect that the teachers are trying to influence them. The power of such a school is felt thruout the whole neighborhood, because it sets in motion a general waking-up process, interesting the parents in the work of the school, furnishing topics for conversation at home, and generally arousing an interest in higher things. In Buffalo we have been giving elementary instruction as to our city, state, and national governments, with a view to illustrating the moral principles which underlie good citizenship. Our object is not merely to give information, but to inculcate a high standard of public duty, the obligation of civic pride, a sense of the dangers arising from official selfishness and corruption, the need of placing public interest above private gain. We try to show the necessity for good government, that is, good management of a city in order that it may be clean, healthful, and beautiful, and to emphasize the wickedness of squandering the people's money in bad work. The necessity for taxes, that is, money to carry on the government, is easily shown in a city by referring to the need of public schools, of a fire department, and of police protection — things ft which the children are daily familiar with. In showing that the business of government requires a vast outlay of money for buildings, salaries, etc., which is collected from the people in taxes, the teacher is expected to bring out the fact that taxes are trust funds, and hence should be spent more carefully than private funds. The last year of the grammar-school SuperintendenceJ INFLUENCES MAKING FOR GOOD CITIZENSHIP 5^ is to give pupils a many-sided interest, but less vigor of mind and pur- pose than the old way, that the power of the teacher to impart knowledge and smooth out difficulties has been developed out of proportion to the pupil's power to acquire, and that the latter are less reliant and less pre- pared to attack Sand overcome difficulties than in former years. While we rightly try to make the schoolroom more homelike and attractive, we should at the same time remember that the world which the boy is to enter is no respecter of persons. While we attach less and less importance to exami- nations and aim to make the studies interesting and attractive, we must also remember that no education is complete that ignores the overcoming of difficulties as a factor in character-building. The human race has been developed by exertion. Except for care and struggle and pain man would never have risen above the intellectual and physical stature of Polynesian savages. As the chief argument, against socialism is that nobody can explain what would spur on the lagging faculties of man when the incen- tive of want is taken away, so it would be difficult to show how the child is to be prepared for the struggle of life where he is allowed to proceed along the lines of least resistance, where there is no real downright hard work required, and where the boy thinks if he is not interested it is always the teacher's fault. It is taken for granted in this country that children are to make their own way in the world, that they will have to look out for themselves, that they are not to depend on their parents, or on society, or on the govern- naent. If at school they form the habit of relying on the teacher, of having things made easy, the more likely they are to rely on help from others, from the community, or the state. Why is it that a boy who leaves school early and goes to work so often proves more than a match for the graduate ? Because he is put on his own resources in circumstances where he has to sink or swim. In an article, written since the Spanish war. President Eliot insists that, when it comes to a pinch, the source of victory in modern warfare is in the personal initiative of each individual commander, private soldier, or sailor. " When all preparation is made," he says, " when all appli- ances have been perfected and brought together, in the particular thicket or mined strait in which the work of the moment is to be done, it is the perceptive power or moral resolution of the individual that commands success." In industries as in warfare the automaton counts for less and less, and the thinking, resourceful individual for more and more. What has made the English-speaking peoples the leaders in the mod- ern world, whether in planting colonies, or in maintaining self-govern- ment, or in extending commerce, or in storming forts, or in boarding ships ? It is their common-sense, their readiness of combination, their realistic logic, their power of individual initiative. Surely this type of character is not developed where boys are coddled and entertained to 52 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago such an extent that nothing is actually learned, and where the memory is so far underrated that even the learning of the multiplication table is considered to be unpedagogical. I plead for schools where there is freedom enough in matters of con- duct to develop the power of self-control, where the requirements are definite and exacting enough to develop the power of self-reliance and individual initiative, and where there is inspiration enough to implant high ideals and right ambitions to the end that the power gained in school may not be selfishly used. I am aware that a school cannot, in this higher sense any more than in the lower sense, fully educate the young. It can only make the begin- ning, give the right bent, supply the means ; the rest depends on the fndividual. The important question in regard to the products of our schools is not alone, What do they know.? but, What do they love, and what do they hate ? What is their attitude toward life ? What is their notion of success ? Is duty to them only a myth ? If they think that success consists in wealth or position obtained at no matter what cost of char- acter and honor, then their education has not done for them what it should. The bad, the unscrupulous, are never successful. When we speak of them as successful, when we envy them, we simply pass judgment on ourselves, and show that our own estimate of true character and worth needs toning up. The men who are the strength of society, who in times of stress and danger stand as beacon lights in the storm, are not men who simply look out for themselves, but men who are moved by some inner principle and are faithful to eternal verities. Whatever else we teach, let us inculcate this simple lesson : that no melancholy failure can possibly be in store for the youth who adheres to the simple purpose to be upright and useful; that plain living and high thinking is better than high living and no thinking; that self-denial is greater than self-indulgence; that selfish- ness cannot develop our highest capabilities, while a proper understand- ing of the higher meaning of life and its responsibilities has power to lift us above what is petty and trifling, make common life heroic, and give even to humble conditions something of greatness and joy. DISCUSSION William E. Hatch, superintendent of schools, New Bedford, Mass. — The subject that I was first asked to discuss and consented to speak upon was " The Tenure of Office of Superintendents and Teachers. " I cannot refrain from saying that I regret the sub- ject was changed. It is said that " in Spain to this day they bar the windows and leave open the door." The thought sometimes comes to me whether we, as superintendents, do not avoid the discussion of direct issues for the safer and more pleasing task of considering generali- ties. It may be that this view is due to my narrowness of vision, but I have always felt Superintendence] INFLUENCES MAKING FOR GOOD CITIZENSHIP 53 that as a body we. have been rather weak in offensive warf are.. I trust I may be pardoned if I say a word on the original subject. The question of the tenure of office of superintendents and teachers is one of great importance, and one that touches closely the future welfare of the schools. Jn Massa- chusetts, by the Report of the Board of Education for iSgy-gS^ one-third of the cities and towns of the state had availed themselves of the provisions of the statute by which teach- ers may be elected to serve during the pleasure of the school committee. This is the latest report which deals with the subject. Since that report was made other cities and towns have adopted the measure, among them my own. Now, either this is a movement in the right direction or it is not. I had hoped to hear the views of superintendents serving in various parts of the country on this important subject, and I am disappointed in not being able to do so. " But to return to our muttons. " We can but agree with the speaker in his main contentions. No one would argue that an encyclopaedic man is a worthy product of the schools unless he can bring his knowledge to bear with force upon the problems of life that he is to meet. But I do believe that the field for improvement in fixing valuable knowledge in the minds of the pupils is yet wide. Full and exact knowledge is neces- sary if there is to be skill in application. That the schools are accomplishing all that they might in moral training may well be questioned, but that they are doing their part and doing it well under present condi- tions can scarcely be gainsaid. That the home is ilbt doing all it ought in the development and the training of the children we all must feel who have thought much upon the subject. There is a tendency in parents, even among the best, to shift their responsibility upon others. This is as noticeable from the early age at which the wealthy pack off their boys to the boarding school as from the sad neglect to be observed in the homes of the poor. The spirit that causes the constant increase in urban population — the desire for companion- ship and the enjoyment of social pleasures, whether in the gilded ball-room on the one hand or the saloon and the cheap theater on the other — is characteristic of the age, and makes the problem of creating a strong and clean citizenship in the future a difficult one. But withal the rich and the poor are the extremes, and there is a large and dominat- ing middle class who are God-fearing and serious in their lives, whose children are worthy of their sires ; and I am optimist enough to believe that America is in no danger from the degeneration of its youth as yet. We are absorbing much of the very dregs of Europe, and in a generation or two making of their sons and daughters men and women, able, upright, and to be honored. In my travels thru Europe I have never seen children so happy, so strong, so interesting as our American boys and girls. This is the children's age, at least in this country. It may be that we have swung to the extreme of the pendulum ; that we are moved more by our sympathies in our treat- ment of children than by our judgment. But it seems to me that we must always remember that men and women are only boys and girls grown a little older. Children are influenced more by example than by precept, as are their elders. I think sometimes that we give them tithe of anise and cumin, and expect them to render tribute in the coin of the realm. If, as the speaker has said, the true welfare of the country is in the keeping of the schools, we as guardians and directors of those schools have grave responsibilities. In organizing them, in planning the courses of study, in directing their administration, do we proceed from a thoro knowledge of the conditions of the community in which we serve ? Do we know the various classes of children who are to be the victims of our planning ? Do we look sufficiently into the future ? If the welfare of the nation depends upon the public schools, we and the teachers are the conservators of that destiny. And the teachers are • the most important of all. If the schools are to send forth 54 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago graduates healthy in mind and body, with convictions of right and wrong, and with cour- age to uphold the right, with ability to think and with courage to act, they must be taught by strong, honest, just. God-fearing men and women who are properly educated and trained fqr their vocation, who take a pride in it and realize its responsibilities. That these things may be true, the teaching force must become a more stable body than it is today. The occupation of school-teacher is still used too much as a stepping-stone to some profession, or a place to earn a living while waiting for a husband. Teaching must become a profession recognized as equal in dignity to the so-called liberal profes- sions, if the work in them is to be of the quality desired. The proportion of strong men in the schools must be larger than it is today. The percentage of woman teachers and weak men in them is by far too large. That teaching may be raised to ' a profession the remuneration must be larger and the tenure of office secure during efficiency and good behavior. When these things are accomplished stronger persons will enter the vocation and will remain longer in it. With skilled supervision securing good organization and good management, and with able teachers, those conditions that produce neatness, order, punctuality, industry, and systematic work will prevail naturally as a result. Formal introduction in civics and ethics should form a part of the course of study in the schools from the lowest grades up. Children should be taught the reason for government and order in the social organism and learn to respect it. They should par- ticipate in government itself while in school, and learn by it self-control and how to direct others. In the great English schools this is a marked feature in their training that has borne good fruit. This does not mean a letting down of control or freedom from restraint. I heartily agree with the speaker as to the value of acquaintance with good literature as a force in the development of the moral nature and its effects upon character. From his entrance into school to his finish the child should have presented to him the thoughts of the great writers both in prose and poetry. It is exceedingly important that this work should be begun when young, that his taste may be cultivated so well in the good that later he will have no desire for the trashy and bad. I am no sharer in the belief that modern methods of education, which introduce a child to a great variety of interests in the early stages of his education and provide for him a wide field of electives in the secondary schools, necessarily tend to less vigor of thought and purpose than the old. They are not responsible for any apparent weakness. The cause must be sought for elsewhere. I believe this change is proving the salvation of many a boy and girl who otherwise would grow up useless members of the com- munity. Today we live in a many-sided world as compared with fifty years ago, and the schools must be many-sided to meet the new conditions. The danger to the future of American citizenship lies not here. It lies rather in that spirit that makes pleasure and ease the chief consideration ; the spirit that shirks honest, manly toil ; the spirit that fears any privation if in the performance of duty. It is the spirit that leads the well-to-do to neglect their civic duties ; the spirit that causes them to remain at home and grumble at the corrupt administration of our cities instead of exerting themselves to change it. It leads to a molly-coddling of the children that gives them nu duties to perform outside of school ; that makes them think that they cannot go to school if it sprinkles, and demands the signal for no school to be struck frequently; the spirit that influences teachers to do work for their pupils that they should do themselves. Among the poor the same spirit leads them to neglect their children and their homes that they may seek such pleasures as are within their means and reach. Their children become enfeebled in mind and body thru neglect, and make the country hoodlum and the city criminal and tough. In one primary room in my own city one morning it was found that seven children had come to school without any nourishment ; and there is equal neglect everywhere. The courts show us that juvenile crime is on the increase in every community, notwithstanding all that is '" " ^^ard against it. Saperintendence] INFLUENCES MAKING FOR GOOD CITIZENSHIP 55 Rudyard Kipling has stirred England to its depths with his " Islanders." The Lon- don Glohe^ in a vigorous article recently published, deplores the molly-coddling that has begun to invade the great historic public schools of England. It says: *' Boys' characters are built up at school ; and, if their slackness and softness is the rule, it is little wonder that so many fail when they have to face the stem realities of life." We think that we are doing much for the children and youth of our land, but there is scarcely a community that is doing what it ought. The people have thrown the responsi- bility of the training and education of the children upon the schools. They do not realize it, but they have, and they must be made to see and supply the means that the schools may meet the responsibility. More must be done by the schools for the health and bodily development of the children than they are doing today. The lack of proper physical training is one of the most serious defects in the public schools of this country. The next ten years will produce as marked an advance in the schools in this respect as the past ten have produced in manual training. We have the best material in the world from which to create a future citizenship worthy the nation and the age, the American boys and girls. Coming to join them every year are thousands ignorant of the American language and life. To assimilate these latter and make of all American citizens possessed of healthy bodies and trained minds, honest, law-abiding, and self-respecting citizens, is a task that demands high talent in the schools and a co-operation of all the social forces. This country is fortunate in possessing great agricultural regions. Every citizen should thank God for the boundless prairies of the great West. When the urban popula- tion of our country exceeds that of the rural population, the problem of creating and maintaining a citizenship equal to that of today even will be a task immeasurably greater than at present. H. O. R. SiEFERT, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. — Of the various means which have been mentioned as being of importance in forming the character of the young American there is one which seems to deserve special attention — appropriate literature. In order to waste no time we will accept the conventional definition of the dictionary, which says : " Literature embraces all compositions resulting from observation, thought, or fancy." And by appropriate literature we mean that which is fit to be read by a child, and in which he can be interested. This would include true stories of animals, fables (with the moral unexpressed), and fairy tales for the youngest children ; legends, myths, biographies, and historical tales for the middle grades ; masterpieces of literature for the upper grades ; poetry for all grades. While the literary treasures of many peoples will furnish material for our purpose, the child must, above all, be made familiar with the literature of his own country. The great deeds of the warriors, the sublime wisdom of the statesmen, the lofty thoughts of the poets of other lands, doubtless have a wholesome influence in forming the views and sentiments of the child, but it is primarily the contemplation of the virtues and deeds of his own countrymen that will make the most lasting impression upon the plastic mind ; not so much because the heroes of his own country surpass all others in the greatness of their achievements, but because the mentioning of their very names carries with it that feeling of affinity which engenders a degree of sympathy not likely to assert itself under other con- ditions. It makes quite a difference whether the author of a certain beautiful poem once lived in England or in some other country, or whether you can tell a child that such an author was bom in Boston or New York, and that he lies buried in a place not far from the child's home, where some day he may go, and, as a tribute of gratitude and veneration, lay a wreath of flowers on the resting-place of a great compatriot. There was a time when the critics outside of this country considered Edgar Allan S6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Poe about the only American writer of real genius. But it is no longer denied that there is a galaxy of American authors scarcely inferior to the best of other lands. One particular trait not often found in foreign authors seems to be common to our own — making their productions pre-eminently suitable for children's reading. It is the purity of sentiment. The erotic element which in the works of many of the world's greatest authors dominates to such an extent as to render them unfit in their original form to be read by the young, or — I say it boldly — by any man, is, in its objection- able aspect, almost entirely absent in the works of our best writers, and in its place we find filial affection, philanthropy, and love of country. For these reasons, and others which might be advanced, I bold that in our common schools the children should be made acquainted with the best American authors thru those of their works which are best suited for that purpose. The following may serve as a suggestive list : Benjamin Franklin, Autobiography: Irving, Sketch Book^ History of New York, Alhatnhra; Cooper, " Leather-Stocking Tales," The Spy, The Pilot; Bryant, Lines to a Waterfowl, The Yel- low Violet, and other poems; Drake, The American Flag; Hawthorne, Wonder Book^ Tanglewood Talis; Longfellow, Evangeline, Hiawatha, and a number of the shorter poems; Harriet Beecher Stowe, Uncle Tom^s Cabin; Whittier, The Barefoot Boy, Barbary Frietchie, and other poems; Poe, The Raven; Holmes, Old Ironsides; Lowell, The Fountain; Parkman, Histories; poems by the Gary Sisters, Thomas Baily Aldfich, and others too numerous to mention. Of the world's great books which every child should read I will mention only Plutarch's Lives, The Pilgrim's Progress, Robinson Crusoe, and Ivanhoe. In the regular school reading-books there might be, without offense to anybody, a selection of the parables from the New Testament, the Sermon on the Mount, and a few of the psalms of David, such as the twenty-third, for example. The question may be asked, " How can all these books and selections be read in school?" It is not intended that this should be done. Some of them can be read during the time that is set aside for supplementary reading, but the majority must be read by the children at home. It is the teacher's function to get the child interested in a book by reading, or, still better, relating, portions of it at some suitable time. This may be done in connection with the various studies of the curriculum, thereby making the studies much more interesting. For example, it is much to be desired that the study of geography should be correlated with history. I remember from my own school days that I cared little about the West Indies until I read the story of Columbus. Mexico and Peru, with their quaint institutions, became wonderlands to me through Cortes and Pizarro. When a young child I was made to study zoology from a regular text-book. The lessons were dry and tedious, and I took no interest in my work. The colored pictures in the book were the only things I cared about. One day I found an old book in which the animals were made to describe themselves and tell their own 'stories of life and peculiarities. My interest was at once aroused, and in a few days 1 had not only read the whole book, but I had learned more about animals than I should otherwise have learned in a year. The right kind of literature had animated the dry bones of a tecHnical study. Poetry has a wonderful influence on the receptive and unpolluted mind of the child, and it should be made use of more than it is. The very young child will enjoy the nursery rhyme for its jingle and innocent fun. Gradually and unconsciously, as he grows older, he will learn to love the music of the meter, and finally he will feel the whole beauty* of the thought clothed in regular form. Poetry should be read and recited to the children and by the children, and, if suited for the purpose, it should be sung; To sum up : Keep the children away from the harmful influence of bad literature ; teach them to appreciate and love that which is pure and patriotic and elevating ; be not merely their instructors and governors, but their monitors and pastors, and they will grow up the noble sons and daughters of a noble country, and bless the teachers who led them in the ways of righteousness. Superintendenoe] THE IDEAL NORMAL SCHOOL 57 John MacDonald, editor Western School Journal, Topeka, Kan. — I do not agree with Superintendent Emerson when he says our schools are deteriorating. Our schools are better than they were years ago ; they are better today than they were yesterday; they will be better tomorrow than they are today. Let us pray for Brother Emerson. Superintendent Emerson (in closing). — Superintendent Hatch is not as much of a martyr as he represented himself to be^ While it is true that the general subject was changed, it is also true that he was notified of the change at least a month before this meeting. I feel warranted in saying that very few, if any, of those who are on the pro- gram began the preparation of their papers more than a month before the meeting. In reply to Mr. MacDonald, I simply wish to reaffirm the statements I made in my paper, contrasting the present and past conditions of the public-school work done in this country. THE IDEAL NORMAL SCHOOL WILLIAM H. PAYNfe, PROFESSOR OF THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. I foresee that the term " typical normal school," or " the normal school of the future," will best indicate my treatment of the subject which has been assigned me. I do not propose to set up a normal school in Utopia, certainly not within the space of thirty minutes. The school that is to be is the school that is, of course with modifications. Human institutions acquire a momentum which carries them forward, oftentimes without regard to rhyme or reason. Institutions also obey the law of growth. They emerge from one stage of growth and gradually pass into a new and more advanced stage. Humanity as a whole is to have a better future, but this better future is to be an evolution out of a relatively good past.' A sudden break with tradition is seldom justifiable. We may be quite sure that any policy that has had the long sanction of the wise and the good has a large measure of truth in it. An idiot or a madman may destroy, but only wisdom and prudence can build. What we need, to use Mr. Spencer's happy phrase, is "to take stock of our progress," to try our work by some rational standard, and to introduce needed revisions and amendments. In order to simplify this discussion, I shall limit my treatment to one type of the normal school, to what may be called the prevalent type, namely, the state normal school. It is no part of my purpose to discuss either the schools which lie below this plane or those which lie above it. We sometimes make substantial progress by judicious and prudent retreat. In our haste to grasp the new we sometimes lose our hold on the old and the true. I have been much struck with this sentence from John Morley's account of Diderot and the Encyclopcedists : "Alas," he says, " it is one of the discouragements of the student of history that he s'*The thing that hath been, it is that which shall be; and that which is done is that which shall be done." 58 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago often finds highly civilized remarks made one or two or twenty centuries ago which are just as useful and just as little heeded now as they were when they were made." ' During the period from 1839 to the present time the type of the American normal school has radically changed, or, rather, there has been a change in the center of interest. Possibly this displacement has not been wise. Possibly it may be prudent to return to an abandoned ideal. The law of a piece of mechanism is the product which is to issue from it. If the product must be modified, some special modification must be introduced into the mechanism. The governing law of a school is a clear conception of what its pupils should be. The normal school stands in this case. By observation and prophecy we determine what a teacher should be, and then we organize the forces necessary for realizing this conception. It is simply a case of adapting means to ends. Obviously, in the minds of those who mold public opinion there has been a change in the conception of what a teacher should be, and as a result there has been a corresponding change in the policy of our normal schools. If we can agree as to the required attainments of the teacher, we shall hardly disagree as to the means for producing these attainments. But there is room for sane and honest disagreement. Just now we are passing thru the period of discussion in which disagreements and differences are inevitable and pardonable. I shall not waste time by dwelling on details. In such discussions we should move only along main lines, not losing ourselves in by-ways. If we find our way along the highways of our science, we shall economize both effort and speed. It is doing but deserved justice to our normal schools to state that their fortunes are being directed by the best educational talent of the day, by men who are alive to the spirit of the age, and who have the gift of serious and solid thinking. In no other department of educational enterprise is there a keener search for truth or a more determined effort in the line of substantial improvement. Following the line of procedure already indicated, I shall venture to state some opinions as to the qualifications and attainments needed by the ideal teacher, and shall suggest what seems to me the rational means of securing these endowments. I prefer to speak in the potential, or in the interrogative, mode, but if I sometimes resort to the indicative, it is not that I would dogmatize, but that I may give expression to an honest opinion. To discuss this large subject within the prescribed limit, my treatment must needs be fragmentary and incomplete. The capital fact, the one that antedates all others in importance, is this : The teacher should be an artist rather than artisan. An instance of what I have called the displacement of interest is the movement from a Diderot^ p. 185. Saperint<^denoe] THE IDEAL NORMAL SCHOOL 59 scholarship to technique. Is it not a false analogy which likens the art of teaching, which deals with spirit, to the mechanic arts, which deal with matter ? " Training " is a term of sinister import, as it seems to put the emphasis on sleight of hand and to suggest limited acquirements and endowments. It is freely admitted that in school administration there must be some degree of mechanism, but it is a gross error to regard the school simply as a piece of cunning machinery. If it is a machine at all, it is a machine animated, inspired, and directed by spirit, the spirit of him or her who teaches. Is it not absurd to think that teachers are to learn their art by methods analogous to those that prevail in mills and shops ? The shoj> deals with the matter that is uniform in quality, and it aims at products that are uniform in style and finish. The school, on the contrary, deals with impalpable spirit, multiform in its manifestations, and necessarily and properly multiform and variable in its transforma- tions. Is there a truer conception of teaching than that it is a process of induction,, a process by which plastic spirit is molded and fashioned by a master-spirit richly endowed with the finer qualities of mind and heart ? In the last analysis it is not the linguist, or the scientist, or the specialist of any sort that educates, but the man or the woman inspired by scholar- ship and culture. In illustration of what I mean, 1 will repeat for the hundredth time the saying, attributed to President Garfield, that the real essentials of a college are an impressible boy on one end of a bench and a Mark Hopkins on the other. It is the net personality of the teacher that educates, and schools that profess to educate teachers should preserve this net personality rather than allow it to be broken up into disjecta membra. Mere specialists are a menace to a school in which teachers are to be educated for high and efficient service. A specialist may instruct, but he cannot educate, as education implies what is wholesome, that is, wholeness. If the specialist must needs be, his destructive work must be offset by culture subjects, such as literature and history, which appeal to the whole man, and tend to preserve his essential integrity. Ultimate analysis destroys a work of art as an educating instrument. It is a dese- cration to dissect a piece of literary art by grammatical and linguistic analysis. I shall not be misunderstood when I say that the scientific treatment of a subject, that is, its analysis into its molecules, and then the inspection and evaluation of its fragments, destroys it for purposes of education proper. This so-called scientific process which is now in vogue is very like the application of a microscope to a painting. It resolves a masterpiece into shreds of canvas and patches of paint. All this amounts to saying that studies of the culture type should have a large place in a school whose aim is the education of teachers. A normal school should teach chemistry, but it is not its function to educate chemists ; it should also teach language, but it should not aim to produce linguists, etymologists, or philologists. The unwisdom of ! 6o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago this specializing process is seen when each of a half dozen instructors attempts to make a specialist out of the same pupil. More than once I have tried to reconcile myself to the contention, sometimes made, that geometry in a high school and geometry in a normal school should be taught by methods essentially different. This contention is made, doubtless, partly to differentiate the normal school from the high school, and partly to conform to the dictum of Mr. Spencer that the method of instruction should conform to the method of dis- covery. Of one thing I think there can be no doubt : a normal school should teach a given subject, as geometry, just as # its students should teach it when they in turn become teachers. It is noWtrue that teachers as a class are to be investigators, discoverers, or specialists, but that their function in the main is that of disseminating and distributing. The vice of vivisection lies in the assumption that a long-discovered fact is to be rediscovered for the ten -thousandth time. Perhaps in the distant future we may have normal schools like the famous fecole Normale Sup^rieure of Paris, whose function is the education and training of specialists ; but we have not yet reached this stage, and the becoming function of our state normal schools is to prepare young men and women for diffusing capitalized knowledge ; not for creating a new chemistry, but for teaching the chemistry already created. In saying this I am mindful of the fact that the communication of knowledge is only one aim of the school ; but it is one of its principal aims. In his terse way Alexander Bain declares that one of the needful con- ditions for learning is the "quiescence of the emotions." A normal school should live in a state of peace. It should ever be in a condition of stable equilibrium. Its function should not be the discovery or even the rediscovery of educational truth. It should have a settled policy and a prevalent doctrine, but it should not be militant or revolutionary. It should not lend itself to doubtful disputations. It should be religious in tone and spirit, but it should not teach a controversial theology. So it should be inspired and guided by a real tho unannounced educational creed ; but it should be sheltered from the warring factions of educational doctrinaires. Its purpose is not to recruit the ranks of educational theorists and reformers, or even to recast our educational philosophy. Per se these are legitimate functions, but they lie far above the plane of the normal school, and far beyond the ability of the normal -school student. All this said in the way of reasonable limitation. In the future toward which the term " ideal " points, our educational philosophers will continue to speak from their high vantage ground, but between them and us who move on a lower plain there should be author- ized interpreters who can bring these larger utterances within the com- prehension of the ordinary mind. It must have occurred to many who have attempted to comprehend the new pedagogy that a new philosophical Superintendence] THE IDEAL NORMAL SCHOOL 6 1 language is in progress of formation, which is almost utterly unintelligible to the lay reader or student.* There is some reason to fear that this new symbolism may invade the normal schools to distress and bewilder their students, and that they will finally issue from their "laboratories" to inflict the new speech on helpless children. In our profession we need another Rousseau to teach the virtue of simplicity and to preach a return to the use of simple, frugal, transparent English. What is to be feared is the downward diffusion of jargon. What is to be desired is the prev- alence, in school and out of school, of the beautiful and wholesome English of the New Testament, of the English of De Foe, of Addison, and of Bunyan. In the way of philosophy it should be remembered that the colossal common- sense of John Locke expressed itself in terms easily intelligible by the ordinary reader and thinker; it did not attempt to clothe obscure conceptions in obscure symbols. As the normal schools are now dwelling so much on technique, it is to be feared that the new jargon may become sporadic. It should be one of the professional mis- sions of the normal school to insist on the use, in speaking and in writ- ing, of clear idiomatic English. This problem is now complicated by the feeling, far too common, that obscure utterance bespeaks profundity of thought. Philosophical language, as used by some of our writers, easily shades off into congenial obscurity; but it should be regarded as a mental weakness to make a thought vague by clothing it in unintelligible terms." All instruction should aim at what Macaulay calls "intellectual eman- cipation," that is, the creation within the pupil of the ability to deal With the problems of life, general and professional, at first hand. In other words, men should be taught to do their own thinking and to come to their own conclusions on all matters coming within their proper province. A Greek proverb says thtit a mob has no brains, and it is not a bad description of the aim of education to say that it should supply men and women with individual brains. The routine work of the school encour- ages routine thinking, and this in turn produces teaching that is dreary and wooden. In Carlyle's phrase a teacher should be a live coal rather than a dead cinder, and this simile points to versatility, variety, and originality; and so far as instruction can produce these endowments, they flow from studies and disciplines of the liberal type. I fear it must be said of many normal schools that they do not produce liberal scholarship and the ability to do independent thinking. There is a necessary incom- patibility between technique and liberal training; and so long as the X ** Will is actualized in an object which is itself will, and this is a will which wills will. Such an object which is existent in the world as will, whose end and purpose is to secure will, is an institution.'* 3 " There is a well -recognized literary disease which may be called logomania, and which subjects its victims to the irrational influence of words. The intoxication at times becomes complete, and the victim reels tmder the dominance of the poison, though maintaining a semblance of coherence and occasionally of wisdom."— Z*/ Dial, 62 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Stress is placed on empirical method, there is no hope that the prevailing spirit of the school will be liberal and scholarly. A liberal art is best learned thru the science which underlies it. The mastery of a prolific principle or doctrine is a rational art by implica- tion. The most that should be required of the methods by which a given subject is taught is that they should have a typical resemblance. They should find their unity in some principle which implicitly contains them. Methods, to be wholesome and inspiring, should reflect the per- sonality of the teacher who employs them, just as a dress should reflect the personality of the wearer. Dull uniformity has become a school disease, and its only cure is to be found in that broad intelligence which can interpret a general principle or doctrine. Stated in the order of their importance, the three aims of the normal school will stand as follows : scholarship, science or doctrine, method. It is a widely prevalent error that psychology, as a whole, is con- vertible into an art — the art of teaching. It would be almost as sane to say that astronomy is convertible into an art — that we can draw utilities from the stars. I suppose the truth is that only the more obvious and simple principles of psychology can serve as a basis for the educating art. Teachers who are overzealous in the interests of the new education seem to think that the road to success lies in a study of the occult and abstruse psychology now in vogue. I have in mind the principal of a little school who has placed his teachers on a course of study in the "application of psychology to education." It is not difficult to see the result of this dreadful infliction : a groping in darkness, a bewilderment of spirit, a disgust with the higher pedagogy. It is pathetic to see good intent so utterly misplaced. The psychology of the normal school should be simple, comprehensible, and descriptive of the more obvious facts of the intellectual life. Its relation to psychology, as a whole, is about the same as the relation of hygiene to the general science of physiology. In fact, there are two psychologies, a simple, plain, common - sense treatment for the use of the lay members of our profession, and an abstruse, transcendental science for the use of our discoverers and exposi- tors. The first is a psychology in action, written from the standpoint of the mind as it is engaged in the act of learning. The other is a purely abstract science, lifeless and inert, as remote from human use as the ^^ tnechanique celeste^ The psychology taught in the normal school should be the science which will give its students practical guidance in the practice of their art.* I Since wrtdng: the above paragraph my eye has fallen on the following lines from the pen of Dr. MUnster- berg: "I do not believe in it [the new psychology], and that overwhelming movement toward psychology among the elementary teachers seems to me a high tide of confusion and dilettantism, and the only thing about which I am doubtful is which of the two necessary results is the worse, the results with the superficial teachers or the results with the earnest ones. The superficial teachers torture the poor children with experi- ments, and deceive themselves with empty phrases about reaction times and psycho-physic laws. The earnest and sincere teachers feel very soqq that all those woodcuts of pyramidal ganglion cells and pendulum Superintendence] THE IDEAL NORMAL SCHOOL 63 It should be remembered that our main source of professional improvement is the study and interpretation of our classical writers on education, such writers as Plato, Aristotle, Quintilian, Plutarch, Come- nius, Montaigne, Rabelais, Rousseau, Kant, Pestalozzi, Richter, Rosen- kranz, Ascham, Milton, Locke, Spencer, Bain, Horace Mann. These may all be found in intelligible English, and it is as reasonable to expect that teachers should be familiar with these books as that physicians, lawyers, and clergymen should be familiar with the great writers in their respect- ive professions. So far as the higher interests of our profession are con- cerned, would it not be a clear and wholesome gain to devote more time to the study and interpretation of our classical literature, and, if neces- sary, a little less time to practice teaching and the discussion of methods ? * . Both on its own account, and as an offset to the scientific trend that seems to be prevailing in our education, the art of literary interpretation should be urged on all who aspire to do educational work of a noble type. Of course, the sciences which deal with matter should have a place, and an important place, in every scheme of instruction ; but they should not overshadow the sciences which deal with spirit. Not only the art of reading good books, but, even more, the appreciation of good books, should hold a high place in the education of teachers. To construct and furnish natural history cabinets is a pleasing and educative occupation, but to construct and furnish a good library is an achievement of tran- scendent value.* To read and interpret the Republic is to join company with Plato as he moves on his high intellectual plane. To enter into hearty communion with the poet is to experience an upward transforma- tion of spirit. There is a vital relationship between literature and life, the life of the soul. The purpose of the literary art, so far as it concerns the students in our normal schools, is not criticism, but appreciation. It is a sorry business to see striplings sitting in judgment on the masters of the literary art. Their becoming and ennobling attitude is that of appre- ciation and enjoyment. In one of the picturesque cities of New England I once discovered a normal school sheltered in an art gallery. Nothing could be more becoming or more wholesome. To be in daily communion with the beautiful and the graceful in art is to inherit the endowments necessary for interpreting the beautiful world which is our habitation. Such a chronosoopes do not help them a bit, and they then become disappointed, lose their confidence in their own ability, and try and try again with the ganglion cells till they are tired, and till their natural teachers' instincts are scattered and ruined. Call me conservative, call me reactionary, call me ignorant, but I adhere to my belief that the individual teacher ^ for his teaching methods^ does not need any scientific Psychology, and that tact and sympathy and interest are more important for him than all the twenty-seven psychological laboratories of this country." X " Printing ink," says Richter, " now is like sympathetic ink, it becomes as quickly invisible as visible ; wherefore it is good to repeat old thoughts in the newest books, because the old works in which they stand are not read." 64 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago - I _ [_ _l__l_ J ■!_ ■»_ M^MIH - \ culture may not be needed for teaching the multiplication table or lists of names and dates in history, but it is needful for producing that spirit- ual transformation which is the secret of education proper. There is a good reason for furnishing a normal school with maps and globes and with apparatus, physical and chemical, but there is even a better reason for furnishing it with engravings, paintings, and statuary. We must transport into the school of the future many of the good things to be found in the school of the present. In the way of science, it is hazardous to declare that certain things cannot be ; yet there are some things so good that it is hard to see how they can be mended. These reflections occur to me as I recall incidents connected with visits to several of the larger normal schools of the South. It was at Rock Hill that I observed what seemed to me then an ideal system of school hygiene. The buildings, tho large, were scrupulously neat and clean \ the ventilation of schoolrooms and dormitories was thoro and effective ; there was a gymnasium with baths attached; a bowling alley and a laundry; by means of a covered walk the dormitories were connected with an infirmary; at the head of this infirmary was a trained nurse ; there was a well-appointed kitchen in which the skillful cook prepared food for the sick; and over all there was a resident physician. Incidentally I have spoken of liberal scholarship as one of the fore- most aims of normal-school instruction, and since we are dealing some- what in ideals, I beg leave to present the lineaments of the ideal scholar as I find them set forth in a very ancient book : • A lover, not of a part of wisdom, but of the whole ; who has a taste for every sort of knowledge, and is curious to learn and is never satisfied ; who has magnificence of mind and is the spectator of all time and all existence ; who is harmoniously constituted ; of a well-proportioned and gracious mind ; whose own nature will move spontaneously toward the true being of every thing ; who has a good memory and is quick to learn ; noble, gracious, the friend of truth, justice, courage, temperance.* I may now fitly close this list of suggestions by quoting another ancient ideal which twenty -three centuries have not overtaken : There remains the minister of the education of youth He who is elected, and he who is the elector, should consider that, of all the great ofHces of state, this is the greatest ; for the first shoot of any plant rightly tending to the perfection of its own nature has the greatest effect on its maturity; and this is not only true of plants, but of animals wild and tame, and also of men. Man, as we say, is a tame or civilized animal ; nevertheless, he requires proper instruction and a fortunate nature, and then, of all ani- mals, he becomes the most divine and most civilized ; but if he be insufficiently or ill educated, he is the most savage of earthly creatures. Wherefore the legislator ought not to allow the education of children to become a secondary or accidental matter. In the first place, he who would be rightly provident about them should begin by taking care that he is elected who, of all the citizens, is in every respect the best ; him they shall do their best to appoint as guardian and superintendent. To this end all the magistrates, with the exception of the council and the prytanes, shall go to the temple of Apollo, and elect by ballot him of the guardians of the law whom they severally think will be the best > Rt^ublic,j^auim, 475-87. Superintendence] THE IDEAL NORMAL SCHOOL 65 superintendent of education. And he who has the greatest number of votes, after he has undergone a scrutiny at the hands of all the magistrates who have been his electors, with the exception of the guardians of the law, shall hold office for five years; and in the sixth year let another be chosen in like manner to fill his office.' DISCUSSION Frank L. Jones, state superintendent of public instruction of Indiana. — I am sure that we find ourselves so much in accord with the fundamental statements of the paper that it is hardly necessary to restate them even for the sake of emphasis. That *' the teacher should be an artist rather than an artisan ;" that " mere specialists are a menace to a school in which teachers are to be educated for high and efHcient service ;'* that " the normal should prepare young men and women for diffusing capitalized knowl- edge, not for creating a new knowledge;" that^there should be no hindrances to educa- tional progress due to the haziness in which it is often shrouded, as seen particularly in the indefiniteness of its purposes and the generalities of its statement; that the education should be liberal, thd somewhat limited; that ''the psychology of the normal school should be simple, comprehensive, and descriptive of the more obvious facts of life ; " and, above all, " that it should be democratic," are so obvious that they might safely be stated as educational principles. There remains one point, however, the first one raised by the reader of the paper, which should be enlarged upon in the discussion — it is this : "The governing law of a school is a clear conception of what its pupils should be." In this statement of the law it is wise to lay emphasis upon the word pupils. It would certainly be false doctrine to assume that the law of the school is a clear conception of what the pupil should be — the former enables us to evolve the ideal group ; the latter, the individual. The classification of the school, its administration, its recitations, its exercises, and its study are based almost wholly upon the notion that the group is funda- mental, each pupil relating himself to the -whole, and estimating his standing in it by his variance from the general standards of it. The ideal normal school, therefore, must surely take first account of the possibilities of the entire group of teachers and place its emphasis upon a standard of efficiency which will enable that group as such to maintain itself upon as high professional basis as all of the attending conditions will admit of. It would be a waste of time to elaborate a system designed to make each teacher a master, or indeed to make each teacher a graduate from a course of study covering three or four years of academic and professional work subse- quent to his completion of either the common- or high-school courses. The promulgation of such a system as this thru the statutes of a state would make necessary the with- drawal of 85 per cent, of its teaching corps, and would leave the schools in a condi- tion of chaos. A study of the qualifications and training, of teachers in the ten states, Indiana, Kansas, Michigan, Missouri, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Iowa (from 600 to 13,000 reported in each state), shows the following : 1. The number of college or university graduates in the profession of teaching varies from the highest, 6.4 per cent, in one state, to the lowest, i.i per cent, in another. 2. The number of normal-school graduates, including all grades of these schools and all courses from one to four years, varies from the highest, 53.1 per cent, in one state, to the lowest, 2.8 per cent, in another. The large number of normal-school graduates in the first is due to a low standard of entrance requirements and a short course of study. 3. The number of teachers who have had no training above the high school varies from the highest, 68 per cent, in one state, to the lowest, 30.1 per cent, in another. > Lavo*^ 765, 766. 66 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago 4. The number of teachers who have had no training above the common branches in the common schools varies from the highest, 45 per cent, in one state, to the lowest, 13.3 per cent, in another. 5. The number of teachers who are teaching this year without previous experience varies from the highest, 23.9 per cent, in one state, to the lowest, 5.5 percent, in another. 6. In a total of 20,662 teachers studied in ten states, including all of the teachers in each county reporting, 12.4 per cent, are teaching without previous experience, 23.7 per cent, are teaching without qualifications above a common-school training in the common branches, 40.8 are teaching without qualifications above a high-school education, and 7.3 per cent, have had less than one year in normal schools. A condition which admits of the return of more than one-half of the graduates of our public schools, without further training, to become teachers of their former associates on the playground and in the class-room, possessing no insight beyond the educational standards required of their pupils for graduation, makes much progress impossible, and places before the normal school a practical problem. In view of this low standard of teach^g ability and experience it is at once apparent that two very different views of the essentials of an ideal normal school may be had, each meritorious in certain large aspects. The one looks toward the maintenance of a high standard of entrance requirements, four or more years of careral study in residence, standard courses in the theory and practice of teaching, and one or more years of training- school experience under the supervision of critic-teachers ; the other looks toward a short course, tho thoro and efficient, following at once the common- and high-school courses, with a view of striking contact with the great body of teachers, tho for a brief period. Who can say which of these views, consciously followed thru a period of years, would strengthen more the teaching group ? If the first be followed, we keep before the teacher an ideal difficult of attainment, great individual expense, and the expenditure of much time in study. Under present standards of promotion and compensation this arrangement presents difficulties to the average teacher impossible for him to overcome ; he sees the immense labor, the large outlay of money, the very inadequate compensation at the other end of the course, and as a consequence decides to obtain a license at once, and by fairly acceptable teaching, local, political, or social influences, or otherwise, keep himself in the schools, tho wholly unequipped, just as long as possible, rather than face the normal course and professional training on so large a scale. The larger course has its chief virtues in its ability to set high standards, to educate leaders, and to equip super- visors and superintendents. The sprinkling of this leaven thruout a commonwealth exerts a powerful influence for good and disseminates lofty ideals and standards, but fails in large measure to elevate sufficiently the whole teaching group, as is attested by the fact that only 8.1 per cent, of the teaching corps of eight states can lay claim to normal graduation, even reckoning all grades of those schools. It may seem educational heresy to advocate lower standards in normal courses,' but only in such, it seems to me, can we remove the barriers to an early uplift of the teaching group. The ideal normal school should first of all seek to come into contact with as many of the state's teachers as possible. To do this, would it not be wise to maintain courses of study and practice that will not present impossible barriers to the majority of the group ? Let us equip our normal schools with brief tho vigorous courses of study and practice. Issue graduate diplomas at the end of two years of resident study; limit, the courses to the common branches — literature, music, general history, the theory and practice of teaching, and composition — and the teaching by the graduates from such a course to the common schools; make the diploma a state license valid to teach in only the common schools for a period of years, conditioning its renewal as a license after that period upon a high degree of success in teaching and a fair degree of progress ; in this brief course give to each student-teacher ample opportunity to do practice-teaching or to observe the daily work of a skilled teacher, not indeed to mimic, but to catch inspiration Superintendence] THE IDEAL NORMAL SCHOOL 67 — the observation of how a master works has its compensation not so much in the ability to f^o elsewhere and do likewise as in the consciousness of the attitude, self-mastery, com- placency, tact, skill, and ability of the master by which such work is made possible. The value of such observation is that it reflects the master in the doing, and thus enables each observer to become a master. I am convinced, however, that the practice and observation in training schools as now established, where the whole organization is based upon the social and educational conditions in cities, have in them very little help for the teacher who gives his time to the rural and village schools. It should be required by the state that model rural schools, accessible to normal-school students, be maintained for purposes of observation in con- nection with and under the direction of all normal schools. In addition to this course, continuing thru two years, there should be one extending thru four years, encompassing all in the briefer, and adding the necessary academic and professional courses to equip teachers for high-school instruction, principalships, and superintendencies. The completion of such a course should entitle the holder to a life state license to teach in all grades of schools. It seems to me that an arrangement as here suggested would hold as many students in the longer courses as we have now, and in addition would encourage hundreds of teachers to take at least the briefer course, with a possibility of creating such a good taste for better training that many would continue thruout the entire course. Richard G. Boone, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, O. — I am sure I voice the common sentiment of many of my hearers in saying it has given us genuine pleasure to hear again our friend Dr. Payne. His theme is one that has been familiar to him for years. His phrasing of it is all the better for the changing of a word. The maturest, best-considered current notion of the normal-school type has an abiding interest for those who employ or supervise teachers. What are the really vital qualities in the teacher which the normal school must stimulate and cultivate ? I am not sure that limiting the discussion to stcUe normal schools is important. Indeed, it is not quite apparent that the leader has observed the limit. Every qualifica- tion mentioned as needed by the ideal teacher would be valid for one trained in a city or private or secondary normal school, not less than in the elementary normal schools supported by the state. Nevertheless, the discussion is made simpler by thinking of the preparation of teachers for elementary schools chiefly. I think I should agree with the general statement that the great change in the normal- school ideal in a generation has been in working away from wholeness of culture toward specific training. The movement has often led to short courses and pedagogical tables and formal steps and syllabi and manuals and plan books and device inventories. Grad- uates have carried away with them the coat-of-arms of their school. They have mas- tered a way of doing things, and arguments to justify the way. They have been trained, but not educated. They are artisans, tho skilled withal. Some things may be dbne expertly well ; but there is often lacking a breadth of view because there there is no breadth of foundation. Scholarship is wanting, and so the rich character results of scholarship. Paucity and provincialism of experience easily pauperize character. To have thought little and narrowly and chiefly of one's own time and region is not conducive to a deep personality nor to the uplift of one*s teaching. In the words of the speaker, "it is the net personality of the teacher that educates," not his learning, not his discov- eries, not his scientific or linguistic att9.inments. He reveals his teaching power rather in his large heart, his good sense, his receptive, alert mind, a resourceful interest in his charge, and a masterful grip on the much or little learning he has. Next to being bom with these qualities, a course in those subjects that converge upon human interests and fix the human relations, especially upon the planes of the fine and industrial arts, con- duct, personal and social responsibility and privilege, man and his institutions, and the 68 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago conditions of race and individual improvement, will probably do most for the intending teacher. There is wanting then '* not so much scientific analysis as scholarly interpreta- tion *' in the fitting of teachers ; a fine and liberal appreciation of what is best and most inspiring and wholesome among the incentives to right living and effective doing. It may well be questioned, however, whether a familiar and sympathetic acquaint- ance with nature, a knowledge of and interest in growing things as they grow, and forces at work in the material world, will not open doors for as effective teaching as any or all studies of the "" culture type." Among these phenomena child experiences begin ; among them are the occasions for sense-training and manifold interests and mental alertness. If these qualities of mind and heart are to be secured to the child, they must have been mastered by the teacher. The laboratory and the field will yield some lessons that cannot be derived from books ; lessons that are vital in the education of the young. I have great faith in the scientific mind as a factor in the training of teachers. But here again, as mentioned in a previous paragraph, what is needed perhaps in the preparation of the teacher is interpretation, sympathetic, intelligent appreciation, not criticism and an analytic system ; clear insights, a sane and balanced joy in watching and directing the processes of growth, a familiar knowledge of how«the mind behaves in learning, and the tools it best uses. I have been quite as much interested, Mr. President and fellow-teachers, in noting what the leader omitted from his discussion as in what he said. No mention was made of conditions of entrance upon the formal preparation, of length of course, of cadet or prac- tice schools, of supplementary and optional courses for teachers of different grades of schools, or of method, except to class it under general scholarship and self -initiative. I fully agree with the paper as to the order of the three aims of the normal school, viz., scholarship, science or doctrine, and method, but believe that more importance should be attached to the mental processes involved in learning and a sound method of procedure as conditioned by that process. The main source of improvement for teachers may be " the study and interpretation of our classical writers on education," from Plato to Horace Mann ; but, if so, the improvement will probably be because the study has made them thoughtful of their acts of teaching and learning, and the most effective methods of effecting results. The handling of the elementary branches and school exercises as instruments of education is an art, a fine art, and has its body of principles, expertness in applying which may be cultivated in many persons under favorable conditions ; else there is no call for normal schools. There may be very satisfactory scholarship, and a profound knowledge of educational doctrine, and a lack of teaching skill. To have accomplished the first and second aims and to have failed in the last is to have failed in an essential. The normal school is to turn out as its product teachers, not scholars merely, or doctrinaires. C. F. Carroll, superintendent of schools, Worcester, Mass. — It seems to me that one business of the normal school is to eliminate the candidates for the teaching profes- sion who do not have natural ability. Such persons can be worn out in the normal school by requiring them to repeat the work of the course. I want to add that I am in complete accord with Mr. Payne. I have never heard anybody maintain any opinions contrary to those of the paper. The normal schools in Massachusetts formerly gave practice to students by letting them practice upon each other. I had some hesitation in opening up at New Britain the first practice school of another kind. Oswego has been reported as having 500 in the largest practice school in the world. There are 1,500 in the New Britain practice school. That idea has spread, and there are now three normal schools in Connecticut instead of one. I believe that every normal school in New Eng- and is now shaping its work in the same direction. Let us give to Dr. Sheldon, of Oswego, that grand old hero, credit for what was done. The superintendents of Massa- chusetts now say to a girl who has graduated from college : " We wish you to go to a normal school and into a practice school before you apply for a position as a teacher," Superintendence] BIOLOGICAL ANALOGIES IN EDUCA TIONAL SUBJECTS 69 SuPKRiNTENDEiiT GREENWOOD, of Kansas City. — I wish we might have a definition from the speaker as to his meaning in the remark that a specialist in a normal-school faculty is a menace. It does not follow because one is a specialist that he is ignorant of other subjects. Those who believe in the subjects they teach and are well-bred people, good thinkers and good workers, are a help and an inspiration to all the students in a normal school. I stand for that kind of specialist. The great danger is that persons who are teaching in the normal school may lack both scholarship and inspiration. The specialist is worth a great deal if he does not insist on putting his drawing harness on all the children. Miss M. Elizabeth Farson, district superintendent of Chicago. — The normal school is in need of open vision. We believe that the normal -trained school-teacher should come to us able to see things from every point of view. THE DANGER OF USING BIOLOGICAL ANALOGIES IN REASONING ON EDUCATIONAL SUBJECTS WILLIAM T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASH- INGTON, D. C. For many years I have been attracted and afterwards repelled by one theory and another relating to education, which undertook to reason from the body to the mind — from the brain to the soul — from the events of animal life to the events of spiritual life, and to explain the latter thru the former. The attempt to reform the school in some particular by the light of physiology, or by phrenology, or by the study of prehistoric begin- nings of civilization, has often been successful; but quite as often it has been unsuccessful. In the former case some waste of bodily power has been prevented ; in the latter case ^ome more important spiritual power has been dwarfed or paralyzed to gain some less valuable advantage for the body. When one first begins to think on a subject which has hitherto been purely a matter of routine and tradition with him, he falls too readily into a habit of criticism of the established order and condemns with undue haste. As a consequence his corrections and would-be reforms all need readjustment to prevent them from doing more harm than good. For he has seen only one evil out of many, or only one phase of an evil instead of the whole of it. On this account he may, by removing one evil, let in another and worse evil that has been held in check by the choice of the less noxious one. ^ I must confess, with a degree of sadness, that I have become from year to year more skeptical in regard to reforms advocated in the name of school hygiene. Not that I doubt the importance of hygiene, but rather that I doubt the attainments of those who talk so glibly about it. For I see them unduly securing minor advantages at the expense of great and permanent injuries to health and normal growth. 70 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago The schoolhouse, at first, was only a slight modificatioQ on the dwell- ing-house. There was light and ventilation sufficient for two, three, or four persons in the room. The dark parts of the room were light enough for many purposes of housework, and if one wished to read or to sew or perform the work of cleansing or separating such articles of food as had been ground and needed sifting, or as were composed of small grains or kernels and needed picking over, a seat near the window secured the requisite light. But the school needed a room lighted in all parts as nearly equally as possible, and with a constant supply of fresh air, heated properly. It was gradually discovered that the room of the dwelling-house was poorly adapted for school purposes. Some pupils got too little light and became near-sighted by holding their books too close to their eyes; some came to have weak eyes by having too much light. For the glare of a page on which the sunlight falls is sufficient to produce partial blindness. Even pure sky light, without the direct rays of the sun, will tend to do this. Many have been the so-called improvements which, in correcting the evil of insufficient light, ignored entirely the great injury done to those pupils who sat in the full glare of the sun or of the clear sky, and for hours, each day, tried their eyes on perceiving letters and figures in small print. I need not speak here of the various attempts to light the room from the front of the pupil, forcing him to strain his eyes in order to make out the words of the page when seen in the direction of the source of light ; the experiment of lighting from two sides, the left and the right, with its attendant impossibility of getting the light upon the book from either side without at the same time facing the light of the other side. The light was tried from the right side alone, and the pupil had to have the shadow of his hand on the place where he was writing. Light from the left and rear came at last to be adopted with much unanimity by educa- tional experts in this country in 1876. But the tendency to make large buildings has since that time permitted and encouraged the construction of schoolhouses with one-half of the rooms lighted from one side only ; this, too,^ without due consideration of the relation between the height of the tops of the windows and the width of the room. The consequence of this is that most of our cities have schoolrooms in which there is a row of desks where pupils sit in a twilight and acquire the habit of holding their books too near the eyes ; and another row of desks where the pupils have the glare of li^ht that I have described, and the effort of nature to adjust the retina to the overplus of light dims the power of vision below the normal standard. In the schoolroom of a building altered over from a dwelling-house there is also another attendant evil. The pupils in a row of seats placed directly under the windows are exposed in cold weather to chilling cur- rents of air which are constantly flowing down the sides of the wall and Superintendence] BIOLOGICAL ANALOGIES IN EDUCA TIONAL SUBJECTS 7 ' especially down the window surface. Children not of robust constitution often lay the foundation of much bodily disease in this way. Improper lighting, by reason of the sympathy of the eyes with the stomach, pro- duces in pupils of delicate constitution a tendency to nervous dyspepsia. Indeed, the errors in lighting and in avoiding drafts of cold air seem to me so serious that I cannot listen patiently to those who praise the countless devices which are invented for one and another trifling advan- tage in the hygiene of the schoolroom. For it were better that they had not been discovered than to distract, as they do, the attention from the far weightier matters of light and temperature and ventilation. One idea crowds out another in some cases, altho in other cases one idea leads to or brings in another. The general idea suggests its appli- cations. But the particular idea having small scope may get in the way of more fruitful ideas. We have to measure ideas as to their relative value and decide for ourselves which may properly give way to the other. For example, take the unhygienic school as it existed and now exists in the countries that are backward in this matter of school architecture, and we must admit that the great purposes of the school were secured and are' secured in the log schoolhouse, in the dark, ill-ventilated tenement building rented for a school in a slum district, or in a mere shanty school in the west of Ireland. The great purpose of learning to know printed language ; to become eye-minded instead of ear-minded ; to gain besides one's colloquial vocabulary also a vocabulary of science and literature and philosophy ; to become able to understand and use technical language — all these things came then and come now to the gifted youth without the improvements in hygiene that we clamor for. Abraham Lincoln read by the firelight of the blazing hearth and fed his mighty mind. It is true that the average of life in those unhygienic days was far less than now. But the illiterate savage does not reach a life average so great as the unhygienic but civilized man, and, what is more to the point, fifty years of Europe is worth a cycle of Cathay. A rational life, growing in the production of science and art and literature, and in diffusing the blessing of civilization, is better than a savage life, even if the latter were to have an average of eighty years, while the former were to have an average of thirty years. According to the merely biologic point of view, life is life, whether of plant or animal or man, and the more of it the better. But such is not the spiritual point of view. Some years ago Max Miiller wrote up the theory of the sun-myth as found in the beginnings of mythology. The stories of the heathen gods were thinly veiled allegories of the solar year, or of the four seasons, or of the diurnal revolution. The words signifying divine things are origi- nally words describing the phenomena connected with the progress of the sun in the equinox, or thru the hours of the day and night. Later on, the sun-myth theory was used to explain all religion. It is all 72 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago founded on sun -myths. The conclusion was drawn by many devotees to philology that the basis of religion is only a personification of natural phenomena, and that there is no reality corresponding to religious con- ceptions. It was said that the sun- myth is a disease of language. Then religion came to be regarded also by this school of philologues as also a disease of language. Outsiders who observed this extension of the sun- myth theory began to expect that sooner or later the theory would be carried one step farther, and that philosophic thought would be declared to be a disease of language; and, sure enough, this appears to be the upshot of the book of Professor Max Miiller on the Science of Thought, This is made plausible by the following step : The words of a language stand for classes and species of objects, and not for mere individuals. John is a boy says that John belongs to the class of beings known as boy. The word " is" has universal significance as copula expressing subsurap- tion ; the article "a" expresses the general concept "one of," and even the word " John" says any boy who is called John. We have to add to language a meaning of our own to make it apply to a particular individ- ual being, and no one person's meaning of a word is absolutely what another person means by it. Now, add to this view another one with reference to the nature of objects that exist — namely, that all that exists is composed of some one or more definite things ; that only particular individuals exist ; and that language has made all its words stand for general classes of beings, actions, and relations, and in so doing has made it entirely symbolic, instead of corresponding, literally and in detail, to reality — and we now begin to see where we are going. It is only one step to the conclusion that all general thought relations rest on the scaffolding of language, and are baseless as regards their truth. Generalizations of thought regarding the world and its destiny are the product of a disease of language. In fact, we might as well call language itself a disease. But where can we stop ? If the anthropoid ape invented the disease of language, his animal relatives who could not yet talk were not for that reason any more healthy. For all animal life is a disease as compared with plant life. The animal feels, perceives with his senses, and acts by impulse or instinct. To feel is to set up an activity within a self and after a sort to make one's self an object, or, so to speak, to exist for one's self. Hence to perceive other beings is to represent them by one's own activity, and thus to create within one's self a semblance of other realities. Perception thus rests upon creating within the perceiving being an appearance or semblance of a reality. This is almost as bad a disease as language is, and we may see that the misfortune of language goes farther back and attaches to sense-per- ception itself. For the animal that feels or perceives makes for himself an image or representation, in fact, a seeming or make-believe, or some sort of untruth, to stand for the reality. Superintendence] BIOLOGICAL ANALOGIES IN EDUCA TIONAL SUBJECTS 7 3 The plant, it would seem, does not feel nor perceive nor move itself. It does not, like the animal, '^ dally with false surmise.'' It feeds on its environment, however. Its life is a life of assimilation and nutrition. The plant is engaged in seizing upon its environment, and converting it into vegetable cells, and adding them to its own structure. Here we have . reached soundness and health at last, for we have realities at every step. We have the plant a reality which acts upon inorganic substances in the soil and the air, and gathering them to itself makes them over into vege- table cells of its own kind or species. But after the plant has thus acted, it has destroyed the individuality that previously existed in that part of its environment now appropriated for food. It has annulled other indi- viduality to build up its own. What was real as carbon and oxygen and silica and soda no longer is real in that form. As real they are united and converted into organic compounds that form the cells of the plant. As ideal they may be still only carbon and oxygen and silica and soda. If the plant dies, its vegetable cells will be captured by inorganic forces, and these elements (carbon, oxygen, silica, and soda) will reappear in their old form. Here we have .to ask whether the plant life is not itself also a disease. Is it not a masquerade ? Does it not act to enshroud the inorganic matter in new forms, making it as vegetable cells possess entirely new properties and lose its old properties ? Does it not, after the death of the plant, let the old individuality of the elements reappear ? But which is the true reality under the appearance ? Is it the inorganic elements, or the organic compounds ? Why should we not say that the inorganic is a state of helpless abstraction in which it does not realize its true being ? And is it not the life of the plant that lifts up the inorganic into a higher and more concrete and perfect form of existence wherein the inorganic elements reveal the wondrous possibilities that were in them, but not made manifest or brought into actual reality ? And again, if the inorganic is only itself a masquerade, hiding its higher life until by the aid of the plant it comes to actualize or make real its true self, why shall we not say that the plant, also, takes on a higher form of realization when it in turn becomes feeling, perceiving, and will- ing, on being taken up into the animal organism ? For the representa- tion of another existence than one's own is, after all, a higher form of reality for the being that represents. For the inorganic does not fully realize itself until it comes in the plant and the animal to. show what syntheses it is capable of, and in what ways it can be instrumental in the process of self-representation. Self-representation in the form of feeling is, indeed, something that belongs to the order of the miraculous, as looked at from the standpoint of the inorganic — it stubbornly resists a mechanical explanation. But now, if we admit this new view of the subject, we must go farther 74 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago and claim that man, by inventing language, creates a still more wonder- ful reality. For he produces a sort of counterpart to the general process that appears in chemism, in plant life, and in animal sensation. He gives an appropriate form to universals. Words make fast the fleeting mani- festation that goes on in the lower orders of being. Words as tools of thought make possible the grasp of a deeper reality in the universe, which the inorganic cannot compass, nor the plant, nor the mere animal. For thought can grasp the process in which the individuality of the lower order of beings is immersed. Thought can perceive particular things in their causes, and it can think a unity of all causes in a final cause. We have to return to our first statement, or the statement of the philologist, and entering our protest say, therefore, that religion is not a disease of language nor a disease of any kind. But religion is an insight into the final and deepest order of being — the truth which is under all seeming or imperfect being, whether inorganic, or plant, or animal, or human. Neither is thought to be called a disease of language because it deals with generalities. For the general process which is revealed in the changes that inorganic matter undergoes, and which take on new forms in plant and animal life, is first seized as the deeper reality by philosophic thought become possible thru language. Thought reaches this deeper reality underlying all actualities, and it joins the voice of religion in say- ing that the deeper reality is a divine personal reason that reveals itself in the world. That absolute reason has a divine purpose which is the crea- tion of personal beings — training them to individuality in the cradle of time and space. In the light of this divine purpose, all imperfect realizations, such as the inorganic, may be seen to be more or less appearances having each some fragmentary or imperfect form of being that does not fully and adequately explain itself, altho each step above the inorganic is a nearer approach to the absolute reality. Reversing the biologic standpoint, those lower forms of existence may be called disease. Plants, just because they do not possess feeling and sensation, may be said ta be diseased. Then, too, the animal that is less deeply diseased because he possesses sensation and locomotion as well as nutrition — the animal is diseased because he does not possess language. He cannot reach religion or thought. But man is more healthy and less diseased than any other being on earth, because he can form some adequate idea of the divine purpose of the world, and by that reach ultimate ideals thru which to guide his life. By his thought he can see what the fullness of reality means. According to biology as it is, many, or indeed all, of the higher facts and activities of man may be regarded as diseases of vital functions. But, on the same ground, life itself may be regarded as a disease forced on the inorganic. Superintendence] BIOLOGICAL ANALOGIES IN EDUCA TIONAL SUBJECTS 7 5 This use of the analogy, however, which makes life itself a disease, leads us to suspect the truth of the biologic view of religion and philos- ophy, and suggests to us the necessity of turning around the measuring process. We must interpret the lower from the standpoint of the higher. The lower is the incomplete and imperfect being. The higher is the more realized being, the more perfect, and it explains to us the existence of the lower by showing its purpose. The analogy of the lower order of being does not suffice to explain the higher orders of being. The scale must be inverted before the human can be understood. DISCUSSION Dr. G. Stanley Hall followed Dr. Harris* paper in discussion, saying first that he failed to see in it any practical application to the work of superintendents. Again, he believed that modem psychology today almost repudiated the old phrenology of bumps. Expert students of brain localization still differ much as to the extent of even the centers for the upper and lower limbs, eye, and speech, which are best established, and some reject all further localization ; but, despite Hollander's absurd book to the contrary, there is essentially nothing in common between modern brain studies and phrenology, which is essentially dead today so far as localization of function is concerned, while its concep- tion of faculties is, if possible, more outgrown and worthless. As to biological analogies, Dr. Hall held that one of the greatest advances toward a spiritual conception of the universe was the slow but progressive substitution of these life-forms of thought for the old mechanical, forms. To bring this about was one of the chief endeavors of Lotze, one of the greatest of modern philosophers. The study of life-forms has given man a vast number of new figures, tropes, forms of thought, terms by which we can both grasp and express the phenomena of life and mind with progressive clearness and accuracy. No one who knows biology can possibly speak of it as Dr. Harris does. For myself I will only say that I associate the divine logos, or word, more and more with the great bio-logos, or spirit of life, that has brooded over the uni- verse and developed all the ascending orders of existence. The fact that students of the mind and soul are casting o£E the old mechanical conceptions of the world and the machine logic that hammered them out, substituting vital thought-forms, is an immense step upward and onward toward a true spiritual view of the universe. Dr. Harris. — The same old trouble that met the phrenologist comes now to the experimental psychologist. The question is : How much does the school exercise the brain ? In how much does it give power for the solving of the problem of humanity? We should put the whole brain to school, as Professor Woodward would say if here. As manual training does much in that line, let us have manual training. In the study of past life, the study of man as an animal, and of other animals in reference to man, is necessary to find what has been done in all these ages. The study of prehistoric man is good for many purposes, but not for the drawing of lessons in edu- cation. As we go back, we shall find a period of walking on all fours, a period of fish life — perhaps man was a microbe some time. The books of life are biological, of course. When the child comes to school, the teacher asks him what he has been learning in reading, arithmetic, etc., and wishes him to go on getting power. He does not care so much about his age or really how far he has advanced. If the child is nine, and understands algebra and geometry, the teacher 76 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION tChicago does not say: " You are in the period of arithmetic." Neither would the teacher under- take to grade a person anywhere on the basis of age. In the grammar school are those who do not seem able to get hold of geometry or algebra, and yet they may be mature in body. There is a great deal written about adolescence as extending from the age of twelve to thirty, more or less. It is evident that it is not possible to tell much from a biological classification what you should put in the course of study. In the writings I have read it is suggested that this period is the period of sentiment. Would the psychologist say- that adolescence is the period of the imagination ? Children from the age of one to twelve are more imaginative. Adolescence is the age of thinking. From the standpoint of biology, one to twelve is the age of dolls, and, therefore, to be consistent, every child should be put to playing with dolls. I think the good teacher carefully avoids the imaginative with the adolescent children. ROUND TABLE PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS A. ROUND TABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS FIRS7 TOPIC: INSTRUCTION IN THE ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE IN RURAL COMMUNITIES L. D. HARVEY, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MADISON, WIS. [an abstract] This question is one that is attracting attention in a number of states, especially of the north-central group. There is a general feeling that elementary agriculture should be made a part of the course of study in rural schools. Last winter a bill was introduced into the legislature of Wisconsin making such instruction compulsory. This bill was quietly killed. The amount that can be accomplished in this line in rural schools is very limited, for two reasons : in the first place, the majority of children are too young to comprehend the subject ; in the second place, teachers lack sufficient training to accom- plish practical results. This may not seem a very optimistic view, but it is based on results in countries where it has been tried ; for in not one instance has it been a success. In 1872 Canada tried the plan, which proved a dismal failure. I^ater it was tried again, * with like result because of lack of preparation of teachers. Ireland, France, Prussia, Bel- gium, Norway, Sweden, and Finland have had nearly the same experience. But in these countries the work done in schools higher than the elementary grades has been successful. In the north-central states there is at present a feeling of unrest in rural communities, often a demand for elements of agriculture. The farmers themselves do not know exactly what they want, but ask for something practical. There is a feeling that the pupils of rural, schools (and 90 per cent, of them complete their education here) are not fitted ade- quately to meet the responsibilities of life, especially farm life. A number of the strongest educational men of Wisconsin insisted that a compulsory law be enacted for securing this instruction in rural schools. But this would amount to nothing unless teachers were trained to make the work efficient. SapermtendenceJ STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 77 1 In district schools the conditions are very different now from what they were twenty or thirty years ago. Instead of young men and women, we find children, a great majority under fourteen years of age. In eighteen schools visited recently, only ten pupils over fourteen years of age were found. The same condition prevails in other states. The first thing needed is that parents send their children to school longer. The courses in our present rural school cannot be extended, but a school may be provided giving a kind of training not found in schools now organized, a training for rural life, an opportunity for intellectual life on the farm. At first this may be considered on a money basis, but after a practical interest is aroused, higher motives may and will follow. I would advocate a class of secondary schools to meet the needs of tho6e completing the course in rural schools. As an illustration, in Wisconsin, county schools of agriculture and domestic economy are being founded. These have a two-years' course, which may grow into a longer course, designed to meet the needs of boys and girls from the farm. These schools undertake three lines of work : first, the elements of agriculture, including the study of soils, relations of crops to soils, and similar practical topics ; second, the study of plant life on the farm, from the economical as well as the scientific standpoint, beginning with the seed and continuing to its care before marketing the product ; the same course is pursued with regard to animal life; the use of farmers* tools is also taught; third, such high-school branches of practical value as may be carried along with the above. In these schools girls are taught domestic economy, practically applied to such home problems as preparation of foods, selection and adaptation of foods, with the scientific basis of the same ; the ventilation, lighting, and heating of the home. Two counties have voted liberally for the erection of such schools. Similar schools are found all over Europe, adapted to the particular needs of various communities. From these country schools the plan will work down into rural schools in suitable form. This year Wisconsin will try a six-million-dollar experiment. Last year there was a loss of six or seven millions due to the smut in oats. The prevention of this would cost one cent per bushel on seed. The plan of prevention will be put in an Arbor Day Manual sent out to all the teachers, and thru them reach the farmers. DISCUSSION Mrs. Virginia C. Meredith, State Agricultural School, St. Anthony Park, Minn. — I agree with Superintendent Harvey as to giving instruction in rural schools. Minnesota has an agricultural high school in connection with its university. Here are five hundred students, one hundred of them girls. There is a six-months' term, which is one of the foundations of its success. A nine-months' term trains the taste away from the farm. Most states have an agricultural college, but no training to make boys and girls eligible for admission. The greatest obstacle in the way of such training schools is their expen- sive equipment. In the Minnesota school, girls are given the same instruction as boys. Girls also learn something of sewing in connection with a knowledge of fabrics, and of cooking and of foods. The cause of families leaving the farm is often the dissatisfaction of the women, who do not sympathize with farm work because they do not understand it. The future of farming depends largely on what women put into the farm home. Young men attended this school ten years before girls were admitted, their admis- sion coming by request of the young men. It is a good thing to keep boys and girls together at work, especially at work for the farm. Here is an illustration of what one of our students accomplished after leaving our school : A girl of twenty began teaching in a country school. In addition to her regular work she gave lectures on plant life; also instruction in sewing, which the boys wanted as well a$ the girls. As a result, the attendance \i\ tbi§ school was the best in its history, 78 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago and the teacher's wages were raised by the board without request on the part of the teacher. If she had added cookery to her subjects, how many homes she might have affected in that community! In physiology the child learns that the skin is an organ of excretion, and immedi- ately forgets it. The fact would be of some practical benefit if taught in connection with home life, including bathing, changing and airing of clothing, airing of beds, use of sleep, etc. Many agricultural high schools are needed in each state, fitting the boys and girls for the life they will lead. Girls often become property owners, and hence have a right to know how to take care of the farm. Superintendent Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania. — From what area do the students come ? Answer : From hundreds of miles, even beyond state limits. Superintendent Barrett, of Iowa. — Are these students enrolled in the college ? Answer : No, there are about forty students in the college proper. Superintendent Carrington, of Missouri. — In Missouri the state is trying to prepare teachers in such subjects as nature work, preparatory to the work of the more advanced schools. Summer courses in the elements of agriculture are offered to teachers. In twelve weeks much is learned that has proved beneficial to ordinary rural schools, improving and modifying the work as a whole. In southern Missouri a fruit experiment station has been established. This year a summer school will ofiEer a course in horticul- ture. Some work is also done in the normal schools, each of which has an agricultural department. Superintendent J. W. Olsen, of Minnesota. — Do district officers show apprecia- tion of these efforts by offering and paying teachers thus prepared better wages ? Answer: Salaries are raised, and such teachers are in demand. Superintendent Roberts, of Peoria, 111. — I was much disappointed that the leaders both led away from the subject of agriculture in the rural schools. Superintendent Harvey pronounced the work in the district schools a failure. I think something can be done in a simple, practical way in the rural schools to awaken the interest in the commu- nity before they are ready for high school or county school. Many boys never will get to either. There should be something done to get the work down to the district school as an incentive to go on to higher work. An experiment was tried in Illinois ; work was planned at the university and outlined and presented to the teachers. Seventy-five per cent, of them tried to carry out instructions. The course was very simple, including such subjects as the kind of chickens raised in the district, lists of vegetables raised in the neighborhood, the baking and boiling of potatoes, garden work, keeping accounts, etc. This work can be done in rural schools. SECOND TOPIC: THE FINANCIAL PHASE OF THE CONSOLIDA TION OF RURAL SCHOOLS CHARLES A. VAN MATRE, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MUNCIE, IND. To the end that knowledge and learning be generally diffused thruout a community, the various states have provided for a general and uniform system of common schools, to be supported by a public tax. Schools have been established in each community within convenient walking distances of the homes. Owing to the uneven distribution of the population, some communities may have very large schools, in which the per capita cost is small, while the adjoining communities may have small schools, in which the per capita cost is comparatively large. A school of fifty pupils may be maintained at practically the same expense as a school of ten. The principal items of expense are tuition, fuel, supplies, repairs, and buildings. A small school must have the same provisions as a Superintendence] STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 79 larger one in all these items. The per capita cost cannot be reduced by maintaining each separate school.. The only solution to the difficulty is to combine two or more such schools, or to combine them with larger schools. In this manner it may be possible to reduce the cost of tuition by reducing the number of teachers, of fuel by reducing the number of rooms to be heated, and consequently the cost of supplies, repairs, and build- ings. While there is a saving in all of these items, another factor is introduced by the consolidation — the cost of transportation of the pupils of the abandoned schools. That the per capita cost of the small schools maybe reduced, this cost of transportation must not be greater than the saving in the other items of expense. The reduction in per capita cost and the expense of transportation will depend wholly upon local conditions — the number of pupils to be conveyed, the distance, and the condition of the roads. The subject may be best presented by studying special cases. The following statistics have been collected from places where the experiment has been made : Number of teachers employed in the consolidated school Number of teachers added because of consolidation . Number of teachers fewer in the districts Number of teachers doing grade work in the school Number of teachers doing high- school work in the school Total daily salary of the teachers in the grades ... Total daily salary of the teachers in the high school Total number of pupils in the consolidated school Total number of pupils in the grades Total number of pupils in the high school Number of schools abandoned in the township Number of pupils conveyed at public en>ense Number of pupils conveyed in public conveyance Number of pupils conveyed in private conveyance Number of wagons used Daily expense of drivers Daily expense for private con- veyance Cost of wagons Cost of fuel per room per year . . . Coft of all other supplies per room per year • •0 Q 6 6 CO 1 1-4 1 t-i r • -a i s 1 a 0 U 6 3 4 5 4 5 4 3 X3 • • • • ■ • 3 3 • • 3 3 X X 3 5 3 4 5 8 5 3 3 4 3 4 3 3 X ■ • X X X X X • • $13.35 $5.xo $7.00 $xo.30 $7.50 $9.xo $7.30 $5-40 $3-50 • ■ $3-50 $3.30 $3.25 $3-50 $5 > • I9S 53 X4X xgo 140 X30 133 96 500 x86 S3 xxg 175 X33 xxo XO4 •» 500 9 • • 33 X5 18 30 18 • • * * • X X 3 5 3 4 4 8 5 7 7 94 139 50 95 • • 60 150 7 7 24 xag 95 M • • 60 • • • • • • • • 95 XX « • ■ « • • X X X 7 3 X ■ • 4 5 $1.35 $1.35 $1.50 $8.75 $3.30 $0.75 • • ■ • $X3 • ■ « • • • • • $3. SO $0.40 • • • • • • • • • • $xoo $500 ■ • • • ■ • • • ■ • $30 $30 $30 $30 $39 $15 $37 ■ • $50 $35 $95 $95 $95 $30 $30 $95 • • • • s fS 3 4 X $9 $3.80 $30 From the above list it may be seen that Daleville, Ind., has a school employing six teachers. Five are doing grade work, while one is doing high-school work. A small school of seven pupils is conveyed to this school. No additional expense is incurred in the Daleville school because of the admission of these seven pupils. The only expense for these seven pupils is the cost of transportation, which is $1.25 per day. To maintain a separate school for them would cost much more than this amount. Other district schools in the township in which this school is situated cost from ^{(2.75 to ^^(3 per day. The same results would be secured had the school as many as twenty or twenty- five pupils. All could be conveyed in one wagon, and the large school would still admit 8o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago them, since they would be distributed thru the grades. No one teacher would receive all of them. Cross Roads, Ind., shows similar conditions. A school of seven pupils is conveyed to, this school, which employs two teachers, at the daily expense of $1.25. The saving in this case is the same as at Daleville. These two schools are located in the same township. The wagons are provided by their drivers. Thus the total expense for each is $1.25 per day. The saving to the township is from ^3 to $3.50 per day. For a seven- and-a-half-months' term of school the saving is from $450 to $500 per year. Selma, Ind., shows even greater results. Two schools have been abandoned and combined with the Selma school. The pupils — twenty-four in number — are conveyed in one wagon at a daily expense of $1.50. No additional teaching force is required in the Selma school. The saving to the township is about $600 per year. As a solution to the rural-school problem, the school at Royerton, Ind., is a fruitful field for study. Six districts, comprising an area of about eighteen square miles, have been combined into one. The union school is located at Royerton. Under the separate- district plan seven teachers were employed — two at Royerton and one in each of the other districts. Now five are employed in the union school, a difference of two teachers resulting from the change. Three teachers are doing grade work, one does high-school work, and one divides his time between grade and high-school work. Some little high- school work was given when there were but two teachers in the Royerton school, but no high-school work was given in the district schools outside of the Royerton school. Under the separate-district plan seven rooms were maintained. Now there are but four, and a small room used for recitations, which adds no expense. No additional buildings were needed at Royerton, due to the fact that there was an old building which had not been in use for several years. Thus there has been a saving in tuition by reducing the number of teachers. Not considering the high school, four teachers do the work formerly done by seven teachers — a difference of three. The cost of fuel, supplies, and repairs for seven rooms has been reduced to the cost of four. There are 190 pupils enrolled in the school, 129 of whom are conveyed from the abandoned schools — about two-thirds of the number enrolled in the union school. The daily expense for transportation is $8.75. The following will show the comparative cost of the two plans : DISTRICT PLAN Salaries for seven teacljers for seven months $3,493.00 Institute fee for seven institutes 134.60 Fuel for seven rooms at $30 per room sxo.oo Supplies for seven rooms at $xo per room 70.00 Repairs at $30 per room 140.00 Total $3,036.60 CONSOLIDATION PLAN Salaries for four teachers for seven months $1,443.00 Institute fee for seven institutes 73 . xo Fuel for four rooms at $30 per room X30.oo Supplies for four rooms at $xo per room 40.00 Repairs at $30 per room 80.00 Total $x,754.xo Transportation, at $8.87 per day 1,335.00 $3,979. xo Difference in favor of consolidation 57.50 $3,036.60 The salaries shown in the above estimate are the actual salaries paid the teachers. The cost of the fuel has been estimated upon a coal or wood basis. The supplies include maps, globes, charts, desks, books of reference, etc. The repairs include fen- cing, wells, pumps, floors, windows, papering, janitor work, etc. These are only esti- mates. If there is any error, it has been in making them too low. However, this SupermtendenceJ STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 8 1 nrould only make the saving greater, and does not interfere with the argument. Build- ings are not included. There was no additional expense for buildings. PER CAPITA COST Consolidated Plan District Plan Tuition per day ... $0.060 $o.zoo Transportation per day - - 0.067 Other items - - - - 0.012 0.041 $0,139 $o.z4x The pupils of the original Royerton school are not transported, which makes a reduction from 14.1 to 7.2 cents per capita. There are about sixty pupils in this district. In the township in which Royerton is situated there are other schools not centralized at Royerton. Each of them enrolls more than thirty pupils. The cost of tuition cannot be greater than 8 cents per capita, using as a basis the same rate as used in the other estimates — ^2.50 per day. The cost of transportation cannot be much less than 6 cents per day per capita, considering that the average cost of driver, wagon, and team is $1.25, and that a wagon may convey from twenty to twenty-five pupils. If there be thirty pupils, two wagons may be needed, which would increase the * per capita cost. To con- solidate such schools would be more expensive than to maintain separate schools. Webster township, Wajme county, Indiana, has centralized all its schools at one point — the town of Webster. But two wagons are used. The township is small, and much of the school population is centered near Webster. The outlying districts have a very small school enumeration. It has been found very much more satisfactory to con- vey the pupils from the three out-districts to the Webster school than to maintain these small schools. Three schools have been abandoned. To maintain these schools would cost from $8 to $9 per day. Aside from the high school but one teacher has been added to the Webster school because of the consolidation, at an expense of ^$2.50 per day. Twenty-five pupils are conveyed in two wagons at a daily expense of $2.20. Twenty- five pupils are conveyed in private conveyances at about the same expense. Perry township, Wayne county, Indiana, shows similar conditions. The township has one school at Economy. The rural population is scattering. Twenty-five pupils are conveyed at a daily expense of |5i.i5. Formerly there were four schools maintained in addition to the Economy school ; now there are but twenty-five pupils not within con- venient distance of the Economy school. MASSACHUSETTS Six years ago Warwick maintained nine schools twenty-four weeks per year. The average attendance of pupils in the town was eighty-seven. Teachers' wages in the eight outside schools were $5 per week ; in the center school, ^6 per week. With few exceptions, the teachers were young and without experience, educated in the district schools. Some were under sixteen years of age — one term a pupil in a school, the next term a teacher. Occasionally, in recent years, a teacher of marked ability and success- ful experience has been employed, but the number of schools made it impossible to pay wages that would retain the services of well-qualified teachers many terms. The schools were poorly supplied with books and materials. Now all the pupils in town are in three rooms of one modem, well-lighted, heated, ventilated building, pleasantly situated in the center of the town. The rooms are supplied with good blackboards, and with books and appliances for the use of pupils. The school has three teachers — normal-school graduates of exceptional ability. The average wages paid are $9 a week ; the school year is thirty-six weeks. Special teachers of music and drawing visit the schools each week. Pupils are conveyed to the center union school from distant parts of the town. The average attendance in the fall term was ninety-six — a gain over the attendance in all of the nine schools six years ago. The schools are well-graded from lowest primary to highest grammar grade, three classes in a room. 82 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicaeo Teachers are selected whose qualifications are especially adapted to the ability and needs of the pupils under their charge. The number of recitations being less than in ungraded schools, the teachers and pupils do much more e£Fective work. The relation of the teachers to one another is one of mutual helpfulness, and the association of so many pupils in the schoolrooms and on the grounds under the supervision of the teachers is pleasant and beneficial. As a result of the consolidation of its schools and a wise administration of school afifairs, the town has in six years lengthened the school year 50 per cent., increased the teachers' wages 75 per cent., and employed special teachers for drawing and music, with- out materially increasing the school tax of the town. Because of the reduction of the number of schools thru consolidation, the cost of instruction by the regular teachers has been lessened. A large increase in the amount of money received from the income of the state school fund has been of great benefit to the schools. Much time that would be needed for travel by the superintendents and special teachers in reaching many small scattered schools is saved for profitable use in the one building in the union school. The citizens of Warwick have manifested a deep interest in their public schools by the employment of an efficient superintendent, the erection of a school building which is a credit to the town, the consolidation of its schools, and the emplo3rment of efficient teachers. In general, it may be said that any school in which the daily per capita cost exceeds 15 cents may be consolidated with other schools without increasing the expense. This estimate will be true when the cost of tuition is $2.40 per day. This rate will be reached when the enrollment of the school falls below twenty, and the conveyance may be made with one wagon. Considering that a teacher may successively teach a school of fifty pupils, provided that but one or two grades be represented, and that he receive %^o per month for his services, the minimum cost of tuition will be $1 per month per capita. Also considering that wagons may convey from twenty to twenty-five pupils, and that the cost of wagons, drivers, and teams will be from $1.25 to $1.50 per day, the minimum cost of transportation of pupils will be $1.20 per month per capita. The cost of repairs, supplies, and fuel will be about 20 cents per month per capita. The total cost of maintaining the school of fifty pupils will be ^{(2.40 per month per capita. With this estimate as a working basis the following is compiled : TABLE SHOWING THE RATE LEVY PER $1,000 FOR A GIVEN NUMBER OF PUPILS FOR A GIVEN LENGTH OF TIME WHEN ALL ARE CONVEYED Number of Pupils lOO, soo, 300, 400. 500. X Month $0.24 .48 .72 .96 Z.20 Number op Months and Rates 6 Months $1.44 2.88 4-33 5- 76 7.20 7 Months $1.48 3.36 5.04 6.72 8.40 8 Months $1.92 3-84 76 68 60 9 Months $2.x6 4.3a 6.48 8.64 Z0.80 The rate of tax levy may be computed from this table for any number of $i,ooo for a given number of months and for a given number of pupils. Divide the rate of tax levy shown by the table for a given number of pupils for the given number of months by the given number of $i,ooo, and the result will be the rate of tax levy on the dollar. For instance, the number of pupils in a certain township is 400 ; the desired length of school term is eight months; the assessed valuation property is $1,000,000. By referring to the table the rate is $7.68 ; dividing this amount by 1,000 gives $0.00768 Superintendence] STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 83 — the rate on $1, or $0,768 on $100. This rate would be excessive for the state of Indiana. The maximum rate established by law is ^{(0.96 on the ^{(loo. The maximum special school levy which must provide for all expense other than tuition is $0.50 on the $100. The maximum tuition levy is $0.35 on the $100. These are the local levies. In addition to these levies the state levies a tax of ;^o.ii on the $\00y which is collected from the various counties and redistributed, together with the revenue on the permanent school fund, in proportion to the school enumeration. Deducting the $0.11 levied by the state in the case cited above, the local levy would need be $0,658 on the $100. Not having made provisions for buildings in the estimate for this levy, the rate approaches too near the maximum local levy — $0.85 on the $100. A margin of $0.30 on the $100 should be left for cost of buildings, the remaining $0.55 should pay all other expense for maintaining the school. However, in the township being considered no more than one-half the pupils would need be conveyed. By centralizing at two points the other one-half would be within convenient walking distance from the union schools. To con- vey but one-half would reduce the levy from $0,658 to $0,466 on the $100. This rate would not be excessive. Most cities and towns levy higher rates. For additional illustration another specific case is given. A certain township enrolls 300 pupils ; the desired length of school term is seven months ; the assessed valuation of property is $850,000. By referring to the table the rate is $5.04. Dividing this amount by 850 the rate is $0.00593 on the $1, or $0,593 on the $100. Deducting the $0.11 levied by the state, the local levy is $0,483 on the $100. If no more than two-thirds of the pupils would need be conveyed, the rate would be $0.39 on the $100. The- conditions in this particular township are such that not more than one-half would need be conveyed. In such case the levy would be $0.33 on the $100. The illustrations given cannot be universally applied. However, the following sum- mary may have general application : 1. To convey all pupils will require an excessive rate of tax, unless the number of pupils be small and the assessed valuation property large. 2. The township with a school enrollment of one hundred to an assessed property valuation of $250,000 may convey one-half the number of pupils with a reasonable rate of tax levy. 3. Any school with an enrollment of fewer than twenty pupils may be combined with a similar or larger school at no increased expense, provided the distance be not too great for the transportation, and the roads permit of easy and rapid transit. DISCUSSION Superintendent ScHAEFFER,of Pennsylvania. — Is the consolidation law compulsory in Indiana ? Answer : It is not. Districts on petition vote themselves in, but trustees may join a school of less than twelve pupils without waiting for a petition. Dr. Schaeffer. — What is the usual cost of transportation ? Answer: From $1.25 to $1.50 per day. In Ohio from $8 to $45 per month ; average $18 or $19. Superintendent Bayliss, of Illinois, asked Superintendent Bonebrake, of Ohio, if any schools in that state had discontinued the plan. Answer : A very few, where the opposition had gained control of the board ; but sentiment in favor of the movement is constantly growing, as is shown by the numerous calls upon the state superintendent to speak on this subject. Superintendent Fall, of Michigan. — While the plan is not in operation in Michi- gan, there is a great and growing interest in the subject. In comparing the school expenses of the city of Jackson with the cost of the ungraded schools in the twenty townships about it, it was found that the per capita tax in Jackson was $1.27, while in the country 84 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago It was $i.6o. This shows that the country children should have at least as good an edu- cation as the city children, for their parents pay more for it In eight country schools visited in one area the highest enrollment was thirteen, the lowest six ; each of these contained worthless reading charts costing $37.50 apiece. Superintendent B. E. York, of Kingsville, O. — The consolidation of rural schools in Ohio began at Kingsville six years ago. Now the whole town is consolidated ; at the last election the vote carried six to one in favor of the plan. The gross expense is a little more, but the per capita expense is less. A high-school course of four years has been established, and there are seventy-four pupils in the high school. Superintendent Collins, of South Dakota. — The advantages of the system more than outweigh any small increase in cost. Farmers will be willing to pay a little more if they see results. Great interest is shown in South Dakota. Many are opposed, but do not give the cost as the reason for opposition. Social conditions must settle the question. In prairie states probably three-fourths of the towns might save money. If the schools were large, consolidation would add to the cost ; if small, it would not. Superintendent Bright, of Cook county. 111. — The two subjects on the program are closely related. There would be a good opportunity for instruction in the elements of agriculture in the high schools established by consolidation of the districts. County Superintendent W. G. Hartranft, of Seattle, Wash., said he had come to the meeting expressly to hear this topic discussed. There are so many schools in Washington of three or four pupils that something should be done. He is urging con- solidation. He reaches the farmers by a paper explaining and commending the plan. Superintendent BoN£BRAKE,of Ohio.; — Centralization not only gives better results in the grades, but results in the formation of high schools. Such has been the experience in the townships of Ohio. Sixty-three new high schools have been established this year. Growth of libraries and the bringing in of lecture courses have also followed consolidation. These high schools should not imitate too closely the high schools in large cities. Review work in the common branches should receive attention as well as advanced subjects. B. ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS TOPIC I: FOUR MINOR DUTIES OF A SUPERINTENDENT I. C. MCNEILL, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, SUPERIOR, WIS. The four topics I am asked to touch upon in this short discussion relate to the selec- tion of teachers, the elimination of teachers who are not intellectually prepared, the elimination of teachers who are not morally prepared, and the stimulation of teachers to reach the fullest measure of individual strength so as to render, thru active co-operation, the most efficient service. SELECTION OF TEACHERS Every superintendent is confronted with serious problems in the selection of new teachers. There are economic, practical, and prudential reasons for selecting some people of little experience from one's own city. The superintendent and the school board have opportunities, because of their residence in the neighborhood, to make closer analyses of the intellectual and moral fitness of inexperienced home applicants than they can make of non- residents. Worthy and loyal teachers who are important factors in the community life can render abler service in interpreting the schools to the patrons, and the patrons to the system* than ecjually well-prepared strangers can give. Superintendence] kOUND TABLE OF CI tY SVPEklNTENDElSfTS 85 Notwithstanding these facts, it is exceedingly dangerous to employ young teachers fresh from the high schools. They have vague notions of the duties teachers must assume, and are able to give no better reason for their employment than Micawber could give for the practice of law. Untrained high-school graduates have been in contact with' teaching processes as pupils, while Micawber had been in contact with legal processes many times as defendant. High-school graduates of worthy character and exemplary habits should be encour- aged to take two-years' courses in good normal schools, supported at public expense or by ample endowment, where subject-matter, ideals, and work can in no way be influenced by fees paid for tuition. After the training and the close sifting of well-equipped and well-conducted normal or training schools, the young teachers will be anchored to some fundamental notions so that they can begin to adapt themselves, subject-matter, methods, and government to the capability of the taught. With very few exceptions, the most able and successful teachers in any large system are they who have had professional training in normal schools. It is the experience of most superintendents who have studied the question in all its phases that the probability that young teachers will succeed is greatly increased after graduating from a well-conducted training course. New blood should be infused into the city school system by selecting some teachers of recognized training, scholarship, successful experience, and pleasing and worthy char- acter from outside every year. It is a menace to the'best interests of the schools to erect a wall so high that it is not possible to scale it and secure the most efficient service with- out regard to municipal or state lines. The superintendent should base his recommendations for the selection of new teach- ers upon his own knowledge when possible ; and, in other cases, upon honest, expert, disinterested advice from people who, thru contact and visitation, know the teacher at work, and have given attention to the personality, the scholarship, the organization of knowledge as illustrated in the recitation, and the kind and efficiency of his or her dis- cipline. Special care needs to be exercised to distinguish between the personality that wins the visitor because of blandishments, and the personality which guides the children to cheerful and independent work because of the presence of character. As a matter of fact, many selections must be made upon information given by interested parties, such as personal friends and teachers' agencies. In such instances the information should be considered as tentative rather than final ; and verification of it ought to be sought from all other sources at command ; for all mistakes reflect upon the judgment of the superin- tendent. The more confidence the community has in the honesty and soundness of the superintendent's judgment, the more hearty and generous will be the support given his school administration. ELIMINATION OF TEACHERS WHO ARE NOT INTELLECTUALLY PREPARED There is hope for the teacher who is weak in scholarship but strong in character. Elimination does not necessarily mean retirement. Weak scholarship in many instances may be overcome. As a general line of action, it is my opinion that the superintendent should attempt to stimulate self-culture, and thus eliminate weak scholarship by study, observation, and reflection, rather than by dismissals ; yet, retirements because of weak scholastic attain- ments sometimes act as a powerful spur and cause intellectually inefficient teachers to embrace every opportunity to grow in knowledge of facts and plans of organizing them, as well as in methods of teaching. The problem of inefficiency cannot be solved by retiring all teachers of poor scholarship ; for frequent changes in teaching force usually lower the vitality of a system of schools. It is well for the superintendent to be animated by a desire to stimulate poor teachers to become fair teachers and fair teachers to become excellent. Teachers who are inefficient in one grade may sometimes do better work in another 86 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago where tact and management count for more than scholarship. Such teachers will usually be found ready and anxious to follow courses of study for self -improvement. The super- intendent, or someone under his direction, may form classes in which the facts of the branches, one branch at a time, and the organization of the facts into teaching plans, are taught at stated intervals until the fundamental branches are understood and organized in the minds of teachers of poor scholarship. Teaching plans, such as State Superin- tendent L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, has promulgated, are heartily commended, and might well test both scholarship and the organization of subject-matter with teachers of the class now under consideration. Summer schools, conducted by educational experts, in which teachers attempt not more than two branches, often help teachers rich in character but poor in scholarship to be able to approach their duties in such a way as to do violence to no child brought under them for instruction and moral guidance. The most effective means of helping is to win the confidence of teachers of this class and induce them to ask for leave of absence for one or two years to enter upon a scientific study of the branches and the general subject of education in a well-equipped normal school. When they shall have completed the course of study, their places in the system should be opened to them without doubt. \ personally know superintendents who have followed this last-mentioned plan to the decided betterment of their schools. Many of the teachers who are thus helped soon prove themselves superior and are in line for promotion when better places are open. In dealing with all teachers of the class now considered the utmost frankness and the fullest sympathy should characterize the intercourse of the superintendent with them. They need the uplifting influence of honest hearts and friendly hands in overcoming obstacles which stand between them and due proficiency. One of the greatest rewards that may come to a superintendent is the consciousness of having placed about a teacher of poor scholarship and beautiful character such influences as induced her to make prepa- ration for a larger and a fuller life which culture and training enabled her to reach. ELIMINATION OF TEACHERS WHO ARE NOT MORALLY PREPARED This topic is one that causes the superintendent the greatest concern. Teachers who are morally prepared have trained and logical minds, high ideals of right and equity, active and sensitive consciences, steady wills, persistent purposes, keen sympathies, and an abundance of common-sense. The teacher who is weak in character lacks in develop- ment of mind, of ideals, of manners, of conscience, of steadiness and persistence of will, of sympathy, or of common-sense, but not of all. The teacher who is positively depraved represents arrested development or active degeneration in intellectual or moral lines. Such a person is short-sighted and looks to present selfish gratification. A very few forms of moral disqualification may be overcome. The indiscreet teacher in her actions outside the schoolroom may sometimes be saved by a frank request from the superintendent that she change her course of conduct concerning the things he sets forth in a firm but pleasant manner. The passive teacher, correct in her own personal habits, lacking power to exert an active, positive Influence for right in her pupils, by association as assistant with a positive, aggressive type of teacher may sometimes, but not often, thru imitation, be brought into the light of clearer ideals and caused to take on a disposition to guide the energies of children and secure a power to control. - The nagging teacher, the fuming teacher, the vindictive teacher, the slovenly teacher, the untruthful teacher, the giddy teacher, and many other types of teachers who are not morally prepared, should in very many cases be advised to find other avenues of employ- ment. The school's great aim is to train the character of the pupils, not the character of the teachers. Elimination by substitution is the safest method of dealing with teachers who are morally unfit for their duties. • Saperintendence] ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 87 STIMULATION OF TEACHERS TO FOLLOW RIGHT IDEALS The superintendent's task of stimulating each individual to do his best in teaching, in managing, and in carrying out plans for private practice or public policy is one that tests training and common-sense. The superintendent who, thru a laudable desire to secure the greatest efHciency, insists that his plans in the minutest details shall be the only guide for individual faith and practice, soon finds himself rated as an educational czar. There is danger that such a man, no matter how great an educator he may be, will kill off by the " starvation plan " individual initiative and hearty support which are always needed to give tone and public confidence. On the other hand, the " good fellow," who makes it his chief business to " stand in " everywhere in the course dl time, is looked upon as a person without educational charac- ter. Such a superintendent is often made the tool of designing egotists with their fac- tional organizations. He becomes unable to enlist effort to improve, because he lacks the power or courage to recognize individual merit by directing attention to personal worth or by promoting deserving persons when opportunity arises. The superintendent needs, thru contact with teachers and thru observation of their class-room work, where he may estimate the intellectual and moral development of pupils, to have an intimate knowledge of the working power, scholarship, educational philosophy, habits, and abilities of the teachers, that he may encourage them to keep on doing well the things that are done well and to change ideals and practices regarding the duties that are done poorly. Monthly teachers' institutes and grade teachers' meetings at stated intervals, if planned to establish clearer notions of teaching or managing and led by inspiring persons who because of acknowledged success or skill stand for ideas, will give zest and purpose to the system. The best interests of the schools will come from a care- fully articulated course which starts with conditions as found and leads to consistent and persistent effort to avoid waste and to move in a straight rather than a broken line of progress. Schools and teachers, because of standing on the solid ground of right adjustment of matter and method to the pupils, should be pointed out so that they may be studied and the sources of superior merit discovered by less forceful workers. When teachers are busy \xym% to reach safest methods in guiding activity of pupils so as to result in power and character, they are constructive and positive ; they lose no time in tearing down good things. The superintendent should be secure and steadfast, not easily turned aside by the petty worries and sordid cares of the daily turmoil. Some work may be done by the superintendent whose views are narrow and whose ideals are low, but the best work is done only by the man of large heart, broad views, and habitual singleness of purpose. The great superintendent, who realizes that education is a constant force that operates wherever ideas for good or for evil are alive, lives in the minds of associates as an exem- plar of honesty, justice, courage, and courtesy. He should have a personality and stand for something in the educational world and out of it. The elements of leadership will enable him to '* Allure to brighter worlds And lead the way." TOPIC II: MODERNIZING THE COURSE OF STUDl W. A. HESTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, EVANSVILLE, IND. In his efforts to modernize the course of study, to what extent should the superin- tendent be governed by : (i) the crack of the college professor's whip ? (2) the nenroas ;nroman writer's tirade on the " crowded curriculum " ? (3) the conclusions of 88 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [CUcago the notoriety-seeking schoolroom experimenter? (4) the demands of the old-school men that all be eliminated from the course of study excepting the " three R*s " ? I have a bright young school friend whom I shall call, for the sake of convenience, Charles Merrill. Mr. Merrill is college-bred, thoughtful, sober, sensitive, and almost painfully conscientious. He voluntarily entered the profession of teaching when quite a young man, and, because of his superior intelligence, close study of his work, tactfulness, and devotion to duty, he was rapidly and deservedly promoted, his last position, and the one which he now holds and has held for nearly six years, being the superintendency of a system of schools in a prosperous western town of about thirty thousand people. As a superintendent he has had what may be termed a rich experience. He related much of it to me during last Christmas holiday week, and it was to me 9d interesting, so suggest- ive, and is, withal, so similar to that of many other young superintendents, that I ven- ture to present a portion of it for our discussion here today. He stated that before he took charge of the schools his board told him that their schools were not up to the standard of certain other schools which they named, and that they would expect him to bring them to such standard as soon as it could be done. Having given the superintendency of schools but little attention, said he, I began at once a careful reading of everything bearing on school management that I could find, and wrote to a number of the writers of articles that had impressed me most deeply for fuller statements of their views. Several of them replied promptly and elaborately, and their letters have been of great help to me many times since their receipt ; but others made assertions and expressed opinions that I could not but regard as being dangerously heterodox ; they were so dia- metrically opposed to what I had been taught to believe was good pedagogy. I, therefore, laid their communications aside, determined to allow the writers to prove the pedagogical worth of their theories themselves, rather than risk testing them myself or allowing them to be tested in the schools for the success of which I should be held personally respon- sible. The first and most important duty which the new position brought to me was the revision and improvement of the course of study. The old course, as I found it, provided for work in what we usually term the " eight common-school branches," none of the so-called " fads " finding a place in it. About the first thing which I did, therefore, was to recommend the introduction of a system of drawing, to which I held with a blind faith in the efficacy of the system, tho I knew little of its real educational value, notwithstanding the fun that was poked at our " mud-pie making," our " scissor-cutting nonsense," and our " failure to turn out artists." A proficient and popular supervisor soon quieted the spirit of unrest, however, and things have gone serenely on in that department of our schools ever since. The necessity for a complete course of nature work for the grades was also urged upon me, and what appeared to me to be a carefully worked out scheme of nature study was presented to the board, which readily adopted it, and then to the teachers, who sighed, but acquiesced and went faithfully to work to master the new subject as it applied to their respective grades. Of course, time had to be set apart for the two new subjects of drawing and nature work, and it had to be taken from the time formerly devoted to instruction in the other branches. Right here the college professor offered his assistance. He commended me for what I had done in " shortening and enriching " the course of study, but said that my work had not gone far enough. He insisted that further eliminations and contraction should be effected in the old-time subjects, and that a full eight-year course in history should be given to the pupils of the grades ; that Latin should be begun in the seventh, and that elementary algebra and geometry should be made a part of the eighth-year assignment. I was persuaded that all this must be done if we would be " up with the times ; " Sttperintendence] ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 89 and, as my board had said this must be our condition as soon as practicable, and as our advisors made it so emphatic that all the changes enumerated were essential in any attempt to modernize a course of study, the new subjects were introduced as rapidly as could be done without creating a panic and general strike among the teachers. In the process of elimination and contraction of the old course much of the technical part of the grammar was sacrificed. This, of course, created dissatisfaction among the advocates of parsing and analyzing, and much complaint was heard from high-school teachers of English, German, and Latin when the pupils began to enter their clasps. Besides this, many of the topics in arithmetic previously dwelt upon by teachers and labored with by pupils were stricken from the assignment and the course in that branch shortened a full year. The criticisms which this elicited from a number of our pioneer, but substantial and highly respected citizens, products of the old school, were such as I do not care to repeat. It is sufficient to say that no argument presented to them was strong enough to convince them that the new was a great improvement over the old. They held tenaciously to their demand that the " new-fangled notions " be dropped and the " three R's " be emphasized. The course of study in geography was next abbreviated by substituting a one-book course for the two-book course then in use. One year's work in geography was thus saved and the time given to the new subjects. But this was not the end. The vertical -writing wave reached us, and in its mighty roll threatened to submerge us and thus to consign us to oblivion ; but we mounted its crest with the other progressives, and the change from the more rapidly written but now condemned slant to the slower but popular vertical was soon effected. Altho the pen- manship of the older pupils was for a time almost illegible, all ere long were writing the so-called vertical script, which in most instances was a plain backhand. These changes, together with the addition of two oral lessons per week in scien- tific temperance, made necessary by a recently enacted law in response to a demand of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union ; two oral lessons per week in patriotism, as requested by the Grand Army of the Republic and the Daughters of the American Revo- lution ; two five-minute exercises each day in calisthenics ; and one ten- or twenty-minute period each day given to vocal music, afford some idea of the evolution thru which those schools passed during the first three years of my superintendency. Much of the time during the next two years I spent in defending the schools against what I felt were unjust attacks from evil-disposed persons. But these did not disturb me quite so much, nor have they been so difficult for me to meet, as the criticisms of persons who I have had every reason to believe were friends of the schools. Intelligent and ambitious parents claimed that their children, their daughters par- ticularly, were being unduly burdened with work. As gentle reminders, some of them sent to me marked copies of magazines and pamphlets that contained long and scathing criticisms on the public-school system in general because of its " death-dealing work with the youth of the country." On investigation I learned. that many, tho not all, of our girls who were reported to be slowly breaking down were naturally delicate or very nervous in temperament and incapable of sustained effort ; or were members of society, whose demands on their time and strength consumed the better part of their vitality, and their school work, too often a secondary consideration, was a consequent sufferer. Many of the boys, yet not all of them either, who were reported as not being able to keep up with their classes were found to be cigarette fiends, a condition which seemed to have rendered them almost wholly incapable of steady and continuous mental application ; while others real- ized as keenly as did the girls the demands of the social circle on them, and they felt constrained to respond to this demand even to the detriment of their school work. To meet these difficulties and to allay them, if possible, by affording the patrons of the schools^a fuller knowledge of the policy of the schools in their changed conditions, and 90 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOA [Chicago thereby bringing the patrons into closer touch and sympathy with the schools, mothers* meet- ings were held in various parts of the city. While some of these meetings were deemed successful and profitable, many of them were dominated by pefsons of strong personality and good following who criticised in such severe and convincing terms much of the really good work of the schools, which they could not understand nor appreciate, that harm to the schools rather than good resulted from them. We have not tried fathers* meetings, said he. We fear it would not be wise. During the third year of my term of service, one of the members of my board learned that written examinations had been tabooed in several schools that he was told were thoroly " up to date,** and he insisted on their being abandoned, as an experiment at least, in our schools. He was so enthusiastic, yet so kind, in the expression of his wishes in this respect, that the experiment was tried, and now nothing but written tests are known in the schools ; and, tho there are now two or three times as many written tests as there were formerly written examinations and tests together (a condition which seems to prevail also in the schools to which he referred), he is pleased and claims credit for the change, and is congratulated by certain patrons who called his attention to the " desirable improvement.'* As tho this were not enough, a movement, the strength of which I have not yet been able to determine, has lately been started by the mothers* clubs of our city, having for its purpose the breaking up of gradation in the schools and the substitution of individual instruction. It is claimed that this system of instruction is in successful operation in a number of good schools ; that it is now no longer an experiment ; and that it is certain to supersede the graded system or class teaching. Their immediate presentation to our board of the superior claims of individualism is prevented, I understand, by the diflSculty which the ladies are experiencing in determining which of the several " best individual systems" is the best for our schools. As soon as they reach a mutually satisfactory con- clusion in this respect, we shall doubtless hear from them. While the ladies have been busying themselves about this " great cure-all ** for the ills of the schools, I have been endeavoring to find our true bearings and to determine, if possible, whither we are drifting. I have questioned myself with all the sincerity of an honest questioner, and have been trying to answer the questions just as honestly: Have we really improved on the old as much as we have tried to convince ourselves and our friends that we have ? Does our present course provide for solidly progressive work ? Is it a pedagogical unity ? Is the work as now outlined well articulated and wisely pur- poseful, or does it encourage and almost compel scrappy and superficial work ? To be candid with you, I am not satisfied with present conditions, and, tho I am ready to acknowledge having made mistakes, if I can be satisfied that such is the case, and I am willing to rectify where defects occur, still 1 am more or less uncertain where to begin or just what to do. In the first place, I am becoming more and more strongly of the impression that there is truth in the statement that the majority of our school children have too much to do. Both they and the teachers, 1 fear, are overburdened^ Nor do I feel that we can prune the old course any more than we have by way of relief. I am not certain but that some of the old citizens are about right in their statements that we have already crossed the danger line in our eliminations. I am now sorely tempted to undo some of the things which we have done in the name of progressiveness and modernization. To be specific : While I see some virtue in the work done by the pupils of the eighth grade in concrete geometry as a help to them in mensuration, I have little faith in the value of the smattering of algebra which they get, and less faith in the educational worth of the Latin which the seventh-years learn in a year's time. I am persuaded, too, that we ought, in the interest of a more thoro grounding of the children in the essentials of an elementary education, attempt to do less in history below the seventh grade and less in nature work above the third, and concentrate our efforts on the other subjects. The use Sttperintendenoe] ROUND TABLE OP CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 9^ of nature work as a basis for the development of the power of expression in the first three primary grades, its formal and regular teaching in those grades, render it so valuable as to make it really indispensable there, and it should be retained. Above the third grade all that is of especial value in nature study, it seems to m^, can be taught incidentally in con- nection with the teaching and illustration of the other subjects and in correlation with those subjects. Almost the same thing may de said of history, with the exception that its regular and formal teaching be begun in the seventh-year grade, but that in every grade below the seventh the reading assignment be so made as to give large attention to biographical and historical sketches and nature stories. I would retain the course in drawing, but cause it to take two distinct lines, one looking to industrial training work and the other to the development of the artistic sense. I do not expect to worry about the work in pen- manship. It will take care of itself, and sooner or later the natural slant will take the place of either a forced vertical or a prescribed slant. These eliminations and combinations — call it retrogression, if you will — will greatly lighten our work and will give two or three periods each day for manual-training work in the grades, the kind of education that, in my judgment, is well worth planning and sacrificing for; for I believe that the good accruing to the boys and girls from such training is by no means equaled by that which they can realize from the effort and time which they must give to the subjects I am proposing to eliminate, and which have hereto- fore stood in the way of manual -training work. What think you, said he in a most appealing way, of my conclusions ? Do you not think that the interests of my boys and girls demand such action on my part ? TOPIC III: HOW TO MEET THE PEOPLE LOUIS P. NASH, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, HOLYOKE, MASS. I say nothing here of one's private friendships or social relations. The superin- tendent will meet the people, if he is inclined to do so, by appearing at various public and semi-public occasions, before associations, etc. It is well to respond to such calls. The superintendent has to exercise leadership in the community, and there is economy in getting hold of a group of people perhaps representative of a class in the community. They may be a set of people that he would never cohie to know at all in any other way. Of course, one will not take up these things so as to use too much time or to admit the impression that the superintendent likes to pose before the public. Then there are the interviews with people at the office. I suppose we all have a great many of these interviews, and some that are mere waste of time. Yet it is my opinion that we should encourage the people to come. If there is friction or dissatisfac- tion anywhere in the system, it is great good fortune if the people affected will come straight to headquarters and give an early opportunity to set matters right. Every such interview gives the superintendent a chance to find out the exact feeling toward the schools of some individual, and he may represent a great many moie. It also gives a chance to show that person the right course to take, and, if possible, to secure his sup- port. The superintendent of schools ought to be the most accessible man in the city. That does not mean that one must be on call all the time. We should keep definite office hours ; but we must have time for study. We are false to our own selves and to the higher needs of our schools if we do not take definite times for our own study in profes- sional lines, and in philosophical or literary lines as well. But by being accessible I mean especially the attribute that welcomes approach by the people. We have to teach ga NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicaeo the people ; very well, we should get as close to the people and to as many of them as pos- sible, and I think it is an error for the superintendent to want to be free from approach or suggestion by the people. There is a movement now in the development of civic life to make the heads of departments practically free from control. " Responsibility of the heads of departments " is the cry, and it has been helped along by writers whose opinions harmonize with those of Mr. Bryce. Upon this principle, there are school superintendents who wish to be auto- crats. The movement, however, is a mere eddy in the great development of government in this country, as well as all over >the world, which is making for greater dependence upon the whole mass of the people. We have started out in this country to realize the democratic ideal ; we believe that on the whole and in the long run, despite errors that can doubtless be shown, it is better to put the direction of affairs into the control of all the people. So far the results are fairly satisfactory. City government is not a failure ; the people are going to exert more direct power, rather than less, and we ought to bend our work and influence in accordance with that tendency. This ought to be a matter of conscience with us. It goes far deeper than mere policy. Abraham Lincoln said that the nation could not long endure half slave and half free, so it would not long endure half moving toward democratic ways and half toward autocratic ways. Growth is sure to be along democratic lines. Even the president, burdened with a load of cares without precedent in history, finds it a benefit to take time to meet all the people. It is not mere policy; there is a strange, spiritual influence ; the president gains strength from feeling that he is " in touch " with the mass of the people. The superintendent of schools, in his own field, needs that same support. If he is a leader of men, then the more he meets them, the more surely and successfully he will lead. The more he meets the people and knows them, the better superintendent he will be. The teachers' association may contribute to mutual acquaintance, helpfulness, stimu- lation, inspiration among the teachers. It encourages initiative. It is better for us always to do things for ourselves, even badly, rather than to have things done for us. The planning and carrying on of general teachers' meetings may be done largely by the teachers' association. There is no danger that the superintendent will not have influence in shaping affairs. The teachers' association should have sections or committees engaged in special lines of work : a particular committee to read and advise as to the policy of the public library; a committee on reading, or other subjects ; a committee to report on educational progress. Above and beyond this I think there is a future for the teachers' association, which at present we can only dream, tho some things done or attempted at Chicago, at my neighbor city of Springfield, and elsewhere may give a hint. If our medical association issues a declaration upon some question of public policy that is within its sphere, that declaration is received with great respect. Why should not the teachers' association in like manner exercise leadership and be the recognized authority upon any question that has to do with public education ? Why should not its advice be sought and accepted as sure to be courageous, high-minded, wise, the best guidance to be had ? The grade meeting has its peculiar place and usefulness. It is here, in a small meeting, that the superintendent can come close to the individual needs of his teachers. The grade meeting is the place for discussion rather than for lecture or exhortation. Every teacher, tho of briefest experience, should be encouraged to give her views, and the part taken by the teacher, whether of discussion or of exemplification of class work, ought to be at least as prominent as the part taken by the superintendent. Here is the place to go into details of class work, impossible in the general meetings. Here is the place, too, for the superintendent to show his teachers how to be students. Many of our teachers do not know how to study. They are not in the track of the best ideas. They do not know the great currents of thought nor the best books. Ideas are in the air, like Hertzian Superintendence] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS 93 waves ; the teacher should have the means to get their impulse. In the grade meetings the superintendent has a good chance to lead the minds of his teachers into the danger zone, where they are liable to be struck by new ideas. Pay-rolls and financial statements : In a little city, where one man must do every- thing, with but little clerical help, clear and economical methods of arranging the office routine are important. I have a city of less than fifty thousand people, and no assistant superintendent. It is necessary that the committee should be kept fully informed, espe- cially on financial matters. Here is my plan for a pay-roll : The name of each teacher and substitute is written once, for the year. There is a space for every school day. A call comes in for a substi- tute. A clerk turns to the substitute list ; sees who is available ; writes the school opposite the name, in the space for that date ; sends the substitute ; then, in the corresponding space opposite the teacher's name, sees down the name of the substitute. At the end of the month, here are the days all accounted for, and the amount is set down in. this space. My principals send a report, but I do not find that report free from errors. At the end of the month the total expense in each ledger account is carried forward into an account of monthly totals. From that it is copied upon a sheet like this : (i) appropriation for each account; (2) expenditure to date; (3) balance to date; (4) bills and orders; (5) fixed charges to end of fiscal year ; (6) appoint balance. This account goes to the board meeting. Some expenditure is contemplated — per- haps new kindergartens to be established. The question always is : " Have we the money ? " Here is the positive answer. We have such a balance in sight for the end of the fiscal year. Here is a definite, positive thing that the average school-committee' man can understand. He does not know much about pedagogy, but he knows a definite statement of business. And the superintendent who can prove that his estimate comes out just right has gained power and respect which he can use elsewhere. C, ROUND TABLE OF NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS CONFERENCE A.— NORMAL SCHOOLS TOPIC I: WHAT ASPECTS OF PSYCHOLOGY AND CHILD STUDY ARE SUITABLE SUBJECTS FOR INSTRUCTION IN NORMAL SCHOOLS? DISCUSSION Professor Daniel Putnam, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. — The neces- sity for brevity must be my apology for the dogmatic style of this paper. It is assumed that all agree that the normal school is a special and professional school, having a specific and definite purpose, the preparation of teachers, mainly, for grades of schools below the high school. While broad general culture is very desirable in teachers for such schools, as indeed for ail schools, it is not the function of the ordi- nary normal school to provide the means for such culture. If this becomes its chief aim, its existence cannot be justified. The nature and, extent of its courses of study and instruction must be determined by the purpose of the institution. Studies and portions of studies Inay be included in the curriculum of the normal school for any one of three reasons : I. Studies which its students are expecting to teach. The instruction in such studies 94 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago will be, to a large extent, in the way of reviews, with direct reference to methods of teaching. 2. Some studies which the students may not expect to teach, but a knowledge of which will be of great service in the presentation, explanation, and illustration of the branches which they do teach. Of this kind are algebra for its aid in teaching arithmetic, rhetoric and literature for their help in teaching language and grammar, and English history for its service in teaching United States history. Other examples will readily occur. Instruction in these branches will, in most cases, be reviews with a definite pro- fessional end in view. Incidentally such studies tend toward extending the general knowledge and culture of students. 3. Studies a knowledge of which gives the intending teacher a thoro insight into his own nature, into the natures of his pupils, into the nature of the processes of learning, and of the correlative processes of teaching, and most of all into the springs of human conduct, and into the forces, motives, and influences which are most potent in molding and fashioning human character, and in giving right direction to human activities ; in other words, the forces and influences most effective in the production of such men and women as are needed in the community for the uplifting of society and of humanity generally. Among the studies of this third class are psychology, ethics, and aesthetics. Psy- chology is the only one with which we are now directly concerned ; and the inquiry is : What aspects of this study should be presented and especially emphasized in the normal school ? The obvious answer must be: Those aspects best adapted to aid in securing the objects just spoken of. This general answer of course settles nothing. It remains to find a more definite reply by determining, if possible, what are these aspects. In respect to this evidently considerable differences of opinion exist among normal-school men, if one may judge from the varying courses found in normal-school catalogs and yearbooks. It is expected that this paper will present the views of the writer without apology, or begging pardon. The same liberty is freely acco.rded to those holding different opinions. Time permits only the statement of conclusions without the grounds upon which they are based, or the processes which have led to them. I. All intelligent study of psychology must of necessity begin with the study of self. The intending teacher must, first of all, become consciously acquainted with the various activities of his own mind ; with the occasions and conditions of their normal manifesta- tion. In a final analysis, the personal consciousness must be the arbiter upon all questions of internal psychic action, and the authoritative interpreter of all outward mani- festations supposed to involve psychic elements or to result from psychic forces. The mind of the normal, sane, intelligent, and fairly developed man is, for the student and for us all, the typical, ideal mind, the criterion or standard by which the powers, activi- ties, and manifestations of all other minds, whether human, super-human, semi-human, or animal, are examined, compared, measured, and estimated. The activities of other minds may be greater or less than our own, but only so far as they can be compared with our own, thru either similarity or contrast, is it possible for us to comprehend or understand them. This fact determines the point of departure and the general method to be pursued in the study of children. If the child is altogether unlike the adult, a different being in kind, it will be a waste of time and energy to attempt to study him. The same may be said of the study of animals, if psychic manifestations in them are in their nature wholly unlike our own. This aspect of psychology should be especially emphasized in the normal school to prepare its students for intelligent and fruitful study of human nature in the schoolroom and in the community, and for the study of comparative psychology. So far the dis- cussion has been of a general character. It will be necessary to make it more specific and definite. Superintendence] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS 95 2. In order to know himself the student must have a fairly thoro knowledge of his physical organism and of the relation of this to what we call mind. Hence we have that aspect of psychology named physiological. This bears to psychology proper a relation similar to that of the vestibule to the temple, or of the gateways and doors to the park and the house. When a new aspect of an old science is discovered and presented, it usually for a time commands and absorbs attention. It seems to many students and to some others "to be the whole thing," if one may borrow a phrase bordering on "slang." This has happened in the case of psychology. The recent tendency has been to give an undue share of time and attention to the doors and the vestibule. An illustration of this tendency has been described in an article in a recent number of the Forum. Physiological psychology and its near relative, experimental psychology, have properly large room in the laboratories of universities and other higher institutions, but only a limited place in the ordinary normal school. It is to be assumed that the students of a normal school have a tolerable acquaintance with the structure of the brain and the nervous system, and with their functions in general. Some additional instruction may appropriately be given on their special functions in connection with sensation and per- ception, with experiments requiring but little apparatus, and in most cases no apparatus at all. 3. That aspect of psychology which treats of the powers and processes of thinking should receive a large share^of time and attention. Apperception, so-called, belongs to this aspect. The processes embraced under this term are among the most important of the mental activities, and are, at the same time, very easily and readily understood, pro- vided they are not obscured and mystified by learned explanations and kwe-inspiring terms. The processes involved in the exercise of judgment and in reaching valid conclusions by the processes of reasoning should be so taught, in a simple and elementary way, that teachers will not impose upon themselves or upon their pupils, or be imposed upon by specious or unsound arguments. The ability to think, and to think correctly and readily, and to express one's thoughts and conclusions clearly and convincingly, is of the highest importance to every instructor. A course in psychology which does not, at least, aim to develop and cultivate this power has small claim to respect. 4. Another aspect of psychology which should have a comparatively large place^ in the normal school is that which includes the emotions and the sentiments, especially those sentiments which are essential elements in the highest and noblest types of human character. The ethical sentiments are also properly embraced in this group, unless the study of ethics has a separate place in the school curriculum. An extended study of ethical theories is not of great value to the teacher in the common schools and is out of place in the normal school, but practical ethics from a common-sense point of view should receive a good share of attention, either separately or in connection with psychology. The power of a teacher to build character upon a solid basis, and to give right direc- tion to the activities of those under his charge, to make of them good men and women, depends upon his skill in exciting the best emotions and allaying the bad ones, in bring- ing into activity the highest and purest sentiments in place of lower and baser ones, and in leading his pupils to act habitually in harmony with the promptings of the best elements of their natures. 5. One other aspect of psychology should receive special attention — that aspect which treats of the self-determining power of man, and of the supreme importance of this power in the practical work of educating and elevating human beings. The psychology which in efifect eliminates the power of self-determination from the human soul and reduces the will to the rank of one of its functions, voluntary attention, upturns the real foundation upon which true character must be built, and takes away the strongest incentive to effort for the improvement of the individual and of society as a whole. Extended study and discussion of theories concerning "fate and freewill," or " determinism and liberty," 96 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago are altogether inappropriate in an ordinary normal school, whatever they may be elsewhere. Immature minds generally, and mature minds frequently, are confused by such discus- sions, and left in a condition of unstable equilibrium. They are unfitted to a large degree for giving instruction upon questions of duty and responsibility. Wherever the logic of the book or the inductions of so-called science may appear to lead, there is no question as to the direction in which consciousness, human experience, and the logic of common- sense impel us. They all affirm human responsibility, and consequently some good measure of liberty of choice and self-determination. It is this -aspect of what may be termed the psychology of common-sense and experience which needs to be taught and emphasized in the normal school. There is very nearly a crying demand for such teach- ing, and it should have a place in proportion to its importance. No one questions the influence of heredity or the power of environment ; but 4he children need to be taught that they possess power which, if resolutely employed, will enable them to overcome, to a large degree at least, the influences of inherited char- acteristics, and to resist the forces of environment. Besides this, teachers have need to comprehend the truth that they will not develop men and women with abiding characters of moral worth and sterling integrity, characters which will withstand the " storm and stress " of real everyday life, by any process of veneering thru the influence of improved surroundings. These are of value and will be greatly helpful. But true, permanent character must have its roots within, in the power of choice, in self-determination, in conscious personal effort. The child must feel that he can do something toward his own elevation and improvement, and that consequently he ought to do something. The psychology that fails to do this has no rightful place in a school, one of whose primary functions is the development and upbuilding of character. Dr. W. B. Carpenter wrote, some years ago : " To myself it seems as if nothing was wanting, either in my own self-consciousness or in what I know of the conscious experi- ences of other men, to establish the existence of the ' self-determining power ' for which I contend. I cannot conceive of any kind of evidence of its existence more cogent than that which I already possess. And feeling assured that the sources of my belief in it lie deep down in the nature of every normally constituted human being, I cannot anticipate the time when that belief will be eliminated from the thought of mankind — when the words 'right,' * duty,' * responsibility,' 'choice,' * self-control,' and the like will cease to have the meaning we at present attach to them ; and when we shall treat each other as automatons who cannot help doing whatever our * heredity ' and * environment ' neces- sitate." President Homer H. Seerley, State Normal School, Cedar Falls, la. — Every- thing taught in a normal school should be definitely and decidedly helpful. There is no time for studies whose provinces and results are not clear and certain. Psychology has such a place and does perform the right service for the teacher, as it gives him the knowl- edge that enables him to grow in power and efHciency as he extends his tests and ideas thru his experience in the schoolroom. Psychology may be studied for itself alone, without any'relation to vocation or utility, the same as any other science or art ; but in a normal school its province is limited to such phases and investigations as will give the key to a successful career as a teacher of children and youth. Such limitation upon the province of the study excludes at once many parts that are interesting and even instructive, because they have no real bearing upon the business of teaching children and youth. The teacher of psychology in a normal school has plenty to do when he limits his work to the fields of thought and investigation that have a bearing upon educational work. He has no time at all to spend on the obscure, the peculiar, or the eccentric, as there is plenty of the common, the definite, and the real to employ all the time and atten- tion of his classes and to meet their largest needs. Superintendence] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS 97 1. There must be a certain knowledge of the science that is general and preliminary. Those beginnings should consist of the main features of the permanently developed normal mind, the greatest stress to be placed upon those features that should have the largest bearing when applications are made to the years of infancy, childhood, and youth. This naturally places the most definite emphasis upon sense-training, memory, imagination, and reasoning as the chief features to be comprehended and identified. Since these are constantly affected by the emotions and sentiments in their action, there must be a comprehension of these elements of the human mind as a key to the great diversity found in the human family when application is attempted. 2. These fundamental studies furnish a basis for individual investigation of personal cases of the normal type. The interpretation of concrete cases is a constant necessity, and the power to instruct and manage and govern and direct, as well as to assist and to influ- ence, enlarges a person's usefulness in proportion as he can apply his knowledge to the unraveling of human nature. 3. There is no such a person ^s an " average child," and the normal-school student must know early that he is a scientific myth — suitable for books and discussions, as an ideal to be regarded in the making of courses of study, in planning a program of studies, etc.; but that it is necessary at last to adjust everything to suit the needs of the real normal individual, with all the many variations in which he appears — never being repeated again, and adjustment and approximation never being completed or ended. The following lines are therefore thought to be profitable and practicable in a normal school : 1. Analogically — the extensive — the training of the ability to institute comparisons and make classifications which will involve the variations and similarities that he con- stantly encounters in the investigations he must daily conduct in the carrying on of his work as a teacher. 2. Analogically — the intensive — as regards comparisons of a child's development and modification in his own career, such as are consequences of the results of advancing age, experience, and training. By this means a teacher is prepared to anticipate the changes that must occur, and welcome the need to adapt his management and instruction to the expanding human career in every direction that is occurring. This is necessary to make the teacher fully acceptable to the demands. 3. Genetically — as to recent and remote heredity, showing the good and bad con- ditions that give promise or that may indicate hindrance. Heredity is a factor, but not a permanent one, as latent conditions do not need to be developed, and can be retarded and dwarfed by proper care, culture, and management. Such a knowledge is not the accept- ance of fatalism, but is a guide to the proper nurture and protection that will bless and save and sanctify. Indications are interpretations of the possible and the probable, not of the necessary or the absolute. The normal child is the rule, not the exception, but he is not the so-called average child. The phenomena that we commonly classify among the abnormal and the heredi- tarily unfit are generally types of the incomplete, of the immature, of the undeveloped, rather than of the irregular, the unfortunate, or the unfit. The normal child is possessed of the moderateness of the mediocre, not the extrava- gance of extra brightness, of unusual ability to respond, of largeness of gifts and talents in acquirement. These much-lauded phenomena, ranked as greatest and best by the schools and the teachers, are evidences of abnormal status and prospects rather than of the best and most hopeful. The exceptional, the eccentric, as well as the defective, must be recognized ; but they are the few rather than the many, and school work deals with the normal and the ordi- nary, and it is for those that the studies of the normal school must prepare. Such a per- sonality is not perfect, not complete, not trained, not good in judgment, not skilled in 98 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago anything, not effective in planning — as he is needing all that education and civilization can do for him and his career. 4. There should be a study of (i) normal inhibition; (2) movement; (3) imitation; (4) emotional life; (5) impressionability; (6) simple and complex action; etc., etc. Attention should also be given to a full knowledge of the field opened for study in the applications of the gift of language. This has probably the largest field of actual usefulness to these ages and grades of teaching. The development of the individual in speaking, writing, acting, etc., to convey his thoughts, and in the training necessary to attain the acquisition of these elements of power, is among the most important in pedagogy. Even a partial knowledge in these direc- tions will enable the teacher to avoid many mistakes, while a complete and careful knowledge of these fundamental elements will always guarantee efficiency and skill, if good judgment is used in adapting the teaching to the pupils. It is very essential also to recognize the effect of the spirit of the school and the teacher upon the work of the pupils. The pupil is always subject to misunderstandings, misinterpretings, false conceptions, deceptive indications, teacher's accusations — all of which interfere with happiness, prosperity, and success. Fundamentals of happiness, the conditions that make such experience possible — as it comes from indirection — are among the essentials that cannot well be omitted, as the power to touch the emotions and the sentiments is a power that can be used for the greatest good or the greatest evil. 5. Each child is an individual problem — the sole edition of his kind, having his own province to fulfill, his own career to work out, his own message to give, his own ser- vice to humanity to perform. Hence his problems, his difficulties, and his perplexities are always to be considered and thoughtfully assisted toward a solution as far as the teacher's knowledge and experience can contribute. Psychology and child study has limitations, and very definite ones at that. It is no substitute for judgment and common-sense. It is rather an assistant than a guide, even to common-sense. It will help one to interpret, but it is not an interpreter, as that is the teacher's own work. Its greatest effectiveness is found in the vital side of affairs, not in the formal side. Life is not a classification, but a unity. The mind is not a lot of faculties working at variance, but in co-operation. Its study must not end in analysis, but in synthesis. President Albert Salisbury, State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis. — We teach one course orally and one in the text-book. We have tried nine different books, and then we have returned to some of them a second time and have again discarded. We are not able to recommend any particular book. We cannot find a place for child study except as a part of psychology. There seems to me something unwholesome about carry- ing this subject to the extent of sentimentality. President Livingston C. Lord, Eastern Illinois Normal School, Charleston, 111. — It seems to me that the study of psychology in the normal school should result in some culture, how much I do not know. If the normal school stands for the cultural side of psychology, it could get some grasp of that subject in the study of Shakespeare, Thack- eray, George Eliot, Hawthorne. There is a knowledge of the mind which is valuable to the teacher, and this is something more than merely a knowledge of human nature which makes for a teacher's success. The knowledge of mind set forth by great writers is, the knowledge to which I now refer as valuable. The mass of knowledge possessed by a student coming to me is greater than all I can add ; the teacher does a great service by arranging for the student knowledge already in his possession. The cultivation of the power of attention is important. Interest is the result of attention. Memory, including imagination, of course, ought to be given very high place. So many people talk about cultivating higher faculties, forgetting that the lower faculties must furnish the matter. A man cannot remember what he has not clearly sensed. Superintendence] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS 99 Principal James M. Green, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.— The highest culture that I know about is the culture that comes from the mastery of subjects. When you talk to me about a cultured man, I want to see a man who knows his subject ; if it is physics, I want him to know physics ; if it is mathematics, I want him to know that. When it comes to the normal school, we must be practical. W^e are directly in contact with the taxpayers. We want to help the one who goes out into the schools. We want to send out teachers who can give a knowledge of these branches in the best and quickest way. The psychology we want is to help in that direction. I have noticed, in my work'as superintendent and as principal, certain very marked faults. There is the teaching of symbols that do not symbolize anything. I have seen college graduates in a primary grade trying sentences which convey no impression to the mind of the child similar to that in the mind of the teacher, and the teacher did not know how to test the child to see whether he was getting the idea. In other words, it seems to me that the art of making an impression must be studied. Some years ago it was decided in a city in our region that we do not do enough object-teaching. I think Oswego was working in that line. In the school referred to, a certain number of objects — blocks, etc. — were purchased, and the teacher was required for six months to teach from these, and pretty generally they became blockheads. There was no knowledge on the part of the teachers of the things to be symbolized. It seems to me that the normal teacher must know psychology to give force to symbols. I have known of certain schools that decided that the proper way to teach spelling was by writ- ing ; no oral teaching whatever. They made no test to see whether something was gained thru the ear. Not a great while ago there came into our section of country the theory that we must teach the spiral system in arithmetic. We must select from the higher subjects what was simple, and teach it in the lower. The pupil would leave school before reaching the sub- ject, and the spiral system was so worked out that not enough time was given you to make an impression that would endure. There were so many impressions made that none were deep enough to be lasting. It was not very long before very severe criticism came upon that school ; the bankers and merchants knew that their boys could not work arithmetic. The banker's children had spent more time on arithmetic than the father ever had, but it was scattered. I wish to close with this statement : that I think the psychology we are to study must show us the habit of the mind in learning. I do not ignore that physiological psychology which teaches us to know what it means to be tired, the study of a sort of phenomenon psychology. For the normal schools, in our field of labor, we must remem- ber that we come in contact with the children of all classes, and we must teach that psy- chology which will most help the children. John A. H. Keith, of Northern Illinois Normal School, De Kalb, 111., was asked to state President Cook's point of view on this subject. — I am reluctant to attempt this, because I have not heard the discussion. The teacher who is to study psychology should get out of it the knowledge of the process. She should be prepared to give the children the conditions for learning. We believe that the teacher should learn how the child utilizes the things which he gets by his senses. She should get this from the child's point of view. The child-mind changes gradually from image-making to the more abstract pro- cresses. We are making less rigorous use of terms, and there is less of division between some of the terms used in psychology. The making of definitions so exact is not true to the reality. One-fourth of our work centers around these two topics, attention and inter- est. We are also paying more attention than formerly to the agencies of the child's emotions. We believe that his interest depends on his attitude toward things. We pay considerable attention to the study of the genesis of the child's emotions in the formation of habit, also to how the child's experiences are shaped to form the self of the child. 100 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago which is not a fixed but a changing personality. This is the important thing to be reached in the teaching process. It all centers around this principle — that the teacher should learn how the child -mind acts, rather than judge by the adult's consciousness. TOPIC IT: SHALL THE INSTRUCTION IN PSYCHOLOGY BE ORAL, OR SHALL A TEXTBOOK BE USED? DISCUSSION Grant Karr, superintendent of practice, State Normal School, Oswego, N. Y. — The question whether the text-book shall be used, or oral instruction, is a very large question, and what is applicable to other studies is applicable to psychology. It seems to me best to note briefly what method is. Method is usually considered simply a means of conveying knowledge. I do not believe in that notion of method. Mind is a thing that makes itself, and method is some sort of a procedure that takes into account this self- activity. Otherwise the teacher must be a sort of divinity that creates. The teachers who hold the theory of total depravity, and who aim to put into the minds of children ideas that are not now there, must have some such theory of method. Method is simply an environment. A mechanic is not a person who creates natural forces, but one who environs natural forces; no person creates electricity; the farmer does not create the forces that grow the grain. All the process that the teacher goes thru with might well be called method. Taking that view of it, there are four or five different varieties of method. The first, most common and easiest, is the oral method ; another is the method of presenting the book ; another is that of experiment ; another is that method of develop- ment which results from discussion. The text-book method is perhaps not the best method, and it cannot be used wholly and solely. The teacher has to know the indi- vidual. To present the book first is unduly hastening the matter. I do not think that the text-book, however good it may be, can ever replace the teacher. As a general thing, the book will be better than any outline that the teacher can construct. The author is usually a specialist. The person who teaches psychology must be a master of his subject ; he is the one who is expected to interpret the subject. There are decided advantages in using a text-book ; the subject is well outlined ; the book is gotten up in good form, is more easily read than notes, and is permanent. The book will shut up when you get tired of it. The disadvantages are those which per- tain to books in general — the chance to memorize, so that the pupils may recite without having ideas. Again, they may get the idea that the whole subject of psychology is in a book, and only one book. If they read many books, they may get confused because of conflicting opinions. To sum up : In the teaching of psychology both the text-book and the oral methods are valuable. To do without oral instruction does away with the teacher ; correspond- ence instruction would be very unsatisfactory. Whether the oral instruction shall precede and the reading come after, depends on the teacher's view and his previous train- ing. If he has a broad view, he can outline his course and put his work thru orally, and lead each student to make his own summary; but the student may get to think that writ- ing notes is studying psychology. If they are to read books at all, they should know what conflicts they are to find. I would, therefore, recommend that both the oral and the text-book methods be used, the text-book, as a general thing, to follow oral instruction. Thomas H. Gentle, director of training school. State Normal School, Platteville, Wis. — My work lies just between the children, on the one hand, and the teachers, on the Superintendence] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS lOl • s Other. In many of our normal schools there are two courses in psychology — the ele- mentary and the advanced. I think the advanced course has not much bearing on the work of the teacher in the training courses. The instructor in elementary psychology would better select a few principles which he thinks of value, and use children to illustrate the principles. Let the students take notes of what is done. After two or three such recitations have been held, let the stu- dents meet the instructor and hold a discussion. More lessons may then be given, putting these principles into application. After thus bringing out the principles, let the pupils go to the library and read on method rather than on psychology. I do not mean to crowd out the text-book ; I think the teacher should have the text-book close to him. Teachers are likely to throw away psychological training, and fall back on tradition. If the stu- dent-teacher gets his psychological data from seeing it applied, he will see how his theory fits the pupils. CONFERENCE B.— TRAINING TEACHERS TO PIC. \ CRITICISM— WHA T SHALL IT BE ? INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS, JAMES E. RUSSELL, DEAN OF TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK [an abstract] We take for granted this afternoon that teachers can be trained for their work. The problem before us is how best to assist the young teacher in acquiring the skill which makes for success in class instruction. Or, from another point of view, how shall the young teacher acquire those habits in class work which will leave him free to exert per- sonal influence upon his pupils ? Teaching is an art, and, like other arts, certain habits must be acquired in order to achieve the greatest success. Some light, it seems to me, can be had from the analogy of the ordinary workman. When an artisan is asked to make an object — for example, the columns in this room — we must supply him with material. In this instance the material is a hard wood. We must then give him the instruments which he requires and the means for carrying on his work — in this instance, tools for working in wood and a suit- able workshop. We must then j^ovide him with a plan, showing the elevation and giv- ing the details required in the execution. If he is able to improve upon the plans given him, or to form his own plans in such a way as to meet our requirements and arouse our admiration, we no longer call the workman an artisan ; he then becomes the .artist. It is possible, however, for a man to invent very elaborate plans, to have the best of tools and instruments, and to be provided with an abundance of choice material, and still be unable to do the work required. He must have skill in the use of tools which are adapted for work upon the material, if he would shape this material in conformity with the ends to be obtained. How does the workman acquire this skill ? If we applied this analogy to the work of the teacher, the material which is supplied is the pupil, the means and instruments are the subjects of instruction and all the school equipment which are essential in education. The ends to be attained are suggested by the study of the history and philosophy of education, and by the requirements of modern life. The skill which is looked for in the teacher comes from experience in doing the work of the teacher. The teacher who works blindly and who uses the means and instruments of instruc- tion thoughtlessly, or who is incapable of giving a personal touch to all that he does, is an artisan, not an artist. In the work of our normal schools we hope to make every student somewhat of an artist, but it should be borne in mind that artistic qualities are dependent upon clearness I02 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago of vision and strength of intellect. In the training of the teacher, therefore, due allowance must be made for these qualities. The person who has no considerable grasp upon either the ends of education or the means of instruction must approximate in his training the training of the artisan. The normal school that has to do with students without ele- mentary training ought not to pursue the same methods as the normal school which deals with students of higher academic attainments. The difference, however, consists mainly in the amount of drill required in fixing the necessary habits. Every workman, whether artisan or artist, must know the nature of the material with which he is dealing. Both alike must have some idea of what is to be accomplished. The knowledge of these two factors will determine what instruments and means must be employed in the work. The study of the child and of the society of which the child is a part, of psychology, sociology, of the history and principles of education, may be expected to give a better knowledge of the pupil and of his possibilities, and a clearer understand- ing of what is worth working for in education. This knowledge, coupled with an under- standing of the requirements of the life which the pupil ought eventually to lead, must determine the nature of the influences which can be brought to bear upon the pupil. Important among these influences are the subjects of instruction in our schools and the manifold activities of school life. These are the teacher's tools. ' Of course, all teachers must know the subjects which they teach. But how about the skill which is required in adapting the means to the material and in doing the work in such a manner as to attain the desired results ? If the apprentice be ignorant, relatively speaking, we put him under a master-workman, and that master- workman will show him what he is to do. He will teach him how to use the instruments ; if necessary, he will guide his hand in doing what he is told to do, and he will keep him at it until the habit is fixed. In other words, the apprentice is (i) given to understand what he is to do, (2) shown how to do it, and (3) compelled to perform the action until satisfactory results are obtained. With a higher degree of intelligence the workman can be taught something of the quality and strength of materials, of the laws of mechanics, physics, and chemistry, and of other subjects which have a bearing upon his work. The man who is well trained in mechanical engineering may be unable to make the simplest implement or bit of machinery used in his profession ; but it is safe to say that, if such a man is thoroly anxious to perfect himself in any mechanical art, he will not only acquire the skill more quickly than a more ignorant workman, but he will always be the better prepared to improve upon his art. So it is in the training of teachers — an important consideration is the degree of intellectual strength which we have a right to expect of the pupil-teacher. If he is weak intellectually and the period of special training is short, it is impossible to get very far away from the apprentice's method. He must be told what to do, shown how to do it, and keep doing it until desirable habits are fixed. Of course, we expect in the teacher — certainly in the teacher with normal-school training — something more than we find in the artisan; hence, the normal school does something more than instruct in methods and give practice in teaching. But whether the pupil-teacher be strong or weak, the skill which he acquires in teaching must come from experience under proper direction. The topic for our discussion this afternoon, as I understand it, is : What shall be the nature of this direction ? Taking into account what the pupil-teacher brings from his other instructors in a normal school, what further directions should be given for teaching, and how can that teaching be improved thru criticism ? I think we ought to realize that criticism is not picking and nagging pupil-teachers. It does not consist in telling them that this way is right and that wrong. There must be criticism both affirmative and negative, which must be categorically stated. But criti- cism, as we understand it, must be constructive. I have attempted to outline some of the most important matters which may properly Superintendence] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS 103 be considered under this head. I put them before you for your consideration tliis after- noon. They are as follows : 1. General aims of criticism: (a) to illustrate and apply theory; (3) to detect mannerisms and to check bad habits and practice ; (c) to secure acceptable methods of teaching. 2. Special objects of criticism : (a) teacher's personal appearance, dress, etc. ; (Jf) use of language, voice, etc. ; (^0 appreciation of personal peculiarities and needs of pupils in class; {d) knowledge of subject- matter to be taught ; («) selection and arrangement of materials of instruction; lesson plans; (/) methods of instraction; reviews; presentation of new facts; summing up; fixing lesson by drill and application; (/) securing attention and interest; use of subject-matter; art of questioning; discipline; (A) personal influence of teacher upon pupils. 3. Persons to give criticism: (a) instructors in psychology and general methods; (3) instructors in academic subjects ; (c) special critic-teachers. DISCUSSION President J. N. Wilkinson, State Normal School, Emporia, Kan. — President Wilkinson said that he would make no attempt to cover the points given in the out- line in the program. It had been well prepared and gave valuable suggestions in every item. It might be worth while to add as a general purpose of criticism the fixing of good habits in teaching. It is not enough to know that the student-teacher has done a little good work. A small sample, however good it may be, does not assure the excellence of the whole future product. The student-teacher, nerved up to a special effort or a few special efforts, may drop to a much lower standard unless this excellent teaching becomes a fixed habit. This consideration would suggest that a student-teacher who has already had some years of experience may need to do more work under criticism, in order to overcome bad habits and form good ones, than would a student-teacher who has never formed any bad habits in teaching. There must be such formation of habits in the line of scientific teaching as will make the teacher safe to do at once the thing that is philosophically correct without pausing to reflect. The teacher who must reason out the method for each new case cannot move swiftly enough to meet the new emergencies as they arise. The best theoretical prepara- tion that can be given will not prepare for dealing with the peculiarities of individual pupils. The illustration that the master of a trade must understand his material does not indicate the power that the teacher must acquire. His material could never be brought to uniform excellence, nor can anyone tell in advance how the pupil will behave under any given conditions. The teacher must acquire a sufHcient surplus, a sufficient reserve power, to enable him to meet firmly any emergency that may arise. The student-teacher needs criticism and help until he has fixed good habits, so that it is easier to do good teaching than poor teaching. Guy E. Maxwell, superintendent of training department. State Normal School, Winona, Minn. — For the purposes of this discussion the elements of teaching skill maybe thought of as of three kinds : ( I ) The mechanics of the schoolroom ; for example, the pas- sing of material, the seating of pupils, the regulation of temperature, and the like. These things are easily open to direction or change thru criticism. (2) What we may call the technics of teaching, which has to do with questioning, lesson plans, method of instruction, and so forth. These things are also open to change and direction thru suggestion and criticism, tho they are much less objective than the first kind, and thus less easily influenced by the critic. (3) Lastly, there is the vital phase of the art, dependent upon the subtle power of personality, and having to do with such things as the interpretation of the child's mental states, the knowing what to do next, and the like. This element springs from the teacher's inner self, and is pretty largely born in him. It is open to change only thru slow growth and thru the most skillful suggestions. Having the last of these three phases of teaching skill, tho without the other two, few teachers have been known to fail. 104 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Having the first two without the last, few have been known to succeed. In what I shall have to say I shall have in mind the third phase of the art only. One part of this vital element in teaching is spontaneity or naturalness, the giving forth of one's best effort with entire lack of self-consciousness. Criticism, it seems to me, should be influenced constantly by the necessity of preserving this life-element. The best part of teaching is so fully a spiritual process, is so fully dependent upon the subtle intercourse of mind with mind, that conscious efforts at following externals, devices, or imposed directions may easily destroy this delicate relationship. Overmuch criticism is like overmuch pruning. Pruning" is a necessary process in the symmetrical development of a tree, but the pruning should be pretty fully governed by the vigor of growth, for it is more largely an incident in the tree's growth than a cause of it. In the first place, then, criticism should be in the large. Aims should be emphasized, results carefully examined, and the general tendencies of the work studied and directed. Just as in reading we desire to take the child's mind away from himself, and instead of sa)ring to him, " You're reading with too little force," or even saying, " Read more dis- tinctly," we prefer to say, " Read so we may all hear," so whenever possible the aim to be reached should be made the objective point. The student's attitude, then, is not so much a matter of inhibition, or even self-exertion, as a desire to reach a clearly defined aim in the best way that the personality and temperament of the student may suggest or make« possible. If we say to a student-teacher, " Make these pupils more fully appreciate this lesson," he does not need to think so much wherein he is failing as to think whereby he may reach this end. If we direct the teacher's mind to the object sought, then gesticula- tion, facial expression, forceful illustration, or what not, will result in terms of the teach- er's own personality. Again, critics should permit much latitude in the planning of subject wholes, while holding the teacher responsible for results, and for a statement of the principles upon which his practice is based. There is a temptation to permit, or to encourage, student- teachers to work by the day; to be related to the critic as the laborer to his foreman, or the apprentice to his master. When this is true, no large grasp of the work is secured, no rational and self-directed efforts are put forth, and at the end any success is due to the skill of the critic, and not to that of the student. I believe that some student-teachers are over-criticised, and that passivity rather than activity is their resulting attitude. The " inverse Socratic " method should largely obtain, that in which the pupil comes to the critic with questions, having found his own difficulties, or at least having doubted his success. Too often the prospective teacher's attitude is : " Well, here I am, ready to be made into a teacher. What criticisms have you to offer ? " This shows that the cart has been put before the horse, and that the critic may have helped to put it there. The student must pretty largely work out his own salvation, else he is not saved. Patience is the virtue on the critic's part that permits the learner to get the victory for himself, while too much criticism steals, not only the victory, but the possibility of it. Again, we ought to avoid the harsh criticism of minor errors and personal idiosyn- crasies which cannot be changed because too deeply rooted. The criticism of these things should be made in constant reference to their subordination to fundamentals. The perfect sympathy between teacher and student should not be jeopardized by leaving to the critic the wotk of reforming his "personal appearance, dress, etc.," or the "use of language, voice, etc.," as noted in the outline. The teacher of academic subjects in the normal department should attend to these faults before the student-teacher ever comes to the children. Moreover, the fact that these things are matters of habit, and are changed only thru long effort, is an additional reason why their correction should be begun early in the course, and not left until near the end. The critic's attitude of mind is to be that of full sympathy with the student-teacher. To make the work sympathetic it must be mutually helpful. There should be mutual growth on the part of the critic and pupil. They should together talk over the. work in Superintendence] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS 1 05 the light of general aims, principles, and results, and not so much in the light of the critic's personal methods, which of course are individual. Thus criticism has a social rather than an individual aim, and is S3rmpathetic rather than antipathetic. In other words, tho intellectual progress may be made when the teacher is not closely in touch with the inner life of the pupil, when one is teaching a fine art, where personality rather than intellect is to be influenced, the union of mind must be perfect. Joseph Landon summarizes the matter in these words : It is the ciitic*8 business to put himself in harmony with the work, and Xm mentally adjust himself to the teacher's condition. He has to interpret as well as appraise, to see deeply, to expound clearly, and to judge justly and intelligently. Sympathy with the work is essential. Good criticism is not intolerant, and is simply neither praise nor blame ; it is broader and more helpful than opinion alone, no matter how correct. It is an intense illumination of the inner and finer qualities of the work, a full recognition of its spirit and puipose, and an accurate display of its meaning and value. Finally, then, the mechanics of teaching is open to instruction, the technic of teach> ing is open to illumination, but the spirit of teaching is open to inspiration. Miss Sarah J. Walter, principal of training department. State Normal School, Willimantic, Conn. — It is important, first, to determine what is meant by criticism from a training teacher's point of view. To one group of teachers it means one thing, and quite a different thing to another group. It may mean individual and personal talks concerning errors in daily teaching ; or conferences held for the purpose of discussing class-room problems ; or general talks upon discipline and pedagogy. Criticism should be the expression of judgment, based upon pedagogical principles, on the teaching work, and on the effect of this teaching upon the activities of the child • The general motive or aim of criticism should be to surround the individual pr^parliiK for the work of teaching with such influences as shall help him to form and accept idritls, and, further, to enable him to become self-directive in the realization of these ideals, All criticism should be constructive and never destructive. Nothing so dlKcourAgfit I a young teacher and tends to make her pessimistic as to receive criticisms which dw«ll unduly upon her faults. It is more helpful for the critic to point out the l>etter WAy Aitd to encourage the teacher to attain thaL The model — the ideal, and not the MvkK should be constantly before the worker. Criticism should demand active self -direction on the part of the student -Uaihttri mihI should not leave a way open for imitation. Thus only can the individuality o( tiitf fa^< i(i>r be preserved. No branch of educational work demands such rare <\\i^\\\u\{^\\im^ ft* ()»« work of the training teacher. Criticisms of teaching woric sboold follow soon after the exercj«« \\^\\,\\\ik\ Ww memory of each feature may be fresh. This criticism should always Icnv*' K\\it. ^U\tW\\\ ^\ the close of the discussion stronger and more hopeful than be was at th« h\f»-h\u% A)i personal criticism should be given in private, and this should l/« hfi^vSk)^^^, Uoh*-^'*, friendly, tho sometimes severe. One of the most important duties of a critic-teacher is to mAtftiftth ttp U n *lnhf)iti*\ th practice as to prevent weak or immatiue students, especially t(K/t« wV/ ^t#vA i^tf^ ^U*f^tf strong professional tendencies, from going out as teachers, 'l\t^ Uh^ ^j^tA *4 nth* mh t ! a normal school is the work of the graduate after be has Mt t/.f«/y/j. Principal Theodore B. Noss, State Normal Sch/yA, y^. i u, uv /# u*,io*' '»*-'* ^ that we have certain words in our educational vocaf/ulary, I »i//^,/ *t^*^ „ t^, *, ,>«> W the word "criticism." It was common, years ago, V* \*i^¥4r, i, u^. #y *4 ,.*.-» y^^'^am between the training teacher and the student -teacher. W^r 1,4 *r u.-^* *a,*^j «// ^ ^ • -^t^^ if it is given in a kindly spirit. The training tesucber wt/, >>y*,* #•/- f.-.v« - «>^^^ ' » «• same test that the student-teachers have to submit to is ft// <•/ *.y '♦^ / y,^ ^ .-x I admire Mr. Maxwell's clear presentation, tot t t^,«,tf u^ >. A4*> ^ ,. ^ frank criticism. I know that after a night of Um,f*^^ •^>*v>a* >/ ^>* . „^ , i now in this room, I came back the next day resolre^l v> ^\^/^^/, Io6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Mr. Wilkinson has suggested that a student-teacher must learn to stand on his own feet and must not be an imitator. The student-teacher must see good teaching. I am not afraid of imitation. We must lead them to see a few things, that they may see more. I rather think that this point should be added, that the teacher must be brought to feel his weakness. President Z. X. Snyder, State Normal School, Greeley, Colo. — There are three relations to be considered : First, the relation of the normal department to the training school. There must be a sympathetic, intelligent interrelation of these two departments. The training school is the center of interest. Second, each department should know the work of the other. Third, it is important that they know that they are doing the same work. There is no place in a normal school for an academic department which does not realize itself in the training school. When I find schools where the heads of the depart- ments disparage the work of the training school, I am sure the condition is bad. To the practitioner in the training school I would say: Keep your mouth shut, seek criticism, love the children. Professor Edwin C. Page, of Northern Illinois Normal School, De Kalb, 111. — Mr. Noss has suggested what I should like to speak of particularly. We recognize the danger to the student-teacher of criticism, which should always be so given as to make student- teachers critics of themselves. At our institution members of the faculty teach model lessons twice a week, teaching in the model school. In the following discussion our student-teachers are expected to criticise the conduct of that recitation. The result is, first, that it conveys to those student -teachers the true ideal of criticism. In the second place, the student learns correct methods of criticism by criticising his instructor, and gains at the same time ability to criticise his own teaching. One great benefit is the effect on the faculty. Every member is certain to be careful in planning and conducting his lesson, if it is to be criticised by the student-teachers. He has to deal with the very questions with which his student-teachers deal. The plan is beneficial from every standpoint, as we see it, and we have tried it three years. Dr. Frank M. McMurry, professor of theory and practice of teaching. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. — If we eliminate the personal element in criti- cism, we must give full reason for the fault we point out. We should avoid giving the student-teacher the feeling of being deluged with criticism. Good criticisms, in general, are subject to the same principles as recitations. Any recitation should leave the child feeling that only one, two, or three points are talked about. No matter how many criti- cisms we have to offer, we should reduce them to two or three points. The critic-teacher may point out every fault, and by this means absolutely check the growth of the student- teacher. John H. Glotfelter, principal of training department. State Normal School, Emporia, Kan. — It seems to me the function of the critic-teacher is primarily to see that the practice-teacher has an ideal ; secondarily, to review the result of the effort. That will take away from the teacher, perhaps, the feeling that he is under criticism, and will give him that bearing which he cannot have if self-conscious all the time. The result of this will be an interview with the teacher, which may be either of two kinds — one purpose to show the teacher how near he came to hitting the ideal, the other to show how far he missed the ideal. That leads to looking at the fault as rather an impersonal thing. Perhaps you will say that this is ignoring good form in teaching. Perhaps that may come in as a secondary matter ; the vital thing is to get at results. President Livingston C. Lord, Northern Illinois Normal School, Charleston, 111., suggested that too much is being said about making criticism mild and pleasant, and this raises the question whether dogmatic statement is not an element of necessity in life. There is such a thing as wasting time in attempting to soften criticism. The person Superintendence] PROGRESS OF EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO 107 should not be chloroformed when criticised. Sweetness is a good thing, but sometimes in this criticism there is more sweetness than light. Professor N. A. Harvey, of the Chicago Normal School. — Criticism should always be generic rather than specific. We have here a list of possible faults that practice- teachers are subject to. These possible faults are, in general, symptoms of disease. Some of these faults refer to character. One of the worst possible criticisms is that the character is weak or colorless. Dean Russell closed the discussion, saying that if the teacher did not have an infinitely more complex material than the ordinary builder, his task would, as Mr. Wil- kinson suggests, be much easier than it is. It has been said that criticism must cause discomfort to the person criticised. If criticism leads to discouragement, it is bad. Criticism may give temporary pain, but ultimate improvement. I cannot close this con- ference without suggesting that the self-criticism which has been commended must lead to efforts for improvement. I know no better plan for self-criticism than careful work by the critic-teacher with the pupil-teacher. PROGRESS OF EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO MARTIN G. BRUMBAUGH, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION FOR PORTO RICO [an abstract] When the smoke of the Spanish-American war lifted from the islands of the sea, our government found itself in possession of new territory and new problems. Among these new acquisitions the most interesting and the most hopeful is Porto Rico. The people of the island not only did not oppose, but they joyously welcomed American occupation. When, therefore, we took the island under our protective care and began to study it, we found an island approximately one hundred miles long and forty miles wide, lying at the gateway to the new canal, and containing about 3,600 square miles. Along the coast is a level alluvial plain rich in sugar estates. The interior rises abruptly to an altitude of almost four thousand feet at the peak " Kl Yunca," and upon the slopes of these mountains grows an excellent quality of coffee. In the rich inland valleys, caused by the rushing torrents, grows tobacco. Coffee, sugar, and tobacco are the chief productions of the soil. Tropical fruits grow wild and in great profusion. Hat-making and lace-work are also significant hand industries. Upon this area are crowded almost one million human beings — 28 per cent, being of the black race, and about 90 per cent, of the remainder poor whites with some admixture of old Borenquin Indian blood, and the remainder the rich landlords and professional men. These latter, being for the most part pure Spaniards, were the only element who at any time gave the American .government any concern or opposition. Eighty- eight per cent, of the population was illiterate. By an act of the Congress of the United States civil government was established in the island May i, 1900. It was the first attempt of this lo8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chici«o government to establish a colonial policy, and its results were destined to be far-reaching, because it not only involved the destiny of the people of the island, but also as an -experiment it was destined to become a precedent for government in all our other possessions. By the terms of this act the executive function of the government was vested in a governor and a cabinet of six Americans, all appointed by the president of the United States. This cabinet, with five natives similarly appointed, is the executive council or senate, and the people choose a house of delegates consisting of thirty-five members. These two bodies constitute the legislative function of the government. The judicial func- tions rest in sixty-seven police judges, five district courts, and one supreme court. All these judicial positions are appointive. The governor appoints all save the highest court ; its five members are named by the president. Without precedent in the annals of our nation, this civil government began its arduous duties and gradually gained the sympathy and later the full support of almost the entire population. Spain in four hundred years had not erected one schoolhouse in the island. • The one erected by the United States military government was destroyed by fire July i, 1900, and civil government faced a population of one million souls with- out one building at its disposal that was constructed for school purposes. , In the meantime the schools had taken a prominent place in the uplift of the people. Under military rule, 612 schools were opened and about 23,000 pupils were enrolled. Under civil government, the first year, $400,000 was set aside for schools, and 800 schools, with 36,000 pupils, were opened and maintained for nine months. During the second year, 1901-02, 5501,000 was appropriated by the local legislature, and now 1,000 schools, with 50,000 pupils, are in operation. Illiteracy has been lessened by ten per cent, and the demand for schools is steadily growing. In fact, were we able to pay the salaries of the teachers and had we the teachers in sufficient number, we could now have at least 1 50,000 pupils in the schools. The average monthly attendance in 1900-01 was 75 per cent, being i per cent, more than Pennsylvania in 1898, and only i per cent, less than Massachusetts in the same year. The funds for the maintenance of the government are derived from three sources : from tax upon property. $500,000 ; from internal revenues. *^r'r°'' rl ?r -"P"'' ^"""^' «7So.ooo. These sums were estimated. IV u he!lthv Zn^' ,'"'°°!f ^"^ "^^^'^^'^ ^^« «=««mates. The credit for this healthy financial condition is due tn rir tr^n a ««d Porto Rico today does nof T . . Hollander, our treasurer, i „ the treasury. TheLand ha^ noT °°' .^°""' ^""^ '" °^^^ ^''''^'''^^^ «^lendid fiaaucial condu'n Z^lT ^ ""*'' '^^^" °°^ '^^°*- ""''^ -;V>Mnish.American countr^s ^ ^ ''"^°"' " P"^"^' ''^^^ '^'^'^'y °f The school system has becom. ♦»,- j hen additional schools are tn K ''"*^' ^""^ ^^^ ^'^P" °^ '^" P"°P^"- to be opened, our only difficulty is the lack Saperintendence] PHOGKESS OF EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO lOQ of teachers. To overcome this a normal school at Rio Piedras has been established. This school is the survival of a farcical school at Fajardo and the outgrowth of the summer school at San Juan. When it was proposed that a ten-weeks* summer training school should be opened during vaca- tion, it was freely asserted by prudent advisers that not more than one hundred pupils could be secured, owing to the poverty of the teachers. A circular was issued explaining the school and appealing to the young men and women of the island. When the school opened July 14, 1901, we had 806 pupils. It was the most magnificent indorsement of the system. At the end of ten weeks these young men and women asked the commissioner to set half the questions for a teacher's certificate in the English language. In fact, English is a common language in the island today. Some English is taught in all the schools. Everywhere the children speak it, and many parents attend night schools to acquire it. All the national songs of America are sung in the English language. Porto Rico had not one public schoolhouse until civil government was established. One structure for school purposes was erected by the military government. Fire destroyed it July i, 1900. Two hundred thousand dollars was given the commissioner to begin the work of erect- ing schoolhouses in Porto Rico. Today there are forty-six first-class American schoolhouses, some of ten, six, four, and two rooms, and some are one-room agricultural schools. Each building stands on a large cam- pus, usually of one acre, and the agricultural scholars cultivate the soil one-half of each school day. Over 1,200 pupils are thus receiving sys- tematic, practical agricultural education. These buildings all carry the names of prominent Americans, as " Washington School," " Lincoln School," " Penn School," "Jefferson School, " McKinley School," "Irving School," " Horace Mann School," etc. The American flag flies over every school while it is in session. The patriotism of these people is equal to that of our most advanced communities. A young man came forty miles afoot to the summer normal school, slept on a bare floor, begged his food, and studied so diligently that he received a rural certificate, and is now teaching in a shack schoolhouse under the palms on the mountain side. A boy in a school at Juncos had only the front of a shirt and trousers to cover his naked body. He pre- ferred coming to school half -clothed to growing up in ignorance. In a mountain school Mr. Wood, one of our supervisors, found a boy wearing his father's shirt, because the boy's shirt (the only one he had) was being washed. The father's shirt bore on its back the legend " Pillsbury's XXX " I In the little coast town of Loiza the laborers in the cane-fields and the poor laborers in the streets are ^attending a night school. There is not a lamp in the town. These men bring candles, and in groups of three cluster around the candles and patiently spell out the beginnings of an education. The Porto Rican is anxious to learn. He can learn. I lO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago The ambition of these people is to acquire a knowledge of American institutions, and thus hasten the day when the star of the island of the seu shall nestle in the folds of the flag they with us so fondly love. They have accepted the lesson a republic needs ever to impress : that the door of the public school is the door to statehood in the federal union. Finally and briefly then, with a system of elementary schools thoroly organized and in full operation ; with the new school law, prepared by the comiuissioner and enacted by the insular legislature, in full force and effect; with efficient supervision provided; with new school buildings in all towns and cities and in many rural places in daily use; with systematic agricultural education ; with a thoroly reorganized corps of teachers; with a suuuner institute happily ended ; with a normal-school building at a cost of $40,000 completed and the normal school in successful operation ; with a model high school in San Juan ; with the annual budget for schools gaining annually from $400,000 to $500,000, and now to $600,000 ; with over 250 chosen pupils in schools in the states; with $100,000 donated for a library in San Juan by Hon. Andrew Carnegie and a foundation of 8,000 volumes already in daily use; with a first-class departmental peda- gogical library ; with all the schools thoroly equipped with free books and supplies; with a nine-months' term in all the schools; with an average salary of over $40 per month ; with local school boards chosen by the peoj)lt' and managing the material phases of education ; and with a rapidly growing sentiment in favor of free, popular education — it is eminently fair to rliiiiu that education in Porto Rico has made, and will continue to iiKikd, most satisfactory progress. ALTRUISM AS A LAW OF EDUCATION AkN(M.U TOMI'KINS, PRINCIPAL OF CHICAGO NORMAL SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. VltruiMu and egoisui are not antagonistic, as often implied in current spcinh, l)ui aie toiuplementary aspects of the same truth. It would be as tMs\ tv) ittuin th.ii egoism is the law of education as to affirm that altruism 1^ s'u-li a \d\\ . In Lu t, ii 1^ oasy to make it appear that egoism is the supreme law of I'll, toi \\\M\\ whole duty is to realize his possibilities. No criti- I . 'M !)v' Ml uk ou the conduct of a man who devotes the whole energy ' > ' • 'i» u i!. in^ wiihiu himself all the beauty and worth of human 1 . ' I • V ! V » ! I ' : n '. . Iiv" ^•i;[u^i i;o(.id of self, man must forget himself in ' ' »,v .\o ^ood. Man may conceive for himself a high ^ :v V ». '» i lu ihe process of realizing these he him- ^ '. ^«., uiu.^i pa:is out of thought in the process of Superintendence] AL TRUISM AS A LAIV OF EDUCA TION 1 1 1 securing them. For instance, an individual may set up for himself as an ideal the attainment of a higher form of charity than he is now living up to; and, if in pursuance of this aim, he should take some gift to the needy, and be saying to himself all the time, " Now, this is good for me, for I am growing in charity," he would not be growing in charity, but in selfishness. He must lose his life in the other in order to find it there. No man ever rose in moral character or attained unto eloquent speech except thru self-forgetfulness in some disinterested objective good. In fact, genius itself is only the power of self-fprgetfulness. The lives of great men, such as Lincoln or Herbert Spencer, are characterized by this power of losing the self in a great problem of life and thought. I use altruism in the broadest sense of losing the life in any object or problem, whether persons or things, animate or inanimate. The most striking instance of altruism is that of the love of the parent for the child. In this case the parent does completely lose himself or herself for the child. The only test of love is that of complete preference of the other to the self. The history of the human race is marked by the increasing power of the individual to feel kinship with another. As history has progressed, middle walls of partition have been broken down, and man more and niore becomes sensitive to the life of another, whether of different blood, race, or country. But man has feeling of kinship with animals as well as with persons. Lincoln, on his way to. a trial, passed by a wounded bird thrown from its nest, but he was so uncomfortable that he returned and placed it in its nest again. This was as true an act of altruism as John Howard per- formed in the prisons of England. Macaulay says that at an early period in the history of London horses were driven into that city, jaded, abused, and galled ; but that at a later period such treatment was prohibited by law. This was a clear case of growth in altruistic sentiment. There has been a marvelous change in farmers' treatment of their stock. While this may have been prompted by economic reasons, it certainly could be justified on the score of sympathy for dumb animals. Man waters a withering plant by the same kind of sympathy as he extends a cup of water to the famishing soldier on the battlefield. The story goes that Charney, the prisoner, bent over the little flower that grew up between the stones in the prison yard and received the hail on his own back to protect the flower. The engineer sympathizes with his engine, and thus, as the engineers say, secures better speed than a cold, heartless engineer. In short, man feels kinship with all the world about him. He cannot avoid the feeling, if he would, that everything about him has a nature akin to his own. All human life moves in this " primal sympathy " between the self and the objective world. Thus the altruistic spirit is as universal and as deep as life. The love of truth, as well as the love of people or animate things, is altruistic. 112 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TtON [Chicago In fact, the law of altruism is the law of existence and life in the world everywhere. Everything has its being in and thru some other thing. Evolution has taught us the great truth that nothing can live unto itself alone. The finger lives in and thru the hand, and the hand in and thru the finger. The plant lives in and thru the soil, and the soil in and thru the plant. A thing is as essential to its environment as the environ- ment is to the thing. Even in competition and grasping monopolies the law of altruism still holds. Competing industries and organizations to thrive must come to terms dictated by those who patronize them. No greater kindness was ever done to man than that done by a heartless, grasping railroad cor- poration. If some charity organization had put itself to work to do the very best thing it could do for humanity, it could do no better than has been done by so-called heartless corporations. Suppose that mankind had waited for the chtirch and benevolent institutions to have built up the industrial system by which man attains his physical and spiritual free- dom, we should still be in utter bondage. I am not claiming that it is the conscious purpose of a corporation to benefit others, but, to all intents and purposes, what is done under competition works to that end. God makes the wrath of man to praise him. There is a spirit that rules in these matters above the individual consciousness. There is such a thing as true and honest competition. It is the method by which civilization is worked out. In true competition both parties are benefited — both he who competes and the one whose patronage is sought. No case can be found in which altruistic and egoistic duties are in conflict. The young lady who misses school to take care of her invalid mother seems to be very self-sacrificing ; but what would she sacrifice if she deserted her mother ? Her duty to her mother is likewise a duty to herself. Man's duty is to be polite to his fellow-man, but it is a duty which he owes to himself. An obligation on one side is equally binding on the other. Man can love his neighbor as himself. Man's standard of self-love is this : he will do nothing to mar the jewel of the soul, and he will do everything possible to realize his highest manhood. This standard of self-love applied to one's neighbor proves that one can love his neighbor as himself. For man may say, " I will do nothing to harm my fellow-man, and I will do everything in my power to aid him in the pursuit of the highest good." Altruism does not require one who has earned a dollar to give it to another. If so, it would require the other who earned a dollar to give it to the first. In this case there would be shuffling of dollars to no purpose. In fact, if the law of altruism is one- sided in its requirements, the man who is offered the dollar would be compelled to refuse it. The whole movement of life is blocked on a one- sided altruism. Now, we shall come to the root of this whole matter if we examine Superintendence] ALTRUISM AS A LAW OF EDUCATION 1 13 into the nature of self. Self is the organic unity of this self and the other self. If at this moment I should say " myself," and then, after master- ing the struggle for American independence by the study of history, I should say "myself" again, I would include in myself the period of history which I had mastered. If this history is myself after its mastery, it was myself before. I read a poem and am flushed with a new life. The poem now is a part of myself, and it must have been my future, my pos- sible self before. No conception of self can be formed which does not include both subject and object. And here we have the gist of the whole matter. A child is prompted to study by its altruistic impulse. It craves the other world as another self. The child in thinking is striving to break down the distinction between subject and object. The teacher's chief work is to set up tension between subject and object, and to stimu- late such processes of thought as will release the tension. The value of a subject of study can only be estimated in terms of the breadth of outlook which it gives into the world about. Studies cannot be estimated in terms of discipline, but in terms of outlook, and therefore of increase of self. No one would undertake to compare the disciplinary values of Choctaw and Latin. But, in terms of outlook and of subjective increase, the comparative value is strikingly in favor of Latin. Latin opens the way out into laws of language in general, and reveals to us the thought and spirit of a marvelous people. It thus appears that no reason can be given for studying a thing except in terms of the life of the learner. It is often said th^t we teach history in order to make good citizens, but I think that no one ever studied history under such a motive. What he really craves is a larger life thru the touch of the spirit of the race. Man climbs the mountain and views the landscape under the rising sun.; he does it again and again, and can make no explanation other than the sense of the larger life thru his broader outlook. Man sits upon the seashore and looks out into the infinite surging sea, and finds no answer, except in terms of his infinite surging self. Teachers have too long been trying to explain and justify what they do in terms which do not ultimately explain. The objects of study and fields of thought mastered must be transformed into the life of the student. It is " more life and fuller that we want." The spirit of man longs for that which is not itself ; having mastered this, he is more of a self. Thus the two sides of egoism and altruism are inseparably linked in every life process. Man goes forth to realize himself, but there is no way of self-realization except thru self-sacrifice ; that is, losing the self in the truth and beauty of the world about, which is the other self which every individual strives to become. 114 NA TIONAL ED UCA TIONAL ASSOC! A TJON [Chicago THE HIGH SCHOOL AS THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE G. STANLEY HALL, PRESIDENT OF CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASS. Education may fit the youth to live in the past, the present, or the future ; and systems may be distinguished according to the relative influ- ence of each. In the Renaissance, which was the golden dawn of secondary education, the past ruled. The literature and life of ancient Greece and Rome were revived. Sturm's goal was so to train his pupils that if they were suddenly transported to Rome of Athens they would be at home in the language, history, and customs. The vernacular was formed on the model of the ponderous Ciceronian sentence which set all the fashions in style. Latin was the language of the school and the play- ground. The games and the whole atmosphere harked back to antiquity. There was no contemporary literature, history, science deemed worth wjiile. The fashion and the earmark of culture was to write a style inter- larded with classical quotations and allusions. Liberal education con- sisted in reviving the dead past, and the results were remarkable. The boys became young Greeks and Romans. How have we fallen away! Years of the study of Latin and Greek do not accomplish what months did then. Methods and results alike are degenerate. The baby Latin and Greek taught in our high schools is but a sanctified relic, the ghost of a ghost ; and we find today almost every degree of degeneration from the golden age of secondary classical training. This is confessed even by its representatives in the German Gymnasia i where the old ideal is still best maintained in the modern world. An informed writer says that this high-school fetich no more revives antique culture than the soil is fertilized by the smell of the dung-cart driven over it ; says that he has been incapacitated for his duties in modern life by the seductions of this phantom, and that his grandfather, the president of the United States, was injured by it, altho, pathetic to relate, he always praised it. The German emperor, in his famous rescript, declared it a shame to the modern youth to excel in Latin composition, and declared that he would have no more Gymnasia or Professor Hintzpeters. Norway forbids and Sweden has almost banished it from the secondary schools. The well-known Frankfurt method substi- tutes three years of modern languages for this, and finds at the end of five years pupils have more than made up. Mr. Reddie at Abbotsholme, Lietz at Ilsenburg, Demolins at L'dcole de Roche, have set back fires that are spreading in their respective countries. Booker T. Washington says the two chief desires of the colored youth during all the reconstruction period were to hold office and to study Latin, and that his life-work for his race has been directed against these two evils. I raise no question of the great value of these studies for those who SaperinteiKlence] HIGH SCHOOL AS THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE 1 1 5 go deeply into them. I acknowledge an inestimable debt to antiquity. I believe in humanistic culture. But when I find that during the past ten years, in which our high-school population has more than doubled, Latin has increased from 34 per cent, in 1890 to about 50 per cent, in 1900, while the proportion of those who go to college has decreased from 14 to 1 1 per cent., I believe the educational waste and devastation, in view of the growing claims and growing neglect of modern subjects, are calami- tous to the point of pathos. Despite vigorous denials, I am convinced that the general complaint of imperfect command of the mother-tongue by high-school youth is largely due to translation English, and I cite the report of the Harvard entrance committee which challenges comparison for slovenness and mutilation of good English style ; and yet it is just at this stage, before the power to read without translating is acquired, that a recent writer says the chief benefit for the vernacular is acquired. Most high -school Latinists do not go on to college. Beginnings that leave abandoned tracks in the brain because there is no relation to after-life are evil. Moreover, it is a purely formal discipline with almost no content as now taught. Its practical relations to life, arts, literature, which are so magni- fied, are of the slightest. Thirty-four per cent, of those who drop out of the high school do so from loss of interest and enchantment, and this is true mainly with the classics. What keeps these studies alive ? First, their traditional respectability. The high school was the Latin school, and children and parents feel they have launched on a higher stage in development when they are known to be students of Latin and perhaps algebra ; especially is this true of Catholics. Moreover, Latin is often required in the first high-school year, still more often strongly advised. Again, it is probably the easiest and cheapest of all subjects to teach. I would undertake to hire a hundred female Latin teachers at shorter notice and for less cost than in any other topic. Again, college requirements and possibilities are an enormous bribe, and our secondary education is losing its independence by the excessive interference and dominance from above ; and, finally, one can teach Latin and break in the youthful mind with more authority and ease than in any other topic. The voice of its defects is either hoarse or thin and piping with age. • They are the rear guard in the retreat of what was once a great army; but the grasp of this dead hand from the tombs of culture must be relaxed. How different when we turn from the too exclusive dominance of the past, which has its stronghold in that most conservative of all institu- tions, perhaps the church not excepted, to the training that fits for modern life in the present ! Happily there is always a rapidly growing tendency in every modern race and nation to make its schools in its own image, and to measure their efficiency by how well they fit for the Il6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago domestic, social, political, industrial present. It is the burden of the German Kaiser's complaint that the schools do not give him good soldiers, well-trained civil servants, competent administrators, intelligent patriots. The ministry, and still more the law, show progressive inade- quacy to the demands laid upon them. Mr. Kidd would test schools by the maximal social efficiency. Our own Dr. Harris measures them by the thoroness with which they prepare for the life of state, church, school, and home. We often imagine the enormous stimulus which would follow if educational requirements were as thoroly enforced here for our 120,000 office-holders as they are in Germany, where, to fill the lowest office, one must have attained a certain state schooling, and each higher stage up thru secondary and university grades opens the possibility of higher and higher government appointments. Business and trades also have their requirements. To interpret "fitting for life" to mean fitting for the best service in existing institutions of the present, altho immeasurably better than fit- ting for the past, brings, along with all its inspiration, a growing danger of narrowness. It is a Roman postulate dear to organizers and to those who love to impart prepared knowledge, which the mature intellect selects as most useful. It tends to utilitarianism and is illiberal, whether one is fitting for a trade or for college. Standards are external, and the question is : Will it pay, whether in money or in passing examinations ? Those who thus conceive education place the social organism first and subordinate the individual to his place in it. Citizenship bulks large compared with manhood and womanhood. Their philosophy of educa- tion, if they have one, is clear and convenient. Napoleon organized French education on this plan that it might give him good officials. Three-fourths of the students of the lycies look forward to snug little berths, and those who fail, after weary years of eating their hearts out, turn to independent careers from necessity, as a last resort. An office, with badge, uniform, and permanence, is the French parent's ideal. The hopelessness of reforms in secondary education here is due to the excess- ive surveillance of the school to the needs of the social and political community. The French boy's spur to graduate early is that he may get in the line of promotion in office, which is always by seniority. Families have to be small, because every addition diminishes each child's share of the parents' property, and no girl and few boys can marry without a dowry. 'The French schoolboy thus foresees everything in his career at the start, save only the date of his death, unless he fails of appointment- and remains a candidate for starvation. In China the evils of this system are more fully developed. Demolins well says : "That system of educa- tion*^hich attempts to adapt the young to existing institutions is bad and must fail." It tends to make young graduates tuft-hunters and place- seekers, hoping to secure by iafluence soft berths, instead of launching Supeitntendence] HIGH SCHOOL AS THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE 1 1 7 forth and carving out a career for themselves. They are always fitting for something, accumulating learning for the highest market, and the aroma of the trade school penetrates academic halls and causes premature, undue specialization. But there is a third muse, the inspirations of which are now more and more felt, which teaches that the school should be the bud and nursery of the world that is to be ; that it should not be made in the image of the pres- ent, but should fit man for the next stage of development in the race and nation. In the present age of rapid transition and expansion of our race, the future and the ideal must be more dominant than ever before, or we are dwarfed as a nation. This is a good age to be young in. It is the psychologic moment for new pedagogic aims, topics, and methods, when the pulses of the old are quickened as with a new adolescence. Our children must not be trained merely to defend the old fortresses of civilization, but to carry on offensive and defensive warfare in fields as yet unexplored. We must not only augment present, but projected, efficiency. Altho the method of fitting for the future is to overflow the needs of the present, just as outgrowing our old soul is the best way to molt a new one in an age of moving equilibrium, we must remember that very much that we praise is deciduous ; that the present is not a finality; is a germ and not a blossom, and still less a fruit; and that, unless we are to be jingoes and chauvinists, after knowing the spirit of the age, we must quite as often oppose as serve it. Youth is prophecy, for which its ideals are proverbially the best material. The battles of nations are sometimes won decades before on the school playgrounds. **As Oxford feels and thinks," runs the old slogan, " England thirty years later will act, for it is here that her history is preformed." Otherwise we turn out graduates like the man born just too late, who spent his after-life trying to make up for the last quarter of an hour. Thus we teachers must always, and especially today, be dual personalities : on the one hand, held to our primary organism, and careful that no good in the past be lost ; but, on the other, smitten with a divine discontent with the present and .its works and ways, trying to make our own lives more honest and exemplary, and more hopeful and worth living, because we give life to others, and worshiping the god of the present but as an ex- or emeritus deity when the god of the future shows his face. What will the high school, as the people's college, be and do ? I answer — if you will pardon summary phrases for the sake of brevity: First, it will teach English with the chief stress, not upon language or form, but upon content, literature, history, and science. It will not exclude the Bible — man's chief text-book in psychology, human nature, 'self- knowledge, self-reverence, and self-control ; its prophecies as the best school of the future ; its appeal to faith as the substance of things hoped for ; its poetry of nature, of morals, aesthetics, and of the true piety of 1 1 8 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [Chicago the heart as that out of which are the issues of life ; as that which fol- lows the order of the soul's unfoldment thru boyhood, adolescence, maturity, and old age, for which one American university already gives credits on admission. Second, the people's college will teach oratory. I have found four- teen widely used books on rhetoric which dilate on punctuation, para- graphing, the subtleties of style and good use, proofreading, correct and incorrect use of idioms, theories of poetic structure, narration, descrip- tion, and, above all, composition, which A. S. Hill's Rhetoric says is the " main business of the teacher of English." "Rhetoric is proper words in proper places, and the teacher must be all the time on the watch for errors," altho not one student in ten thousand has anything to say ; and rlietoric, it is said, does "not teach or imply thinking clearly." Now, the very word " rhetoric " means oratory. To Aristotle it meant giving truth the superiority which belongs to it by its nature. It means the art of influencing conduct with the truth sent home by the living man. Rome knew no other education, and only in her decadence did rhetoric of our type arise, with its trifling, artificial, sophistical way. Some of this the English of the people's college should restore. Third, the drama at its best is an incomparable school of life. The characters stand out clear and distinct ; both they and the action are far easier to comprehend than in life, where all is more complex. Dramatic reading suits youth, and very much can be done in a single high-school year, even without a school theater, if we would only abandon our sense- less worship of notes. I visited a high-school class which had spent three weeks on Othello, not one of whom yet knew how the story ended. The gx)od drama is moral, because it rewards the good and punishes the vil- lains. The lid of conventionality is taken off human nature, which is seen in its pure types, and a wholesome carthasis against evil is applied. There is always conflict, collision, and passion, which suits youth and makes the theater often truer than history, teaching the power that makes for righteousness. The decay of the modern theater from its happy ideal is hardest on youth. Another content study in English work should be the great mediaeval epics. Quintilian said that such "contribute more to the unfoldment of students than all the treatises that all the rhetoricians ever wrote." High- school boys have passed the age of chief interest in Homer content, but it is the age of King Arthur, the Sangreal, Parsifal, Sir Galahad, Sieg- fried, and Lohengrin^. This is the quarry where Chaucer, Shakespeare, Scott, Tennyson, Wagner, Ibsen, and scores of artists have found their inspiration. The theme of it all is chivalry and honor — the noblest thing in feudalism. It means reverence for womanhood, pity, valor, loy- alty, courtesy, munificence, justice, obedience, and heroism. Here grew the ideals of the gentleman, who was tender, generous, and helpful as well Superinteiidence] HIGH SCHOOL AS THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE II9 as brave. Morals and aesthetics have never been blended in a way which better fits the nature and needs of youth. Thus the purpose of literature in the high school is supremely ethical, and the talk of art for art's sake here is degeneration. The receptive faculties are indefinitely ahead of the creative, hence to read, and,* above all, see, should take great precedence over composition, which comes hard and late ; unless we wish to teach youth fluency with nothing that bums or is worth saying. Next to English in the people's college should come science, which teaches love and knowledge of nature — the great mother of us all, and from which religion, art, and literature, as well as science, have sprung. The sciences chosen should be those that give largeness of view rather than precocious accuracy, and we should remember that man was a natu- ralist long before the laboratory. Youthful curiosity always strangely gravitates to frontier questions, where we are all children, and loves to play with great ideas — force, atoms, vast astronomic space, and geologi- cal time ; is curious about remote lands, primitive people, strange ani- mals and plants, the origins of things, and perhaps their end and destiny. The high school has laid too great and early emphasis upon physics, which, in the last few years, owing to college forcing and bad methods, as I have elsewhere pointed out, has declined. First, high-school science should always include the elements of astronomy. Natural curiosity about the heavens is now almost at its strongest and best, and the result is reverence, for "the undevout astronomer is mad." Very little celestial mathematics is needed ; that came late ; little calculation of eclipses or tides, or minute work with noon marks, but a meaty body of facts about nebulae, the number of stars, the distances of those that are most remote, their motions in systems very different from our own ; collisions, comets, the dead planets ; the sun and moon, than which Plato and Aris- totle knew no higher gods; the hero-ology of astronomy, which has had its saints and martyrs ; its epochs, its culture-history, and astrology; and what the great astronomers are now doing. Again, geology should have a place. It takes little children out of doors, interests them in landscape, teaches them to understand it ; gla- ciers and the ice-age; the dynamic side of air, water, heat, and life from the palaeozoic age down ; a little structural geology, with the composition of rocks, ripple marks, beaches, and shores ; the history of the globe from its origin ; something of cartography, with knowledge as well as love of the face of nature ; large views of time, and how the ascending orders of plants and animals arose. This is far harder to teach than chemistry and physics, and the nose cannot be held to the grindstone so steadily and securely. It requires a larger body of information and more real teaching. Biology should certainly have a place. Not necessarily the technique of histology or the microscope; less about the cell, and more about I20 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago natural history than nomenclature or classification. The fertilization of plants by insects and flowers opens a great opportunity for the skillful teacher to instill great moral lessons at an age when they are most needed, and with most unconsciousness. While migration, habitat, eco- nomic find human aspects; our knowledge of animal instinct; noxious and healthful plants, insects, and animals ; domestication ; nests and homes; laws of growth in man, and his general anatomy and physiology, should have place, with themes wisely chosen from anthropology. These three are real or substantial content studies, while all language work and even mathematics are relatively formal. I would by no means exclude mathematics or modern languages, but would give them a second- ary and more elective place in a high school that is to be truly American. The third group of topics in a secondary system that fits present nature and needs is distinctly motor or efferent, and involves the training of the muscles and the will, more or less inseparable at this age. I have no space here to describe how either the games or the manual training should be conducted in detail, but will only state its goal and ideal, which is efficiency. Here boys should be rated by what they can do. There must be the germs and educative extracts of just as many trades and industries as possible. On this practical side no better ideal can be conceived than that of fitting young njen for success in the newer and more unsettled parts of the country or in our new colonies. Horace Greeley's " Go west, young man" fits for life in a way almost ideal at adolescence. The younger sons of British nobility and the middle classes are beginning thus to be best trained. If we do not fit our youths for the geographical frontier, we should inspire them with the idea of beginning at the bottom, so low they cannot sink lower, but where every change must be a rise. They should take their places between younger and less trained men, and trust to merit, with blood and iron enough in them to scorn sedentary ideals or the easiest way, and be, in Daudet's phrase, a struggleforlifeur. We must not forget that agriculture, mining, farming, trade, and commerce are the basis of all national life, and in a sense everything else is dependent on and parasitic to these. The mighty engine of business absorbs more and more of our best talent and requires ever greater energy, larger knowledge, breadth of view, and, especially, penetration into the future. It dominates statesmanship and the profes- sions ; its prizes are the greatest. Thus trained, our youths will plunge into strenuous life of achievement, and every man -Jack of them will want to bring his whole self to bear where he can compete and meet the ver- dict of his peers. If he is truly American, he will want to begin at the bottom, because he has a fundamental instinct of thoroness and funda- mentality, and the wise parent will at the critical moment cut the navel string and toss the young out into the current of life to sink or swim. The Abbotsholme boys found their school a rubbish heap, overgrown with Superintendence] HIGH SCHOOL AS THE PEOPLES COLLEGE 1 2 1 , i I weeds, and took pleasure for years in cleaning it up. The man who means railroading will begin as a trackman ; as a recent book says, will want to peasantize himself and fall in love with the soil, machine grease, coal, or cattle. If he is city-bred, he will plunge far into the country; and if a country larrikin, he will go into the city and strive to work to the top. If he is philanthropic, he will go into slum work and its squalor; if he is to teach, he will teach anywhere and anybody; or if he is to be a professor, he will fill half a dozen chairs at once in a mono- typic college, because he loves independence and the satisfaction of | doing. How is this attained ? In answer, I point to Hampton and some of the half or three-fourths industrial schools for the nation's Indian wards. Nowhere does education work such changes and improvements in so brief a space of time, and it is all because these youths touch life. Here we must find our norm ; this is part of the people's college which we must improve on if we can. Personally, I am sometimes proud that I know how to do every kind of old-fashioned farm work ; that in my German stu(}ent days I took lessons so that I can bind, gild, and cover a book ; make a shoe and a broom complete, do a little glass-blowing, plumbing, and gold-beating. But my pride is humbled when I see young men who can also make harnesses and saddles ; are good blacksmiths ; can apply a bandage, and do various kinds of rope-splicing; are amateur wheel- wrights, carpenters, and coastguards ; can print and do onyx work ; under- stand ice-making, tinning, and electrical machines ; are at home in the dairy, poultry yard, and garden ; know the rudiments of forestry, bee- keeping, drainage, and photography — this is liberal motor education, and I bow to my masters. They are armed cap-a-pie and come down solidly on all fours, wherever life plants them. This is a part of the liberal education of the future. It gives character and makes men who will make our future social and political institutions in their own image and inspire them with their own soul. This kind of people's college, with these three elements — English, science, motor training — and others added ad libitum^ will say to the conservative endowed college of the East which, as is the case with three in New England, still gives no credits whatever in entrance examinations for any degree of proficiency in any of these things save English alone: Here are our graduates ; we have done for them the best we could to realize all the possibilities of their golden age. We have given them a taste both of life and of learning ; if our graduates can now do better with you than with us, you must take them. We high schools will now organize by ourselves ; we know this stage of youth best ; we will make our certificate and diploma system the best possible ; and if our gradu- ates are articled to you upon our word of honor, that must suffice. We owe you a great debt for training our teachers and for stimulating us in 12 2 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [Chicago the past. That debt we will now pay, but you must no longer prescribe our work or define our field any more than your own is prescribed. It may be a hard lesson at first, as was yours to us, but it will be no less wholesome; both in numbers and stimulus, your work will improve. Finally, I am more and more persuaded that in its highest sense teaching ought to be a universal vocation. Guyau says that it should be the only education for women. I would add, and for men as well. Statesmanship, religion, and science all become precious according as they tend to the ever higher development of man. Education involves all other topics, and is that in which the education of all should culmi- nate. The greatest of all reforms are educational reforms, and none others are complete without it. It is the best measure of progress. The philosophy of education is the highest and only philosophy. It is our chief obligation to the future. Its work consists in making an ideal environment for the development of the super-man that is to be ; and, while we must train the intellect, the will is far larger and the heart larger yet. Aristotle defined education as teaching men to fear aright ; for Jesus it was to teach them to love aright, to fix the affections on the highest and wean them from the lowest. Some have conceived it as teaching men to be angry aright; not to fret at trifles, but to generate torrents of consuming wrath at great abuses ; or to pity aright and shape the charity of the heart toward fit objects. In a single word, it is human evolution, and its goal is so to construct experience and knowledge as to advance growth. An age of growth like the present lays upon us new and larger opportunities and duties, and history waits to see if we can develop the wisdom and the vigor which our age demands. It wants not talk, but deeds ; not theories, but practical and in some respects radical reconstructions. DISCUSSION Irwen Leviston, superintendent of schools, St. Paul, Minn. — We who are thoroly acquainted with the present status of the modern high school are more than pleased by having such men as Dr. Hall turn their attention to this subject. And we are more or less pleased with what he has said upon this subject today — at times less, at most times more. The question whether we have degenerated since the time of Cicero, or, for that matter, since Adam, does not concern us ; but has the high school degenerated since Dr. Hall attended it ? The high school has not only needed, but deserves, more consideration than it has received in the past from our educators of national reputation. Of late the universities have been receiving endowments, heretofore unheard of, and thereby commanding the talent, experience, and genius of the great scholars and educators ; while the high schools have received only niggardly and grudging support from a protesting public, resulting in poor equipm^t in the matter of apparatus, libraries, and quantity if not quality of teachers. Again, the high schools have for years occupied a difficult position in the educational Superintendence] HIGH SCHOOL AS THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE 123 system ; for, on the one hand, they have been compelled to accept pupils whose prepara- tion and qualifications have been determined without their consent, and, on the other hand, have been obliged to furnish pupils fitted for fixed and undebatable requirements on the part of the universities ; and the high school must give what the university demands or be rated as second-class. At the same time they have taken the teachers that the university sends to them, trained in special lines, but not in simplification of knowledge. Along with all this comes the demand for practical teaching in business courses, with commercial geography, industrial history, modern language speaking, domestic science, economics, etc., etc., until it is little to be wondered at that the mind attempting to formulate a course of study becomes befuddled and bewildered. Again, not a few parents are attempting to make the schools entirely responsible for the moral status of our pupils, compelling us seriously to consider wha^ sort of a course in ethics applied thru the few school hours of the day will safely carry the boys and girls of the high-school age thru the dangers that surround them outside of school hours. Notwithstanding its difficult position and the demands made upon it, I believe the high school of today is a success, and worthy of the name which is applied to it in our subject ; that it is proving a rapid developer of intellect and teaching its pupils the enjo3rment of mental excitement beyond all material pleasures ; that in character-building it today outranks every other department of education, not excepting our old well- mannered colleges and those fitting schools making special claims to high moral training ; that in its associations there is the most and best of preparation for any kind of future living. If I am right in these assumptions, the only true plan to pursue in merging the high school more completely into the people's college is to strengthen, adapt, and perfect what we already have. A hastily planned structure on poor foundation furnishes an excuse for pulling down to build better ; but a steady natural growth cannot be treated in this manner. No variety of the tree of knowledge will be made to bear better fruit by tear- ing up its roots. Gradually and steadily the high school has been widening its field of work, to adapt itself to universal needs. Those who wish to assist it must help to popularize it, and feed it funds, direct into it teachers of capacity, give it sympathetic suggestion rather than violent criticism. To show the worthiness of the high school, I should like to take time for details concerning the development that all the lines of study have undergone during the last decade, but that would be too great an abuse of your patience. Will you bear with me while I briefly outline some changes that have taken place and are being considered in one course ? I select the business course, because it is, perhaps, below the middle stage of development in most schools. It was 'at first, as you all know, forced into the curricu- lum to satisfy demands wholly and materially practical. It was then generally a short course, furnishing two years of so-called commercial arithmetic, bookkeeping, stenogra- phy, and an early graduation. Those engaged to carry on the work had no claims as educators, and seldom any knowledge of the methods of teaching. This course invariably became a sort of waste- basket into which was conveniently dumped all the poor and unwilling pupils of the school, and it became simply unendurable and wholly incompatible with the good old- fashioned work that was being done in other departments. It was too bad to stand, and many schools rejected it entirely. Others combined with it the so-called regular studies thru four years. This plan was better, in that the pupil employed a smaller portion of his time upon these subjects, but the commercial course itself was very little improved. It was, however, a right beginning, in that it insisted upon some education. A little later some dignity was added to the course by including at least one modern language as one of its regular studies. Commercial law was added, and now commercial geography and industrial history haVe a place, and the first benefit that the school as a whole is deriving 124 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [Chicago from It is shown in a better teaching of civics. A few steps more and we shall have a fine course of correlated subjects, the graduate from which will not be fitted merely for clerkship^ but will find himself introduced to the whole wide field of business effort in the world of today, and at least ready to make a decent bow to the authorities in it. He will be able to distinguish the controlling influence from the loud-toned wishes to control ; the solid from the speculative; true economy from miserly scrimping; capable, masterly handling of large productive powers from schemes for grasping what is already produced. He will have been made thoroly acquainted with a few important materials of commerce, the manner of their production, distribution, and consumption, not only in a historic way, but with an intimate knowledge that will discover the faults as well as the fashions of trade. With competent teaching he will be led, not only to an understanding of natural economic laws, but also to discern how the human factor enters into and disturbs every department of commerce ; how personal interest may, and do^s at times, interfere with all the laws of political economy. When we have brought our business course to this point, is there not opportunity for the application of psychology? Cannot the idealist and materialism both find common cause for quarrel in this as well as any other course ? I do not know that I have been able to make this one line of development in the high school toward the general college clear. It in itself would furnish a subject that is worthy of much time and consideration. And in other courses the development has been just as evident to those in the work. I hope to show only good cause for continuing and perfecting the present plans in high-school work, and for strengthening the hands of those laying out these plans, and to head off any radical changes that might be proposed by those outside of the actual high-school work. In short, I do not wish to be asked to stand over the tomb of the high school while attending the christening of the people's college. William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education. — I have listened many times, and always with the greatest pleasure and interest, to Dr. Hall's speeches. I read -every line he writes. I do not always agree with him, but I find him always suggestive. I have never read a paper of his with which I find myself so thoroly in agreement as with the general thought of the address just delivered. I will, however, call attention to a few points in the paper from which I must dissent. The first point concerns the tendency toward the study of less Latin in Germany. I do not agree that this calls for change in America, because we give to the subject much less time than is given in Germany. I believe in the study of Latin. Yet we can have too much of a good thing, and it is not good to study Latin eight years. The movement in Germany means that they will give to this subject but five years, and I think that is almost too much. In his emphatic way Dr. Hall demands content, not form. We are taught by the highest philosophers of art that the content should make its form. If what he says, and what other earnest people with him say, can free us from namby-pamby composition, I will rejoice. I would not have the study of a masterpiece of literature carried on by parsing it, taking it to pieces, studying the allusions. What he said on that point is a splendid utterance, and what he said about drama is a magnificent utterance. Drama goes over into thought, and then becomes action, and therefore furnishes the greatest lessons in life, whether gained in college or in lower school. I always remember with great pleasure that, in the earlier years of my life, we had in St. Louis a teacher who taught Shakespeare. It was taught there by a man who made some of the best Shake- spearean students in the world. I agree with the portion of the address which refers to the study of physics. I would have the pupils study physics in the high school, but not the kind of physics which requires calculus in order to appreciate it. I read Dr. Hall's debate in Massachusetts on that question, and I agreed with him in his position that, if you demand more accuracy in Snperinteiidence] HIGH SCHOOL AS THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE 125 the high school, you may go too far in that direction ; you may dry up the soul by putting it at things too remote. I would have pupils begin to study the phenomena of physics in the third grade. I was sorry to note that Dr. Hall omitted any allusion to history. It is one of the great fundamental branches, that should be begun early and carried on thru the high school. Instead of sapng, as he does, that we do not want to fasten to the past, I would say: " Fasten our chains to the past in order to bring under tribute the good things of all time." The school is that institution which says : " I will show you how to get the great things from the past." One of the great branches, showing the human race acting as a whole, is history, and nothing else can be a substitute. The past reaches back even to the lower animals. God did not begin with man, but back with lower animals, plants, and the inorganic world. In this matter of history, therefore, certain things have been contributed to the race that are so far below the horizon of the past that we have no record of them, but we know that the effects have impressed themselves on the human brain ; but when it begins to be unfolded in science, when this science yields its fruition, we can tell whether its history roots in the Greeks or in Siberia or in the isles of the sea. The great struggle of the Romans extended thru a thousand years, and they struggled to find out just how the individual acts could reinforce the whole people. After some eleven hundred years, in the time of Justinian, these acts were formulated' into the common law, because the Roman was gifted in seeing how the deed fitted into the social whole, just as the Greek religion saw how freedom could fit into the pose of the body. Now, that is the reason why Latin has made for itself so great a place in the schools of modem times. It will npt be pushed aside. I have always regretted that Dr. Hall in his grasp of modem science does not seem to see it in its true perspective with modern history. He should have said that Latin keeps this place because of its importance. The Roman invented a way so that the social whole should not crush the individual. The northern tribes, when they had been Romans two hundred years, recognized the impor- tance of Latin. Dr. Hall's technical terms are Latin. Sixteen thousand words sum up the Saxon in our vocabulary; seventy-five thousand in common use are from the Latin, storing up the fine distinctions in the minds of the people. If you can study Latin only one week, you will have new thoughts that you can never get rid of ; you will have new environment ; preaching from the pulpit will mean more. Therefore I do not agree that we must keep Latin for those only who can study it thoroly. I suppose Dr. Hall has in mind some old person who has taught for thirty years and can tell all the exceptions of Latin syntax. The word "recapitulation" is an important word ; it is a whole book in itself, in this active period of recapitulation in anthropology. This is Hhe battle- ax with which Dr. Hall wins victories. I always wish to give three cheers for Dr. G. Stanley Hall. May he help us to think and to see once in a while how absurd some of his views are ! He puts these things in a way to arouse us; he does not wish us to become his disciples — he wishes to arouse us by saying something absurd. Dr. Hall. — It was somewhat of a surprise to me that when Dr. Harris entered this arena he grasped my hand, as pugilists shake hands before beginning a contest. My surprise was continued when he said that he in the main agreed with me. To kick at nothing gives one a feeling of a wrench. I thought I had attacked some things Dr. Harris has defended for years. I now feel as if I was wrenched. Dr. Harris and I have inherited every feature of our faces, every muscle, and every organ from the anthropoid apes. Must all therefore study monkeys ? Of course, we use Latin phraseology. When Dr. Harris says we all should study Latin a week, I agree. In regard to the study of Latin in Germany, I think Dr. Harris did not understand what I said. I am aware that Latin and Greek are more firmly intrenched there. The emperor said he wanted no more Gymnasia^ no more Latin teachers, but instead a great 126 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [Chicago many RealschuUn, When we come to that, I believe it may be said that a larger propor- tion of time in the preparatory schools is given to Latin in this country than in Germany, but I have not the statistics. The proportion is decreasing there and is increasing here. Dr. Harris thinks that absurd things must be said to arouse us. Perhaps under the direction and guidance of such a mentor, who has been for so many years such a correct pruner of my sentences, I may have become lax, because I knew Dr. Harris was on hand and all would be set right. I am, however, inclined to think men reach an age when the new seems absurd. When roots are so wrapped about ancient things that the past begins to loom up and the future to seem smaller, there is danger that we shall worship the past and live for it alone. I prefer the future, because all the best things are in the future, and I believe that the past should be subordinated to it. I had only one word in my paper about history. I said that the first of these subor- dinate topics should be history. I agree with what Dr. Harris says on history, and I am glad to close this discussion with the acknowledgment of agreement with him. COLLEGE GRADUATES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS THOMAS M. BALLIET, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. If a visitor from western continental Europe, after inspecting our American educational system from the primary school to the university, were asked to compare it with that of his own country, he would in all probability express an opinion as to the relative merits of the various grades of schools which would in many respects be the direct opposite of that which is held among ourselves. He would no doubt say that the best American primary schools are not excelled, and are rarely equaled, in any other country in the world. He would note the absence of the dead formalism and mechanical routine which still prevail in his own country to a large extent in schools of similar grade, and he would especially note the sympathetic relations existing between teacher and pupils, the mild- ness of the methods of discipline^ and the superior skill of the teacher in arousing the interest of his pupils and in stimulating thought and mental growth. He would probably say that the best American grammar schools compare on the whole not unfavorably with similar schools in his own country, but that they have certain defects which at first sight are not apparent, but which on closer inspection cannot escape the trained observer. Hd would probably say that the American high school excels in its superior equipments for the teaching of the sciences and in the flexibility of its courses of study, but that in other respects it does not compare favorably with similar schools in his own country. He would note the inferior training, both academic and professional, of the average American high-school teacher, and he would be impressed with the lack ipf forcefulness, clearness, and definiteness of much of the teaching. He yjroi;ld be surprised to find that between the secondary school and the Siiperintendence] COLLEGE GRADUATES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 127 university there comes an institution, called the " college,*' which is not found in his own country, and which continues the work of the secondary school for two or three years and then attempts university work without the necessary equipment for such work. His verdict would probably be that much of the teaching of the lower classes of our colleges is inferior in quality to the teaching in the upper classes of the secondary schools in his own country, and that none of the attempts at university work in these colleges is equal to the university work with which he is familiar. He would probably say that of the many institutions known by the name of university in America not more than ten or twelve properly deserve the designation. He would recognize that our universities are only in process of evolution ; and he would have' to admit that, while they have accomplished comparatively little as yet, the conditions exist for a bril- liant development in the near future. In' a word, taking our educational system as it now exists and com- paring it part by part with that of his own country, this visitor would probably have to say that, speaking generally, it is relatively strongest at the bottom and grows weaker as you approach the top. It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss the question as to' how much truth there may be in such a general verdict; but it may be remarked in passing that, whatever truth it may contain, it is not wholly uncomplimentary to American education, for it implies that this country has placed the emphasis on the education of the masses, while less demo- cratic countries have placed it on the education of the classes. It may be said, furthermore, that indiscriminate praise of the schools of one's own country is not necessarily patriotism ; it may be blind provincialism, largely the result of ignorance of what other nations are doing. It behooves us, therefore, to view our educational system in the spirit of impartial and impersonal criticism, to discover its weak features, and to devise means for remedying them. I take it that the chairman, in assigning the subject of my paper, had in mind certain defects in our elementary schools which the introduction of the college graduate as teacher may possibly remedy. It is the discus- sion of this very limited subdivision of a large and very interesting qaes- tion to which this paper must confine itself. The elementary schools have defects, some of them serious, which are due to causes that cannot be removed by appointing college graduates as teachers. The college graduate in the position of teacher cannot loosen the grip of the politician on our school systems, he cannot increase the appropriations for schools, he cannot build schoolhouses and relieve the overcrowded condition of our schools so as to make it possible to assign to each teacher no more pupils than he can become personally acquainted with within the limits of the school year. Evils which are due to the inferior character of the community, to antiquated organization of the 128 NA TIONAL EDUCA TJONAL ASSOCIA TION [Chicago school board and the school system, or to incompetent or inefficient administration, cannot be remedied by the appointment of the college graduate as teacher. As already stated, the teaching in our primary schools is, relatively- speaking, more satisfactory than the teaching in either the grammar schools or the high schools. This is probably due, first, to the fact that the teachers in primary schools are women, are sympathetic with child- hood, and have great native skill in teaching little children. The quali- ties required in a good primary teacher are fortunately common in women. In the second place, it is due to the fact that the scientific study of children, in which our country leads today, has centered more on early childhood than on youth. We know more about the period up to the age of ten than we do of the period of adolescence and of the period immediately preceding it. In the third place, it is due to the fact that our normal schools, almost without exception, are training teachers better for the primary than for the grammar grades. In the section of the country with which I happen to be most familiar it is easier to secure a half-dozen good primary teachers than to find one superior teacher for the upper grammar grades. There are, however, problems in primary education which are altogether beyond the average primary teacher who may be exceedingly skillful and effective in her work as a class-room instructor. These are problems which require a much broader training, a wider outlook, not only upon the first of pedagogy, but also upon the various sciences which have so much to contribute to educational thought today. The academic training of the normal schools is generally neither extensive enough nor thoio enough to equip a teacher to meet these problems. There is need of the college-bred woman in our primary schools, especially in the positions of principal and supervisor, where effective training and direction of subordinates is essential. The teaching in our grammar schools is less satisfactory; indeed, the upper grammar grades are probably the weakest part of our system of elementary schools. Success in teaching in a primary school turns more on good pedagogical training, on sympathy, tact, and an instinctive ingight into child nature, than on wide knowledge of the subjects taught, altho the latter is also essential to the highest type of such teaching ; but in the grammar school, especially in the upper classes, thoro scholarship becomes more and more an absolute necessity, and a preparation which might enable a teacher to obtain a fair degree of success in a primary school no longer suffices. Making allowance for marked exceptions here and there, I think it may be said without unfairness that teaching in the better class of gram- mar schools is weak because of a lack of broad scholarship on the part of the teacher. This is especially true of the teaching of such subjects as geography and history. The knowledge which the average grammar- Superintendence] COLLEGE GRADUATES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 129 school teacher possesses of these subjects is very often limited to a mere text-book knowledge. To teach United States history as it should be taught, the teacher ought to have had, in the first place, careful training in the methods of historical study; he ought to have a clear conception of the social, political, and economic phases of the subject and the rela- tive emphasis that should be placed on each in the instruction in a given grade ; and he ought to have carefully read about all that Parkman, Fisk, and MacMaster have written on history, and be able to draw readily and with judgment on these sources in preparing his lessons from day to day. He should be familiar with English hisfory, and should have at least a text-book knowledge of ancient and modern and European his- tory, not only in order that he may have a sense of proportion, but also in order that he may bring to bear upon American history the many side- lights of modern European history. To teachgeography successfully in the upper grammar grades the teacher needs to have a general knowledge of geology, especially that subdivision of it which is commonly called dynamic geology; he must have a knowl- edge of physics and be trained how to apply its principles in the explana- tion of the phenomena of nature. He must have an elementary knowledge of chemistry and astronomy, and, indeed, also of botany and geology. In addition to this, he needs to be somewhat familiar with the social and political life of the most important countries of the present time, and to have a general knowledge of the important features of their commerce and trade. There is a rich, popular scientific literature bearing on geography which is entirely unknown to a large number of teachers in our grammar schools, and which some of them have not even the training to read with ease and with pleasure. Altho most of the material which this literature contains cannot be presented to pupils of the grammar-school grade, the teacher should be familiar with, it in order that he may have a large reserve of scholarship on which he may draw in his daily class-room instruction. It is only the master that can simplify the elements of a sub- ject and write primers on science; the amateur and the novice fail. Teachers of inferior training live intellectually far too much from hand to mouth, and it is often difficult to interest them in lines of thought and of study which do not have an obvious and direct relation to their pro- fessional daily bread. It is the mark of a liberally trained mind to have many and broad sympathies, and to be interested in truth because it is true and not because it must be taught or can be made to minister to utilitarian ends. In a word, what the teachers in our higher grammar grades need is broader scholarship, broader intellectual interests, more scholarly habits of work, and the power of doing hard intellectual work with ease — a power which is partly the result of training and partly belongs to that inherited capital with which we start out in our intellectual I30 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago life. Someone has said that " stupidity is not acquired, but is an origi- nal endowment of the human mind." The same may be said of that form of genius which has been defined as the capacity for hard work. It may be said with confidence that much of the overwork on the part of teachers and the breaking down of health is due not to the amount of work required of them so much as to their lack of broad training which would have enabled them to dp hard work with comparative ease. Now, the college graduate among teachers, as a rule to which there are indeed some marked exceptions, is a person of much broader academic training than the graduate of the normal school ; he is a person of more scholarly habits and is able to do hard intellectual work with greater ease. He is, moreover, a person of broader interests, and has a clearer and a firmer grasp on what he knows. There are several other elements of weakness in the teaching in our grammar schools which nothing but broader scholarship on the part of the teacher can remedy. The teacher in these schools is altogether too much at the mercy of his text-book ; he is the interpreter of a book rather than the teacher of a subject. This is so forcibly true that few superintendents find it practicable to introduce a new study into the cur- riculum unless a suitable text-book on the subject can be found, or to make a course of study which does not more qj less have in view the text- books to be used. In many courses of study the text-book is named and the pages to be covered in a given grade indicated. There are, indeed, cities in which the course of study ignores the particular text-books used, but on close examination it will almost invariably be found that the course is quietly ignored and the text-books are the guides. This lack of intellectual independence on the part of teachers is due to their limited general scholarship and to their limited mastery of the particular matter to be taught. Some of the teaching in our grammar schools lacks that forcefulness and effectiveness which both stimulate and demand work on the part of the pupil. Pupils in these schools could do considerably more work than they are now doing and accomplish it all within school hours, if the teaching were more forceful and energetic. We hear much complaint on the part of parents about overwork in school, but what is really meant by such complaints is not hard work within school hours, but too long hours of work, too many home tasks over which children must spend hours at home which ought to be given to recreation and sleep. Moreover, from an educational point of view the results would be vastly better. Mental growth is not promoted by long hours of dawdling, but by short periods of intense application followed by brief periods of rest and relaxation. If the teaching were what it should be, we could easily double the time now allowed for intermissions, not including the long noon recess, and still accomplish more than we now do and do a higher quality of work. But such teaching requires both native ability and good training. Sapermtendcncc] COLLEGE GRADUATES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 13 ^ Much of the teaching in the average schools is not clear because the teacher has never himself been trained to think clearly; much of it is not consecutive, and points are not clinched, even in cases where they have been made clear ; some of the teaching is aimless, and therefore wasteful of time and of power. Archbishop Whately once said : " If you aim at nothing, you will hit it." This is strikingly true of the teacher's work. The remedy for all this is better training, and perhaps in some cases a higher grade of native ability. The time has long since passed when our normal schools considered themselves the rivals of our colleges ; they have their own distinctive work to do. To say that a good normal school cannot give as thoro academic training as a good college is simply to say that the normal school cannot do the impossible. The best normal schools of our coun- try are fully equal to the best normal schools of any other country, but they could be strengthened materially by the appointment on their corps of teachers of a much larger number of men and women who have had a thoro collegiate and, if possible, university education, in addition to pro- fessional training. In this matter the normal schools of the West are somewhat in advance of those of the East. If the normal schools wish to fit teachers for the higher grammar grades, they must do a somewhat dif- ferent kind of academic work from that which they are now doing. Instead of " reviewing " the so-called common branches " with a view to teaching,'! and then doing what is virtually high-school work, they must require graduation from a high school as a condition of admission, and then lay the emphasis on the group of sciences which contribute directly to a broad knowledge of grammar-school studies. In short, they must give their students a far more thoro mastery of the matter to be taught and of that related material which forms the necessary reserve scholarship. There is a movement under way in Wales to provide college gradu- ates for all the elementary schools, primary as well as grammar. In the larger cities in this country many college graduates have already found their way into the elementary schools. They have gone into these schools partly from choice and partly from necessity, inasmuch as the number of women graduates from our colleges who wish to teach far exceeds the number of vacant college and high-school positions from year to year. If we wish to demand higher scholarship and broader training of teachers for the grammar schools, especially for the three upper classes, there are a few very practical preliminary steps which we must take. In the first place, we must allow teachers of the upper grammar grades to specialize ; we must not require each teacher to teach all the studies of the curriculum, but rather assign to each a related group of studies which he is especially well qualified to teach. In short, departmental teaching in the upper grammar grades is a necessary condition of any marked 132 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago raising of the standard of teaching in these grades. In the second place, w^e must increase the salaries of teachers in these grades above those of the lower grammar and primary grades. At this step we shall probably be met by the abstract proposition that the children of the primary schools require as good teaching as those of the grammar schools, and that teachers who do good work in primary grades ought to be paid as much as teachers who do good work in the higher grammar grades. To this it may be replied that such a question cannot be settled on the basis merely of an abstract proposition ; that the law of supply and demand must govern teachers' salaries. The fact is that good primary teachers are far more numerous than good grammar-grade teachers, and, there- fore, on business principles, the larger salaries ought to be paid where there is the greater demand and the smaller supply. Furthermore, we must devise a way of avoiding the payment of uniform salaries in our schools to the teachers of the same grade, of paying the efficient and inefficient alike. In this way it will be possible to get some exceptionally efficient teachers into every grade with comparatively little additional expense, who will serve as a stimulus to the entire corps. The obvious difficulties of carrying out such a policy need not be pointed out to this audience; suffice it to say that they can be overcome in time, and have already been overcome in some of the smaller cities where schools are comparatively free from politics. If, however, we wish to appoint college graduates to positions in ele- mentary schools, we shall be disappointed if we do not insist on their taking at least a year of professional training at a good normal school or a course in pedagogy at a university where there are facilities for practice- teaching. A course in theoretical pedagogy alone will not answer. This is a point which it is somewhat difficult to impress on college professors and on fresh college graduates. There prevails still in the colleges the mistaken- belief that a knowledge of the subject-matter is all that is required to enable one to teach it. Many college professors do not real- ize, and others positively deny, that there is or can be a science of educa- tion, and the courage with which fresh college graduates undertake to teach a roomful of boys and girls, who often know far better than such a teacher the difference between good teaching and poor, is both heroic and pathetic. A normal -school graduate, with much less scholarship and even with less native ability, but with good professional training, will do far better teaching at first than a college graduate with no such training. In spite, however, of all that has been said, it is well to bear in mind that a goodly number of the best teachers in our schools have never been either in a college or in a normal school. They are teachers of native ability; they are good students, and gained by practicing for years upon children that knowledge of the art of teaching which we nowadays get by professional study at a normal school. Superintendence] COLLEGE GRADUATES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 133 Moreover, there is a large number of graduates of normal schools who are men and women of exceptional ability, who have been close students, and who rank far above the majority of college graduates, both in point of ability and in point of scholarship. Some of these have adorned other professions besides that of teaching. Scholarship can be gained outside of college walls, and it is not wise to make hard and fast rules in regard to college graduates and those who are not college graduates in the appoint- ment of teachers. In a word, if college has gone thru a man, it is not abso- lutely essential that the man should go thru college. Franklin and Wash- ington and Jackson and Lincoln were not graduates of college, nor is Herbert Spencer, the prince of living philosophers ; and yet all these have achieved greatness, while there are not a few college graduates who have not yet been heard from. Indeed, it is quite possible to take graduation from a college altogether too seriously, especially in the earlier years of one's graduate life, before one has discovered his specific gravity by con- tact with the world. After all, we must bear in mind that even college graduates belong to that large group of the human race of which the poet sings in plaintive note : Some men are bom for great things, And some are bom for small, And of some it isn't recorded Why they were born at all. DISCUSSION Superintendent A. B. Poland, Newark, N. J. — I have listened to the paper of Superintendent Balliet with more than usual pleasure and satisfaction. I heartily con- cur in all the views expressed by him as to the desirableness, nay of the necessity, of having more college graduates in our elementary schools. The subject is one of great interest to me. In the city of Newark we appoint college graduates to elementary-school positions, without experience and without examination, accepting the college diploma as a sufficient guarantee of qualifications. It should be said, however, that under our rules an appointee who is not successful can be dropped at any time by the superin- tendent without the formality of going to the board of education to have such action confirmed. Many have been dropped from time to time in this way. Despite this safety valve, however, our practice, I must admit, is open to many serious objec- tions. It makes the schools, that should be maintained solely for the good of the children, a field for trial and experiment. Our schools become practice schools without the saving features of a practice school when maintained, as is usually the case, in con- nection with a normal school. In the latter case the interests of the children are pro- tected by the presence of competent critic-teachers. Whatever let-down in discipline or teaching may result from the employment of unskilled teachers is made ' up by the superior qualifications of the critic-teachers. When college graduates, as with us, are put in charge of classes, and left to work out their own salvation, it happens, alas, that too many fall by the wayside. To say nothing of the discouragement and positive injury done to the college graduates themselves by being left alone to struggle with their environment, the children are the principal sufferers. I am of the opinion, therefore, 134 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago that, on the whole, our practice is wrong, and that we shall be compelled hereafter to license and appoint no college graduates without previous successful experience or ade- quate professional training. And this leads me to speak briefly on the question of what professional training ought to be required of college graduates. In his paper, read Tuesday morning, Professor Hanus, of Harvard, spoke of teach- ing as a profession. We are safe, then, in calling teaching a profession. Now, to enter any profession, a certain amount of professional training is always requisite. This train- ing can be acquired in two ways, namely, by experience and by education in a profes- sional school. There are a few colleges — I need not name them — that may fairly be considered professional schools for the training of teachers ; but the number is small. I think we made the mistake in Newark — and Dr. Balliet will bear me out on this statement — in not discriminating properly between those colleges that are and those that are not profes- sional training schools for elementary teachers. We should have accepted the graduates of some colleges and refused others. There are some colleges that make no claim to be institutions for professional training of any kind. Thus Smith College states in its cata> log : " The college is not intended to fit woman for a particular profession, but to per- fect her intellect so that she may be better qualified to do well her work in life, whatever that work may be." The broad, general culture that an institution such as Smith College gives its graduates is, without doubt, greatly needed in our elementary schools. But is that enough ? Is not something needed besides ? And how shall we get it ? A short time ago I prepared and sent out a letter to twenty graduates of colleges teaching in elementary-school positions in the city of Newark. The letter read : Be good enough to answer, with candor and fullness of detail, the following questions : X. Did your college training, in any way, fit you for an elementary teacher? 2. Did your college training fail, in any way, to fit you for an elementary teacher? 3. What can you suggest to improve existing conditions? These letters, as I have stated, were sent to twenty graduates, teachers under my charge, and from the replies received I have collated the following data : Number of replies received \ ao Males 3 ; females 17. Number of colleges represented 14 Among these colleges were Harvard, Yale, Smith, Vassar, Wellesley, Mt. Holyoke, Oberlin, Woman's (Baltimore) , etc Average experienee in teacher, 3^^ years. PrincipaPs record of eiSciency, the same being confirmed by supervisors' reports, was as follows : Excellent, equivalent to 90 per cent, to xoo per cent 3 Good, equivalent to 80 per cent, to 90 per cent 6 Fair, equivalent to 70 per cent, to 80 per cent 4 Poor, equivalent to below 70 per cent 7 Total ao I will read you one of these letters, which is a fair sample of the naivete and candor of them all. It is the letter of a Vassar girl who has the possibility of making an excel- lent teacher: My dear Mr. Poland: My opinions on the questions you put me are based upon the weak foundation of a short personal experience, unaided by discussions with college girls similarly placed, or by any systematic review of the sub- ject. My point of view was not that of fitting myself for a life-work of teaching. Like a great many other college graduates, I was simply trying to keep busy until I could decide upon the work to which I could put my best energy. I taught in the summer school because I am interested in settlement problems, and thought that a little immediate contact with the class involved would outweigh many theories. I asked lor substitute work at the high school because some friends at college expressed an unlimited faith in my ability as an inspir- ing and really phenomenal teacher. I was interested in these supposed dormant gifts of mine. Finally I accepted a position in a low grade, because I am interested in little children and like to have them about me. You see my interest in teaching is hardly that of a professional. In answer to your first question, I should say that a college training certainly does sot unfit a girl for teaching in elementary schools. The fulfilled aim of a college education, I take it, is so to fit and train the Superintendence] COLLEGE GRADUATES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 135 mind that it will be able to turn with quickened faculties to any kind of work, and so to fill the life with ideals that every task will be ennobled by the rays of infinite truth received from delving into academic studies. Of course, as to sending a graduate forth armed with the methods, principles, plans, and schedules for any special line of teaching, or any special school, the college makes no pretense at anything of that sort. I hope, for the sake of education, that it never will. My ignorance of teaching when I first started was supreme. Wordsworth in hi« " Ode on Immortality '* best expresses what I took all children to be. " Trailing clouds of glory '* with them, etc. I never dreamed of anything but kind words and sympathy. I was told on the morning of my arrival that I was to have such and such a dass. Not another word of help did I have. Here I was without any supplies either mental or material, save filled ink wells and a piazza of cheering children across the alley. The result was a mob. I thought of my course in French Revolution, and in the afternoon I read some of Carlyle's explosives. I had, in my small way, come in contact with the turbulent masses. It was mine to control them for better or for worse. I would hold them with a grip of iron until I could make them love me. I never had any serious trouble with discipline after that morning. My ideals were not far from right after all. The course of study was equally novel to me. As for methods, I hunted about In the dark, and lesuned by my failures and mishaps. Here I should say, in answer to your second question, that I think it quite unlikely that a college girl will ever start as successfully as a trained hand, who has all the tools and implements ready for work. On the odier hand, if you suspend judgment in the beginning, I think you will find that through her broader training, her larger common-sense, and her higher ideals, she can give a deeper insight and a more enduring enthusiasm to her work. She has a richer personality to bring to her children. She has all the varied interests of a per- son of culture. She lives the life of a free man, not the life of a slave to his profession. I>on*t try to change the broad and unhampered scope of the college program. Don't try to have a col- lege girl perfect from the start. Give her a fair chance. Give her a better chance than she has had. In the three schools in which I taught I was given only the name of the work I was to do, and a free hand to do it. This was not from lack of time on the part of the people above me, because socially they spent more time with me than would ever have been required for the plan I should suggest. Give the inexperienced and absolutely ignorant college beginner a plan of the work she is to do, and a good bibliography of suitable and profitable reading matter. Don^t put her into a class without any specific knowledge of where she is to begin and how. Give her a few sample lessons, and earnestly criticise her work. Don't put her into the worst school in the city, and into the worst class there is in that school. Take a^ttle trouble with her in the beginning. I am sure she will be worth it as her work progresses. She will at any rate bring fresh and larg^er points of view than are possible for a girl who has never left her native city, and has taken up a course in teaching with only a high-school education as the foundation of her intellectual life. It is here that I think a great part of the difficulty lies. Of course, up to this time college girls have not thought of teaching in the lower schools permanently, and have taken up the work only as a stepping-stone to a higher position. You have asked me to speak frankly. I have done so with pleasure. I know that you will understand that I am not speaking with any feeliug about the way I was treated. I have always met with friendliness personally. I had to hide the fact of my being a college girl under a cloak, however, and that is not the right way. I am speaking with a special thought of the college girls who will succeed me, and especially of those to whom it means a living. Their ability ought to be properly valued. A fair and proper start means a great deal. Very sincerely yours, February 17, 1903. Coming now to the letters received : In reply to the first question, ** Did your college training fit you in any way for an elementary teacher ? " the following replies were made : yes, 16 ; no, 4. By those who answered "Yes" the following specifications were made : Afforded me a broader general culture 8 Gave me a deeper insight Into life, etc 4 Trained to greater versatility and adaptability 5 Developed originality of thought and action a Cultivated sense of proportion 2 Gave me power to grasp essential meaning of studies a Developed my judgment and reasoning powers 3 Enlarged the horizon of experience 5 Created higher ideals of aim and conduct s Produced a deeper and richer personality 2 Developed general resourcefulness for emergencies 3 Produced greater polish of manners z Inspired deeper purpose and joy in life z Granting, as I believe we may, that all the foregoing statements are true, they show conclusively that real benefits are derived from a college training. ^36 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago As 1 have said, there were four who answered the foregoing question in the nega- tive. These specified as follows : Alienated me from children and children's interests 40 Developed a positive dislike for elementary teachingr 3 Served, by bad models, to fix bad habits of teaching 3 Made me feel above teaching little children 3 In the answers above, brief as they are, we have, I think, the satisfactory explana- tion of the causes of failure of many college graduates when such graduates begin elementary teaching with neither experience nor professional training. In answer to the second question, " Did your college training fail in any way to fit you completely for an elementary teacher ? " the following replies were received : Did not help me to discipline 8 Left me ignorant of elementary-school studies xo Afforded^me no opportunity for child study xo Gave me no knowledge of methods 9 Taught me no pedagogical principles 5 Developed tendency to soar above heads of children 5 Gave me no chance to specialize rightly 2 Failed in a practical way x Led me to expect too much of children a Emphasized " pouring in " process 4 Taught subjects, not pupils i Made me impatient of children's stupidity i Gave no knowledge of general details of teaching ^ 3 I submit to you that the above is a pretty just estimate of the shortcomings of the average college as a professional training school for teachers. It is a judgment, at any rate, passed upon college training, not by a superintendent of schools, not by Mr. Balliet, for instance, nor myself, but by those who had enjoyed it and suffered from it. In reply to my inquiry, " What can you suggest to improve existing conditions ?" I got the following replies : A college training should be supplemented by college settlement or other similar experience. 5 Should offer elective courses in pedagogy, including methods 14 Should give opportunity for child study 5 Graduates should attend normal school at least one year 4 Colleges should give less lecture instruction with stereotyped form of questions 3 On the other hand, the elementary schools Should try college graduates in small classes at first 3 Should pay more attention to culture and less to mechanical work a Work in lower grades should be specialized. 3 Fewer subjects should be required of college graduates 3 Should have less fussiness and less insistence on petty details 3 The foregoing is by no means a complete summary of the suggestions made, but will indicate the general trend. One thing, at least, stands out with great prominence as the result of this study, and that is the general realization on the part of these graduates of colleges that they had, upon graduation, something yet to learn in order to teach success- fully in our elementary schools. I have sometimes thought that the greatest difficulty of the college graduate, on beginning to teach in an elementary school, is " to find " himself. His college training leaves him bewildered, confused, distracted, when put back again into the presence of children, and "face to face with the problems of the elementary school. He finds his horizon has somehow grown marvelously smaller. Instead of the boundless horizon toward which he has been straining his eyes for four years or more, he is now required to limit his field of vision to immediate child interests and the definite ends of primary teach- ing. To reverse the telescope that has been trained so long upon the starry skies, and to fix the gaze upon the uninteresting surroundings of a primary schoolroom — alas, how distressful to the ambitious graduate ! In this bewildered and discouraged state of mind, Superintendence] COLLEGE GRADUATES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS • 137 0 the collegp graduate, teaching for the first time in an elementary school, turns somewhere for help. Naturally he first seeks to recall his own experiences as a pupil. But these experiences have been dimmed by the intervening years since he was a pupil of an elementary school. He finds little to help him there. Then he turns to the course of study; but this, as a rule, is too general to afford him much aid. He is too proud to ask assistance of his associate teachers — graduates, perhaps, of a normal school. Possibly the principal may come to his rescue, but this is not always the case. There are princi- pals who assist drowning teachers and others who do not. It is more than likely that the despairing college graduate will turn to his alma mater and to his more recent, and hence better-remembered, experiences for solace and guidance. But the lecture system so prevalent in colleges, the method of text-book study and memoriter recitations so generally in vogue, these are bad models for him to follow. The "pouring in" process is now begun, the graduate talks over the heads of his pupils, and the irrepressible conflict goes henceforth unhappily on. It is only after weeks and months, sometimes years, of the most painful experience that the college graduate at last " finds " himself and emerges from this chaos of bewilderment and defeat. Ue has been setting his normal-school training. How much better to have got it before he started to teach I This is the point I wish especially to make. The teacher who began teaching without previous technical training is in exactly the same position as the graduate of medicine who begins his practice without any previous clinical experience. In the case of the medical graduate, however, he is not likely to have at the outset many patients to practice on. But the college graduate that becomes an elementary teacher is put at once into full practice, that is to say, into charge of a full- sized class of pupils to discipline and instruct. But what is the end of all this ? In my judgment superintendents should not be asked or expected to take college graduates into the elementary schools until after some preliminary training to fit them for elementary teaching. But where shall this prelimi- nary professional training be got — in the college or in the normal school ? That is for the colleges themselves to say. Unless the colleges, by postgraduate or other courses, furnish adequate and satisfactory professional training, both theoretical and practical, we must turn, much as I regret it, to the normal schools exclusively for our supply of properly trained elementary teachers. Superintendent Eugene Bouton, Pittsfield, Mass. — The plan of requiring college graduates to get practice before they enter the grades is a good one, but where the salaries are small these grades would be deprived of the services of college graduates. It seems to me that the presence of some college graduates in a corps of teachers is desirable, even if their technical training is not altogether perfect at the beginning. In the small town, special training was given to college graduates and normal graduates before they entered the regular work. The superintendent placed them in this special training class until vacancies might occur. Superintendent A. K. Whitcomb, Lowell, Mass. — The normal school is not the only possible place to get practice for teaching. In our own city we have such an apprentice school ; in the present class of that school one-third are college graduates. We pay these young ladies three hundred dollars a year while they are serving the apprenticeship. Under this training they have usually made very satisfactory teachers before the close of the year. Superintendent William F. Slaton, of Atlanta. — I have heard of no city managing as we manage in Atlanta. I believe we have a good plan. We have there supernumerary teachers. I have been superintendent there twenty-three years, and we have tried various plans. Occasionally we have made failures, but the plan of the last five years has been a success. We elect without pay for this list of supernumeraries. There is a special teacher for the eighth grade ; there is also a supernumerary teacher who 1 38 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [Chicago is a graduate of a high school. We have twenty-three grammar schools. The super- numerary is required to teach two years before being eligible to election. If she has had two years' experience elsewhere or has taken two years in a normal school, or one year in a normal and has taken the professional examination, she may be elected. The ques- tion is asked why do we not pay her. I answer by asking : " Why do you not pay your students in the normal school ? " She is getting an education, as is the case of the college student. Last year I was in a town school, and one of the teachers said she wanted to come to Atlanta. She said that one of her recommendations was that she never went to a normal school. She said that the normal schools placed their studenis like cogs in a wheel, and she wanted to go to Atlanta instead and serve as a supernumerary. There she could have training given by twenty-two experienced teachers. Grade meetings are called by us normal schools, and they meet every Saturday for discussions. State Superintendent Fall, of Michigan. — We have in our state a law which permits colleges to incorporate into their course a limited normal training course ; because of that fact they are authorized to grant a probationary certificate, good for four years, which after successful experience becomes a life certificate. The real reason for my speak- ing is that I see improvement coming to the teachers in the colleges. I have noticed in the colleges a lack of willingikess to discuss pedagogical problems ; here in the presence of a large body of students preparing to teach, the college faculty must recognize the importance of training to teach. H. R. Sanford, state institute conductor, New York. — I wish to answer for the state superintendent of New York, in his absence. We have sixteen cities in each of which is located a training school, admission to which is on a high-school or a college diploma. We have ninety smaller schools in the villages, where the admission is not so high. We have thirteen colleges whose diplomas lead to state certificates. I should like to hear from Principal Downing. A. S. Downing, principal of New York Training School for Teachers. — The sixteen cities mentioned by Dr. Sanford are not supported by the state, but are under the pro- visions of a state law, which says that no one shall be allowed to teach in a city employ- ing a superintendent unless he shall be a graduate from a high school, and subsequently have had three years' successful experience in teaching, and have graduated from a train- ing school with a course of not less' then thirty-eight weeks. No city can employ any primary or grammar-grade teachers not having such qualifications. The state contributes a dollar per week pei: capita for each pupil during the thirty-eight weeks. The city of Buffalo pays for the support of its training school many times what it receives from the state, and the city of New York supports two training schools, one in Brooklyn and the other in New York, and pays very many times what the state contributes. The main proposition is one of the very greatest interest to us. The mistake is, it seems to me, in the lack of encouragement from the college men and women to the graduates who go into the elementary-school work ; and there has come into the mind of the college graduates the idea that it is discreditable to work in the elementary grades of either city or village schools. It seems to me that it should be pointed out to them that the field in which they can accomplish the most good is in the primary and grammar schools. In New York city a regulation now exists that to teach drawing, for instance, the person must be a college graduate. It is almost impossible to find a candidate for that position, because drawing has been a subject largely taught in the elementary schools, and it is almost impossible to find a woman who has thought it worth while to take her college course to prepare to teach drawing in the grades. When it comes to the question of methods in music, that is also an elementary-school subject, and you will find very few who have devoted their time to methods of teaching music to children. I regretted to hear the statement made that no college graduates could be employed in a certain city Superintendence] COLLEGE GRADUATES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 1 39 unless certain conditions be complied with. Take the college graduate without examina- tion ; select that graduate who appears to have the spirit of a teacher and assign her to a grade as a temporary teacher, or whatever you may please to call her, and require her to do work in the training class, and encourage her to come to that city. Say to her: " We do not expect you to be a good teacher at the beginning, but we will help you to become a good teacher." In a training school in New York city only three years old we have had and are now having g^raduates taking the full three-years' course. If they are able to do the work in theory in less than a year and a half, we will let them, at the end of a year, have two and a half dollars a day for ladies, three dollars for men, for substitute work. Until they have demonstrated to the satisfaction of the faculty after one and a half years of observation that they are endowed with the spirit of a teacher, and have the ability to maintain discipline while conducting their work, they can never get their names on the eligible list in the city of New York. I believe, on the main question, that it is really time that something be done, not to discourage, but to encourage, college graduates to take up the work of teaching in the elementary schools. Superintendent William J. M. Cox, Moline, 111. — I should like to ask some of the superintendents who have had experience whether, in their judgment, it ys wise for a city to support a training school of, say, one or two instructors, into which high- school graduates are taken, and where they have pure methods of teaching during a year or a year and a half, and then fill the places of grade teachers with these students, where col- lege graduates cannot be employed. E. O. SissoN, Bradley Institute, Peoria, 111. — A good deal has been said about diffi- colty in getting practice -teaching. We all got that, and the majority of us here never had normal training. The question is not so much of getting practice-teaching as observation and consultation. The opportunity to look upon a skillful teacher's work as the medical student looks upon the work of a skillful operator is what we need. Then, after the class is over, we need the opportunity to ask the skillful teacher why he did this, and thus cone to an understanding of the processes he employed. Principal Downing. — The gentleman is right, but the difficulty is that the method to which he refers lacks educational value. By this method the work done by the critic- teacher resolves itself into mere criticism of a subject taught by the student-teacher. Students in our training schools are obliged to do systematic work in answering questions, etc., for an interval of one hundred hours during the period for the study of theory and practice. A number of questions are given them touching the construction of the course of study. The course of study is then taken up from the standpoint of the child. Stu- dents are led to discover what the child should know upon his entering the recitation. When student-teachers are prepared to answer questions touching the foregoing topics, they have some knowledge of how to proceed in the schoolroom. Dr. E. E- White, Columbus, O. — The questions put by several superintendents regarding the kind of work being done in a number of training schools have caused me to wonder whether or not the work of the real training school is as helpful as it ought to be. The training school should avoid making the teacher a mere follower. I know of some training schools in Ohio that are extremely mechanical — mere machine makers; but I am pleased to note that these are not in the majority. I have in mind a training school in Cincinnati that is not a mechanical school. Here methods are outlined, and teachers are not merely prepared to imitate their instructors, but are grounded in the principles underlying the best methods of school instruction. When a teacher has become thus indoctrinated, she will go into the schoolroom and work out her own views with soul and spirit in her work. I would not, if I could, prescribe a method for a teacher. The teacher must detennine the method she can use most successfully. There is a tendency in some training schools to conform too much to patterns — mere copy work. No teacher who follows a pattern can touch a human soul. Teachers MO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago are not always to blame for doing this mechanical work. They are often discredited because the principal happens to be a pattern-man. The teacher who teaches her own ideas under proper limitations will grow and become strong ; she will not fail to touch human souls — human lives. The college gives knowledge and technical principles of teaching. . The college can not be a real training school. It may be a help to those who are seeking higher places. THE PSYCHOLOGY AND ETHICS OF FUN WALTER B. HILL, CHANCELLOR, UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA, ATHENS, GA. A German philosopher has said : " Humor is the eudaemonological pessimism which includes within itself a teleological evolutionary opti- mism, which may cause a realistic, radical, and universal reconciliation to appear as possible." This quotation, encountered in some piece of fugitive literature, I have not attempted to trace or to identify, but it sounds suspiciously like Hegel. In this connection, and for a purpose which does not immedi- ately appear, but which, I trust, will be made apparent in the sequel, I here reproduce (without implying approval) Schopenhauer's estimate of Hegel : In our German philosophy intellectual intuition and absolute thinking have now taken the place of clear perceptions and honest investigations. To impose upon the reader, to bewilder and mystify him, and by all sorts of contrivances throw dust in his eyes — that is our method now ; that, and not truth, is the expositor's leading aim. In consequence of this, philosophy, if we are still to call it so, could not but sink into ever lower depths, till at last the lowest stage of degradation was reached by Hegei, who, to stifle again the freedom of thought won by Kant, turned philosophy, the daughter of reason and future mothef of truth, into an instrument of obscurantism and protestant Jesuitism, but in order to hide the disgrace, and at the same time stupefy men's brains to the utmost, drew over her a veil of the emptiest verbiage and most senseless hodge-podge ever heard out of Bedlam. Schopenhauer's account of our subject is more in accordance with the commonly received definitions than the one first above given. In Welt als Wille (I, sec. 13) he says : Laughter never arises from anything else than a suddenly recognized incongruity between the conception and the real object that in some respect or other has been thought through it, and is in itself simply an expression of this incongruity. The greater, the more unexpected in the apprehension of the laugher this incongruity is, the more violent will be the laugh. WHY THE SUBJECT IS CHOSEN The fitness of this topic for the consideration of educators does not require to be vindicated. More trouble comes to those who are in charge of the training of youth, especially to those responsible for discipline, from what is called mischief or fun than from any other source. College presidents, school superintendents, and teachers would sleep sounder and Superintendence] PSYCHOLOGY AND ETHICS OF FUN 141 breathe easier if they could take out a policy of insurance against out- breaks of this nature. It is not reassuring to find in the replies to the questionnaire sent out by Dr. G. Stanley Hall and Mr. Arthur Allin that, among the things specified in the highest percentage as amusing, were these : a goose placed in a teacher's seat and pins stealthily inserted in teachers* chairs. There is this striking difference between the offenses with which the administrator of discipline has to deal : if they spring from fun, then, no matter how disorderly or troublesome be the case, it is considered by the culprit a complete defense to say that the act was done "just for a joke," while, for an act done otherwise, it would never occur to the offender to plead that the act was done "just for anger" or "just for spite." "Just for fun" seems to rule out of consideration all reference to the moral law. When a noted politician said some years ago that the Ten Commandments and the golden rule had no place in politics, he expressed about politics what is generally accepted as true, especially by the young, about whatever is done in the name or under the plea of mirth or mischief. Charles Lamb has suggested that the leading element in the enjoyment of certain forms of comedy consists in the fact that they free us from the burden of our habitual moral consciousness. Those whom Kipling calls " grown ups " are, in this respect, but children of larger growth. One purpose of the present paper is to draw attention to this claim of exemption on the part of fun from the moral law, and to point out some of its consequences. ORIGINS The topic must first be genetically treated. It is necessary to admit at the outset that the sources of this Nile remain undiscovered. So little is definitely known on the subject that in the ordinary manuals or text- books on psychology the topic is wholly ignored. Hall and Allin {American Journal of Psychology i Vol. VIII, No. 40) say : "We are persuaded that all current theories [on the subject of the psychosis of laughter] are utterly inadequate and speculative, and that there are few more promising fields for psychological research." Of their own work, the first under- taken in accordance with modern methods, they say: "It is so inadequate to the vast and hitherto unsuspected complexity of the subject that it can hardly claim to be more than notes calling attention to the need for further detailed work." Accepting these statements as coming from high authority, the preset paper, whatever may be its faults, will at least be free from that of dogmatism. Let the mind run over the list of words suggestive of this subject : banter, blithe, burlesque, caricature, chaff, comic, derision, drollery, frolic, fun, glee, grotesque, hilarity, humor, irony, jeer, jest, joke, jovial, ludi- crous, merriment, mirth, mockery, quip, quirk, pleasantry, raillery, rally, retort, repartee, ridicule, sarcasm, sardonic, satire, scoff, smile, sneer, 142 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chiag© sport, tease, taunt, travesty, wag, wit, whimsical. These words have set the consciousness traveling in brain -paths of very different directions, some pleasant, some painful. We, find Sidney Smith saying in one place that wit and humor are "the oil of life," given to man to "charm his pained steps over the burning marl ; " in another place we find him saying : " I wish, after all I have said about wit and humor, that I could satisfy myself of their good effect upon the character and disposition, but I am convinced that the probable tendency of both is to corrupt the under- standing and the heart.*' Can the same fountain send forth waters both bitter and sweet ? Can philosophy penetrate thru this diversity to unity ? Or must we not seek diverse origins for effects so variant ? ANIMAL EXHILARATION Beginning with the animals, the better opinion seems to be that some- thing akin to human laughter may be observed in their antics, pranks, and capers. If the motfon of the head has given us one of our names for the " wag," why may it not be true that the dog laughs with the wag of his tail ? A young colt driven out of a pasture, if not too closely pressed, will approach the gate as if about to dart thru it, when he will sud- denly wheel and scamper off to the remotest end of the field, and then return to the gate in a mad run, wheel again, repeating the sport until he is forced thru the gate or becomes tired of the frolic. This is pure animal spontaneity expressing itself in a way that is pleasurable and sug- gestive of. glee. Children seem to possess an enormous over-provision of stored -up activity or innate animal spirits, and laughter is one vent or safety valve for this exuberance. In adults the same feeling is the physi- cal exhilaration of realizing existence as a joy, which comes to all healthy natures when out of doors. Now, one invariable characteristic of this exhilaration, especially when felt in a high degree of intensity, is the feel- ing of power, of exaltation, and (lacking a better word) expansiveness. It is physical megalomania. He is not to be envied who has not felt in such moods that he could vault over a mountain or leap the gorge at Niagara, or get the best of a mogul engine in a head-end collision. Now, if physical vitality supplies this enjoyment in "these degenerate days," how much more intense and thrilling must the same sensation have been in the "good old days" of animal development unhampered by civiliza- tion ; when the human foot, for instance, before it had been shut away from the fresh air for centuries in bandages of ck)th and the strait- jacket of leather, might knt>w the joy of the elastic spring in the dance or the leap, which was one of the natural manifestations of this physical ecstasy. Is not provision here made in this feeling of power, exhilara- tion, and expansiveness for association of ideas between merriment, on the one hand, and extravaganza and exaggeration, on the other ? May not the partial truth of Hobbes* theory lie at this point, that " laughter is a Superintendence] PSYCHOLOGY AND ETHICS OF FUN 143 sudden glory arising from a sudden conception of some eminency in our- selves," etc., which Bain interprets thus {Mental Science^ 316) : "In other words, it is an expression of a pleasurable feeling of superior power." Is this, in part, the "freedom or caprice of subjectivity" which Dr. Baldwin gives as a summary of the theories of Schlegel, Schelling, and Hegel ? Burlesque is one of the earliest forms of the comic. Children relish Gulliver's Travels without a thought of the ulterior satire intended by the Brobdignags ; and probably stch scenes as those in which Pantagruel combs cannon balls out of his hair as he walks off the battlefield have afforded enjoyment to readers who nevi6r troubled themselves with the interpretation of Rabelais. It is said that the witticism which produced more laughter than any ever heard in the House of Commons was that of Sir William Windham, who exclaimed to an audience familiar with the slow movements of the English court of chancery: "Talk of taking Ant- werp with thirty thousand men and twenty ships of the line by a coup de main! Good God, sir, you might as well talk of a coup de main in the court of chancery 1" The wit lies in the hyperbole.' Exaggeration is said by so good an authority as the late S. S. Cox to be the chief characteristic of American humor. ♦ It is illustrated by the patriotic geographer who said that America is "bounded on the north by the aurora borealis; bounded on the east by the history of the past ; bounded on the south by the torrid zone ; and bounded on the west by the day of judginent." The explanation here attempted ihay be, and doubtless is, inadequate. The only suggestion is that the explanation finally accepted must have the merit of accounting thru a pleasurable association, amiable in its tend- ency, for those forms of wit and humor which in their origin could hardly be kindred to the sources of satire, sarcasm, irony, jeers, raillery, ridicule, and all those forms of the ludicrous which are impossible without a vic- tim. These types of wit and humor will now require attention. IS CRUELTY THE SOURCE ? George Eliot says in her essay on Heine that probably the enjoy- ment of the ludicrous is a development of the savage delight in witnessing torture inflicted on an enemy. She recognizes, however, the possibility that the pleasure thus derived may be refined and sublimated so as to lose all trace of its origin ; for in her Choir Invisible the prayer for impersonal immortality runs (in part): May I reach that purest Heaven, Enkindle generous ardor, feed pure love, Beget the smiles that have no cruelty, etc. While George Eliot's theory is inadequate as an explanation of the whole subject, it deserves consideration ; for George Eliot was a psychologist in the same sense that Shakespeare was a psychologist. In what, then, do savages delight that bears resemblance to the modern enjoyment of the ludicrous ? 1 44 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL •ASSOCIA TION [Chicago The American Indian was a taciturn creature, but he relished taking the scalp of his foe, making his captive run the gauntlet, or writhe at the stake. The Roman populace enjoyed the humiliation of the enemy in the spectacle of the triumph, and reveled in the bloody gladiatorial com- bats. The Mexican and Spaniard of today are entertained by the bull- fight, and if a. luckless toreador is landed on the horns of the infuriated bull, it is "great sport." How easy it is to translate these forms of sav- age or semi-civilized amusement into #nodern conceptions ! Beginning with the last illustration, what is it but a refinement of the same cruelty when we delight to see one disputant " impale another on the horns '* of a dilemma ? What will so quickly crowd the galleries of the Senate as the announcement that there is to be a " tilt" between two sharp -tonguqd senators ; and what is such a scene except a gladiatorial combat on an intellectual arena? When a mob jeers or taunts some unpopular person- age, what is the ordeal but his running a gauntlet where invective and sarcasm take the place of tomahawks ? When in repartee or retort the victor glows with satisfaction in beholding the confusion and shame of his conquered antagonist, what is this but a more refined gloating over the writhings of an enemy at the stake ? When on one occasion a small boy, under pretense of throwing a bouquet to an undergraduate speaker on the stage at commencement, aimed at the head of a pompous trustee and knocked off his wig, did there not dangle from his belt a veritable scalp ? What was the West Point hazing but modified barbarism ? What is a practical joke, in its roughest form, but unmitigated savagery ? As the former theory found some support in Hobbes* account of the subject, the present contention is sustained by the partial truth embodied in Bain's definition. He says : " The occasion of the ludicrous is the degradation of some person or interest possessing dignity in circum- stances that excite no other strong emotion." Bain cites in support of this Quintilian : " A saying that causes laughter .... is never honor- able to the subject of it." He does not cite a still more pointed para- graph in Cicero, De Oratore, as follows : As regards humor, there are five points to be examined : what it is ; whence it is ; whether it is the orator's part to wish to raise a laugh ; how far ; what are the classes- of humor. And that first, what the laugh is, how it is aroused, where it is, how it starts and breaks out so suddenly that we cannot restrain it when we would, and how it seizes on the sides, the mouth, the face, the eyes, all at the same time — let Democritus see to it. For it has nothing to do with the discussion ; and if it did I should still not be ashamed not to know, because even those who profess to know do not. Now the ground and, so to say, the region of the ridiculous lies in some baseness or deformity. For the sole or principal things which are laughed at are those which mark and point out, but not in a base way, some baseness. A little negro bootblack picked up on the sidewalk the stump of a cigar and, walking into a store, politely said to the proprietor: "Mister, please gimme a match." " Get out; we don't give away matches to trash Superintendence] PSYCHOLOGY AND ETHICS OF FUN 145 like you," was the reply. The little gamin walked out, earned another nickel by a shine, returned to the store, bought a box of matches and lit his treasure trove. He then handed the box back to the proprietor with the remark : "Please put that box on the shelf, and next time a genTman axes you for a match, give him one out of my box." We enjoy seeing the impolite adult degraded to his true position below the level of the street arab in the qualities of a gentleman. On one occasion Douglass Jerrold saw a pompous magnifico walking on the other side of the street. He walked over and said to the impersonation of importance and dig- nity: " Pray, sir, I would like to know if you are anybody in particular." J. L. Ford, as quoted by Hall and Allin, says : Careful study of the work turned out by professional joke-makers reveals the fact that fully nine-tenths of their humor is founded on the simple idea of disaster or misfor- tune. Nearly all primitive humor is founded on this simple idea. In the English panto- mime, in which many of the most ancient forms of jest are so firmly imbedded that they are in as fine a condition today as they were under the reign of the Merrie Monarch, all the fun depends upon indignities heaped upon the different characters. For a great many years nearly all our national humor had for its foundation the mother-in-law, the goat, the stove-pipe, and the banana-peel. Heine, lying on his "mattress grave" in a delirium of wit, transferred this conception of the enjoyment of suffering in true anthropomorphic fashion to the divine being : What avails it me that enthusiastic youths and maidens crown my marble bust with laurel when the withered hands of an aged nurse are pressing Spanish flies behind my ears ? What avails it me that all the roses of Shiraz glow and waft incense for me ? Alas ! Shiraz is two thousand miles from the Rue d' Amsterdam, where, in the weari- some loneliness of my sick-room, I get no scent, except it be, perhaps, the perfume of warmed towels. Alas I God's satire weighs heavily on me. The great author of the universe, the Aristophanes of heaven, was bent on demonstrating with crushing force to me, the little, earthly, German Aristophanes, how my wittiest sarcasms are only pitiful attempts at jesting in comparison with, his, and how miserably I am beneath him in humor, in colossal mockery. A kindly commentator says of this : It is not for us to condemn who have never had the same burden laid on us. It is not for pigmies at their ease to criticise the writhings of the Titan chained to the rock. Since this paper is not scientific in aim, but has a practical purpose, it may be well to establish by further considerations the anti-social nature of the ludicrous, the ultimate object being to make an argument that our homiletics — in the pulpit, press, and schoolroom — should endeavor to bring about a moralization of wit and humor. MORALIZATION OF MIRTH I. The testimony of language. Talleyrand has said : " Language is the wisdom of everybody." Words are composite photographs of myriads of individual mental images. Whence, then, comes our vocabulary when we describe the various types of wit and humor ? Usually from the meta- phors of weapons, warfare, and combat. We say of wit that it is keen ; 146 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago that its blade is sharp or trenchant ; a jest is cutting ; if successful, it scores a hit; and the one word to be applied in common to all the *' thousand shapes wit wears " is point. Now, the function of a point is to stick into something, and the process of puncture is usually painful and most frequently malevolent. When we abandon the metaphors sug- gested by'arrows, swords, and spears, we resort to such terms as bitter, caustic, stinging, blistering, excoriating, etc. Arguments from etymology are peculiarly liable to error, but some suggestions of painful or cruel physical processes are probably indicated in the origin of various terms now in question. Dean Swift says of " banter " : " This polite word of theirs was first borrowed from the bul- lies in White Friars." Its local meaning in the United States is the chal- lenge to fight or race, and hence the contest itself. In " jeer " there is a suggestion of shearing the fool. In " rail " is a suggestion of scraping or grating. " Sarcasm " is from (rapKo^o), " to tear the flesh,'* then " to bite the lips," then " to speak bitterly or sneer." By popular etymology the idea of sarcasm as biting to others may have been thus derived. 2. All the phenomena 'of repartee and retort and (acrimonious) debate tend to show that wit is a species of warfare. In the freedom of invec- tive in the Irish House of Commons a century ago, Mr. Martin, of Galway, said of Mr. Ponsonboy, at a time when he knew that Ponsonboy's sister, one of the most beautiful women in Dublin, was in the gallery : " Mr. Speaker, these Ponsonboys are the plague of the nation. They are infamous personally and politically, from the toothless old hag now grinning in the gallery to the white-livered scoundrel that shivers on the floor." It is not a far cry from such brutality back to Sparticus on the bloody sands. For a modern instance, let Mr. Blaine's tilt with Mr. Conkling suffice. Someone had said that the mantle of Henry Winter Davis had fallen on Mr. Conkling. Mr. Blaine said the comparison was a profanation — "Thersites to Hercules, Hyperion to a satyf, mud to marble, a whining puppy to a roaring lion, a singed cat to a Bengal tiger." And to this very day a certain senatorial " pitchfork " is the chief attraction of the galleries and the prime favorite of sensational reporters. Of how few debaters possessing wit can it be said as of Canning : His wit in the combat as gentle as bright Ne*er carried a heart stain away on its blade. Schopenhauer's hot blast against Hegel was introduced in the begin- ning of this paper as a test. Was it amusing in its ferocity? If so, we are ready for the Q.E.D. A writer in the Cornhill Magazine^ May, 1876, says : Of the current jests half owe their merit to their inhumanity. Look at any of the current stories of Douglass Jerrold, who passed for a humorist in these later days. Every recorded jest of his that I have seen is a gross incivility made palatable by a pun. The substance of each phrase is, ** You are a fool ; " the art consists in so wrapping the inso- lence in a play of words that the hearers laugh, and the victim is deprived of sympathy. Superintendence] PSYCHOLOGY AND ETHICS OF FUN 147 '* It was your father, then, who was not so handsome," is one of Talleyrand's brilliant retorts to a man who spoke of his mother's beauty. What is this but to say, " You are an ugly beast," and yet to evade the legitimate resentment of the sufferer ? Talleyrand, visiting at the bedside of someone quite ill, asked the patient how he was. " I am suffering,** was the reply, "the tortures of the damned." " What," said Talleyrand, " already ! ** 3. Strong corroboration of the argument is found in the case of chil- dren. Hall and Allin state that the returns to their questionnaire abound in instances of childish glee over all sorts of deformity, suffering, and calamity. In perverted cases this normal mirth rises into the heartless- ness of the little girl who danced over a comrade's grave, and of two little boys, aged nine and eleven, who, after witnessing scenes of butch- ery one day, killed, dressed, and quartered their baby sister, imitating with great delight the details they had seen. The advanced proofs of the second volume of Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Pedagogy enable me to cite an opinion more charitable to human nature. Under the article " Malevolence," Professor Sorley says : It is interesting to ask whether there is not an aesthetic factor in malevolence, as there is in most benevolence and S3rmpathy. There can be no doubt that many of the actions ordinarily ascribed to malice are better explained from the elements of play and of the comic involved in the production of grotesque and unusual situations It may be the writhings and not the pain of the pinned-down insect that interests. The present writer would prefer to believe this rather than what he does believe, but do not our recollections of experiments in infancy with pins and insects candidly force us into the position of the old lady who said that, no matter what other doctrines she gave up, she intended still to hold on to her original depravity? The difference of opinion suggests that kindergarten experts and all those interested in child study should pursue the investigation for which Hall and Allin*s circular of inquiry blazes out the way. 4. The child of the preceding paragraph is but the father to the man in this. To laugh with those who weep is a gross perversion of scriptural teaching, but joy in the calamity of others {Schadenfreude) is one of the deep, dark secrets in the soul of man. There are secrets of this char- acter that remind us of the French saying : " But for sleep men would die of self-contempt.** Why is it that grotesque and wanton images present themselves in the minds of holiest saints at the moment of intensest devotion ? Who has not confessed with shame his conscious- ness of the half-truth in Rochefoucauld*s maxim : "There is something in the misfortunes of our best friends which does not more than half displease us"? Who has not witnessed the disappointment on the face of those who inquire about the condition of someone, long expected to die, when they learn that the denouement has not come ? Hall and Allin on this painful subject say : 148 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chici«o Not a few of our correspondents confess, with genuine abasement, that, interlinked with the strong feeling of grief at the sickness and death of their friends, there is an under- current of satisfaction and even joy, which sometimes makes them feel that their sorrow, though tearful, is superficial and hypocritical It is sad to reflect upon the results of honest introspection and careful self-analysis upon this subject. Milder phases of this Schadenfreude are perhaps to be found in the following groups : {a) Enjoyment of ludicrous epitaphs which bulk large in every collection of jokes. (I>) The cruel wit of quietism, said to have been begun in 2 Chronicles 16:12, 13: "And in the thirty and ninth year of his reign King Asa was diseased in his feet; his disease was exceeding great ; yet, in his disease he sought not to the Lord, but to the physicians. And Asa slept with his fathers." In modern newspaper forms this species appears in such paragraphs as the following : "A ser- vant kindled a fire with naptha and has benzine no more." (c) Mirth at funerals. In this case the merriment need not be ascribed to any pleas- ure in the sorrow of the mourners, but it sufficiently illustrates the point to say that sympathy for grief is not strong enough to repress the risi- bilities. Perhaps the rebound, or relief from tension, may be a large factor in the true explanation. Whatever be the theory, the ghastly fact remains. One such instance occurred as follows; it is known in the local community as the comic funeral : It was the burial of a noted wag, whom we will call Mr. Yorick in order to disguise the setting of the story. The pallbearers, according to local custom, were walking beside the hearse. The first carriage was filled with the tearful wife and chil- dren of the deceased. Unfortunately one of the pallbearers raised the question what was the best joke the dead man had ever perpetrated. This called out several enlivening reminiscences, and soon, to their horror, the pallbearers found themselves in a shake. The electric cur- rent of wit passed down the procession, and soon dozens of men were laid out along the roadside in spasms of inextinguishable laughter. 5. Our estimate of the funny man may be adduced to support the preceding considerations. Woe to him who, combining wit and wisdom, suffers himself to acquire a reputation for the former ! Sidney Smith could not be a bishop. Thomas Corwin was a great man, but people refused to take him seriously. But the discount on the man of wit relates to character even more than intellect ; he is regarded as heartless. Those who laugh at his jokes upon others feel that when their backs are turned their turn will come. South ey says didactically: A man renowned for repartee Will seldom scruple to make free With friendship's finest feelings. Pascal flatly says : " Diseur de bons mots mauvais caract^re." 6. Hitherto the argument has sought to illustrate the evolution of the ludicrous from the cruel, but the practical joker with his brutalities has undergone no development. He is a genuine, original, unadulterated Superintendence] PSYCHOLOGY AND ETHICS OF FUN 149 . savage. Not infrequently we read in the press dispatches of persons frightened to death by such barbarism, and occasionally of some student who goes to his death in a mock initiation. Hall and Allin say: The cheap comedy shows us how the practical joke, banished from the cultivated classes where it formerly held sway, still prevails among the lowly as it does among sav- ages and children in a raw and more flaying form. The greater the discomfiture or even the pain, the madder and more furious the fun. Our survey of the subject up to this point has shown that there are some forms of wit and hum*or which are so amiable and harmless as to suggest that they spring from the pleasure of pure animal spontaneity; while others are so malevolent as to give plausibility to the theory that they are derived from savage delight in witnessing torture. This latter proposition it has been sought to make good by argument and clear by illustration, because of the practical corollaries to be deduced from it. If there are smiles that would not mar an angel's brow and others that befit only the faces of fiends, there is ample warrant for the proposition that ethical standards should be applied, and that the plea of "just for fun " should no longer be permitted to cover a multitude of sins. Chil- dren learn at an early age the principle of the limitation of individual liberty. It can usually be fixed in the mind by the epigrammatic state- ment, "My right to swing my arm ends where your nose begins." The beautiful simplicity of the golden rule commends itself to their intelli- gence ; but it would fall upon them with a showerbath of surprise if they were told that the golden rule applies to mirth and merriment. Yet this is precisely the inculcation needed. Since fact is worth more than theory, the present writer can say that in a critical period of administration the day was saved for good order by an expostulation which insisted on the moralization of fun, and which rested the plea on George Eliot's theory of its origin. The inculcation may take this general direction : After considering all that may be claimed for mirth as a part of human happiness, we may submit that it is bounded by certain higher laws, {a) It is bounded by the law of kindness. Whether we would willingly be the victim of a proposed jest or practical joke is an easy test of its compatibility with this law. Conventionally it is assumed that we enjoy hearing our friends tell a " good thing " on us. But who really enjoys the ordeal ? {!>) It is bounded by the law of purity. In the Cornhill Magazine article already quoted it is said : " How much that passes for humorous is simply profane, or indecent, or brutal ? Half of the humorous stories that pass current in the world are unfit for publication." This limitation may be stressed by an anecdote of General Grant. A young officer, being about to tell a salacious story, said: "I believe there are no ladies present." "No," said General Grant, "but there are gentlemen present." No young officer would have dared to think of telling a shady story in the ISO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago presence of General Lee. Quaint old Thomas Fuller said : "Almost twenty years since I heard a profane jest and still remember it. How many pious passages of far later date I have forgotten! It seems my soul is like a filthy pond, wherein the fish soon die and the frogs live long." (^) It is bounded by the law of reverence. " I wonder, Mr. Spurgeon," said one of his auditors, "that you use so many witticisms in the pulpit." " You would not wonder," was the reply, " if you knew how many I sup- press." CAN WIT BE CULTIVATED ? Of wit at its best estate George Eliot has given the best definition ; it is "wisdom raised to a higher power." Its swift insight is of great intellectual value. In debate it economizes time. Argument must be met with argument ; but to meet sophistry and absurdity with reasoning is to pay them undeserved respect. They should be "speared with a jest," " routed with all the rash dexterity of wit." Tennyson seems to have had in mind this utility of wit when in the "Ode to Maurice" he wrote : Not martyr flames nor trenchant swords Can do away with that ancient lie ; A gentler death shall falsehood die, Shot through and through with cunning words. That wit is not capable of cultivation is a notion universally held. It is presumptuous to question an opinion so widely accepted, but it may be that the pure spontaneity of wit belongs to the same sort of myth as the " fine frenzy " of the poet. It is doubtless true that the wit, like the poet, like the orator, is born, not made, and yet labor may play as great a part in the development of the one as of the other. Sheridan's notebooks, when examined by his literary executor, revealed the unsuspected truth that many of his brilliant witticisms were the fruits of laborious cultivation. For instance, one of his epigrams can be traced thru the successive stages of its evolution. In its first form it appeared thus : " He employs his fancy in his narrative and keeps his recollection for his wit." At a later period it appeared thus: "When he makes his jokes you applaud the accuracy of his memory, and it is only when he states his facts that you admire his flights of imagination." Sheridan would not fire off the witti- cism in either of these forms, because they were not satisfactory to him. He reserved the final explosion for the time when the epigram took this shape : " The right honorable gentleman is indebted to his memory for his jokes and to his imagination for his facts." Curran, who was the author of more bon mots perhaps than any man that ever lived, even in Ireland, the land of wit, told his friend and biographer, Charles Phillips, that all the good things he ever said were thought of beforehand, and that he had laid awake many a night chuckling over his jokes as he invented them, and thrumping the headboard of the bed in his glee, to the infinite annoyance of the other inmates of the bouse. W^bington Superintendence] PSYCHOLOG Y AND ETHICS OF FUN 1 5 1 •Irving tells us ** the elaboration of humor is often a most serious task ; I have never witnessed a more perfect picture of mental misery than was presented to me by a popular dramatic writer whom I found in the agonies of producing a farce which subsequently set the theaters in a roar." The familiar fact that most of us are able to manufacture a desired witticism when it is too late — as Mr. Lowell said that all his best after-dinner speeches were made in a cab as he rode home after the banquet — suggests that cultivation might quicken the capacity for wit. If the powers of reasoning and of the imagination can be trained thru the study of logic and poetry, as everybody believes, why may not the power of wit be like- wise aided by study? At any rate, it is fortunate that this suggestion, so contrary to the general notion, may be subjected to careful test. Hall and Allin say that we need, among other things, for the psychology of the future " a very careful collection of thousands of the very best ancient and modern jests on cards such as has been begun for. ready sorting, until genera and species for some classification on a purely inductive basis shall appear;" also ''a very exhaustive review of humorcrus literature, proverbs, etc., with analytic intent." In other words, they propose a scientific dissection of the joke. There is something inexpressibly droll in this idea of a man of science treating a jest as he would treat a fossil, or endeavoring to discover the protoplasm of wit and humor. Can the point of a jest be investigated under the microscope ? Will it be possible to illustrate a witticism on the blackboard ? Can a retort be put in a retort and analyzed ? It may be doubted whether wit and humor will yield to this treatment ; whether we can have an anatomy of pleasantry as old Richard Burton has given us an anatomy of melancholy. May it not be possible that the joke when analyzed may be like a soap bubble when broken — one moment beautiful with all the hues of the rainbow, the next a drop of dirty water? Every touch that woos its stay May brush its brightest hues away. It is always pleasant to end with optimism. Hall and Allin say: Some mothers and kindergartners have a little game of laugh because they rejoice in life and to teach gratitude to God, making it thus a form of devotion or prayer In wit and fancy, present man is practicing for the higher man that is to be, just as some of children's games are preparatory to the duties and realities of adult life. We must not deem the pleasures of imagination, therefore, or the wider range of possibilities opened by wit, both of which so enrich the hard, stem world of present fact, as entirely without symbolic value as prophecy. These bid us hope. SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF ACTIVE MEMBERS ft ENROLLED SINCE THE PUBLICATION OF THE I90I VOLUME (DETROIT meeting) 1899 Arthur Allin, Ph.D., '95, Univ. of Berlin. 1898, Professor of Psychology and Education, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. X90Z WiLUAM Allison, Univ. of Utah. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Ogden, Utah. Peter D. Amstutz. X898, Superintendent of Riley Township Schools and High School, Pandora, O. Sarah Elizabeth Bangs, A.B., '8x, Univ. of Mien. X901, Instructor in State Normal School, St. Petersburg, Fla. Miriam Beslbv. Superintendent of Public Schools, 541 Genesee St., Waukegan, 111. T. W. Bevan, A.M., B.Ped. Representative, Butler, Sheldon & Co., 423 Westoott St., Syracuse, N. Y. Charles W. Bickford, A.B., '87, Dartmouth Coll. X900, Superintendent of Schools, 480 Maple St., Manchester, N. H. Freeman H. Bloodgood, B.Sc, '90, Upper Iowa Univ. 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, 304 Mulberry St., Waterloo, la. Charles H. Brelsford. X884, Supervising Principal, James L. Qagbom Combined School, 3434 N. Broad St., Philadelphia, Pa. R. F. Bunnel. 1899, Principal of Graded School, Naperville, 111. Durward Earl Burchell. 1896, Instructor and Critic in Physics, Chemistry, and Manual Training, Oswego State Normal School, 73 W. Schuyler St., Oswego, N. Y. James R. Campbell, A.M., '81, Muskingum Coll. X897, Superintendent of City Schools, 633 E. Cleveland Ave., Guthrie, Okla. James William Carnahan, A.6., ^96, Ky. State Univ. ^ 190X, Professor of Natural Science and Latin, Berea College, Berea, Ky. ; res. 1x7, xoth St., Toledo, O. H. C. Cheney, A.B., Yale Univ. Educational Department, Charles Scribner's Sons, X53 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. D. H. Christbnsen. X90X, Superintendent of City Schools, 77 Peach St., Salt Lake City, Utah. Edward O. Clark. x68 Peachtree St., Atlanta, Ga. E. E. Clippinger, B.Sc. x9or, Superintendent of Public Schools, De Land, Fla. xgoo Clayton I. Collins, B.Ped., '95, Ph.M., '00, Hillsdale Coll., Mich. X897, Superintendent of Schools, Corunna, Mich. 190X Randall J. Condon, A.B., '86, Colby Coll. X89X, Superintendent of Schools, x6 Warren St., Everett, Mass. Charles Thompson Conger, A.B., ^90, Univ. of Minn. Superintendent of Schools, Windom, Minn. Dudley R. Cowles, L.I., '95, William and Maiy Coll., Williamsburg, Va. 1900, General Southern Representative, Silver, Burdett & Co., Williamsburg, Va. xgoa H. H. Cully. X895, Superintendent of Schools, 3x8 Doan St., Glenville, O. xgoi Edward P. Cummings, Ph.B., '93, Univ. of Mich. xQox, Superintendent of City Schools. Grand Haven, Mich. Susan Lord Currier, A.B., ^95, Oberlin Coll.. O. 1898, Superintendent of Schools of Skagit Co., Mt. Vernon, Wash. Frank W. Darling, A.B., '95, Iowa Coll. X90X, Supervisor of Chicago Vacation Schools, and Head of Geography Department, Chi- cago Normal School, 330 W. 6xst PI., Chicago, 111. xgoa Homer B. Dickey. X900, Superintendent of Public Schools, Greentown, Ind. igox Joseph M. Dill, A.M., Howard Coll., Ala. X90X, Superintendent of Schools, Bessemer, Ala. Jambs C. Dockrill. Representative, American Book Co., 531 Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111. Albert H. Douglass. X89X, Superintendent of Schools, X3X9 Market St., Logansport, Ind. Jesse A. Ellsworth, A.M., '89, Middlebury Coll., Middlebury, Vt. Representative of The Macmillan Co. for the state of New York; res., 60 N. Main St., Rutland, Vt. F. G. Ertel. Superintendent of City Schools, Z70X Vermont St., Quincy, 111. Amos W. Farnham. X894, Teacher in Oswego State Normal School, 141 W. 4th St., Oswego, N. Y. S. J. Ferguson. Superintendent of Schools of Rock Island Co., 70x1 Z9th St., Rock Uland, 111, 152 Superintendence] SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF ACTIVE MEMBERS 153 xgoa Charlbs Lbwis Floyd, A.B., Univ. of Ga. 1889, Superintendent of City Schools, 905 High St., Montgomery, Ala. zgoi Charlbs R. Frazibr, B.L., '95, Univ. of Wis. Z90Z, Superintendent of City Schools, Little Falls, Minn. JOHK R. Frbbbbrn. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, Piano, 111. RicoRD Gradwbll. Assistant General Manager, Oliver Typewriter Co., X07 Lake St., Chicago, 111. Josbphinb a. Grbbnb. 338 W. 114th St., New York, N. Y. D. F. Gribr. 190X, Superintendent of Schools, 3 Pine St., Sharon, Pa. J. S. Griffin, A.M., '76, Eureka Coll., III. Superintendent of SduMis, Houghton, Mich. Gilbbrt H. Grosvbnor, A.B., '97, A.M., 'ox, Amherst Coll., Mass. m 1900, Managing Editor, "National Geographic Magazine," Corcoran Bldg., Washington, D. C. xgoa Frank Dickinson Haddock, A.B., '00, Olivet Coll., Mich. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 15 £. 9th St., Holland, Mich. xgox W. J. Hammill, B.L., '93, M.L., '9^,'Univ. of Mich. Supervising Principal of Practice Work, State Normal School, De Kalb, 111. Frbd E. Hansen. Z900, Superintendent of Schools of Story Co., Nevada, la. M. E. Hard. President of State Board of School Elxaminers, and Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, Walnut Ave., Sidney, O. Mbrcy J. Hayes. 1896, Principal of School, 433 Lincoln Ave., Detroit, Mich. xgoa Henry C. Hess, B.Sc, '97, Charles City Coll., la. x8ox. Superintendent of City Schools, Sleepy Eye, Minn. xgoz I. W. Hill, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Emory Coll., Ga. 1896, Superintendent of City Schools, Gadsden, Ala. Wilus C. Holman. B.S.U., ^97, St. Nor. Sch., Warrensburg, Mo. x8o9. Superintendent of Public Sclraols, Hamilton, Mo. X896 M. Adelaide Holton. 190X, Supervisor of Primary Schools, Hampshire Arms, Minneapolis, Minn. xgox Anderson H. Hopkins, Ph.B., ^93, Univ. of Mich. 1895, Assistant Librarian, John Crerar Library, xxx8 Main St., Evanston, 111. Edward Gardnibr Howe, B.Sc, Mass. Agri. Coll. Specialist in Elementary Graded Science, 96x6 Prospect Ave., Chicago, 111. 9^t Boston Un xaoi. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 17 " The Delaware," Indianapolis, Ind. Franklin S. Hoyt, B.Sc, ^93, Boston Univ. J. Pbrcival Huggett, M.Didac, *oa, Iowa St. Nor. Sch. X899, Principal of Academy and Professor of Pedagogy, Coe College, 135 N. lath St., Cedar Rapids, la. Frank M. Jack, A.M., '03, Beloit Coll. Z90X, State School Inspector, 4x6 W. Main St., Madison, Wis. B. B. Jackson, A.B., *^, Beloit Coll., Wis. Z900, Superintendent of Schools, Superior, Wis. John I. Jegi, B.Sc, ^95, Univ. of Chicago ; M.Sc, V> Nor. 111. Coll. 1896, Professor of Psychology and Physiology, State Normal School, 354,39th St., Mil- waukee, Wis. A. P. Johnson. 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, Gibson City, 111. Mary Sidney Johnston. xQoi, Teacher of English, State Normal School, De Funiak Springs, Fia. William M. Jolliffe, B.Sc, '96, Lawrence Univ. X903, Superintendent of Schools, 606 Elmore St., Escanaba, Mich. I. N. Kbyser, Ph.B.. *^, Baldwin Univ. looi. Superintendent of Public Schools, Urbana, O. 1898 William R. Kilpatrick. X899, Superintendent of City Schools, Wahpeton, N. D. xgox J. C. King. Superintendent of City Schools, x3o Story St., Boone, la. Homer H. Kingsley, A.B., '8z, Univ of Mich. x886. Superintendent of Schools, X339 Judson Ave. , Evanston, 111. R. H. KiRTLAND, A.B., '00, Univ. of Mich. X90X, Superintendent of Schools, 305 Court St. E., Flint, Mich. Charlbs F. Kobhler, Ph.B., '90, A.M., '93, Univ. of Wooster, O. . 1893, Teacher of Civics, History, and Social Science, State Normal School, 311 Lock St., Mankato, Minn. Gborgb S. Laidley. X883, Superintendent of Schools, 183 Laidley St., Charleston, W. Va. John F. Lamont, B.L., '88, Univ. of Wis. 1894, Superintendent of Schools of Marathon Co., Wausau, Wis. Jambs T. Lees, A.B.. '86, A.M., '89, Western Reserve Univ.; Ph.D., '89, Johns Hopkins Univ. 1889, Professor of the Greek Language and Literature, University of Nebraska, x8oz C St., Lincoln, Neb. zgoo H. F. Lbvbrbnz. X899, Superintendent of Schools, 3030 N. 8th St., Sheboygan, Wis. xgox H. Galen Lull, Grad., Mich. St. Nor. Coll., Ypsilanti. 1898, Supenntendent of Schools, Carson Citv, Mich. xgoa O. L. Manchester, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Dartmouth Coll. X890, Teacher of Latin, German, and Economics, State Normal University, Normal, 111. xgox Clinton S. Marsh, A.B., '9X, Cornell Univ. Z903, Superintendent of Public Schools, xo Grover St., Auburn, N. Y. W, W. Martin. Superintendent of Schools, Whitewater, Wis. 154 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [Chicago zgoi LowKLL M. McAfbb. A.M., '83, Park Coll., Parlcville, Mo. x88o, Actine President of Park College, Parkville, Mo. Makgarkt McCloskky. xQoz, General Supervisor of Public Schools, 68 Park PI., Newark, N. J. Mrs. Agnbs C. McElkoy. 460 Laurence St., Eugene, Ore. C. T. McFarlane, Ph.B., Pd.M. X901, Principal of State Normal School, Campus, Brockport, N. Y. J. A. McLban, Ph.B., |oo, Univ. of Chicago. Superintendent of City Schools, 3x05 J and axst Sts., South Omaha, Neb. O. J. McManus, B.Didac^ '94, M.Didac.,'96. 1900, County Superintendent of Schools, 1x63 E.Pierce St., Council Bluffs, la. Charlbs S. Mebk, A.B., Univ. of Ind. xgox. Superintendent of Schools, Elwood, Ind. xgoa C. N. Millard. 1896, Supervisor of Grammar Grades, 837 Richmond Ave., Buffalo, N. Y. 1899 Adblaidb W. Millbr. X892, Teacher in Public Schools, Z74X Deming PI., Chicago, 111. X900 Nbwman Miller, Ph.B., ^93, Albion Coll., Mich.* X900, Director, llie University of Chicago Press, 5803 Madison St., Chicago, III. X90Z Thomas Condit Miller, A.M., '93, West Viiginia Univ. State Superintendent of Free Schools, Capitol, Charleston, W. Va. Louis Celbstin Monin, Ph.D., '91, Lake Forest Univ., 111. X89X, Professor of Eiconomics and Philosophy, Armour Institute, 5540 Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. Harrison T. Morrow, A.M., '88. xoox. Superintendent of Schools, 358 Guy Park Ave., Amsterdam, N. Y. . 1^01 Jerome E. Morse. Publisher, 96 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. Lucy E. Moten, M.D.^ '97, Howard Med. Coll. X884, Principal of Normal School No. s, 738, 4th St. N. W., A. C. Nelson, B.D., Ph.B. Washington, D. C. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, xs3 City and County Building, Salt Lake City, Utah. Andrew Nelson, A.B., '93, A.M., '93, Univ. of Minn. X90X, Superintendent of Schools, Austin, Minn. 190a O. D. Noble. Agent of American Book Company, 630 W. 4th St., Sedalia, Mo. Cyrus Northrop, A.B., '57, LL.B., '59, LL.D., '86, Yale Univ. 1884, President of University of Minnesota, 5x9, xoth Ave. S. £., Minneapolis, Minn. X90X Frank Edson Parlin, A.M., '89, Bates Coll. xooo. Superintendent of Schools, Quincy, Mass. ; res., X65 Arlington St., Wollaston, Mass. Ophelia A. Parrish. 1889, Supervisor of Practice School, State Normal School, xx6 £. Jefferson St., Kirks - ville. Mo. xgoa S. F. Parson. 1899, Teacher of Mathematics, Northern Illinois State Normal School, De Kalb, III. 190X F. B. Pearson, A.M., '88, Wooster Univ., Ohio. Principal of East High School, 125 Wilson Ave., Columbus, O. Reece W. Perkins, A.B., '7a, A.M., '75, Ph.D., '93, Bucknell Univ. xoox. President of Leland University, 70x3 St. Charles Ave., New Orleans, La. Francis M. Peterson, A.M., Southern Univ., Greensboro. Ala. 1899, President of Alabama Girls' Industrial Scnool, Montevallo, Ala. W. H. PiLLSBURY, A.B., Univ. of Neb. Z900, Superintendent of City Schools, Falls City, Neb. L. RuNYONj Ph.B., Univ. of Chicago. Teacher in Dewey School, University of Chicago ; res., Laura L X080 Arlington Ave., Plain- field, N.J. ' Walter Earle Russell, A.B., '93, Wesleyan Univ. 1894, Department of Natural Science, State Normal School, Gorham, Me. Frank E. SANFORD,Ph.B., A.M., Wesleyan Univ., Middletown, Conn. X890, Superintendent of Schools, 3x7 S. Ashland Ave., La Grange, 111. George E. St. John, A.B., '96, Stanford Univ. ; A.M., '00, Univ. of Utah. X900, Superintendent of City Schools, 3013 Oakes Ave., Everett, Wash, xgoa Henry S. Schell, A.B., '90, A.M., '01, Butler Coll., Irvington, Ind. X899, Superintendent of Schools, Clinton, Ind. xgox E. E. SCRIBNER. X899, Superintendent of Schools, 3 W. 5th St., Dunkirk, N. Y. xgoa J. W. Searson, A.M., '96, Univ. of Neb. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Wahoo, Neb. xgox Harry M. Shafer, B.Sc, '87. M.Sc, '90, Eureka Coll. ; A.B., '99, A.M., '00, Harvard Univ. X90X, Professor of Psychology and Education, State Normal School, San Diego, Cal. xgoo Charles Eldrbd Shblton, A.M., Iowa Wes. Univ. President of Simpson College, Indianola, la. xgox Arthur Maxson Smith, A.B., '94, Pomona Coll., Cal. ; A.M., '99, Ph.D., '00, Univ. of Chicago. xooo. President of Oahu College, Honolulu, Hawaii. xgoo William C. Smith. xgox, Superintendent of Schools, East Chicago, Ind. xgox O. M. SouLE. Superintendent of Schools, 9 Lake Ave., Franklin, Warren Co., O. Haviland Stevenson. 39 E. xgth St., New York, N. Y. xgoo William H. Stockman. Manager of Buffalo Fixture Works, gx Main St., Buffalo, N. Y. xgox George W. Suman, A.M., Valparaiso College, Ind. Representing National Educational Company, New York and Chicago; res,| S« Jefferson St., Rochester, Ind. Panibl Pomeroy Taylor, A.B., '00, Univ. of Colo. X909| Superintoidcnt of Schools, Lovclandi Colo. Superintendence] SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF ACTIVE MEMBERS iS5 190X John D. Tsbtbr. 190X, Supervising Teacher of Brevard County Schools, Rex, Fla. Mrs. Frances C. Tbmplb. Teacher, 790 Jaclcson Boul., Chicaeo, 111. Richard S. Thomas. Member of the finn of Ginn & Co., 70 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. Z. C. Thornburg, M.Didac, '9|6. County Superintendent of Scho(^ of Polk Co., Younserman Boul., Des Moines, la. 1900 J. H. Toiiun. xooa, Superintendent of Schools, 197 W. Broadway, ShelbyviUe, Ind. Charles A. Van Matrb. 1897, Superintendent of County Schools, Courthouse, Muncie. Ind. xgoa Gborgs Edgar Vincent, A.B., ^85, Yale Univ. ; Ph.D., '96, Univ. of Cnicaffo. 1900, Associate Professor, Department of Sociology, University o7 Chicago, 5737 Lexing- ton Ave., Chicago, III. xgoi J. Henry Walker, A.B., Univ. of Ga. xSoa, Superintendent of Schools, Griffin, Ga. 190a William W. Waters. TQox, Superintendent of Schools, Valley, Neb. X90X Max West, B.Sc, '90, A.M., '93, Univ. of Minn. ; Ph.D., *oo, Columbian Univ. Z900, Associate Professor of Economics, Columbian University; Chairman of Educational Department of the Civic Center, cor. Sixth and Seaton Sts., Washington, D. C. W. B. Wilson. Z901, Superintendent of County Schools, Ogden, Utah. Lewis Edwin York, B.Sc, ^94, Mt. Union Coll., Alliance, O. 1898, Superintendent of Public Schools, Kingsville, O. Charles Zubblin, I%.B., '87, Northwestern Univ: ; D.B.^ ^89, Yale Univ. Z903, Professor of Sociology, University of Chicago, 605a Kimbark Ave., Chicago, 111. institutions xgox Adams Public Library. Librarian, Lucy C. Richmond, Adams, Mass. ' Agricultural and Mechanical College op Alabama. President, W. H. Councill ; Librarian, Loretta V. Brownlow, Normal, Ala. xgoa Agricultural and Mechanical College op Mississippi. President, J. C. Hardy; Librarian, J. M. White, Agricultural College, Miss. xgox Board op Education op Fultcm County. County Superintendent, M. L. Brittain, Atlanta, Ga. Board op Education, New Haven, Conn. Superintendent, F. H. Beede, ax Center St., New Haven, Conn. Brooklyn Public Library. Librarian, Frank P. Hill, a6 Brevoort PI., Brooklyn, N. Y. College op the Holy Cross. President, Rev. Joseph F. Hanselman, Worcester, Mass. Department op Pubuc Instruction, State op Minnesota. Superintendent, J. W, Olsen, Capitol, St. Paul, Minn. Department op Pubuc Instruction, State op Nebraska. Superintendent, William K. Fowler, Capitol, Lincoln, Neb. Department op Public Instruction, State op New York. Superintendent, Charles R. Skinner, Capitol, Albany, N. Y. Emory College Library. Librarian, H. H. Stone, Oxford, Ga. Free Pubuc Library, New Bbdpord, Mass. Librarian, George H. Tripp, New Bedford, Mass. Free Pubuc Library, Trenton, N. T. Librarian, Adam Stronm, Trenton, N. J. Forbes Library. Librarian, C. A. Cutter, Northampton, Mass. Gail Borden Pubuc Library. Librarian, Cecil C. Harvey, Spring and Milwaukee Sts., Elgin, 111. xgoa Michigan Agricultural College, Library. ^ President, J. L. Snyder; Librarian, Mrs. Linda E.Landon, Agricultural College, Mich xgox Michigan State Library. State Librarian, Mrs. Mary C. Spencer, Lansing, Mich. xgoa Nebraska State Normal School. Principal, W. A. Clark, Peru, Neb. New Hampshire College op Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Library. President, Charles S. Murkland; Librarian, C. W. Scott, Durham, N. H. xgox New Orleans Normal School. Principal, Miss Margaret C. Hanson, 1x43 Constance St., New Orleans, La. Normal School op Arizona. President, A. J. Matthews, Tempe, Ariz. North Adams Public Library. Librarian, Mabel Temple, North Adams, Mass. Northern Arizona Normal School. President, iV* N* Taylor, Flagstaff, Ariz. OuviA Ranby Library. Librarian, Jennie H. Coffin, Raleigh, N. C. Peoria Pubuc Library. Librarian, E. S. Willcox, Peoria, 111. Public Library op Fitchburg, Mass. Librarian, George E. Nutting, Fitchbuig, Mass. Pennsylvania State Library. State Librarian, George Edward Reed, Harrisburg, Pa. St. Louis University. Librarian, W. Poland, St. Louis, Mo. St. Paul Public Library. Librarian, H. J. McCaine, St. Paul, Minn. 156 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago I9OI SXATTLB PdBUC LiBKARY. Librarian, , Seattle, Wash. zgoa South Carolina Collbgb. President, F. C. Woodward; Librarian, Miss M. H. Rion, Columbia, S. C. 1901 Statr Libkary op Nbw Tkrsby. State Librarian, Henry C. Buchanan, Trenton, N. J. Statk Normal Collbgb. Principal, E. M. Shackelford, Troy, Ala. Univbrsity op Arkansas, Library. President, John L. Buchanan ; Librarian, Mrs. Neil Carothers, Fayetteyille, Ark. Vandbrbilt Univbrstty. Chancellor, J. H. Kirkland; Librarian, William J. Vaughn, Nashville, Tenn. Washington and Lbb University. President, George H. Denny, Lexington, Va. Yalb Univbrsity Library. President, Arthur T. Hadley, New Haven, Conn. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT. OF SUPERINTENDENCE AT THE ANNUAL MEETING HELD AT CINCINNATI, O., FEBRUARY 24, 25, AND 26, I903 PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION 1903 PRINTED AT ^be XinivcvBit^ of Cbfcago |>redd 1903 CONTENTS CINCINNATI MEETING— 1903 PAGB Secretary's Minutes - - 5 The Human Side of Geography — Wolfe 9 Discussion — Hatch, Redway, etai, -19 The Best Methods of Electing School Boards — Jones - - - - 24 Discussion — Carr, Chalmers, Pearse, Soldan 25 The Freedom of the Teacher — Gilbert 30 Discussion-^ Van Sickle, Richeson -----.-40 A Readjustment of the High-School Curriculum — Coy - - - - 43 Discussion — Cooley, Soldan, De Garmo ------ 49 Industrial Training in Rural Schools — Bayliss 51 Discussion — Harvey 59 Literature in the Grades and How to Use It — Mrs, Cooley - - - 64 Discussion — Mrs. Heermans, Miss Holbrook 72 I ROUND TABLES A. Round Table of State and County Superintendents : Form and Extent of Manual Training for Public-School Work — Thompson 80 Discussion — Wilkinson, Cole, Martin, Fall, Baxter - - - 83 B. Round Table of Normal Schools and City Training Schools : Organization and Function of the Training School — Bender - - 85 C. Round Table of City Superintendents : The Most Effective Use of the Superintendent's Time — Blodgett - 90 Discussion — Brown, Foos, Keating 93 Public Opinion and Good Schools — Stableton 94 Discussion — Ogg, Chalmers, Hotchkiss 99 Modern Elementary School Buildings — Carroll - - - - loi Discussion — Griffith 105 The Full Utilization of a Public-School Plant —^'/iV?/ - - - - 107 Seven- Year Course for Ward-School Pupils — (7rI()N 'a:)le meetings as follows : ,) COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 1 V, M. by the leader, Mrs. Helen L. Grenfell, . I )enver, Colo. . in W hat Form Should the Manual-Training Idea .' ' was presented by William O. Thompson, presi- . .iius, O. In the absence of State Superintendent a J. liaxter, of New Jersey; Supervisor George H. Martin, ^ }'erintendent Deios Fall, of Michigan, participated. i dLscussion announced on the program were used as sugges- . .il meeting which followed. ' ' OK STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS AND CITY TRAINING SCHOOLS , /. a> called to order at 2 P. M. In the absence of the leader, Homer H. 1 .li>, la., President Livingston C. Lord of the State Normal School at .. ;»resided. li. Bender, supervisor of the advanced training department. State Normal .ir Falls, la., read a paper on the "Organization and Function of Training ....Jilts in State Normal Schools." A general discussion followed, after which the . . 1 ersons whose names were first on the ticket. To my mind this is sufficient to condemn this mode of election. I am acquainted with no method of electing school boards superior to the Indiana plan. This plan, of course, is not perfect, but it has stood the test of time and is regarded as one of the best parts of the educational system of the state. The law provides that the school board of each city, other than Indianapolis, shall consist of three members, elected by the common council. Each member represents the entire city, and is elected for three years. The law further provides that one member shall be elected each year ; so, unless there is a death or resignation, there are always two experienced members. The board has the absolute power to levy taxes, not to exceed a certain per cent., and has great freedom in expenditures for school purposes. Each member must give heavy bond, and no money can be expended without the consent of a majority of the board and the knowl- edge of all. An itemized report of all receipts, expenditures, and debts must be made to the county auditors annually, which report is open to public inspection. While it is pos- sible for the boards to be dominated by politics, and the individual members to be influ- enced by unworthy motives, yet, so far as I am aware, there are fewer scandals, less jobbery and corruption, and more efficiency than in boards appointed or elected in any other way. I do not claim that the Indiana system is perfect ; yet it has much to com- mend it. But neither thjs nor any other method of election or appointment will always insure the election of honest, capable men. If councils wish to elect competent members of school boards, they usually have no difficulty in finding them. The same is true if the people elect or the mayor appoints. So, in the last analysis, we find that public sentiment is the dominant factor in choosing good or bad members of school boards. If the most influential classes in a city really want good members of school boards, they will find some way to get them. If they are indifferent or do not want such members, bad boards will be the rule. In molding public sentiment, many factors are to be considered. The public press is important. The pulpit is also a factor. Leading business and professional men exert a powerful influence. The acts of the different members of the board itself are very important. Not only may a system of schools, but the sentiment of an entire community, be changed by the aggressive acts of one honest, fearless school-board member — a man who is broad enough and big enough to perform his whole duty toward the schools. And finally, the efficiency of the superintendent and teachers is most powerful in molding public sentiment. Let the people once have a concrete example of good schools — schools economically administered and free from politics and favoritism of every kind ; schools in which superintendent, teachers, and janitors are really efficient — and public sentiment will as a rule demand good school boards. 28 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati Superintendent W. W. Chalmers, Toledo, O. — I have the pleasure of repre- senting a city organized on the general plan described by President Jones. I want to differ with the last speaker in his statement that good members of school boards are more often secured by election by city councils or appointments by the mayor. Our city is organized on the general plan of just five members, each selected for five years by the city at large, and was so organized before Indianapolis adopted the plan. One of the best men on our board of education today could not have had the position with the approval of the city machine representing both the political parties. He could not have been elected by the city council, nor would he have been appointed by the mayor ; yet, when nominated by petition, he received more votes than all of the other three candidates com- bined. I believe you can always trust the people to select good school-board members, if you keep them informed what the schools are doing. I believe you can keep politics out of the schools better by nomination by petition than by election by the city council, appointment by the mayor, or election by wards. I have had many years of experience with the old plan, and now I have had five years' experience in a city organized upon the plan outlined in Mr. Jones' paper, except that the business manager is elected by the board of education instead of being elected by the people. This plan has been tried long enough to be thoroly tested, and in practical operation it has ^iven to Toledo a school board whose personnel cannot be excelled by any school board in the country. Superintendent C. G. Pearse, Omaha, Neb. — We have had, I think, a little broad- ening of the topic set down in the paper. We have touched upon what sort of men to put on school boards, what they should do when elected, and what sort of superintendents they should choose. I listened with much interest to what President Jones and Superintend- ent Chalmers said, but I do not think I can quite agree to all the superintendent said about how to get good members on the board. His remarks might imply that superin- tendents sometimes have something to do with these selections, and we all know, of course, that superintendents never mix in anything of that sort. We must remember that this is a representative government — a government by all the people, not by those we think are the best people; and we cannot always have members all of the kind who move in the highest circles of society. We find that legislatures always represent all classes — good, bad, and indifferent; and school boards are likely to be the same. I am not sure but that the residents of "Hell's Half Acre" are sometimes entitled to repre- sentation. All citizens should be directly interested in the schools, and one of the best ways to have them interested is for them to have some voice in the selection of the men who manage the schools. The educative influence in the community of a general elec- tion of school-board members, in which general school policies are discussed, is good. Elected boards are more independent. Public bodies usually heed their masters. If the school board is selected by the mayor, that board bows to him; if selected by the city council, the board bows to the council; if the board is elected by the people, no one man or twenty men can command the board's obedience. The elected member can say: "I serve the people." Another important matter is the levy of taxes — the determination of how much money shall be raised in taxes to carry on the schools. The people are unwilling to give the power to fix taxes to any body whose members are not elected by the people, direct. I fear my friend from Indiana will find, if members of boards are not elected by direct vote of the people, that the next step proposed will be to take away from this appointed board the power to fix the amount needed for school purposes and place that power in the hands of some other elected body. This seldom fails to result disastrously for the schools. President Jones says after the superintendent is elected let him appoint, pro- mote, and dismiss teachers. That sounds well, and is an easy way to fix it, but I hardly think it is a wholesome power for a superintendent to have, absolutely. Sometimes we make mistakes: it is an advantage for us to have some counsel in these things. You as Superintendence] METHODS OF ELECTING SCHOOL BOARDS 29 superintendents do not want your boards to appoint or reward with promotion teachers whom you feel you ought not to recommend; you can very well afford to refrain from appointing those your board is unwilling to approve. Why not let this power remain joint — you to nominate, they to approve? Even the president of the United States does not have absolute power of appointment. A serious menace to good school administration is the bi-headed system proposed this morning — the schools administered by two men, one a business manager, one a superintendent of instruction. With such an arrangement the two parts of the organiza- tion will soon be found, in most cases, to be working at cross-purposes — pulling apart like two unwilling oxen under the same yoke. The school is first of all a business organi- zation ; the man who controls the business side is master ; he should have charge also of the instruction; he should be the superintendent of schools — all departments of the schools ; not a business manager merely or a superintendent of instruction merely. If your business manager should be, by chance, a wise and sympathetic man, he might be in fact a superintendent of schools, and encourage and assist the department of instruc- tion to do its work well. But if he proves like most, he will be anxious chiefly to man- age the schools economically; the superintendent anxious to make them as good as possible. To do the best, School systems, like other business organizations, must have a single responsible executive head. The board will be back of him, and he will manage the schools subject to their general direction and approval. To him will report the heads of the various departments in all lines of the school administration. He will be in reality the superintendent of schools. Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo. — I think it will be of interest to glance at a school system which dififers from the types mentioned, both as to the num- ber of members of the board and the manner of election. So far as I know, it cannot be said of any other plan that it has been in operation for five years without any friction to hinder its success. The typical features are in brief : Number of members, twelve, elected on a general ticket. Election of a board on a ticket at large takes the schools out of ward politics. Ward elections frequently result in giving representation, not so much to the good citi- zens of each locality, but to the ward politician. A board elected at large represents the whole city, and is not likely to allow the impression to obtain that the parts of the city in which they happen to reside get more attention. In my city, if there is any discrimination at all, we give more attention to those parts of the city happening to have no local repre- sentatives on the board. In administrative matters, it is the plan to have as many departments as there are distinct functions. One officer has charge of the administration of the schools them- selves, instruction, teachers, etc. ; another, of buildings, including janitors ; another, of finances ; another officer has charge of school supplies. If there is anything wrong, say in the janitor service, the responsibility does not lie with the board, in the first place, but with one man who has charge of the appointment and dismissing of janitors. If there is anything wrong with the instruction, if there are incompetent teachers, the responsibility lies with the superintendent, who has power to correct the evil. The prin- ciple underlying this plan of having independent heads of departments is that of local- izing and fixing responsibility. The law gives the superintendent power to nominate, not to appoint, teachers; he has not the power to adopt text-books, but he takes the initiative in recommending them ; the same is true in the matter of school furniture. The fears of my friend from Omaha are not realized. There is no tendency to make one department domineer over the rest. I believe, judging from an experience of five years, that this type deserves equal consideration with other plans described. 30 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati THE FREEDOM OF THE TEACHER CHARLES B. GILBERT, ROCHESTER, N. Y. In the organization of great school systems, which is the passion of the hour, there is danger that the teacher shall become the submerged fraction. We superintendents need a baptism of the spirit of true education. It is said, justly or unjustly, that this age is materialistic. Certain it is that we are in danger of having our minds forced to dwell too continuously upon the material side of life. We schoolmen are no exception. There is grave danger .that in the organization of systems, with the intrusive demands of the architect, the doctor of medicine, and the statistician, we shall, like Martha, forget the higher things. Dr. Arnold Tompkins, whose fine definition, "The school is a spiritual union between teacher and pupils," is classic, has also said that ** the school in its last analysis consists of the self-educating pupil." I cannot but think that Dr. Tompkins, usually so astute and exact, has here slipped. The self-educating pupil is not a school at all ; he is simply a self-educating pupil. An aggregation of self-educating pupils does not constitute a school any more than do any other aggregations of people. The one characteristic which distinguishes the school from other collections of people is the presence of the teacher. In more senses than the popular one it is the teacher who makes the school. The world is full of people who are educating themselves, consciously or unconsciously ; who are utilizing all the great agents and forces of life as means of spiritual growth; but only in a figurative sense is the world itself a school. The figure consists in the personification of these various agents and forces, and even of life itself, and treating them as teachers. There is no school without a living teacher entering to some degree into the lives of the pupils, forming some sort of spiritual union with them. It is as true in a practical sense as in a philosophical that the teacher is the school. Every school administrator knows that his one serious business is to secure good teachers. Courses of study are important, and a good school is more easily secured with a good course of study than with a poor one. Proper organization is important; good schoolhouses are important ; good text-books are important — and all the appliances which may be used to further education ; but none of these alone, nor all of them together, constitute a school, nor can they make a good school ; but the good teacher can make a good school, if any or all of these con- comitants, these aids, are lacking. Hence it becomes the chief duty of the executive authorities of school systems everywhere, first of all, to secure the best possible teachers, and then to remove, in so far Superintendence] THE FREEDOM OF THE TEACHER 3 1 as possible, all obstructions from their paths, to give them free scope, and to aid them in their work in every conceivable way. All the machinery of great school systems — local, state, and national — has for its aim, properly, this one thing : to make it easier for the teacher to teach well. In the small private school, and in the rural school especially, the teacher is all in all. The teacher makes the school ; he is expected to make the school. If the school " is good, it is to his credit ; if bad, it is his fault. This is not merely theoretically, but practically, true. The best type of school, depending wholly upon the teacher, is the rural school. Here the interference with his work is very slight indeed ; he is compelled to employ his own initiative, make his own plans, organize his institution, and execute his plans. Young teachers, coming from training institutions, are frequently urged to teach a rural school for a while in order to develop the power of initiative, of independent action, thru their necessary exercise in the professional solitude of the country schoolhouse ; and it is good advice. Many of the strongest and best teachers and educational leaders that the country has ever known have received their first impulse, their ver- satility and breadth of view, and their ability to meet new difficulties, which have made them great, in the small, unpainted schoolhouse in the remote country district where they began their discouraging work. Here they were required to study their pupils and give them work suitable for them, to devise their own methods, to meet emergencies — often serious — quickly and firmly. In the country school that is good for anything the teacher is "it." Alas, that in any system of schools he should ever ceasq to be "it" I But there is, unfortunately, in the devel- opment of large institutions a tendency to subordinate the individual and to destroy individuality. This is particularly true in great school systems. The tendency seems almost inevitable. The demands of the organiza- tion itself are so great, it requires so much executive power to keep the machine running, that the machine itself attracts undue attention and we are in danger of forgetting that the business of the school is to teach individual children. This worship of machines is the most debasing kind of fetish-worship ; it destroys the power to judge of values, and, like all worship of inferior gods, it subordinates the higher ends to the lower. Frequently, in our great city systems, teachers are judged by their ability to run along smoothly in a well-oiled machine rather than by their power of inspiration, their ability to uplift, encourage, strengthen, and really teach children. I have known teachers full of love of youth, possessed of extraordinary inspirational power and ability to make childMn think, work, and learn, driven from the school system because they did not readily untie red tape. We too often forget that the school system is useful only in so far as it makes it easier for the teacher to teach ; 32 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati that every unnecessary burden, every extraneous demand upon the teacher's energies, everything which distracts his mind or takes his time away from the one purpose of his work — that of teaching the children — is a positive injury. When the machine grinds out the power of initiative from the teacher and makes him a mere tool, granted the privilege of imparting a little carefully prepared desiccated information, and freezes his soul out of the work, then it is time to smash the machine; and there are countless machines all over this land that need to be smashed. There is a constant tendency to organize school systems like factories, with a boss, sub-bosses, and hands. I repeat: The only function of the school system is to help the teacher to teach ; not to do it for him, but to remove every unnecessary obstacle and to provide every possible aid, in order that he may exercise to the full his highest powers for the sole purpose of helping children. Perhaps the worst form of machine domination is that which places undue stress upon statistics and makes of the teacher a mere compiler of figures. Great marking schemes have been devised by school boards, school superintendents, and the devil to prevent teachers from teaching with their whole souls — schemes for marking children upon all con- ceivable points, which require brain-racking study, burning of the midnight oil, and, it must be confessed, even imagination, to an awful extent. As such systems lead children to study for marks^ to behave for marks, to cheat and lie for marks, as well as to be hateful and narrowly exacting, so they lead teachers to teach for marks, control for marks, to put the whole stress of their work upon the getting of marks; and they, too, some- times are led to cheat for marks and to lie for marks. The evil of this thing is easy to see. Any method of organization or of work which distracts the attention from the real end and forces it upon a secondary end is immoral. Many great evils in life result from pla- cing undue stress upon secondary ends; upon the accumulation of wealth instead of upon the proper expenditure of wealth; upon acquiring power instead of upon the proper use of power; upon getting rather than giving. To force teachers continually to drill along narrow lines in order that marks may be secured is to take away their spiritual freedom and to degrade them. The teacher who is forever harassed lest her pupils shall not pass naturally is unable to give her whole attention to the needs of the children and to supplying them. The rural school-teacher, if of the right sort, studies John and William and Susan, and decides that for John's good he should do this ; William, for his good, should do that ; and Susan, for her good, should do that ; but the machine-made, machine-driven teacher, in a system hav- ing no such freedom of action, treats John and William and Susan all alike (they must all take the same brimstone and treacle because it is Superintendence] THE FREEDOM OF THE TEACHER 33 good for somebody), and is not allowed to exercise his own natural judg- ment and his natural interest in their spiritual well-being. This is not only bad for the children, but it is, if possible, worse for the teacher. The children may recover, because their school days fortunately end sometime; the teacher's fate becomes fixed, as his school days never end. Another evil which is finding its way into our larger cities is the for- mal and frequent marking of the teachers themselves after a brief and valueless visitation. A superintendent and a body of supervisors or a body of superintendents are employed, not to instruct, inspire, and help the teachers, but to mark them. I know of cities in which supervisors go about from schoolroom to schoolroom, notebook and pencil in hand, sitting for a while in each room like malignant sphinxes, eying the terri- fied teacher, who in her terror does everything wrong, and then marking her in that little doomsday book. I have known many teachers fairly to shrivel when the supervisor with his instrument of torture enters, and, besides doing their very worst during his presence, to be thoroly unfit for work during the remainder of the day, and to be sick for days after- ward. Who will venture to say that such a system of torture, depriving children of the teachers' best work for at least a time and breaking the teachers' hearts for all time, is justifiable? Such supervisor's paths, like those of reckless automobilists, are strewn with the dead bodies of hopes and ambitions and nerves. The reasons given are that some teachers will do wrong, and hence a system of espionage and terrorism is extended, like the clouds of heaven, over all alike. This, of course, instead of correcting the evil, extends it and creates new ones undreamed of before. The most precious possession of a school system, rightly viewed, is the teacher's devotion to his work. Any plan of organization, any method of administration or supervision, which lessens that, which diverts the teacher's energy into any foreign channel, is an evil. The teacher in the schoolroom should always feel that his first duty, and almost the sum of his duties, is to ascertain and to meet the needs of the individual children under his care. In the machine system the tendency is always to center the thought of the teacher upon, not the children, but the higher authorities, so that, instead of feeling respon- sible to them and being anxious to serve them, he becomes over-anxious to " stand in with " the administration, and to sacrifice his own obliga- tion to the higher law, to the demands of his superior officers for uni- formity. This shifting of conscience is not only encouraged, but is almost necessitated, by some prevalent systems of administration. When a teacher ceases to feel that he is there primarily and wholly to serve the children, and begins to feel that he is there to serve somebody else — school superintendent, school boards local politician — he ceases then and there to be as good a teacher as he might be. 34 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati In the office of every superintendent and in the notebook of every supervisor should be written: The teacher is the school; and the daily inquiry of every such officer should be: How can I stimulate in all the teachers under my supervision love for their work, self-respect, a feeling of independence, and an ambition to do better teaching than ever before or than anybody else ? " I recall one superintendent whose favorite phrase was: " I will put the screws on." This phrase might have suggested the thought he was a carpenter; but he was not; he was an inquisitor. The school system is but an aggregation of schools, that is, of classes of children with their teachers so organized as to raise to the maximum the efficiency of each teacher; that, at least,- is the theory. The great essential to real efficiency is freedom. I do not mean by " freedom " license, or even liberty, to do as one pleases, but the ability and the pos- sibility to direct one's energies with intelligence and purpose to the highest results possible for him. Such freedom is primarily internal rather than external, and for the teacher it begins far back of the organi- zation, far back even of the act of teaching. The first steps in freedom must be taken by the individual. The teacher must be free from igno- rance, from prejudice, from undue pride, from the debasing pressure of false ambition, from unwillingness to learn or be guided; that is, the teacher must have a free soul in the Pauline sense. This internal free- dom must be achieved by the teacher alone. It is the result of study; of hard work; of moral struggles and victories; and it results in broad intelligence and enlarged intellect and strengthened will. Now, sup- pose such a teacher has been selected to a position in a school system; this internal freedom must be preserved, but added to it must be a certain amount of external freedom — freedom to exercise native and acquired powers without undue restraint or perversion. There is a higher freedom than that of the individual in solitude. It is the freedom that comes from association and co-operation. The evolution of freedom in all society necessarily goes thru three stages. The first is the state of isolation, which appears to be freedom, but which is not. It is a mere pseudo-freedom. The individual alone finds himself the slave of innumerable vast forces, which, except in rare cases, overwhelm him. The first stage of real freedom comes with co-op- eration; two are stronger than one; many are stronger than two; and, when properly combined, each contributing all his strength to the com- mon good and all sharing the common good, true freedom is obtained. But in the evolution of society there is an intermediate stage. With the beginning of combination comes also tyranny. An individual or a few individuals make use of the enlarged strength of the many in combina- tion for their own good, and so each, while more free than in the state of isolation, finds himself dominated by forces outside of himself, and Superintendence] THE FREEDOM OF THE TEACHER 35 so deprived of a part of his freedom. The final stage comes from the overthrow of all unnecessary external domination, the reassertion of individual initiative, and the free combination of free souls for common ends. An individual who has become an intelligent and conscious member of society, contributing of his best freely to the common good, is free to draw upon the community for a vast increment of power. He is enor- mously magnified, is a very much larger being than the same individual in solitude. The society becomes his larger self thru which he can do greater things than when alone ; by its protection and help he has become free from innumerable trammels and hindrances with which he was unable to cope alone. A true society is a great instrument of freedom thru which each one is able to render vastly greater service than when alone. It ought to be possible in a school system for each teacher to do vastly better work than a rural teacher can do, because, while contributing his part to the general stock of knowledge and skill and inspiration, he can draw without limit upon that accumulated stock himself. Each teacher can learn from the other teachers ; for wisdom is communicable. If the heads of the system are wise and possessed of inspirational force, he can add to his power from their wisdom and inspiration. A system properly conducted substitutes co-operation and common interests for isolation and individual interests. The urban teacher ought to be a very much larger and wiser and better teacher than the rural teacher. In some instances this is the case. Our greatest teachers are not country-school teachers, but city-school teachers, because it is possible in an urban system to become greater ; there are more aids, more stimuli, more nutriment avail- able. But the teacher may avail himself of these only when the method and plans of organization and supervision make it possible ; when the school board and the school superintendent and supervisors consider it their part primarily to contribute the largest share of inspiration and wis- dom to the common stock, and secondarily to act as distributors of this common stock to the teaching forces. And it is a sad sight to see such enormous possibilities for good sacrificed by the pettifogging, red-tape methods prevalent in so many of our systems ; to see machines exalted above the free-souled teacher. How may the school system reinforce the teacher and conserve his free- dom? Possibly I should first answer the negative question : How may a system be so conducted as not to interfere with the work of the teacher? My answer to the question is, first : By reducing the machinery to the minimum consistent with a reasonable degree of unity, eliminating all unnecessary red tape, and all demands upon the teacher, in addition to his work of teaching, that it is possible to get along without. A certain amount of detail is, of course, necessary; records must be kept and some statistics must be gathered, for statistics do not always lie 36 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati and sometimes are even useful. Information regarding the attendance of children and conditions prevailing in and about the schools, which throw light upon the educational problem, is important, and must be secured thru the teachers, if at all. But there are many kinds of information secured thru the compiling of figures which are of no value to anyone, or at least of not sufficient value to justify the sacrifice of time and effort required to secure them. The passion for statistics which dominates some school superintend- ents is a dangerous one and easily runs into statistical dissipation and that dread disease, statisticitis. My second answer to the negative question is : Avoid every device of method or organization which tends to lessen the teacher's individuality and sense of personal responsibility to the children. But there is a positive side to this question. A school system, properly organized and conducted, can directly and positively help the teaching and aid in conserving the teacher's freedom. In the first place, it can, by a proper process of selection, secure and retain the best teachers ; and this does not require formal, arbitrary, and elaborate systems of marking, but merely the exercise of ordinary good judgment and the maintenance of a rigid backbone. Of course, in very large systems some plan of marking teachers is necessary for the protection both of the teachers and of the supervising force ; that is, there should be put down in black and white from time to time some record of the teacher's qualifications, and of the efforts that have been made for his improvement ; but such a record should be exceed- ingly simple and unostentatious, and the marking should be done by those who know the teacher's work thoroly, not by the supervisor, whose visits are infrequent, and whose markings would be under circumstances unfair to the teacher. The markings of the visiting supervisor are of very little value, and the making of them renders it impossible for the supervisor himself to fulfill his true function ; that is, to help, stimulate, and inspire the teachers ; and he becomes a dreaded visitor. I have seen such super- visors, and it always impresses me that they have fallen from their high estate. No supervisor can do really good work as such if his visits are dreaded by the average teachers. Until his aim and purpose to be a helpful friend and nothing more become so fixed in the mind of the teacher that his visit is welcome, he canaot do his best work. Most of the formal systems of marking teachers are cowardly; they are simply devices to make possible the shirking of responsibility. Given a reasonably good process of selection, helped by proper civil -service rules, we shall have a reasonably good corps of teachers in any system. Now, how can the system make this reasonably good corps better, keep the teachers up to the highest standards possible, and secure from them their best work? First, by making them feel that they are persons Superintendence] THK FREEDOM OF THE TEACHER 37 of consequence, whose judgments are worth considering, and who may justly be supposed to possess reasonably tender consciences, some profes- sional ambition, and at least a fair degree of devotion to their work. I hold that the first duty of school superintendents and other officials is to lead the teachers to respect themselves, to feel that they are trusted, and to impress upon them that the school officers, taking it for granted that they want to do their best, are anxious to help them. The supervising powers can help the teachers by supplying them with a good course of study. A proper course of study properly administered does not diminish the freedom of the teacher, but increases it ; but that this may be true the course must be broad, suggestive, and stimulating. It should make it necessary for the teacher to study for self-improvement in order to teach successfully. It should aim, not at uniformity, but at unity. It should require teachers to arrive at certain results in their own way, and these results should be the growth of the children rather than the accumulation of a few meager and prescribed facts. Too many courses of study aim at uniformity of method and uniformity of output. Uniformity of method kills teachers. Uniformity of output, if possible — which, thank the Lord I it is not — would produce corpses of children. The course of study should be based upon sound philosophy, and should encourage the teachers to master this philosophy. In its adminis- tration the supervising force should definitely instruct the teachers in the principles involved, and should inform them as to the best methods for achieving the desired results, which is a very different thing from forcing these methods upon them. Such treatment would tend to make teachers free in the true sense; that is, to produce inner freedom — freedom of spirit from ignorance, prejudice, and low ideals. In administering schools, and especially in instructing teachers as to the course of study, there are several possible means. The most common are the teacher's meeting, schoolroom visitation, and the private confer- ence. The former is the most widely used, and perhaps the most badly used. Meetings for the instruction of teachers should have a definite purpose — should bring together teachers who are doing similar work, and should be held when the minds of the teachers are fresh and unwearied. Grade meetings are the best, but these meetings should be held during the school hours, and should be a part of the teacher's regular work. The after-school meetings to which the teachers come fagged, forcing themselves to keep awake and listen, are better than nothing, but they are not the best. The ordinary teachers' institute, as conducted in most of our states, with its heterogeneous program, its large element of entertainment, its professional conductor with his stock of professional jokes, its hit-or-miss efforts to meet the teacher's needs, is almost a travesty. After many years of experimenting I have found the most effective 38 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION rcincinnati • plan for treating teacher's meetings to be this : All the schools of a certain grade are dismissed for a day, and the teachers are assembled in a central place for definite instruction in the work of their particular grade. By having one such grade institute a week during the greater part of the year, it is possible to have four or five days given to each grade ; and they are days of hard work, in which the needs of the teachers are definitely and exactly met. But, whatever the plan, such meetings should be held and should be devoted to specific instruction, for the most part, as to the course of study. Schoolroom visitation is another very good means of helping or hindering teachers. There is not time to discuss it in detail. I have referred to it somewhat in another place. Suffice it to say that such visitation should be for the sake of becoming acquainted with the teacher and his work, and helping him by suggestions and by giving model lessons. It should not be for the sake of marking him. Naturally the most helpful feature of the school organization to this end is some degree of personal acquaintance between the officials and the teachers. While this is easier to secure in a small system than in a large one, it is entirely possible in even the biggest system. Very large sys- tems should be so organized as to distribute the supervising forces in such a way that some officers of consequence may come in contact with every teacher. Condensing the entire supervising force into a great board, who sit in common sessions and legislate and adjudicate, is a waste of energy, even in the largest systems. Supervising officials should be scattered where at least some of them may come in personal contact with the teachers, and know their ambitions and aims and their merits as well as their faults and weaknesses, and may give the sort of inspiration and strength which is given only in personal contact. Any system that is so organized as to fail to secure this personal contact between the teachers of the class-room and the officials who are to direct them and pass upon them in so far fails to do its duty; and this applies equally to systems large and small. The personal, sympathetic inter- course of those who know more with those who know less, of the stronger directing minds with the directed minds who need help, is the sine qua non of good school administration. This secured, it is possible to take cognizance of the ideas which the teachers themselves have. The assumption, even tho it be tacit, that the superintendent or the body of supervisors and the principals know it all, is most pleasant to those officials, but it is an assumption contrary to fact. In nine cases out of ten the good teachers know more about what ought to be done with the children than all the supervisors together. I am sure that if we omniscient superintendents were to confess, we should admit that the best things that we know in regard to teaching we have learned from good teachers in the class-rooms ; and one reason that some superintendents Superintendence] THE FREEDOM OF THE TEACHER 39 » holding high positions have not manifested any evidence of growth for years is that they have ceased to think that the opinions of the teachers are worth anything, and have ceased to consult them. There is much wisdom allowed to go to waste because supervising officials are too proud to use it. I do not mean that the school officers should not, in the common phrase, "run their schools; " of course they should; but they should do it very modestly, remembering that the sum of the wisdom possessed by all the teachers is doubtless greater than that contained even in their enlarged craniums. A very fine teacher said to me recently, rather sadly, that she was not altogether happy in her school. On close inquiry I drew from her the information that the trouble was that she found no sympathy in the principal. She was ambitious and capable ; she wanted to do something rather more than the ordinary; her heart was in her work; but she felt that her principars heart was not there, but was rather in the machinery of the school. He would visit her occasionally, was never unkind, and she had, after repeated efforts, secured a half-hour in which they might sit down together and talk over her ambitions and her schemes for work ; and the result was a chill and a disheartenment which, unless the inner fire burned very strongly, would in the end impair her efficiency. He wanted good work in his school and expected his teachers to teach well, but he was so concerned with the mechanical side of administration that he could not get into the heart of any of his schoolrooms. The teacher had the freedom of isolation, not that of society. The supervising officer is a distributing agent, receiving what teachers can give and giving what is received to those who need it ; and he must not, if he would be worthy of his office, let any amount of detail work, any consideration for the mechanical part of the administration, stand in the way of this perscoial co-operative work with the individual teachers. For let us remember that the school is a society in which all share the good or ill ; and this is as true of the teachers as it is of the children. Recall that individual freedom is often impaired by the excessive demands of the social whole and the obliterating of the individual, but that true freedom is to be secured, not by a return to isolation, which is in reality extreme bondage, but rather by a proper use of society. The individual teacher should be strengthened, not weakened, by belonging to a system. The strength and the wisdom of the whole are greater than that of the individual, but only when each individual is encouraged to exercise his own strength and also to share with others. So that, for teachers as for children, a school system should be a co-operative society, having for its motto "Each for all and all for each;" and the administra- tive forces fulfill their function when they so distribute the common good that each individual has all of his own and all that he can receive from the others. And this is social freedom. 40 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati DISCUSSION Superintendent James H. Van Sickle. Baltimore, Md. — In spite of some contradictory statements and some others that seem extreme, I am in sympathy with the general trend of Mr. Gilbert's paper. It emphasizes the supreme importance of the teacher, and reduces to a secondary position machinery and organization. It recognizes freedom as an inward growth, something not conferred upon the teacher, but arrived at thru the efforts of the teacher himself. Any domination that deprives the teacher of responsibility and initiative results in injury to the school system, because it deprives the schools of the thought o( many and limits them to the thought of one. A superin- tendent or principal who minutely prescribes what shall be done and how it shall be done defeats the very purpose he has in view. Such prescription tends to make automatons of teachers, instead of alert contributors to the enterprise in hand. The worst possible thing that can be done for a school system is to release the teacher from the responsibility for originating something. But, after all, the freedom of the child is at stake. He, too , must assume responsi- bility as a condition of liberty. Despotism at the top produces servility all the way down, and it is the child who is chiefly oppressed. The educational principles which are to guide must be definitely set forth, and there must be enough of organization and direc- tion to secure unity and harmony of effort ; but, in matters of device and detail, diversity is to be encouraged. A traveling companion said yesterday: "Any device is good which shuts the mouth of the teacher and opens the mouth of the pupil." Carry this idea back to apply to the relations between superintendent and teacher, and it means that the superintendent should provide favorable conditions for work, see that underlying educational principles are understood, and then insist that the teacher do his own think- ing. The teacher who develops under such a system will, in turn, have the pupils do their own thinking. It is only in this way that the growth can take place which results in freedom. The paper is constructive as well as destructive. Definite ways of improving the work of teachers are pointed out. The grade-meeting plan is especially worthy of consideration. By the plan suggested the superintendent can come into personal relations with the teachers and explain his views in a more effective way than by means of printer's ink. In the large cities the problem of meeting the teachers so that they may know the superintendent's views at first hand is not an easy one. His opinions upon vital questions are too often filtered thru several officials before they reach the schoolroom, and, when they finally reach the teacher, they exhibit a progressive departure from his exact meaning. The larger the school system, the greater the ten- dency to subordinate the individual to the organization. There should be but one set of middlemen. The principal is the key to the situation. He it is who is in daily com- munication with the teachers. The superintendent must have the co-operation of the principal, or he will plan in vain. The machine principal will make a machine school. Mr. Gilbert says: "Smash the machine." In this he does not seem to me consistent, as in another part of his paper he develops very carefully the value of the machinery of school organization. A better remedy is to reform the machine principal. Wherever you find a liberal-minded principal, (me who has himself arrived at freedom, you will find free teachers and self-reliant children. Therefore it is absolutely necessary for the superintendent to secure the harmonious co-operation of the principals. By prin- cipals' meetings and by private conference this must be brought about, not by written orders. The course of study may be broad and liberal, the rules may allow the teacher large discretion, yet the purpose of both be nullified by a principal who insists upon tradition. If I did not know a few cases like the following, I should think Mr. Gilbert had been guilty of exaggeration: A teacher of my acquaintance, fully capable of taking charge of the work of her Superiarendence] THE FREEDOM OF THE TEACHER 4 1 room so that no supervising officer need worry about the results, reports this experience upon being assigned to a building controlled by a principal of this petrified type: I was given notebooks of other teachers showinsf exactly how each part of each subject was taught, and was obliged to copy these and follow them in every detail. Every Friday before leaving we were all obliged to make out a plan for the week, stating what we should teach each period of every day — every word in spelling, every problem in arithmetic, and every sentence in language study. At the end of the month we were to make out ** progress books," showing what had actually been taught. A composition was required of each pupil each week. I worked to get thoughts and felt that I had sue- ceeded in a measure. As I had to deal with a fourth -grade class, I found it difficult to get free expression of thought and a perfect chirography. These compositions were rejected, and short, stilted ones of ten lines or so, beautifully written, were accepted. The discipline was as rigid and unsympathetic as the instruction, and the monitor system was in full force. A grade was to move as a unit, and individual work of all kinds was discouraged. All written work, compositions, dictations, and the like, drawings, etc., were bound in sets, duly inscribed with lots of red-ink linings and interlinings, and put on file. The ** plan book," ** progress book," *' notebooks," and the filing away of all the writing and drawing took a large part of my time, so that I got in a very little real teaching. I found that the only course open to me was to follow directions implicitly. The teachers would not change their methods unless compelled. They follow their notebooks year after year, merely adding the new things that the changes in the course demand. We have here in some detail a view of the narrowing process as actually carried on in some schools. The last sentence but one exhibits the logical result : " The teachers would not change their methods unless compelled." Monotonous routine inevitably ends in intellectual and pedagogical death. A superintendent who permits it is blind and culpable. One who prescribes it should be retired from the profession. His proper sphere is a factory. In the instance cited, the trouble, if one may judge by reading the course of study and the rules, lay with the principal of the school, not with the school system — "the machine." Thus may the spirit of fairly liberal courses and printed direc- tions be destroyed by a stickler for form for form's sake. If the superintendent happens also to be a mere executive, the system is doomed till the time arrives when the " cake of custom," as Walter Bagehot calls it, is broken by a vigorous and thorogoing reform. I place a higher value upon the supervisors' estimates of the efficiency of teachers than Mr. Gilbert does. He speaks of their *' brief and valueless " visits. I cannot con- ceive it possible that a supervisor can come away from a schoolroom without a pretty definite opinion of the spirit of the work and its educational value. The impression will be in some respects all the more reliable because the primary purpose of the visit is not to inspect, but to help. Mr. Gilbert evidently thinks the principal alone should mark the teacher. I should want to get ail the side lights possible upon the work of a teacher, so as to avoid the one-sided estimate which such a principal as the one above referred to -would be sure to give. Mr. Gilbert rightly places a high estimate upon the use of talented teachers in exemplifying ideals ; in giving concrete examples of the correct application of approved educational principles as models for imitation. Ideas introduced unobtrusively in this way spread with remarkable rapidity. We can accomplish little by compulsion, much by suggestion. The following from the late Rev. Maltbie D. Babcock applies as iruly to school problems as to other problems involving human nature : Suggestion is generally better than Definition. There is a seeming dogmatism about Definition that is often repellent, while Suggestion, on the contrary, disarms suspicion and summons to co-operation and experiment. Definition provokes discussion; Suggestion provokes to love and good works. Defining is limiting ; Suggestion is enlarging. Defining calls a halt ; Suggestion calls for an advance. Defining involves the peril of contentment : " I am here, I rest." ** Thus far," says Definition, and draws a map ; " West- ward," cries Suggestion, and builds a boat. I must take exception to one thing more that is implied thruout the paper rather than said, namely, that there is never any restriction to be placed upon a teacher. School officials are generally anxious to give just as much freedom as can be borne by the teacher; freedom involves responsibility; the ability to exercise this responsibility comes thru a more or less prolonged experience under guidance and suggestion when a 42 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati teacher has become, thru self-reliant and self-active experience, thoroly efficient, it is readily recognized by all thinking people that the interests of the children are safest when the teacher is least restricted. Such a teacher may always be his own schedule maker, may set his own time limits, may decide for himself which subjects need most emphasis at a given time. For such a teacher there are no requirements except those which his Insight, his sense of duty, and his sense of the high privilege which he exer- cises as a friend and helper to the children impose upon him. It must always be remembered that beginners and inexperienced teachers need guidance, and that the superintendent who withholds guidance, or even restriction upon occasion, has a limited idea of true freedom and the pathway over which it is approached. The schools should receive the benefit of the best thought of every member of the teaching force. He is the best superintendent who knows best how to utilize the forces of those about him. The thought of alt is better than the thought of one. The fact that it is possible for the super- intendent to learn something from the humblest teacher is altogether to his credit. To be most helpful to others he must have lived long enough to know how to be helped. Superintendent and principal are chiefly useful in holding up ideals and in securing to teachers and pupils conditions favorable for effective work in the direction of those ideals. Unity of aim is essential. Variety in execution is desirable. Responsibility and initiative are essential to a child's proper development ; this is no less true of the teacher himself. When supervision f^ of a character to safeguard these essentials, freedom of the teacher ultimately depends upon the teacher himself. Superintendent John Richeson, East St. Louis, 111. — Superintendent Gilbert looks at marks from the machine side. I have felt that marks were the tools of weak teachers. I have felt that teachers need to be educated above the need of marks. I do not agree in regard to the comparison of the city and the rural teacher. I do not see what store of knowledge is laid up from which city teachers exclusively can draw. The teacher must have time to assimilate the good things. The city teacher, with the numberless things that attract her attention, does not assimilate so as to do better work for the chil- dren. I have the idea forced upon me that the teachers are not prepared as they should be. I think the supervising corps should be something like a faculty of education, and continue the growth which the teacher began in the high school or his one year in the normal school. Superintendent Gilbert confessed that he had not sufficiently differen- tiated the principal, nor, I would add, considered him ; and yet he says : " The principal is the supervising officer whose business it is first of all to be in personal contact with the teacher, and to do the various things for her help of which I have spoken and am about to speak." Then, I ask, is not the principal " it " in this matter of supervision ? In all cities having a hundred or more teachers, to ask this question is to answer it. He is the one important factor in helping the teachers. A recent writer in a prominent educational journal refers slurringly to a superinten- dent who runs a post-graduate normal school, and says : "At thirty years of age no person, competent by ability and character to teach, requires that kind of supervision which is commonly called 'helping the teacher."* I suppose the author means a very low grade of supervision by his phrase " commonly called," but heaven pity the children under a teacher who at thirty or sixty years of age does not welcome real help, who does not strive to realize that she is still growing in knowledge of subjects and children, as well as in skill to teach ! But teaching these adults, more or less fixed in habits of opinion and thought, is a complicated matter, and requires the very highest teaching skill. The supervisor who is to do this work must himself be a first-class teacher. He ought to be a man of broad and exact knowledge, and a clear thinker. He ought, if possible, to possess in himself all the native virtues which characterize the success of each teacher from the primary grade thru the high school. Hard to find ? Yes. But the number of principals needed is not great, and their work can be so valuable, or so disastrous, that there ought to be no question about getting the right man or woman for the place. Saperintendence] THE HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULUM 43 In conclusion, if we are to have teachers with the greatest freedom and the highest appreciation of their responsibilities to the children, if ^e are to have teachers constantly growing in efficiency and power to inspire, we must have principals and superintendents who are educators first and machine directors second. Next aft^r a *' teacher's devotion to her work as the most precious possession of a school's system " must come the profes- sional devotion to the supervisors. A READJUSTMENT OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULUM E. W. COY, PRINCIPAL OF THE HUGHES HIGH SCHOOL, CINCINNATI, O. The public high school seems to occupy the storm center in our edu- cational system at the present time. Placed as it is between the upper millstone of the college and the nether millstone of the elementary school, it is in a position to be subjected to a great deal of trituration. Not that there is any opposition to the high school worthy of notice; not that those who are ever ready to advocate change merely for the sake of change are clamoring for something new and strange here as well as everywhere else ; but many sober-minded and conservative educators are coming to the conclusion that there is need of modification and readjustment in our system. It is true that we are passing thru a period of educational un- rest and upheaval when what is novel and bizarre is very likely to gain favor and win the day for the time being. And it behooves us to go slow in adopting radical changes and not be too ambitious to lead the pro- cession, lest we be numbered among those of whom it is written: "Many that are first shall be last, and the last shall be first ;" yet what reason and sound judgment approve we cannot afford to reject. A rational conservatism does not decline to accept everything that is new; it simply declines to accept anything that has nothing to recommend it except that it is new. Numerous are the suggestions, some wise and some otherwise, com- ing from experts and non-experts alike, for the improvement or modifica- tion of the course of study of the high school or of the work it is doing, or for the lengthening or shortening of the curriculum. Some would cut down its course from four years to three — upon what theory I know not, unless it be the theory that the less there is of it the better. Others would prolong its course upward, taking in two years of the ordinary college course. This would be piling Ossa upon Pelion. Still others would have the high school declare its independence of the higher institu- tions and mark out a course of its own without any regard to what is to come after, teaching a little of everything and not very much of anything in particular; and this they call " fitting for life." Some would have pretty definite courses with occasional options; others would spread out the whole field of knowledge and invite the child in its innocence to come and choose such viands as it may prefer before it knows the differ- 44 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati ence between biology and theology or between physics and physic. Finally here and there may be found some fine old ichthyosaurian, come down to us from palaeozoic time, who would abolish the high school al- together as an expensive luxury. All this difference of view, this fertility of suggestion, indicates a desire for a change from present conditions. Is there any reasonable ground for such a demand ? I think there is. This demand, however, does not arise because the work of the high school is not done as well as could reasonably be expected under the cir- cumstances. There has been a change amounting almost to a revolution in secondary-school work since the report of the Committee of Ten. High schools all over the land are today furnished and equipped in a manner unheard of twenty and twenty-five years ago, and the teaching force is yearly improving. I believe that there is no better work done in any of our public or private educational institutions, high or low, than that done along many lines in our best city high schools. It is not because the training obtained in the high school is unsatis- factory. Nothing is more needed in this country today, and all days, than men and women who can see clear and think straight, and the tra- ditional high-school curriculum is well adapted to accomplish this result. Again, it is not because there are so many failures and so much drop- ping out of pupils in the high school. No four-year period in the whole school course can be found during which there are so few failures and so little dropping out as during the four-years' high-school course, altho the opposite has been iterated and re-iterated so persistently that even some good schoolmen, who ought to know better, think that it is true, and so sometimes either directly or by implication help to give currency to the falsehood. There are two reasons why the curriculum of the high school should be readjusted: (i) the amount of work demanded of the high school; (2) the necessity for an earlier change from the elementary to the second- ary school. The amount of work required of the high school in these later days can- not be satisfactorily done in the time allotted to it. This is true whether we regard the school' as a fitting school or as a finishing school. Until comparatively recent years the traditional four years afforded ample time for the boy to fit for college, but college-entrance requirements today and even twenty-five or thirty years ago are two very different matters. And while the requirements of the colleges have increased so enormously, the demands upon the high schools for those who intend to go no farther have been increasing in like manner. This is due in general to the ever- widening scope that education is assuming, as well as to the more thoro and extended pursuit of the different lines of study. Then again the specialist in each department of study, to whom we owe so much for Superintendence] THE HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUM 45 increased interest and improved methods, has not always exhibited a becoming modesty in his demands. He too often sees only his own favorite subject and is disposed to insist that it shall have the right of way, whatever else may suffer. The attempt to construct a course of study that shall include the recommendations of all these specialists is an attempt to perform an impossibility. The Committee of Ten discovered this when they undertook to combine the reports of its nine conferences into a coherent course of study. It found that there were not hours enough in the day nor days enough in the week to supply the various modest demands for time. Of course, we may abandon the idea that the high school is a connect- ing link in a system extending from the primary school to the university, related to what naay follow as well as to what has gone before, reduce the amount of work required, omitting much that every high-school graduate should have had, and thus run oil an independent basis. But this, in my judgment, would be the height of unwisdom. It would satisfy neither the colleges nor the public. Under this arrangement, those who wish to continue their studies — usually the brightest and most promising of the students — would be obliged to resort to private tutors or to private schools for their preparation. This in many cases would involve an expense that they could not bear and would prevent their carrying out their purpose. The high-school course should be of such a character that the student, when he has completed it successfully, should find an easy entrance into the higher institution, to continue there his studies along the lines that he has been pursuing. I know of but one practical remedy for this condition in the high schools, and that is to begin the high school two years earlier than we have been in the habit of doing. This would not only relieve the high school, but would also be a great advantage to the boys and girls who are going thru our schools. If it would only relieve the high school without benefiting the pupil, it would be a sorry expedient. But I feel confident that it would do both. Now, is there anything sacred about the term of four years for the high-school course, except that kind of sacredness that attaches to every- , thing long established? If it appears better to have a five or six years' course, is there any insuperable objection to a change? Is it reasonable to continue the pupil in the elementary course thru eight years until he has completed such subjects as arithmetic and English grammar, and then pass him into the secondary school to begin the elements of such subjects as algebra, a foreign language, or a science? It seems to me unreasonable, unscientific, and unpedagogical. It does not require an expert nor the son of an expert to understand that the boy or girl of twelve is better prepared to master the elements of algebra than he is to grapple with the abstruse and difficult problems of advanced arithmetic. 46 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LCincinnati and that the same boy or girl can learn the elements of half a dozen for- eign languages more easily than he can unravel the mysteries and com- plexities of the English sentence. The boy enters the German Gymnasium and Realschule at the age of nine, and continues there till he is eighteen — everybody knows with what results. The French LycSe, under the reorganization, or readjustment, that is just now going into effect takes the boy at about the same age and keeps him seven years, when he goes ouf with the baccalaureate degree, and is ready for the professional schools. Why is it that the German boy leaves the Gymnasium at eighteen having completed about two years of our ordinary college course, while the American boy goes out from the high school at eighteen scarcely prepared to enter college ? Superior teaching doubtless will account for much ; the different home training and the different habits of the foreign boy will account for much; but I believe that still more is due to the continuous, unbroken course of study in the secondary school for a long series of years. We are not urging that our people should imitate slavishly the practice and method of the German and French schools for there are some things about them that we should do well not to imitate. Besides, the difference in tempera- ment, in environment, in habits and customs, might render it very unwise to follow their example in all particulars. But still we may learn some valuable lessons from the study of their systems and of the results that they accomplish. Surely, if the German or the French boy may with profit enter the secondary school at nine, it can hardly be premature for the American boy to take the same step at twelve. Let the pupil, then, enter the high school at the end of his sixth year of school and be introduced to the elements of some of these so-called high-school subjects, instead of waiting until the end of his eighth year. Let the more difficult portions of some of these so-called elementary sub- jects be relegated to the latter part of the high-school course, where they properly belong. By that time he will have fianked many of the difficul- ties of advanced arithmetic by his knowledge of algebra, and if he has taken a foreign language, he will have learned much that will render smoother his path to a knowledge of the structure and analysis of his vernacular. In addition to this he will have acquired the maturity that is essential to the comprehension of these subjects. The method of the elementary school differs from the method of the secondary school just as the method of the secondary school differs from the method of the university. This difference in method is founded upon a difference in the state of mental development of the pupil. To use the secondary-school method in the elementary stage is to offer a stone when asked for bread ; to continue to use the elementary method in the secondary stage is to feed a boy with gruel when he is crying lustily for a substantial diet. We have continued to use the elementary method too Snperintcndence] THE HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULUM 47 far and too long, and in the upper grades of the lower schools we have been feeding gruel until there have often resulted mental ansemia, arrested development, and general intellectual flabbiness. The interest of the child demands that this transition be made earlier and less abruptly than we are now doing. If the boys and girls at the end of the sixth year of their course can be admitted to the school in which they are to complete their public-school education, a course of six years can be arranged for the high school by which they can with less friction and greater success be carried forward farther than they are under our present system. Then the change can be made from the elementary to the secondary method gradually and naturally, without jar or jolt, instead of making it in a day, as we do under our present system. Under this plan it is not proposed that every boy and girl shall be set at once to studying a foreign language, but it is proposed that, if any pupil desires to begin a foreign language, the opportunity shall be offered. It is not proposed that all pupils shall decide at the outset whether they are to prepare for a higher institution or to complete their schooling in the high school, but it is proposed that, if any pupil shall decide that he wishes to prepare for college, or to go no farther than the high school, the choice shall be open to him. It is not proposed that the pupils shall be put to work at once and exclusively upon the so-called high-school subjects, but it is proposed that they shall be gradually inducted into those subjects in a manner suited to their age and mental maturity. The placing of these subjects down in the lower schools does not meet the necessities of the case. What is needed is to take the pupil out of the elementary school and the elementary-school atmosphere and the exclusively elementary-school method, and place him in the secondary- school surroundings and under teachers versed in secondary-school work. So far as my experience and observation have extended, the result of placing these advanced subjects in the lower school has never been satis- factory. The question will at once arise : Will not this plan involve too great expense ? The subject of the expense of public education is one not to be lightly treated, and yet we must remember that no community has any more important duty to perform than that of providing for the education of its youth. Besides, that which costs the least is not always the cheap- est in the long run. This is emphatically true in education. The cheapest teachers, the cheapest buildings, and the cheapest equipment are not always the most desirable. If we can make changes in our plan of organization that will result in improvement in the education of the youth, slightly increased expense should not be allowed to stand in the way. The plan proposed would involve some additional expense, it is true, but not as much as might at 48 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati first appear. The additional expense in the high school would be largely compensated for by the reduced expense of the lower school. No more teachers and no more room would be required than are required now ; only a different distribution. Of course, teachers of broader culture and of more extended acquirements would command higher compensation, and the material equipment might be somewhat more expensive ; but would not the advantage of these more than counterbalance the increased cost ? I do not apprehend that the added expense would be large enough to make us hesitate, provided the adoption of the proposed change will bring needed improvement. Another question that may be asked is: Will not the drawing of the dividing line between the high school and the elementary school at the close of the sixth year make a convenient stopping-place for pupils, and will not the result be that many will leave school two years earlier than they now do ? I think not. In the first place, in our present plan of organization the pupil is supposed to have completed the so-called com- mon-school studies before reaching the high school, and hence there is a natural stopping-place at that point. Under the proposed plan this reason for leaving will have less force, because these studies will not have been completed, but will be continued in the high school. Besides this, at the age of fourteen, about the average at which the lower-school course is finished, the pupil is beyond the reach of the compulsory law in many of our states, and he drops out for that reason. At twelve he would still be subject to that law, and therefore would of necessity continue his studies into the high school. It may also be objected that the high school is so far away from the homes of many of the pupils that a large number will drop out because of the inconvenience and expense incurred in traveling to and fro. It is true that the nearer the school is to the homes, the greater the likelihood of a large attendance. But it must be borne in mind that, if pupils are admitted to the high school two years earlier than now, the number of high-school pupils will be greatly increased, so that in cities where two high schools will suffice now, three or four would be required, and where now there are three high schools, five or six would be required. These could be so located as to bring the high school within reasonable prox- imity to the homes of all, and the falling off in attendance, for the reason given above, would be less than under the present plan, where the high schools are few in number and situated from necessity far from the homes of many who are prevented from attending because of the distance. All of these objections, and others that may be-offered, will, I am sure, vanish when the scheme is given a practical trial. We are the only pro- gressive people in the world, so far as I know, who begin their distinctively secondary schools so late and give to them so short a time. It is impos- sible to cover the ground that the secondary school should cover, or to Superintendence] THE HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULUM 4Q accomplish the results that it should accomplish, without a curriculum extending thru a longer period of years. I know of nothing in American life and character, nor in American habits, nor in the mental peculiarities of the American, that justifies us in ignoring the long experience of other peoples in this matter. It has been well said that "the virtue of secondary teaching lies, in large measure, in its duration, in its slow influence upon the intellect. The best teachers need the help of time, if they wish, not to furnish the memory with hastily acquired and badly digested knowledge, but to act upon intellectual habits and accomplish the education of the mind, which is truly the essen- tial aim of secondary education." Let us then give the high school a chance to do its work, and when this shall have been accomplished, let us hope that, by omitting non- essentials and using a little saving common-sense, we may be able to shorten our whole school curriculum by one or two years. DISCUSSION Superintendent Edwin G. Cooley, Chicago, 111. — I believe I am in sympathy with most of what Principal Coy has said, tho I do not regard the separation of the high- school work from the elementary at the end of the sixth year as desirable. I believe that in many ways, considering the conditions that exist in the Chicago high schools, the best is one of these schools having pupils from the kindergarten thru the twelfth grade. In that school we have manual training in the grades — manual training that can be carried farther than the grades. It seems to me that, while there is an advantage in employing something like the departmental method with the seventh and eighth grades, it is not necessary. We are giving teachers additional salary where they are able to specialize. I believe that the gap at the end of the eighth grade comes because we change too abruptly. I am not an advocate of the departmental method below the eleventh grade in the high school. I think that the lower grade in the high school needs teachers who can teach the pupils as well as the subjects. It seems to me that the most crying need is some improvement in the curriculum and a change in the spirit of the work. We should have one or two years of manual training and commercial courses worthy of that name, and work that commends itself to the parents as dealing with real life. It will be necessary to prescribe, of course, that a boy who takes physics must know mathematics, but we must allow choice. I do not think it is to the point to sneer at the choices by boys and girls ; if they pick out " snaps," something is wrong with the teacher. I will not say it is a crime; but I will say it is a blunder, at least, to assume that schools go to pieces under the elective system. When evils from this system are shown, I will consider the objections. Another point made by the writer of the paper is that the high school has a better atmosphere and a better corps of instructors than the elementary schools. More poor work is done in Chicago in the first and second years of the high school than in the seventh and eighth grades. More teachers are trying to bring university methods into the high school than there are making such mistakes in the grades below. I do not believe that algebra taught in the elementary schools will be more poorly taught than in the high schools. I think I can say in conclusion simply this : While not pretending to have discussed 50 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati the subject thoroly, I agree as to the introduction of some of these studies lower down, some departmental work lower down ; but not that the separation at the end of the si^h grade is fundamentally desirable. Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo. — I am in accord with much of the paper and much of what has been said by the speaker preceding me. If I think of the readjustment of the high school at all, I think of it not as changed by changing the course of the district schools. Instead of holding up to the district -school teacher the ideal of the high-school teacher, I wish to hold up to the high-school teacher, as well worth imitating, the work done by the common-school teacher in the last ten of the fifteen years. The common-school teacher has gone beyond the mere knowledge of the subject he is to teach; he has gone to the thoughtful consideration of how these subjects should be taught to have the fullest educational influence over the children under his control, adjusted according to the wise and well-established principles of educational sciences. The very first step in the readjustment of the high school is to show at least one book by high-school teachers that embodies the high-school method. It is strange that the books for the common-school teachers are without equivalents in the high schools. Let them follow the example of the common-school teachers in mastering the subjects and also in mastering the pedagogics of the subjects. The pupils enter the high school as children. Their work in the first year, and often in the second year, is done after the ways of children, but by the time they leave the high schools they are adults in many respects. That important transition from childhood to adolescence has not been considered, so far as I know, by any high-school teacher. The course of study should be adjusted according to the principles of wise pedagogics. I do not know whether your experience is the same as mine. The common com- plaint of a teacher is : " If only those children came to me well prepared ! " That is the general educational feeling. When the college professor finds that condition resulting from the infinite capacity of the young mind to resist new knowledge, he speaks of the high school as a failure. The high-school teacher speaks of the poor work of the district schools, and the only teacher that does not make the same complaint is the kindergarten teacher. There is enough to readjust without adding below or cutting off at the top. Professor Charles DeGarmo, of Cornell University. — Since I have been engaged in the business of training teachers all my professional life, I cannot be thought by any- one to disparage such training. Tho it may be conceded that high-school teaching is often poor, yet I deprecate the inference that often follows remarks upon this subject, to the effect that the possession of knowledge is a presupposition of inefficiency in teaching. Such an inference, I am sure, is wrong. It was stated by the previous speaker that we have not yet produced a book on the pedagogics of high-school teaching. Tho we have no single volume covering this field, I wish to mention a few books on the teaching of secondary subjects that are worthy of our consideration : (i) The Teaching of Elementary Ma/hematicSf embT&cmg arithmetic, algebra, and plane and solid geometry, by David Eugene Smith, of Teachers College, Columbia University, an expert in knowledge of the subject and a past-master of its teaching. (2) German Higher Schools, by Dean James E. Russell, of the same institu- tion. This volume gives the American teacher a wide survey of secondary work in all its departments, as it may be seen in Germany. (3) The Teaching of Latin and Greek, by Professors Bennett and Bristol, of Cornell University — a book. which gives a complete survey of the teaching of Latin from the beginning to the end of the high-school course. (4) The Teaching of English, by Percival Chubb, of the Ethical Culture School, New York city. This book ranges over both elementary and secondary work in English. (5) The Teaching of Physics and Chemistry, by Smith and Hall — a complete survey of the teach- ing of these two subjects in the high school. (6) Educational Aims and Educational Supermtendcnce] INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 51 Methods^ by Paul H. Hanus, of Harvard University — a book which discusses in broad and generous spirit the whole high -school problem. (7) The Meaning of Education, by President Butler, of Columbia University, a large proportion of which pertains to second- ary education. (8) The Making of our Middle Schools, by Professor E. E. Brown, of the University of California. This book, tho historical in the main, gives many intimations as to how high-school teaching should be done. Besides these eight volumes, which are certainly worthy of consideration, there are many other books and a large number of reports which deal with the various aspects of secondary education. It can, therefore, not justly be charged that the high-school interest has been neglected in educational literature. Concerning the main question before us, I wish to express my accordance with the main conclusions of Principal Coy's paper. We have been considering this subject for two years at Cornell, and have come to the firm conclusion that the roots of the high- school studies must go farther down into the grades, unless we are prepared greatly to overburden the youth from fourteen to eighteen in preparation for the work of the col- leges and universities. The subject, however, is beset with administrative and other difficulties. In Europe secondary education is simplified in that it not only extends over longer periods than in this country, but because secondary education is offered in the main only to children of educated parents. These schools are segregated from those for the common people, but in this country we must preserve our educational ladder. We must make it possible for the children of all classes to pass easily and readily from •elementary to secondary, and from secondary to higher, education. This means that we cannot have a caste system for our secondary schools. In most cases I think the best and most natural solution of the problem is to offer elective courses in beginning languages and in the elements of algebra and geometry in the grammar schools. Plenty of teachers can be found who are able, not only to teach the subject, but to teach the pupil. I did not rise, however, to settle this question, but rather to express my conviction •of its importance. INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN RURAL SCHOOLS ALFRED BAYLISS, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SPRINGFIELD, ILL. I visited a country school the other day, which I should like to describe as a basis for this discussion. The house is comparatively new, and enjoys the unusual distinction — in Illinois — of being heated by a furnace. There is a narrow closet, extending the whole width of the building, from which leads the stairway to the basement. There is also an outer stairway to a door opening into the basement. I took the liberty to work my way into the schoolroom thru this back door and up the inside stairs, thus making an opportunity to explore that basement and take an inventory of the contents of the long closet before intruding upon the school. The excavation for the basement is under about one -third of the floor space, and was intended to be just large enough for the furnace and coal supply. But by some happy inadvertence it had been made larger than absolutely necessary for those conveniences, and so there is room in the 52 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati corner nearest the window for a little workshop. There is a well-made (by the teacher) carpenter's bench — strong, but not elegant; with a good vise and a fair kit of tools, including a jack-plane, two chisels, a tri- square, joiners' gauge, brace and two bits, a drawing-knife, saw, two jig saws, two hammers, three bench knives, a small lathe, and a glue pot. There were some pieces of unfinished work and quite a little stock of lum- ber. Such an outfit I had never before seen in connection with a one- room country school. As I stood in the closet upstairs, I could hear a small boy say: " Les- son : two X*s, V, one I — twenty-six. Forms of land and water. A pen- in- j« la, is a body of land; " etc., etc. As I entered the schoolroom, the first thing I saw was the omnipresent time-table of recitations — fifteen in the morning and seventeen in the afternoon. There was a twenty- minute period for the "A" arithmetic, and fifteen .minutes each for three other subjects ; all the other " hours " were five or ten minutes long. The school, therefore, is ** normal " in some respects. Those four long recitation periods are accounted for by the fact that six of the pupils are in the eighth grade. The- thirty-three pupils enrolled vary in age from six to eighteen years. A baker's dozen of them are over twelve years old. There were fifteen boys and four girls present the day I was there. One notes at a glance that the ceiling is papered, that the matting in the aisles is neat, and the rug near the teacher's table rather pretty. But the casual visitor might go away uncertain about the walls ; they are so cov- ered with the handiwork of the children — colored maps, drawings, ama- teur photographs, and the like. These things detract so much from the effect of the three or four fine pictures that the children are planning to remove some of their own work to the halls, and give Rosa Bonheur, Millet, and Herring a better chance. Cases of that kind of growth are not uncommon in Illinois. This school had attracted attention by the great variety and excellence of its exhibits at the Illinois State Fair. To illustrate, I quote a para- graph from a newspaper: The Cottage Hill school in Sangamon county, Mr. E. C. Pruitt, teacher, is probably the most remarkable country school in Illinois in the matter of making agricultural collec- tions. It takes first premium in products of school garden, flowers from school garden, collection of seeds gathered by the pupils, geological collection, school (ollection of woods, school collection of insects, and maps of Illinois and grand division maps ; and second (no first being granted)' in amateur photography of school grounds and scenes. Cottage Hill school also has a library of 150 or 200 books. Sixty-five kinds of wood are shown; the large table of potted plants taken from the school garden is very beautiful and a credit to any gardener ; the products of the school garden include potatoes, tomatoes, com of differ- ent kinds, beans of different kinds, onions, turnips, several grasses and other products. The seed collection is very elaborate, and the hundreds of kinds are neatly displayed in glass bottles and elongated globes especially adapted to the purpose. The other collec- tions mentioned are much beyond the ordinary. A reporter talked with some parents Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 53 who send children to this school. They reported that the boys and girls are greatly inter- ested in these collections and the garden-making, and that they talk about it a great deal at home. There is much enthusiasm in the school, and many things are learned about the features mentioned. One of the boys told me they had earned two hundred and ninety dollars in this way. I said : "What have you done with all that money? " His reply was an expressive gesture, which said, as plainly as words : "Look around and make your own list." I told the children that their library would be richer by one or two more books, if they would tell me in writing what became of that money. There was a ready assent, and the next Monday morning after my visit I received thirteen letters bearing on the subject. Considered as a piece of literary art, the one I now read is neither the best nor the worst, but from the informational side it is among the best : Cottage Hill School Jan. 15, 1903. Dear Sir : You said you would like to know what we done with the $290 we took away from the State Fair of Illinois for premiums I will menction some of the things I can think of there is our library consisting of a 185 books, Two book cases, a 12-inch globe Dictionary stand, Music chart, case for seeds, and globes for seed. Lumber for stage curtain, an car- pet^ Six lampes with reflecters. Clock, Two fine pictures One of Christ, the other of Bnt- «any sheep, framed eight Diplomoes, and several of our premium maps and many other pictures to numerous to mention. Artificial palm, three tables and eight Chairs, Six drawing boards, gave $17.50 to pupils, flowers and flower seed, papered the school room, 100 seed bottles, lathe work bench and set of tools, stand cover Song books, and many articcals we neaded to make all of these things Well I guess I will close now as I can think of nothing else. Yours truly I do not file this statement as an exhibit of the " Illinois plan." The case is not a type. It may not be an illustration of a rational solution of the problem of " industrial education in rural schools." I shall not be surprised to hear it characterized as a case of misdirected energy, exhib- iting nothing of educational value, or even as a lawless obstruction of the real business of the school. It is, nevertheless, an existing case, and, moreover, one of which there will soon be many counterparts, if the energy of country teachers and supervisors is turned, as seems not unlikely, in the direction indicated by it. For the country school, as never before, is taking its cue from the town. The country teachers have d, feeling, if they do not know, that the town teachers have the advantage of them, and are doing some things better than the town teachers can do them. They are ready to make any sort of experiment — do anything their supervisors suggest. They are impetuously eager to " prove all things." They will hold fast to that which is good, too, if, by reason of light and guidance, they chance to find it. In this instance there is, apparently, a lack of co-ordination and logi- 54 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincimiati cal continuity, or something else equally euphonious and equally mean- ingless to the country teacher. This teacher knows that as well as anybody. But there is in it at least one element of a conscious educational pur- pose. "When I came into this district six years ago," he told me, "the schoolhouse had nothing in it and was falling to pieces. After the new house was built, the school grew, and I just couldn*t keep those little fellows studying books all day, and so had to do something to keep them busy. The older children just naturally *got busy' because they wanted to." He admits that merely to " take .that money away from the State Fair of Illinois" would not have been a motive of the first class, had it not been combined with the purpose to get things for the use of the school. On the whole, I am not inclined to disparage the prominence of the economic motive. Work for the good-of the school is a good founda- ation for a larger public spirit. This young man's method "touches life" — at almost too many points, perhaps — but it does touch life, and makes life for those children " more abundant." The articles made at that bench in the cellar, and on the home- made looms — I counted as many as twenty of the latter — develop inge- nuity and train the constructive imagination, for there were variations and some signs of originality. One can see, within the first five minutes, also, a remarkably fine attitude of the children toward all their work. They "mean business." That schedule of thirty-two daily exercises is perhaps avoidable to some extent, but it is difficult to prepare a plan of conven- tional school work for thirty-three pupils, with eight grades represented, that will keep all the children who are not reciting lessons occupied all the time in preparing lessons. So at certain times in the day some of this handwork may well be done in school hours, and the inevitable mischief — or, what is infinitely worse, idleness — is reduced to its lowest terms. But by far the most noticeable phase of this special case is its social significance. The community spirit — each for all, and all for each — is developed to a remarkable degree. They "took that $290 away from the State Fair of Illinois " for the benefit of their school, and I submit that the itemized account of purchases made will bear some scrutiny. They solved for themselves the vexed question of school supplies. The board of directors is a very good one. Witness that furnace in the basement and the long closet at the end of the schoolroom. But in all human proba- bility that board would not have bought three extra tables and eight chairs. The schoolroom might possibly have been cleaned ; it probably would not have been decorated. Several of the "many articles we needed," besides the Brittany sheep and Pharaoh's horses, would not have been provided. The school itself might not have discovered the need. It was a great step in advance to provide that furnace, but the education of those directors up to the point of regretting that the basement is not under the whole house, and the unsolicited offer from them to complete Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 55 — ■ ■ '- — the excavation next summer, is in the nature of a triumph. They are likely to be permitted to do it, making room for another bench or two and some lunch tables. "You must have warm lunches down here next winter," I said to some of the boys ; " Gee, that'll be nice," was the prompt retort. I think they will have them, for this activity interests the people of the district. For example, I asked a little fellow: "Who takes care of the garden in the summer vacation ? " " The man across the street watches it and keeps the town boys out of it," was part of the answer. The chil- dren talk about school at home, not more, but in a different way. The people, in consequence, think about it in a different way. The teacher, as another natural consequence, has the firmest kind of a grip on his job, and an option on three or four more nearly as good. Results count. This man's pedagogical method may be vulnerable, but, beyond a peradventure, he has achieved the prime result in any school district — a genuine and general public interest in the school. The bane of the detached school, in the small independent district, is the withering apathy — the utter indifference to anything but petty grievances that, in the last analysis, can usually i)e traced to the intolerable dullness of the conventional school routine. Children are confined to a single mode of expression, and that upon matters derived from books, which, as far as they can see, have no sort of relation to anything whatever of interest to them; and they naturally go to sleep. Why shouldn't they? Whatever wakes them up is justifiable. If the waking is followed by a new attitude of mind, extending beyond the school to the community, uniting direc- tors, people, children, and teacher, the result is a distinct gain, apparent pedagogical crudeness to the contrary notwithstanding. Saul, the son of Kish, is not the only man who ever found a greater thing than he sought. Moreover, wherever the small district organization prevails, this sort of thing undoubtedly comes very near to the utmost limit of reasonable expectation. The difficult factor in our equation is the supply of teach- ers. Teachers who can do much better than this are not to be had for the country schools in anything approaching sufficient numbers. They can never be had under prevailing conditions, nor until the country school shall be reorganized up to the point of so increasing the financial ability of the taxing units that they can afford to pay living wages. All proposals to better the country schools seem to center at last in the plan of consoli- dation of districts and free conveyance of pupils. There is no other way in sight. Its advantages need not be recited here. The one commanding possibility in it is the leveling up of the quality of the rural teaching body and keeping it up to that of the town. The right kind of teachers would very soon make such cases as the one I have described very common, and so modify them that they would be less obtrusively " long " on the indus- trial and '"short" on the training side. In the meantime we must do as well as we can. 56 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LCincinnati That insect collection should be continued, but its growth need not be quite so rapid. The number of varieties needed for training purposes is exceeded when it becomes so large that some of the children do not know a little about nearly every specimen. No one child need know even the names of all. Scientific classification is, of course, out of place and out out of question. But it should be quite possible to learn, by inquiry from the young collectors, whether a given specimen lived in the house, the garden, or the field. The classification may well be carried a step or two beyond the dividing line made by conspicuous beauty — the question whether a species is harmful or useful to man being the natural beginning. The permanent school collection need not be much larger than the num- ber of life-stories the children are willing to learn. Private collections may grow at the pleasure of the young collector. As a mode of industrial training the school garden should stay. This has been questioned. It is rather plausibly urged that a garden, as part of the equipment of a country school, is a superfluity. The children, it is said, work in the garden at home, and most of them can give the city- bred teacher pointers already. All of this may be in accordance with t*he facts. But in most home gardens the child's share of the work is so allotted as to be mere drudgery. He does it because he has to. The garden at home has but a single interest. The school garden may have several. Among others it may be made tributary to the natural instinct of ownership. The boy will want a garden of his own, in which he will not only parallel some of the school work, but extend it in some ways and intensify it in others. His study of soil manipulation will lead to experi- ments of his own. If he learns nothing more than to figure the time, labor, and material cost of some product he is allowed to market on his own account, he will know the essential difference between a good farmer and half the poor ones. But the school garden should be better planned than the Cottage Hill school garden. It was only " three rails square," and they raised "every- thing " in it. An Illinois county superintendent (O. J. Kern, of Winne- bago county) has already worked out a better plan. About a year ago he organized a " Farmer Boys' Experiment Club," with thirty-three charter members, but which now has ii8 names on the roll; as did also the superintendents of two other counties (McHenry and Christian). He took a large party (150 children and 130 adults) of boys and girls to the Agricultural College, 214 miles away, just to give them a chance to see a school garden on the large scale. These boys went home and raised sugar beets in accordance with directions given them by the teachers at the university and returned samples of the crop for analysis. Some of them raised prize corn; others made investigations with reference to smut in oats, did something with alfalfa and some other legumes ; and still oth- ers entered into a lively competition to see who could devise and draw Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 57 the best plan for " landscaping " the school grounds. They are going down to the university again next June, and to St. Louis in 1904. Just now he is interesting the school directors in a plan furnished him by Professor Blair for a school garden twelve by thirty-six feet, laid off for three rows of corn, eight rows of vegetables, and one row each of pansies, petunias, China asters, Drummond phlox, nasturtiums, sweet peas, and sunflowers. This is better than a larger variety, and much better than "everything." It will not be many years, if Mr. Kern's life is spared, before the farmers of that county will begin to visit the schools, to see what they can learn about the newest varieties of seeds and garden products. The school garden should make much of flowers, not forgetting to make room for some of the beautiful wild ones, which do not seem to me to be as much appreciated as they used to be forty or fifty years ago. The problem of the school garden, with all that it implies, when worked out, will make of every schoolyard a little landscape garden — an object-lesson for the whole neighborhood. I would keep that work-bench, and may its tribe increase! If it expands I think work with leather might follow the. work with wood. Mixing paint and the knack of making putty would be invaluable accomplishments to farmer boys, leading to many economies and some beauties. Man is instinctively a tool-using animal. "Nowhere do you find him without tools ; without tools he is nothing, with tools he is all." The bench will justify itself as a factor in industrial training, if it does no more than increase the manual dexterity of most of the boys. On every farm there are cultivators, plows, mowers, and reapers to be mended, and buildings to be repaired. It is an advantage to any man, in any business, merely to be " handy " with tools. I know a country carpenter who takes his annual vacation in the woods, or on the water, for all the world like a gentleman of means and leisure ; and a rich man who spends his summers up on the shore of Lake Superior, and finds one-half his pleasure in his shop, making whatever his fancy dictates for the cottage, the boat-house, or the barn. It is worth while to know how to saw a board straight, or drive a nail, or make a waxed end ; it is no small thing to be able to make a good joint. Incidentally it may help an occasional genius to discover himself. " Stick to the farm " may not be the best advice to give a boy whose known bent is for a town occupation. But utility is as good a motive as any for the bench exercises. For strictly schoolroom occupations, weaving and sewing should be continued and clay-modeling added. The little children neither can nor should be permitted to spend the entire school day pretending to study books. They would much better sleep part of the time. There should be a little kitchen in every country school. Some of the boys will learn to cook and sew, just as some of the girls will excel at the work- bench. That, too, will be " all right." 58 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati This is diversity enough. The country teacher who can substitute something "equally as good" for these lines of work, or any of them, is able to walk alone. An old county superintendent who broke into the Illinois legislature last fall, and in whose county there are more than a dozen country school- houses with furnaces and bay windows, said to me the other day: "Oh, if my people would only allow such teaching as that, but they wouldn't 1 " "Industrial training for country school children is nothing but. another fad; teach them to read and write!'' said a scholarly man of affairs an hour later. And so it goes. There will no doubt be " beautiful fighting along the whole line" before the school garden and the school carpenter's bench become accepted commonplaces; for which reason, as Sheridan said to the colonel, we may "go in anywhere." The book has been for too long a time the sole instrument of educa- tion. To admit its inadequacy is not to underrate its value. Time was when education in a very large sense was possible without it. It is not yet an infallible agent, even if used with the highest intelligence aijd skill ; much less if its use be limited to the capacity of a " passive recipient " subjected to the "pouring-in" process. Children prefer action for a good and sufficient reason. They learn to do by doing. To do is better for them than to say what 'twere good to do. Any kind of hand-training is probably better than none. It need not crowd the book-work out. The testimony is all to the effect that it does not. It arouses an interest which reacts favorably upon all other interests. Motor activity is a neces- sity. Rightly directed, it promotes intellectual growth. Wholly restrained, mental life, even, would doubtless be impossible. To keep young chil- dren at a desk six hours a day working solely with books is the ultimate educational blunder. It is not only a false pretense; it is an outrage on nature. It may be interesting to note, in this connection, that all the normal schools of Illinois have begun to do something to prepare teachers to begin this mode of training intelligently. Of course, their output of young teachers will, for some time to come, continue to be absorbed by the towns. Perhaps it is better so. Motor training has a deeper signifi- cance for the town boy, after all. Then, too, the country teacher is com- ing to be town-taught, if not town-bred. Thus the normal school is but one remove from the country district. Finally, if a rational scheme of industrial training for country schools should be devised and stated, and come to be understood, it could not be fully carried out, pending the solution of that other problem of school organization. There are two indispensable factors in a school — children and teachers. I use the plural advisedly, because, in an ideal school at least, both masculine and feminine elements will be present in the teach- ing force in approximately the ratio of boys to girls. A good house Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 59 comes very near being a third necessity, and some equipment is desir- able ; tho the last can be, and, to a large extent should be, procured by the school for itself. More schools surfeit with too much equipment than starve with none. Now these essential elements of a school do not, and in the nature of the circumstances cannot, exist in thousands of school- districts as now organized. The fundamental problem, therefore, involv- ing the interests of four hundred thousand children in Illinois alone, and four thousand thousand or more in the United States, is to bring teach- ers and children together in the country districts in such numbers that efficient schools may be organized and taught, and in which the missing three or four grades misnamed "high" shall be made as " common " for those who want them as the first six or seven. The Council of Education once expressed "sympathy with and approval of" something that looked like a movement to turn public attention in this direction, but respect- fully declined to lend it material aid and comfort. And yet the Council might travel far and find no field of endeavor as worthy of its continuous attention for a term of years. As I read the signs of the times, no better nor more timely use could be made of the combined resources, intellec- tual and financial, of the whole body of which this department is a sturdy branch, and the Council the ripened fruit, than to direct them all to the inforniation of the public mind and the creation of such a public senti- ment as would give this movement an impetus that would carry it on to the consummation which at this time is, in the American common - school system, the one thing most devoutly to be wished. DISCUSSION Ex-State Superintendent L. D. Harvey, Madison, Wis. — I take it that industrial education in rural schools is but one phase of what is now known as the rural-school problem, and that the purpose in its discussion here today is to see what bearing, if any, it has upon the larger question of the general improvement of the common schools in rural districts. Superintendent Bayliss has presented an attractive picture of work carried on in a single district school by an enthusiastic teacher. He is careful not to claim too much for this experiment and makes no generalizations based upon his observations of the work being done. He presents it as showing the possibility of modifying the work now done in most district schools so as to present at least the beginnings of industrial education. He admits that the case is not even a type, and sees but little possibility of much beyond what is now done in that school for the ordinary district school under existing conditions. He recognizes that the small, isolated district school must give place to the consolidated school, and that teachers trained in the industrial phases of educational work must be employed in these schools before much further can be expected. He commends in general terms the work which he saw in operation, and expresses a hope for its con- tinuance and development. With all these conditions I am in hearty accord. In the further discussion of this topic which I am to present, I wish at the outset to invite your attention to conditions which exist in the country school today, and, as my time is limited, I shall state briefly and without discussion what seem to me to be present hindrances to good work in the rural schools. They are : poor, ill-kept, ill-furnished. 6o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cmcinnati inadequately equipped school buildings, with surroundings the most depressing and demoralizing ; poor teachers, with poorer pay ; frequent changes of teachers, but infre- quently for the better ; irregular attendance of those enrolled ; withdrawal from school at too early an age ; inadequate supervision ; and schools too small to present proper con- ditions for successful work. I do not mean to say that these conditions exist everywhere, nor that there are not rural schools well housed, with trained, experienced, progressive teachers, and a teaching equipment entirely adequate ; nor that there are not some localities where pupils attend with a reasonable degree of regularity for a reasonable number of years ; but I do mean to say that the number of such schools is not so large as it should be to leave us without a rural-school problem of the most vital importance. Nearly one-half of the children in the United States who are in the public schools are enrolled in these rural schools. I do not know what proportion of these pupils go on from the rural schools to higher schools in other states, but I do know that in Wisconsin at least 97 per cent, of them attend no other school. Are they entitled to something better ?. Is the state entitled to something better in the preparation of its youth for the duties of citizenship ? If we would proceed wisely for the betterment of the rural school, we must first of all determine the causes for existing conditions, which are responsible for the poor results obtained in these schools. Having determined the causes, we are then prepared to consider the means which must be employed to remove those causes. To my mind the chief cause for all the evils above enumerated is the low educational ideals of the people in the rural communities. This cause exists because of a lack of appreciation of the value of education and of its cost in time and money. This lack on the part of the rural population is largely due to their own limited education and to their environment. Dissatisfaction with existing conditions is always the first step toward higher ideals demanding better conditions. Even when dissatisfaction exists with the results of work in rural schools at the present time (and it does exist on the part of many of the patrons), there is a lack of knowledge as to what must be done to secure better conditions, and, lacking such knowledge, there can be no improvement in ideals. Dissatisfaction with any set of given conditions, coupled with ignorance of how to improve them, results in a possible yearning for a change, in a growing dissatisfaction with the present order of things, and in an increasing indifference to its maintenance. It may be that some would bring forward other causes which have operated to develop the conditions interfering with the efiiciency of the rural school, but I believe that all such causes may be reduced in the final analysis to the one I have stated. If I am correct here, it follows then that the problem of improving the rural schools resolves itself into the problem of elevating the educational ideals of the people in rural com- munities. It cannot be denied that there are serious difficulties in the carrying out of this program, but something is gained when we determine definitely the point of attack. The isolation of the rural school and the rural family, their remoteness from centers of educational influence, introduce elements into the problem which do not exist when we are considering the improvement of city schools. It is not enough to point out the short- comings of the rural school, to present the difficulties which exist in the way of its improvement. We must do more than this. We must be prepared to show, and must show, to the people in the country what must be done to improve conditions. Construct- ive work of the highest order is needed here. As I have already stated, before higher ideals can be developed there must come a knowledge of what is essential for better conditions, and by this knowledge I mean, not simply what you and I may understand and agree to be essential, but what the country people shall also understand and agree to be essential conditions. We all understand that when we would convince an individual as to the correctness of a proposition which sets forth something to be done and which he is to do, it is essen- SupcrimendenccJ INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 6 1 tial to present it from a point of view which appeals to his own interests or to the inter- ests of those with whom he is concerned. Here is where industrial education enters the field. We do not find it easy today to even get an audience among the country people to discuss the shortcomings of their schools and to present the necessity for their improvement, so long as we do not depart in our discussion from the lines of their past devel^opment and present organization ; but the moment it is understood that we are to discuss the question of a change in the rural - school system which shall introduce a course of industrial training dealing' with the elements of agriculture, with manual training, and with domestic economy, we chal- lenge their attention and awaken their interest. Such a proposition appeals to them at once as having a practical utility which will increase the productive capacity of their children, better fitting them for earning a livelihood, and opening up to them such possi- bilities in life upon the farm as will induce them to remain in the country, and render the attractions of the city less alluring than at present. Show them the possibilities of instruction concerning the soil ; its composition ; the kind of soil needed for certain crops ; the effect upon it of raising year after year the same crop upon the same soil ; the effect of rotation of crops ; the proper mode of tillage ; the treatment of worn-out soils, and the best modes of fertilizing the soil for certain purposes. Indicate what may be done in instructing their children as to the plant life of the farm ; the varieties which may best be grown in the different localities for profit or pleasure ; the modes of selecting, caring for, and improving the seed ; the proper time and modes of planting ; the most improved processess of cultivation ; treatment to prevent the ravages of insects and other pests, and the proper mode of harvesting and caring for the prod- ucts of the farm. Outline the instruction which may be profitably given concerning the animal life 6^ the farm, involving a knowledge of breeds and breeding, feeds and feed- ing, selection and care of stock designed for certain purposes, and the treatment of their diseases. Propose that their schools shall teach a practical system of keeping farm accounts ; that they shall give such instruction in manual training as shall make the boys acquainted with the common lools used upon the farm and develop a reasonable skill in their use ; as shall give them a practical knowledge of the elements of blacksmithing and of the architecture of the farm buildings ; as shall afford their girls an opportunity to master the elements of domestic economy and something of the utilities and graces of home making. When you have done this you have interested those to whom you have addressed yourself, you have opened up to them possibilities in the instruction of their children of which they had never dreamed, or have simply dreamed of without realizing their possi- bility. You have presented to them what is perhaps the most powerful argument which can be addressed to the ordinary human being — the dollar-and-cent argument. In their view, grammar, geography, history, language, and even arithmetic fade into insignificance before the practical utility of this kind of training. You have presented to them something which appeals to their interests and which becomes a most powerful incentive to action on their part. Make this the comer-stone of your scheme for rebuild- ing the common-school system, and you have the people with you. You have presented that which is knowledge to you. It has now become knowledge to them. You have laid the foundation for the development of the higher educational ideals, and upon it you may build your educational structure without the omission of a single valuable feature now found in the rural-school system. Nothing is lost and much is gained for the schools, because you have gained the attention, the interest, the sympathy, and the support of the people who must maintain these schools. I am not theorizing now. I am talking from experience. For four years I have per- sonally discussed the rural-school problem from this standpoint before the farmers of Wisconsin in scores of localities. I have had something to do with securing its discussion others in hundreds of other localities, and, when properly presented, I have yet to 62 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati find a single farmer to whom it did not appeal, who did not say that such a system of training for his boys and girls was just what was wanted. The scope of this discussion will not allow me to go into a consideration of other means for developing the educational ideals of people in rural communities ; but when once you have made this start, the rest is easy. As was suggested by Superintendent Bayliss in his paper, the possibility of work in the direction I have indicated is limited in the present district school. It is limited for a variety of reasons, but once get this before the people as an ideal to be realized, and it will be seen that there is a necessity for another class of schools, secondary in scope, dis- tinctly adapted to the needs of rural communities ; schools that will take the pupils at the completion of the common-school course, and carry on the industrial work which may have been given in a very modest way in the district school. Such a class of schools, with a course of study at least two years in length, could carry out the complete program I have indicated, and at the same time add to it instruction in most of the high-school branches of the first two years. At the outset one such school in a county would doubt- less meet the demands. With properly equipped teachers of agriculture, manual train- ing, and domestic economy, the school would become a center of interest to the rural communities of the entire county. It would arouse an interest in popular education never before known in that county. It would educate, not only the boys and girls, but in many cases their fathers and mothers. Today the agricultural colleges are sending bulletins by the thousands to the farmers in the United States. Many of these bulletins are of the highest importance to the farmer. In a few cases they are read ; in fewer still they are understood ; and in still fewer are the suggestions acted upon. If these bulletins should find their way into the farmers' homes through the medium of their boys from such a school as I have indicated, a new interest would be developed at once. Demonstration in the school would have taught the boy what it is necessary to do to carry out the sug- gestions of the bulletin, and he would teach the father. In Wisconsin, two years ago, the loss in the oat crop caused by smut was equal to the total expenditures that year for the entire educational system of the state. In the Arbor Day Annual issued last year there was given a mode of treatment of seed oats which, at a cost of one cent per bushel, would absolutely prevent the ravages of smut. This was put into every district school in the state. Teachers were requested to instruct the pupils old enough to understand as to the character of this treatment. In many cases parents came to the teacher for specific instruction when the pupils were too young to understand it. I have reason to know that the farmers of the state appreciated this information, and that the teacher who was able to give it had by that one act secured support in the district which perhaps he could not have gained in any other way or in all other ways. That instruction had a monetary value to the farmers. When they understand that that is only one of the many things which can be taught, either in the district schools or in the secondary agricultural school, they have a new and greater interest in education than ever before. Their ideals will be developed, and when these ideals are properly developed, the attendance at school becomes more regular, partly because the parents demand it as something the value of which they realize, and largely because the pupils desire it. The children remain longer in school because the parents see the value of so remaining. The increased interest of the community in the school makes it easier to secure appropriations for proper housing and equipment of the school. Show to the farmer that what is impossible in the small district school with the poorly paid teacher can be carried on successfully in the consolidated school of four, five, or six departments, with a piece of land connected with it for illustrative and experimental work in agriculture, and rooms for manual training and domestic science. Awaken an interest in these matters, and you have a powerful argument for the consolidation of the district schools beyond that of saving in cost. With the establishment of right ideals the ques- tion Xii cost is no longer the paramount one. Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN RURAL SCHOOLS 63 One thing more remains to be done. There must be better-trained teachers for the district schools, either isolated or consolidated. In no state in the Union are the normal schools supplying the demands for district-school teachers. Most of the product of the normal schools is demanded in the cities. These country schools need trained teachers, teachers trained to teach the country children the things which country children should be taught. I shall not argue this question, but shall simply give you a statement of an attempt to solve this problem in Wisconsin. Three years ago two county training schools for the training of district-school teachers were established. We now have six such schools. The state pays one-half the cost of the maintenance, the county the other half. These schools are free to people residing in the county who are qualified to enter them. The course is one year in length. The work at present is limited to the subjects taught in the common schools, including the elements of agriculture. In some of the schools manual training is being introduced, and it is hoped that in the near future those to be trained will get instruction in both manual training and domestic economy. Two teachers are employed in each of five of the schools ; in one there are three teachers. The number of students ranges from forty to seventy-five, the* average number being about fifty. The principals of these schools are selected with reference to their ability to do professional work in the training of teachers for the country schools. There are not more than a dozen principals of high schools in the state who receive salaries as large as are paid these men. The assistants are paid salaries higher than the average high-school principal receives. Financial inducements are offered which take professors from the state normal schools and put them at the head of these training schools. The teachers trained in such schools find ready employment in the county where the school is located, and m most of the counties the number graduated each year is sufficient to fill the vacancies in the country schools. The teachers in these schools become an educational force in the county. They visit country schools ; they address meetings of citizens with the county superintendent; they get into touch with school boards and advise them in the selection of teachers; and in one instance the principal has organized a reading club of one hun- dred and twenty farmers and farmers' wives, who are systematically reading the litera- ture of agriculture and household economy. These people believe in the school and in its product. Wherever these schools are located a better educational sentiment begins to be developed in the county. I may add that we have two county schools of agriculture of the class of secondary schools I have advocated. They were organized last September, and have not yet been in existence long enough to enable one to speak with positiveness as to what they will accomplish. In each school more than fifty pupils are enrolled and three teachers are employed. During the winter a class of the older boys, who have been out of school for a number of years and who are at work upon the farm, are in attendance, and special work adapted to their needs is provided for them. The students and teachers are enthu- siastic in their work. The people in each county believe in the school. It rounds out the rural -school system. It may be said that perhaps it will prevent country boys and girls from going to the higher institutions. I have already said that less than 3 per cent, of this class of children go on to the high schools. The condition cannot be much worse than it is today, and all who are familiar with educational matters know that every step forward in educational work results in an ambition to do still further work. To sum up, industrial education is the keynote to the improvement of the rural schools. It cannot be carried on with any degree of success in the isolated district schools as they exist today, with the present teaching force, except in isolated cases. The secondary agricultural school should be the first objective point to be reached ; this because it is an easy thing to do and because it becomes a potent center of influence thru which the work may extend outward and downward into the rural schools. I 64 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati The possibilities of industrial education less extended than that offered in the second- ary school, to be given in connection with the consolidated schools, should be demon- strated, if for no other reason, for its potency as an argument in favor of consolidation. Local training schools for rural school-teachers should be established, and they should provide reasonably well-equipped teachers in sufficient numbers to fill the existing shortage of trained teachers in these schools. I wish to add that I am heartily in accord with Superintendent Bayliss in the view that there is work here which the National Council of Education should enter upon. Definite plans of work need to be formulated and advocated for the improvement of the rural schools. That body can undertake no other work more urgently needed than this. LITERATURE IN THE GRADES AND HOW TO USE IT MRS. ALICE W. COOLEY, UNIVERSITY OF NORTH DAKOTA, GRAND FORKS, N. D. With telescopes and microscopes, searchlights and lanterns, we are all trying to find the wasted time — lost somewhere between the entrance to the kindergarten and the exit from the college. Traces of it have been seen, now here, now there. Those most energetic in the search have even laid hands on it, each time in a different place. And still it has not been driven from its hiding-place, because the time is wasted in not doing what we are going thru the motions of doing, and the counterfeit so cleverly hides the loss of the real. For example, we have deceived ourselves into thinking that we can teach reading first and then literature, with language lessons independent of both. When literature is given its rightful place as the basis of all reading lessons, the basis of all language lessons, oral and written, and the interpreter and highest touch of all study of nature, geography, and history, then will the program be enriched and shortened. More than that, the program will have enriched the child and shortened his hours of joyless inactivity of soul. The expressions "children's literature'* and "literature for children" seem to admit of two possible interpretations. The literature under dis- cussion is not that which, rewritten and "written down," masquerades under this name, but real literature, used for, with, and by children as a vital element in their education. In any consideration of this subject, one is tempted to dwell on the general cultural value of literature — the power of living thought to quicken life in others. But to do so at this time, before this assembly, would be most inappropriate; except to express appreciation of indebt- edness to many members of this body. Truly, a clearer vision o\ the possibilities of the influence of literature on the growing mind, and inspiration to seek diligently for means of their realization, have come to us all from the clear seeing and strong feeling of many here. Their words of power and eloquence have been, and are, the " live coal " that both kindles and illumines. Superintendence] LITERATURE IN GRADES AND HOW TO USE IT 65 I But who can estimate the results in the development of the coming generation of men and women in these United States, if this same body of educational leaders were determined that these ideals should be realized ? We feel the tremendous pressure of the present scramble for wealth, for office, for show, for personal gratification in all its forms (the source of decay in all dead civilizations), and know that the schools are educating the men and women that must resist this pressure ; we know, too, that the thoughts and desires of the child are shaping his life — may be said to be his life ; and we say that we appreciate the quickening power of literature as an expression of life. Do we not also know that it is quite within our power actually to bring this force to bear on the young mind ? We have a vision of the value to the American people of a school life in which each child,. for thirty minutes of each day, should be under the subtle and potent influence of a living truth, made beautiful to him by its beautiful expression. This vision uplifts the thought and quickens the beating of the heart. And then, too often, the energy spends itself in heart-beats, instead of in the heroic effort that would bring the thought to birth in deed. One of our eminent literary critics has truly said that "a test of the popular education of a country is the kind of reading sought and enjoyed by its people," and he frankly and forcibly charges the American public school with neglect of duty, as measured by this standard. Here and there, in all parts of the country, are individual workers that have risen to this conception of duty, and have accomplished much. Many others have caught the spirit, and, without either knowledge or wisdom, are making wild dashes at anything that bears the name of study of literature — a sort of helter-skelter jumping into bramble bushes. But, to be pro- ductive of its possible large results in any community, there must be united and continuous action, under wise leadership. We must not shrink from the fact that, if the educators represented in this, the highest, department of the national organization of educational forces were to vitalize their wills by their ideals, there would be an evolution of an American people of higher tastes and nobler conceptions of life. It is, then, the main purpose of this paper to present, in the light of this reponsibility, a i^"^ practical phases of the subject, viz.: how literature may be so used in the grades as to realize its values ; what are the great hindrances to this realization ; and how they may be remedied. First. Literature should precede all formal reading and language les- sons, and the children should be allowed to live with and in it. Poems and stories given by a sympathetic teacher of literary appreciation are, in the largest sense, a development of both reading and language power, and more. Rightly chosen, they appeal to child-life, and they also lift the spirit to a larger realm than that bounded by self. Listening to these 66 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION rCindnaati poems and stories as they are read, recited, and told, by one who brings out their meaning and beauty, the child's mind is filled with pictures which he expresses or lives out, in word, by hand, and in play. He is getting all that reading implies, except association of thought with written or printed forms. Familiar with the words by sound, he has their mean- ing in his soul and their use in his oral vocabulary. The wise teacher does not hasten to the recognition of word-forms by the eye ; and the wise superintendent does not set dates for measuring her progress by the length or number of her steps. Both know that premature struggle with form arrests life, and causes waste, not only of time, but of the joy of growth. Second. Literature should be the basis of all reading lessons, the pur- pose of each being to kindle the thought and feeling of the reader, and to give him power to rouse the mind of another by its oral expres- sion. Word-mastery is the only key, and only a key, and vocal culture is a means, and only a means. Reading for information should find its place in connection with the various school exercises, but should not be allowed to encroach on the period given to reading. Theoretic agreement to all this seems assured, but it must be con- fessed that practice lags behind. This is the text of the preface of nearly every modern reading book, but in many cases we find the truth expressed only in the preface, and perhaps suggested by a few inserted pages of " memory gems." We believe, however, that books of sufficient number and variety, and of such character, are available for use in the interme- diate and grammar grades that pupils in these grades may now read literature every day. But the feeling seems still to prevail that the first lessons in reading can be only the learning of written forms of words and sentences that are the repetition of statements made by the child about himself and familiar objects and actions. And most primers and first readers assume that the language used would be that of a very young child. That the child prepared for his first reading by living with litera- ture is inclined to resent these lessons, is not a bit of theory, but of expe- rience. Miss Sullivan attributes much of Helen Keller's marvelous ability to the fact that books were her daily companions /r^w the time she had learned her letters. She says: Helen learned language by being brought in contact with living language itself, brought for the purpose of furnishing themes for thought, and to fill her mind with beau- tiful pictures and inspiring ideals. Greater power of expression was obtained, but this was not the most important aim. I believe every child has hidden away somewhere in its being noble qualities and capacities which may be quickened and developed if we go about it in the right way I have always observed that children invariably delight in lofty poetic language, which we are too ready to think beyond their comprehension. And hundreds of those who teach normal children indorse the testimony of this rare teacher. Superintendence] LITERATURE IN GRADES AND HOW TO USE IT 67 With the material provided by such pictures of child-life as are drawn by Eugene Field, Longfellow, and many others, notably by Stevenson, the very first lessons in both script and print, while based on a child's expressions of his own experience, may also be based on a simple word- picture of a similar experience. Read to him by one who feels its simple beauty, the picture of another colors his own, and the new phraseology enters into his own. All needed repetition and variety may then be given, but the final result is his association, by sight, of his own mental pictures with the words of the writer. Thus a bit of literature is made the beginning and the end of a series of lessons ; and the child, having gone out of himself and found a larger self, has tasted the joy of true reading. In addition to this, he has learned to recognize certain words, quite as readily and much more effectually than as if these words had been artificially put together for the purpose of recognition. We certainly have evolved methods of teaching in the primary grades that have needlessly complicated the problem. That, even for the eye, the vocabulary need not be so commonplace as we have assumed has been proven. And many of us frankly confess our heterodoxy regarding the necessity of thoroness, interpreted to mean the requirement that the child shall learn to recognize, at sight, every word in the reading lesson. Is it really so harmful to tell the child a difficult word now and then, if he is alive with the thought? The conception of the purpose of teaching reading modifies methods as well as selection of subject-matter. It is quite possible in any grade, high-school, college, or university class so to misuse a bit of literature, by making it the basis of a lesson in mere word-calling or anatomical dissection, that it shall cause not one throb of interest in the heart of the reader, but rather cultivate a distaste for what he might have learned to love. The teacher that believes that the period of the reading lesson should be one in which the child finds the enjoyment of kindled thought cannot make use of a method that builds and polishes beautiful structures of shells of ideas, of which life is later to take possession. He knows that it is life that makes and beautifies its shell-home. He feels that the study of devitalized words as a preparation for reading literature is the surest possible way to prevent reading and to prevent the right attitude of mind toward words. The teacher that feels the purpose or meaning of .the poem or story, and appreciates the means by which the writer portrays this meaning — his pictures and their relation to each other, the beauty of his imagery, and the music of his words, as well as the end they all serve — will so use it that the purpose, the pictures, the beauty, and the music will find some response in the mind of the pupil. To express them truly and correctly in oral reading necessitates study and practice in the mechanics of reading, which is now animated by purpose and meaning. The time will come when the daily reading lesson in school will univer- 68 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati sally mean the learning to read and to love literature. It will be delayed until we remove some of the hindrances. When it comes, we shall indorse the words of Charles Dudley Warner : " After many years of perversion and neglect, to take up the study of literature in a comprehensive text- book, as if it were to be learned like arithmetic, is a ludicrous proceeding. It is not teaching life, nor love of good reading. It is stuffing the mind." Third. The inspiration and models for language lessons, oral and written, should be found in literature. Any principle underlying the teaching of an art is as true of language — the art of self-expression — as of painting, music, or sculpture. To teach an art is not merely to give instruction in the lise of its forms ; it is, iirst, to rouse and stimulate the thought and feeling to be expressed, which of itself generates the desire to express; and, second, to guide the practice in striving to express in terms of beauty. For we know that art is not merely doing ; it is skillful doing in order to. express something in a true and beautiful way. Response to truth and beauty must always precede and accompany successful efforts to attain truthful and beautiful expression. The teachers of music, of drawing, and of painting that do not build on this principle we call artisans, not artists. Why should the divorce of ideals and practice be considered in this one great universal art? Surely there is no skill in any art without repeated doing. It is equally certain that the product of low ideals and weak thought is valueless, be it ever so perfect mechanically. One must con- stantly look to his ideals and constantly put forth his own efforts. George Eliot voiced what every human being feels when she said : " For my part, people who do anything finely always inspire me to try. I don't mean that they make me believe that I can do it as well as they. But they make the things seem worthy to be done." And the time to act is when the influence is most strongly felt. From first to last, in the study of any art, it is by vital contact with the best expressions of thought by means of that art that they constantly breathe into the learner their subtle influence of thought and modes of expression, and thus mold his efforts into finer quality and form ; and, on the other hand, by his own efforts to express, he attains not only skill, but better appreciation of the work of the artist. And this use of literature is not as the setting of a copy. A necessary element of art is that it shall be an expression of the individual's own way of seeing, feeling, and doing; and this means neither imitation nor reproduction. A poem should never be reproduced. Certain stories and descriptions may be rewritten ; and a poem, description, or story may be copied for various purposes related to vocabulary or to study of form ; but literature, as the basis of language lessons, has a far greater end to serve. It should suggest and recall, illumine and interpret, the child's own per- sonal experiences, which he is later to tell in speech or jn writing as express- ing himself. It is to him really a projection of his own experience, looked Superintendence] LITERATURE IN GRADES AND HOW TO USE IT 69 at objectively. The result is a series of pictures with familiar setting, suggested and colored by the word-picture of another. One of Steven- son's Memories so forcibly illustrates the child's habit of weaving the web of the poena or story into his own life that we recall it here. He writes : Rummaging in the dusty pigeonholes of memory, I came once upon a graphic ver- sion of the famous psalm, ** The Lord is my Shepherd ; " and from the places employed in its illustration, which are all in the immediate neighborhood of a house then occupied by my father, I am able to date it before the seventh year of my age The " pastures green" were represented by a certain suburban stubble field, where I had once walked with my nurse, under an autumnal sunset Here, in the fleecy person of a sheep, I seemed to myself to follow something unseen, unrealized, aiid yet benignant ; and close by the sheep in which I was incarnated — as if for greater security — rustled the skirts of my nurse. " Death's dark vale " was a certain arch-way in the Warriston cemetery Here I beheld myself some paces ahead (seeing myself, I mean, from behind) utterly alone in that uncanny passage ; on the one side of me a rude, knobby shepherd's staff, on the other a rod like a billiard cue, appeared to accompany my progress ; the staff sturdily upright, the billiard cue inclined confidentially, like one whispering, towards my ear. I was aware — I will never tell you how — that the presence of these articles afforded me encouragement. .... In this string of pictures I believe the gist of the psalm to have consisted ; I believe it had no more to say to me ; and the result was consolatory. I would go to sleep dwelling with restfulness upon these images I had already singled out one lovely verse — a scarce conscious joy in childhood, in age a companion thought : "In pastures green Thou leadest me The quiet waters by." This simple and beautiful " memory" which may recall to each of us a similar experience of his own, opens a window into the inner life of child- hood. It reveals a bookful of truth. The words " scarce conscious joy in childhood, in age a companion thought " leave nothing to be added regarding the value of committing to memory — truly learning by heart — that which has brightened, uplifted, and given joy to the soul. It also suggests what has been much in our thought of late — the loss to the man or woman who has not in childhood become familiar with the gems of classic literature from the Bible. While there is clearly illustrated the greater value of the greater ends served, there is also suggested the result to the child in an enlarged vocabulary and in high ideals of form as well as of content. Expression in terms of truth and beauty requires a choice vocabulary, and sentences that clearly, forcibly, and musically express their meaning. Written expression requires, in addition, correct spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. In the written forms of literature one may find his models; and in the realm of form -study the same law governs — that attainment is the result of practice in doing, animated by correct ideals. Let us summarize by outlining the general plan of language-teaching that embodies the principles presented : A group of language lessons related in thought : (i) the pupil's read- ing, and listening to the teacher's sympathetic reading, of something that 70 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cinciimati * has both vital contact with his own life and literary value ; (2) thoughts and conversations suggested by the poem or story about the mental pictures seen and incidents related, and about the personal observations and experiences they suggest ;• (3) short conversations for the specific purpose of perfecting accuracy in use of grammatical forms and construc- tions; (4) exercises in copying and writing from dictation — sentences, stanzas, and paragraphs in which special attention is given to study and use of correct forms in spelling, capitalization, punctuation,, and arrange- ment ; (5) the final outcome, the flowering and fruitage of the group of lessons — the pupil's telling or writing about something he himself has seen, done, heard, thought, felt, or imagined, suggested by the poem or story — followed by encouraging and helpful class criticism of the results. Fourth. To leave literature out of the lessons in geography, history, and study of nature is to leave out the link that binds them most closely to the child. To see the whole truth about a flower, a river, a mountain, a pebble, or a shell, it must be seen with the eye of the intellect and the eye of feeling. As the child both knows and feels, he responds to what is seen by both ; and complete knowledge of the works of the Creator cannot be divorced from appreciation of their wondrous meaning and beauty. And from the poet a child may catch the meaning of many a fact in history as truly as he will ever reach it later with the philosopher. True teaching of reading and language, then, gives power both to master and to interpret the facts of the other lessons ; and thus literature may unify and vitalize and shorten the program. Half asleep, one drones for two hours over what, awake, he masters in one. But such unifying and vitalizing demands much of the teacher. And this brings us to the greatest hindrance, and the only real hindrance, to the realization of these ideals in actual practice — our own limitations as teachers. But we may have undoubted faith in the teachers of this country. Let them squarely face their needs, and give to them the leader- ship that marches with the army and that carries into every day's march the inspiration of a leader filled with life and enthusiasm by the force of his own convictions ; then victory is certain. The hindrances will be overcome. That they exist is not the fault of our teachers, but is another evidence of the defect in our educational system that makes it possible to spend so many years in our schools, and even in our colleges, universi- ties, and schools of professional training, and come out without the proper equipment for this work. 'What are these needs which we must face? And how may we be helped to meet them ? I. We need larger conceptions of reading and of teaching reading, of language and of teaching language. If we would enter into a larger thought, let us listen to Carlyle, Ruskin, Emerson, and Stevenson, and learn from them the meaning of literature, of language, of art, and of Superintendence] LITERATURE IN GRADES AND HOW TO USE IT 7 1 true methods of teaching an art. Let us hold in thought these words of Carlyle : " Language is called the Garment of Thought ; it should rather be Language is the Flesh Garment, the Body of Thought." And again: " How can an inanimate, mechanical Gerund-grinder foster the growth of anything ; much more of Mind which grows not like a vegetable (by hav- ing the roots littered with etymological compost) but like a Spirit by mysterious contact of Spirit." Cannot a wise leader profitably spend an hour now and then in the consideration of these great thoughts with his co-workers? Would not the influence be felt by the children? 2. We need a broader knowledge and cultivated appreciation of the simple literature of the English language. Many a student that is able to quote Shakespeare, analyze Paradise Lost, and unravel the intricacies of Browning knows little or nothing of the great wealth of simple, beautiful poetry to which children respond as truly as does the grown man. Again Carlyle : " How shall he give kind- ling in whose inward man there is no Irve coal, but all is burnt out to a dead grammatical cinder?" To select the best literature to meet the condi- tions of a particular class of pupils at a particular time means a knowledge of the whole field that life is not too long to gain. Let not the " dead grammatical cinder" attempt to enter in; but let him resolutely and per- sistently keep himself in daily contact with the literature that has in it the spirit that kindles, and out of the gray ashes a spark will glow. To know the names of good poems and stories to use is not knowing them; to know about literature is not knowing it; to know it is to live with it. There is no other way. Hence, without knowing and loving literature, and being able to read and recite it sympathetically, truly to teach read- ing or language is impossible. 3. We need clearer insight into the mind and heart of child life for the wise selection and effective presentation of literature. In the book of the heart of childhood we read of love of home; love of father and mother, of sisters and brothers, and a half-parental love of the baby; love of flowers and birds and animals, and of personifying sun, moon, stars, wind, and all phenomena of nature; love of the heavenly Father, trust and faith in his goodness and wisdom; faith in a life in heaven as real as a life on earth; admiration of brave acts; love of playing at all the activities of mature life. In the book of the heart of the poet the same joys, loves, and aspirations are revealed by such poems as Wordsworth's " We Are Seven," Jean Ingelow*s " Seven Times One," Tennyson's " May Queen," Longfellow's " Children's Hour," Helen Hunt Jackson's " October and November," Alice Carey's " Order for a Picture," Lowell's " The Nest," Whittier's " In School Days " and " Snow Bound," Celia Thaxter's " Little Sand Piper," Eugene Field's " Wynken, Blynken and Nod," George McDonald's "The Baby," and many, many poems of 72 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati Stevenson. Goethe said : " How fortunate the young who know what art is I" And we add: "How fortunate the young whose teachers know what art isT* Is there not opened here a field for helpful, inspiring, and enjoyable meetings of teachers with superintendents and supervisors? Might they not do much to remove present limitations? Another great remedy for existing conditions must be found in our higher schools and schools of professional training. Some of them are making the true study of literature a part of the education of each student ; many are not. It should be demanded of all training schools for teachers that they recognize as an important part of their work the teaching to know, to appreciate, and to tell, to read, and to recite the gems of song and story that should become a part of the life of children. And this should be one of the required tests of a person's preparation for teaching in the grades. The revival will come when professional schools, teachers, and super- intendents unite in searching for the best literature to be used for, with, and by children ; when, loving and appreciating its thought and its beauty, they unite in studying the inner life of the child, and the best ways of making literature serve its great purpose in the development of the manifold powers of that inner life. That so many are thus searching and studying heralds the dawn of the new day. DISCUSSION Mrs. Josephine Heerman^, principal of Whittier School, Kansas City, Mo. — What question lies at the very root of the organization of our system of education for our youth? Without doubt it is the question of idealism. I mean by " idealism " the response of self- consciousness to the ideal ; or the effort of self-consciousness toward self-realization ; or the spiritual process of the growth of mind; or the development of the self from within; or, more simply, possibilities of reaction. Without idealism we shall have feeble mental reaction. The ultimate aim of education is many and perfect reactions. Idealism, liberating mental reactions, abstracts the truth from each study in the curriculum, assists discrimination, and makes that study a living force. These reactions cannot be taught by talking about them, nor by memorizing rules of any or all the studies, but may be developed and strengthened and permanently organized in various ways. We reach out to literature — "the fifth window of the soul," as Dr. Hafris expresses it — dealing as it does with the spiritual, as the most potent agent we have for developing idealism. The reactions of literature are conducive always to high thought and purpose ; they organize impulses into feeling, they nurture and augment feeling ; and feeling working thru will achieves character. Literature gives a certain power of adaptability and read- justment. Responsible individuality is best taught by contact with the institutions of society; yet literature pictures such contact and its results in terms of conduct, whtch patterns are supports to the child's need of experience. The child will and must build up a world of some kind in which his native reactions — fear, love, curiosity, etc. — modified or unmodified, play a large part. During the plastic period the influence of Superintendence] LITERATURE IN GRADES AND HOW TO USE IT 73 literature — active, corrective, and constructive — harmonizes these reactions with those of the group in which he lives, making possible for all the ethical life. Children are not getting conceptions of literature, to know them as such ; or at least they are very vague. They are getting something far more valuable — conceptions of life. They do not analyze niceties of construction, but they do analyze .sentiment, thought, conduct. They do picture ends more and more remote, and are influenced, on the side of feeling, to greater sympathy for others. Our graded S3rstem of education without literature is as the body without the spirit. The three highest activities of soul — the good, the true, and the beautiful — find an embodiment in literature. Who would defer their recognition ? Let the child know that these activities are in eternal correlation with himself. While no one today is without convictions as to the necessity of literature in the grades, here and there is one who thinks the difliculties of a course quite insurmountable ; others who would limit the American child, or the child taught* in American schools, to American literature; others who are indefinite as to whether literature in the grades includes supplementary reading of all kinds — geographical readers, historical readers, and the like ; and still others who, with minds open to the subject, are as yet unsettled as to its scope. I am familiar with the arguments concerning the difficulties involved in a " course " in literature, the principal one being that, because a course is of necessity selected, the teaching would lack spontaneity in case a teacher was not assigned the particular poet or writer of her choice ; or, worse, the teacher might not care for literature at all, and * would kill rather than awaken an interest. While there is something in that argument, there is not much. A course in literature, whether in college, high school, or elementary school, must be selected and must be taught by some one selected to teach it. Such teacher cannot hope to limit her teaching to her especial choice of writers. The truth is that we have in the grades many teachers of a catholicity of taste which enables them not only to enjoy for themselves, but to lead others to enjoy, the essential excellencies of a great number of writers, writers as dissimilar as Shakespeare and Shelley, Ruskin and Dickens, Tennyson and Browning. Taking schools as they are, the selective power could not be left to the teachers, for the simple reason that such a course would lack organization and unity. It is left to them in a measure in this way: How does Homer stand in your regard ? Which do you prefer, Ruskin, Hawthorne, or Dickens ? Could you make a class of pupils understand The Rime of the Ancient Mariner? The answers determine what authors could be satfely committed to them. Good common-sense and careful, conscientious teaching vitalize literature the same as other studies; and we must not forget that literature is one thing that does its own work largely, for the results are only measured by the power of the literature itself. Its ardor and flow negative any teacher. True literature, poetry, or prose always transports. It is not desirable to make a set course in literature for every school in a system, as is done in arithmetic, grammar, and geography; but each school should have a course fitted to the conditions of that school, just as manual -training courses, to be effective, recognize and meet the conditions of special environment. The supply of literature is limitless, and substitutions and modifications are easily made. Who should make this course ? It must be one who knows and loves literature. It is not a question of official position, but one of ideas and ideals. It must be one who sees in literature the spirit of art, of culture, of morality, of love of nature, of patriotism, of sympathy, and knows where and when in the period of elementary education to build these into the spiritual nature of the child. It might be a joint work. However made, we should reach out our hands to the teaching body to assist with suggestions ; and after the course is made, it should be elastic enough to admit of substitutions and reinforcement, as conditions suggest. 74 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnari Its literary product is the best thing any nation has to show, from the days of Homer and of Moses until now. But this same product is rarely great during the infancy of a nation. Those who put all their stress on our national literature limit us unreasonably. In developing our history we revert often to the reign of Elizabeth, but what event in her reign compares with the fact that it was the age of Spencer and of Shakespeare? Shall we bar Shakespeare because not an American ? Our history takes us to England, Germany, France, Spain, when dealing with religious intolerance; yet the history of centuries of religious intolerance is epitomized in Lessing's Nathan the Wise, Shall we bar the classic because it is not American ? Surely we must have as much freedom in literature as we have in history. History is great, but literature is greater. History may be likened to Saul, literature to David. We love our national life, but we have no more right to limit our children to its literature than we have to ignore the influence of other nations on its history; no more right to limit to American literature than to American art. We gladly adorn our schools with Greek, French, German, Italian, and English art in casts of world-famed sculpture, prints of painting and architecture, doing this for the influence of the world-spirit; yet shall we bar the world-spirit in literature ? In a practical course of literature for the grades, myth, legend, poetry, the drama, and strong prose must each have its place. The Hebrew, the Greek, Shakespeare, the English, and the American poets and prose writers must each render tribute (and I should like to add a little bit of Victor Hugo and Heine and Lessing). These writers should come to the grades with texts perfect and unmutilated. We want literature that is pure, serious, stern, joyful, truly educative ; our purpose in its selection being culture, and not information. One of the many temptations in planning a course of reading is to go outside real literature and to overload the course with informational reading, scientific or historical. This is a great mistake. While realizing the limitations of my sphere of observation, I wish to speak of my own experience with a course that has been in successful operation nine years. In organizing the course the aim has been simplicity and thoroness. The object is not to cover the largest possible field, but the reverse of that. For the time being the child is consecrated to one book until he understands it as well as he is capable of understanding it. The course is presented on the opposite page. There is some organization of the subject-matter of the literature to harmonize with the absorbing interest of each particular stage of advancement. Hiawatha^ Robinson Crusoe^ Ethics of the Dust^ and many of the legends and short poems appeal to the con- structive instinct of the young child ; later, in the highest grades, literature teeming with causal sequences is chosen. Some effort is made to place emphasis upon the social and economic conditions portrayed in each classic, but the main object in the grades is not to study in a minute and detailed way, but to read and enjoy and converse freely about each, making of it an influence penetrative and strong. In the first grade are the Greek mjrths, based upon nature, and the Hebrew stories as found in the Old Testament. Hebrew does not stop there. It reappears in each grade in the form of passages from the Old Testament written on the blackboard ; not with the indefinite word " Bible " underneath, but the particular book from whence it came, as Isaiah, Psalms, Joel, etc. These are changed frequently. Each blackboard has an extract also from some world-poet, "jewels, five words long" — poets not^ read in the grades ; and on some little corner of the blackboard in all the upper grades is the permanent tabulation : Homer. 1500 Shakespeare. X900 Dante. x6oo Milton. Z300 Chaucer. z8oo Goethe. The work in the first grade is memory work, the myths and stories being told to the children until they give them back. We have a simple dramatization of the myths. The children assume the characters necessary to the development of each story, using Saperintendence] LITERATURE IN GRADES AAD HOW TO USE IT 75 COURSE OF STUDY Grade I < Prose Poetiy Prose Grade II < Poetiy <( r Stories of Moees, Joshua, Gideon. Myths of Clytie, Selene, Eos, Hasphestus, Demeter, Hermes, Apollo, Poseidon, ■ etc. •' The Children's Hour." " The Village Blacksmith." *^ Seven Times One." •* Lady Moon." «* The Winds." " Persephone." Poems from Gardtn of Verse, etc. Stories of Jephthah, Saul, David, Absalom, Rizpah, Solomon, Sheba, etc '" Hiawatha "—entire poem. " In School Days." " Thanksgiving Day." " A Visit from St. Nicholas." " The Com Song." " Kitty." " Barefoot Boy." •* The First Snowfall." *' King Solomon and die »» Grade III Prose Poetry Bees. ^ Wonder Book, Robinson Crusoe, Greek Stories. King of the Golden River, r"The Daffodils" (Words- worth). "The Sand Piper." " Icarus." "By Cool Siloam*s Shady Rill." " Lyric from Pippa Passes.** " The Star-Spangled Banner." " The Dandelion " (Lowell). "The Snow Storm." " March." " Robert of Lincoln." " The May Queen," Part I. " G»ndmother*s Story of Bunker Hill." Grade IV { Pilgrim's Progress, Prose -j Ra6 and His Friends, X^Etkics oftke Dust, " Paul Revere." " Sheridan's Ride." " Annabel Lee." "To a Water Fowl." '*Calm on Listening Ear of Night." " America." " Home, Sweet Home." " Burial of Moses" (Alexander). " Landing of Pilgrim Fathers. " Lexington.** The Building of the Ships.'* Poetry ** it Grade V Prose Poetry Grade VI < Grade VII- \ Gentle Boy, 1 Stories from the Hebrew, " Odyssey** (Bryant's transla- tion) . *' Evangeline.*' ." Miles Standish.** jy^ f The Tempest or The Merchant 1 of Venice, ' Christmas Carol, Prose " Sesame and Lilies, Lincoln's Gettysburg Speech, ("Iliad" (Bryant's translation). " Vision of Sir Launfal.** " Lays of Ancient Rome." "Ancient Mariner.** ( Julius Ceesar^ The Tempest, Drama| ^^ ^^^ Merchant of Venice, (■Mosses from an Old Manse, Emerson's essay on Nature or Character, Declaration of Independence. (Constitution of the United States. Drama-{ Macbeth or Henry V, Piose - Poetry »» "Idylls of the King.' "The Lady of the Lake.** "The Princess.** " Enoch Aiden.** " Snow Bound." mounted pictures correct as to costume and accessories, each holding the picture of the character he represents. In the lowest grades the literature is further impressed by using as copy in the writ- ing exercise a line from whatever story they are studying, as : *' Ruth gleaned in the fields," " Apollo drives the sun chariot," etc. The object in these grades is expression. This work is done in the language period, because the reading periods in the first and half of the second grade are fully occupied with the formal side of reading. Beginning with the last term of the second grade, the reading periods are devoted to literature. Myths are chosen because childhood loves the symbolic. Myths bring nature nearer. Myths are an attractive and convenient medium to teach the glory and power and con- stancy of nature, and man's relation, whether of subjection or of dominion, to it. In 76 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati different garb it is the same thing that we find in Job, chaps. 38 and 39 : " Where is the way where light dwelleth and as for darkness where is the place thereof ? " I think it is Emerson who says : " The universe has three children, born at one time, which reappear under different names in every system of thought, whether they be called Cause, Opera- tion, and Effect, or more poetically Jove, Pluto, Neptune." How fitting that each gen- eration should first apprehend poetically what later it must struggle with poetically ! The Greek thought reappears several times in the course. In the third grade the Wonder Book is read ; in the fifth grade the Odyssey (Books V, VI, VII, VIII, XIII) and in the sixth grade the //iW(Books I, VI, XXII. XXIV) occupy three months of school life. These are placed before the drama because of their simplicity, their steadiness, and their repose. In one sense they prepare for the strenuousness and conventionality of Shakes- peare. The great lesson of Homer, that everybody needs everybody, finds a ready acceptance with the children of the fifth and sixth grades. Wherever we use the Greek thought, we link it with some expression of our own time ; with the mjrth of the sea- sons in Jean Ingelow's " Persephone ; " John G. Saxe's poem supplements the story of Icarus ; Tennyson's " Ulysses " accompanies Odysseus. Literature is like other arts in one respect. It includes subject and treatment. There is a wide scope in treatment which must be intelligently recognized. Literature in the grade means the pure joy of sympathy. All the method required is to stimulate S3rm- pathy and to make the impression profound and dominating. It is not the place for detailed study, for etymology or structural analysis ; not the place " to chase a panting syllable thru time and space ; start it at home, and hunt it in the dark, to Gaul, to Greece, and into Noah's Ark." In the second grade Longfellow's Hiawatha is read entire. The whole poem is idealized nature study. But its great value for second-grade work is in its rhythm. Children delight in rhythm. It satisfies some unrecognized idea of self-activity. It was while searching for this principle that I found this splendid encouragement from Plato {Republic). In effect he says : " Rhythm sinks most deeply into the recesses of the soul, bringing a just disdain for the unlovely and a commendation for the beautiful. The child receives it, feeds upon it, and grows to be noble and good before he is able to be reasoned with, and when reason comes welcomes her and recognizes her by the instinct of relationship, because he has been thus nurtured." Somewhere in the intermediate part of the course it is necessary to introduce some strong prose to give word, phrase, and sentence practice, intelligently connected with the thought back of the words. This is hard work, but not too hard for the fourth grade. Soft pedagogy should be left behind by this time. For this purpose we have used in the last half of the fourth grade Ruskin's Ethics of the Dust. It gives fine opportunity for verbal reaction, not to mention its value on the character side. Most refreshing are the children's interpretations of the author's message, which is, in the words of N. D. Hillis, " that goodness is more than gold, and character outweighs intellect." Of all that Ruskin has written, this is the book in which he speaks directly to the child. The prose in the course includes a complete book or essay of Holmes, Hawthorne, Irving, Emerson, Bunyan, Defoe, Dr. John Brown, Ruskin, Dickens ; certain American state papers and certain fine passages from the Old Testament. This range secures familiarity with many different styles of literary composition. Beginning with the fifth grade and continuing thruout the course, we read a book a term, usually in this order : fall term, prose ; winter term, a drama ; spring term, poetry. Sometimes it is necessary to change this order. One word about the drama. Pupils of ward-school age do respond to the strong demands made by the drama. In these plays pupils are confronted with the institutional life of man. The impressions are strong. The reactions of condemnation or approval are also strong, suggesting the strength ol their own springs of action. Imagination is kept active, and enthusiasm follows naturally. Superintendence] LITERATURE IN GRADES AND HOW TO USE IT 77 In choosing plays for the pupils in the grades there is much to consider. The Tem- pest, The Merchant of Venice, Julius Casar, Macbeth, and Henry V. are all suitable. There is no reason why pupils should not read at least three of these before entering the high school. There are short poems by our American poets that are linked with our national existence and must find a place in any course. These are classics in the best sense of the word, and must be made sacred to every American child. " The Building of the Ship " contains the spirit of our nation. It alone would keep alive patriotism. Add to it " Paul Revere," "Lexington," "Grandmother's Story of Bunker Hill," "The Star-Spangled Banner," and we have a national preservative force. Besides the course as outlined in this paper, which means reading carefully done, we have many sets of supplementary readers, some of them literature in the truest sense, and a small collection of authors not in the course, for reference. It may be interesting to state that we have two other means of growth and of impressing this work. One of these is organized composition work — a composition each month in all grades above the second, based on the literature of that grade. The other effective agency is a course in literature for the teachers' meeting, held once a month. We began these meetings many years- ago, with the study of American authors. We worked backward to Chaucer, and then worked forward again to Browning. We did not study by periods or schools, but simply by reading to the point of saturation. That this has had its influence in strengthening our work is a fact that needs no comment. We have had a training school of our own. I look upon this course for the grades as suggestive merely. It might be amplified or it might be reduced. Miss Florence Holbrook, principal of Forestville School, Chicago, 111. — What is literature ? Has it a place in the elementary schools ? If so what literature shall be 'Selected, and how shall it be presented ? Literature is the most perfect tapestry woven in the loom of Time that has escaped the moth of decay. Observing it closely, we enter into the lives of those who otherwise would be unknown. Their thoughts of nature and of God ; their hopes and fears ; their struggles, victories, and defeats; their loves and hates; their weakness and their strength ; their ideals of life and of conduct — all are revealed for our instruction and our delight. The literature of a race is the form in which its life is preserved ; when all else is destroyed this remains on stone, or brick, or scroll. In all true literature the unnecessary and transitory has disappeared — only that is left which is vital, which the thought demands. As is true of all the arts, literature delights in the simplicity which is consistent with perfection of form, with grace and beauty. Paint4ng and sculpture appeal to our souls thru the eye, music to our emo- tions thru the ear, but literature reaches the intellect and emotions thru both eye and ear. The eye reads and the thoughts delight the mind, but for full enjoyment the music of the voice must be added. The perfection of form, the beauty of word and phrase, are then doubly felt and a twofold pleasure obtained. The beatitudes of literature have been the theme of those competent to judge and praise in all ages. The joy we feel from the study of any masterpiece should be the por- tion of every soul. Do we, teachers, really believe that this joy is the inheritance of every- one, or that only a few, specially gifted, can comprehend, enjoy, and profit by the words of the greatest teachers ? Do we believe that literature can be taught to pupils in the elementary schools? Then it will soon have its rightful proportion of the school day; for teachers will be found who are ready and willing to undertake the work, and whom expe- rience will make successful. There is no class of children in our public schools for whom there is not some classic tale or ballad or drama suitable and inspiring. The more stolid the pupils, the greater 78 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cmciimati the need for reading which possesses the divine spark of genius. The highest, purest thought expressed in the most artistic and natural way will most quickly arouse them to appreciation and intellectual activity. " No one can afford to be influenced by one man alone." Men and books and nature are our teachers, and when the class-room teacher can stand aside and let the genius of the master-minds of the world appeal to the pupil, the growth under that impulse will reward her sacrifice of self. Instruction in literature should begin with the first day*s work in school and should be continued during the eight years for at least a half -hour a day. The material will be found in fairy-story, in myth, in fable, in legend, and in lyric, epic, and dramatic poem. The literature given to the pupil should not be adulterated, but should be *' pure and undefiled." The teacher selects some story or poem, and continues the reading of it from day to day until the entire story or poem has been read. The literature given to the class is not to be excerpts, but wholes. This reading by the teacher of matter too difiicult for them to read trains the pupils in attention, concentration, memory. They are getting lessons in beauty of style and in beautiful reading. They long to be able to read for themselves these charming stories. Short poems are selected for the pupil to commit ; and in this way his mind is filled with beautiful images, he is trained to exactness in memory, and his vocabulary is increased. Myths and stories are read or told to him for reproduction in dramatization. This is a most valuable exercise. In dramatizing a story, in reproducing it by action, gesture, and word, the pupil makes the impression more vivid, more real ; as in constructing a box which has been described, or in drawing an object placed before him. Children are constantly " playing " many parts. Their imagination and their desire for action lead them into the dramatic way of expressing themselves. Another exercise for the pupil is to reproduce the story in his own words. The' teacher reads or tells the class some beautiful myth. A child is asked to repeat the story. In doing so, altho words and even phrases are quoted, he is making original efforts at composition. Learning to read is so difficult a task in itself that it should be made as interesting as possible. To appeal to the child's imagination and love for the beautiful ; to work in harmony with his interest ; to reveal a phase of life that appeals to his love for nature and animals — will be the care of the thoughtful teacher, and the result will be an ever-present joy to both. It will not do to make the beginning of reading formal, a matter of "words, words, words." He should read always for the thought, and therefore literature and reading should not be separated. Whatever the child reads should be simple in thought} artistic in form, and choice in vocabulary — a work of literary art. Such reading is train- ing the child along the right line, and the beauty and value of books will never be ques- tioned by pupils who have been nourished by mental food — a question often put by those whose eager and docile minds were smothered in the chaff of reading books written down to what was supposed to be the child's vocabulary and mental ability. The work thus begun is continued in the second grade. The story or poem which the teacher read to them in first grade may now be read by the pupils. Children never tire of the repetition of a good story, and will even resent any deviation from the original form. Kipling realized this in his/«j/ So Stories. No objection need be made if many words and phrases of the story are repeated in the oral or written reproduction. Not many an adult invents words or phrases, but uses those he has heard or read. The memo- rizing of expressions is not required, and variety is found among the versions of the chil- dren as would be found if a number of adults repeated the same story. It is difficult to separate the work in literature from the work in oral and written composition, for the desire is not only to find enjoyment in literature, but to gain the power to express our Superintendence] LITERATURE IN GRADES AND HOW TO USE IT 79 own thoughts. This ability is improved by the daily contact with great literary treas- ures. For the child's reading the folklore of primitive peoples is adapted. The legends current among many tribes, tho differing slightly in form, childlike and simple, appeal to the child's imagination. The myth of Indian, Scandinavian, or Greek is excellent in many ways. The thought is not complex ; the child lives in the midst of the phenomena of nature, whose beauty and grandeur form the subject of the myth. The simple myth is short and can be heard and repeated as a whole, and the knowledge gained is valuable as a preparation for the understanding and consequent enjoyment of the literature, music, and art of the world-, based so largely upon the mythology of the primitive races. The training of the pupil in literature, then, in the primary grades consists in ( i ) hearing a ballad or legend read by the teacher; (2) memorizing choice poems; (3) dramatizing fairy-story and fable; (4) reading literature, namely, fairy-story, fable, myth, legend, and poem ; and (5) reproducing them in the form of oral composition, a written paper, or in dramatization. The same general plan should continue thruout the grammar grades when the Iliad zxlA Odyssey y the stories of Siegfried, Beowulf, Balder, and King Arthur are studied and dramatized. Some of the dramas of Shakespeare, the Antigone of Sophicles, are studied committed, and given by the classes. The poems of Emerson, Lowell, Whittier, Scott, Bums, Browning, and many others are studied, enjoyed, and made part of the intellec- tual life. With these older children who have had the experience of reading many beauti- ful things, more time and attention are given to the artistic form of the production, to the style of the author, and in the written work more conscious attention is bestowed upon the beauty of word and phrase. The main thing, however, is the thought. If one really has a thought he considers valuable and wishes to communicate, a good expres- sion will be forthcoming. Style can be improved, doubtless, but if the thought is lackiQg, the result will resemble a dummy clad in rich garments. Uniformity in our work in literature should not be insisted upon ; nay, it should not even be considered wise. The districts in large cities vary much, and the work in every school should be what is best for the pupils then and there. So even in the same school two classes in the same grade may well study different selections, each chosen with a view to the need of the class. Whatever literature the teacher of the class especially delights in, that will generally be best for the pupils. Her enthusiasm will inspire them. Famous results have been obtained from the Fairie Queene, The Ancient Mariner ^ the Nibe- Jungen Lied, RoHnson Crusoe, Emerson's Essays, Browning's Saul, because the teacher was herself under the spell of the authors' genius. The beauty which is inherent in literature is of itself a joy, a power, an enrichment of life ; but, more than all this, the moral and spiritual nature is appealed to and nourished by the lessons which no truly great literature lacks. I do not mean that the moral must he insisted upon ; that might, indeed, prevent the very result we desire. But the lessons of true courage, friendship, honor, loyalty, patriotism, self-sacrifice, and devotion to prin- •ciple which are found in legend, poem, and drama all have their benign influence upon -character. Many other studies should have their places in our elementary schools, and they all have special claims to our approval. But if individual responsibility to the government, to humanity, and to the higher self is to be taught, the one great means — omitting direct religious training, which is the province of the church — is literature. As long as good books are the power for right-thinking and right-living, for joy, inspiration, and comfort we know them to be, our ever-present teachers and guides, let us value our responsibility and lead our pupils to know, to love, and to appreciate good literature. So NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati ROUND TABLE PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS A, ROUND TABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY SUFERIN- TENDENTS TO WHAT EXTENT AND IN WHAT FORM SHOULD THE MANUAL- TRAINING IDEA BE EMBODIED IN PUBLIC-SCHOOL WORK? W. O. THOMPSON, PRESIDENT OF OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, O. It is not the purpose of this paper to enter into the discussion of the merits of manual training in a system of education ; nor is it expected that the discussion will set forth a model course of study in which definite place and proportion shall be given to the several studies. It is understood that we are to consider the general place of manual training in the public schools. This at once leaves out of consideration the question of manual training or the equipment for it in specially favored localities where manual-training high schools are in operation. Our question is whether in the broad field of the public schools in cities, villages, and rural districts there is any place that now may be wisely given over to manual training. It may help toward a conclusion if we give attention to a few considerations bearing on the general aim of the public schools. I. Here, first, I remark that we should keep in full view that the results desired in the public school are educational and not commercial. We are familiar with the pressure for a low grade of commercial education often felt in the public schools, backed by the theory that it helps toward a livelihood. People fail to take the broader view that education should prepare for life rather than for a particular type of life. The public schools have frequently been criticised because in their desire to meet popular demand there has been a departure from the best methods in education. In much the same way manual training has suffered at the hands of its professed friends. The so-called practical man has looked upon it as a form of education intended to help boys and girls to a livelihood. Such people would make the public school a trade school whose duty it is to stand for skill in a particular craft rather than for the all-around development of mind and body. Public education thus is transformed into a private convenience. The true theory is that the public school is organized for efficiency in citizenship ; for the symmetrical development of the child's powers ; for such training of these powers as will minister to their harmonious use in manhood ; and for that broad sympathy with mankind that is the best fruit of education. Under this conception every subject that commands a place in our courses of study must take its place in young life in such a way as to lay the foundation for whatever demands the future may make. Moreover, these subjects are all preparatory in character. It is not presumed that elementary education may be anything else. It is to train pupils for experience rather than to give them experience. 2. A second consideration is that manual training is educational in character and fills an evident gap in our educational scheme. It is readily understood that the older forms of education made the claim that they trained and developed the intellect, cultivated the will, and in general gave such exercise to the natural powers as to produce normal, healthy growth in pupils. It is not worth while to dispute that claim. Later the invasion of science into school courses has estab- lished its value in developing the powers of observation, in demanding accuracy, in Superintendence] STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS ' 8 1 i calling for the use of the judgment, and indeed in a number of ways exercising the same faculties called into use by the older education. Now it needs no argument, but a mere statement, to show that manual training does much of the same work. Observation, comparison, accuracy, judgment, are the alphabet of. manual training. Indeed, they are actively at work in the kindergarten. There is as much of any of these in shoving a plane as in shoving a pen. From the viewpoint of training or discipline one may be as useful as the other. On the educational value of manual training. Superintendent Seaver has said : " Manual training is essential to the right and full development of the human mind, and therefore no less beneficial to those who are not going to become artisans than to those who are. The workshop method of instruction is of great educational value, for it brings the learner face to face with the facts of nature ; his mind increases in knowledge by direct personal experience with forms of matter and manifestations of force. No mere words intervene. The manual exercises of the shop train mental power, rather than load the memory ; they fill the mind with the solid merchandise of knowledge, and not with its empty packiAg-cases." Under this training manual dexterity becomes the evidence of a certain kind of mental alertness and power. There is here a correlation of the powers of mind and body that makes for the mastery and freedom toward which all education leads. This feature is overlooked by many. It is but common experience to see young men, freshmen at college, who can neither walk, write, sit, or perform any other function that requires a graceful use of the body. In other words, the correlation of mind and body has been neglected. The result is not merely awkwardness, but a great loss of power and efficiency. Not one high-school graduate in ten could estimate, in a reasonable time, within six inches the length of a string or a board that would measure six feet and seven inches. This is a typical illustration of a lack of training in comparison. The boy who cannot use his eyes, his hands, or his feet with any degree of accuracy must be excused from all those exercises of reason and judgment that imply this correlation of mind and body. It is evident, too, that he lives in a confused world and is incapable of that clear thinking which should mark the well-educated person. Do not regard this as illustrating an extreme case. The high-school graduate will *do as well as the college graduate. I mean to say that the incompleteness of our education is most manifest and that manual training is meeting a recognized deficiency. It is confidently affirmed, therefore, that manual training is justified from pedagogical considerations. Nothing stimulate^ and quickens the intellect more than the use of mechanical tools, when used under the direction of competent teachers. The boy who constructs is the boy who thinks, deliberates, reasons, and concludes. The training of the eye and the hand reacts upon the brain and calls out powers not developed by memory- processes in language or the discipline of mathematics. 3. A third consideration is that manual training in the schools does not imply that we are to develop a system of trade schools. The appeal for trade schools fails to note that they are utterly impracticable in the public schools, owing to the large number of trades, since each one would have an equal claim ; it fails to note that the unlimited expense for such a proposition defeats the whole plan, and it fails to note the narrowing effect upon children to have a few trades represent the channel in which their lives are to flow. Moreover, a trade cannot be well taught in a school. The economic questions of time in construction, quality of material used, differ- ent methods ot producing, and other questions of ordinary competition in business are as necessary to the successful mastery of a trade as the mechanical side of it. All this is outside of the possibilities of the schoolroom. To attempt such results would only end in disappointment and failure, and bring against the school the charge of being theoretical and not practical. Education is a slow and continuous process. Manual training in our public schools should put emphasis upon the educational values, leaving out of consideration the elements 82 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati of time, expense, and others properly in view by the mechanic. The questions with refer- ence to what shall be done, material used, and all similar questions should be determined by the teacher from educational, and not from commercial, considerations. In view of these personal considerations I now offer a few suggestions upon the extent , of manual training in the public schools : 1. I believe that manual training opens the way to lengthen the school day with decided advantage to all pupils so engaged. I hear the protest against lengthening, but as a parent I strongly advocate it, provided we do not lengthen the hours of ordinary school work. Manual training, if properly presented, will furnish an opportunity to relieve the tension of desk study by furnishing a laboratory at once wholesome and pleasing to the child. The shop exercises need not interfere with the ordinary schedule to any serious amount, but, if properly adjusted, would interfere with some usual, but not very useful, exercises between the close of school and the close of day. The protest against the con- finement of the school does not apply to manual training, since it provides for healthful change of occupation. It would strengthen and not overtax the nerves. 2. Provision being thus made for a reasonable portion of time, I believe manual train- ing should be kept as a continuous subject from the kindergarten to the end of public- school work. The danger arises from our impatience. Let us not attempt too much in a given year. Let the educational process continue from year to year. The arrangement of a schedule so that a definite portion of each day could be assigned to every student would in the several years prove its wisdom. 3. If by the term "extent" it was meant to ask when manual training should be con- sidered completed, as we complete history or algebra, I should say there was no limit. Not skill, but growth in skill, is the measure of the course where education is desired. Manual training would never be completed. I cannot imagine a time or a condition in which the shop would not furnish an opportunity for the pupil. 4. The question of expense is an ever-present one. It must be conceded that manual training involves some expense, but it is not unreasonable in its requirements. Besides, the equipment may always be a matter of growth. In most cases to install a complete system would invite failure. This type of education, like all others, needs time, and will produce its best results if introduced conservatively. The time may never come when it will be either desirable or possible for the isolated rural school to teach more than the elementary drawing, but most of our villages would do well for both the intellect and the morals of its pupils to invest in a good shoproom. This provision for the idle hours of the day to many village pupils would be a valuable investment for any community and could be defended on economic grounds. 5. The expense of any program is, of course, determined largely by the amount the school undertakes. The answer to this question in some degree answers the question of the form in which this subject should be taught. In most schools where manual training has been introduced the year includes the workshop, drawing, mathematics, some science, and a language. If the school is divided into sections, the shopwork might go almost continuously in case of large schools, or at convenient hours in case of smaller schools. To provide for drawing and woodwork is not a very expensive matter. In many villages the building might be separate and inexpensive, so that after a shop was once furnished the pay of a competent teacher would be the chief item of expense. The material used need not be a very serious consideration. The second year does not differ largely, except in the modifications of the subjects already presented. Shopwork, science, language, drawing, and mathematics usually make up the program. It is common to change the science of the course; to have some progress in mathematics and drawing, and some change in the shopwork. The work in wood is followed by work in iron and the metals. There is no necessity, however, to bind ourselves to a definitely fixed program, with a determination to accomplish a certain quantity of manual training within a year, or indeed Superintendence] STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 83 within the three years. It is necessary ordinarily to teach in groups or classes, but not at all necessary to burden the school with the necessity of completing a definite amount of work. As already intimated, the great problem is the educational problem. Even if the school stops short of the desires of the pupil in that matter, it has made a great gain by inspiring in them a love for some form of work, and by leaving them with the well- settled conviction that they have not learned everything. 6. In this connection let me say that it is of greatest importance that the teaching of such subjects be done by persons trained in schools of manual training under proper peda- gogical influence, with the purpose of making manual training a part of the system of education. No greater mistake is current than the common theory that a mechanic would be the best instructor in such subjects. Many a good mechanic for commercial purposes would be a complete failure in the schoolroom. The important aims and objects of the public schools must not be diverted by any false notion of the place of manual training in education. We are not attempting to train mechanics, any more than when we teach algebra we are training engineers. We are simply laying the foundation upon which any technical education may be built, or, if no further time is given to education in the schools, we are laying a foundation for intelligent and sympathetic citizenship. In conclusion it may be stated that the amount of technical training given in the public schools will be determined largely by circumstances. Local conditions may be more efficient in settling this question than any theory that might be presented. I'he important issue is to get recognition for this phase of education, and it may be safely asserted that the future will easily take care o^ the place of the subject in the curriculum. The consensus of opinion among teachers that the subject has a place in our public schools and the willingness to begin modestly will steadily solve the problem. DISCUSSION Principal E. W. Wilkinson, Cincinnati, O.— It seems to me that the paper was bristlmg with common-sense. I hesitate to address this audience on a subject in which I have had so little experience, but there are one or two points to which I desire to give hearty commendation. I have manual training in the schools over which I preside. I have heard much discussion about it, but I have never before heard the statement made that manual training is a purely local issue. But it is a fact. The farmer's boy has not a great deal of need for manual training. When the plow breaks down and it is three or four miles to the nearest carpenter shop, it is not good policy to take a boy and a horse away from the work that is pressing and send the plow to the shop to be mended. The plow is mended at home. The boy gets plenty of experiences such as this, and he does not stand in need of instruction in such arts at school as does the boy from the city, who has no such outside training. What does the girl do on the farm ? She helps her mother with the housework ; she washes the dishes ; does the cooking ; puts up the fruit, and dries or cans the com ; and does all manner of similar work. Of course you can go to the store now and buy a can of com for eight cents that is almost as good as that which the girl used to help her mother put up, and so there is no need for the city girl to learn things of fhis sort In the cities and in places where the children do not get manual training at home, it is our duty to give a sufficient amount of manual training so that the brain and the hand shall work in harmony, for that is, after all, the real object of manual- training instruction. It is in the city schools and in the schools of the larger villages where manual training should be taken up. It is not the purpose to make the boys and girls artisans and seamstresses. It is simply to help them to become able to help themselves. If the mind and the muscle work together, they both realize their highest efficiency. If we can get the minds and the bodies to act promptly and in harmony with each other, we have aided the child greatly. 84 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati SUPERINTENDFNT CHARLES H. CoLE, Martinsburg, W. Va. — Why could not manual training in the grades well teach the elements of some of the common trades, and why should it be regarded as purely educational instead of partly technical ? President Thompson. — First, manual training is an educational feature and not an artisan feature ; second, when you turn aside to teach something you yourself do not know, you make a botch of the whole thing. All the students are not preparing for the same sphere or occupation. Here is a boy who wants to study for a particular craft. If he wants instruction in that occupation, that is his particular business, and does not concern the pupils who are not expecting to follow that occupation, and the boy should get the work he wants in the proper way ; but we should not make the public schools a private affair in such a way as this would indicate. As a matter of fact, the elements of the common trades are taught in manual training, but emphasis should be put upon the educational feature and not upon the artisan feature. Supervisor George H. Martin, Boston, Mass. — I venture to speak of manual training in cities and in the larger towns, and, to a considerable extent, in the villages of the country. In the evolution of society, the children have been largely taken out of touch with the external world. They are out of touch with natural products and natural forces. They are out of touch with what the pioneer child got in the home, in the field, in the forest. The new things in the new education are explained and justified by this, and they have grown out of the efforts to replace to the child those things he has missed from those older days. This must be the justification for all that we have had in the way of manual training. It is to rehabilitate the child, and to bring him again to his own. The practical question is : To what extent and in what way shall this be brought about ? In a small community which I know the school authorities have started with the idea that the whole school life should be correlated with the home life, and that the work of the schools should be made to harmonize thruout with the home life. One of the things they have introduced is the school garden. This introduces the child as early as the first grade to nature, and brings him into touch with the home life of the community. The ground is prepared, the seed is planted, the plants are tended and cared for, the products are harvested and sold, the financial accounts are kept by the children of the school, and all their garden work results in the furnishing of an abundance of mateiial helpful in their other school work. The sewing by the girls is connected with the needs of the home; the children bring in whatever piece of work the mother wishes to have done. By means of the cooking, home life is enriched. In towns near the sea, hammock- and net-making have been introduced into the school. Some attempt has been made to have the younger children practice some of the industries of the primitive peoples — the weaving of mats and of baskets, and the making and decorating of pottery. The pupils have constructed a *house the walls of which are papered with paper of their own design, and hung with pictures which they have drawn and colored. The floors are covered with mats of their own weaving, and sets of furniture of cardboard have been made for all the rooms. In all these ways the school and home have been brought closer together. This experiment is being worked out in the State Normal School at Hyannis, Mass. State Superintendent Delos Fall, of Michigan. — The modem course of study is fearfully and wonderfully made. It has grown from the traditional three R's, because every once in a while some person has arisen and insisted that his specialty shall be put into the course ; and so we have a long list in the curriculum now. I think we can reduce the course in a practical way, not only back to the three R's, but to two R's. One of these is in character essentially the power to read or to acquire knowledge, and the other is the ability to impart that knowledge after it is acquired ; and this in its essential char- Superintendence] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRALNLNG SCHOOLS 85 acter is the art of writing. Manual training receives commendation, not only from the power which it gives the student to use his knowledge of a subject, but also, in one way or another, to express his thoughts clearly and fluently. All men think, and their thoughts come surging up for utterance, but out of twenty men who have the thoughts only one can express them fluently by the ordinary method, by word of mouth. The majority of people utter their thoughts methodically by the hand, and not by the word of mouth. The fact that we have failed to recognize this is the reason why we have disregarded manual training so long. The carpenter in his sawing and planing, in all his work, has a thought which he is trying to utter — a thought that is far-reaching and broad. When, by the aid of lumberand tools, nails, paint, putty, and all the other materials of his craft, he has finished his work, he has erected a house. The thought of the carpenter is as rich, as far-reaching, and as blessed to the world as the word which we think of as the most blessed word in the English language, the word that we might write above the door of that carpenter's house when he has completed it, and which he has been holding In mind in all his building of the house. I feel that manual training is a subject which will enable children to express them- selves lucidly in ways which many of them will easily master, when the majority of them would not be able to express themselves in the ordinary way. State Superintendent C. J. Baxter, Trenton, N. J. — I can hardly agree with those who regard manual training as a " local issue " and who think it would not serve a useful purpose in the rural school. All children should be so trained that the motor nerves and voluntary muscles will respond promptly and accurately to the dictates of the mind ; all need the balance and precision that the correct training of hand and eye alone can give. It has been asserted that high-school' pupils are sometimes awkward and helpless. I think this can be said with equal truth of some college students. This is because they have not been symmetrically developed. I think the manual- training school should, wherever practicable, be supplemented by the technical school, but do not think we should attempt to introduce technical training into the public school. It is not the province of manual training to make mechanics. It fulfills its purpose in this respect when its provides a good foundation for future technical training. B. ROUND TABLE OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS AND CITY TRAINING SCHOOLS THE ORGANIZATLON AND FUNCTION OF THE TRAINING SCHOOL IN THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL WILBUR H. bender, SUPERVISOR OF ADVANCED TRAINING DEPARTMENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CEDAR FALLS, lA. The purpose of the state normal school is to prepare teachers for the public schools of the state. In the qualifications of the teacher there are three distinct elements that the normal school may assume to have a direct influence in developing. These three ele- ments are: (i) scholarship, or academic attainments; (2) a workable knowledge of the science of education, the laws of mental development, and the consequent laws of teach- ing ; (3) definite, personal skill in the art of teaching. A fourth element that lies outside the immediate influence of any school is that mysterious something that we name " per- sonality." While this qualification is not subject to such direct treatment as the others, there is often marked improvement in the personality of the student thru the sensible 86 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincbmad direction that he receives in the effort made to call out his highest powers in the more definable lines. The three features directly within the power of cultivation on the part of the normal school give origin to three distinct lines of work for the normal school to perform. This leads to the organization of three departments: academic, professional or pedagogical, and training. THE ACADEMIC DEPARTMENT' The ideal for the normal school, as held in some sections, is that it should give its entire time and attention to the second, third, and fourth features of the teacher's quali- fications mentioned above. This is an ideal so far not attainable in most of the institu- tions known, whether correctly or incorrectly, as state normal schools. Conditions must be faced as they are. Ideals must be of working dimensions. They must be such as meet the demands of the present by furnishing the best teachers it is possible to get, by whatever road discernible that will lead to the desired end. It is not a matter of defini- tion of what a normal school is or should be. It is a question of what the normal school should do and can do for the schools of the state. No matter how high the scholastic attainments of teachers as a body may be at any particular period, there is always room and demand for something still higher. " Excel- sior I " is ever the cry of the human soul. Also there must be a constant supply of recruits added to the ranks, and these must have scholarship as well as training in the arts of the schoolroom. That normal schools feel it a part of their province to furnish opportunity for this instruction along academic lines is proven by an examination of their courses of study and their recitation programs. If it is not their desire to do this work, they at least feel compelled by circumstances to do it. Exceptionally high standards in the way of entrance requirements would leave many a worthy teacher to go elsewhere for study or to be debarred from study at all. There are great advantages to come to the teacher that gets much of his scholarship under the roof of the normal school and in the professional atmosphere thus imposed. The normal student should study the subjects usually given in the common-school course in order to learn their place and value as instruments in the development of the pupils in the schools. This semi -pedagogical study of the academic branches is conducted most profitably in close relation with that study of the subject in which the student is trying to attain accurate scholarship and his own personal culture. The professional and the scholastic values of the branch thus become more apparent and unified in his daily experiences. The high schools are doing good work, but they cannot be expected to give the time and attention to these branches ordinarily that the person preparing to teach must give them. Some academical work should be done beyond the high school, and the logical place for those preparing to teach to do this is in the academic department of the normal school. The person who is to set about acquiring skill in the processes of instruction in the class- room should have his mind as free as possible from difficulties incident to uncertainty of knowledge. This freedom can be secured only by giving some time to reviews of com- mon- and high-school branches and advanced study in the academic department of the normal just previous to the time that the. student is to go into the class-room to acquire power in the art of teaching. Also a large part of the students that present themselves for entrance to the normal school must necessarily come to its doors by some other route than that of the high school. This is especially true of most schools of this central valley. All these conditions demand of the normal school that it shall make some pro- vision for giving academic instruction. But there are still other advantages in having academic work done in the normal. The class instruction in this department should be given by teachers who are superior in their lines. The instructors in the normal school should ever be awake to the purposes of such schools, and make their instruction such z The term "department" is used as a means of setting: out in this paper different sides of the work of the normal school, and not to indicate unrelated and independent functions. SuperintenaenccJ NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING SCHOOLS 87 that it will be suggestive of the best that can be done in the public schools. Thus, as the student acquires his scholarship, he is also absorbing the best methods of presentation from the way that it is presented 'in his classes from day to day. With such conditions prevailing, things that otherwise would lie far apart in the mind of the student will come into right relations and build for him a clearer idea of his own work as a teacher. THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE STUDY OF THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION The department engaged in instruction in psychology, history of education, school management, general method, and specific devices is admitted as belonging properly in the normal school. This work is partially of an academic nature, as is shown by the fact that some of it is found in college and university courses and taken by students who have no thought of becoming teachers. On the whole, it bears no closer relation to the stu- dent's final ability as a teacher than his knowledge of the subjects to be taught. If the student in the normal school masters these professional subjects, he does it by the same process that he uses in the academic branches, and likewise at the same time that he is trying to see their application in a professional way. They are means of development of the individual personally, and at the same time they have a technical value in the prepa- ration that they give him for a more successful practice in the art of teaching. Here again the spirit and method of the class-room in the normal are to do a specific work for the coming teacher in the examples and ideals that they give. It is just as essential that the normal school should do academic work in other lines as it is that it should do the distinctively academic work in these branches. THE TRAINING SCHOOL Skill in the art of teaching is acquired mainly in the training school. The relation of the training school to the other departments of the normal school is a question of importance. This may be called its external organization. Should the training school be the center around which all other departments are collected? Should it be subordi- nate and under the direction of the other departments in its management ? Should it be on equal footing and co-ordinate with the other departments in the development of teachers ? The tendency to overemphasis of methods and devices to the neglect of strong scholarship in the normal school should be avoided. This tendency is likely to become too marked when the training-school idea is allowed to overshadow all others. On the other hand, the training school must be protected from diversity of interests in method and matter in the course. Subordination to other departments endangers the unification of the work that is imperative for the interests of the children and most valuable to the practicians. One great difficulty in the training school is to keep pupils and patrons from the feeling that there is no center of interest for the child. The pupil should feel that he has some centralized power to which he may look for direction in all his efiForts. This is not the case when the course of study and the directions for teaching come from as many heads as there are branches in the course. Co-ordination and co-operation seem to come nearer to the best solution of the difficulty than centralization or subordination do. INTERNAL ORGANIZATION As nearly as possible the training school should consist of such pupils as the repre- sentative communities of the state have in their schools. All grades from the kinder- garten thru the high school should be found in the training school. This is not required with the idea that all candidates for the diploma of the normal school shall teach in all grades before graduation is allowed. The purpose is to furnish a working eicample of the grades of the public school and to supply the means for such class-room teaching as the interests of individual students demand. Such as have especial taste for primary work and a manner and personality that promise success in that line should do their 88 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati observing and teaching in those grades. The other grades can be used for the training and observation belonging especially to those grades. Certain fundamental principles of teaching are the same for all grades. The ability to apply such variations as are needed for the different grades should come readily to one who has good ideas of the working principles in two or three different grades. From such experience the practician, critic teacher, and supervisor in consultation should be able to reach a very reasonable conclu- sion as to the grade to which the student is best adapted. The training school should be like the public school also in the spirit of the work and the atmosphere that should thus surround the practician while he teaches. It should not have the air of an experiment station where new and untried doctrines are to be tested. It should be progressive enough to keep up with the practices of the best public schools. It should be conservative enough to inspire the confidence of the public to such a degree that its example may be accepted as perfectly safe to follow. The whole idea in the school should be to give the student the very best exposition possible of what is feasible in the public schools of sensibly progressive communities and a reasonable degree of skill in putting these things into practice. ROOM TEACHERS In order that there may be a feeling of interest in their work on the part of the pupils, and a proper balance in study, there should be a regular teacher provided for each room in the training school. These are not critic teachers, but should give their time to looking after the assembling of pupils, opening exercises, general exercises, irregular work of pupils, keeping records required by law, visitation of patrons, and like duties. These teachers should do some teaching regularly, to keep in touch with the children. They may take a class at any time that is dropping below what it should do in the hands of a practician, and teach it for a time to bring it into proper condition again. At such times and for special lessons the practician may be present to observe and then take the class again. These room teachers should have a salary that is about what is paid for similar grades in the ordinary school. They may well be selected from the class of the preceding year, and thus get the advantages of longer training in the school while acting in the capacity of room teacher. They should be able to undertake the best of positions in the public schools at the end of the year, but they need not be obliged to leave, if they prefer to stay. PRACTICIANS Most of the teaching in the training school is done by the practicians. These are the senior students in the other departments in the normal school. Academically they should be well in advance of what they are to teach. In the professional classes of the normal school they should have had clear presentation of the principles that apply to instruction and class management. When quite inexperienced there should be but little demanded of the practician in the way of control of a room while teaching. He may wisely be allowed to give his entire attention to the instruction and management of the class he has for instruction. As strength is developed, more may be required in the way of taking charge of a room. In the selection of class and subject the practician may be allowed some choice, if convenient. A stated amount of work may be required, but if special ability is shown, that may be reduced, or if there is necessity for it, with certain individuals, the amount of work may be extended. So far as possible, the practician should be relieved of the notion that he is in the training school for the purpose of having his faults eradicated by criticism, or that his teaching is a test of his powers simply to exemplify what he can do. On the contrary, he should feel that the work in the training school is for the application of principles previously learned and for the development of power thru the suggestions that may be given and thru his own activity. The practician should make notes or plans of lessons to be given, and hand them in for consideration and suggestions before the lessons are presented. The class and the subject will make the SuperinteBdencc] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING SCHOOLS 89 real method or order in which the matter is to be taken up somewhat imperative, but the individuality and originality of the practician should be allowed to show itself freely in the means and devices used in class instruction and management. The work in the training school should be long enough in duration to allow the practician to get into the real spirit of teaching. CRITIC TEACHERS The position of critic teacher in the training school is one of especial importance. It requires a person of broad scholarship, keen discernment, large hopefulness and optimism, unbounded sympathy devoid of sentimentality. The critics may wisely be selected from among the graduates of the normal who have been thru the training school themselves as practicians at some time in the past. They should have had experience in actual public-school work; also they should have taken advanced instruction in some higher institution of learning. The work of the critics may wisely be divided on the departmental plan. They should examine the notes of the practicians and make sugges- tions where these may be improved. They should visit classes and see the practician afterward for private suggestions. They should conduct meetings of teachers instructing in the same branch for general suggestions. These meetings should be on a higher plane than to suggest devices alone, but should also look to the purpose of the devices and the subject itself in the development of the child. These critics should do some actual teach- ing for the observation of practicians and prospective practicians. These lessons should be of the regular work of the class and should be discussed fully with the observers after- ward. The work of pupils should receive the careful attention of the critic teacher, and they should feel that she is interested fully as much in what they are doing as she is in the teacher in charge. SUPERVISORS For the purpose of general supervision, the training school may be divided into two departments, primary and higher grades. There is territory enough here to engage the attention of a special supervisor for each department. This supervisor is not to be a dictator to command just what shall be done, but rather an advisor and general manager to keep the proper unity in the work of the department. With the work of the critics organized on the departmental plan and the practicians not working long periods each day, there is much to demand attention in order that the necessary balance is secured for the children. The supervisor should do special critic work also, and should do some of the teaching for observation. He should conduct general meetings with the senior students, to give such directions and help as may be useful in making the teaching in the training school more effective, and to give practical illustrations collected thru his broader view of the work in the training school. Supervisor, critic teachers, and room teachers should constantly be studying together the latest phases of public-school work, in order that the spirit of the training school may be kept up to the proper standard. There should be frequent conferences with the critic teachers and room teachers, looking toward the advancement of the work and the protection of the interests of the children and the practicians alike. Thru these conferences, and others with the president and heads of departments, proper relations with other departments of the normal school may readily be sustained. Scholarship is universal in application, and principles of method and of teaching are so nearly so that it is not seriously difficult to keep near enough to common ground to preserve the coordination of the training school and the other departments of the normal school. FUNCTIONS OF THE TRAINING SCHOOL It is not possible to discuss any organism without at least implying what the function of that organism is. Most that might be said under this title has been sufficiently shown in the previous discussion. The primary function of the training school as a department 90 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cindnnati in the normal school is the development of the student's powers in the line of the art of teaching. In part it is the parpose in the training school to supply the opportunity for the practician to work out his own schoolroom problems. What has been taught as to scholarship and as theories of teaching is to be rendered concrete thru practice. Finally, the training school furnishes the means for the culmination of the school process of acquisition of knowledge, scholastic and professional, thru the operations of expression and application in practice. C ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS THE MOST EFFECTIVE USE OF A SUPERINTENDENT'S TIME A. B. 6LODGETT, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SYRACUSE, N. Y. City charters and special legislative acts, widely divergent, give to school superin- tendents so great a diversity in their environment that one can scarcely present this sub- ject in a way that will have a particular application and at the same time be of special interest to any considerable number. The importance of the topic is of value to each and all ; but the variance in the amount and kind of work, the responsibility definitely located with the superintendent, the power given him to discharge that responsibility, the absolute authority placed in his hands, the attitude of the community toward the schools, and many other features difiEer so widely in different cities that what is wholly applicable to one superintendent's field of labor may have only a slight bearing to that of another. 1 shall discuss this question, therefore, as it appeals to me, in connection with a school system employing 500 teachers and caring for 18,000 pupils, whose educational interests are presided over by a board of seven members. I could not present a theoreti- cal view of this topic should I try, and must therefore speak from a personal experience of fourteen years in the superintendency. I shall present my views along the lines of saving time as one of the most effective uses a superintendent can make of his time. Where there is a constantly changing membership in a board of education, a super- intendent is badly handicapped. A considerable portion of his time must be consumed indirectly in the instruction of his board, and every experienced superintendent realizes that it takes practically about two years properly to educate the average school-board member. A straight out-and-out course, consistently and wisely followed, will so plainly deter- mine a superintendent's position that schemers, in or out of the board of education, who endeavor to work the system for political or personal ends will cease to approacb him, and the result will be a saving of much valuable time and a condition of ease and satis- faction to the superintendent. It is a real blessing to be entirely free from manipulators of this character ; to have them pass by on the other side. I am happily relieved of this class at the present time. Under any conditions, a superintendent can save time by knowing his exact rela- tions to every feature of his work. In certain lines his authority must be unquestioned and his acts decisive. To other questions he should hold a joint responsibility, while to still others his position should be advisory only. When these things are understood by all concerned, there is only one position for a superintendent to take. At all times and in all places, and steadied by an accurate sense of the fitness of things, he should present his views and take his stand upon all questions, with all the fearlessness of a fearless nature. He should have the right — should claim it, if it be questioned — to speak his mind fully on all matters within his legitimate field. I made a statement similar to this in the presence of a fellow-superintendent of a large city system a short time ago, and he SuperintendenoeJ ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 91 said to me: "What! do you dare discuss questions in open sessions of your board?" There is no dare about it — it is just what a superintendent should do, and it is thoroly under- stood with us that the superintendent is expected to speek freely. He is always invited to do so, and it saves a large amount of time in the way of explanations and individual dis- cussions. He should present his views freely and positively in open meeting, and should never consent to be covered up — smothered — in secret sessions of either board or com- mittee. The superintendent is no more the servant of the board of education than he is of the people, and the people expect and have a right to know his individual opinion on all school matters. The stronger the confidence of the community in the honesty and soundness of the superintendent's judgment, the more hearty and generous will be his support in school administration, and no better use of a superintendent's time can be found than in a study of how best to secure the full confidence of the community. If a superintendent has worked from a good motive, and seeming personal troubles or conflicts with his board, or any member of it, cause him annoyance, he will clear the atmosphere quickest and best by meeting the question at the earliest opportunity in a dig- nified, straightforward, out-and-out manner. He should neither cringe nor fawn, nor attempt explanations when explanations are not demanded by the circumstances. Such action weakens him with his board. If a superintendent has some new departure to propose in connection with his work, he should advocate it openly, forcefully, and wisely, and in the first instance in the pres- ence of his full board ; and he should never maneuver to find out how many will be for and how many against his proposition before he presents it. Don't play politics ! Let each question stand or fall on its merits. Neither should a superintendent waste time in casting about to see in or from which direction the wind is likely to blow next, and then hustle to the forefront and try to lead the breeze himself in connection with any measure he may guess is about to emanate from his board. No board or member of a board cares to be handled with leading strings. One of the greatest drawbacks to the effective use of a superintendent's time, and one of the most dangerous elements to the progress of his work, is found in the brevity of school-board membership. For instance, the superintendent suggests the introduction of manual training. While the subject is under consideration the board changes. Half of its members come in knowing nothing of the proposed introduction or the consideration already given to the proposition. The remaining half are to leave the board in another* year and do not care to be responsible for its introduction. Nothing is done, or at best something is only half done, and there you are. On what may be called the material or business side of this topic there is another way to save time ; and that is by being loyal to authoritative decisions. I have said that a superintendent should present his views plainly and unequivocally. But when the debate has ended and the decision has been reached, no matter to what extent that decision may be adverse to his views, he should be intensely, even religiously, loyal to the decision ren- dered, relying upon the unquestioned proposition that no responsibility as to results can rightly attach to him when his p>osition has been positively, taken and his duty dis- charged. STRATEGY General Grant once said, in substance : " My idea of strategy has always been to get just as close to the enemy as possible." A superintendent may very wisely adopt this saying, and, appl3ring it with discretion, find it extremely helpful in many situations. He may find the "enemy" in that member on his board (usually the new member) who feels called upon frequently to project something new or strange into the curriculum. Or it may be a member who was elected for a specific purpose — possibly to curb the effusive progressiveness of the superintendent. In any case and whatever his purpose — get close to him, 'Twill save time. 92 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati An "enemy" may be found in the person of the president of the mothers' club, who, with the best of purposes, decides that certain remedies for supposed evils in the public school can best be administered by the organization over which she so ably presides. I would not decry the usefulness of mothers' clubs, but unless a superintendent manages them, and is not managed by them, they may become the enemy against which he should employ the wisest strategy. In this case, too, I would get close to the enemy. But why enlarge upon this thought ? Other enemies as wasters of a superintendent's time will readily present themselves. Some of them are phantoms relating to possible unpleasant features of the next board meeting which never existed except in the super- intendent's own imagination, and which rapidly vanish into thin air when he gets close to them. But in whatever form the enemy presents himself — if it be the carping critic, or the angry parent who knows you are all wrong because he " used to teach school him- self ; " if it be the enraged mother of the boy who, she thinks, has been unjustly treated, and who wants the trouble adjusted right away because " we pay taxes ; " or if it be the peddler of atlases or the genial but persistent bookman — by quickly getting close to him, her, or it, as the case may be, the superintendent will find the strategy of the famous general of intestimable value. The above suggestions pertain more closely to the material or business side of our work. Let us consider for a brief moment the instruction side. It is unquestionably true that the teaching force of any school system should be kept moving along lines of educational progress ; that reading, study, and much discussion of various topics are a sine qua non with all teachers and educators. But in a large city system every honest superintendent must frankly admit that he cannot possibly touch each side of the instruction work as it ought to be touched. We are none of us gifted with omniscience nor omnipresence. Then it follows that relief must be had from some source. An important feature is how to give to the great body of teachers the right kind and amount of instruction and inspiration. There are ways to reach this difficulty and still remain superintendent of it all. In order to save the time of the superintendent, and in a measure to save his schools, skilled supervisors and instructors must be employed to cover certain parts of the work. There must be fixed places of responsibility, and in each such place must stand a person properly qualified successfully to meet and rightly to discharge that responsibility. Then clothe that person with all needed power and authority to meet the duties of the position, and hold him accountable for results. Many of us, I fear, are loath to cut loose from traditions, from practices handed down to us by our predecessors — even from the dark ages. We think our personal touch must be in or on everything, rather than simply over it in a supervisory and directive sense. I would make the position of school principal one place of fixed and definite respon- sibility, and I would magnify and dignify that position and office. I would have him feel the responsibilities of the place he occupies. I would do my work with his school thru him. I would have everything pertaining to his school pass thru his hands, both to and from. Questions and complaints, whether of parents, teachers, or pupils, should be answered, adjusted, and settled either by him or in his presence. I would have all parties, however, and particularly the principal, understand that an appeal from all decisions was always in order provided the principal be first served with notice of such appeal. 1 would make the supervisorship of any particular branch or department another place of responsibility, and thus with each principal and with each supervisor I would have fixed and definite stations thru which I could reach every avenue of school work ; and I would still be superintendent I would leave grade meetings for special instruction, except in specific subjects — which means those I wish personally to handle — to supervisors and principals selected Superintendence] ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 93 as instructors. It is my practice to call these principals and supervisors together, usually twice each month, for consultation and discussion. We call them " cabinet meetings " and find them very helpful. I have found one of the greatest and best of time-savers in a general teachers' meeting held once each month, when the entire corps of five hundred teachers comes together. The occasion furnishes a spur for the superintendent, and is a good thing for him. It also keeps the teachers in close touch with the superintendent's views of general school management. If a superintendent on his rounds will make book notes of things commendable and things criticisable, particularly those of a general nature, and at these meetings comment upon them frankly, pointedly, and in a spirit of helpfulness — always eliminating the personal element — he will find material enough for an interesting monthly talk and will have a decidedly interested audience. It is astonishing in these daily visits to the schools how many items one finds that apply to a large number of teachers when brought to their notice in this way. I jeould not, and could not, dispense with the regular monthly teachers' meeting without serious loss to the esprit du corps and the general tone of our school work. No superintendent can use his time more efEectively than by establishing frank, cordial, sympathetic relations with every teacher. They should have his confidence. He should have theirs. They should know and feel that his criticisms and suggestions are just and are given for their benefit. Full confidence in his judgment and his spirit of helpfulness should never be wanting. Teachers need the helpfulness that reaches them from honest hearts, friendly hands, and plain words ; and they always welcome the visits and the suggestions of one who carries such a spirit with him. CONCLUSIONS 1. Know your exact relations to every feature of your work. 2. Get close to the heart of every situation. 3. Take a tenable po$ition on all debatable questions and speak plainly without being pugnacious. 4. Be loyal to the decisions of those in authority. 5. Have fixed places of responsibility and have that responsibility met. 6. Magnify and dignify the office of school principal and supervisor. 7. With your full corps of workers establish relations founded upon cordiality, frank- ness, plain speech, and sympathy. DISCUSSION Superintendent Z. H. Brown, Nashville, Tenn. — I rise simply to emphasize what has been said by Superintendent Blodgett. To my mind he has plainly and succinctly set forth the best and most satisfactory way in which the time of the superintendent should be occupied. He has said, what I heartily indorse, that the authority of the principal should be honored ; that all directions should be given to the teachers thru their respec- tive principals ; and that all complaints of parents should first be made to the principal. Above all, we should be absolutely open, frank, honest, and fearless in dealing with our boards of education and none the less so with our teachers. Never deceive a teacher by leaving her to believe that she is succeeding, when the contrary is true. It may be very painful to her for you to make known to her that she is failing, but she will thank you afterward for your frankness. Superintendent Charles S. Foos, Reading, Pa. — I have a board of sixty-four members, and I find it an economy of time fully to explain and discuss matters pertaining to the schools in the open board meetings. I believe that a policy of frankly telling your board where you stand prevents much misunderstanding and misinterpretation of your official acts. This is my policy, and in the past eight months we have made at least six 94 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati organic changes in our method of conducting the schools. We hare regraded the schools; changed the method of promotion ; abolished monthly examinations ; adopted a course of study ; made more uniform the work in the several grades ; and established a night high school. Not a single negative vote was cast against any of these recommendations. I attribute this to the fact that I discussed the matters in full before the board. Surely this entailed less time than going around from member to member to ascertain how each one felt. Considering the many duties of a superintendent, a wise partition of time is necessary. J. F. Keating, superintendent of schools, Pueblo, Colo. — The paper just read con- tains much that is good and helpful, but it also contains advice that is dangerous — dangerous to the young superintendent. It is not the part of ordinary business sense always to introduce an important measure before a meeting of the entire school board without any preliminary discussion with individual members of the board. When I began my work in supervision I used to do that way, but as I grew older in practice I learned better. There are two things that a superintendent must know : what is good for his school and how to get it. The first implies knowledge of school work, and the second knowledge of how to manage men. Before introducing a measure for open discussion it is often wisest to consult with those members who are most in sympathy with the superintendent's aims and plans, and most keenfy alive to the needs of the school. This so-called always open and frank dis- cussion at the outset often defeats an important measure. It not infrequently happens that men taken individually are more open-minded and fairer than when taken col- lectively. In trying to secure the best for his schools it is the duty of a superintendent to recognize this fact and to act accordingly. PUBLIC OPINION AND GOOD SCHOOLS J. K. STABLETON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BLOOMINGTON, ILL. Fourteen years I lived in central Nebraska. In 1891 Nebraska was burdened with a great crop of all kinds of grain; in 1894 it ^^^ one vast stretch of desolation, two hundred miles north and south, four hundred miles east and west. Yet it was the same land that brought forth bountifully in 1891 ; the same farmers were there to plant and cultivate ; in 1 89 1 the atmosphere was full of moisture ; in 1894 it ^^s a hot, dry atmosphere that sapped the life from the sprouting grain. There is an atmosphere of public opinion that causes a school system to blossom and be fruitful ; there is another atmosphere of public opinion that takes from a school system even the life that it seems to have. The school itself is largely responsible for the atmosphere of public opinion in which it lives. If public opinion concerning the school is bad, continually bad, the administration must be at fault, largely at fault. If the school continues for any length of time worthy of the support of public opinion, it will receive such support. If public opinion does not change, the administration ought not to change. That is the best school which* most nearly meets the needs of the community where it is located. That school most nearly meets the conditions when it is a great intellectual, moral, and social loadstone or magnet, by its irresistible force drawing all young life into it, and, thru its moving power over young life, readjusting, modifying, and uplifting the life of the older ones. "And if I be lifted up, I will draw all men unto me," said the great Teacher. And the school, if it be lifted up, will draw all the young life of the community to it. And when the young life is touched, the school arouses the parents, and they reinforce the work of the schools ; and thus there is a knitting together, a back-and-forth interest that forms a meshwork or Superintendence] ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 95 web with the school at the center lifting up. And in this way the school builds up a healthful public sentiment. The school must make itself felt, and it must recognize that there are many other educational forces in the city which, when properly affiliated with the public schools, will lend additional strength to the work of the schools. Among these may be mentioned the woman's club, mothers' and patrons' clubs, bureaus of associated charities, business-men's clubs, daily newspapers, and the different courts before which juvenile offenders and delinquents appear. All these and others can be affiliated with us in our school work. I believe strongly with William Hawley Smith that " we, the people," today includes a great many peculiar people — the white, the black, the cream-colored, and even the speckled and striped ; and that when we speak of the common, free public schools for all the people, it means all the people — all the boys and girls without regard to their color or condition of life, except that they are boys with some mental ability. I believe further that it is not merely a matter of choice, but a duty that superintendent, principals, and teachers owe to a community to know every girl and boy of school age in the city or ward, and see to it that every one of these children is in school ; and that one of the greatest works we can do for a community is to bring all these into the schools : and that the very work of bringing these in puts the school in a position to touch the responsive chord of public opinion; for the heart of the public is always with the children when the public is aroused. But says one : " How can we do these things ? How can we bring into our school the children who do not attend, when our boards do not favor it ? How can we affiliate the various agencies mentioned ?" If our boards do not favor compulsory attendance, we must educate our boards. It was Henry Ward Beecher who stirred his people on the subject of slavery by putting up a slave girl at auction. If we select a number of families where the children do not attend school and present their claims to the board, these helpless boys and girls will appeal to our boards of education as we cannot, and our boards will gladly give us officers for the work. Then we must select our officers with greatest care. The good common- sense and kind-heartedness of these officers must be above question, or their work will do but little good. Now that we have our officers at work hunting up and bringing in those who are not attending, we must reinforce their work on every hand. Call upon the president and leading officers of the woman's club. Put the subject before them, ask them to aid us in the work. They only wait for the privilege and to know what we would have them do and how we would have them do it. We must point out the way, and ask them to indorse the movement, to talk about it publicly and privately, and in every way possible to help to make a strong sentiment in favor of the work. They will do it. And the influence of the organization will mold the sentiment in hundreds of homes in the city. If we have not mothers' clubs already organized in our different wards, let us organize them. When the mothers of a district are brought together at a school, we must tell them what we are trying to do for the boys and girls who are not in school ; we must ask them to help us. We should tell them of some of the pitiful or helpless cases ; their mother hearts will be moved, and they will pledge us all the help they can give. They will look up the children in their wards who are not in school. They will agitate the subject; and when most of the mothers in a ward talk strongly in favor of sending the children to school, it is very difficult for one or two families to hold out against the popular feeling of the neighborhood ; so that the officer finds it very easy indeed to bring all the children of this district into school. Then each year there should be in each ward at least one or two evening meetings of parents, teachers, and supervisors, for conference and a social hour. If the teachers of the school and the womemof the mothers' club jointly arrange for the meeting, the fathers as well as the mothers will be there. Here is a great opportunity to come into touch with many who otherwise do not know those of us to whose care they commit their children. Care- 96 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cmcumati fully, tactfully, we can talk with these people of what we are trying to do for their chil- dren, and what we hope to do for all the girls and boys, and they will understand us and join with us in our work. Sometimes, you know, when we try to see to it that all the chil- dren have at least some opportunity for an education, parents feel that we have no right to say what their children shall do ; but when we meet them in these parents' meetings and talk to them about their boys and girls having the same opportunity to prepare for being men and women that their neighbor's children have, then we appear to them, not as those who would take away their rights, but as those who would help them to see to it that their children have a fair show. Parents' hearts, however crusted over they may sometimes be with ignorance and crime, have still some tender spots toward their off- spring, and it is ours to find these spots. It is so much better to win than to simply com- pel ; for, after all, the greatest compelling force is but an intelligent winning force in its ultimate analysis. Here is a meeting, a parents' evening that was held in one of the poorer wards in a city but a short time ago. The mothers' club women and the teachers had sent a special invitation to every home in the ward. In many cases the mothers' club women had gone to the homes and thus induced the parents to be present. The large room at the school building at 7 :30 P. M. was full to overflowing; fathers and mothers were there, not for a show, but to hear and learn of the school and its work. The president of the mothers' club presided. The eighth-grade orchestra opened the meeting with music ; then a song by some of the eighth-grade girls — just one of their school songs, not anything specially prepared for the occasion. The superintendent was present, and with him a professor from a department of one of our great universities. This visiting gentleman was first introduced, and talked to the people of their schools and of the changes that were coming into schools, and the reasons for the same ; and he talked in a plain, matter-of-fact way that appealed to them and held their attention. This was letting the light in from an outside source. After he had spoken, there was music by the orchestra ; and then the superintendent talked to them, not of compulsory attendance, but of another subject that was on his mind — the importance of their boys and girls not stopping at the close of the eighth year, but taking some work at least in the high school. Many of them knew little of the high school, for it was a district where a great many children never pass beyond the eighth grade. He explained how the high-school course had been broadened by the addition of manual training and a business course ; he also explained to them how the high school was open in the widest possible way to their girls and boys ; that there were students in the high school who could be there for but two, and in some cases one, reci- tation hour a day, the remainder of their time being taken up with work in our stores or offices ; and yet these pupils in the work they were carrying were making excellent records. He said that, if any of their boys or girls could not come all the tim^, they would be welcome to take a part of the work and be there a part of the time ; that the high school with all its advantages was theirs just as much as the first eight grades. The parents understood what was intended and their responsive faces told him they were with him heart and soul in the work. The supervisor of primary grades then talked for a few moments of her work, after which was a pleasant social half-hour, when parents and teachers mingled freely. The value of such meetings in creating an intelligent, healthful public opinion con- cerning the schools cannot be overestimated. At some of these meetings parents wish to ask questions, so that there is a back-and-forth talking and explaining that results in great good. But let me say this, that unless we show in all the management and school disci- pline that the school exists for the children, and not the children for thg school, it would be better not to hold these parents' meetings ; for even among the most ordinary, com- mon people sometimes there is a vast deal of common-sense that sees thru any mere Saperintendence] ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 97 pretense on our part. In our attempts to show high per cents, of attendance, and records free from tardy marks, we sometimes defeat the very end for which the schools primarily exist. There is a school of medicine which says similia similibus curanfur, "like cures like," but even the doctors of this school do not say that the same thing cures the same thing ; or, in other words, that if a rattlesnake bites you once, you must have it bite you a second time to cure the first bite; yet we school people do sometimes practice this in our schools. The social work of a district cannot be done, nor can a healthful public opinion be built up, by suspending boys and girls for tardiness and non-attendance. We must put forth every effort with them and with their parents to bring them to regular habits ; this and this alone is right. A persistent effort in this line cannot fail to bring good results. I do not believe in tardiness and irregular attendance, but I do believe that it is better to have some girls and boys in school part of the time than not to have them at all. There is another class of children that cannot be in school every day and serve the best social good ; and when we fail to serve the best social good, we fail to build up a healthful public sentiment: a large family of little children; a frail woman trying to decently clothe and keep her family on the small wages her husband earns as an ordi- nary laborer; the washing, the sewing, the cooking — in fact, all the work of the home — to be done by the mother with the help of the children ; she cannot do it alone, and she would shun the idea of charity; she is self-respecting, and so trains her children. What is right in this case? I will tell you what we must do to try to help her and at the same time help the children. We must permit the children to stay at home busy days to help the mother. We must try to make the school help this home to do the best possible by the children of the home, while the mother is doing her utmost to give her children the advantages the school offers and at the same time to keep herself 'and family out of the dependent list. It is to my mind a great social work to help families to keep their self- respect ; for the school to come to their needs in such a way as to help them to feel that they are independent. This case only emphasizes the importance of the close rela- tion that must exist between the home and the school, in order that the school may do the grreat social work that it is designed to do, or that modem life commits to it to be done. We should not fail to keep in close touch with the Bureau of Associated Charities and other benevolent organizations of the city. They gladly join us in keeping children from unfortunate homes in school; or, in other words, they will clothe and care for the extremely needy, while we follow up their work by keeping these children in school. In a great many cases where the families are not what would be called destitute, where only a little help is needed, the mothers* club can and will give aid in a way that will not break down the self-respect of the family. From time to time these women will spend an afternoon with some tired, overworked mother, helping her with her sewing, sometimes taking with them clothing that can be worked over for the little ones of the less-favored home. The schools cannot be interested in helping the children of the unfortunate without coming into a working relation with the courts before which juvenile dependents and delinquents appear. All the courts look with favor on the school whose officer appears in behalf of the neglected children. Many a child can, thru the intervention of the school officer, be saved from the jail and redeemed to a better life than he has known. Often the boy or girl will be given a trial at the request of the school officer on condition that he attends schools regularly and is obedient to school authority. In Illinois and some of the other states the school authorities can ask the courts to appoint certain persons probation officers for these delinquent or dependent children ; and the fact that the children know that the court has committed them to the care of these persons, instead of sending them from home to some institution for delinquent children^ exerts a great influence over them, and causes them to feel that they must attend school 98 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincumati and be obedient to their school authority. Then, too, they appreciate that a kind act has been done for them, and they usually look upon those who have interested themselves in them as their friends. I could tell you of instances in more than one city of children that have been helped in this way. In the work of the public schools we must remember that we have no more faithful allies than the daily press. If the school administrat|pn impresses itself on the com- munity as an administration of service, and not of political intrigue and dishonesty, the daily papers will gladly give their columns that the work of the public schools may be placed before the people. This is a great opportunity to reach the people — to help them to understand what we are trying to do. I sometimes think that we school people do not fully appreciate the great work the daily press does for the cause of public-school education. Our work should always be of a character that we should gladly have it spoken of in the daily papers. Is a large educational gathering to meet in our city ? Then the business-men's organizations stand ready to aid in arranging for the proper entertainment of the visiting people. As they are interested in the visitors, they become interested in the subject that brings these people together, and, unconsciously at first to the business-men, the educa- tional interests of the community are presented to them in a new light. Of course, most of them have children in school, and so are interested ; but when they meet leading edu- cators from other cities and hear them talk on various topics related to school interests, they immediately begin to wish to know whether or not schools in their own city take rank with the best This leads to an intelligent investigation on their part, and they thus become active supporters of every advance move made by the administration of the schools. Everything that tends to make prominent the best in education, so far as known tends to arouse a strong public opinion in favor of a school system when it is good. The high school has much to do with public opinion concerning the school system. It must have breadth as well as depth ; courses that fit students (pupils) in the best pos- sible manner for college, and courses that appeal to those who do not look to a college or university education. This giving breadth to the work of the high school appeals to all classes and makes the high school the people's school, and not the school of a certain class. Then, too, we must use common-sense in opening the doors to the high school to all who can possibly avail themselves of its privileges. When we do this, the common sense of the people approves it. Here are some boys and girls who spend one or two hours each day in class work at the high school, the remainder of their time being given to work* in stores and offices. Their lessons are prepared in the evenings. In almost every city is a large class of these young people who are early forced to earn their living, and yet would snatch a little time from their daily labor to receive instruction, if they knew it were possible to receive such instruction free at the public high school. If they should have but one hour a day, the school should welcome them, that they may be the better prepared to contribute their part to the common social good. Is it not only a privilege, but a duty, that a school administration owes to the people to let them know what the high school has for them. In some wards but few of the parents look upon the high school as for their children. At patrons' meetings, and in fact on all occasions, we must lead these parents to appreciate the fact that the high school is for their children ; we must inspire them with a desire for their children to enter the high school. To help to make the connection close between the high^school and the eighth grade, we should have every eighth-grade class in the city spend a day at the high school, visit- ing. Set apart certain days for certain schools to visit. When these eighth-grade boys and girls come to the high school, let them go to the principal's office, where he will give each eighth-grade boy into the hands of some high-school boy for the day, and each girl Superintendence] ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 99 to some high-school girl. In this way no one feels lost or uncertain what to do or where to go, but is conducted about from recitation to recitation, so that he feels as much at home as tho he were in his own ward school. This day's visit bridges the gap between the eighth grade and the high school for many a boy or girl, and is the beginning of what proves to be a full high-school course. If the executive head of a school administration, the superintendent, impresses him- self on his board and on his people as a man who knows his business, and is full to the brim with the spirit of service, willing to give himself freely for the cause he represents, his board will gladly accord him the right to select teachers and other supervisors of the schools — a right which must be largely his or all his planning may come to naught because of inefficient assistants. No school without a strong teaching force can long hold the respect and confidence of the people. And with this privilege comes a duty; if he selects his teachers, he must bear the responsibility of dropping the inefficient ones. He must be willing to tell a teacher where she is short and lend her all possible aid to overcome her weakness ; then after he and his supervisors have done all they can for her, if she is still below the standard, tell her that she is unable to do the work, that he cannot recommend her for re-emplo3rment. Even this, not always a pleasant duty, can be done in a spirit of fairness that will add to rather than detract from the good name of the school. When it is known that efficiency both in the ability to instruct and in the spirit of the work are the characteristics without which no one can hope to hold a position for any length of time in any system of schools, the confidence in the administration that this knowledge begets among the most intelligent of the community creates a strong public opinion in favor of the schools. DISCUSSION Superintendent R. A. Ogg, Kokomo, Ind. — I wish to emphasize just two of the many good points made by Superintendent Stableton — the value of parents* and teach- ers' clubs and the tendency of teachers to be impatient over absence and tardiness. For seven years I have had experience with parents' clubs in connection with the schools, and have found them very helpful. They bring parents and teachers into closer sympathy. They give parents a better idea of the spirit of the schools, and teachers a truer under- standing of the attitude of parents. They give the superintendent an opportunity to explain the policy of the schools ; answer questions and meet parents face to face. One very important gain is that, when difficulty arises, parents are much more ready to take suggestions and to see the reasonableness of the course pursued. They aVe valuable also in making the schoolhouse the intellectual and social center of the district. Regarding the impatience of teachers as to absence and tardiness, I have found it very difficult to get teachers away from the idea that they are measured by the per cent, of punctuality and attendance they secure. Such is a false basis of estimate and leads teachers to be unduly exacting upon pupils, creating friction between the school and the home. There are times when a child ought to be tardy or absent, not only because the home may imperatively need him, but because he should learn that helpfulness at home and self-sacrifice are worth more than adherence to the form of the rules regarding attend- ance. Teachers should learn the home conditions and distinguish between carelessness and a conscientious doing of what appeals to the child as a duty to the home. If we only knew the occasion of the absence or tardiness we would sometimes sympathize where we now condemn. W. S. RowE, superintendent of schools, Connersville, Ind. — In our schools we carry out the same general plan of parents' meetings as outlined by Superintendents Stableton and Ogg. We have, however, carried it one step farther, and have federated these several district clubs. The federated body is officered in like manner by parents. Its meet- XOO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati ings are at bight, take place three times a year, and are referred to as " public educa- tional meetings." By this arrangement fathers are able to attend. At one of these public meetings the topic for discussion was manual training. The paper was carefully prepared and presented by the high-school principal. Equally thought- ful papers on the subject were read by two of our influential public-spirited citizens. Oth- ers participated in the discussion which followed. This occurred two years ago, and the interest taken then and since in the subject of manual training has undoubtedly had the effect of encouraging our school board to take an advanced step and incorporate this important educational feature in the plans for our new high school now in process of building. With us similar influences are tending to make the school a social and educational center. As indicative of this, our new building provides on the second floor for an assem- bly hall to seat six hundred, and also on the first floor for a good-sized corridor and reception hall. Provisions are made for brilliant natural and artificial light. In the latter the colonial fireplaces at either end of the corridor, the table and bookcases in the recep- tion hall, will give a fine home-library effect. This will be open for use, not only to the mothers' clubs, out also to the literary clubs of the city. As supplementary to the thoughts given in reference to knowing the home conditions of delinquents, in order to deal with them sympathetically, we have a plan which works admirably. Our teachers write a card to the delinquent, calling attention to some highly interesting things which have happened in the room during the day, and which he has missed. This notably decreases unnecessary delinquencies. Superintendent W. W. Chalmers, Toledo, O. — In Toledo we have arranged with the business manager to take the school census by primary districts instead of the old plan of by wards. The census enumerators furnish two copies of the census list ; one is for file in the board of education office, and the other copy is handed to the principals of the elementary schools at the opening of the school year in September. This list contains the names and ages, addresses, and parents' names of the children of the district. Some- time during the first week of school the principal calls a meeting of his teachers and reads to them the list of children of the district coming within the compulsory-education age. Those that have been enrolled in the school are checked, and those that are not enrolled in the school form a new list to be investigated by him and by the truant officer. Superintendent H. V. Hotchkiss, Akron, O. — I wish to emphasize the power of the teaching force in any city to create and foster a just appreciation on the part of the public of the work that is done in the schools of that city. Any system of schools of any value whatever has a certain genius or spirit which distinguishes it from any other sys- tem, which embodies itself in certain characteristic principles and processes ; in short, which brings things to pass in an effective and desirable manner. No body of people can have the training and opportunities which Will enable them to know what the schools are doing so thoroly as the teachers themselves know. Every superintendent, therefore, should enter into the confidence of his teachers ; should put forth his best effort to lead his teachers to know, in a broad way, the spirit of the system of schools in which they labor. I fear that too many superintendents satisfy themselves with the details of the work, grade by grade, and do not instruct their teachers in a broad way along the lines that I have indicated. Even very good teachers are. usually familiar with the work of their grades or departments only, except in a very narrow and limited way. Whenever the knowledge and ideals of the teaching force as to the broad work done in a school system shall approximate the knowledge and ideals of the superintendent, all the teachers who are loyal and earnest, meeting representatives of the entire city, as they do, in church work, club work, social gatherings, etc., will, with here a word and there a word, little by little build up thruout the entire community a public opinion of the work Superintendence] ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS lOI done in the schools that will be of inestimable value to the schools themselves and to the work they are attempting to accomplish. Confide, then, in your teachers ; let them know the best that you have planned for your schools ; and, believe me, you will find them a valuable and helpful power in your community. WHAT SHOULD BE THE FEATURES OF A MODERN ELEMENTARY- SCHOOL BUILDING CLARENCE F. CARROLL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WORCESTER, MASS. The ideal elementary-school building has not yet been built, but here and there we have all found buildings parts of which appear to satisfy our most critical judgment. In this statement I shall seek to put together these fragments into an ideal whole. There are two types of school building that appear to be most generally acceptable. Plan No. I provides for four rooms to a floor. The first floor may be duplicated above Plan No. z.— Woodland*Stieet School. I02 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati once or twice, making eight or twelve rooms in a building. The hall runs thru the center, with two rooms upon each side, and with a projection running out from the hall, to which an addition may be made. I'his addition is easily accomplished, since a square or oblong may be added at a minimum expense. Plan No. 2 shows a four-room building, with two rooms to a floor, to which an addi- tion of four or eight rooms may be made. No. 2 is intended to be the reverse of No. i. Plan No. 2.— Harlow Street School. In the city of Worcester most buildings are built with a view to an addition, and either plan No. I or plan No. 2 is usually adopted. A six -room plan is frequently followed where the amount of land is limited. Either of these shows a building architecturally complete in itself. In case of an addition, the open space between the two buildings admits light freely to the middle of what might otherwise be the center of a long dark hall. In the model elementary-school building at least half of the third floor should be left vacant as a gathering-place for either the school or the neighborhood. In the base- ment there should be left ample space for play-rooms. The water-closets for girls and boys should be on opposite sides of the building. On the assumption that there would be about two hundred boys in an eight-room build- ing, there should be about twelve urinals. Underneath these there should be a single trough with no subterranean passage, easily accessible to the janitor. These should be divided into stalls, and in no case should boys be exposed to one another when standing at the urinals. There should be a slate incline running so far back that no urine can possibly come into contact with the brick work. Superintendence] ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 103 There need not be quite as many closets as urinals. Ten is a reasonable number for an eight-room building. Each of these closets should have a separate inlet and outlet. In other words, each should be as complete as if it did not belong to a system. The improved closet is in strong contrast to the old Smead system — to the long box trough still found in many old schoolhouses. There should be an ample sink made of slate, with twelve or fourteen faucets, and a separate cup for each faucet. There should be an exit into the yard from each side basement, that pupils may not be called to pass back up the stairway to get out of doors. There should be an ample play-room on each side of the basement. In the ideal schoolhouse one of these basements might be used as a library and reading-room, to be open night and day. The bath-room must not be omitted from the model elementary- school building. Long ago it found its place in school buildings on the continent. Boston and Spring- field have each two or three schoolhouses with bath-rooms. One such building may answer as a center for a district, children being sent for baths as for manual training. The details are easily managed at comparatively slight expense. Many children do not have the privilege of a bath at home. Some are so unclean as almost to create a nuisance in the schoolroom. Apart from the consideration of health, a thoro cleansing of the body is the first step toward rendering these children wholesome. If a furnace is used for heating and ventilation, one large furnace should be provided for every two, or at least for every three, rooms ; one stack heater should be provided for each set of closets. For an eight-room building this would make at least three large furnaces and three small ones — six furnaces in all. This makes an admirable, tho expensive, system of heating for a cold climate. If steam is used, direct radiators should be placed in the rooms, with indirect heat from coils provided for ventilation. A fan is generally most efiEective for ventilating large buildings. Steam pipes running around the room are much more reliable than any other form of radiating surface. At least one side of the schoolroom should be pretty completely taken up by win- dows. Every available inch not taken up by windows should be filled with blackboards. Solid slate should always be used for the blackboards. There is no excuse at the present time for using anything but adjustable desks. These have become so familiar as to call for no particular discussion. Iron ceilings should always be used, both because in the end they are more economical and because they are safer. There should be no platform in the room. Two closets should be built into the wall, providing ample room for the storing of books and collections. These closets take up some room, but this may be ofiEset by a reversible standing black- board, which is a piece of apparatus with which every teacher should be supplied. This plan provides for a hall (twenty-two feet wide) running from one end of the building to the other. Light and air are admitted freely from both directions. This hall is so large as to furnish in itself a play-room upon occasion, or, in the absence of an assembly hall, a place for gathering together the school for public exercises. The dressing-rooms (three feet and one-half wide) may be built into these halls without interfering very much with free movement. It is, however, very desirable that these dressing-rooms should be separated from the main building and ventilated. This can most easily be accomplished by means of sliding partitions. With these sliding parti- tions, very little floor space is needed for the dressing-rooms. Tar concrete should be laid in the play-rooms, and the same material should be laid in the basements, and also around the outside of the building to a width of three feet. There should be a room for manual training and another for sewing in buildings occupied by intermediate and grammar grades. 104 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Ctnciimati In the primary building there should be a room set apart as a kindergarten room, with windows reaching practically to the floor. The halls and rooms in the model building should be tinted from the outset. There should be plants in the building itself, and a lawn bordering the playground, with shrubbery and gardens both for plants and vegetates cared for by the children. These are undoubtedly at the present hour an essential part of every model elemen- Plan No. 3. -'Canterbury Street School. tary school, and a building must have a principal who is intelligent enough to keep all this machinery in order. The janitor should keep the place clean and wholesome, and co-operate as far as possible in securing all that is here suggested. The principal should know his janitor as well as his teachers, should have his confidence, and constantly study with him the action of every furnace and boiler, every draft, damper, and valve. After everything else has been provided, this intelligent co-operation between principal and teachers, on the one hand, and between principal and janitor, on the other, is indis- pensable. The development of the modem school building has been steady, and is apparently quite complete. From the basement up, every part has been the product of scientific Superintendence] ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 105 investigation and long experiment. There ought to be no question about the main fea- tures of this building. We may make the rooms small to accommodate a less number of pupils, or we may add library and entertainment rooms. We may add artistic furnish- ings, we may add pictures and carpets, we may make the school as elegant and as com- fortable as the best home. When we do all this, we shall not have done too much. Plan No. 3 shows the outline of another style of building. On one side of this building is the hall. On the other side are the rooms, two or more in number. In Brook- line, where this model prevails, there are usually four rooms on a side, each of course with its separate entrance from the hall. Sometimes one of these opens into another. The entrance to the hall is sometimes on the side and sometimes in the front. These details are not material. An elegant new building just completed in Springfield, Mass., follows substantially this plan. The rooms, however, extend on three sides of the hall. This limits both the light and the space. To illustrate this plan more fully, I will describe briefly the Canterbury street build- ing in the city of Worcester. In this building there are two rooms upon the first floor (twenty-eight by thirty-two feet). The hall is twenty by thirty-two feet — in itself a fair- sized room. Stairways up and down are located at both ends of the hall, and light is admitted from both. Light is also admitted from the weather side of the hall. Extending backward from one side of the building is a passageway connecting the main building with a two-storied annex used for sanitaries. The boys' sanitary is on a level with the basement floor, and the girls' sanitary is on a level with the first floor. This annex might easily be raised another story, providing for an annex on a level with the second floor. From a moral standpoint, this arrangement is certainly ideal. As a matter of fact, the girls never need go to the basement for any purpose. In the history of every school there are complications and unfortunate incidents in connection with the passage of chil- dren, and especially girls, into a part of the building practically underground. Girls are naturally timid, and, if possible, ought ,not to be sent on so long a journey and into so unattractive an atmosphere. Another feature of this building is that the blackboards and the windows are near the floor. There is still a strange conservatism that prevents school committees from lowering both blackboards and windows. In another six-room building in the city of Worcester the windows are only two feet from the floor. At Teachers College in New York city the windows in the kindergarten department reach quite to the floor, and the recesses are filled with plants. If these rooms are used as kindergarten rooms, they may be opened together, as is the case in the new primary building in Springfield already referred to. One of these two rooms is used as a play-room only and the other as a working-room only. This does away with the necessity of handling the tables and chairs, which is no small task. The first floor may be duplicated in a second and in a third floor. In another building in Worcester the upper floor is given up to a hall which may be used as a play-room on a rainy day and as a gathering-place for the school or for the community. Large recreation rooms are also found in both basements. DISCUSSION Superintendent George Griffith, Utica, N. Y. — I desire to supplement at a few points the remarks of Superintendent Carroll. Also I must disagree with him upon one point. Our experience has taught us to use exclusively the plenum fan to drive the air for ventilation. All other plans fail on some days or in some rooms. The entrance of the air is thru a large enough flue to furnish the required amount of air with the rate of flow not over 300 to 400 feet per minute. The air comes into the room at about two-thirds of lo6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati the height of the room, and the impure air goes out near the floor on the same side of the room. Facilities should be made for circulating the air of the building outside of school hours in all rooms not provided with direct radiation. This is to save fuel. We get the best results at least expense from a combination of direct and indirect steam heat. Again we insist upon entire separation of the ventilation of the toilet-rooms from the ventilation of the schoolrooms and corridors. We save expense by partitioning ofiE the sides of the corridors for cloak-rooms by the use of wire or expanded metal with one-inch or one and one-quarter-inch mesh and proper supports. In every school we now use, and greatly like, stationary drinking-cups, with water constantly flowing over the edge during hours of use. They solve completely and at small cost the problem of danger of contagion from ordinary drinking-cups used in- common. Some three years since I wrote to six or eight of the best authorities I knew upon the question of the best color for school walls. These authorities included artists, -«ye specialists, and schoolmen who had made a study of the matter. The answers received showed a preference for very light Nile green for side walls and a clear white for ceil- ings. For rooms with northern exposure a light terra cotta was favored by several. We have followed this scheme for three years, and are entirely satisfied both with the artistic effect and with the comfortable feeling these colors give to the eyes of those in the rooms. The point where investigation and our experience lead us to differ from Superintend- ent Carroll is in the matter of lighting. We are strongly in favor of unilateral lighting. It is better for both pupils and teachers if sufficient light can be secured from one side. We find that this can be done by massing the windows upon one side of the room, by using iron mullions instead of brick piers, and by carrying the windows up to the ceiling. By this treatment in an ordinary room 'of twenty-four by thirty-two feet, about 20 per cent, of floor space may be secured in glass surface. This is regarded as sufficient, except where there are serious obstructions'to the light caused by adjacent buildings or dense trees. In such cases " factory-ribbed " glass should be used to improve the transmission and dissemination of the light. By this arrangement, moreover, no desk need be farther from the window than one and one-half times the height of the top of the window from the floor — a desirable condition. Question by a superintendent : " What do you use to shut out the direct rays of the sun ? " Answer by Superintendent Griffith : We never use blinds or dark shades. The nar- row streaks of light admitted thru blinds are very injurious to the eyes, and dark shades shut out altogether too much light. We prefer very light straw-colored or very light green shades of Roxonia sun-fast Holland. We hang them double-wound on spring rollers at the center of the window, with a cord over a friction pulley at the top of the window, and so arranged that any part of the window may be shaded without shading the rest of the window. We have two school buildings equipped with shower-bath facilities for both boys and girls. These have proved so beneficial that we are to put them into a third building this summer. The cost of equipment of two bath-rooms in one building was about $400. The cost of running these for one year was less than 3 cents per bath for over 3,700 baths voluntarily taken by the 450 children of this school. We furnish soap, hot and cold water, and a clean bath-towel and wash-cloth for each bath. The janitor and his woman assistant supervise the baths under the direction of the principal. I have no hesitation in declaring baths a very beneficial, and not expensive, addition to all school buildings in sections of a city where the great majority of residences are not equipped with bath- rooms. Snperinteodeiice] UTILIZA HON OF A PUBLIC SCHOOL PLAN T I O 7 THE FULL UTILIZA TION OF A PUBLIC SCHOOL PLANT CHARLES W. ELIOT, PRESIDENT OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. [an abstract] In approaching this subject we should first consider to what extent the public school plant is now ordinarily used. The following estimate is a tolerably close approximation to ordinary practice at present : School- houses may be said to be used about six hours a day during one-half of the days in the year, Sundays, vacations, legal holidays, and Saturdays or two half-holidays in each week, having been deducted from the total number of days in the year. It is obvious at a glance that so partial a use of an industrial plant would never be thought possible. No produc- tive industry could be successfully carried on with so incomplete a use of an expensive plant. Yet public education ought to be the most pro- ductive of all industries ; and its plant should be more fully used than any other. It is as true of the country as it is of the city that school- houses are used but a small portion of the working time of an industrious population. What sort of a school plant can best be completely utilized? In the first place, it cannot be expected that ordinary school buildings should contain machinery or other elaborate tools. No exceptional equipment is expected. The problem is to utilize more fully the ordinary school- houses provided for the first eight grades, as well as the high -school buildings. The first requisite is the means of brilliant lighting. When, but a short time ago, it was proposed to utilize in the evening several of the Boston schoolhouses, it appeared that most of these buildings had no adequate means of lighting. Here is an initial expenditure. In the next place a schoolhouse which is to be used twelve hours out of the twenty-four will need some rooms which are not completely occupied with fixed desks and chairs. It will need some rooms which can be used for such exercises as drawing, modelling, dressmaking, embroidery, cooking, and basketry. Again, it will need an assembly-room provided with seats which adults can comfortably occupy ; and this room should be provided with an electric lantern and the accompanying fixtures. Lastly, no schoolhouse can be made as useful to the public as is possible unless it has a yard, playground, or roof garden. The yard or playground need not necessarily be immediately attached to the building; it may be a little removed, if the access to it be convenient. Thus relatively cheap back land, instead of front land, can be utilized for the yard or garden. The time is ripe for a fuller utilization of public-school plants. It is a historical fact that improvements in education have generally been originated and developed in our country in private and endowed institu- tions, and have spread from them to the public schools. At this moment Io8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Ciacumad a great deal of the work which I am about to describe as suitable for public school systems is already being done in many parts of the United States by private and endowed institutions of education and religion. Thus, evening work on a large scale is carried on by such institutions as the Cooper Union, and the Pratt, Drexel, and Armour Institutes. So it is by the Young Men's and Young Woman's Christian Associations. Vacation work, which was started at Harvard University more than thirty years ago — originally by the two great naturalists, Asa Gray and Louis Agassiz — has now been adopted by many universities, and has proved to be an important enlargement of university influence and serviceablenesa. At the University of Chicago the summer term is the most important term of the year. I recall distinctly Asa Gray's plea for a summer school in Botany: Here are the herbarium and botanic garden maintained at large cost in labor and money, and we fail to utilize it during the three months of summer, the very months in which they could be most service- able. It was an argument for the better utilization of an expensive equip- ment. The recent report of the Commissioner of Labor at Washington on ''Trade and Technical Education" contains a great body of evidence concerning the serviceableness of evening schools all over the civilized world ; and one interesting feature of this exhibit is the large proportion of private and endowed enterprises in this field. Trade schools were first established in the United States by private benevolence, and the newer schools of this sort, like the Lick and Wilmerding Schools at San Fran- cisco, have the same origin. Another evidence that the local institutions of public education fail to meet a widespread and large demand for instruction may be found in the extraordinary development of schools of correspondence which has taken place in our country during the last ten years. It is hard to imagine a more disadvantageous way of getting instruction than the occasional receipt of typewritten directions and com- ments from a remote instructor who has never seen his pupils ; but never- theless over three hundred thousand persons are at this moment maintaining correspondence with one such school in this country, and these persever- ing and ambitious pupils are scattered all over the United States in both city and country. Unable to get what they want at their homes, they pay considerable sums for this extraordinarily uninviting and uninspiring sort of instruction. What a picture of local educational desolation do the facts about schools of correspondence set before any mind which has a little imagination! The experience of the Chautauqua Reading Circles sets in a clear light the same sort of local school unfruitfulness. I turn now to a description of the work which a fully utilized school plant might do; and the first branch of this part of my subject is evening schools. Evening schools, like vacation schools, are in our country of private origin, and in many cases religious or philanthropic associations started them. Fifty years ago I was a teacher in an evening school in Superintendence] UTILIZATION OF A PUBLIC SCHOOL PLANT 1 09 Boston which was carried on by an association of churches in that city. All the teachers were volunteers. The equipment was very meager, and the physical surroundings deplorable; but it was good pioneer work, and showed the way toward the somewhat ample organization of evening schools which now makes part of the Boston public school system. The fundamental idea of the evening schools is to continue and supplement for individuals the school training which was too early broken off. They are continuation schools. They are schools for boys and girls who have already worked many hours during the day. Experience seems to have proved that for such pupils, so occupied during the day, manual and laboratory subjects and methods are to be preferred to book methods. Such pupils can be taught from things better than from words and phrases. They can more easily attend strenuously to exercises which involve the use of the hands as well as of the eyes. In such schools the elective or optional method is indispensable; for the pupil gets more profit from a single subject than from many, and that single subject should be one which naturally enlists his interest and zeal. It is inter- esting to observe that the present program of the Boston Evening High School is a longer and richer program than is provided for the day high schools, and that the system is thoroly elective, not only for short-term pupils, but for the long-term pupils who seek the diploma of their school. Thus the total amount of instruction offered by the school in all its sub- jects represents eighty-three points on the program ; but to attain the diploma of the school only twenty-four points are required. The evening schools offer a continuation of instruction to boys and girls who have been obliged to leave school at the conclusion of the eighth grade, or even earlier. They offer additional instruction to boys who have been obliged at too early an age to become apprentices in shops and factories. The evening school ought to be a refuge and refreshment for an appren- tice. The objection to apprenticeship is that the interest of the shop or factory is constantly in collision with the interest of the apprentice. It is the interest of the shop that the apprentice should learn to do a few things well and stop there ; • it is the interest of the apprentice to learn to do many things and to understand many more — to comprehend a whole machine, and not that part only to the production of which he day after day contributes. The evening school should enable him to widen his knowledge ; to understand principles as well as practice ; and to escape from the contracting influence of automatic repetition. The moment we come to consider what the subjects are which may be most profitably taught during the evening in our, at present, unoc- cupied jschoolhouses we shall see that some modification of the arrange- ment of the rooms and of the furniture in the rooms will ordinarily be needed. There will be needed, for example, rooms in which con- veniently to teach drawing, l)oth free-hand and mechanical. The no NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [Cincinnati value of drawing as training does not seem to me fully appreciated by the ordinary American school superintendent and school-teacher. In the first place, drawing is a mode of expression which is universally useful in all callings or occupations. There is no mechanical art or trade and no learned profession in which a capacity to draw is not a source of power as well as of enjoyment. Drawing develops the per- ception of beauty and of the sources of beauty, and cultivates in a quick and effective way mental accuracy and habitual regard for truth. As a means of conveying ideas and of recording impressions it can be compared only to language, and is often far more convenient than lan- guage. Those of us who cannot draw — and I fear that we are a great majority in this meeting of superintendents — are seldom impressed with a more disagreeable sense of personal inferiority than when we watch a man or a woman who uses a pencil effectively in sketching or designing, or a blackboard and crayon in lecturing. Who of us has not watched with great delight, but with a sense of hopeless personal inferi- ority, an artist depicting with rapid strokes a landscape or a person, or the mobile surface of the sea? It is by practice in drawing, and particu- larly in free-hand drawing, that the intelligent young artisan may most easily be brought to unite artistic and technical capacity. After drawing come clay- modeling, pattern- making for the parts of machinery, and the experimental study of electricity and electrical apparatus, as useful sub- jects for boys in the evening schools, and for girls sewing, cooking, house- hold economics, dressmaking, millinery, and embroidery. All these arts have much educational as well as industrial value ; they train the mind as well as the hand, and they may all impart habits of accurate observation, just reasoning, and moral rectitude. The next enlargement of the use now made of school buildings should be their use for vacation schools, not for a short term of four or five weeks, but for seven or eight weeks during July and August. Vacation schools, like evening schools, were first established by private enterprise, and with a view to keeping children off the streets and giving them con- genial and improving occupations. They have been adopted by some American cities, and have uniformly succeeded wherever adopted ; but they ought to become a regular part of every urban school system, and they should be as numerous and as well-sustained as the public schools which are open the rest of the year, altho the resort to them will not be so large as it is to the ordinary schools maintained from September to July. In these schools the instruction should chiefly concern things and not lan- guage, just as in the evening schools. The pupils need something to do with their eyes and their hands; hence the same subjects which are used in evening schools should form the staple of instruction in vacation schools. In many cases the evening-school teachers from September to June can be employed for the vacation^ schools, for this staff can very well take its vacation in June. Superintendence] UTILIZATION OF A PUBLIC SCHOOL PLANT 1 1 1 We should not imagine that either the evening school or the vacation school is to be regarded as play ; on the contrary, both are real work. Both provide a serious mental training, and both ought to have an excel- lent effect on the moral quality of their pupils. The pupils' minds should gain in accuracy of observation and clearness of conception. The culti- vation of good judgment in productive labor may be more successfully carried on in manual operations than in mathematical operations or in the study of languages. Whatever illustrates and inculcates good judgment in work during youth will add to the industrial efficiency of the nation when the youth become adult. There is no well-directed manual labor or laboratory work which does not give valuable training in the power of application, in the capacity to give keen attention and to grasp quickly and firmly the gist of the matter under consideration. This power of application may be as well developed in the classes appropriate to an evening school or a vacation school as it can be in the classes appropri- ate to an ordinary day school ; indeed, for some minds this invaluable power of application can be developed only thru manual training and laboratory processes. I have said that there is strong moral training in the work appropriate to evening schools and vacation schools. Let me illustrate this proposi- tion: To make a true joint between two pieces of wood or a^rue socket for a square stanchion is a process in which may be displayed all degrees of accuracy in planning and of conscientiousness in work. As a test of honesty in labor I know nothing better than the preparing of a plane piece of metal, proved to be plane by the application in all directions across it of a veritable straight-edge. The foreman of a school shop in which such work is done has, in my opinion, better means of ascertaining the moral quality of the pupils under his charge, with all its various shad- ings and gradings, than the teacher has in an ordinary schoolroom where language, geography, and history are taught. In all good workmanship there is a large element of morality, and this fact comes out very strik- ingly in every evening school and vacation school where the proper man- ual and laboratory subjects are utilized. This is a strong argument in favor of vacation schools ; for the contrast between the kind of mental and moral training which they supply and the effect on idle children of the sights and sounds of thronged city streets is a very striking one. The next, additional use of schoolhouses is evening use for adults as well as children. This use is described by the phrase "the schoolhouse an educational center." It regards the school building as the center of various instructive entertainments offered gratuitously to the people of the neighborhood, but particularly to the families and friends of the school children. These entertainments comprehend singing classes, per- formances by local choruses, bands, and small orchestras, readings of poetry, fiction, travel, and the drama by good readers, men, women, or 112 NA TIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati children; the acting of simple plays by children or adults, and lectures, illustrated by the lantern, on architecture, sculpture, city government, land- scape, history, biography, the useful arts, and social questions. The illus- trated lecture has in recent years been brought to great perfection, and has become a very interesting and profitable mode of teaching. It used to be laughed at as an easy method, fit only for children and other inat- tentive persons ; but it has firmly established itself as superior in all sub- jects to any written lecture without illustration, not only for popular audi- ences, but for university audiences. Nowadays even Latin and Greek can- not be taught well without the lantern as a means of illustration. All the sciences need it, and the teaching of history can be effectively vivified by it. For these instructive entertainments in great variety the assembly- room of all modem schoolhouses can be advantageously used four or five nights out of every week from the ist of November to the ist of May. In a densely populated city the schoolhouse can thus be made the center of an active, intellectual interest for persons of all ages, from the child of fourteen to the grandmother and the grandfather. The schoolhouse should be the most active social center of the neighborhood, kept so by the interest in the music, recitations, plays, readings, and illustrated lec- tures which there can be enjoyed. This work needs a sympathetic director who knows how to enlist in it all the available talent of the neighborhood and much outside talent besides. If it be objected to this suggestion that it is a new function for the public school to provide pleasures for the populace, 1 reply that the adding of pleasures, joys, and satisfactions to human life ought always to have been recognized as the principal function of every school and of all education. Finally, the school yard or playground ought to be utilized by the neighborhood whenever the school is not in session. For this purpose the playground ought to be decorated at its borders with vines and shrubs, and provided with seats. It should, of course, have a large asphalt or gravel surface, in order to secure quick movements of the children during recesses, and this surface should be accessible for free games to all the children of the neighborhood, when the school is not in session. There ought also to be provided in every school yard sand-boxes in which babies can play at all times of the day when the weather is mild. The mothers of the neighborhood should be encouraged to come and sit in the school yard with their babies or little children, whenever the weather permits. In short, the school playground should be an open-air parlor for the neighborhood, and should be kept accordingly with perfect tidiness and with the utmost possible provision of pleasant objects for the eye on and about the neighboring walls and buildings. It is astonishing how much can be done to adorn commonplace or even dilapidated and forlorn build- ings by means of vines, hanging baskets, and window-boxes, and it is often easy to interest the occupants of such buildings in this sort of decoration, Superinteiideiice] SEVEN- YEAR COURSE FOR WARD SCHOOLS 1 13 particularly if they belong to any Latin race, or have come from the southern half of Europe. Every such playground would require careful watching by a man who had the double duty, first of keeping it tidy, and secondly of seeing that nothing rude was done there. It is an axiom that every piece of public ground, large or small, must be effectively policed. You perceive that all this larger use of school playgrounds involves an expenditure of money; but such expenditure is the only true econ- omy. It is an abominable waste to use a very costly piece of open city ground only during the recessfes of a day school. Such breathing-places should not be used for any highly competitive sports in which the few play and the many look on; they should be chiefly used for free, spon- taneous, active games which require very little apparatus and no elaborate training. These remarks apply most directly to city-school playgrounds. Your own minds will suggest the modifications which would be needed in the country. The surroundings of a country school ought to be beauti- ful. They should be thoughtfully contrived to exhibit successive beauties as the season of the year advances; and they ought to make ample pro- vision for quick-moving spontaneous games. A fortunate movement to this end is already well advanced in various parts of the country, and we hope that before long Whittier's description of the country school as " a ragged beggar " will no longer be applicable. You are all well aware that I have made in this discourse not a single original or novel suggestion. Every idea or plan I have mentioned has already been put into execution in some part or other of the United States. What I have desired here to urge on school superintendents and school committees is that the full utilization of a public-school plant is the only true economy; that the present inadequate use of schoolhouses is wasteful precisely in proportion to the costliness of the grounds and buildings, and that reform in this respect means a larger and better yield, physically, mentally, and morally, from the public schools, and therefore a significant addition to the health and wealth of the nation and to the public happiness. SEVEN-YEAR COURSE OF STUDY FOR WARD-SCHOOL PUPILS JAMES M. GREENWOOD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, KANSAS CITY, MO. In this discussion I am obliged to deal with conditions of things rather than with laws of thought, and I flatter myself that I have been cautiously conservative rather than rashly radical in advancing and defend- ing the views I maintain. My object is to have you look at a course of study from another's experience, and to weigh the facts presented in the 114 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cindnnari light of reason guided by unbiased judgment. The argument is based on the assumption that children are not admitted to school before they are six years old, as is the law under which the schools in Missouri are operated. With this limitation as to age, the inquiry is narrowed to a single proposition : Can children of average intellectual ability complete a substantial ward-school course of study in seven years? My answer is in the affirmative, without any reservation whatsoever, and I shall discuss this question on its educational merits fairly, candidly, and fearlessly by taking my viewpoint at the center of the situation. I shall submit what I have seen, investigated, and feel sure of, after years of patient observation. Whether I assign true or false causes for results accomplished, you must judge of the facts set forth. If these be irrele- vant, then cast them aside ; but if they appear reasonable, estimate them at their real worth. In order to simplify this discussion, and to pick out the factors involved and to determine the weight of each, so that its truthfulness or falsity may be the more easily shown, the following propositions are sub- mitted for consideration : I. The custom in vogue in this country of estimating the ages m a grade by a mean average age is fallacious and untrustworthy. II. The mean average age of a class completing a ward-school course is a false standard by which to judge of the time required for each pupil to do the work. III. That pupils of ordinary intellectual ability have completed, and do complete, in a satisfactory manner as heavy a course of study in seven years as is pursued in all first- class city schools of this country. IV. The educational effect a seven-year course has on high-school attendance. From the very nature of the question proposed, it necessarily follows that I must draw largely from my own observation and experience. A seven-year course for ward schools is not a recent discovery in Kan- sas City. The schools were organized on this basis in 1867, and have been operated on it ever since. Therefore I speak with confidence, strengthened by convictions as deeply and clearly fixed as anyone can possibly have after watching and directing this work for twenty-nine f years. Had I found after going to Kansas City that the children required eight years to do the work satisfactorily, I should have asked the board of education to change from seven to eight years ; but I have never found it necessary, or even desirable, to suggest a change. Beginning under the seven-year course, and not feeling sure at first as to results, I watched carefully and cautiously the entire work over which the pupils passed, and I made it a point to test our seven-year pupils with all kinds of questions used by the eight-year pupils in the best schools of this country ; and our seven-year pupils stood as high as the highest, whether the questions were from Brooklyn, the " Regents' Examination Questions" of New York, Civil Service or West Point preliminary questions, or those prepared by Superintendence] SEVEN-YEAR COURSE FOR WARD SCHOOLS II5 city or state superintendents. The tests were chiefly on English gram- mar and composition, arithmetic, geography, and United States history. We have always emphasized reading, spelling, writing, and the four branches previously mentioned, and not neglected vocal music, drawing, and calisthenics. In presenting my argument, I regret that other school systems did not have, or at least supply, the information I wanted ; or, if it was published, it was in such vague form that I could not organize it for any useful or reliable purpose. These explanatory remarks prepare the way for Enter- ing upon the discussion of the four propositions previously announced. I. THE CUSTOM IN VOGUE IN THIS COUNTRY OF ESTIMATING THE AGES OF CHILDREN IN A GRADE BY A MEAN AVERAGE AGE IS FALLA- CIOUS AND UNTRUSTWORTHY When a pupil enters school at the beginning or during the school year, his age in years and months is recorded ; but in making up the table of ages — for publication in annual reports — he is usually counted 6 till he is 7, the months being omitted, and so on for each succeeding year. It is also assumed that, if the age of admission be 6 years, prac- tically all the pupils in the first grade are somewhere between 6 and 7 years old, and the same assumption is made for each of the following grades. That is, the pupils thus massed by years, instead of by scholar- ship and educational proficiency, give many surprises when a critical examination of classes is made involving both age and proficiency. If the age theory be the correct one, all 14-year-old pupils should be in the highest class almost ready for high school. On the contrary, I have found that the ages of children in each grade vary from 8 to 10 years. This variation in age in the same grades has existed in Kansas City schools for more than a quarter of a century, and I have no reason to believe that it is an anomaly and is not found in other cities. The following will illustrate this point : In Missouri children are admitted to school when 6 years old, if their parents wish to send them then. Now, the Kansas City school report for 1902 shows that 6,996 chil- dren belonged to the first grade. According to theory, all of these children should haye been between 6 and 7 years old, or very nearly all of them ; whereas 3,044 were between 6 and 7, counting their ages in years and months; 2,100 between 7 and 8; 1,002 between 8 and 9; 426 between 9 and 10; 215 between 10 and ii; 89 between 11 and 12; 53 between 12 and 13; 21 between 13 and 14; 3 between 14 and 15; and i, 16. The mean average age of all these children was 7 years, 5 months, and 20 days. But only 44 per cent, of these children were between 6 and 7 years old at the time of enroll- ment, while 56 per cent, were more than 7 years old. The extreme limit between the youngest and the oldest was 10 years, and this variation is only slightly changed thruout all the other grades. The second grade. — In this grade the breadth was from 6 to 16 out of a total enroll- ment of 3,760 — 1,856 boys and 1,904 girls, grouped by years as follows: 72 between 6 and 7 ; 724 between 7 and 8 ; 1.214 between 8 and 9 ; 878 between 9 and 10 ; 467 between 1 1 6 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOC! A TION [Cindimati 10 and II ; 226 between ii and 12; ill between 12 and 13; 42 between 13 and 14; 20 between 14 and 15; 5 between 15 and 16; and 2, 16. That is, 34 per cent, from 6 to 8 years of age, while 66 per cent, were above 8 years old. Statistically, these children should have been between 7 and 8 years of age, yet only 20 per cent, fell within this limit, and 80 per cent, above it. The third grade, — This grade presents a still wider variation, ranging from 6 to 17 years, two pupils being 6 years old and one 17. The enrollment in this grade was 3,974i or 2,001 boys and 1,973 gii^ls. From 6 to 9 years of age there were only 609 children, completely upsetting all theoretical predictions; but between 9 and 10, 1,090; between 10 and II, 1,042; between 11 and 12, 596; and 637 above 12 years of age. Not quite 15 per cent, of these children were from 6 to 9 years of age. The fourth grade, — The variation remains unchanged, beginning with 7 and extend- ing to 18. The enrollment is this grade was 3,780 — 1,872 boys and 1,908 girls. Theo- retically, the large bulk of these children should have been between 9 and 10 years old. As a matter of fact, 1,513 children were registered as being from 7 to 10 years old, and 2,267 from II to 18 years. In this gprade just 40 per cent, were where theory places them, and 60 per cent, above it. By condensation, however, 91 per cent, of the pupils were from 9 to 13, 7 per cent, above 13 years old, and nearly 2 per cent, were under 9. It is in this grade, however, where the masses begin to consolidate, and the enrollment conforms somewhat more closely to theory. The massing pupils within a narrower limit is also observable. The fifth grade, — In this grade there were enrolled 2,912 pupils — 1,297 boys and 1,615 girls. The ages varied here from 8 to 20, but 1,907 were from 8 to 12 years old, and 1,005 i^om 13 to 20. Of every 1,000 pupils in this grade 630 were from 9 to 13, while 367 were over 13. Considering the ages of the pupils as a sort of "milky way," the cluster was thickest from .10 to 13. It should he remarked, in passing, that the boys in the fourth and fifth grades have commenced to drop out of school, and the girls 'are in the ascendancy. The sixth grade, — In this grade the consolidation thickens from 11 to 14, there being 86 per cent, within these limits, 12^ per cent, above 15 years of age, and i^ per cent, between 8 and 9. The total enrollment in this grade was 2,242, there being 999 boys and 1,243 girls. The seventh grade, — The total enrollment in this grade was 1,828 — 763 boys and 1,065 girls. The ages of these pupils are from 11 to 19, there being 31, 11 years old, and 2, 19. Of the total enrollment, 1,609 were from 10 to 15 years old, and 219 were from 16 to 18. In another way, 86 children out of every 100 pupils in this grade were comprised within the limits between 11 and 15 years of age, while the mean average age of the grade was 14 years and 14 days. The most carefully prepared mean average reports by years are those of the Cleve- land schools, made by Superintendent Jones, but, unfortunately for the purpose that I had in view, these tables, so laboriously wrought out, do not tell what I wanted to know concerning the ages of the children individually. Nevertheless, his tables are instructive in showing the phase of school statistics by mean averages. From Table IV, Cleveland report for 190 1, one could infer that every child upon entering the first primary room that year was between 6 and 7, and so on year by year up thru the eighth grade. The regularity in ages — like a long flight of stairs — is very monotonous, a year at a step. This fact strengthens the belief that an examination based upon age and educational standing would reveal a dififerent set of conditions, even where compulsory laws exist and are enforced, if enforced. Superintendence] SEVEN-YEAR COURSE FOR WARD SCHOOLS 1 1? II. THE MEAN AVERAGE AGE OF A CLASS COMPLETING A WARD-SCHOOL COURSE IS A FALSE STANDARD BY WHICH TO JUDGE OF THE TIME FOR EACH PUPIL TO DO THE WORK Ages of pupils entering high schools, — In the investigation of this par- ticular phase of the subject, I shall endeavor to show the unreliableness of mean average ages from different points of view. The first is from the Minneapolis report of Superintendent Jordan for 1901, which is very complete in the presentation of this subject. On p. 62, showing the age of the pupils in the high school that year, is the following : Number 12 years of age, 5; 13 years, 39; 14 years, 223; 15 years, 502; 16 years, 681 ; 17 years, 564; 18 years, 346; 19 years, 152 ; 20 years, 48; 21 years, 21 ; over 21 years, 3 ; total, 2,584. By grades or years in high school, these pupils are grouped as follows : first year, 984 ; second, 770 ; third, 518 ; fourth, 312. I quote next from Superintendent Soldan's report of the St. Louis schools, 1900, an extract submitted by Principal William J. S. Bryan. There were 855 pupils admitted to the high school that year. Thirteen were 12 years old; 63, 13 ; 228, 14; 270, 15; 201, 16; and 80, 17. By taking the entire enrollment in St. Louis, which was 1,993, ^^ percentages by ages are practically the same as those from Minneapolis; that is, there were 14 pupils 12 years old; 76, 13; 320, 14; 457, 15; 502, 16; 359, 17 ; 177, 18 ; 629, 19 ; and 26, 20 years old. In these two cities, whose systems of schools are among the best on the continent, the ages of the pupils in the high schools range from 12 to over 20 years, each having the largest percentages in the fourteenth, fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth years ; but the extreme limits here are in line with those that I had previously found to exist in the ward schools of Kansas City. Attention is next called to Superintendent Maxwell's third annual report of the city of New York for the year ending July 31, 1901, under the head of the "Average Age of the Elementary-School Graduates," which is as follows : The following table shows the average age of the children graduated from the ele- mentary schools during ^the year in each of the boroughs; two classes graduated, one in February, 1901, and the other in June, 190 1. I will give the ages of the February class first: Manhattan and the Bronx — boys 14 years and 6 months, girls 14 years and 7 months; Brooklyn — boys 14 years and 9 months, girls 15 years ; Queens — boys 14 years, girls 14 years and 6 months ; Richmond — boys 14 years, girls 14 years. June: Man- hattan and Bronx — boys 14 years and 6 months, girls 14 years and 7 months ; Brooklyn — boys 14 years and 8 months, girls 14 years and 10 months; Queens — boys 1 4 years and 3 months, girls 14 years. Alongside the New York report I will set the average ages of those entering the Cleveland high schools according to the report of 1901 : Central High School, 14.3 years; East High, 14.9 years; Lincoln High, 1 1 8 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOC! A TION [Cincimuiti 14.9 years ; South High, 14.6 years ; and West High, 15 years. These two reports are practically the same. Appended to the New York table is the following by Superintendent Maxwell : The fact that the boys and girls who graduate from the seven-year coarse in the elementary schools of Manhattan and the Bronx are on the average quite as old as the boys and girls who graduate from the eight-year courses in the elementary schools of Brooklyn and Queens, and are older than .the graduates of the Richmond schools, destroys the last argument that remained to those who advocate the maintenance of a course of study of seven years in the elementary schools. A seven-year course is made for the bright pupils, and places the average and dull pupils at a most decided disadvantage* An eight-year course is best adapted for the average and the poor pupils, who must, in the nature of things, constitute the great majority, while provision may easily be made for the bright pupils to graduate in seven years, if they are able to accomplish the work of the grades in that time. It is just such an inference as this that I wish to examine from the bottom as well as from the top of a city school system. The only real argument, so far as can be discovered, in the New York report is a series of averages, and mean averages at that. To meet this inference I now invite attention to the — Ages of pupils in the Kansas Gty high schools in igo2, — To see whether the pupils in the Kansas City high schools are younger or older than those in other high schools of corresponding grade, I submit the follow- ing facts as bearing directly on this subject: For the year closing June, 1902, the total enrollment of pupils in the four high schools was 3,653 — 1,419 boys and 2,243 girls. There were 18 boys 12 years old; 117, 13; 249, 14; 324, 15; 289, 16; 239, 17; no, 18; 54, 19; 19, 20. Of the girls, 29 were 12 years old; 245, 13; 565, 14; 800, 15; 661, 16; 661, 17, 347, 18; 13s, 19; 52, 20. Bringing the pupils in the high schools of St. Louis, Minneapolis, and Kansas City together, the total enrollment was 8,230, and taking the ratio of percentages of each year to the total enrollment in the high schools, St. Louis and Kansas City are practically the same for the twelfth, four- teenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth years, but in the thirteenth Kansas City has 3 per cent, more than St. Louis, i per cent, less in the fifteenth, and 3 per cent, less in the sixteenth. In St. Louis and Kansas City 43.4 per cent, and 44.7 per cent, of the high school pupils are from 12 to 15 years of age, respectively, while in Minneapolis 29.4 are from 12 to 14; but in Minneapolis 61.6 per cent, of the pupils are from 16 to 18 years of age, and 52.1 per cent, and 50.6 per cent, in St. Louis and Kansas City respectively. This comparison relates only to the ages of pupils, and not to the years in high-school classes. This dis- tinction is important. Ages of pupils prepared for admission to Kansas City high schools in September, /g02, — There were 1,200 who gave in reports — 1,130 white Superintendence] SEVEN-YEAR COURSE FOR WARD SCHOOLS HQ children and 70 negroes. There were 487 white boys and 643 white girls ; 20 negro boys and 50 negro girls. These reports were made out at the close of the school year, and the pupils counted their ages to September 15. The items are all in years and months for each pupil ; but in order to condense this information I shall handle the statistics in periods of six months each for convenience. Two white boys between 11 and 12 would enter high school, one being 1 1 years and 5 months old, and the other 1 1 years and 9 months old ; 1 2 boys and 4 girls between 1 2 and 1 2 j^ years old; 15 boys and 12 girls between 12% and 13 years; 40 boys and 60 girls between 13 and 13J4 years; 61 boys and 54 girls between \i%> and 14 years; 83 boys and 129 girls between 14 and 14 J^ years; 68 boys and 89 girls between 14 J^ and 15 years; 90 boys and 128 girls between 15 and i5ji years; 40 boys and 62 girls between 15^^ and 16 years; 45 boys and 59 girls between 16 and i6j^ years; 9 boys and 25 girls between 16 J^ and 17 years ; 21 boys and 31 girls 1 7 years old. From an analysis of this table, which is published in detail in the Kansas City annual report, the following items are obtained: Of 1,130 white pupils prepared and certificated for admission to the high school last September, 3.8 per cent, were 12 years old at the date of admission; 19 per cent., 13; 32 per cent., 14; 28.3 percent., 15; 12.3 per cent., 16; 2.6 per cent., 17; i.i per cent. 18. Only one other table of this character have I found, and it is by Prin- cipal Bryan, of St. Louis, who has kept these items since 1893. His statistics on this point for 1900 are as follows: 1.5 per cent, were 12 years old ; 7.4 per cent., 13 ; 26.7 per cent, 14 ; 31.6 per cent., 15 ; 23.5 per cent., 16 ; 9.3 per cent., 17. Putting these figures from St. Louis and Kansas City together, in St. Louis 35.6 per cent, of the pupils admitted to the high school were registered as being from 12 to 14 years of age, and in Kansas City 56.4 per cent, of the corresponding age ; and if those classified as being 15 be included, then in St. Louis 67.5 per cent, and in Kansas City 84.7 per cent. Time required to complete ward-school course, — A special report was made to me in September, 1902, by 441 boys and 554 girls who entered, or intended to enter, high school, stating the length of time each pupil had taken in ward school or rural school to prepare for high school, counting nine months to the year. Nearly all these children had been prepared in the Kansas City public schools. The boys reported as follows: 6 had completed the ward-school course in 4j^ years; 11 in 5 years; 45 in 6 years: 29 in 6J^ years; 209 in 7 years; 29 in 7j^ years; 9 in 9 years; 3 in 10 years; 2 in 11 years. Of the 554 girls, 3 had com- pleted the work in 3 years ; 6 in 5 years ; 5 in 5J^ years; 80 in six years; 290 in 7 years; 26 in 7J^ years; 104 in 8 years; i in %% years; 9 in 9 years; 2 in 11 years. Putting this in another form, 71 per cent, of the I20 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati boys had completed the course of study in 7 years or less; 27 per cent, required from 7 to 8 years to complete it, and 2 per cent, required more than 8 years; and of the 554 girls to enter high school, 74 percent, had completed the course of study in 7 years or less, 23^^ per cent, required between 7 and 8 years, and 2 J^ per cent, more than 8 years. This statement does not difier in any material respect from several other reports I have published upon previous occasions and at differ- ent intervals, and I think it and other similar reports materially invalidate Superintendent Maxwell's inference that a seven-year course is made for bright pupils only. His conclusion must have been based on a series of arithmetical averages. Substantiating this report made from the pupils of 1901 who entered high school, I herewith submit summaries from the pupils of the four high schools of Kansas City who are members of the graduating classes in June, 1903. This information was procured from the pupils directly, who filled out a printed blank which I had prepared and was returned to me December 23, 1902. In this report a school year is also counted as nine months. The total number of boys who reported is 143; 3 had completed the ward-school work in 2 years ; 2 in 2j^ years; 2 in 3 years; 3 in 4 years; 6 in 5 years; 42 in 6^ years; 61 in 7 years; 20 in 8 years; 4 in 9 years; putting this in briefer form, 119 had completed the ward-school studies in 7 years and less, while it took 24 more than 7 years. Of 288 girls only 42 attended ward school more than 7 years ; more specifically, 4 had completed the ward-school work in 2 years, 7 in 3 years, 10 in 4 years, 28 in 5 years, 59 in 6 years, 138 in 7 years, 27 in 8 pears, 10 in 9 years, 5 in 10 years. Condensing : 85 per cent, had completed the ward-school course of study in 7 years and less. This again confirms the argument hitherto adduced in regard to a seven-year course, and that it is not made for bright children only. It is pertinent to remark in this connection that I have upon three former occasions examined into all cases of failure to do ward-school work on time, and I found the chief causes to be irregular attendance, loss of time by changing from one school to another, sick- ness, and a few cases of inability to do the work. III. THAT PUPILS OF ORDINARY INTELLECTUAL ABILITY DO COMPLETE, IN A SATISFACTORY MANNER, AS HEAVY A COURSE OF STUDY IN SEVEN YEARS AS IS PURSUED IN ALL FIRST-CLASS CITY SCHOOLS IN THIS COUNTRY The subject-matter in a seven-year course, — The quality and quantity of subject-matter in an eight-year course have appeared to superintend- ents, principals, and teachers engaged in graded school work as incapable of reduction or compression into a seven-year course, without some losses of the essentials in the common branches. I admit that the announce- Superintendence] SEVEN-YEAR COURSE FOR WARD SCHOOLS 12 1 ment of such a proposition to conservative school people is very repellent to their habits of thought. This feeling is apparent in Superintendent Soldan's excellent paper read at Chicago, November 8, 1902, before the Annual Conference of High Schools and Academies, in which he dis- cussed "Shortening the Course in Elementary Schools." As I read between the lines in his published paper, he is haunted by a strong mis- giving in regard to subject-matter. He thinks that possibly the sub- stitution of one text-book in geography for the customary two bopks, with the reduction of text-books in arithmetic, would be necessary; he would put stress on the practical acquisition of good English (deferring some of the formal grammar to the time when a foreign language is studied in high school), and thought that a change in the method of conducting recitations would become necessary perhaps. With modifications such as are indicated, he thought a seven-year course might become feasible. With all due respect to the opinion of a man so able as Superintendent Soldan, and one whose judgment is always calm and judicial, I must dis- sent most earnestly from his views of a "bob-tail" course of study, and I therefore deal with the entire question on the basic fact that all the necessary work done in an eight-year course, in order to prepare chil- dren for life or a high-school course, can be done, and is done, just as well in seven years. Why should a child be kept eight years on an area of school work that can be done in seven years under the limitation stated at the beginning of this paper ? The branches in detail, — First, as to two geographies being replaced by one, as suggested by Superintendent Soldan, I dissent on the ground that it is not necessary. We have always used two good books in geog- raphy, besides doing a very great deal of work not found in any text-book. Butler's two books were used since their publication till September, 1901, when Morton's two books were adopted instead. Elementary geography is introduced as a regular study, that is, by reading from the book during the last three months of the third grade ; and it is continued for twelve months, or to the end of the fourth year. At the beginning of the fifth year, the advanced or complete geography is begun, and it is continued to the end of the sixth year. Our pupils have done the work in geography as well as, if not better than, it is done in a large majority of the city schools with which I am acquainted. In fact, I do not know a system of schools in which there is so much latitude given to the teachers in teaching this subject. We have man -geography, dirt-geography, com- mercial-geography, industrial-geography, correlated -geography, wet- and dry-geography, field- and visiting-geography, and some straight-geog- raphy. With reference to arithmetic, I am equally positive that the course should not be abridged, and, furthermore, that no necessity exists for curtailing it. Besides oral-arithmetic, wooden -arithmetic, pinting- 122 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cmdnnati inch-ing-measuring-arithmetic, doing-arithmetic-concretely, we have also elementary arithmetic, introduced at the beginning of the second term, third grade, or at the beginning of the twenty-second month of the child's work. He continues this text, Milne's Arithmetic^ for twenty-four months. But this work is largely supplemented by outside miscellaneous problems and exercises. At the beginning of the sixth 3'ear Moore's Grammar School Arithmetic is taken up and studied till the close of the seventh year. This is not all. We have never been maudlin enough to throw out of our course of study mental or intellectual arithmetic. While all thru the course much quick work is done mentally in fractions and integers, yet at the beginning of the fifth year the pupils take a mental arithmetic. Book II, Oral Arithmetic^ Kirk and Sabin's ; and this text is studied till the end of the seventh year. If there are any eight-year schools that have a solider course in arithmetic, I am not aware of the fact. Our course in arithmetic is practically the same as the one in use in the schools of France at this time — a strong, three-book course — besides all the new fads practiced in Chicago and elsewhere. In English grammar and composition the same solid work is carried on, with still greater force, if possible, than in arithmetic. It is obvious to anyone that children in the third grade, who observe and study natural objects with a considerable degree of interest and curiosity, will, if their minds are properly directed to words and sentences in their oral language work and composition, study these with a like degree of intelligence and understanding. This is the result of our experience, corroborated by practice in grammar, composition, reading, and spelling. If the chil- dren in the public schools of France have, beginning at seven and by the end of the ninth year, or at the farthest by the end of the tenth year, acquired not only a good working knowledge of their mother-tongue, but also a fair understanding of technical grammar, including the nicer shades of meaning in the " subjunctive mode," I should like to know why our children cannot grasp in the fourth grade some of the essential principles underlying the use, function, and syntactical structure of sen- tences and paragraphs of the English language — one of the simplest of all languages in its structure. While the usual practice with teachers in the reading and language exercises of various kinds in the first, second, third, and fourth grades is to watch carefully over the child's pronuncia- tion of words, his putting words into sentences so as to express his thoughts definitely and forcefully — and all these things are strongly emphasized — yet it is just as true that the child's attention is seldom or never directed to the forms of sentences, to the principal elements and the modifying elements of which sentences are composed ; while, if, on the other hand, the object be a tree, a clear distinction is drawn in regard to root and trunk, branches and branchlets, leaves and leaflets, even down to the venation of the leaves. Why should we not carry the child along Superintendence] SEVEN-YEAR COURSE FOR WARD SCHOOLS 123 a similar process of investigation and reasoning in sentence structure, where material is so abundant and ready-made ? Instead, he is kept using words and sentences as things not to be studied, and his language work, except a little preliminary drill of a routine character, is chiefly confined to copying sentences and paragraphs — simple, careful work that cultivates attention and penmanship, but exceedingly dull work. Writing from dictation is a grade higher in value, especially if the pupil is put to correcting his mistakes by the use of the book from which the dictation has been made. Whatever the exercises may be, the pupil should be made to see in what his mistakes consist, whether in spelling, the use of capitals, punctuation, syntax, unity, or concord. Gradually, beginning with the second grade, a few of the simpler prefixes and suf- fixes in the spelling exercises should be introduced, and their meaning and use taught ; and by so doing some advance will be made over the present slow methods in vogue. In the fourth grade, especially, it is time to commence systematically to teach the four different kinds of sentences as to their use in the expression of thought and feeling, and immediately after these divisions have been mastered by the pupil he should begin to study sentence structure in a formal manner, then passing to the elements that enter into sentence structure. Anyone who has ever tried it will find that pupils are just as keenly interested in taking sentences to pieces in thought as they are in any other kind of analytic work. Either before or after, the child can be taught to tell the parts of speech in all plain sentences, and the properties of the same. But I need not point out in detail how these different things can be done. I simply say they are done, and that any intelligent teacher who is able to organize the material in English grammar and composition on a rational basis can do all I have indicated, and much more ; and this work should be commenced in the third or fourth grade. Enough for me to say that Reed and Kellogg's English Grammars, the Graded and the Higher Lessons in English, are the texts that we have used for twenty years, interspersed with composition work ; and I am of the opinion that this series is as severe as any other published in this country. By the time the pupil has passed thru the fourth grade, he takes up Graded Lessons in the fifth year, much having been anticipated in the third and fourth grades by oral work ; but the work in the text is not taken up as the authors arranged it, but related topics are brought together and studied, and not cut into little pieces, as the authors con- ceived it to be their duty to do in arranging the text. The best method of teaching the essentials of any subject is not to nibble at this thing a little while, and then at something else, and so on ; but to bring related matter together, organizing and handling it in good-sized pieces as wholes. Too many teachers — and some superintendents, I fear — do not discriminate between essentials and noA-essentials when teaching. "4 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati As to whether this is feasible or not, I shall not waste words in trying to convince anyone. Should any doubt, try it, is my advice. This is the best and quickest way to settle such questions. The Graded Lessons is used by the pupils one year, and in the sixth and seventh grades the Higher Lessons is studied, after the same general plan as that pursued in the lower grades. We cut nothing out of the text, but rearrange some of the material by putting it together in a better way to handle it, so that it may be the more easily comprehended by the learners. In United States history, McMaster's is the regular text. It, with much collateral reading, gives the children a fair knowledge of the history of the United States, and some glimpses of outside matters, past and present. The way for this is prepared in the lower grades also. Lest some may conclude that music, drawing, and calisthenics are not taught, I will simply state that the Kansas City schools were the first in this country to employ a supervisor of calisthenics, and to teach the sub- ject in all the grades in the ward schools ; and that it, in due time, spread to other cities. I will also remark that we never employed a special teacher of penmanship, because we had no use for one when our pupils did prettier writing, whether slant or vertical, than do the pupils of any other city, except the children of the Cincinnati schools ; and from them our children learned to do it. I think that I have shown that by sticking to the common branches, as we have, and having kept steadily in mind solid attainments in these branches, not omitting any essentials, but by emphasizing them, neglect- ing nothing important, all that is really valuable to the child in a ward- school course can be learned in seven years. Furthermore, I do not hesitate to affirm that, in view of^all the facts, an eight-year course is one year more than pupils of average ability need to do the work. IV. THE EFFECT A SEVEN-YEAR COURSE HAS ON HIGH-SCHOOL ATTENDANCE A few years ago, and even at the present time, various remedies were and have been suggested, and some of them strenously and ably advanced as successful measures for increasing the attendance in high schools. In some cities and towns it was maintained, with some degree of plausibility, that if Latin and algebra were left optional in high schools, the boys who had completed the ward-school course would gladly enter the high school. This elimination, which was the substitution of a downy bed for solid work, has had little appreciable effect one way or the other. There has not yet been found a quick commercial or an electric method of learning any subject outside of faithful, persistent, intelligent work. The mind yet moves in its own way, and possibly will continue to do so as long as the earth spins in space. Legislation does not change human nature, and neither do milk-and-water courses of study make sound scholarship, no difference how deep or thick the sugar-coating is. Superintendence] SEVEN-YEAR COURSE FOR WARD SCHOOLS 1 25 A more hopeful panacea was the manual -training high school, which, it was believed, would be sure to catch and hold boys and girls better than the old-fashioned high schools had done ; but with the largest city manual-training high school in this country, after several years of expe- rience, we have found thus far that it neither holds pupils in school so well as do the other high schools, nor do they pursue their studies so persistently ; that is, they do not stick to what they start in with so con- tinuously, especially in mathematics, Latin, German, French, English, and natural science. But in manual training and domestic science the classes continue at a relatively high level. Another view was that of large options in high-school studies. This, I believe, is a potent factor in influencing some minds not yet fully qualified to- choose intelligently, but capriciously, such studies as strike the fancy of the pupils for the time being, or in sliding thru school on a down grade. There must be a broad and deep educational background in the mind of man or woman upon which a solid structure can be built. That, in my opinion, is the only safe and sure foundation to fit boys and girls for the manifold duties of life. In high schools, as in other schools, the chief factor is whether the pupil is sent to school or he goes to school. The sent pupil looks out for soft snaps ; the other goes to work. Turning aside from these reflections, I cannot account for the heavy enrollment and attendance of pupils in the high schools of Kansas City except upon the hypothesis of a seven-year course as compared with an eight-year course in other cities. A few references will be sufficient to indicate what I mean. In New York the total enrollment in all the high schools is 3.4 per cent, of the entire enrollment; in St. Louis, 2.6 per cent.; in Cleveland, 6.4 per cent; in Los Angeles, 6.2 per cent.; in St. Paul, 5.2 per cent.; in Spring- field, Mass., 5.2 percent.; in Denver, District No. i, 10 per cent., (the nchest school district in the United States in proportion to population); in Omaha, 8.2 percent.; in Buffalo, 5.1 per cent.; in Chicago, 4.49 per ^ent.; in Lowell, 6 per cent.; in St. Joseph, 7.2 per cent.; in Indianapolis, 7.2 percent.; in Boston, 6.2 per cent.; in Kansas City, 12.5 per cent. I have used the most recent information from these cities, and in several instances the reports for the second school year ending June, 1902. rf this subject be viewed from the standpoint of graduates from the high «chools in different sections of the country, the contrast is still more striking. The number of graduates for the last three years from the Kansas City high schools thus summarized is: in 1900, 387 graduates, 135 of whom were boys ; in 1901, 430 graduates, 158 of whom were boys ; in 1902, 486 graduates, 152 of whom were boys. It may be that the public-school spirit in Kansas City is more enthu- siastic than in other cities, but I hardly think so. I can see no reason why there should be a more pronounced feeling among us on this subject 126 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati than among other patriotic citizens living in other sections of our country. Neither am I persuaded that our citizens as a class are better able financially to keep their children in high school than in other locali- ties, or that our principals and teachers persuade the children to go to high school more successfully than in other cities. Competition to get ahead in this world's goods is as keen and exacting with us as it is with you. Perhaps it is more pronounced than in many other localities. So far as I can determine by an analysis of the facts, I* firmly believe that the chief factor is the seven-year course of study pursued in the ward schools. A good course of study in the ward schools and a heavy course in the high schools — just such courses as fit young men and young women for college or for life — are the inducements we offer to our boys and girls. Our plan has always been honest, persistent, intelligent, systematic, and con- scientious work in ward and high schools. Before closing, I will venture an opinion on the six-year plan forward schools and six years for high-school work. In my opinion some pupils can be well prepared in six years for the high school. Such a course would further particularly such as are foreordained to take a classical course, and to begin it early in life, as is done in the German schools. A six-year course for high schools, viewed from a financial standpoint, would render such a scheme impracticable, unless the salaries of high- school teachers were reduced to a common denominator with those teaching in the ward schools. I need not argue this question further. Summarizing the results, I conclude as follows : 1. That the custom of presenting tables of mean averages as a coefficient of the ages of children in a particular grade, or class, is practically of no real educational significance. 2. That the mean average age of a grade, or a class, completing a year's , work is a false measuring unit by which to estimate the time required by each pupil to do the work. 3. It has been shown, and it cannot be successfully contradicted, that children admitted to school at six years of age, or older, do complete, in a satisfactory manner, as heavy a ward-school course in seven years as is pursued in first-class city schools of this country. 4. That Kansas City has a greater percentage of pupils in her high schools than any other city of the same or larger size, whether per- centages be estimated on entire population, the total enrollment in the public schools, or the number of high-school graduates in propor- tion to the total population. DISCUSSION Superintendent Richard G. Boone, Cincinnati, O. — In the first place, the important point is not that the children shall have learned so much of the subjects, but that they should become eager to attack new problems. There are not so many Superintendence] SEVEN-YEAR COURSE FOR WARD SCHOOLS 1 27 essentials in those branches as we may think. The child should learn how to make application to history of his studies in literature, and then he will be able to take history work in the high school. So in the nature work in the elementary grades, the child must learn how to get hold of its meaning, and then, when he comes to the high school, he can take whatever science is offered. We must remember that there is no convincing reason for the present curricu- lum; the amount of each subject put into it is arbitrary. The traditional limitation of subject-matter is being removed. As a matter of fact, it seems to me that the experience of the best schools is that during seven or eight years, without using more time for read- ing than before, we can read eight times as much as we used to think we could read. What is true of reading is true of geography. It is not necessary to reduce the number of books nor to reduce the assignment The child needs to get at these things in a more resourceful way. The schoolmaster dawdles, works on the unimportant details of sub- jects, on things that bring no insight. Much in history is of no use to life; much in the field of nature study has no earthly use, and could not be of heavenly use, in the very nature of things. The trouble with too much of our work is that it is given up to details. If we only knew what to teach of these matters, far more could be done in six years than we now do in eight. It is not a question of years so much as of the age and devel- opment of the children. We are all doing something in the direction of pushing down from the high school into the grades — introducing into the elementary schools studies heretofore considered as high-school studies. We are beginning algebra in the grades, constructive geometry in the grades ; history, belonging in the high school as formerly believed, is being done in the grades. We have a peculiar situation in Cincinnati. Forty-five thousand children are in the schools, and seventeen thousand take the German language in the elementary schools, spending during the first four years one-half of their time in that subject. So far as I am able to see, the seventeen thousand do the work of the English course of study about as well as the others do. This means six years for our English course, and a large percent- age of our children get for the English course only six years. I should be afraid to give you here the figures on attendance. I am not so well forti- fied on that point as is the writer of the paper. We in Cincinnati get very few children the whole ten months of the year. Thousands come not more than eight months, and thousands not more than seven months. When they finish in fifty-six school months, you see how much farther the reduction would go. The course is made out for eight years because the children are so irregular in attendance. If our children were in school nine months per year, or even eight months, seven school years would be all that is necessary. There is a great waste of time. We do not begin to do what we might do if the circumstances were more favorable. As I have already said, the greatest trouble is that the majority of teachers do not see what is vital. They should select what is vital in your arithmetic, drawing, geography, history, grammar, spelling, etc. Some years ago, in an attempt to revise an elementary course of study, I went to some members of the faculty to ask assistance. In physics the teacher said, "All the points can be counted on the fingers of one hand." In history the teacher of that subject gave practically the same response. There are not many things to be taught in language, geography, etc. The problem is the problem of selection. I recognize the fact that the time is needed for growing. An eight-year course must be better than a seven-year course on this account. I do not mean by this that we are to shorten the time in school. Mr. Greenwood is wrong about the seven-year course mak- ing a large high school. I think their manual training and the enrichment of the courses have popularized their high school. Altogether, it seems to me that we might make some shortening of the elementary course. I am not sure but his last suggestion for shorten- 128 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [Cincinnmu ing to six years the elementary course, with a little more time in the high school, may be worthy of adoption. Frank M. McMurry, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. — I want to support one of the thoughts suggested by Mr. Boone, namely, that there is noth- ing sacred about the present common-school curriculum. In the last fifteen years inre have introduced subjects until we have probably twice as much as we had in the course before that time. We all know, however, that what we now have is the result of enthusi- asm, enterprise, and extension. If we know that much we have introduced is not very valuable, why can we not agree that there must be much omission? We should unload from one-third to one-half of what we have. I was disappointed in the indication that the author of the paper wanted to hold in the course all that is now there. Why shall we not discuss the question of what can be left out of the course? The omissions we have referred to will, on the whole, involve the omission of details. There are many details that lead nowhere to vitals, but there are details that will aid the comprehension of the subject and will greatly enrich the course. We must substitute details of the more valuable kind. Superintendent C. F. Carroll, Worcester, Mass. — Yesterday and on Tuesday, perhaps, the question was presented here of dropping the high-school course two years lower. . This morning the question is the shortening of the preparatory course. Twenty- five years ago President Eliot proposed the enrichment of the common-school course. The grammar-school principals almost made a riot, but now we are taking his view. Last night President Eliot proposed an industrial course reaching down thru the grades, and I think he voiced the feeling of almost all who are here. Now, it seems to me that both this morning's discussion and the previous discussions are parts of the same question : How can we readjust the entire curriculum from the kindergarten to the university? For my part, I am not particularly interested in shortening the elementary course. In New England nine years is still given to this course in many cities. I thought Super- intendent Greenwood skipped something. In Worcester we send children to the high school below the age of fifteen years. It is reported that in Kansas City 35 per cent, go to the high school below fifteen ; in our schools all go below fifteen after finishing a nine-year course. A larger percentage go to theliigh school in Worcester than in Kansas City. It does not seem to me that this is the important question. As Mr. McMurry has said, it is the question of enrichment. We need something of history, something of literature, as was set forth on this platform yesterday. All these things really shorten and enrich and enlarge the elementary course. The languages should be put into the elementary schools, as Dr. Boone has already suggested. This is being carried out in a number of schools. Mr. Coy contended that it is not practical to teach languages and algebra in the elementary schools. I will tell you what I think we are accom- plishing in the schools of Worcester. A year ago I asked the board of education to authorize putting German and French into the seventh grade, Latin and algebra into the eighth, algebra and geometry into the ninth. One very intelligent man, a college man, was anxious that his children be spared the mountain of higher arithmetic and similar omitted subjects. This year we have five city centers, containing nearly four hundred pupils, taking this work. There are administrative difficulties to be overcome. We simply select good teachers, employ one special teacher in French and one in Ger- man, and the schools go along in the usual way. It is impracticable to lengthen the high-school course by dropping it down into the grades. The high-school teachers can never, in point of skill or sympathy or effective- ness, take the place of the teachers in the grades. I have been a high-school teacher. The teachers coming from college, as I did, anxious to take a chair, learn at the expense of your children and mine how to do good teaching. Superintendence] OXFORD UNIVERSITY AND RHODES SCHOLARSHIPS 1 29 We have in the grammar grades a company of teachers wonderfully interested in the children and improved in skill beyond what is common in the high school. May the good Lord forbid that we shall ever put the children of the upper grammar-school grades into the hands of the untrained teachers in the high school, thus taking them out of the hands of teachers who love them ! All honor to the university men at Columbia, Chicago, Cornell, who are trying to train high-school teachers so they can teach along pedagogical lines ! It is the hardest proposition I have ever met, this making of college graduates hito teachers. I have tried fifty such teachers, and I have not in Worcester today a single college graduate teaching little children. The question of readjustment from top to bottom is the vital question. Superintendent J. W. Carr, Anderson, Ind. — I have read somewhere that, in writing a novel, the excellence of the book consists largely in what is left out. I want to take but one moment of your time to utter my most emphatic disapproval of over- crowding the elementary-school course. I have not been with people announcing great educational doctrines ; I have been along the firing line, where we are trying to do the work that they say needs to be done, and we are suffering from intellectual dyspepsia. It is not the question of how much can be crowded into the course, but of how much can be done, how much can be digested. I want to say that French and German and algebra and geometry are not to be crowded into the elementary schools. We are not to crowd out the old-time studies. Spelling still has a place in the public-school curriculum of this country, and my plea is for relief from some of the things we have. I am willing to try in my school to leave some of the things out. Principal E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, O. — I do not want to give an account of my whole life, but I wish to say that there is no grade of school in which I have not taught. I have been in primary schools, and I have worked in the grades. If the Lord will forgive me, I will confess that I have been a city superintendent. I want to enter a protest against what has been said about high-school teachers. In Cincinnati we do not have that kind of high-school teachers. In Cincinnati high schools we have the most thoro devotion to the pupils. When young people come to the high school, the whole plan of instruction must be changed ; no class comes into the high school without the teacher's considering the adjustment that must be made for the individual pupil. That those teachers do not teach the children, but teach the subject, is not true. I not only know the high schools of Cincinnati, but I have visited Columbus and Chicago and other cities, and I can show that there also it is not true. I did teach in a normal school once; I believe in normal schools; but there are good teachers that have never been to the normal schools. I want to protest against the abuse of high-school teachers not founded on fact, and much of what has been said here in that direction is not founded on fact. OXFORD UNIVERSITY AND THE RHODES SCHOLARSHIPS W. T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. One of the memorable events of last year was the offer of Cecil Rhodes, made known to us thru the provisions of his will, providing for a hundred perpetual scholarships in the University of Oxford, two for each state and each territory in the United States, a scholarship amounting to the 130 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Clnciimati handsome annual sura of three hundred pounds — say $1,500 — to sup- port a student for three years at the most famous university in Great Britain. This provision was made with the noble purpose of bringing about a more intimate and sympthetic acquaintance between the most influential class of citizens in the English nation and the people who have gone out from it in past times and founded an independent nation on the basis of constitutional liberty and local self-government. In the words of his will, " the union of the English-speaking peoples throughout the world " impelled him to make this endowment. He desired '^ to encourage in the students from the United States of North America, who will benefit from the American scholarships, to be established, for the reason given, at the University of Oxford under this my will, an attachment to the coun- try from which they have sprung, but without withdrawing them or their sympathies from the land of their adoption or birth." As a guide to his trustees in the selection of incumbents of these scholarships, Mr. Rhodes mentions four qualifications: first, literary and scholastic attainments ; second, fondness for outdoor sports; third, unselfishness and fellowship; and lastly, moral force of character and zeal in the performance of public duties. All good people will respond with a hearty spirit of co-operation to so noble a project, and we may well consider what it signifies and what are the conditions of its successful management. The past three years have been noteworthy, in the history of industry and finance, for the development of productive industry. Pari passu with this has gone on the taking possession of the resources of nature, and the increase of the assets of civilization — wealth in mineral, vege- table, and animal productions; natural forces have been harnessed for the use of men, lessening distances and removing obstacles to communication by land and water. Never before has the potency of capital been so awe- inspiring. To name in one word the function of the great process going on, one would say that it is the removal of the middle man, who effects exchanges, to the function of the end man, who is direct producer or direct consumer. By saving in the middle term of cost of manufactur- ing, transporting, and distributing there comes to be an enormous accu- mulation of capital. After apportioning to the producers and consum- ers their quota of the benefit derived from reducing the expense of the middle term, the owners of capital have for many years made large gifts to education. The names of Tulane, Johns Hopkins, Cornell, Leland Stanford, Drexel, Vanderbilt, Sophie Newcomb, Vassar, Wellesley, Smith, Yale, and Harvard come to our minds as the leading universities recipient of endowments. For the year 1899 -1900, gifts for higher education amounting in the Superintendence] OXFORD UNIVERSITY AND RHODES SCHOLARSHIPS 131 aggregate to $11,995,463 were reported to the Bureau of Education'by the several colleges and universities. For the year 1900-1901 the gifts amounted to $18,040,413. For the year 1 901-1902 thus far the gifts reported amount to $16,989,967. Not all of the* university reports for 1902 are in. The Carnegie gifts for libraries and other institutions have been esti- mated at the following: for 1895, $1,000,000; for 1898, $310,000; for 1899, *3>37o»ooo; tor 1900, $5,065,000; for 1901, $30,243,500. Counting in his gift for the Carnegie Institution in Washington, his grand total of gifts in the United States is estimated at $52,270,173. Besides this his total for Canada, Cuba, England, Ireland, and Scotland amounts to $15,000,000 more. This enormous increase in gifts to education incident to the amassing of capital is of special interest to this consideration of the Rhodes gift, by reason of the fact that the application of capital to the increase of wealth is a process somewhat mysterious to the common mind. Karl Marx's formula C-M-C, commodity — money — commodity, or the producer exchanges the commodity which he has created for money, and with money procures the other commodities which he wishes for usq — states the first and obvious economic process (in a formula C'M-C)\ but the middle term, money, when expanded, comes to mean the market, and the market has a different function from C-M-Q or commodity — money — commodity, namely, it starts with M, or money, and buys commodities, to sell again for money, hoping to increase its- money by the process — earning an income by the process of exchange — and this formula is M-C M, according to Marx, and in that he sees the origin of all the evils in an industrial and commercial civilization, for this is the formula of the capitalist. The capitalist as the middle term represents a stock of goods and its transportation and distribution. Without this middle term the producer can produce only what is useful to himself and not for his neighbor or for the market of the world, because there is and can be no market without this second formula M-C-M, money — commodity — money. It is obvious that the profit of the market, the middle term, is greater when its own expenses of collection and distribution are diminished — and when this is done on a large scale, say by gigantic railways on land or ships on the sea, great economy is secured, and there are large savings to be distributed, partly to the producer of raw material, partly to the manufacturer, and partly to the consumer, and a large dividend left for capital which supports the world-market. Things without use cannot be counted as property, and there is no object in creating a surplus of goods that cannot be used. To transport things from a place where they have no use to a place where they are needed is to produce value ; and, as an actual fact, by far the largest por- 132 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati tion of the final cost (to the consumer) of the commodities that in the aggregate constitute wealth derive their value from the two functions of the market, namely, the collection and the distribution of commodities — the function of the* market (M-C-Af) so strangely misunderstood and suspected by Karl Marx. But the market collects its toll from the consumer. It shares with the producer the total amount received from the consumer. The market causes competition, and competition reduces the producer's profit, and also the profits of the market. The less the charge of the market (that is to say, of the middle man), the efficiency of collection and distribution remaining the same, the greater the profit to the end men, that is, to the producer and the consumer.' It is obvious that the increase of the effi- ciency of the market and the diminution of its charges indicate economic progress. It is in the line of the reduction of the necessary labor to con- quer nature. • The production of the raw material, its collection, its manu- facture, distribution, and consumption, require less expenditure of human labor, or of its representative, which is money. From this point we can see the significance of this great movement of capital in our times which diminishes the number of middle men and transfers them to the function of end men, that is, producers and con- sumers. It is the aim of every combination that capital makes to reduce the expense of exchange, give the producer a higher reward, and share with the consumer by lowering the price of the finished product to him. For the performance of this function capital collects its tithes. It gets perhaps a tenth of what it saves, distributing on an average the other nine-tenths to the piroducers and the consumers. In our day the enormous aggregates of capital are hastening forward this beneficent process with ever-increasing speed. It is, of course, out of place to consider here the fact that so important and radical a trans- formation as results from this great process necessarily involves much evil and much suffering to the human beings that are forced from the place of middle men to the place of end men. All readjustment of voca- tions involves inconvenience, and sometimes suffering, and sometimes injustice. But we may remark that if a new investment of capital pays well for a while, it is constantly attacked by newer inventions and newer combina- tions which, being more economical than the old — that is to say, needing fewer middle men — cause the old investment to pay less and less interest to the capital. Old investments, therefore, in capital are obliged con- stantly to divide with new combinations, and the producer and the con- sumer— the end men — finally get all the profit. The inventions of fifty years ago are nearly all now the property of the community at large. z A ready example of this is found in the reduction of the cost of transportation from St. Paul to New York city which has given the consumer his year's flour in New York as cheap as it can be had at St. Paul with the addition to that price of only a single day's wages. Superintendence] OXFORD UNIVERSITY AND RHODES SCHOLARSHIPS 133 Returning to our theme, endowments for education, we see what sig- nificance there is for the future of civilization in this accumulation of capital. For its accumulation stimulates the work of prospecting for natural resources, not only the home resources of the great nations, but the resources abroad in the world at large — the possible resources of all lands. Witness the acquisition of the oil lands, the deposits of gold, silver, and diamonds, the ore deposits of useful minerals — coal, iron, copper, and tin, wherever they are. Apparently the era has arrived when the possibili- ties of food-producing which belong to the tropics — to the Amazon valley, for instance — shall be first capitalized, and after that made tribu- tary to the populations of Europe by a vast commercial stream of mer- chandise consisting of cheap elements of food and textile fabrics and lumber. On reflection one sees that, vast possibilities of raw material are more likely to be soon utilized if they come into the possession of great stock companies than if they belong to private owners. Great companies see to it that there are provided all the necessaries of production and of transportation to the best markets. The era of the creation of capital is also the era of endowment of higher education. Higher education is becoming more and more a pro- cess of research and original investigation. And it is the experts fur- nished by the instruction of the laboratory and the seminarium that, are most needed in the work of prospecting for the natural resources and in the work of transporting and manufacturing. There has never before been so much wealth created in the form of inher- itable goods and chattels — wealth of a permanent kind that goes down from generation to generation, relieving the people of the future from the work of creating a plant of some kind or other — railroads, bridges, tunnels, water-works, schools, and libraries. These and the like items of inherit- ance add a permanent contingent to the wealth of the future by their annual earnings, and swell the income of after generations. In the midst of this economic change our population is called to new objects of interest and new duties. In 1 880 the national census indicated the arrival of a population of fifty millions. At that time we began to ascend above the horizon to the great powers of Europe. Twenty years later our active participation in the control of the world which is exercised by the great powers has become so apparent that all see the necessity of forming a special class of experts who are to become familiar with the national purposes and ideals of such nations as Japan, Russia, Germany, Austria, France, Great Britain, Italy, Spain, and Holland. Foreign diplomacy will furnish a great field for the employment of a larger and larger class of American citizens, and the most successful among these will be recruited from the ranks of those who have made studies at the univer- sities in those foreign countries and become familiar with that class of their population that furnishes the directive power. It is natural that 134 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati each nation throws its influence in favor of the perpetuation of its own institutions in the world-council of the great powers. It is, of course, necessary that the United States shall have an influence in the great coun- cil of the world, favorable to the preservation of our own national idea of local self-government and productive industry. The Rhodes bequest comes opportune at the beginning of this epoch of training our citizens for diplomatic influence abroad, for of all places for training diplomats the first one in direct usefulness is the University of Oxford. The offer of constant residence in that great English univer- sity to one hundred students from the United States will afford the best preliminary training for the experts required in our consulates, embassies, home cabinets, and international commissions. Oxford is the English school for gentlemen. A typical English gen- tleman is a peculiar product, somewhat different from the ideal gentleman of France or Germany, or any other country in Europe. An American would suppose, on first hearing of the English gentleman, that he must be a person very sensitive as to his caste — as to his wealth, or nobility by birth, or by official position — and continually making demands for recog- nition ; and that in his ordinary actions he is likely to imply a conscious- ness of his superiority in wealth or birlh or official station. No greater mistake could be made. Of all people in Europe the Englishman is the most apt to see that any such manifestation is vulgar, and any conscious- ness or self-assertion of caste is marked at once as a gross violation of the code of the gentleman. Both universities, Oxford and Cambridge, have been long famous for their function in training youth in the principles of good breeding. This is especially true of Oxford. A rich man's son who comes to Oxford with conceits founded on the wealth of his family is made to feel very soon the difference between the ideal of the English gentleman and his own ideal. In most cases a three-years' residence will modify his charac- ter in this respect, so that he will come to avoid ostentation either in his clothing or other belongings, or in his manner toward people not wealthy. So, too, the scions of nobility. In all well-established houses the private tutors and governesses have already trained the young nobility, before they come to Eton or Winchester, in the code of English politeness, and they have not so much to learn in this matter at Oxford. But any youth from a noble family who has not already received this training is likely to learn the lesson so well in his residence at Oxford that it will become a second nature to him to stand on his humanity and never to indicate a consciousness on his part of the possession of a noble ancestry, or of inherited possessions, or of the station of his family in the army or navy, or as a member of the government. This is true also of those who have risen to military or political station from the ranks of the people. The average child of a noble house learns this difficult art of behavior more Superintendencel OXFORD UNIVERSITY AND RHODES SCHOLARSHIPS 13S II ■ ■ ■ ■ ^— ^^^^■^■»^ ■■■■■■■>■ » » ■■■ ■■ I ■ I ■ 1 11 ■ III ■ readily than the other two species of aristocracy, namely, the aristocracy of wealth or the aristocracy of government position. This is so because of the fact that the nobility have been longer in training, whereas the wealthy family may have gained its property within the present genera- tion; and the high position in the government may also have been achieved by extraordinary services on the part of a citizen possessed of great strength of will-power or special capacities of intellect, all of which is sometimes accompanied by great deficiency in a knowledge of the code of the ideal gentleman. This function of Oxford and Cambridge is of national and interna- tional importance. An aristocracy of wealth or birth or station whose children are trained in the ideal code of the gentleman have a certain great advantage over all other people brought up without the proper sense of self-control. They possess an imperturbable self-respect which intrenches itself on a humane basis that not only easily captivates all classes of British citizens, but makes an easy conquest of a citizen of any other nationality in the world. It has an inimitable charm. It is impossible to storm its intrenchments, because it assumes nothing for itself. It has habituated itself to this repression of the vulgar desire to attract attention to its havings and made it a second nature, so that it does not reveal any effort. If any effort on its part were visible, it would take the form of condescension and would betray its consciousness of caste ; but the ideal English gentleman never permits himself to think of his rank or station ; he has acquired a sense of honor that excludes even the thought of it as something odious. Indeed, the English gentleman can easily be distin- guished from the other Englishmen by the ease with which he bears this impersonality, this sincere humanity, and this utter effacement of his own claims for special consideration. In the long run this accomplishment of being a true gentleman wins its way in the world and constantly reveals its power. In the diplomacy of Europe it has always held a high place. The English nation is famous for its love of fair play. This love of fair play is sometimes, however, very brutal, as interpreted by the brutal classes, altho even then it is far superior to the manifestations of treachery and fraud which the lower classes of people in some other nations furnish. But the Oxford gentleman realizes the English sense of fair play in a transfigured form by the complete suppression of all manifestations of the pride of aristocracy. He is the simplest of all men, but it is a simplicity with the wisdom of the serpent coiled up within it and thoroly under control. One would almost infer that the ideal of the English gentleman had changed somewhat since the publication of Thomas Carlyle's Sartor KesartuSy and that the Briton had taken to heart the lesson of the phi- losophy of clothes and determined within himself to refute that philoso- phy by making the matter of clothes no indication whatever of character. The English gentleman puts his fine clothing upon his lackeys and goes 136 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cindimati about himself in easy and comfortable undress, choosing his clothing for its warmth and comfortableness — sparing no expense in this matter, but utterly refusing to make his clothing manifest wealth or position. A good story illustrating this was once told by a visitor in my office. He mentioned a commercial traveler from the colonies who was riding from Edinburgh to the north. A very plain English gentleman entered the railway coach, took out his briar pipe, and began to smoke, and opened a conversation on current topics with simple, unaffected manners, and the humane spirit of an English gentleman, without the exhibition of any fad, or the consciousness of carrying with himself a desire to impress anyone else with any purpose of his, or any indication that he was charged with a' particular mission or the advocacy of any cause. After a delightful two-hours' ride another gentleman entered the railway carriage at Perth, quite as simply dressed and quite as urbane in his manners as the first. He entered readily into conversation with our commercial agent and his companion traveler. In the course of the morning they arrived at the station where passengers leave the train for Blair Atholl. Here the second gentleman left the coach, and our commercial traveler took note that a splendid carriage and a train of lackies were in waiting for him, and he asked, with some haste, his companion : '' Who is that man that just left our coach?" "Oh," he said, "that is his grace the Duke of Atholl." " Indeed," said our commercial traveler; "he was very condescending to talk in such a friendly and genial manner to two cads like us." The remark was cordially assented to by his companion. In the course of the journey to the north they arrived at a station, where the first gentleman left the coach and an equally imposing train of lackeys with a fine carriage awaited his arrival. If our commercial traveler had been astonished on the first occasion, he was astounded at a second inci- dent of the same kind. He approached the guard or conductor of the train and asked him : " Who is that man that just now left my coach? " "Oh, that is his grace the Duke of Sutherland." Our friend, wishing now to probe the case to the bottom, fearing that he should make again a similar mistake in judging greatness by aristocratic manners and fine clothing, said to the guard: "And will you pray tell me who are youf' This manifestation of common humanity and the desire to be of service to one's fellow-men is the real tower of strength of the true English gentleman. But Oxford trains not only the aristocracy of wealth, birth, and official position in these matters of ostentation, but it also trains the great scholar, the person who has achieved distinction in letters, or science, or art, mak- ing him conscious that it is vulgar to show in any way a consciousness of superiority or to advertise in any way what one has done to distinguish himself. One reads in the apprenticeship of Goethe's Wilhelm Meister the Soperintendenoe] OXFORD UNIVERSITY AND RHODES SCHOLARSHIPS 137 Studies which Goethe made on the difference between the born nobleman and the distinguished but not highborn citizen. In the one case the person is content to be> and never lets his possession either of culture or wealth or of great deeds appear — for that, he feels, would degrade him. To be a nobleman is sufficient for him, whereas the ordinary citizen stands on his achievements and finds it difficult to forget these (or to forget his havings in his sense of being). He must rely upon his possessions, and he is likely to make them obtrusive. Our country, the United States, belongs to the vast regions of the world which may be called border-lands. In the border-lands there are found the most active processes of transformation. A synthesis is in progress between different nationali-ties. The raw materials of commodi- ties, mineral, vegetable, and animal, are being gathered and worked over for transportation to the central emporiums — Paris, London, New York. On border-lands the human spirit is fullest of hope and courage, because it sees from day to day and week to week the wilderness conquered for human purposes and for civilization. But the frontier is the most unstable and variable region of civilization. Its institutions are less firmly established. In the times of King Alfred, and earlier, Oxford was on the border- land of Wessex, between it and Mercia on the north. Mercia, as its name indicates ("Mark" or "boundary") was the border-land between the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and the British tribes which, driven into the fast- nesses of Wales, sullenly resisted the encroachments of the Teutonic wave of migration. It was a fording-place, shallow enough to allow herds of oxen and other cattle to be driven across without too much danger of loss by the flood. The Cherwell and the Isis united here, forming the Thames, and spread out in shallow reaches separated by islands. We may conclude that the place was on the line of trade which Walter Besant speaks of in his book on West London. This commercial route led on its way to Dover thru Westminster, the lowest ford on the Thames — much used before London Bridge was built in the fourth century. Here in Oxford of course, was a mart or market, and after Christianity came to the Saxon some religious houses were built as early as 728 A. D., and with religious houses there came scholastic learning. Wherever the Christian church went in Europe there was created an interest in the history of the religion of the Bible and in the history of Roman nationality. We do not forget that the history of Rome was for six hundred years practically the history of the world, the six hundred years including one century before and five centuries after Anno Domini, Hence in the monasteries of Britain, France, and Ireland there was more or less interest in regard to the history of the world and the dealings of God's providence with mankind. St. Augustine, the bishop of Hippo, said in his great work The City of God that " the world and its history is 138 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION (Cmcinnati a sort of antiphonic hymn, in which God reads his counsels, and the earth and man read the responses." Those inclined to learning among the Christian monks all over Europe studied Orosius, the disciple who had been induced by St. Augustine, his master, to sketch a general history of mankind in the spirit of his view that made it an antiphonic hymn. This is noteworthy in our inquiry as to Oxford, because King Alfred the Great, king of Wessex — Oxford was in Wessex — translated the history of Orosius into Anglo-Saxon, so that it could be read by the laity as well as by the priesthood. But not only did Christianity take this first rational view of the world-history, but it also collected and prized certain elements of World -knowledge. It had the irivium and quadrivium or the seven lib- eral arts. The scholar and philosopher Boetius nurtured in the latest years of the Roman empire and the early years of the reign of Theodoric, the Goth, who held all Italy in order by his firm hand — Boetius has in his Consolation of Philosophy described the contents of the trivium and quad- rivium, giving a brief r^sum^ of the insights which formed the learning as to nature and man — another work that Alfred translated into Anglo- Saxon. First, there was grammar, considering not only the structure of lan- guage, which reveals human nature in general as will, intellect, and feeling, but also literature ; then, in the next place, logic, which reveals the structure of the pure intellect ; and, thirdly, rhetoric, which reveals the process by which ideas are made into feelings and convictions and result in deeds. These three constitute the trivium. Then there was arithmetic, including the science of numbers and what was known of analytical mathematics in the form of algebra. They had not yet discov- ered the works of Euclid, and what was called geometry in the quadrivium was an abridgment of the work of Pliny on geography. Music and astronomy complete the four branches of the quadrivium; music relating not only to what we call music, but also and chiefly to poetry, art, and such matters as are found in the part of grammar called prosody; astronomy relating to the facts and theories regarding the movements of the visible bodies of the heavens, the changes of the moon, the seasons, the climate, meteorology, and the like. These elements of knowledge were more or less studied by the intelligent and influential monks. Of course, religion was the main interest, but these other matters were not entirely neglected, and there were some places in those early Christian countries where considerable attention was given to them. As a matter of course, the Teutonic countries had to learn, besides their native tongue, the Latin language. It was a study of the language that had been rendered capable of expressing subtle thoughts of all kinds. Latin had become a sufficient organ for the description of the facts then known of Europe, Africa, and Asia, and its study opened up the world to the provincial youth that had left the narrow circle of his home to join Superintendence] OXFORD UNIVERSITY AND RHODES SCHOLARSHIPS 1 39 the monastery which formed a ganglion in the great spiritual nervous system that contained the intellectual brotherhood of the world. Slender as was the store of human learning, it held in germ ^11 that has been unfolded since. It was taught at Paris, Cologne, Metz, Bologna, Winchester, Oxford, Cambridge, Ely, St. Ninian*s in Galloway, St. Col- umba on the island of lona (north of Argyleshire) in Scotland ; St. Cuth berths Holy Island, Lindisfarne on the northeastern coast of England; St. Peters south of the Tweed (here lived the venerable Bede) in Scot- land— to mention only the places which come to one's mind, without attempting a careful list. It is certain that monastic education had gone on for centuries at Oxford before the foundation of the first college in 1249. It seems that the nunnery of St. Frideswyde was founded there in 727. Edward the Elder, in 912, soon after Alfred died, took possession of Oxford and made it a fortified city to defend it against the Danes. History records that Vacarius, professor at Bologna, lectured at Oxford on the Roman civil law in 1149, less than fifteen years after the discovery of the Pandects of Justinian and only eighty years after the Norman conquest ; and it is well argued that this implies a European reputation already achieved by Oxford University. Evidences multiply from that time on of the existence of important schools at Oxford. The first college, which is called University College, was founded in 1249, 2ind there were two more before 1300, namely, Baliol and Merton; four more in the following century, 1300 to 1400, the century of the beginning of English literature with Chaucer, Gower, and the author of Piers Plowman ; these four colleges were Exeter, Oriel, Queen's College, and New College; in the next century, 1400 to 1500, three more colleges — Lincoln, All Souls, and Magdalen ; and in the century of the Reforma- tion (1500 to 1600) there were six more colleges founded : Brasenose, Corpus Christi, Christchurch, under Henry VIII. ; Trinity and St. John's, under Queen Mary; Jesus College, under Queen Elizabeth. Two col- leges, 16 1 3, 1624, were founded under King James, namely, Wadham and Pembroke Colleges. Worcester College, founded in 17 14, is the only one of the eighteenth century. In recent times Hertford College, St. Edmund's College, and Keble College in the nineteenth century make up the twenty-two colleges in the corporate body of the University of Oxford. The college is the characteristic of Oxford and Cambridge, for the college collects within its walls anywhere from a dozen students up to something over three hundred. Of the twenty- two colleges in the Uni- versity of Oxford, four have over two hundred students; and twelve between one and two hundred ; and the remaining six have less than one hundred each. Merton is sometimes called the oldest college, but it was founded in another town and removed to Oxford about 1270. Mer- I40 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincmn«ti ton College is the first one which erected dormitories and study halls, a refectory and a chapel, surrounding the whole by a college wall with only one gate for entrance. A new step was taken with the foundation of New College, in 1370, by William Wykeham. This step consisted in the sepa- ration of preparatory students from the regular university students. The school at Winchester furnished the preparation, and New College con- tained only those students who were fitted to take up and go on immedi- ately with the university work. Other new departures' are mentioned ; one in particular was the founding of Corpus Christi in the early part of the reign of Henry VIII. — a new beginning, because it made so much more provision for the modern studies that had come into vogue with the revival of learning, particularly the study of Greek and of mathematics. In America there prevails class feeling, but in Oxford the college feeling predominates. The small group of students living within the walls of a given college form a sort of family or monastic community, bringing together the older students and younger ones so that the unit is the college and not the class. It is better adapted than the American plan for the production of the type of gentleman which we have been discussing. The older students have much more influence on the younger students. All books on Oxford tell us about the two courses of study — the easy one, called the "pass," adapted to the students who desire the social culture of Oxford with its athletics and good fellowship, and no more of its erudi- tion than is necessary to pass examination for its degree of bachelor of arts (master of arts is given in course to all bachelors who have been enrolled twenty-seven terms, and who have paid the fees). This course of study shows in all its parts the influence of the trivium and quadrivium — especially the branch called "music" or "prosody," in the insistence upon the study of the quantity of Latin words — the writing of Latin poetry. Besides the " pass " examination for the minimum scholarship, there are courses of study for honors. The honor schools are eight in number: (i) English language and literature; (2) literae humaniores — modern philosophy and logic and grammar called "greats" (opposed to " greats," the " pass "-examination studies are called " smalls ") ; (3) mathematics; (4) jurisprudence ; (5) modern history ; (6) theology ; (7) oriental studies; (8) natural science. The design of the honor examinations is to afford the fullest scope for scholarship — specialization and thoro research being^ required. The honor school in literae humaniores is most sought and highest prized. The chief branches of study in that school are Latin and Greek, ancient history, logic, ethics, and philosophy. The entrance examination, which is called " responsions," is passed some time in the first year of residence, and is not required before matricu- Superintendence] OXFORD UNIVERSITY AND RHODES SCHOLARSHIPS 141 lation, as in American universities. The second examination is called " moderations," and comes in the second year of residence, about the middle of the undergraduate course. The third and final examination takes place in the last year. Of the subjects offered for the "pass" three are compulsory. The pass examination includes: (i) Classic languages; (2) mathematics; (3) modem history; (4) the Bible. Each with its affiliated subjects forms four groups, within which there may be selection for examination of one or more of the four subjects of the classic group, one or more of the five subjects in the modern group, one or more of the seven subjects of the mathematical and scientific group, and one of the religious group. It is compulsory to choose one foreign language, ancient or modem, and to have some portion of the Old or New Testa- ment (with Greek) and the elements of religious knowledge, and another subject from mathematics and science, or from moderns, or from classics. One of the facts that excite surprise in an American student at first is the short period of residence required in Oxford each year. There are three terms, each of eight weeks : Michaelmas, beginning the first Mon- day after October 10; Hilary, on the first Monday after January 14; Easter and Trinity, beginning on the second or third Monday after Easter Sunday : twenty-four weeks of residence (which may be reduced to eighteen weeks) and twenty-eight weeks of vacation, the long vacation, ending about October 10, being sixteen weeks, and the other two vacations six weeks each. A greater surprise is created by learning that the hard work in scholarship is not expected so much at Oxford in term time as in the vacation. The demands of athletics and social functions at Oxford during term time are too severe to permit the hard study necessary for great success in scholarship. Athletics is perhaps the most prominent feature in Oxford life. Boat- ing leads ; next come football, cricket, and golf ; next running, walking, cycling, etc. There is much literature regarding this phase of English university life. The hours for exercise are between lunch and tea — i p. m., 5 p. m.; that means that games begin usually at 2:15 or 2:30, and stop at 4 p. m., except in case of cricket, which goes on till sundown, or till dinner time when the days get longer. " Lunch is usually a very spare meal, often being simply dessert with bread and something simple to drink. Similarly tea is simply one cup, especially if a man is wanting to keep in good form both for exercise and for dinner at 7 p. m." Oxford has solved the problem of making athletics develop nervous force instead of nervous dyspepsia by its care to give its two hours in the best part of the day to systematic exercise and guard it against encroach- ment on the time needed for digestion of the chief meal of the day. It would seem that our candidates for the Rhodes scholarships should all have obtained a preparation in scholarship amounting to that required for the A. B. degree. But it is obvious that it was the inten- tion of Mr. Rhodes himself to have the benefits of his bequest reach 142 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION rcincmnati graduates of the secondary schools ; but the provisions of the will give authority to the trustees to modify the bequest, if in their opinion a modi- fication will make the grand purpose of the will more effective. I have found myself obliged to come to the conclusion that any and every attempt to fill the proposed scholarships from graduates of our secondary schools, or indeed even from college students of attainments below the degree of bachelor of arts, will fail to realize the expressed wishes of the testator. In the first place, there is not a sufficient maturity of mind on the part of graduates of our secondary schools to profit by the exceptional opportunities of Oxford, nor is there any considerable degree of maturity until entrance upon the third year of the American college or university. Now, the chief difficulty with the immature student from the United States will lie in the fact of his sensitiveness to criticism, and of his readi- ness to fall back upon what he believes to be his rights. While the criti- cism of his fellow-students at home actually prevails with him because there is no appeal, yet in a foreign university he will, if possible, reinforce his cause by an appeal to the importance of his state or to the importance of his nation. The candidate, if appointed by a state authority — say, a governor — or by a national authority — say, the president, or a board chosen by him — will feel himself in some sense a representative of his state or nation. This form of conceit will be more likely to take root in the mind of the immature student than in that of the holder of a bache- lor's degree. It is needless to say that such a conceit in any form would be so offensive to his fellow-students in a foreign university, and to the authorities of such an institution, as to make his residence abroad impos- sible. The Rhodes trustees have been fortunate in appointing as their agent Dr. George R. Parkin, whose wide experience in English-speaking com- munities within and without England has admirably fitted him to the work of adjusting the details of arrangements for filling our quota of these Rhodes scholarships. If the matter of primary selection and nomi- nation of a list of candidates be left to the college presidents in each state, this will be best. But certainly the final selection from the list nominated should be determined by an examination conducted by an Oxford "don" visiting this country for the purpose, and holding examina- tions at convenient points in the several states. The examination should be in place of "responsions," for the students chosen must be sure of their qualification before the serious undertaking of the long journey and large outlay of money necessary to reach Oxford. It is admitted by all who are acquainted with the present and past of Oxford that it has fulfilled the function of educating the English gentle- man. It has had the effect of creating a democratic code of manners and of securing its adoption by the sons of the powerful families in the government, and by the heirs of nobility. I have already discussed suffi- Superintendence] OXFORD UNIVERSITY AND RHODES SCHOLARSHIPS 143 ciently this code. It has made it one of the distinguishing characteristics of the English gentleman that he never mentions his titles, or the influ- ence of his family, or his wealth, or his literary productions, or any services of his to his nation or to his fellow-man. He holds his tongue under a severe restraint, and has learned to do this without the appear- ance of restraint. Not only Oxford, but other English institutions, are powerful in creating in the mind of the youth an ideal of good form in this respect; but Oxford is by far the most potent factor in this influence. But there is another phase of this matter to be considered : Good form includes also the code of etiquette, established from time immemo- rial, which gives precedence in a certain fixed order to the members of the nobility, to the dignitaries of the national church, and to the elected or appointed representatives of the English commonalty, settling in advance the rank due to each order in all ceremonials. This recognition of fixed rank and position must be observed as an indispensable form of gentlemanly courtesy in such matters as the addressing of letters, or in personal allusions in a speech, or in a written communication, etc. It is a characteristic of English good form that it makes a code of limitations on each class of people : the nobleman or other gentleman, the trades- man, the servant, and 'the common laborer. Each one not only observes carefully the proper manners toward his superior, but he is careful to expect and to exact the proper etiquette from those beneath his station. The most refined gentleman will not himself make a personal matter of the neglect of courtesy, but the class to which he belongs or moves in will take care of this matter on his behalf, and this, too, effectively. On the whole, the code of the English gentleman has in it what is con- sidered the most admirable the world over as belonging to polished man- ners. I have tried to show that these traits give the person a certain -superiority in diplomatic councils, in statesmanship, and in social rela- tions. While this is the case with the individual, it is not so with the class influence which supports and makes valid on occasions the aristo- cratic prestige or pretense which underlies the condescensions and the reservations of the Englishman's manners. For the very reason that the English gentleman takes none of these upon himself individually in his own behalf, but only as a member of his caste or class, in behalf of some other members of his class, the foreigner not prepared in advance for this phase of English life is apt to feel himself bafiied even to exasperation. He finds himself unable to right himself. He meets only personal cour- tesy and democratic simplicity in individuals, but he finds himself pro- scribed by a caste. To attack this caste barrier is to meet an ignominious defeat without any ability to set oneself right. It must be admitted that what is very noteworthy and impressive in English society, as a whole, is more or less to be met with in some degree in all social circles of Europe, and indeed of America, and it roust also be 144 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati admitted that the English form is more highly refined because within it the individual preserves his democratic cordiality of manner, calmness of demeanor, and careful observance of all the requirements of courtesy due to an individual from his equals. In the new epoch that is upon us now we are compelled to come into foreign relations. We cannot choose but take part in the councils of the great powers which determine in the aggregate the course of present his- tory; we must have our say — have an influence in international decisions, and an influence that will be proportionate to our strength in population. But for all this there is need to provide suflicient skill. Here is the important point : We must educate hundreds of our scholars and politicians in jurisprudence and international law; we must have a corps of trained specialists who know the minute details of each great nation's past history and present achievements — Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia, Austria, Italy, Spain, Holland, and the Scandinavian countries. The Rhodes bequest is the most timely of gifts for higher education, because it gives opportunity to begin this education of that class of our population which will furnish our diplomatic corps with attaches to our consulates and to our home oflices, and to our embassies. Out of the most successful of these will come by and by our foreign ministers and Dur home experts in diplomacy. England is the best place in which to begin this work. The excel- lence of the University of Oxford is without doubt the training of the ready gentleman who cannot be pushed off his feet by an attack directed upon the weaknesses of his personality. His training at Oxford gives him that secure self-possession and self-respect which commands the respect of his fellows. Our American students need have no fear that they will lose their nationality at Oxford ; for they will find the English ideal of a gentle- man exactly fitted for Anglo-Saxons everywhere. The more perfectly they accept its training in this regard, the more ready they will be for the great work of extending our American influence in the councils of the world. SOME PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN MANUAL TRAINING CHARLES R. RICHARDS, DIRECTOR OF MANUAL-TRAINING DEPARTMENT, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY I do not propose to deal with the theoretical aspects of manual train- ing in this paper, but with certain practical considerations and some very practical quantities in regard to this work in the elementary school, which I suspect are of more interest to the Department of Superintendence. Superintendence] PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN MANUAL TRAINING 145 The main elements of weakness in the manual-training situation at the present time — and in this outlook I include work in domestic art and domestic science — it seems to me, can very well be summed up under two heads: first, isolation or lack of ^organic connection with the practice and spirit of the other work in the school ; and, second, the factor of expense. The first fact undoubtedly is partly due to the change and readjustment thru which all school work is now passing, in which each subject is seeking to find its place and relation to the whole. From this point of view manual training is simply in the same condition as the other subjects of instruction, a condition that cannot be much improved until greater unity has been reached in the entire course of study. The isolation of handwork, however, is also due in part to the condi- tions under which this work was introduced into the school system. The fact that manual training in our country began in the high school, and next appeared in the upper grades of the grammar school, and always thru the medium of the special teacher working in a special laboratory, lias in itself contributed much to keep the work apart in spirit and prac- tice from the other school activities. Under such conditions it is little wonder that the special teacher has worked largely by himself and been •content to measure results by his own standards. When to this situation is added the further fact that the conception of manual training held by the special teacher is often that of some cut-and- dried scheme of exercises and models, the tendencies making against real unity are clearly evident. I do not, of course, wish to lose sight of the fact that such work is often the most vital and stimulating influence in a school, but to point out that, even when this is true, the lack of connec- tion has commonly been no less evident. The full correction of this evil and the solution of the practical prob- lems presented will not quickly be reached, but the corrective tendencies are already evident ; indeed, they are well under way, and their progress can undoubtedly be greatly furthered by the influence and assistance of the school superintendent. In the first place, greater organic unity will obviously be possible only when the special teachers of handwork have attained a professional out- look beyond that represented by the technique of their subject — when they recognize larger ends than mere skill in manipulation, and when they see their subject in broader relations both to industrial life, on the one side, and to child life, on the other. Without such a broad grasp of the problem on the part of the specialist, it is idle to expect manual training to enter into thoroly natural relations with the rest of the school work. When a superintendent refuses to employ a professionally trained teacher because he can obtain a mechanic for $200 less salary, it is evi- dent that not much headway is liable to be made in this direction. 146 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati Advance will be made very much in the degtee that men and women who have been trained to look at the whole and not at a part, who know something about child nature and the tendencies and forces of education, are given preference over those whose idea of handwork is confined to some narrow technical formula. With broadly equipped and resourceful teachers it should certainly not take long for handwork to reach its proper place in the scheme of the whole. Under such direction will come the introduction of richer content and more thought material into the work. With teachers accustomed to consider principles rather than a formula, growth will inevitably be made toward greater scope and suggestiveness in subject-matter. Progress in this direction need not mean work of greater complexity, but, on the con- trary, should make toward things of greater simplicity and more familiar use. Less attention will perhaps be given to mere skill and more to breadth of information and insight. Instead of elaborate and erudite systems built up by the endless drawing out of meager subject-matter will come the effort to set forth the elements of industrial life in simple everyday terms. We shall be liable to have less of instruction, but much more of construction, in our work. When the problem is approached in this way, relations to locality and the character of the particular pupils in hand will be studied. No one scheme will be regarded as unduly impor- tant, but put of the whole field of art and industry will be selected those types of most significance for each special set of conditions. Under such an influence we should expect to find a different line of work in the schools of Grand Rapids from that undertaken in the schools of Pittsburg. In a town where three-fourths of the working population are connected with textile mills we should look for the development of weaving and applied design, and the study of simple machines. Where clay-working is a prominent industry we might find the making of simple pottery built up by hand and enriched with simple decorations as a cen- tral feature in the school handwork. In each case the real life of the community would furnish the key to subject-matter, and the problem of the teacher would become that of reducing its suggestions to methods and projects practicable for the school. One other tendency that is doing much to overcome the isolation of manual training as a school subject is represented in the steadily increas- ing introduction of the work into the lower grades under the regular teacher. In this movement lies perhaps the largest hope of bringing handwork into natural and vital relations with the educative process as a whole. When handwork is taught by the regular teacher, it will at least receive the same treatment as the other elements of the course of study and can hardly escape establishing relations with them in the course of time. But, after all, as Dr. Dewey has said in an address before this body: "What gets to the child is dependent upon what is in the mind of Superintendence] PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN MANUAL TRAINING 147 the teacher, and upon the way it is in his mind;" and because of this fact handwork will enter into natural and effective relations with the course of study as a whole only to the degree in which the teacher appreciates and feels the need of such relations. Evidently no external prescription from supervisor or superintendent will take the place of this attitude of mind. Nevertheless, as in all school work, much may be effected thru administrative influence. If that influence is toward natural and sensible correlations with the other elements in the course of study, such as his- tory, geography, and nature study, with allowance for individual latitude where practicable, rather than toward narrow "courses," it is plain that the progress of handwork toward its proper place in the school cannot fail to be greatly promoted. In such work no one material or process has any paramount value. Natural relations will be secured only when the teacher feels free to make use of clay, paper, wood, yarn, thread, cloth, or other available material that will best serve the purpose in hand. Such a proposition undoubtedly raises serious problems in regard to the supply of materials. These prob- lems can be worked out only by experience, but it seems safe to say that under proper administrative direction they will not prove insurmountable. One of the important correlations that make toward greater vitality and fruitful ness is that between constructive work and art instruction. We have been prone to consider these subjects quite apart as so much construction, on the one hand, and so much art teaching, on the other; and yet it is not only true that the art of a democratic people must express itself largely in the things of common use, rather than in painting and in sculpture, but it is also true that thru these channels of simple use and understanding lies the readiest approach to the aesthetic appreciation of the child. The simple decoration of a box destined for some definite use appeals to him most strongly, when the abstract com- position with brush and paper leaves him cold. It is, indeed, only thru the application of design to definite use that it becomes of meaning and consequently of educational value. We have generally started with our design and then looked about for some place to apply it. Work of this kind may develop into some sort of facility and show of results, but it lacks bottom and meaning in the child's mind and is apt to be readily for- gotten. When the start is made from the other end, and the making or beau- tifying of some actual thing calls for the design, the idea becomes full of meaning and interest. The process becomes alive with real qualities. It is no longer a matter of merely formal relations, but a question of what can be done to improve the form and enrich the surface of this particular construction in wood, or clay, or weaving, or basketry, or needlework. Each material has its own peculiar possibilities and limitations, and the whole process is a constant study in adapting means to ends. Eacq 148 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cindnnati instance develops some concrete way of realizing beauty in simple things, and brings the meaning of art down from an abstraction to a reality^ Working co-operation in this field is by no means impracticable. If the art supervisor and the manual-training teacher can be brought to work upon the same problems, the influence of both will soon be blended in results vastly superior in artistic quality to most of our present work. Much may be done here to vitalize the drawing and color study of our schools, and at the same time to build up a true appreciation of right principles in design. A practical demonstration of the rich possibilities of such co-operation is afforded in the interesting and artistic handicraft produced at the present time in the public schools of New York city, where both the art and constructive work are in charge of . one director. In this problem of the lower grades one of the practical difficulties most often cited is that of size of classes. It is claimed that fifty or sixty pupils in a class present an insuperable obstacle to the introduction and proper teaching of handwork. It is without question that such classes present serious problems in relation to any work that requires simultaneous activity on the part of each and every pupil, and that under such condi- tions any work of this kind cannot reach its fullest possibilities. In most school work these problems are largely avoided, inasmuch as real jactivity is commonly demanded of but one pupil at a time. It is far from true, however, that effective and valuable instruction in handwork is impracticable with classes of even the size just mentioned. The best and most adequate proof of this proposition is the fact that such work is at the present time being carried forward successfully in a considerable number of cities and towns. In a large primary school not far from New York, a varied program of handwork is provided thru- out the different grades from the kindergarten upward. In this school the number of pupils in each class ranges from fifty to fifty-seven. Hand- work lessons intimately related to the instruction in number, spelling, nature study, geography, and history, in which a considerable degree of expression is demanded of the pupils, are given each day, and it has not been the fortune of the speaker ever to have visited a school marked by greater order, neatness, and smoothness of routine than is the case in this institution. The remaining serious problem in the manual-training situation has been stated as that of expense. This element necessarily conditions the rate of progress of all school work. Manual training undoubtedly means expense. There is no escape from that fact, but the amount of this expense is unquestionably often very much greater in practice than there is any need, and because of this the estimates as to the cost of introducing handwork are often much exaggerated. The factors of expense are twofold in character; first, as to the special teacher; and, second, in the cost of equipment and supplies. The Supermtendence] PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN MANUAL TRAINING 149 special teacher is a necessity if the work is to be introduced in the upper grades, and, as has already been pointed out, the character of the results will depend upon the character of the man or woman employed. This is not the place to suggest economizing. Not only will the character and spirit of tiie work depend upon the training and outlook of the special teacher, but capacity and knowledge at this point is the best assurance of economy in all other directions. The place for the special teacher, however, as far as class instruction is concerned, may well be limited to the upper two, or at most three, grades of the elementary school, where, by means of laboratory centers of instruction, his time may be distributed among the pupils of several schools. Below this point the regular teacher may be brought gradually under proper supervision to handle all the work that is essential. The problem of developing or training the regular teacher to take charge of such work is, under the usual school conditions, not a simple one. Teachers' meetings, prepared suggestions in printed form, personal con- ferences, and illustrative lessons by the supervisor all represent helpful means of approach, according to the special conditions presented. The greatest danger in the situation is that of forcing some arbitrary and externally formulated scheme upon the teacher before she under- stands its significance. Haste should undoubtedly be made slowly at this point. The great end, I take it, is to bring whatever is attempted into natural relations with the teacher's experience and point of view, so that she may come gradually to make use of constructive work in the same spirit that she employs writing and speaking. In order to make a start in this matter, it may be necessary to present the plan of work at first in very specific and detailed form, but there seems little danger in saying that, if more effort were then made to consult the individual sympathies and bent of the regular teacher, richer and more natural results would soon be reached. In the matter of equipment the manual-training situation presents all manner of possibilities. It is the greatest mistake to conceive that valu- able results depend upon an elaborate and expensive equipment. Here, as in all other lines, completeness and thoroness of material conveniences make toward richness of results, and avoidance of waste in time and energy, but the educational result depends upon the brains and spirit in the instruction, and not upon the extent of benches and tools. A teacher of capacity and energy will develop a rich harvest out of the most meager resources, while a weak man remains a slave to his condi- tions. This problem is most significant in regard to the laboratory equip- ments for the upper grades. Given the room, a cotnprehensive equip- ment for twenty-five pupils in benchwork on the usual basis may run up to |8oo or |li,ooo, but it is entirely possible to devise a thoroly practical I50 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincmwati equipment for such work that can be obtained in the open market for $300 or S400. Further than this, when the problem is reduced to its strictly essential elements, and the benches and fixtures built by the pupils, as was done in the case of the Sterling High School, and the DeKalb Normal School, even these figures may be cut squarely in halves. On the side of materials it must be allowed that manual training is at present suffering in certain directions from the employment of unduly expensive materials. The zest and enthusiasm that have attended the intro- duction of certain lines of artistic handicraft, such as basketry and weaving, have led to the use of materials in many ways excellent for their purpose, but objectionable both on the score of expense and from the fact that they represent materials of a foreign and unfamiliar character. The searching out and adaptation of common domestic materials are a crying need in all this kind of work. Much has been done already, particularly in the South, toward developing local resources in this direction. Grasses, rushes and flag, pine needles, yucca, palm leaves, corn husks, and willow twigs have all been brought into use, but much still remains to be done. This matter has an educational as well as an economic aspect. Any- thing that brings manual training into more direct contact with the common facts and activities of every-day life, and requires it to find its resources therein, makes toward a training in economics that is of ines- timable value. For this reason, if for no other, the effort should be con- stantly toward simplicity and cheapness of material. With a teacher of proper influence and spirit much simple material for handwork may be obtained from the home resources of the pupils. In one southern town that has come to my knowledge sacks in which flour is purchased and which would otherwise be thrown away are turned over to the children, washed by them, and brought to school, where they are used as a basis for work in sewing and embroidery. In another place the common burlap bags used for farm products are secured for the same purpose. Even in the matter of wood a considerable saving of expenditure may often be effected by studying the possibilities of the cheaper woods and conditions of the local supply. Instead of depending solely upon the fast-disappearing white pine, such woods as cypress, whitewood, and basswood may often be used with just as much appropriateness and at one-third or one-half the cost. When it becomes a question of doing something or nothing, there are still further resources. The material of the grocers' packing-boxes, which* may be obtained at very small cost, offers a supply of planed lumber of which a goodly percentage is capable of being immediately utilized in the school shop and transformed into articles of use and beauty. The limitations of this paper hardly allow of a reference to the prob- lems presented by manual training in the high school, and yet there is Superintendence] PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN MANUAL TRAINING 1 5 1 one fact evident in the tendencies in this field at the present time that the speaker cannot forbear to mention. Manual- training workers in the past have to a large extent rested their philosophy upon the disci- plinary and formative value of handwork, and have given comparatively slight attention to the subject-matter, value, and opportunities of their work. Practice has for the most part conformed to this attitude, and the result, as has been suggested before, has been systems or schemes of work arranged with great attention to the development of skill in rather narrow lines, but with little concern as to breadth of knowledge or insight into practical conditions. A change, however, is becoming apparent in the situation. As the insufficiency and incompleteness of the theory of formal training has come to be recognized, and as the sociological reference has been added to the psychological, it is coming to be seen that breadth of experience and widening of outlook must be added to the mere training in manipu- lation. With this view, a clearer outlook as to the field of manual work is being obtained. It is seen that manual training means, not only a method of teaching, but something to be taught, and that something is the study of art and industry. With the growth of this idea a rich field of subject-matter is at once opened up, and the question of what is to be presented in our instruction assumes a new phase. This change of attitude is resulting in the attempt to get closer to the real facts of industrial practice, and to repre- sent these facts in a more suggestive and practical fashion. This tend- ency does not represent in the slightest degree any more of a desire to teach a trade than formerly. It is simply the coming of manual training to its proper estate, as the representative in the school curriculum of the great field of modern industry. It has been said many times recently that the dominant tendencies of the present age are industrial. If that is so, why should we be afraid to acknowledge the fact in our school practice ? The question was asked in this hall yesterday afternoon : "What is the objection to teaching the rudiments of an industry in connection with industrial training ?" What, indeed ? Manual training itself has been slow to take this point of view. It has been largely content with forms and symbols, but it is put- ting these by and looking forward into a larger horizon and a work of greater meaning. In this, I take it, it is but following the tendencies of all education, which is more and more finding the materials of culture and discipline in the* facts and tendencies of real life. DISCUSSION GusTAF Larsson, principal of Sloyd Training School, Boston, Mass. — In discussing the practical problems in manual training, I take for granted that we are considering this problem from an educational point of view, rather than from an industrial point of view. 152 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cmdnnati I think that most of us agree that it is not practicable in our public schools to pre- pare the pupils for a trade for making a living, or for a professional career, however valuable these may be. Nor is it best, in my opinion, to utilize manual training merely as a means to further other school subjects. I believe, with the previous speaker, that manual training should have an organic connection with other school work, but it is still more important that it have a vital con- nection with child life and child interest. It may be practicable to have manual training taught by the class teacher in the regular schoolroom below the sixth grammar grade, but in this lies the danger that, in dealing with large classes in this organic work, we sometimes fail to reach the need of each individual ; and drill and mass instruction is not wholly educational. I believe that well-directed plays and games which have vigorous motion and interesting motive would be better than many of the occupations that have been practiced. I think we could not do better than to carry out Froebel's beautiful idea in many of the grades above the kindergarten. In his Education of Man^ with which we are all familiar, he says : " Every child, boy, and youth, whatever his condition and position in life, should devote daily at least one or two hours to some serious activity in the produc- tion of some definite external piece of work. Lessons through and by work, through and from life, are by far the most impressive and intelligible, and most continuously and intensely progressive, both in themselves and in their effect on the learner." The first practical point, then, would be that the teacher should make a study of the chUd before he takes up the means whereby he should be educated. There is a danger that the teacher may be so engaged in the study of the material processes that the child is forgotten ; in other words, the children are likely to be fitted to the school, rather than the school to the children. It is true that correlation of studies has been much discussed of late years, and I believe that it is a good thing ; but I also believe that manual training of the right kind has by itself an educational possibility not always recognized by our educational leaders. I believe that manual training will lose much of its educational eCEectiveness if we try to make it a means directly to intensify the instruction in some of the other school subjects ; for whatever interests and strengthens the whole child will enable him to grasp more strongly any subject. If we are able to prove that manual training can help to produce a healthier, hap- pier, more capable, and more social individual, we must have it ; if this is not true, we should not have it. It has been proved over and over again, in places where manual training has been adequately tried, that it touches the whole human being, physically, mentally, and morally. In other words, it gives a simultaneous development to hand, head, and heart Over thirty years* experience of educational handiwork in the public schools of Sweden will testify to the correctness of this statement. In order to obtain these higher educational results — to reach effectively this three- fold nature of the child thru manual training — it is evident that the teacher of the sub- ject must be a person of high qualifications, a master of his subject, and also one who fully understands child nature. While I do not yet see the educational advantage of correlating manual training with some other studies — at least as far as wood-working goes — I do most earnestly believe that it would be very profitable for the teachers of the different subjects to meet in con- ference as often as possible, particularly those of manual training, gymnastics, drawing, and art. They would have much to gain from this interchange of thought that would strengthen each and all of them in accomplishing that for which they are ail striving — the development of the whole child. If time allowed and the opportunity were possible for illustrations, I should try to show by what means handwork of the right sort would teach our children to think to Superintendeiice] PRACTICAL PROBLEMS TN MANUAL TRAINING 153 more profit, and to act more individually, and yet in perfect harmony with the constant upward growth and development of the human life around them. In regard to the so-called " Russian system of manual training," which has been predominating fn this country and has been described as being " a series of exercises based upon tools, materials, and the elements of construction," I would say that "sloyd " recognizes and uses all these in its means, but it goes a step farther and also recognizes the importance of the fact that effort and action must be stimulated by human interest. This idea is now also fully recognized in Russia, for during the past year I have corre- sponded with some of the leading educators in Russia on this subject, one of them being Director Zirul of the Royal Normal Teachers* Seminary in St. Petersburg, and I have obtained from that school two large volumes of working-drawings for manual training in both wood and metal, showing that every exercise now used in the schools of Russia is applied on finished articles of use and beauty. This idea of the importance of a stimu- lating, worthy motive in all our school subjects is nothing new, and I think needs no dis- cussion before an audience like this. - In order to gain a correct idea of the evolution of manual-training methods in this respect, seven years ago I collected photographs of objects used in some of the leading manual-training schools in this country, and three years later I obtained another collection from the same schools. By comparing these collections I found that during the period intervening fully 75 per cent, of the exercises had been put into completed objects. This will show more truly than any reports that the progress toward a stimulating motive has been steadily increasing. A word as to the meaning of " sloyd " and its adaptation to American schools : We prefer to use the anglicized Swedish word " sloyd," because this single word means more than the double term "manual training " — it means educational handwork, or the simul- taneous training of all the faculties of the child. Like the word " kindergarten," it has the disadvantage of being foreign, but I hope it will soon become perfectly familiar. The Century Dictionary gives a good definition of the word " sloyd," but the following may give a clearer idea of its meaning : " ' Sloyd ' is tool work so arranged and employed as to stimulate and promote vigorous, intelligent self-activity for a purpose which the worker recognizes as good." The Sloyd Training School of Boston, which I have the honor of representing, was started in 1888. . It is a free school for teachers, supported by Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw. Only men and womed having special qualifications as teachers are considered as appli- cants, and of these a limited number are admitted each year. The course covers one short school year of eight months, from October i to June i. Over two hundred teachers have been graduated from the school, and most of these are now engaged in teaching sloyd in different parts of this country. In the Boston public schools alone thirty of our graduates are employed. The particular aim of sloyd is to seek to provide the harmonious development of the pupil during the formative age, f. ^., from eight to fifteen years of age. Sloyd has often been misrepresented by well-meaning people, who do not know the principles which govern our work. Let me briefly state the general principles upon which sloyd is based : 1. The teachers must be professional teachers, and not artisans merely. 2. The teaching must be systematic, progressive, and, with the exception of class demonstrations, as far as possible individual. 3. Such manual-training work should be selected as will give the best physical devel- opment thru free, vigorous movements 4. The visible or material results should in every respect represent the individual worker's own efiEort. This should mean no division of labor, and practically the exclusion of machinery as labor-saving contrivances. 5. The exercises should be applied on objects the use of which can be thoroly appre- ciated by the worker : each object should be simple, of good form and proportion — hence artistic. 154 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cmcinnati 6. The course should include, not only objects which can be made accurately thru tbe use of ordinary testing tools but frequent work which develops appreciation of curves and exercises the sense of form thru both sight and touch. 7. Special importance must be attached to neatness, accuracy, and finish, and to the development of independence. COEDUCATION AT THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO ALBION W. SMALL, PROFESSOR OF SOCIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO I understand that my invitation to discuss this subject was virtually a request to explain the recent action of the University of Chicago in modifying certain administrative details. In accepting the invitation, however, I speak solely from my own individual standpoint. I am not authorized to represent either the university or any official policy of the university. I happen to have voted with the majority in our recent action, and the members of that majority, of course, in a certain general way, think alike about the matter. At the same time, as in all such cases, the action adopted represents compromise and concession even between the members of the majority. The view of no single person appears precisely. I speak of the case, therefore, as it looks to me individually, without attempting to calculate how nearly I may voice the views of anyone else. It would be immodest to thrust forward a local incident as deserving the attention of a body like this, if it really were nothing more than a local incident. It has value, not because in itself it decides anything of general validity, but because it is a single experiment under conditions which may or may not exist elsewhere, and it is worth vhat it is worth as a contribution to the theory and practice of education, merely so far as similar circumstances exist. Accordingly, I must say very distinctly that my paper relates to one situation only, and to the practical conclusions which have been reached by the people dealing with that situation. With a single fundamental exception, to be spoken of in a moment, the conclusions are not regarded as necessarily applicable in detail anywhere else. We have had no revelation of a new educational gospel. We have . made no claim that our newly adopted working policy has any bearing upon high schools. Whether it has or not I shall omit to inquire, as that part of the subject belongs properly to the gentleman who follows me. I am presenting merely a single case and the conclusions which it has forced upon the persons most responsible. In the first place, it is safe to assume that impressions which members of this body may have gathered from the press about our experiment are thoroly out of true. Nothing that has been published, with the exception of extracts from the president's latest quarterly statement, gives an approximately correct idea of the action itself or of the considerations Superintendence] COEDUCATION AT THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 155 that led to it. The reason for this is easily stated. No question ever roused intenser interest in the university faculty than the one that I am discussing. This interest early spread beyond university circles. The daily papers got inklings of it, and of course tried to get more. Versions of what was going on were furnished by unauthorized reporters, and the papers published them with liberal garnishings of their own. The majority of our faculty did not believe the case belonged in the news- papers while it was in process of decision. Not by formal agreement, but by natural reaction against a public agitation which we felt to be unfortunate, we found ourselves uniformly refusing to argue our case in print. The opposition had a monopoly of the newspaper field. Before the discussion had gone far, fanciful accounts of what the proposition must involve, and what its friends must really be aiming at, had been set adrift ip the newspaper current. They have been floating in the stream of reportorial gossip and editorial comment ever since. Statements have been published denying the correctness of the rumors, but the positive arguments of the majority have been presented to the public only in versions prepared from the opposite point of view. They have conse- quently been in a large degree fictitious. Like all other mythologies, this folklore is much more entertaining than the truth. It will doubtless be a long time before the commonplace reality supplants the fictions that preoccupied the public mind. My task, however, is principally a dull recital of the literal facts. It is hoped that the truth may not fail utterly to command the attention which wild rumor provoked. The first proposition which requires emphasis is that the new adminis- trative measure at the University of Chicago was devised and supported and carried by men who believe in coeducation. They do not merely accept it as a necessary evil. Most of them have always believed in coeducation. All of them expect that they always will believe in it. It is a curious fact that, while the minority was composed chiefly of persons who regarded themselves as the only real friends and defenders of coeducation, the men who are outspoken opponents of coeducation voted with that minority. They said : " The proposal will not abolish coeducation, so we do not believe in it." There would have been no majority for the measure if it had abolished, or tended to abolish, coeducation, or if it contained any concealed opposition to coeducation. The men who actively promoted the change did so on the ground that it is a constructive measure, destined in our particular case to make coeducation stronger than ever before. We believe that our attitude on the matter will contribute, at least indirectly, to improvements in the administration of coeducation every- where. My second main proposition is that coeducation is not like the form of a geometrical figure^ yesterday, today, and forever the same. Our opponents at once pounce upon this formula and make it the key to their plan of 156 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Clndiii.«ti campaign. They reply: "This is a quibble, a subterfuge, a word -juggle. It shows that you do not mean what you say when you profess friendship for coeducation. There is only one proper meaning for coeducation, viz., instruction first, last, and all the time to men and women sitting side by side in the same room." To people occupying the traditional position the detail thus magnified is the citadel of women's intellectual rights. Weaken this stronghold, they argue, and you surrender all the educational opportunity for women that the struggles of the last century have secured. To this I reply that we absolutely refuse to recognize anybody's right to identify the principle of coeducation with the purely accidental detail of promiscuity in classification. If coeducation amounted to nothing more than this, belief in it would be formalism of the most mechanical and superstitious sort. The fallacy of this merely dialectic method of deciding the merits of the case may be shown by an analogy. Making coeducation consist essentially in the form or quantity of association between male and female students is parallel with the notion that marriage is one unchanging and unchangeable form of association between a man and a woman. Not to notice ruder forms of marriage, and considering monogamy alone, we have, as a matter of fact, all the variations in the form of the monoga- mous union, from marriage under early Roman law, in which divorce was at the absolute discretion of the husband, to marriage under the canon law, which recognized no divorce whatever. We have marriage accord- ing to the Code Napoleon, which denies to the wife who has earned money and deposited it in a savings bank the right to draw it without her do-nothing husband's permission ; and marriage according to the Kaiser, in which Kinder, KUche, and Kirche measure the tether of woman's lib- erty. At the other extreme we have marriage according to our western American republics, which consists of a union between an acquiescent man, as silent partner, and, as party of the second part, a woman whose voice is never silent in the streets, so long as there is a public reform to be agitated or a political election to be contested. Accordingly, a very large part of what Mrs. Browning calls '* the social spasm and crisis of the ages" is the problem, not of stereotyping the conjugal union in an inflexible form, but of realizing that spirit of association between husband and wife which will make each most valuable to the other, and both most useful to society. A similar problem is at the heart of the case before us. Coeducation is something profounder than mere adherence to a local tradition of mechanical arrangement among pupils getting their schooling. Coedu- cation is a stage and a phase in the apprenticeship of men and women for their appropriate life-functions. What are the conditions most con- ducive to the passing of this stage into the most highly adapted and Superintendence] COEDUCATION AT THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 15 7 adaptable manhood and womanhood ? Are we to assume that this tre- mendous question is the one solitary detail which is settled beyond revi- sion for all time among the innumerable open problems of educational theory and practice ? The University of Chicago, at any rate, declines to accept any such snap-judgment. We have no quarrel with separate colleges, either for men or for women. They undoubtedly have a mis- sion, and perhaps a limited number of them will always be desirable. We believe, nevertheless, that as a rule association, not isolation, is the normal condition during the years of preparation for manhood and womanhood. The terms of association, however, should not be rigidly pre- scribed a priori^ but should be flexible according to the dictates of experi- ence. It should be possible to regulate the association as circumstances of time and place and individual needs require. This demand reduces the item of co-instruction to the rank of one among the many details which the development of coeducation must utilize for what they are worth. It is as foolish to make a specific, or a shibboleth, or a fetich, out of one accident of the educational program as out of another. For myself — and now I do not know whether this formula would be acceptable to my colleagues or not — I define coeducation as instruction^ under a single management, of males and females , upon equal terms ^ under conditions which promise to prove in the long run most advantageous to all concerned. That is, coeducation is, like education in general, a progress- ive revelation, and selection of means according to the revelation. The only essential specifications added to the generic term " education " to form the special concept "coeducation *' are, first, affirmation of the equal claims of men and women to all opportunities of education, and, second, endeavor by the same educator, whether state, or church, or private corporation, or individual, to furnish equal educational privileges to the males and females of a given constituency. It is most fortunate that the charter of the University of Chicago was deliberately framed so as to pro- vide for this flexible conception. Third : So far as I am aware, no published statement, with the excep- tion of Dr. Harper's report, just alluded to, has been within respectable guessing distance of the actual grounds for our action. It has been charged that the aim was to diminish the number of women in the uni- versity. This neither is, nor has it ever been, nor is it likely to be, the desire of any individual who has actively interested himself in our move- ment. On the contrary, we not only expect, but hope, that the number of women in our student body will rapidly increase, and it is the policy of the university to promote that increase as diligently as it attempts to increase the number of the men. Without partiality for men or for women, the University of Chicago will not, by its own fault, be second to any institution in providing educational opportunities for both. Again, an ingenious guesser has contributed to one of our most influ- 158 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cfnciim^i ential American weeklies the interpretation that our move has been in response to a demand of the male students for the exclusion of women, and he treats this supposed fact as a cardinal symptom of the times. In reality, to the best of my knowledge and belief, no sign of opposition to the old system ever reached the faculty fiom the students. So far as their feelings were concerned, the inherited system was rather conspicu- ously satisfactory. This is, of course, in marked contrast with familiar cases in New England colleges founded for men but afterward opened to women. Once more, it has often been said that some serious moral problems must have been met, some grave misconduct must have been detected, to account for disturbing the status quo. Again, I may reply that for myself I have never had personal knowledge of a single case of immorality, either at Chicago or elsewhere, which was fairly chargeable to coeducation. If any member of the Chicago faculty has had a different experience, he has never put it in evidence in any argument of which I have knowledge. Immorality, in the usual sense, has never been a factor in the case. It is immoral to scrawl letters with a pen, when one can a£ford a typewriter. It is immoral to waste time running errands, when one can afford a tele- phone. In that sense alone has our problem been concerned with morals ; /'. ^., we think we have discovered a more excellent way, and it would be immoral not to adopt it. Our action has not been prompted by any- thing that would usually be classed as sins of commission on the part of students. It is rather a provision against sins of omission on the side of the university. Now, to state the facts positively : The movement in question was occasioned immediately, not by any speculative theory about coeducation, but by reaching a point in the growth of the university at which it became an inexorable necessity to recognize an axiom of physics, namely, two bodies cannot occupy the same space at the same time. Our lecture halls, laboratories, and departmental libraries were overcrowded. They were wanted by both graduates and undergraduates. Enlarged accommodations were imperative. Unless we were to proceed without system, and regard- less of the future, the question was forced upon us : Looking ahead as far as we can, what principle of assigning ground space for the needed buildings will best provide for all the interests of the university? Time would not permit rehearsal of the many considerations which had to be weighed, and it is not necessary for the present purpose. It soon became clear to everyone, however, that the four blocks to which the university had been confined would be needed for the higher work alone, and should be reserved accordingly. This meant, in other words, that removal of all freshman and sophomore work — that is, in our terms, the Junior College — from our present base of operations, and provision for it elsewhere, was judged to be the wisest method of relieving our overcrowded condition. Superintendence] COEDUCATION AT THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 159 When so much was clear, everyone taking it for granted that the higher work was anchored by the laboratories, etc., the questions were forced upon us : How can we best provide for the Junior College ? Shall we plan to develop in the future an indefinite number of quadrangles, in imitation of the central university quadrangle, with dormitories for women on one side, for men on another, and with intermediate buildings for com- mon instruction ; or shall we adopt some other principle ? The moment this was recognized as a practical and urgent administrative question, some of us saw that we could not do our full duty in answering it unless we reconsidered on its merits, and in all its bearings, the whole traditional machinery of coeducation, which we had inherited. In other words, it was not sufficient to inquire : How can we most conveniently continue to do the thing we are already doing? The more important question was : Is this the best thing possible ? Would any changes in our system improve it in the interest of both men and women ? The newspaper advertising of our discussion, as something that grew out of hostility to women, or jealousy of women, or illiberal disposition toward women, was a long shot in the opposite direction from the mark. Whatever may be our deficiencies in other respects, I feel perfectly safe in declaring that the world does not contain an educational institution in which recognition of the equal right of women to all that it offers is more complete than in the University of Chicago. I make this boast without qualification or apology, because when a thing is absolute it can't be any more so. This is not only the fact, but the fact corresponds with the whole animus 'of the university. Women are no more there on toler- ance than the men are. Use of all that the university affords, from the kindergarten in the School of Education to private laboratories for special research, is not a privilege dependent on concession, but the unquestioned right of women on precisely equal terms with men. The trustees and faculty of the university are probably more anxious to guard this equality in the interest of the women than of the men, for they assume that the men would be more aggressive in defending their rights if by oversight or accident they were ever impaired. There has never for a moment been any halting or wavering, or equivocation, in our purpose to develop and improve and realize coeducation. The few individuals in our number who do not believe in the idea have always accepted the fact that the uni- versity is irrevocably committed to it, and that they could not change it if they would. The great majority not only accept the fact, but are in cor- dial sympathy with it, so that they would not change it if they could. As the newspapers have taken pains to let everybody know, the first step which we have taken, in pursuit of the purpose to perfect our system, has been the establishment of separate Junior Colleges for men and women. They are to be located, the one on the east, the other on the west, of the main quadrangle reserved for higher work, and their nearest l6o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati boundaries will be three or four blocks distant from each other. The ugly term " segregation " was invented by misinformed outside agitators against what they excited themselves into believing to be our purpose. It is a sneer, with which it is useless to argue. If it is applied to the division between the Junior College and the higher work, it is no more in point than it would be to use it for the separation between the elementary medi- cal work in lecture-room and laboratory, and the more technical work in clinics. If the epithet applies to the division between Junior College men and Junior College women, the separation is equally of each from the other, and it is only by a freak of the imagination that it can be made invidious. Each Junior College is in the same sense, and in the same degree, a part of the university that the other is. There are no divisions of the faculty, but merely temporary shifting in assignment of duties. That is, the professor who gives a course in geometry, or French, or his- tory in one college at one hour of the day, or in one quarter of the year, will offer the same course at another hour of the same day, or in another quarter of the same year, in the other college. For myself, I do not believe that this will work out as "identical instruction " in the two colleges, and I do not believe that it should. It is a moral impossibility for a teacher who is thoroly alive to give precisely the same instruction to a class of men which he would give to a class of women. He will and should adapt himself to the different mental atti- tudes of men and women. The more skillful he is, the more will his power to vary his instruction accrue to the advantage of both men and women. The division just described between men and women ceases at the end of the sophomore year, or, in our terms, at the completion of the work of the Junior College. Meanwhile, the foundations of a somewhat coherent, sheltered community life will have been laid for both men and women. No Chinese walls, nor barbed-wire fences, nor even hedges will inclose the students in either college. They will have more and better opportu- nities for meeting each other in perfectly natural ways than the average man and woman of the same age who are not in college. No one who is acquainted with the social tendencies of Chicago is likely to harbor very desperate fears lest our boys and girls may henceforth see so little of each other that their social development will be permanently arrested. The modification that I have described has been hysterically denounced from one point of view, and almost as hysterically ridiculed from another. On the one hand, it has been claimed that this is merely the beginning of the end of coeducation in the University of Chicago, and so it is regarded as the first move in a campaign for the educational disfran- chisement of women. On the other hand, it has been ridiculed as a change too insignificant to affect coeducation one way or the other. Unlimited scorn has been aimed at the futility of a scheme which merely sandwiches Superintendence] COEDUCATION AT THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO l6l in two years of separate class work between earlier and later years of asso- ciation. As to the former charge, I have already shown that our answer might be in baseball language: "Never touched me." To the latter criticism we may properly reply: "Then why these tears? If the effort is so feeble, why waste agitation on it? Why not leave it to expire of inani- tion?" Now, the truth is, this measure can never have anything like the radi- cal importance, either for weal or for woe, which its friends have been supposed to claim for it, or which its opponents predict as its consequence. Reactionary it never was, in any shape or degree. On the other hand, we have never thought of it as a cure-all. It is a measure designed to guard the equilibrium of students at a stage when it is peculiarly liable to be disturbed. It is an adjustment, an adaptation, a relief of nervous and mental tension, at a point where there is excessive stimulation. In a word, what I mean is this: We are in the geographical center of a large city, the focus of a group of states in which there is an enormous increase of families whose children are not compelled by poverty to hurry into bread-winning. The time is apparently approaching when the number of girls who choose college education in the country at large will equal the number of boys. However this may be, in a city like Chicago, and to a lesser degree in the tributary country, the time is fast approaching when girls will enter college in equal numbers with boys, and from closely simi- lar motives. The days when going to college 'was an ordeal that tried women's souls, and when only the rare few would undertake it, are ancient history. Today in our city colleges we can match the immemorial species "generous youth " with equal numbers of the lately differentiated " generous maiden." To speak sooth of either type, it means well enough, and will mostly find itself by and by, but just now it frankly does not know what else to do with itself, and college is its line of least resistance. No one who has been a freshman or a sophomore will think hard of me for not stopping long to verify the other scattering specimens in the col- lection. The aforesaid "generous youths and maidens" come to college very human boys and girls. They have been with other boys and girls before, but they didn't mind particularly. Now they are thrown in with a crowd of new boys and girls, and they begin to take notice. The boy of seventeen or eighteen has grown up by the side of his younger, or even older, sisters, and other boys' sisters, and has probably never wasted a minute on the purely academic question of their possible equality with himself. In the college environment the perspective changes. He is doggedly aware that the girls in his class are sophisticated beyond his years. He has always supposed himself at least as old as anyone of his age. Now, when he hears the girls of his class talk about " high-school kids" he has a guilty feeling that it means him. While he is being guyed and hazed and, if lucky, "rushed," the chasm yawns wider between him and 1 62 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati his girl classmate, who does not even shrink from the presence of the captain of the football team, and has already made a distinct impression upon some of the social stars of the fraternities. Our freshman doesn't feel happy. These girls embarrass him. The only relief they can offer is by electing courses as far ahead of the natural sequence as the rules allow, so as to get into the company of older and more interesting men. But what of these freshman girls themselves; these eager, impulsive, inexperienced, adventurous maidens that our prosperous American life produces; these heirs-expectant of the world and the fullness thereof; these latest arrivals at the gates of life, equipped with anticipations as omnivorous as they are indefinite; with nerves a-quiver for the next sen- sation; with serene assurance that their future must be a long crescendo of happiness? What of these on-the-whole most admirable specimens of unfulfilled womanhood that any civilization has ever produced? A nan old enough to be a grandfather may be safe in confessing that he would suspect the mental and moral wholesomeness of the college boy who could live within the horizon of these peerless girls, and not in his secret heart be gloriously in love with them one and all! But how fares it with these girls in the atmosphere of the big city coeducational college? More than anything else they need poise, repose, standpoint, perspective, purpose. They need long, clear looks at life from its upper side, unconfused by the jostlings of the crowd. What are the chances in this direction, when every nerve is at concert pitch, when ambition for prestige is goaded by the keenest spurs, when the whole air tingles with the excitement of a continuous social function ? I grant you all this is not argument. I am dealing with facts, to be sure, but let us say that my use of them is merely parable. What I mean by it is that things like those which the parable suggests are bound to produce a large amount of distraction of attention, which would wander enough without such provocation. Much of this disturbance is avoidable. Removal of needless causes of it would do just so much toward securing maximum conditions of comfortable, healthy, normal growth, and inci- dentally of effective college work. Is this a trifle? If a"ny of us think so, we might learn rudimentary psychology from the gymnasium, not to say from the paddock. But you reply: "After all, you have not proved either that unwhole- some conditions exist, or that, if they did, your measure would be a rem- edy." You are right, and I do not deceive myself in the least about the logical status of the discussion. In the twenty-seven years of intermittent debate in which I have participated on this subject, and particularly in the portion of it which has been carried on among my colleagues during the past two years, I have known of only one absolute demonstration. The one thing established is that, if a person has once had an opinion, either pro or con, upon the subject of coeducation, all the arguments in Superintendence] COEDUCA TION IN HIGH SCHOOLS 163 the world will never prove anything to the contrary one way or the other. On every subject, with this one exception, reasoning may have some effect. In this case never. The only possible change of view has to come thru collision with new experiences and the sensation of facts arguing for themselves. I have no ambition to fly in the face of Providence by attempting the impossible. I have been content to state our position, and to indicate the spirit in which we are acting. We may be mistaken about our facts. We may be fatuous in our way of treating them. Our purpose is beyond attack. Speaking again for myself only, it seems to me that in education we have parodied the practice of Judge Lynch; that is, first hang your pris- oner, then try him. We first extemporized a coeducation, and then, with uncanonical speed, we canonized it. I believe that the contrast between the naive coeducation which we stumbled into and that which we shall develop in the future is parallel with the difference between the little purgatory which the memories of my childhood recall under the name of primary school, and the kindergarten which the wisest teachers are per- fecting today. COED UCA TION IN HIGH SCHOOLS AARON GOVE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DISTRICT NO. I, DENVER, COLO. I believe that the interests of the thousands in the high school are quite as important as are those of the hundreds in the colleges. I am aware that what I am about to say will arouse antagonism, especially on the part of my women friends. They will seem to see an attack on what is com- monly called the equality of the sexes. I address myself especially to opposing the present identical education of the high-school boy and girl, without reference to the " co." It matters little where they receive instruction; I am protesting against the identical education that schools have been led to give to the sexes. Altho the high schools have largely modified their curricula because of the elective courses and of the privi- lege of equivalents which is one of the blessings of the present time, we have not yet got thru with the notion that the diploma of a secondary school must be the same certificate, whether issued to a boy or to a girl. The equivalent for the boy and the girl ought to include and exclude much of either. From the homes — and I speak for the high schools — the girls have been compelled to enter school with the brothers, to select the course of study with their brothers, to enter school at the same time in the morn- ing, to attend recitations at the same time, and to receive diplomas at the same time — identical education. 1 64 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati The progress in our nation along all industrial lines, the advance in commercial lines, the improvement in all the opportunities of human life have been so rapid in the last fifty years that our fathers hardly know where we are; but the public high school has remained the same until recently. It is changing now, but in some respects the girls are working at an increased disadvantage. I remember two boys who, in their city home, had nothing to do but go to school; no kindling to prepare at the home, no coal to carry in, no chores to do, no horse to take care of; no work whatever was to be done by the boy. When they left school at two m the afternoon, they dawdled, unless fortunate enough to have inherited a bias for football or other athletic sport. The sister is never free from a task. In common life, domestic cares employ her; if the middle station in life be hers, duties about the house engage her attention; if above the middle class, duties of society engage her. The American girl must have society — not dull society, not balls late and long, but girl society, society social and contributing to the culture of the individual. With such differing conditions, it is wicked to assign the same task to both girls and boys. I ask the teacher of physics: "Tell me, if you had the girls at one time and the boys at another, would your instruction be modified?" He repHes: "I would modify the instruction; I cannot tell you just how, but I should not always take the same route." The girl who has floundered thru arithmetic in the grammar school may be one of the brightest in the high school under proper conditions. We wrong the high-school girl by saying that the science must be taken as the univer- sity graduate wants it, with complicated apparatus, original investigation, and the notions of the college. This is at the present time harming the girls' and the boys' high schools. The first, second, and third years in the high school are suffering for lack of good teachers, because the col- lege men coming to us must wait to learn from practice there. I have little respect, and so have you, for him who undertakes to demolish without suggestions for building up. I have a suggestion for the better. The mothers and the sisters and the aunts remonstrate against the statement that the girl cannot be equal with the boy. She is equal and frequently superior. The girl does more for self-culture between fourteen and eighteen years of age than does her brother, but she must take longer to get thru the high school. Let her go with her brother in the morning and go home at noon, and not appear again until the beginning of school next day. She will be engaged in the extra duties I have spoken of; I trust she will be out of doors some part of the time. From this it follows that the girl's after- noon vacation will necessitate six years, in which she is to do the work in school which her brother does in four. The objection I meet is the prejudice of the people and the home in concluding that this means Superintendence] COEDUCATION IN HIGH SCHOOLS 165 the "depreciation of the young women of the country. Every high school could so adjust its work that the girls could all go home at noon. Just think; the boys have gone to college and gone to business; the girls are saved in health, have the accomplishments, have learned domestic life, have been able to rjead more than their brothers, and they are made free in their lives, and are ready for life's duties quite early enough, with six years of high .school to offer against four years of the brothers*. DISCUSSION Superintendent Edwin P. Seaver, Boston, Mass. — I want to declare my great pleasure in hearing the preceding speaker say that identical education for girls and boys is the error in which we have been allowing ourselves to proceed for a good many years past. With Superintendent Gove, I believe that the high-school girl should not have identical education with the high-school boy, .because they are not equal — as he says, the girl is superior. Something was said about Boston not having come into line, and I must be allowed to tell you what we have been doing. Some twenty -five years ago Boston enlarged her borders by taking in the neighboring towns. Each of these annexed towns had high schools of the usual coeducation type. In the old city we had the English high school for boys, dating from 1821; the Latin high school for boys, dat- ing from almost the founding of Boston, 1635 ; the high school for girls, established in 1854; and the Latin school for girls, established about twenty-five years ago. So when I am asked what Boston stands for, I say we stand for about everything that can be thought of. But there is a curious piece of history which I wish to state, and then to point out consequences. Soon after this annexation, it entered into the heads of the committee that all these high schools, except the Latin, must be organized and run on a uniform course of study. The women who had lately obtained places on the board insisted that the girls' high school must do just the same work that the boys' high school did. The equality of the sexes must be recognized in education. The two high schools, the one for boys, and the one for girls, had grown each from its own roots, and had become different in character, and the schools in the suburbs had grown each in its own way; but all these schools were driven to use the same course of study. After my official connection of twenty years with this work of enforcing an identical education for boys and girls and for all high schools, I do not hesitate to declare that it has been a gigantic failure, and if my experience is worth anything, the rest of you are wel- come to it. After our trial of a uniform course of study, we had to smash the whole thing, and now all the studies are elective. The girls take what it is best for them to take, and the boys take what it is best for them to take, and they display quite a difference in taste or in judgment. There is also an option as to the quantity of work to be done. .We allow the girl, if five studies are too many, to take three, or as few as two for the time being. In the case of a certain girl I have' in mind, it was better for her to take some studies than to stay out of school entirely. This was not in Boston, but in the neighborhood. The father asked permission for her to con- tinue with three studies, and was told that she would not finish, would have a one-sided education, would become a special student, and would not graduate with her class. The persistent argument by the father gained the permission, but the girl was never allowed to take the diploma. She went thru the usual studies in five years, but could not have the diploma. The prospect of losing the diploma operates injuriously upon the girls of the high school. The "special student" receives less consideration, not only from the teachers (that might be endured), but also from the body of her classmates. I believe, if the studies of the high school are arranged on a liberal elective plan, a 1 66 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincmnati good many of these difficulties will disappear, and we shall better adapt high-school education to the boys and girls who enter. That was one of the " adjustments " which I hoped our friend from the Hughes High School would bring into his paper. A most important adjustment is the adjustment of the kind and quantity of study to the boys and to the girls respectively. The time has gone by when we are to consider that the boys and the girls are all alike, and are best treated by a uniform course of study. Superintendent E. A. Gastman, Decatur, 111. — Forty -one years ago I helped organize, in a town of about five thousand inhabitants, a high school. X am still trying to make that high school as good as I can. My sons and daughters have passed thru it ; two of them are graduates of the University of Michigan, and one of them a graduate of the Lewis Institute. I never knew a time when a parent was not told that a physician's certificate would excuse his child from any work that he might desire. Two things are required in our course — mathematics and English ; the others are elective. I have great respect for my friend Gove, and attach importance to what he says, but I want to state this experience : I never have seen, in the forty-one years, that either the boys or the girls were injured by the regular work of the high school, even when they took exactly the same studies. Superintendent J. F. Keating, Pueblo, Colo. — I think only a portion of the paper was on the subject of coeducation. We find the distinguished gentleman from Chicago saying that we shall have identical education in the segregated schools. Then Mr. Gove says we must not have identical training for the boys and girls. Thus the doctors con- tinue to disagree. In the presence of these gray hairs I hesitate to speak, but I do want to know what sort of system, under the modem elective plan, will compel both sexes to take identical work in the high school. I wonder if the boy does not pass thru the period of adoles-' cence as well as the girl, and whether he does not have times of rapid growth also. I have found the boys needing to drop off at times in their studies, as well as the girls I think this is simply a reversion that we have had introduced to us. I think, with the elective system in the modern high school, we can leave the boy and the girl to take care of themselves. One thing more I want to know is, why Dr. Small would turn the boys and girls together socially, but would not allow them together in the recitation room. In other words, they may dance together, play cards together, but they must not recite together. In regard to Superintendent Seaver's statements, I think it a mistake to generalize so broadly from a few isolated cases presented by him, just as I think it would be a mis- take for a man to purchase a house from the average real-estate agent when he had only shown him two or three bricks from the house. Superintendent L. E. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex. — I believe the time will come when we shall admit that fundamentally, psychologically, and in every other way the educa- tion of the girl should not be the same as that of the boy. If the social environment is to determine education — and we all admit that industrially, in the home, and in many other ways, the environment of the girl is different from that of the boy — then it must follow that the educative material must not be identical. Mr. Gove only partially solves the question, because he does not allow the girl any credit for the growth she gets in the home. The girl studies music and does brain work in the home ; will the time ever come when she can have credit for that work ? Dr. John T. Prince, West Newton, Mass. — My friend Mr. Gove suggested that the girl close up work at 12 o'clock and go home. I suggest that the boy go home then, too; but I suggest that both may come back in the afternoon for manual and physical training, domestic science, and other things that might be extra, but entirely voluntary. Three or three and one-half hours a day of close intellectual work is quite enough for boys as well as girls. The afternoon's exercises should be optional, but may be made so attractive that no one will wish to miss them. SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF ACTIVE MEMBERS ENROLLED SINCE THE PUBLICATION OF THE MINNEAPOLIS VOLUME, 1902 MARCH 21, 1903 xQoa Alfrbd Willis Abrams, Ph.B. '91. Cornell Univ. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, ax Second Ave., Ilion, N. Y. B. P. Allbn, A.B., Atlanta Univ., A.M., National Univ. 1903, President of Lincoln Institute, Jefferson City, Mo. Samubl Andrbws. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 314 Stratford Ave., PittsburSf Pa Gborgb Prbdbrick Arps. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Tuscola, 111. H. E. AXLINB. Superintendent of Schools. 18 Linndale Ave., Brooklyn, O 1901 Frank P. Bachman, A.B., '96, Univ. of Chicago; Ph.D., '02, Columbia Univ. Professor of History and Science of Education, Ohio Univ., Athens. O. 1902 Dblmbr E. Batchbllbr, Ph.B., 111. Wes. Univ. 1902, Superintendent of Schools, 113 S. Barry St., Olean, N. Y. Jambs K. Bbck, A.B., '74, A.M., '85, Indiana Univ. 1902, Superintendent of Schools, 327 3. College Ave., Bloomington, Ind. Ezra Wilkins Benedict. A.B., '91. Middlebury Coll. 1900, Principal of High School, Warrensburg, N. Y. S. H. B(WN, Ph.B., '97, DePauw Univ. X902, Superintendent of Schools, 619 E. xst South St., Centralia, 111. Edgar Elliott Bramlbttb, A.B.. '83, Vanderbilt Univ. A.M., '80, Univ. of Texas. X900, President 01 John Tarleton College. Stephens ille, Tex. 190X E. C. Branson. X900, President of Georgia State Normal School, Athens, Ga. 190a Harry F. Brbwbr, A.B., '91, Nat. Nor. Univ. XQ02, Principal of Technical School of Cincinnati, 2920 Gilbert Ave., Cincinnati, O. Gborgb W. Brock, A.B , '00, Univ. of Ala. X902, Superintendent of City Schools, Oi)elika, Ala. Lucy E. Browning. Director of Kindergarten Training Departmexxt, State Normal School, 177 W. Wabasha St., Winona, Minn. Jambs A. Burns, C.S.C. 1900, President of Holy Cross College, Brookland, D. C. H. G. BUTLBR. 1902, Representative of Henry Holt & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111". Wallace Buttrick, D.D., '99, Univ. of Rochester, N. Y. Secretary and Executive Officer of the General Education Board, and Mem- ber of General Education Board and Southern Education Board, cor. Pine and Williams Sts., New York, N. Y. Starr Cadwalladbr. A.B., '93, A M., '96, Hamilton Coll. X902, Director of Schools, Rose Bldg., Cleveland, O. Otis W. Caldwell, Ph.D., '08, Univ. of Chicago. X899, Professor of Biology and Botany, Eastern Illinois State Normal School, Charleston, 111. W. F. Chbvalibr, A.m., Marietta Coll. 190X, Superintendent of Schools. Muscatine, la. Lotus D. Coppman. X902, Superintendent of Schools. Salem, Ind. Halsby M. Collins, A.B.. '96. Amherst Coll. Representative of Mavnard. Merrill & Co., 18 Clinton Ave., Cortland, N. Y. 190X Randall J. Condon, A.B., '86, A.M., 02, Colby CoU. X902, Superintendent of Schools, 439 Lawrence St., Helena, Mont. x9oa Lawrence J. Corbly, A.B., '00, Univ. of W. Va.; A.M., '96. 1896, Principal of State Normal School, Marshall College, Huntington, W. Va. Inslby L. Dayhopp. X903, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, State House, Topeka, Kan. A. M. Dodderer. Agent of American Book Co., 278 N. Main St., Delaware. O. Ellis H. Drake. X900, Superintendent of Public Schools. 405 E. Jackson St., Attica, Ind. Alexander Caswell Ellis, A.B., '94, Univ. of N. C; Ph.D^ '97, Clark Univ. 1897. Adjunct Professor of the Science and Art of Education, University of Texas, Austin. Tex. E. Antoinette Ely, A.M., '92. Univ. of Cincinnati. Principal of Bartholomew-Clifton School, Evanswood St., Clifton, Cincin- nati, O. Luthbr E. Everett, A.B., '96. A.M.. '99. Univ. of Wooster. X90X, Superintendent of Schools, 47 S. Main St., Uhrichsville, O. 1903 M. Grace Fickett, A.B., '96, Tufts Coll. 1897, Instructor in Department of English, Gorham Normal School, Gorham, Me. 1901 A. Flanagan. Publisher 266 Wabash Ave.. Chicago, 111. 167 1 68 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati Gborob 1900 190a Ada M. Plbming. 180s, Music Department, Ginn & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111. Charles S. Fogs, A.M., LL.D. looa. Superintendent of Schools, Boys' High School Bldg., Reading, Pa. M. PoRBBS, A.B., '78 A.M., '81, Univ. of Rochester, N. Y. T, '*90, Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy, 14 Sibley PI., Rochester, N. Y. Hbnry Hubbard Fostbr. A.B., '99, Cornell Univ. 1899, Principal of Franklin School, 224 Clara Ave., Peoria, 111. 190a Andrbw J. Gray, Jr. Manager of Agency Department, B. P. Johnson Publishing Co., 903 E. Main „„ _ . St., Richmond, Va. W. D. Groyb. M.S.D., '92. St. Nor. Sch.. Kirksville, Mo. 1902, Superintendent of City Public Schools, Marshall Place, Webster Groves, Mo. Richard D. Harlan^ A B , '81, A M.. '84, D.D., '02, Princeton Univ. ,^ ^ ,, President of Lake Forest College, Lake Forest, 111 W. G. Hartranft. -, . __ Superintendent of Schools of King County, Courthoiise, Seattle, Wash. E. L. Hbndricks. A.B., '94. Franklin Coll ; A.M., 'm. Ind. Univ. „ ,, ,, t0O2, Superintendent of Schools, Delphi. Ind. R. H. Holbrook Ph.D., '80. Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O. „ „ InchargeofS.S.HighSchool, so S.Oakland Sq., Pittsburg, Pa. Charlbs S. Howb, B.S.. '78, Mass. Agri. CoU., and Boston Univ.; Ph.D., '87, Wooster Univ. 1889, Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, and (1902) Acting President, Case _ , School of Applied Science, Cleveland, O. Robbrt L. Kblly. Ph.B., '88, Earlham Coll.; Ph.Mj '99, Univ. of Chicago. 190a, President of Earlham College, 221 Central Ave., Richmond, Ind. John Knox, A.B.. '87, A.M^ '90. Brown Univ. _ ^^ Assistant Treasurer, Silver, Burdett & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111. Paul Krbuzpointbr Institute Lecturer, Altoona, Pa. Charlbs Willard Lbwis, B.Sc., '90, M.Sc„ '93, D.D., '99, DePauw Univ. 1898, President of Moore's Hill College and Professor of Philosophy, Moore's Hill, Ind. 1903 Mary I. Love joy. Institute Instructor, Primary Schools, 31 Washington St., Maiden, Mass 1902 Herbert W. Lull, A.B., '74, Harvard Univ. X900, Superintendent of Schools, 35 Powel Ave., Newport, R. I. Francis Lynch, A.B., '01, Harvard Univ. 1902, Supervisor of Schools, Yauco, Porto Rico. G. H. Mattson. 1900, Superintendent of County Schools, Roseau, Minn. W. L. McCowAN, Ph.B., '91. Marietta Coll. 1901, Principal of State Normal School, West Liberty, W. Va. C. S. McLean. _ _ Representative, Silver, Burdett & Co., 132 N. Goodman St., Rochester, N. Y. E. Lincoln Mendbnhall, B.Sc., "pi, Nat. Nor. Univ.; A.B., '93, A.M., '94, S. N U. __ 1902. Superintendent of City Schools, Washington C. H., O. William B. Merritt, A.B., '85, Emory Coll., Ga. __ 1903, State School Commissioner, Atlanta, Ga. Harvey C. Minnich, B.Sc, '89. A.M., 'oo, Ohio Nor. Univ., Ada, O. 1902, Superintendent of Schools, 120 E. 4th St., Middletown, O. Paul Monroe, A.B , A.M., Ph.D., '97, Univ. of Chicago. Professor in the History of Education Teachers College, Columbia Univer- sity, New York, N. Y. Eliakim Hastings Moore, A.B., '83,' Ph.D., '85, Yale Univ.; A.M., Ph.D., (Honorary), '89, Univ. of Gottingen. 1892, Professor and (1896) Head of Department of Mathematics, The University _ of Chicago, 5617 Washington Ave., Chicago, 111. Edwin P. Moulton, A.B., '65, A.M.,'68, Oberlin Coll. _ 1903, Superintendent of Instruction, 454 Rose Bldg., Cleveland, O. Lyman C. Newell, Ph.B., '90, A.M., 01, Ph.D., '9s, Johns Hopkins Univ. 1898, Teacher of Physical Sceace, State Normal School, 380 Wilder St., Lowell I^ass ' Arthur Orlo Norton, A.M., '09, Harvard Univ. .^ 1899, Instructor in Harvard University, s Lawrence Hall, Cambridge, Mass. Ward Higley Nye, A.B., 'oi, OberUn Coll. 1902, Principal of High School, 429 E. Court St., Urbana, O. ARKER, A.a., '88, Wellesley Uoll.; A.M., o», univ. 01 ra., ana 99, Radcliffe Coll. 1890, Supervisor of Primary Grades, 608 University Ave., Syracuse, N. Y. 1901 Albertus D. Perkins, A.B., '86, Cornell Univ. 1894, New York State Agent, D. C. Heath & Co., 15 Argyle St., Cortland, N.Y. 1902 GeorgeD. Pettee, A.B., '87, A.M.. '93, YaleUniv. Principal of University School, Cleveland, O. Herman S. Piatt, A.B., A.M., Univ. of 111.; Ph.D., Univ. of Strassburg. 1 90 1, Superintendent of Schools, 323 N. 8th St., Coshocton, O. Virgil Prettyman, A.B., '92, A.M., '95. Dickinson Coll. 1895, Principal of Horace Mann High School, Teachers College. Park HtU, Yon- kers N Y James A. Price, A.B., A.M.", Irid. Univ. „ ^^ 1307 Scott Ave., Fort Wayne, Ind. Fred H. Ralsten. „, , o ^. . • r^ Representative, American Book Co., 317 Walnut St., Cincinnati, O. Gilbert P. Randle. . _ 1902, Superintendent of City Schools, Mattoon, 111. Anna E. Rogers. ^ , ,„ 1902, Superintendent of Schools of Douglas County, Tuscola, 111. Superintendence] SUFPLEMENTAR Y LIST OF MEMBERS 1 69 iQoa WiCKLiPPB RosB, A.M., '90, Univ. of Nashville. Professor of History and Philosophy of Education, University of Tennessee, University Campus, Knoxville, Tenn. William Christopher Sayrs, A.B., Wilmington Coll., O.; A.M., Haverford Coll. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Wilmington, O. 1 90 1 Jambs J . Shbppard . Principal of New York High School of Commerce, 155 W. 65th St., New York, N. Y. 1902 Charles L. Simmons, Ph.B., Taylor Univ.; A.M., Gale Coll. zooo. Superintendent of Schools^ an Washington Ave., Bennington, Vt. Albion W. Small, Ph.D., '89, Johns Hopkins Univ. 1892, Head of Department 01 Sociology, University of Chicago; (1892) Editor of "American Journal of Sociology," Chicago, 111. Walter H. Small, A.B., '78, A.M , '82, Dartmouth Coll. 1902, Superintendent of Schools, 42 Adelphi Ave., Providence, R. I. Smith, A.B., '98, A.M., '99. Ind. St. Univ. 1902, Superintendent of Schools, Brookville, Ind. 1902, bupenntenaent 01 ocnoois, 42 Aaeipi H. Lbstbr Smith, A.B., '98, A.M., '99. Ind. St. Univ. 1902, Superintendent of Schools, Brookville, ina. H. H. Southwick, A.B., '89, A.M., '92. Lafayette Coll., Easton, Pa. Z902, Superintendent of Schools, 82 Elizabeth St., Ogdensburg, N. Y. J. R. Sparks. Tooo, Superintendent of City Schools, Havana, 111. Claude U. Stone, B.Sc, W. 111. Nor. Coll. 1902, Superintendent of Peoria County Schools, 14x5 Perry Ave., Peoria, 111. Z90Z Clarence Birch Stoner, A.B., '96, Otterbein Univ. X900, Sui)erintendent of Schools, Ashley, O. 1902 W. E. Striplin. Superintendent of Public Schools, Gadsden, Ala. LiBBIE J. SWEETLAND. Z903, School Commissioner, Pleasant St., Dryden, N. Y. Joseph M. Tanner Sui)erintendent of Mormon Church Schools, 402 Templeton Bldg.. Salt Lake City, Utah. J. M7 Thompson, Ph.B., '98, Colgate Univ. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Penn Yan, N. Y. H. H. TiTSWORTH, A.B., *97, Amherst Coll. Manager, The Macmillan Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111. 1 90 1 S. A. Underwood. Principal of Westport High School, 4107 Warwick Boul., Elansas City, Mo 1902 Frbd a. Verplanck, A.B., '88, Yale Univ. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, 256 Main St., South Manchester, Conn. Charlbs p. Walker, Grad. Geneseo Nor. Sch. Z900, Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Elmira, N. Y. Joseph Coachman Wardlaw, A.B., A.M., '95, Emory Coll. 1902, Superintendent of Public Schools, 427 Broad St., Thomasville, Ga. Viola Marib White. x888. Assistant Teacher in State Normal School, Gorham, Me. John H. Willbts. 189s, Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Troy, N. Y. X90X Henrt G. Williams, A.M. 1902, Dean of State Normal College, Ohio University, and Editor and Publisher of the "Ohio Teacher, " Athens, O. X902 Elmbr Ellsworth Wolpe, A.M., '86, Bucknell Univ., Lewisburg, Pa. Instructor in Academy, Marietta College, 3x3 Scammel St., Marietta, O. Fred Murlin Youmans, LL.B., Cincinnati Law Sch. 1902, Principal of S. P. Chase School, Erie Ave., Hyde Park, Cincinnati, O. Walter U. Youno. Superintendent of Schools, Wadsworth, O. institutions ^ 1902 Andovbr Theological Seminary Library. Librarian, William L. Ropes. Andover, Mass. Boston University. President, Wm. F. Warren; Librarian, W. E. Htmtington, X2 Somerset St., Boston Mass. Columbian University. President, Charles W Needham; Corresponding Secretary, William Allen Wilbur, xsth and H Sts., Washington, D. C. Creighton University. President, Rev. M. P. Dowling; Librarian, M. I. Stretch, Omaha, Neb. Department of Public Instruction, State op North Dakota. Superintendent, W. L. Stockwell, Bismarck, N. D. Education Department op Ontario, Library. Librarian, J. George Hodgins, Toronto Ontario, Can. BvANSTON Frbb Public Library. Librarian. Mary B. Lindsay, Evanston, 111. Gbnbral Education Board. Secretary, Wallace Buttrick; Librarian, Harriet Hawley, 1x6 Nassau St New York, N. Y Illinois College. President, Clifford W. Barnes, Lockwood Place, Jacksonville, 111. Illinois State Library. State Librarian, J. A. Rose, Springfield 111. North wbstbrn College . President, H. J. Kiekhoefer, Secretary, S. L. Umbach, Naperville, 111. Obbrlin College Library. President, Henry C. King; Librarian, Azariah S. Root, Oberlin, O. Ohio State Library. State Librarian, C. B. Galbreath, Capitol Bldg., Columbus, O. 1 7 O NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [CmciaMti 190a Park Collbgb. President, Lowell M. McAfee, Parkville, Mo. Public Library of thb Calumbt and Hbcla Mining Co. Librarian, Mrs. E. S. Grierson, Calumet, Mich. Rising Sun City Tbachbrs' Library Association. Superintendent of City Schools, R. L. Thiebaud, Rising Sun, Ind. St. John's Univbrsity. President, Rt. Rev. Peter Engel; Librarian, Bruno Doerfler, CoUegevilk. Minn. Silas Bronson Library. Librarian, Helen Sperry, Grand St., Waterbury, Conn. Simmons Collbgb. President, Henry Lefavour; Secretary. Hester Cunningham, 30 Huntington Ave., Boston, Mass. Statb Normal School, Chbnby, Wash. Principal, Lewis B. Alger, Cheney, Wash. Statb Normal School Library, Cortland, N. y. Principal, Francis J. Cheney, 45 Church St., Cortland, N. Y. Statb Normal School of North Dakota. Principal, George A. McParland, Valley City, N. D. Statb Normal School, Plattsburgh. N. Y. Principal, George K. Hawkins, Plattsbuxgh, N. Y. Statb Normal School, San Dibgo. Cal. President, Samuel T. Black, San Diego, Cal. Univbrsity of Idaho. President, Jas. A. McLean; Librarian, Margaret B. McCallie, Moscow, Idaho. Washington County Prbb Library, Hagbrstown. Md. Librarian. Mary L. Titcomb, Hagerstown, Md. J NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE AT THE ANNUAL MEETING HELD AT ATLANTA, GA., FEBRUARY 23, 24, AND 25, I9O4 PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION 1904 PRINTED AT ^be Xlnivcxeit^ ot Cbfcago pteed 1904 CONTENTS ATLANTA MEETING — 1904 PAGE Secretary's Minutes ---------.--5 Education at the Universal Exposition, 1904: I. From the View-Poii^t of the Chief of the Department — Rogers - - - 11 II. Exhibit of United States Bureau of Education — Harris - - - - 1$ m. Some City Exhibits: Their Purpose and Plan: A. St. Louis — Soldan ----- 16 B. The City of New York— £dj(w 17 The Course of Study in Elementary and Secondary Schools: I. The Superintendent's Influence — Elsmmend to the Board of Directors, and the depart- ment respectfully asks said board to make, the appropriation of $a,ooo per year for five years, for the use of the above committee, to be paid to it semiannually, each payment to equal such a total sum as shall have been paid for the same purpose, within the preceding six months, to the treasurer of said committee by any indi- viduals, teachers' associations, or any organizations, the amount paid by the National Educational Associa- tion never to exceed $3^000 in any one year, and never to exceed the sum contributed from outside sources during the previous six months. Respectfully submitted, W. H. Elson, Chairmaftt superintendent of schbols, Grand Rapids, Mich. Edwin B. Cox, superintendent of schools, Xenia, O. C. N. Ejendall, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind. F. T. Oldt, superintendent of schools, Dubuque, Iowa. A. W. Ranxin, state inspector of graded schools, Minneapolis, Minn. The adoption of the report was opposed by John McDonald, of Kansas, and R. P. Halleck, of Kentucky; and was supported by W. H. Elson, of Michigan; £. O. Vaile, of Chicago, III.; Edwin B. Cox, of Ohio; and Thomas M. Balliett, of Springfield, Mass. A division of the question was called for. The first section was adopted by a vote of 116 to 28; the second, by a vote of 94 to 38. The Committee on Nominations made the following report: For President — £. G. Cooley, superintendent of schools, Chicago, HI. For First Vice-President — Lawton B. Evans, superintendent of schools, Augusta, Ga. For Second Vice-President — ^J. W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Anderson, Ind. F teachers, and better roads so as to facilitate the consolidation of rural schools. We therefore iirge the necessity not only of increased state appro- priations, but also of an adequate local tax, voted by the people for the schools, and we heartily approve of state and national e£forts for the improvement of our country roads. 6. That we appreciate the loyal support of the American people to the public schools, as shown by their expressions of confidence, their zealous solicitude for the improvement of the schools, and the increased treas- ures that they voluntarily pay for their support. We pledge the people in return that, so far as it is within our power, the schools shall be economically administered, and that the children shall receive the best training of head, hand, and heart that it is possible for us and our colleagues to give them. 7. That it is desirable that the appropriate state authority in the different states shall be empowered by law to recognize teachers' certificates and diplomas oi high grade issued or recognized by other states. 8. That we extend our sincere thanks to Governor Terrell, to the citizens of Atlanta and the state of Georgia, to the school officers and teachers of the dty and the state, to the women's clubs, the Local Committee, and the press of this dty, and to the Passenger Assodation, for the courtesies accorded the members of the department. John W. CARR,.of Indiana, Chairman. Carroll G. Pearse, of Nebraska. GusTAVUS R. Glenn, of Georgia. Walter S. Parker, of Massachusetts. Seymour A. Mynders, of Tennessee. The department then adjourned. John H. Hinemon, Secretary. ROUND TABLES ROUND TABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS N. C. SCHAEFFER, of Pennsylvania, Chairman. W. L. Stockwell, of North Dakota, Secretary. SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST DAY. — ^TuESDAY, February 23, 1904 The Round Table of State and County Superintendents met at 4 o'clock p. m. in the assembly room of the Carnegie Library. In the absence of the leader, Superintendent Richard C. Barrett, of Iowa, Superintendent Schaeffer, of Pei\nsylvania, called the meet- ing to order. Superintendent W. L. Stockwell, of North Dakota, was appointed secretary. lO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta The topic for discussion was: " The Recognition of Certificates and Diplomas Granted (a) by State and County Authorities, (6) by Schools of Exiucation." Superintendent Schaeffer opened the discussion, followed by Dr. Sanford, of New York. Superintendent L. £. Wolfe, of San Antonio, Tex., presented the principal paper which set forth the need of some plan of state reciprocity. Superintendent George W. Nash, of South Dakota, followed with a paper which supplemented the paper of Superin- tendent Wolfe. The discussion was continued by Commissioner L. D. Bonebrake, of Ohio; Ex-Commissioner G. R. Glenn, of Georgia; Superintendent W. T. Carrington, of Missouri; County Superintendent Shelton Phillips, of Florida; Dr. Henry R. Sanford, of New York, and Superintendent Arthur Lefevre, of Texas. Superintendent Wolfe moved that it is the sense of this body that state certificating authorities should be authorized to indorse and validate certificates. of a high degree issued by other states for use in their own states. The motion was seconded. Superin- tendents Bonebrake and Lefevre, and President John R. Kirk, of Missouri, discussed the motion. The motion was then carried. Superintendent Wolfe also moved that the chair appoint a conunittee of state superin- tendents to confer with the state superintendents of the United States, looking to the carrying into effect of the above resolution, and to report to the Department of Superin- tendence. The motion was seconded and carried. Superintendent Schaeffer reserved the announcement of the committee until the session of Wednesday. The meeting then adjourned until Wednesday at 2 130 o'clock p. m. SECOND DAY.— Wednesday, February 24 The round table met persuant to adjournment, Sup>erintendent Schaeffer, of Pennsyl- vania, presiding. The chair announced the following Committee on the Indorsement of the Validating of Teachers' Certificates: President A. S. Draper, of Illinois; State Superintendents G. W. Nash, of South Dakota; W. W. Stetson, of Maine; E. A. Jones, of Ohio; and W. T. Carrington, of Missouri. Letters were read from Superintendent Skinner, of New York, and Mrs. Grenfell, of Colorado, and also a telegram from Superintendent Sheats, of Florida, giving reasons for non-attendance. The topic under discussion was: "Increasing the Efficiency of Rural Schools." The first paper was presented by Superintendent Arthur Lefevre, of Texas. He discussed the topic briefly under the following heads: "Consolidation of Rural Schools," "Improve- ments in Course of Study and System of Grading," "Higher Standards in the Employ- ment of Teachers," and "Expert Supervision." The first topic was presented more fully by Superintendent J. Y. Joyner of North Carolina. The second subtopic, "Improvements in Course of Study and System of Grading," was presented by Superintendent Delos Fall, of Michigan, in an exhaustive paper. Super- intendent Cary, of Wisconsin, continued the discussion. The third subtopic, "Higher Standards in the Employment of Teachers," was pre- sented by President F. P. Venable, of the University of North Carolina. The discussion was continued by Professor P. P. Claxton, of the University of Tennessee, and Superin- tendent M. L. Brittain, of Fulton county, Georgia. The last subtopic, "Expert Supervision," was discussed in a brief paper by Superin- tendent I. W. Hill, of Alabama; after which the round table adjourned without date. W. L. Stockwell, Secretary. Supcrmtcndence] EDUCATION AT THE UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION II ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS SECRETARY'S MINUTES The Round Table of City Superintendents met at the Grand Opera House on Wed- nesday, February 24, at 2 140 o'clock p. m. Leader, Edwin G. Cooley, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.; secretary, N. L. Bishop, superintendent of schools, Norwich, Conn. Brief prefatory remarks were made by the leader, after which he introduced Samuel T. Dutton, of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York city, who read a paper upon " The Expediency of Importing Teachers of Proved Merit from without the City or Town." Superintendent L. E. Wolfe, of San Antonio, Tex., opened the discussion, and was followed by Superintendent C. F. Carroll, of Rochester, N. Y.; Superintendent E. P. Ciunmings, of Grand Haven, Mich.; Superintendent Arthur D. Call, of Ansonia, Conn.; Superintendent J. V. Harris, of Key West, Fla.; and others. Superintendent Walter H. Small, of Providence, R. I., being introduced by the leader, addressed the body upon the topic, " Should Teachers Be Required to Present, from Time to Time, Evidences of Increased Scholarship ?" Superintendent J. H. Van Sickle, of Balti- more, Md., followed with a statement of the plan in that city for encouraging advanced studies by teachers. The round table then adjourned. N. L. Bishop, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS EDUCATION AT THE UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 1904 I. FROM THE VIEW-POINT OF THE CHIEF OF THE DEPARTMENT HOWARD J. ROGERS, CHIEF OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, ST. LOUIS, MO. A great international exposition is not the result of chance conditions. It never develops from commonplace motives. Some historic sentiment may give the initial impulse, may fix the place of holding, but it is quickly sub- ordinated to the world-forces which come to a common center for the building of a world's fair. By common consent, and actuated by a common purpose, the nations of the world bring together for comparison and exchange their best work in science, art, and industry. The energy which creates the expo- sition ; the judgment which places the exhibits under a classification which is in itself the latest contribution to a category of the activities of the world; the financial ability which judiciously controls the expenditure of fifty millions of dollars; the executive ability which cares for, instructs, and entertains thirty millions of people, form an epoch-making event. This event deter- mines the relative progress of each country in every phase of human endeavor; it fixes the standard of liational enterprise for the coming decade or generation. 14 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta tion in the exposition was decided; and one made a minimum of 5,000 square feet in the educational building a sine qua non for participating at all. In the domestic section thirty states are exhibitors, representing every section of the country. Four cities will make individual exhibits — New York, Chicago, St. Louis, and Cleveland-Klemonstrating the working of a highly centralized mimicipal system. In all other parts of the public-school exhibit the state is the unit, as perforce it must be in our federal system. We have taken aU the pains that suggestion and insistence would warrant to have the state exhibits carefully classified and graded, and to prevent repe- titions and duplications. These will occiu:, for local pride is very assertive; but we trust they may be minimized In the university section, Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Cornell, Johns Hop- kins, from the East; Chicago, Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois, Missouri, Wash- ington, St. Louis, and Minnesota in the central plain; and California in the West, are the principal exhibitors. The professional and technical schools and colleges for women are equally well represented. In respect to the classification and space, a special Advisory Board of the National Educational Association, of which Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, is chairman, supervised the first. The depart- ment is divided into eight groups and twenty-six classes. The space rela- tively allotted to each group in the domestic section is as follows: elementary and secondary education, 47 per cent.; higher education, 22 per cent.; special education in fine arts, 3 per cent.; special education in agricultural and mechanical schools, 13 per cent.; special education in commerce and indus- try, 4 per cent.; education of defectives, 6 per cent.; special forms of education and miscellaneous features, 5 per cent. Domestic education as a whole occupies 57 per cent, of the department space, and foreign education 43 per cent. Every foot of space is allotted, and we have a large waiting list ready to take any space surrendered. Such is the condition ten weeks before the opening of the exposition. It does not come within the scope of this paper to discuss special features of the exhibit. Were I asked to name one or two, I should select the industrial exhibits and art exhibits. The theoretical stage has been passed; the facts are about to develop. Upon this development depend the results. Of the educational exhibit from the standpoint of the chief of the department, therefore, no positive assertion can be made. The plan of development seems to us rational ; the co-operation of the exhibitors has been promised. If the plan proves tenable and the exhibits are thoroly in accord, the exhibit will be a success. By as much as either falls short, by so much will the exhibit fail of a full success. Under the first condition — which, we believe, we are warranted in predicting to be the true one — there will be demonstrated the right of education to the first place in a classification of the world's activities; there will be demonstrated the unity of the educational processes of this country, north and south, east Superintendence] EDUCATION AT THE UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION 15 and west; and there will be demonstrated the superiority of the training given our youth over that given the youth of other countries in all that tends to produce a self-reliant, loyal, and well-rounded citizen of the republic. II, EXHIBIT OF THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION W. T. HARRIS, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION OF THE UNITED STATES [an abstract] Commissioner Harris stated that the exhibit of the bureau at St. Louis would consist largely of charts illustrating various phases of educational statistics. Photographs would also be employed to show the appearance of school buildings, and to give one at the same time some idea of the social char- acteristics of the teachers and pupils. Pains have been taken to obtain from specimen counties in different parts of the United States photographs of all the school buildings in the county, the pupils being drawn up in front of the buildings and the teachers standing in their midst. One or two cities also have been shown in the same way. No city or county is shown on the exhibit unless photographs are obtained of all of its schools. The great idea of an educational exhibit is to make things talk. It was at the Cotton Centennial in New Orleans that I first learned how effectively this may be done. At the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia gifted per- sons here and there over the country had invented one or more devices for making things talk, and their exhibits were very instructive along one line or another of educative work. At the Cotton Centennial these inventors were singled out to prepare exhibits in education for that exposition. Not only did the American educational exhibit prove very instructive at New Orleans, but the exhibits from some foreign nations were of great interest— particularly that from France, because of the artistic skill of the French. The artist, whether a painter or sculptor, has a gift to make stone or canvas express character. The average Frenchman is more of an artist than the average inhabitant of any other country, and this national characteristic appeared in the educational exhibit at New Orleans. Things could talk a language which all nations might understand, and one could see how interesting the instruction must be in a French school. We are to have in our exhibit at St. Louis monographs and leaflets which will contain in compact form the information which is given on great charts so arranged that he who runs may read. These will be handed to visitors who manifest special interest in this or that particular feature of the exhibit. l6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta ///. SOME CITY EXHIBITS: THEIR PURPOSE AND PLAN A. ST. LOUIS F. LOUIS SOLDAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION, CITY SCHOOLS, ST. LOXHS, MO. St. Louis is the home of the Fair. Her city school exhibit will be that of the host, as it were, in the group of city schools. Therefore it would seem to be appropriate for her to seek to present, in the arrangement of the matter of her exhibit, a type of the work of the city schools of the United States, rather than to show the special features of the St. Louis system. In preparing for this exhibit, it was seen at once that there were difficulties of two distinct kinds, which necessarily limited the completeness of an educational exhibit and determined its character. First, education can properly be shown only in its effect on the pupils. It cannot be exhibited in an adequate way except in the life of the school from day to day. The silent processes of gradual transformation which bring about the growth of the pupils cannot be exhibited. All that can be done is to show with what the school surrounds its children in the way of material and intellectual environment — those things that are concomitant with the process of education. The second difficidty arises in trying to make^ the exhibit immediately- attractive. The processes of the various forms of human industry in other departments of the World's Fair will be exhibited in the results obtained from stage to stage of the process. For instance, in the textile or the machinery department the results of the industry, as well as the processes, can be exhibited. Both are attractive and interesting in themselves, even lor the one that is not an expert. Such an exhibit you can read as you run. In education, however, the resulting product of growth displayed in an exhibit can be discovered only by a study and comparison of work shown in the successive stages of school Hfe. The inference drawn from this necessary character of the school exhibit is that, since the appeal is to study rather than simply to inspect, the fonn of the exhibit must be that of the library. Chairs and tables, and free space, must be provided, so that books of material, and the charts and pictures, can be studied at leisure. The space occupied by the St. Louis exhibit will be about 140 by 27 feet. A decorative scheme for the inclosure is essential, and this should lend itself as an educational exhibit also. The facade will consist of a number of pillars connected by arches, about twenty in all. Each pillar, apparently massive, will have in its sides and front transparent panels that shall represent picto- rially the history of education from the earliest times — the ancient Egyptian, the Greek and Roman, schools of the Orient, and so on. In the spandrels between the arches and the pillars similar transparent panels will show chil- dren's faces as they have been taken at school-work, all aglow with interest. Superintendence] EDUCATION AT THE UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION 17 On the wall space will be cabinets and shelves for books of the children's work. Above these will be exhibited pictures and casts taken from some of the schoolrooms of St. Louis, and showing the objects of art actually used in their decoration. The material of the school-work exhibited will be arranged in order from the kindergarten to the high school. The close relation of kindergarten to home and church will be seen in the work grouped around a Christmas tree, made beautiful by electric lighting — as will be all of the exhibit. Enlarged photographs of classes at work will show their happy faces in an apparatus which presents a new picture every minute. The building department of the schools will be represented by models of some of the school buildings, and of special features introduced in their con- struction. By means of diagrams the organization of the school system will be shown in state, county, and city. Finally an actual schoolroom will be fitted up 25 by 27 feet, and in this room children will be taught for a few hours every day. The work will be such as can be given under such conditions — kindergarten and construction work, manual training and the work of the laboratory in the high school, music, physical culture, classes with deaf children, etc. In the mode of representation the idea is to have all of the work that of the children. The written work will be collected into books having appro- priate covers designed by the children. In designing covers for books to be devoted to the different subjects, as science, geography, etc., the children were asked to submit drawings in competition, and a committee of artists then selected several of the most appropriate. B. THE CITY OF NEW YORK ANDREW W. EDSON, ASSOCIATE CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N. Y. To speak of the beauty and merits of your own child, and especially to do this in a public manner, requires great self-confidence, or at least great confi- dence in your offspring. Modesty, or sane discretion, leads me to hesitate some- what in describing the educational exhibit of the city of New York at the St. Louis Exposition, especially after hearing this very full and elaborate expla- nation of what St. Louis proposes to do. In the first place, a word of apology is perhaps oiu: due. Last Septem- ber we introduced into our schools a new course of study. This course necessitated the extension from a seven-year course to an eight-year course in Manhattan and the Bronx, in what was formerly New York city. In extending the work, in introducing new studies, and in making so many radi- cal changes, we found that the preparation of an exhibit at this particular time was a very diflicult and delicate task to undertake. A year ago we could have made a better showing than we can this year; a year hence we could make a much better exhibit. 1 8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta The thought that I have to present may perhaps properly come under three headings: written work, photographic records, and school architecture. In the presentation of written work, it seemed best to a large proportion of our instructors to determine upon a change from the traditional method. We had in mind the fact that school exhibits are usually the greatest fakes afloat; they breathe dishonesty from start to finish. Instead of represent- ing fairly and honestly the work of classes, they ordinarily represent the combined effort of a few skillful pupils, plus the teacher, with much of the latter mixed in aU along the line. That is, in most school exhibits the papers presented are understood to be those that have been worked over and over, revised, corrected, and copied until all mistakes have been eliminated and the execution made perfect. The product, rather than the process^ is made the important feature, with seldom a hint of the method by which the subject is unfolded. In order to have all sections of the city represented, four schools from each of the forty-six school districts in the city were selected, thus giving us about two hundred schools and six hundred classes to prepare work for the exposition. In order to restrict the amount of work in any one school, and to make the preparation of the exhibit comparatively light, no school was allowed to have more than two subjects, or more than two grades at work on any one topic. During the months of December and January the classes were asked to prepare ten sets of papers. From each of the nine of these exercises the best six papers were selected. In the tenth exercise, prepared during the second week in January, all the papers of the class — good, bad, and indifferent — were reserved in order that we might have a fairly repre- sentative showing of all of the pupils engaged in the work. Each pupirs paper had the following heading: The City of New York. Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, 1904. Public School Borough of Name Age year half Subject To accompany each set of papers, whether six or fifty papers, a state- ment blank was filled in by the teacher of the class. This statement was designed to answer the inquiries sure to arise by all who inspected the work. The following is a copy: Educational Exhibit, Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, 1904. THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. THE CITY OF NEW YORK teacher's statement I. Subject 2 year of school-work half 3. Number of pupils in class 4. Number of pupils whose papers are here exhibited Superintendence] EDUCATION AT THE UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION IQ 5. Time per week given to class instruction in this subject 6. Connection of this exercise with previous or subsequent work. 7. Questions or topics given to class 8. Time spent by pupils in preparing for the written exercise, 9. Nature of preparation 10. Time occupied in writing 1 1 . Usual method of criticism or revision by class or by teacher. I hereby certify that the following papers exhibit the pupils' first drafts and show the regular work of the class. (Signed) Teacher. School Borough of Dated 190. . Teachers were directed to hand in only first drafts of written work. Some few teachers protested against this course, insisting that it would place our schools at a great disadvantage, as the teachers of other cities would certainly have their work corrected, copied, and perfected at every step. In some few cases a set of papers was copied, but in all such cases the first draft accom- panies the copy, so that a visitor can see the first effort. We expect to have some three hundred bound volumes of four hundred sheets each, and fifty-eight wall-cabinets, each cabinet with thirty-three sheets of mounted cardboard, 22 by 28 inches, and ninety albums with twenty-five leaves, 18 by 22 inches. In these volumes, in the wall-cabinets, and in the albums we shall have work which we think will fairly and honestly exhibit something of the work of the schools of our city. This is our hope and expectation. In our photographic exhibit we shall have six or seven hundred photo- graphs, 8 by 10 or II by 14 inches. These photographs will cover the whole field of our educational activity. They will represent classes at work, the conditions under which they work, and the method of our work in our vaca- tion schools, playgrounds, recreation centers, recreation piers, roof play grounds; classes at work in the kindergarten, in laboratories, in our night schools as well as in our day schools, in the parks, at the botanical garden, at the zoological park, at the natural-history museum, and at the aquarium. The third phase of our work is in the line of school architecture. We lay claim to having the best school architect in this country. We propose to have some thirty or thirty-five large photographs and drawings of our latest and best type of school buildings, as well as four models of school buildings cost- ing some $500 each. From the pictures and models, from the plans and specifications, we expect to show to the public something of what we are doing in the erection of the best type of large school buildings. All that we can say, then, is that we trust you will all visit our exhibit, that you will make as careful and thoro an investigation as possible, and that you will be kind and considerate in your criticism. 20 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [AUanta THE COURSE OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS I. THE SUPERINTENDENT'S INFLUENCE ON THE COURSE OF STUDY W. H. ELSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, GRAND RAPIDS, MICH. Any intelligent survey of the superintendent's duties will reveal the com- manding importance of the matter and method of the course of study. All other official duties focus at this point. It is the crowning issue in school admin- istration, to which all else is incidental and contributive. What goes on in the schoolroom in the daily contact of teacher with pupils in the process of instruction is fundamental and vital. This is the "firing line," as it were, to which the entire machinery of the school is but means to end. It is here that the real course of study — not the theoretical one on paper — finds its way to the children; here the course of study is seen in action, both as to matter and method; it is here that expert leadership is needed, and it must function here if its influence is to be felt in the conduct of the school. Whatever tends to liberalize instruction — to organize, unify, and vitalize it, thereby rescuing it from blighting formalism and lifeless monotony, and making the appeal to individual initiative and to the spirit of investigation and inquiry in children — strikes at the very soul of school-life. My excuse (if, indeed, an apology were necessary) for pointing out with emphasis so evident a fact as that of the tremendous importance of the course of study, is the large demand which other and relatively less important matters make upon the superintendent's time and energy. It is not easy to keep a clear perspective of values among the various details that press for attention in the routine of school administration. An active superintendent finds it easy to assume duties akin to those of clerk of supplies or purchasing agent; to become a gatherer of statistics; to supervise buildings and grounds, with incidental attention to repairs and janitors; to select sites and superintend the construction of buildings ; to find himself performing mere clerical duties ; these and other details lose him to the real purpose for which he, officially, exists, which is: to raise the standard of teaching and to improve the quality of instruction in the schools. The superintendent is — should be — the expert, par excellence, in matters relating to the course of study, particularly as to its scope and method. This is the one field in which his knowledge as a specialist renders him supreme. It is this expert knowledge that distinguishes him as a superintendent, and which entitles him to consideration as such ; and it is this service that the schools most need. The layman or the ordinary observer can in no sense be relied on to form accurate and just conclusions in so intricate and many-sided a problem as that involved in a course of study. Superintendence] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY COURSE OF STUDY 21 This professional leadership of superintendents will be recognized and accepted by the public in the degree in which it shows a genuine professional insight, and the courage to organize this illumination of vision into a sane and well-ordered administrative policy. It wiU be recognized and welcomed by teachers and principals in the degree in which it is genuinely helpful in dealing with fundamental difficulties; in the measure in which it throws into reUef certain organizing and unifying principles which must ever form the light of guidance to teachers, thereby Hfting them out of the fragmentary one-year view of both subject-matter and child-life — which school classifica- tion imposes — and giving them glimpses of the unity and wholeness of both, which are essential to any adequate perspective of educational values or of the educative process as a whole. It will be effective in the degree in which it sets teachers and principals to work — actively, intelligently, sympathetically, by committees or otherwise — constructing and arranging subject-matter in accordance with these guiding principles, seeking constantly to liberate them in their work, relying much on their judgment as to details, thereby stimulating a healthy sense of responsibility and professional spirit, and securing the carefvil study of environment and of individual children or teachers. Such professional leadership illuminates every detail of practice and vital- izes the entire school organization. By its constructive and uplifting influence it creates a healthy attitude toward children and life, offers opportunity for individual initiative and for the achievement of purpose, guards against the pitfalls into which inexperience or restricted vision must inevitably lead, and sanctifies all with an attitude of good-will. Under such benign leader- ship monotony and deadly uniformity gradually disappear, quantitative standards give place to those of quality in which originality and individuality are prominent, the abihty to apply knowledge to new problems becomes the measure of progress, and the adaptation of work to individual needs and conditions constitutes the test of efficiency. A course of study should be suggestive rather than prescriptive, broad enough in outline to give free scope to original treatment, comprehensive enough to secure consideration of all essential matters, explicit enough to secure organic connection in the work as a whole, and sufficiently pedagogical to enable teachers to adapt the work to the children's capacities and interests. The making, as well as the administering, of such a course of study requires the combined wisdom of teachers, principals, and superintendents. So intri- cate is the problem, involving as it does such a wide range of contributive influences, as to call for the massing and utilizing of all available capital in the way of insight, knowledge, and experience which the school plant controls. This is essential, not only to the making of an effective working- formula, but also to an enlightened interpretation of it on the part of teachers, and to an intelligent and sympathetic co-operation in carrying it into effect. 22 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta The influence alone upon teachers of such a policy of administration argues strongly for its more general adoption. Nothing so effectually kills mechanism, stimulates responsibility, enlarges the field of vision, and vitalizes the entire work of teachers as does their active participation in the considera- tion of questions relating to the matter and method of the course of study. Such a policy organizes the teachers into a normal training-schogl of the highest type, and brings out the best in each individual teacher. In practice, courses of study are often determined by vagencies wholly independent of the class-room teacher — by the superintendent, the super- visor, or the special teacher. The class-room teacher, who must finally give reality to every phase of the course, thus escapes the necessity of studying the real problem ; no requirement is placed upon her to estimate the edu- cative value of the material which she uses; she has no reason for assuming responsibility for these things; she is not therefore a student of the fundamental questions involved in her work; she is not, in the language of commerce, a producer, but a jobber — a handler of goods produced by others. It is sometimes pointed out that there is a parallel between the modem factory system and the public-school system in that plans and commands in both cases come from above. This is necessarily, tho unfortunately, true to a considerable extent; but I hold that anything approaching an earnest and thoughtful study on the part of teachers of the fundamental problems in education is impossible until they are placed in a position of responsibility in regard to the course of study and given large freedom in the achievement of results. They must be charged with the business of weighing, testing, and evaluating subject-matter; they must know, not only the matter of the course, but its value in the development of the child; and they must know how to adapt it to the needs of the child. In respect of these things they must be held responsible for the exercise of personal good judgment. We need more democracy in our educational practice and a larger recognition of the ideas of the workers. It must be pointed out, however, that the factory system deals with mate- rial things; its output is a material product; while the school system fashions spiritual things, which do not respond to mechanical stimuli or *' orders" handed down from a governing head. When teachers are given large respon- sibility in selecting and adapting material to the needs of the children, their entire attitude changes. They form ideals of their own, make plans for achieving these, and enjoy the glow of success that attends the realization of worthy aspirations. The continuous enjoyment that comes to teachers in creative work of this kind is alone of distinct value to a system of schools. Superintendents who successfully combat the parallelism between the factory system and the school system, thereby making their teachers true factors in the life of the school, interesting them actively in its most vital problems, will exercise a far-reaching influence on the course of study. They will likewise minimize greatly the disparity that too often exists between the course of . J Superintendence] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY COURSE OF STUD Y 23 -- * ^ M fl- study as it appears on paper and as it comes to the child in the daily work of the class-room. Yet, in the making as well as in the administering of a course of study the superintendent must lead, inspire, and guide. For the study of the mat- ter and method of the course, principals and grade teachers should have representatives on the superintendent's cabinet. Naturally the superintend- ent has the widest horizon relative to the whole subject; he is in closest touch with social conditions and needs; he has the deepest appreciation of the unity of the entire Hfe of the child and of the entire field of subject-matter, conse- quently of the organic connection between school studies and the life of the child; while his assistants may know more than he in their respective fields, especially as to what is attainable in the several grades. For this reason they can outHne in detail more effectively and to better advantage than can the super- intendent. The superintendent's judgment as to what is of most worth is more valuable than that of his subordinates who work with a more limited horizon; with him must rest, therefore, final decisions as to the matter of the course. This implies that the superintendent is a student of education as it is viewed by others than those in his own system of schools. The superintendent's influence in administering a course of study is more important than in constructing it. This should be a wide, extensive influence rather than a narrow, intensive one, giving subordinates large freedom within reasonably wide boundaries, and passing upon the results rather than dictating specific methods. It is necessary to adapt the course of study to the ability and skill of teachers as well as to the varying conditions and needs of pupils. It is possible to construct a course on purely theoretical lines, which only a master of the practical in education can administer; a bungler will fail with the most nearly ideally constructed course. A vast difference exists with reference to the superintendent's influence on the course of study between small cities, where he can supervise every detail of the work, and large cities, where he does his supervisory work largely by proxy thru his principals or assistants. In the former case he can assist every teacher by direct suggestion in efforts to adapt details of the work to local and individual conditions. In the latter case this work must be done by the principals, and his own direct suggestions are necessarily of a more general character, leaving much latitude in appHcation of these principles. Yet in both cases greatest good will come if he seeks constantly to raise the ideals of teachers, giving freedom to use their ability to realize these ideals, stimulating initiative in every way in principals and teachers — by relying in the details of their work, both in matter and method largely on their judg- ment; by enabling them to feel that they are true factors in the life of school: by stimulating a sense of personal and professional responsibihty and self- esteem ; consequently, by framing the coiurse of work on broad lines which may secure a healthy unity but avoid the pitfalls of deadly uniformity; by encouraging discussion, and personal and professional research by judi- 24 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta - — — - I ciously commending success; by tactful criticism; by free recognition of merit and the elimination of manifest incompetence. To this may be added the inspiration of his own example and occasional messages from aggressive colleagues. This in no way precludes on his part the occasional issue of suggestions as to matter and method, entering even into minute hypothetical or observed details. However, these should always come as suggestions or helps — never as cast-iron directions or orders. ** Directions and orders" should be con- fined wholly to the published general course of study. * The superintendent's chief strength lies in the encouragement that comes to teachers from the approval of good and judicious work. Those things which he does not approve usually vanish in a short time, even without direct criticism. A healthy, all-sidedly progressive spirit has no other ground to stand on; it is of necessity constructive in its nature, stimulating initiative and giving freedom in execution. Likewise, test-papers, reviews, examinations, and questionings on his rounds of visiting afiford much valuable opportunity to show discrimination in regard to good work, and to stimulate attention on the part of teachers and principals to things which he considers of value or importance — permanent or temporary. **Ruts" vanish cheerfully before judicious neglect in these matters on the part of the superintendent. The stimulation and nurture of initiative is the chief business of method. The child's growing knowledge in all subjects should serve as real tools in the achievement of purpose. All that he knows is to be placed at the service of his productive and creative ability. In individual development, initiative appears as aggressive interest which leads to effort, to acquisition, to research, discovery, invention. In social development it means leadership, the effec- tive application of individual power, progress. It is therefore the effective element in education. We need not only organization and unification of the subject-matter of the school course, incidentally eliminating much nonessential and dupHcate material, but more than all else we need a method which shall use the child's gains in knowledge in progressive achievement, applying these to the every- day problems of life within the range of his capacity and experience, thereby- securing in him the attitude of self-expansion and self-assertion, and estab- lishing him in the habit of purposeful efficiency. This demands not only an enlargement of the field of the manual activities of the school, but also the recognition on the part of teachers of the fundamental value of these in the growing life of the child. The school must no longer content itself with the mere imparting of information ; it must measure results by what the children can do, by their daily output in the work of the school. What they get is not important; what they do is all-important. Manual activity enriches and strengthens all mental life. The school should give more manual work, tho not less knowledge — more art in drawing and decoration, more modeling in sand and clay, more basketry, weaving, sewing, and knife-work. Superintendence] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY COURSE OF STUDY 25 In general we do not need less number-work, less grammar work, etc., so much as we need a method in which number-knowledge and grammar- knowledge will serve as real tools in the achievement of purpose, and, con- sequently, in the stimulation of initiative with reference to such purpose, as well as with reference to a fuller control of these tools. It is not that the schools give too much knowledge of arithmetic and grammar, but rather that they do not give enough. The school makes its great mistake in giving its stipend in mechanical, unrelated, mere dry-as-dust drill which arrests develop- ment and clogs initiative. The pupils should be encouraged or enabled to use their growing number-knowledge consciously and progressively in form and art-work, in nature study and geography, and in the various manual doings related to these and other studies. Similarly, they should be enabled to-use their growing knowledge of grammar in creative oral and written work, in relation not only to literature, but to every other subject of vital interest. Such a method will lead them to respect arithmetic and grammar and will in due time induce a genuine interest (initiative) of research which wUl open the way for broader and deeper results in these studies than we can boast of now. Social work as a means of stimulating initiative has a value not fully realized by the school. In the subdivision of tasks and in concerted efforts to achieve a common purpose, initiative on the part of each participant is necessary and natural. They involve the stimulus of conscious leadership and conscious co-ordination, in both of which personal initiative plays a part. In the sub- division of tasks, each participant feels that, with reference to his phase or share of the work, he alone is responsible; that there must be no shirking, and that there will come to his work the reward of grateful appreciation by his associates. In mutual co-ordination there is a similar sense of personal responsibility with reference to the achievement of the common purpose, and, consequently, a spontaneous desire to grasp fully this purpose, the means for its achievement, and the relation the work of each pupil bears to this, together with an equally spontaneous effort on the part of each to do his best. In the stimulation of initiative, manual training and drawing — expressive and decorative — do not in themselves necessarily involve greater force than other activities. These can be, and often are, taught as slavishly and mechani- cally as are arithmetic and grammar. Here, too, it is the method, not the matter, which decides. Here, too, if initiative is to be reached, the pupils must be encouraged to use whatever skill they may successively attain in the achievement of individual and social self-expression. Art and artisanship must be growths, not transmissions. The superintendent's faith must be "large in time," if his influence on the course of study is to be wholesome and helpful. Evolution is slow, and radical changes in instruction and training do not accord with the natural growth of institutions, especially those that influence the spirit of man. The superintendent is the *^ governor '^ and the *^ fly-wheel" of the educational 26 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta system. *' Progressive conservatism" is his word of command. Evolution — the gradual changing of what is to the next step of its growth — ^and not revolution, is his motto. A course of study is a growth. It is subject to constant change in order to meet new conditions and new insight. This suggests the field of the superintendent's greatest influence. II. WHAT OMISSIONS ARE ADVISABLE IN THE PRESENT COURSE OF STUDYy AND WHAT SHOULD BE THE BASIS FOR THE SAME FRANK M. MCMURRY, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY, N. Y. Assuming that there is much overcrowding in our curriculum, let us con- sider the main ideas that have been guiding teachers during the last generation in their selection of matter, and determine which of these are now acceptable to us as standards for omissions. Then we shall proceed to dis- cuss the omissions that these accepted standards require. I. Belief in utility long ago established the three R*s in the curriculum, to be accompanied by spelling, composition work, grammar, geography, and some physiology. This, to be sure, might be material quite free from thrill- ing incident for the pupil, but it was considered absolutely necessary for later life. Our present interpretation of social requirements and needs includes this doctrine of utility, but is much broader. Hence we now admit all this matter, and much more. In the first place, health is accepted as a larger factor in life and in the school. We therefore require, not only physiology and hygiene, but physical examination of children, and games and physical exercises in abundance. Secondly, history, including civics, and nature study must be added to these, without debate. ' Thirdly, our belief in emotion as a vital factor in securing efficiency is far stronger than formerly. Hence much more emphasis is placed on literature, music, and fine arts than twenty years ago. Thru the latter subjects one is made, not only more refined and sympathetic in various directions, but more energetic as well. The function of emotion is the production of energy, and energy is coming to take the same rank in education as steam takes in manu- facturing. Fourthly, the old notion of utility, coupled with greater belief in efficiency, calls also for manual training, domestic science, and domestic art. These are studies that combine theory with practice. Indeed, the accepted principle, **No impression without expression," not only strongly supports these sub- jects, but is even insisting that an end point of practice be added to various other studies, such as fine art, literature, and nature study, thereby threaten- ing greatly to increase the amount of time necessary for such branches. In brief, therefore, our present attitude toward social requirements and Superintendence] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY COURSE OF STUDY J27 needs, as the first standard of selection of a curriculum, is the same as that of a generation ago, only much broader. We accordingly are now willing to admit the same lines of work as that standard formerly admitted, and several others. But other ideas have been very important in introducing and reject- ing subject-matter, especially the topics within these separate lines or studies. 2. The children's mental ability is one of these ideas. In the main, the limits in the children's power of comprehension have always acted as a check to the introduction of material. Yet not an absolute one by any means. A retentive memory, for example, has often led to the introduction of memory gems from the Bible that could not be comprehended till later. But we have now become generally convinced that there is so much classic material, even in the Bible, which children can fairly understand, that there is no need of admitting other selections. The one argument supporting this conviction is the fact that the younger a child, the more important that each year and each subject of study prove richly nourishing to him. The fullest possible growth now is the fullest preparation for the future. Therefore it is folly to sacrifice the present for the future, and any subject that cannot be fairly comprehended by the child at the time it is presented should be excluded. 3. The children's interest has been a third factor, closely related to the preceding, and recognized as increasingly important in recent years. On the whole, interest is necessary for the same reason as comprehension: both are essential to proper digestion. But the interest likely to be aroused by a subject should not be an absolute test of its worth. Every kind of subject- matter should run the gauntlet of the two first-named factors — to wit, social needs and the childs ability to comprehend — before being accepted in the curriculum. But not so with this third point. Indeed, these first two standards, particularly the first , may be so important as to overrule the third entirely. This is the only explanation of our admission of spelling, writing, the multiplication table, and beginning reading into the curriculum. For certainly we do not expect the intrinsic interest excited by these studies to make the children hilarious. In other words, in spite of improved methods, there is some school- work that approaches drudgery in its nature, and we pro- ]X>se to retain it because it is a social requirement. The test of interest, there- fore, is not absolutely binding. We can only say that, in general, whatever does not promise to excite an intrinsic interest has one strong point scored against it; and, unless other reasons for its acceptance are particularly strong, it should be rejected. 4. A fourth factor that has been very influential on admissions to the curriculum has been the scientific attitude toward knowledge. According to this idea, any fact is valuable because it is a fact, and should therefore be learned. Remarks of that kind are frequently heard in nature-study classes. It is partly the love of mere logical completeness that has led to extensive classification in grammar and in science, and that insists on the cause of the seasons in geography. But this idea, so far as I can see, should be utterly 28 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta rejected as a standard of selection, on the ground that it has no negative side; it lets down the bars for anything and rejects nothing; hence it is non- selective and cannot guide. 5. A fifth extremely influential factor has been *Hhe harmonious develop- ment of all the faculties" as the accepted ainrof instruction. But what topic would be rejected when tested by relation to this aim ? Like the former, it is a blanket excuse for anything and everything. Recall, for instance, how it has favored the hard problems — the puzzles that puzzled the teacher — ^in arith- metic, the mere lists of names in geography, and of dates in history. It should be utterly rejected as a standard of selection, on the ground that it is absolutely non-selective. Mental development should be expected as a very valuable by-product brought about in the course of the accomplishment of pieces of work that for other reasons deserve to be done. Only when this view is taken, and when the above statement is forgotten, as a test of subject-matter, can I see promise that one of the chief barriers to a sane curriculum will be removed. I real- ize that my last two points, when applied to the high school and the college, tend to knock the props out from some prominent studies, as algebra, for instance; but I for one am ready to go on record as opposing those subjects that owe their existence in the curriculum mainly to the fact that they contain facts, or exercise the mind. Life is too full of large specific ends to be attained, to allow time for work that has no really tangible object. 6. The sixth and final factor that I wish to discuss is the definition of thoroness. I am convinced that our conception of thoroness is one of the most important factors — indeed, the most vital factor — to be considered in the present problem. Thoroness in spelling means the mastery of every word; thoroness in primary arithmetic means a mastery of every possible com- bination of numbers within a certain limit; thoroness in beginning reading and in writing, likewise means primarily a knowledge of each word or letter. In these subjects, on the whole, there is no special organization of matter called for; the unit of progress is one small fact; questions as to what is large and small, or as to relative values, do not fit in, and there is no excuse for neglect of any single part. One must simply begin at the beginning, and work until he reaches the end. Here the sum of the details in each study makes up the whole; hence in these cases the proverbs hold that "thoro- ness has to do with details," and that "trifles make perfection." Now, it is natural to want to apply this conception of thoroness to other branches of learning, thereby placing all the facts of literature, history, nature study, and geography on the same level as equally worthy of attention. Then it becomes the duty of the teacher and pupils to run down facts. But their task is hopeless; for there are so many possible things to consider that such studies as these have practically no beginning or end. They contain ver>' many large, and innumerable small, thoughts, many of the largest being not even in print, but to be read between the Unes. And thoroness in them Superintendence] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY COURSE OF STUDY 29 means, first of all, judicious selection, a careful choosing of the more valuable parts, with willingness to neglect the rest. This latter is the vital point here. Thoro instruction parallels good discipline in the requirement that many things be overlooked. Until we have learned to slight, and even to omit out- right, as well as to lay special emphasis here and there, we are unprepared to read a book intelligently; and until our conception of thoroness favors such action freely, we lack one of the first elements necessary for the selection of a curriculum, particularly the major part of it, the details. In brief, thoro- ness in the treatment of most topics means the selection of the main points and whatever details are necessary to support them, with the neglect or omission of whatever facts are comparatively unnecessary or irrevalent to these main issues. . Of the six standards for selection that have now been considered, two are rejected outright because they are practically non-selective, nalnely, truth for truth's sake, and the harmonious development of all the faculties; and one needs very serious modification — the conception of thoroness. Accord- ingly we hold to the following propositions in the rejection of subject-matter: I.' Whatever cannot be shown to have a plain relation to some real need of life, whether it be aesthetic, ethical, or utilitarian in the narrower sense. 2. Whatever is not reasonably within the child's comprehension. 3. Whatever is unlikely to appeal to his interest; unless it is positively demanded for the first very weighty reason. 4. Whatever topics and details are so isolated or irrelevant that they fail to be a part of any series or chain of ideas, and therefore fail to be necessary for the appreciation of any large point; this standard, however, not to apply to the three R's and spelling. Now for the application of these standards. It is evident at the start that, in spite of our large number of studies, not one can be wholly omitted. Reform does not lie in that direction. It is well to call to mind too, when violent complaints break forth against our excessive number, that the French program for the common school includes all the branches that we ordinarily have, and distributed over about as many years. Substantially the same statement holds for Germany; for, while she largely neglects handwork, except sewing for girls, one of her most promi- nent subjects is religion. And the English code of 1900 for the public ele- mentary school almost duplicates the German plan, with the exception that various kinds of handwork tend to take the place of religion. Judged by these civilized nations, therefore, we have not .yet gone mad in our devotion to fads. Omissions, then, must be confined to particular topics and details. Again the example of the French is suggestive, for every second year of their course they largely duplicate the work of the preceding year, thus devoting nearly one-half of all their time almost exclusively to review, aside from the abun- dance of review provided while the ground is being covered for the first time. I. Let us first apply these standards to arithmetic. The contents of even the newer texts can scarcely be any guide whatever, because commercial 30 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta competition has made these books ahnost encyclopedias on quantitative facts. But on the basis of social custom, our brief standard, the following things — very often taught — may well be omitted : Apothecaries' weight. Troy weight. Examples in longitude and time, except the very simplest, involving the 15° unit, since our standard time makes others unnecessary. The furlong in linear measure. The rood in square measure. The dram and the quarter in avoirdupois weight. The survevor's table. Table on folding of paper. All problems in reduction, ascending and descending, involving more than two steps. The G. C. D. as a separate topic, but not practice in detecting divisability by 2, 3, 5, and 10. All common fractions, except those of a very low denomination and customary in business. All work with L. C. M. except the L. C. M. of such very common denominators as those just mentioned. Complex and compound fractions as separate topics. Compound proportion. Percentage as a separate topic, with its cases. True discount. Most problems in compound interest, and all in annual interest. Problems in partial payments, except those of a very simple kind. The same for commission and brokerage; for example, all problems involving frac- tions of shares. Profit and loss as a special topic. Equation of payments — made unnecessary by improved banking facilities. Partnership — made unnecessary, in the old sense, by stock companies. Cube root. All algebra, except such simple use of the equation as is directly helpful in arithmetic. In addition to all of these, arithmetic may be omitted as a separate study thruout the first year of school, on the ground that there is no need of it, if the number incidentally called for in other work is properly attended to. 2. In geography the following subject-matter might well go: All explanation of the cause of the seasons, except the mere fact of the changing direction of the sun's rays. There is no special demand for such matter (except possibly teachers' examinations,) and it is beyond the grammar-school pupils' comprehension, •calling into use our second standard. The cause of the tides, leaving the fact only. Quite probably one of our two treatments of Asia, Africa, Australia, and South America. French and German children study their native country very thoroly, and Europe fairly well. They attempt comparatively Uttle with the remainder of the world. We would be unwilling to adopt their plan. But why could we not have one good treat- ment of these four continents — with more interesting detail than we ordinarily present in either our small or our large geography — and then expect the supplementary reading to continue this geographical knowledge ? It should be remembered that, while we have a large amount of supplementary reading, its content is not usually prescribed. But it should be. This plan might save one year of geography work. Superintendence] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY COURSE OF STUDY 31 3. In grammar the potential mood can probably be omitted, and all of the minor classifications, such as the kinds of limiting and of qualifying adjectives, of co-ordinate and of subordinate conjunctions, etc. This sepa- rate subject need not then receive more than one year of study, with one period daily. So much for the omission of somewhat definite topics — a very inadequate treatment, I must adinit. These suggestions, if adopted, might lead to some improvement. But the main remedy lies outside of them. When we get beyond the three R's, spell- ing, and a modicum of arithmetic, geography, and grammar, there is no public pressiu"e brought to bear upon teachers compelling them to cover any recorded amount. For example, what portion of the public, or even of school superintendents, knows, or greatly cares, just how much ground is covered in Uterature, history, color- work, drawing, domestic science, domes- tic art, physiology and hygiene, manual training, music, nature study, and gymnastics? Then why do teachers complain so much of overcrowding? That leads back to my main point, already referred to under thoroness: There are a great many persons, who can master all the facts in a five- page history lesson, who cannot master the main facts in twenty pages. Why? Because they have never learned to select — to choose principal points and let others go. They must take all, or they flounder. This is the difficulty that confronts teachers when they approach a modem cur- riculum. We beUeve in an enriched course of study, with many options, in accordance with the preferences and abilities of children and teachers. But the latter, being accustomed to begin at the beginning and take every- thing as they go, in spelling, in multiplication, etc. — even to the end, often the bitter end— are confused when they come to such studies as literature and nature study that really have no well-defined beginning or end. What can they do ? Merely begin and go as far as they can, and then sigh over the impossible task assigned. And when finally one topic has been chosen from among a dozen sug- gested— as the cray^sh, for example — in nature study, note the same tend- ency to go from beginning to end — in this case, from head to tail — observ- ing "all that one can find." How otherwise would one know when he had finished? I am not wanting to decry the average teachers here. These remarks apply rather to our so-called best teachers — to those who are really excellent in most respects. In one of our best schools I was recently present while a second-grade class reached the conclusion that grasshoppers habitually lived in dry, sunny places, the children when playing having seen them there. They decided that the insect went under boards and rocks when it rained, and some related how they had fed some captive grasshoppers apple and water. I saw a fifth grade write out a description of a dead red oak leaf, the paper nearest me reading as follows: 32 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta Red Oak Leaf. Size — 7 J inches long; 4 inches widest part. Shape — Somewhat oval, widest at top. Lobes — alternate, long pointed, ten lobes on leaf. Indentation — ten indentations, rounded, deep, alternate. Petiole — short, thick, dark brown, mid vein thinner near top of leaf. Veins — alternate, thin, not many. Color — dark brown, near mid vein. What a mass of worthless matter in such instruction! Much of it so valueless that there is no pretense of reviewing it next day: it is even unneces- sary for examinations. Here lies probably the greatest waste in our instruc tion. Where there is no careful selection of details, there is only an aggrega- tion; chaos rules there and despair is constant, because the field can never be covered. The teachers are not satisfied with such haphazard work, but it is diffi- cult for any of us to do much better. However, the difficulty lies, not in method, but in the choice of matter; and I desire to make three recommen- dations in regard to the remedy: In the first place, that the subject-matter in those branches that easily offer mere aggregations of facts, like history, geography, and nature study, be brought under as few large headings as possible, just as a good lecturer is under obligations to present his thoughts under a very few points. These headings, too, should be so worded as to be truly restrictive. Chapters in history on "Columbus, or the Early Explorers" and the ** Settlements," or in geography on **The Western States," do not meet their requirements: they admit a wide range of fact, much of which may be practically valueless. Suppose, on the contrary, according to the suggestions of some of my friends, we study in history "How the Europeans Found a New World," "How Spain Took Possession of This New World," "How a Rival Sprang up in France," "How the English came to be a Second Rival," etc.; also, in geography, "What Are the Principal Industries That have Become Estab-^ lished in the Western States, and Their Causes?" Satisfactory attempts in this direction would mean an organization of matter from the teachers* point of view, while heretofore it has been largely from the scientific point of view, or possibly from no point of view. Such organization would bring about extensive eliminations of minor topics in all the studies. In the second place, those subtopics should be selected in each branch of study that are the best types of large groups, and that thus give control of the strategic positions in the field. In history, for example, the causes of our wars might be considered in detail, but the study of the wars themselves should, I believe, be reduced to a very few crucial campaigns and battles, these being accepted as representative of the others. So irrigation about Salt Lake City or in southern California might be carefully studied, once for all, as a type of such attempts the world over. There is already a grow- ing conviction that strategic positions, as secured by types, should receive Superintendence] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY COURSE OF STUDY ;^^ the same emphasis in the curriculum as strategic positions in a physical way receive in warfare. As that idea is applied further, it will make us willing to omit entirely many topics that we now include, and- do more intensive work on a few. In the third place, the leading questions that need to be answered under each type, or other topic, need to be clearly conceived in order to find a basis for selection of details. For instance, I have an extension class of seventy-six primary teachers — ^much above the average in ability — ^who agreed on twenty- two little points about the cat which they desired to teach, as a topic in nature study. But until the principal questions which they had to answer in regard to the cat were known, to which these many facts might be the answer, their subject-matter was absolutely unorganized, and they were unprepared to give the instruction. Now, our main interest in cats is as pets, and if we set out to learn (i) to what extent cats can provide for themselves, and (2) therefore to what extent and how we should take care of them as our pets, we shall cover all that is necessary about them. And when we desire only the answers of these problems, we are given a standard that allows the omission of the number of teeth, the color of the hair, the length of the tail, and forty other facts that might consume time. So, if we set out to find out how grasshoppers sometimes prove injurious to man, and what means may be used to destroy them, we must discuss the food of the insect, its voracious appetite, its means of locomotion and quickness, its enemies, including para- sites, its protection by mimicry, and its stages of development; but we shall have no time to consider whether or not it knows enough to go under cover when it rains, provided it can find cover, or the fact that it can eat apples, since it will never get many apples to eat anyway. Similarly, in geography, if we set out to learn what are the main indus- tries that have sprung up in the western states, with the causes, we shall need to consider the climate and topography, as the principal key to the situation, and then the mining, lumbering, agriculture, manufacturing, trade and manu- facturing centers, etc.; but we shall have no excuse for bounding all the states, learning each capital, and locating various capes, small towns, insig- nificant mountains, etc. Above all, we shall be unwilling to drop into the state-treatment of our theme, which means the severing of a connected story into disjointed parts, a mere aggregation, dry enough to cause a healthy child to long to play hookey, not for the pleasure anticipated, but for the pains escaped. My three suggestions aim at a better organization of subject-matter. The one study that is not an offender in this direction is literature. It shows a few large thoughts supported by innumerable details; but the latter are so subordinated to the former that the outline of the whole is simple ; also the consequence from fact to fact is so close that reproduction from memory is easy. Here is an example of ideal organization of subject-matter. The problem is : Shall other studies, likewise containing an abundance of rich thought, aim at 34 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta similar organization; shall they approach a narrative form, thus providing an easy perspective, and abandoning all detail that is irrelevant or that fails to fall into line? This is evidently a life-problem; for reform, in the main, is not to be effected by lopping off here and there, but by changing the present aggrega- tion of ideas in each study to an organized body of thought. It is not the task of grade teachers either, or of the scientists in the ordinary sense, but of the most advanced and ablest students of education. But more than insight is necessary in bringing about such a change. The violence of com- plaints among teachers against overcrowding has been equaled only by their obstinacy when it came to definite omissions. But we must honestly agree to be willing to omit many things, even tho they have long been held sacred, and were even instrumental in bringing many of us to our present high state of perfection. All of us have been radicals for some years in admitting new things. Let us apply the same spirit now to the omissions. DISCUSSION E. H. Mark, superintendent of schools, Louisville, Ky. — ^While I agree with the author of the paper on many points, yet there are some on which I cannot agree. I do not believe that the main subjects in the present course of study for elementary schools have been increased. On the contrary, the topics in arithmetic have been materially decreased in the past twenty-five years. Much more technical arithmetic was taught a quarter of a century ago than now. In the amount of technical grammar taught there is a great decrease. The basis of the course of study in the elementary, secondary, and higher schools will be determined, in a great measure, by the object of school instruction. There has been a rather definite agreement as to this object, so far as the work of many of the higher institutions is concerned, as is attested by professional and technical schools. But our ideas as to the work of the elementary and secondary schools lack definiteness; in consequence, the courses of study in these schools have become "catch-alls" for everything that human ingenuity has conceived as necessary for the needs of the children of the pres- ent day. I am not convinced that either the present needs or the interest of the child should play important parts in the selection of the course of study. There are two posi- tive results that the successful school must achieve: (i) it must reveal the world to the pupil; (2) it must reveal the pupil to himself. But, before the world can be revealed to him, he must have a command of the forces within himself. The first efforts of instruc- tion must be education for culture, for the purpose of gaining command of what Dr. Harris has aptly termed the " conventionahties of intelligence." These conventionalities are the arts of reading, of writing, of the use of figures, of drawing, etc. School instruction in its elementary and secondary stages should be largely given to the acquirement of the technique of reading, of writing, of arithmetic, of language, of lit- erature, of geography, of history, and of science. There must be a mastery of these techniques before the pupil is able to make any considerable progress in his efforts at gaining an insight into the world in which he lives. They are to be the tools by which he is to attain a knowledge of the world and a command of its resources. The acquisition of these techniques may be neither interesting nor pleasurable. I believe in making them as nearly so as possible. But as in life much of the work of the child will have to be done from necessity, so in school I would make prominent the acquirement of knowledge because necessary. I would not have the drill and drudgery taken away because they Superintendence] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY COURSE OF STUDY 35 are not interesting. The early training should look to the future and not be confined to the present. The one great aim of education is the forming of good habits. Good habits in reading, in writing, in language, in mathematics, etc., are the chief ends to be attained in elementary and secondary schools. Elementary education should not be made so easy that the child can in any way mistake the work of study for play. The child must learn that there is "no excellence without great labor." Huxley has well said that the most valuable result of education is the ability to make yourself do the thing you ought to do, Jwhen it ought to be done, whether you like to do it or not. I would intro- duce the pupil thru the "conventionalities of intelligence" to the world made up of modem life, modem conditions, modern forces, and modem responsibiUties. I would not put him to the study of literature until he had acquired the technique of reading. I think there is not so much a demand for elimination as for substitution in our present course of study. The complete elimination of much of our so-called nature study would be a long stride in the right direction. Much of the material and many of the books on this sub- ject which we now use in our schools need to be eliminated for the good of the pupils in our schools, and in the interest of science. Again, too much of the dim past calling for a great amount of time in the study of mythology, legends, and ancient history has crept into the course of study of the elementary schools. Are not the duties of an American citizen more important than the manner of life of a Roman in the time of Pliny, or the intricate formation of Caesar's army in the time of battle ? Are not the facts of modem science more wonderful than the fancies of the Greek and the Roman as revealed in their mythologies ? It is true that many obsolete topics have been eliminated from the arithmetics, but are not the same problems found in our present text-books that were found in those of fifty years ago ? Does not the most abstruse of all the subjects of the school curriculum — formal grammar — still hold its place in the elementary schools as the chief factor in consuming an immense amount of time without giving the pupil any command of himself, so far as the use of good language is concerned? Does not this subject belong in the category with psychology and logic, and should it not be a study in the secondary schools, as recom- mended by the Conmaittee of Ten ? Does it not come under the second of Dr. McMurry's requirements for elimination, viz., "beyond the comprehension of the child"? Finally, I do not know that I am willing to accept the courses of study of England and Germany as models for our own, for Alfred Russell Wallace, one of the foremost thinkers of Eng- land, has said, with reference to education: " Compared with the astounding progress in physical science and its practical applications, our system of government, of administra- tive justice, and of national education, and our entire social and moral organization remain in a state of barbarism." And Haeckel, the great German thinker, says: "To our great regret, we must indorse these words " J. H. Phillips, superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Ala. — The overcrowding of the curriculum of the school may be traced to several specific causes. The most impor- tant of these causes is the ever-expanding circle of knowledge and the increasing complexity of our civilization. Coupled with this is the evident lack of discrimination in the selec- tion of essentials. Another cause is the reUance placed in the pubUc school as a social agency. This faith in the power of the school has induced the introduction of much subject-matter with the hope of accomplishing certain reforms. The so-called enrichment of school programs has consisted too often in the addition of subjects to subserve inunedi- ate ends. There seems to be an increasing tendency to hold the school responsible for all the sins of the American people, and to utilize it as an agency of social and civic reform. Right or wrong, this tendency is responsible for much of the congestion in our school programs. There is no question of the fact that our school curricula reflect the commer- cial spirit and the material demands of the age in which we live. The dominant spirit of expansion has affected our courses of study; and it is well to check this spirit, for a time -^6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta o at least, and to consider whether the flag of the public school may not be withdrawn from a few provinces without disadvantage or dishonor. Dr. McMurry's adoption of the principle of interest, even in a modified sense, as a test of the subject-matter introduced, may be questioned. I am not prepared to accord to his principle of interest equal validity with the other factors named, in the determina- tion ofy admissions to, or exclusions from, the course of study. If the subject-matter conforms to the other two requirements laid down; if it is adapted to the child's compre- hension, and provides that which is required by the civilization into which he is born, it seems to me that the question of interest should be considered solved, except of course so far as concerns that kind of interest which properly belongs to method rather than matter. I heartily indorse Dr. McMurry's suggestions in his treatment of thoroness. He pre- sents here a fruitful theme for our consideration. Unquestionably, the proper organiza- tion of subject-matter in text-book and in recitation, so that nonessentials shall be omitted, will serve to abbreviate our school courses, and will thereby result in economy of time V and effort. Right here I wish to suggest another criterion which, in my judgment, should not be overlooked — one that has not been suggested in the paper, unless it is implied in " social needs and requirements." In the biological field the selective principle seizes upon the permanently useful rather than the fleeting and the temporary. Those individual variations that contribute to the permanent welfare of the species are appropriated by the colony, while those char- acteristics of the species that cease to be of service become atrophied and disappear. The young animal, as it comes into the world, finds its inheritance stored in its physical organism. Its individual Ufe, therefore, consists merely in the discharge of this stored battery. The human child finds its inheritance principally outside of its physical organ- ism, stored in civil and social institutions, in history, literature, science, and art. It is the business of the school to induct the child thru self-activity into this external inheri- tance. The appropriation of this vast heritage of the race which we call civilization is impossible. Besides, all the elements of this civilization are not equally important; all social demands are not equally imperative. Some of these elements are temporary and ephemeral, while others are constant and permanent elements of progress. In our selec- tion, shall we consider only that which may prove useful to the individual, or shall we not regard those elements which tend to promote the permanent welfare of the race, as equal, if not greater, in value ? Those elements which are permanently useful and conform to the highest ideals of the race should be embodied in our school programs. This leads us to an ethical criterion for the evaluation of material. All elements, therefore, that are not ethically sound, and are not permanently useful to the race, should be eliminated from the curriculum. It seems to me that we need the ethical principle today to sup- plement the principle of utility, which too often has regard for expediency and temporar>' social ends. We need to apply more rigidly to our courses the criterion of ethical and spiritual values — a criterion which transcends in importance the test of social needs and requirements. We should demand in our school programs, not simply that which is within the comprehension of the child and that which embodies the demands of the society of today, but also that which is ethically pure and calculated to lift the individual into the highest and richest spiritual Ufe of the race. The appHcation of this principle to the several subjects in our courses of study will place some of the omissions suggested in the paper in a new light. In arithmetic, for instance, money values would play a less important part, and the commercial ideal would gradually become dethroned. We should have fewer problems in interest, profit and loss, and brokerage, and more in measurement and quantitative nature study. In geography, the memorizing of a mass of ephemeral facts, and a multitude of details that change with each decennial census, would be abandoned; the geographical attainment dictated Superintendence] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY COURSE OF STUDY 37 by social needs could be acquired more rationally in connection with history during the last two years of the elementary course. Under the application of the ethical criterion, a vast amount of useless, and even demoralizing, material could be profitably omitted in the study of history. The military ideal would be less prominent, and heroism would not be confined to the battlefield. From one-third to one-half of the average text-book in United States history now used is devoted to war and bloodshed. The application of the ethical principle would reduce the treat- ment of wars to a statement of their causes, the names of decisive batties, the personnel of the commanders of the contending armies, and the general results. In biography and literature the principle would find wide application, and much of the rubbish now pass- ing as Uterature in the schools would be omitted because it lacks the elements of perma- nency and ethical value. The omissions thus made within each topic, together with the improved presentation of subject-matter as suggested by the paper, would probably reduce the average elementary-school program so that at least one year could be saved to the pupil in the accompUshment of the work. Clinton S. Marsh, superintendent of schools. Auburn, N. Y. — The child acquires thru his five senses all that he comes to know; his home experiences open for him to a very limited degree the commonest avenues of life thru which he acquires a small vocabu- lary. To him, sense-training is as necessary to unfoldment as oxygen to the lungs. By touch and muscular sense he adjusts himself thru the kindergarten and manual training; and in the adjusting of his brain-cells and muscular sense he shapes objects in clay, wood, iron, rafl&a, and other materials to correspond to the things that are not a part of himself, and gains a knowledge of relations of things, without which training he sees things apart, just as he sees a play upon the stage which he can in no sense reproduce. "To increase rational joy is one of the objects which public education should always keep in sight." The subjects below the high school that have become quite commonly established may be classified into five correlated groups: (i) reading, spelling, literature and language, history, and geography; (2) history, geography, nature study, and language; (3) kinder- garten, manual training, drawing, nature study, and number; (4) music and literature; (5) number apart from its connection with other subjects. Eliminate number from the first two grades, except as an incident of the schoolroom and life. If it can be done without too greatly disturbing present standards and calculations of engineering and science, substitute the metric system for our compound system of num- bers, and thus save nearly three years in the study of arithmetic. Grammar must be simplified so that pupils shall acquire by the drill of the last two years below the high school the parts of speech, case-relation, inflection, principal parts of verbs, and classification of phrases and clauses. The time usually given in earUer years to grammar should be devoted to expression, oral and written. Geography should be treated as a separate subject from the fifth to the seventh grade only, and then in such a way that place and mathematical relations are but an addition to the scientific, historical, and general knowledge gotten by correlation to other subjects. Spelling should be taught largely as a part of reading and language, and the study of lists should be confined to Grades V to VII only. With arithmetic thus reduced to five years (or to six, if we supplement it in the seventh and eighth years with algebra) ; with formal grammar reduced to two years, by emphasizing at the proper psychological period the elements of English grammar, and by trusting to the study of foreign languages in the high school to formulate further grammatical princi- ples; with spelling largely taught as a part of language work, and with emphasis placed on geography as a separate subject in the fifth to the seventh year, we make these the drill periods in the essentials of knowledge; emphasize, not minimize drill, and by elimination free the program from overcrowding. Two important factors to make these better taught 38 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta than they have ever been taught are correlation and a method of teaching that shall teach the pupil how to study. It is true that children no not know how to study. I beheve the great factors responsible are three: (i) poor preparation of the lesson on the part of the teaching force, and a failure on its part to grasp the pupil's mental attitude; (2) overcrowded schoolrooms; (3) two divisions or sets of pupils in a room. By far the great- est error is the last. Any system that seeks the brightest pupil, rather than every individual, is to that extent a failure. The number of pupils per teacher should be reduced to thirty- five or forty; but, far more, the teacher should stand before one set of pupils, holding every moment the attention of every pupil in recitation or in study — the latter quite as much as the former. Every superintendent and teacher should recognize the oneness of reading, literature, spelling; the oneness of literature, spelling, composition; the oneness of composition and every other subject in school, by giving credit in composition for written work well done in history, geography, arithmetic, domestic science, and every interest of school and life; the oneness of drawing, nature study, and manual training, by making the supervisior of drawing the correlator of manual training to his subject, by having the pupils do all the mechanical and decorative drawing of the manual-training department in the grade- rooms as part of the drawing lesson, and by recognizing that drawing is a method of self- expression in its application to nature study. Three things are necessary for successful treatment of nature study in the public schools: correlation of nature study to language, correlation of nature study to home geography, and correlation of nature study to draw- ing. It is not necessary to give any time to nature study outside of the three studies named. Let reading in the grades become, not an art, but a means to the end of acquiring acquaintance with literature, history, geography, art, and language. Thru a full comprehension of the possibilities in the principle of unity of interest in related subjects, by elimination of topics, by regarding the psychological period for study and drill upon any given topic, and by attention to teaching the pupil how to study, the courses of study of the grades should not be overcrowded. ATHLETICS AND COLLATERAL ACTIVITIES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS F. D. BOYNTON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ITHACA, N. Y. We all have a somewhat definite notion of what is meant by the term ** athletics," but the phrase *^ collateral activities" is all-comprehensive and may include everything outside of regular class-work. For the purpose of this discussion, the term "collateral activities" will be made to include the work of musical and literary clubs; concerts and theatricals given by the students; the work of congresses and debating societies; and the social func- tions of the school, such as receptions at which dancing is permitted. Under "athletics" will be* included football, baseball, basket-ball, track- work, tennis, hockey, golf, and rowing. It is conceded that the public-school system is the bulwark of American institutions; that without it the problems resulting from immigration could not be solved; that without it American institutions would soon become Europeanized. For strength to perform this fundamental task, it relies chiefly upon its hold on the afifections of the American people. To the boys Superintendence] ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 39 and girls in the schools today it must look for a continuation of that future support which its enlarged field and increased burdens demand. I hold, therefore, that those activities that tend to make the public schools more useful by increasing the attendance, that tend to endear them as institutions to the hearts of our boys and girls, will also tend to retain for them the love and enthusiastic support of these boys and girls when a few added years shall have made them men and women, and make more certain the perpetuity of American institutions. To encourage such activities is not only legitimate, but the only sensible thing to do. That such activities do attract and hold in school many students who would not otherwise continue, probably few teachers who have been closely asso- ciated with student Hfe will deny. This is an age of doing. The spirit of doing seizes a lad long before he has outgrown the compulsory-education law. In obedience to this spirit, many a boy who has been misunderstood at school has entered prematurely the ranks of wage-earners rather than submit to the monotonous grind of an educational machine. This spirit of wanting to do something is a force ever present in the boy of parts, and often dictates and controls his actions. We want such boys in the schools; and not them only, but their less gifted brothers as well. It is not true that we are educat- ing too many people. It is the business of the schools to educate, so far as possible, all the people that are not actually abnormal — the poor and the rich, the mentally strong and the mentally weak, the morally good and the morally bad. We want the people in the schools. If it is necessary to have concerts and lectures and debates and receptions and athletics "to have and to hold " them, by all means let us have these things. In adding them we are only following the precedent we have already established by admitting to our schools the elective system. In the last twenty-five years the curriculum of the public school has been revolutionized. It has been broadened and enriched in order to better train the pupil for citizenship. Training for citizenship is the supreme test, the ultimate aim of popular education; it is this result which justifies the state in expending pubHc money in the support of schools and warrants local taxa- tion to supplement the efforts of the state. In order to train for citizenship, we must do more than cultivate the intellect. The school must be more than an intellectual machine. Great as is the intellectual work to be done for the boys and girls in our public schools, it is only a part of the program. More and more must our schools look after the moral, the spiritual, the economic, and the social welfare of their pupils. The signs are so plain that he who rims may read. Witness music, drawing, sewing, cooking, manual training, permanently added to our school programs. Note the breaking away from tradition shown in the Hberalizing of the high-school programs, the increase in the number of courses of study, the injection of electives into all of them, the addition of bookkeeping, typewriting, stenography, and of all that the laboratory stands for. Horace Greeley, were he living today, would 40 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta change his advice to young men. He would say, not "go west," but "go to school;" for school now means a multiplied contact with life. We no longer hold that a subject is educationally valueless in proportion as it is practically valuable. On jthe contrary, we now think that a subject that ha no connection with the real issues of life, that furnishes nothing but an opportunity for mental gymnastics, is a waste of time; and we have no time to waste. Now, the widening of school activity along the lines we are here consider- ing is only an extension of this movement. The question to be asked in regard to it all is: Is it educative? Does it subserve the purpose for which the public school exists ? If so, then time should be found, or made, for the education of our pupils along these lines not set down in books and not rep- resented in the class-room. Personally, I am persuaded that a secondary school that has no musical clubs, no literary or debating societies; that does not give concerts, receptions, simple theatricals, public debates, lectures, declamation contests, and the like ; and that devotes no time to the various forms of physical training, falls far short of what it should be, and of what the secondary school of the future is going to be. In or out of school such activities are bound to exist, or some substitute, possibly a dangerous one, to be found for them. Properly guided and controlled by the school authorities, they can be made a valuable means toward the education of our pupils. Such guidance requires the expenditure of additional time and energy on the part of the teachers, and the objection is always raised that teachers have quite as much as they can attend to already. Unquestionably, much the easiest course would be to shut our eyes to the existence of such activities. But that is impossible; we have already passed beyond that stage of the question. The time is not far distant when teachers who are unwilling to devote time "out of hours" to the proper development, guidance, and control of such student activities, will need to seek employment in another occupation. My position, then, is this: I would countenance the existence in all secondary schools of musical, literary, and similar clubs and societies, and such other activities as above mentioned; in addition, I would sanction all the previously mentioned forms of athletics; but I would have athletics and collateral activities as much under the direction of the teachers of the school as are the classes in algebra. I would have them all conducted at the school building, or at such places and at such times as the authorities of the school should designate ; and a teacher would always be present to direct the policy of the organization, whether in the school building during school hours, or out^^ide the school building or the town, outside of school hours. But the interest in this subject centers chiefly around athletics. So long as it is a question of extending the countenance of school authority merely to such activities as those of debating, musical, and literary societies, little opposition develops. The connection of these organizations with the former ideals of the school as a place for the intellectual training of youth is obvious Superintendence] ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 41 enough to make the step easy. But when we face the question of sanctioning athletics, however, we find that the ideal has changed somewhai. The hero of the school is no longer the youth with immense head and prodigious learn- ing, with pale face and fragile body; but rather the lad who breaks records in athletics, and at the same time keeps his scholarship well above the average. " The real boy loves play. If he does not play and does not love to play, he is abnormal; he is unhealthy mentally, morally, or physically. No mat- ter what marks he may be getting in his studies, he is a freak." By "play" I mean diversion from his academic studies between the close of school and tea-time, and on an occasional evening. Play should not, therefore, be ehminated from the school program; rather, it should be made an integral part of it. Schoolboy sports are as old as boys and schools, and will continue until that dreadful day arrives when the last boy shall have grown into a man. Springijig, as it does, out of the universal play instinct, the demand for athletic sport is but a logical result. That the schools, as they attempt more and more fuUy to provide for the complete development of their pupils, should sooner or later have to face the demand for physical training is also inevitable. In truth, we need in the schools all the athletics we can have, provided only that they are properly directed. The problems confronting us today are far different from those that grew up with the men who "made and pre- served us a nation." * They were trained, for the most part, on the fai.ti, in the open air. Those of you who have tried farm life know that it is 1 strenuous life, that the physical training is long and hard. For men so trained there was no need of athletics or physical training in the schools. But those conditions have changed. The rapid movement of our population into cities and towns has made the physical training of urban boys and girls a matter of vital importance, both to themselves as individuals and to the nation as a whole. Superintendent Maxwell is credited with having said recently that many of the graduates of the city college, tho they had passed the examinations for teachers' licenses with high marks, were breaking down completely as teachers because of inadequate physical preparation for their Hfe-work; Andrew Carnegie has said that the men who have won the great prizes of the world have been men who were physically able to endure the strain when the crisis came in the race for success; and Thomas Hughes says that the battle of Waterloo was won on the playground of the great English public schools. If the boys and the girls reared in the congested centers of popula- tion are to be made into men and women with the physical vigor and endurance, with the ruggedness of character, possessed by their country-bred ancestors, they must be given physical training. Where shall they get it, if not in the schools? Moreover, the question is not one of economic efficiency merely. It is of vast moral import as well. During the periods of recreation on school 42 NATIONAL EDUCATION Al ASSOCIATION [AUanu days and Saturdays, and during the long vacation, there is for most of the children in our cities absolutely nothing to do. Therefore, while their parents are at work or amusing themselves, the children roam the streets and acquire the language and the morals of the streets. It is idle to say: "It is the func- tion of the home to prevent such things; that the school must not usurp the function of the home." Meantime, what becomes of the boy ? Compulsory- education laws and ciufew ordinances in nearly every state of this union bear eloquent testimony to the neglect of childhood on the part of the home. Certainly, the school must not supplant the home, but where the home so wretchedly fails it should supplement it. The schools are the guardians intrusted with the care of the rights of childhood. The country boy roams the hills and has free access to "God's first temples." What can we offer to the city boy in exchange for his paradise lost ? His only road to paradise regained is thru the gymnasium, the athletic field, and the playground. More and more will playgrounds, out-of-door and indoor gymnasiums, and athletic fields, properly supervised and controlled by educational author- ity, become recognized parts of the educational plants of our larger towns and cities. When this condition prevails, systematic physical training will be prescribed for every pupil in the public secondary schools, as it now is in many of the best private schools. Pupils will report to the playground during the open season with the same regularity with which they now report to the gymnasium in those few fortunate public schools where gymnasiums exist. We will add to Commissioner Draper's statement; that no school should be built without an assembly hall, that no high school should be built without a gymnasium. Boys and girls who do not care to play will be made to play in the open air and in the gymnasium, under the guidance and supervision of teachers. In other words, physical exercise will be compulsory; and aU forms of physical exercise, including athletics, will be put upon a strictly educational basis; which means that the abuses now so loudly complained of will for the most part disappear. This may seem an ideal condition, but its realization has already begun. One principal writes me that his board of education owns a playground of seven acres within the city limits; another says that his school has thirty-four acres devoted to out-of-door sports; and still a third, that his board controls seventy-five acres on which, among other things, are nine baseball diamonds and eleven football fields. In many places principals and men teachers are devoting much time to the personal supervision of student activities outside of school hours. They are advising and directing their pupils in their ath- letic undertakings, playing with them in practice games, atid lending them aid in the management of their finances, in the arrangement of their schedules, going with them in their out-of-town games — all to the general betterment and uplift of the whole school. Our public schools are suffering from a lack of men in the system — men who are willing to associate with boys and who can still be men. Just as we have demonstrated that there was plenty of room Superintendence] ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 43 for other things and for the three R's at the same time, so we are to prove that there is ample time for all students to become interested in some form of student life outside of academic studies without injury to the latter; or, if it should prove that there is not room for both, it is by no means certain that public opinion would not demand the curtailment of the purely academic. But these conditions are ideal and do not exist generally. Under present conditions, would it not be better to forbid altogether interacademic football contests? This is the key to the whole situation. This game more than any other, with its defects and dangers, and the abuses that have grown up in connection with it, has brought upon school athletics a storm of adverse criticism. But these defects and abuses should be removed by school author- ity, and the game permitted to proceed. It must be admitted at the outset that football as it is played today is a dangerous game. The casualties of last season include fourteen men killed and fifty- two seriously injured. These figiures do not include the Purdue University team that was wiped out in a railroad wreck. Any game fraught with such dangers is a matter for the serious consideration of all thoughtful people. We are incUned to agree with President Eliot when he says: "It is magnificent, but it is — war." And yet the game must not be condemned offhand simply because of its dangers. There can be no question that the game stands first in the esteem of the American youth. It is idle to ask whether or not it should. We are hard up against the fact that it does. The story is told of Professor Wright, of Yale, who, finding that his classes took little interest in the exploits of Homeric heroes; that neither Ajax, the swift of foot, nor the warlike Diomed, nor the deeds of brave Achilles could compel their attention; that they showed no fondness for ox-eyed Juno, and. were not even attracted by the beauties of the white-armed Helen, conceived the idea of infusing the modern athletic spirit into the old Greek forms by substituting modem names and deeds for the time-w^om achievements of half-mythical heroes. He told his students to celebrate in epic verse modeled on the hexameters of Homer the exploits of Yale's football heroes. Inspiration was no longer wanting. The results surpassed expectation. Here is a specimen: This is the noble array which Rafferty, mighty in battle, Led to the glorious conflict, under the bonny blue banner. Fanner, the mighty line-hitter, low, smashing, firm as a mountain Guarded the center backfleld; Metcalf, the speedy, stood next him. Holding the line at his right hand, and Mitchel stood hard by his left hand. Shevlin, whom Hermes, they say, had given his wonderful sandals, Guarded the right far wing, strong on offense or defensive. Rockwell, the crafty, was there, close behind Rorabeck, center, Whom Bloomer, the mighty line-smasher, and Batchelder, strong as a bullock, Aided on either side. The story may be taken for what is worth. True or not, it is illustrative of a condition. Not our great universities only, but our secondary schools as 44 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION ^ [Atlanta well, are devoted to football. There must be something at least interesting in the game when, as President Merrill of Colgate puts it "Thirty thousand people are willing to forsake comfortable homes and profitable business, to sit several hours upon boards in chill November winds" to witness it. Just wherein the fascination lies is a question upon which it is neither possible nor necessary to enter. The game has been so much discussed that its virtues and defects may be quickly summed up. Let us first consider its defects. It is argued against it, that it is highly dangerous; that it is not a game of skill, but one of mere beef, in which ten pounds extra to a man will win the game, in which the object is not to show skill, but to win at all hazards. Besides these evils of the game itself, it is charged against football that, because of the intense competition inseparable from it, it fosters the evils of betting, of professionalism, of dishonesty and chicanery in the making up of teams. These evils are serious, and if they cannot be remedied, or greatly minimized, it is incumbent on school authorities to prohibit the game. This brings us to the questions: How valid are the objections? and. Can its defects be remedied ? It has already been admitted that football is dangerous; but it grows daily less dangerous. It is hedged about by rules, and officers are placed in the game to see that the rules are observed. If the rules are not what they should be, let school authorities change them. They are not the laws of the Medes and Persians. But if we oppose football on the ground of its being dangerous, then consistency requires us to take the same position with refer- ence to all other forms of student diversion in which the element of danger occurs. I am willing to shift some of the responsibility for my stout cham- pionship of athletic sports, in spite of their admitted evils, to the broad and rugged shoulders of President David Starr Jordan, who says that "there is less danger for a young man on the ball-field than in the ball-room." Dr. Jordan would have us believe that there is a worse condition than physical injury or death ; and his remark clearly points to the possible results, physical and moral, of all-day and all-night and all- week "festivities," to which many of our colleges are committed at the middle and close of the year's work. As to the charge that football is simply a game of "beef," in which skill counts for little or nothing, I cannot but think that it rests either upon igno- rance or upon a misconception of the game. No game that involves nothing but brute force could possibly develop the powers that football admittedly does develop. I feel sure that those who make the charge would withdraw it, should they make a study thru but one season of any good team. The evils of betting, of professionalism, etc., which have grown up in con- nection with football have no inherent connection with the game, and are by no means confined to this branch of athletics. Moreover, with the possible exception of betting, they are matters absolutely within the control of the school authorities, and upon them rests the responsibility for making this Superintendence] ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 45 * game, along with other branches of athletics, an agent for good instead of evil. We can make of our student activities what we will, provided we are willing to pay the price in time and thoughts and energy and interest. School authorities have been somewhat slow in accepting this responsi- bility. They tried at first the policy of noninterference, particularly in the matter of athletics. But regulation of some sort soon became necessary. It became impossible to treat these activities any longer as nonexistent. Recognition then became necessary, either for the purpose of opposition and extinction, or for the purpose of control. Opposition and extinction are in most cases manifestly unwise; and thus it is gradually coming about, that school authorities are shouldering the responsibihty so obviously theirs, and are assuming more and more the control of such activities. In athletics particularly considerable progress has been made in this direction. Many schools and colleges have succeded in excluding from all their athletic teams any but bona fide students. Others have gone farther and have excluded those who are not registered primarily for academic purposes. Some require, in the case of a student who has attended any other institution, a year's resi- dence as a prerequisite to eligibility for the teams. Many require a definite academic standing of all students on the teams. Graduate managers, and athletic councils made up of members of the faculty as well as students, have done much to regulate the matters of accounts and the arrangement of schedules, and to secure the elimination of professionals, and the retention of the sports for those regularly enrolled with definite purposes of education. It is a most encouraging condition, and one that is sure to improve. Govern- ing boards have accepted this responsibility. They realize that the key to the whole situation lies in the control of student activities; not in opposition or extinction. The battle is already half-won. On the other hand, it is argued in its favor that it is a manly game, which, just on account of its risks, is likely to foster courage to a marked degree; that it is a game that "demands self-control under the most intense excite- ment; that it trains the judgment in quick and accurate decision; that it cultivates observation, gives power to detect, remember, anticipate, interpret and thwart the plans of opposing minds; that it inculcates prompt obedi- ence; and so preoccupies the attention of all students, to the exclusion of much that was formerly mischievous in college (and school life), that it has become ally to good order and reasonable living." Courage, quick and accurate judgment, power of observation, prompt and unquestioning obedi- ence— good qualities these, surely! Or, to put these results into another form : they mean a careful and well- poised manhood of great physical endurance; a spirit of working together earnestly, enthusiastically, and intelligently for a given end, which is the spirit of our democracy; the desire of working for one's institution with one's whole mind and heart and strength, which in the world outside we call patri- otism; and, finally, the determination to succeed in the face of great diffi- 46 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta culty, against odds, and at personal risk — a spirit which, carried on into life's work, means the continued suprenjacy of American institutions. We should think seriously before prohibiting a game that produces such results. HERBERT SPENCER I. HERBERT SPENCER AND HIS INFLUENCE ON EDUCATION W. T. HARRIS, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION OF THE UNITED STATES, WASHINGTON, D. C. Between 1850 and i860 Herbert Spencer published four essays on educa- tion. The first of these, under the title of "What Knowledge Is of Most Worth?" appeared in the Westminster Review, July, 1859; the second, on ** Intellectual Education," appeared in the North British Review, May, 1854; the third, on ** Moral Education," appeared April, 1858, and the fourth, on "Physical Education," April, 1859, in the British Quarterly Review. A reprint of these four essays, by D. Appleton & Co., appeared in New York in July, i860. Mote interest was excited by the publication of Spencer's First Prin- ciples in 1862. This was the first part of a complete system advertised in i860 as a "System of Synthetic Philosophy" in five parts: (i) First Prin- ciples, (2) Principles of Biology, (3) Principles 0} Psychology, (4) Prin- ciples 0} Sociology, and (5) Principles of Morality. It is noteworthy that this distinguished man lived to complete the system announced forty-three years before his death. His autobiography is advertised by D. Appleton & Co. (in New York), to appear some time in March. However much one may differ from Herbert Spencer in his views of the world, and however much one may be disposed to place a low estimate on the permanent value of his contributions to science and philosophy, all can- did men can have only admiration for his love of truth, for his industry, and for his earnestness. In 1866 I wrote the following words in a review of the First Principles, in which I criticised the arguments by which he established the groundwork of his system: The persistence and sincerity, so generally prevailing among these correlationists, we have occasion to admire in Herbert Spencer. He seems to be always ready to sacrifice his individual interest for the sake of truth, and is bold and fearless in utteiing what he believes it to be.* It had happened to me, as to many others born before 1850, to come into contact with the development theory, especially as popularized in a book called The Vestiges of Creation, written by Robert Chambers early in the for » '* Herbert Spencer," Journal of Speculative Phihsophy, Vol. I, p. 9. ri Superintendence] HERBERT SPENCER 47 ties. The development theory had appeared m astronomy a hundred years before. Indeed, it is worthy of note that the greatest philosophical thinker in modern times, namely Immanuel Kant, had set forth the nebular hypothe- sis and theory of planetary formations as early as 1755 in a book on the theory and history of the heavens. About 1850 this idea had become familiar thru many bold speculations that were proposed by enthusiasts. It was this idea in the mind of the public that inspired Spencer with the scheme of his life-work, namely, the proving of evolution in biology, sociology, morality, and psychology, as others had done in astronomy. The Vestiges of Creation was especially devoted to the principle of evolution in biology. By the time the First Principles of Herbert Spencer began to be read in America the idea of evolution was quite familiar, and while one set of minds were ready to welcome Mr. Spencer's ideas, whichleaned toward the establishment of a mechanical first principle for the universe another set of minds were ready to contest his arguments and to set up a spiritual principle as the proper source of evolution. The latter class of persons took special offense at his denial of self -activity; for instance this: The mental act in which self is known implies, like every other mental act, a per- ceiving subject and a perceived object. If, then, the object perceived is self, what is the subject that perceives ? Or if it is the true self which thinks, what other self can it be that is thought of ? Clearly, a true cognition of self impHes a state in which the knowing and the known are one — ^in which subject and object are identified — and this Mr. Mansel rightly holds to be the annihilation of both.' It follows that consciousness is not possible in the sense that the self is a subject which knows itself as object. This makes consciousness, itself, an illusion. The reasoning which is involved here overthrows equally well the explanation of all vital phenomena thru the idea of self-activity. He applies a similar argument to refute the doctrine of the will and of its free- dom: Each manifestation of force can be interpreted only as the effect of some antecedent force; no matter whether it be an inorganic action, an animal movement, a thought, or a feeling. Either this must be conceded or else it must be asserted that our successive states of consciousness are self-created Either mental energies as well as bodily ones are quantitatively correlated to certain energies expended in their production, and to certain other energies they initiate; or else nothing must become something and some- thing nothing.' He expresses in varied forms this conviction of his that the phenomena of mind are products of nature and not forms of self -activity : Psychical changes either conform to law or they do not. If they do not conform to law, this work, in common with all works on the subject, is sheer nonsense; no science of psychology is possible. If they do conform to law, there cannot be any such thing as free will.' In particular he explicitly mentions will, the most noteworthy form of self-activity: » First Principles^ 1864, pp. 63-65. a Ibid.y p. 2R4. 3 DcUa of Psychology ^ p. 220, ist Am. ed. 48 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta The development of what we call Will is but another aspect of the general process whose other aspects have been delineated in the last three chapters. Memory, Reason, and Feeling simultaneously arise as the automatic actions become complex, infrequent, and hesitating; and Will, arising at the same time, is necessitated by the same condition.* Since all modes of consciousness can be nothing else than incidents of the corre- spondence between the organism and its environment, they must all be different sides of, or different phases of, the co-ordinated groups of changes whereby internal relations are adjusted to external relations.' Long before reaching this point, most readers must have perceived that the doctrines developed in the last two parts of this work are at variance with the current tenets respect- ing the freedom of the Will.3 This subjective illusion in which the notion of free will commonly originates.* Consciousness and will, two forms of self-activity, are thus denied by Herbert Spencer's psychology. The phenomena of mind are not examples of self-activity, according to him, but are links in a chain of causality. The causal influence comes from beyond, indefinitely, and the ego has no power of its own by which to modify the links of this causal chain. The ego does not originate anything; it merely receives and transmits causal influence from beyond. If Spencer admitted that the ego by its own act could inter- fere with the chain of causality and modify some one of its links, he must necessarily admit that the ego can originate a new causal chain, annulling or modifying the previous chain. But he conceives that an example of freedom or power of origination of this kind would make psychology impossible, and he does not see, on the other hand, that unless such a power to originate exists, there are no facts left on which a psychology may be based, for feelings, voli- tions, and thoughts all imply self -activity, and hence the origination of causal influence. For in a volition the self acts as will; in thinking the self affirms or negates predicates of some object represented in the mind; and lastly, in the case of feeling, the self is engaged in a reaction against some passive state of body or mind; in all these cases the self is active. Hence to deny that the ego can originate is to deny the basis of psychology. The student of Spencer's First Principles cannot fail to notice the adoption of MansePs Metaphysics, and especially its application by the author to fix the limits of religious thought. Mr. Spencer's doctrine of the unknowable depends on the validity of Hansel's theory. It is worth while, therefore, at the outset to look at the foundations of this theory. It is well known that Mansel bor- rowed the idea from Sir William Hamilton, his master, who claimed that the ideas of the Absolute and Infinite are negative ideas, expressing our inca- pacity to conceive the Infinite rather than our positive comprehension of it. Hamilton says : I lay it down as a law which, though not generalized by philosophers, can be easily proved to be true by its application to the phenomena: that all that is conceivable in thought lies between two extremes which, as contradictory of each other, cannot both be true, but of which, as mutual contradictories, one must.s » The Principles of Psychology, Vol. I, chap, ix, p. 495. 2 Ibid.y pp. 495, 496. 3 Ihid., p. 502. 4 Ihid., p. 502. 5 Metaphysics^ p. 527. Superintendence] HERBERT SPENCER 49 He proves this by applying it to space and time: It is plain that space must either be bounded or not bounded But though space must be admitted to be necessarily either finite or infinite, we are able to conceive the possibility neither of its finitude nor of its infinity. We are altogether unable to con- ceive space as bounded, as finite; that is, as a whole, beyond which there is no further space. Everyone is conscious of this impossibility The one contradictory is thus found inconceivable; we cannot conceive space as positively limited.^ Think of this as we may, we all must agree with Hamilton that the thought of space always brings us to the insight that any limited space would require space to exist in. Space can only end in or be bounded by space beyond it; in other words, it can only be limited by itself. But such a limitation is a continuation and not a cessation. The attempt to conceive space itself as limited results in thinking the limited space as within a larger space. Space is of such a nature that it can only be thought as self-continuous. But Hamilton goes on to say: On the other hand, we are equally powerless to realize in thought the possibility of the opposite contradictory; we cannot conceive space as infinite, as without limits. You may launch out in thought beyond the solar walk, you may transcend in fancy even the universe of matter, and rise from sphere to sphere in the region of empty space, until imagination sinks exhausted; — with all this what have you done ? You have never gone beyond the finite; you have attained at best only to the indefinite, and the indefinite, however expanded, is still always the finite. Both contradictions are equally inconceiv- able, and could we limit our attention to one alone, we should deem it at once impos- sible and absurd, and suppose its unknown opposite as necessarily true. With this Hamilton thinks that he has proved that the intelligence con- tradicts itself in the endeavor to decide upon the extent of space. But there is really no contradiction at all here, for the first view is confirmed by the second view. The first view sees positively that space is infinite, because any supposed boundary to it requires space to exist in, and continues space rather than limits it. Space is therefore infinite. But if infinite, it cannot be imag- ined as a whole. If it could be imagined, if we could form a mental picture of all space, it would follow of necessity that the whole of space is finite. A picture^ includes a portion of space, but not all space. This is exactly what Hamilton finds in his second view which tries to fancy or imagine space. The result is just what we should be led to expect as a consequence of the first view: "Imagination sinks exhausted." Imagination tries to picture space as a limited whole, but the mental picture finds boundaries to its pic- ture, and these boundaries imply space beyond them; all limitations fall within a larger space, and do not include space as a bounded whole. Thus both mental operations agree; the one is a negative confirmation of the other. Thinking reason sees positively that space is infinite, while imagination sees that it cannot be imagined as finite. The infinitude of space is a positive idea, not a negative one. The idea would be a negative idea if our thinking of it could not transcend the limit; that is to say, if we could not think space beyond the limit. 50 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [AUanta Time is also infinite. We can see this by considering that any beginning presupposes a time previous to it. If we suppose a beginning of time itself, we suppose that there was a time before the beginning of time. Time is therefore not limited, but continued beyond all boundaries set to it. Thus examined, the law of the conditioned, which Hamilton acknowl- edges is **not generalized by philosophers," fails altogether. It is seen to be a fallacy resting on a confounding of thought with imagination. The infinite is not shown to be a negative idea by Hamilton in this argument, nor does it express the "impotency of thought" as Hamilton asserts in his Law of the Conditioned. We see that the mind thinks a positive infinite space as a presupposition of any finite space, according to the first view which Hamilton describes. And over against this first view he shows that imagination cannot get this infinite space into a finite image or picture. It seems to us at this time incredible that any person of reputation in psy- chology could ever have set up such a law and claimed it as a valuable dis- covery (Hamilton says of it: "If I have ever done anything meritorious in philosophy, it is in the attempt to explain the phenomena of these contra- dictions," etc.). But the fact remains. Hamilton deceived himself, and his disciple Mansel spent his life in undermining the intellectual foundations of faith. Herbert Spencer adopted the doctrine from Mansel in order to over- throw what he calls ** ultimate religious ideas," such, for example, as self- existence and an eternal first cause. If the ideas infinite and absolute are unthinkable, it is true, as Spencer teaches, that "the fundamental conceptions of rational theology are thus self -destructive. " Spencer says: Self -existence necessarily means existence without a beginning; and to form a con- ception of self-existence is to form a conception of existence without a beginning. Now, by no mental effort can we do this. To conceive existence through infinite past time implies the conception of infinite past time, which is an impossibility. But Spencer was not consistent. He found it convenient to use the Hamilton-Mansel doctrine against theology and silence the clergy who found metaphysical difficulties in the theories of natural science. But Spencer himself in his First Principles reproduces the arguments used in dogmatic theology in his demonstration of "ultimate scientific ideas." He makes them inconceivable in religion, but quite conceivable in science. He offers a metaphysical proof of the compressibility of matter;' again he proves the indestructibility of matter;' he proves the persistence of force ;^ he proves a priori that "mental energies as well as bodily ones are quantitatively cor- related to certain energies expended in their production, and to certain other energies they initiate;" ^ and he proves, Hkewise a priori, that vital movements, thoughts, and feelings have their origin in persistent force. Spencer calls persistence of force "the sole truth which transcends experience by under- lying it. " ^ Here he has entirely forgotten his polemic against self-existence, as quoted above: * First Principles, p. 51. 2 Ibid., p. 241. 3 Ibid.., p. 254. 4 Ibid., p. 284. 5 Ibid., p. 258. Superintendence] HERBERT SPENCER 5 1 To form a conception of self-existence is to form a conception of existence without a beginning. Now, by no mental effort can we do this. To conceive existence through infinite past time implies the conception of infinite past time, which is an impossibility.' That is to say, any ideas which imply infinite past time are inconceivable, and hence they are mere words to which no possible thought can correspond; or, rather, we should say they are not ideas, but words. But persistence of force implies infinite past time, and hence Mr. Spencer's **sole truth which transcends experience by underlying it" is a mere word without any possible thought corresponding to it. And so the indestructibility of matter or force, or of anything else, implies existence thru infinite future time. And to deny originating causality to the human will implies an infinite series of antecedent forces, and an infinite series is inconceivable; hence Mr. Spencer might have argued from this with equal force that the will necessarily originates a new causal series, and that any causal series must originate in a first cause, because the opposite is inconceivable. This somewhat prolix examination of the doctrine of the unknowable, as taught by Hamilton, Mansel, and Spencer, is called for here because any- one who wishes to form an opinion as to the philosophical merits of Herbert Spencer encounters this Hamiltonian law of the conditioned at every step. No one claims that Spencer added to science any new discoveries. His claim rests on the establishment of a philosophical basis for science. The Spencerians, in general, have intrenched themselves on this ground against theological attacks, and equally in defense of theif scientific dogma of a mechanical evolution of the world of things and events without the interven- tion of causal self-activity either as a first cause or as a causal free will of living beings. That such a preoccupation of cne mind by a fatalistic chain of causation conducts to a new view of education has been made clear, not merely by abstract reasoning, but by the history of education itself the past fifty years. Herbert Spencer, as we have seen, early in his career made a contribution to the literature of education in which he challenged the course of study as he found it in operation in the schools of his country, and he proceeded to lay down the laws by which a better course could be formed. In general, he adopted the same principle as Rousseau, namely, that of the return to nature; but with him "return to nature" means the study of natural science, and not the return to a state of nature; natural science should be the chief subject of study. The highest division of natural science, as he understands it, is soci- ology; next to it is biology. The education that he proposes he tells us is for the purpose of complete living. Each child should be brought to school to learn the art of complete living. What is Spencer's definition of this art of complete living? With him* education is something useful for showing how to take care of the body and how to perform the lower social functions — the preparation of food, cloth- ing, and shelter. The first education, according to him, is not that which relates > /Wrf., p. 31. 52 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta to man's spiritual life and to the preparation of man to understand the view of the world entertained by his civilization; that would be the religious ideal and the social ideal. "The first knowledge which man should seek is the knowledge which goes to direct sdj -preservation,^^ To test this, suppose, on the other hand, the definition of complete living to be the elevation of each individual into participation in the life and expe- rience of his race. Then each one would find complete Kving to involve the initiation into the civilizations of the past that furnish the elements out of which our own civilization is formed: the manners and customs of men, their views of Kfe and the world, the matters of right conduct toward one's fellow-men, so that one may live with his fellows without quarrels and hatreds. This would seem to be the knowledge which would lead to direct self- preservation. If one cannot combine with his fellow-men in such a way as to co-operate with them, and assist them in producing a reasonable result — if his behavior toward his fellow-men is such as to destroy the works of their hands, he will force them to turn their endeavors against him, and the result will be his destruction. Morals and religion relate to this kind of knowledge of how to behave toward one's fellow-men. They are the best means of self-preservation. But Mr. Spencer thinks that the first business of the child is to know physi- ology. The second step in knowledge, according to him, would be the selec- tion of a vocation or trade and the mastery of the means of livelihood. This leads to his third step, namely, to training in citizenship; and the fourth and last of the studies which the schools should encourage includes literature and art, and whatever belongs to relaxation and amusement — these to be studied in the leisure of later life, as being of only minor importance. But Aristotle characterized man as the symbol-making animal. Human nature has to be expressed by symbols. The poets of the people set up and describe in symbols the ideal which makes civilization possible. Literature, accord- ing to this, furnishes the most essential branch of education, in so far as its function is to help the child understand that ideal; it assists the child to understand human nature, to understand the motives of his fellow-men. Without a knowledge of human nature the child wiU become misanthropic; he will think that everyone's hand is against him, and it will result that his hand is against his fellow-men. In whatever man does in work or play he expresses in some way his ideals. The child in school should be taught the art of understanding the symbols which men have made to express human nature. The church announces the divine plan of the universe; the fundamental ideal by which all things are to be understood; the final standard by which all things and events are to be measured. This is the most educative of all institutions, because the person who harbors a religious ideal puts himself into the process of applying its standard to every experience of his life. The school has a narrower function, but a very important one; it must Superintendence] HERBERT SPENCEK 53 give to the child a knowledge of those instruments or conventionalities which make possible for him the acquisition of human learning by means of his own efforts. The school teaches consequently the arts of reading and writing and arithmetic; the technical terms of geography and mathematics and history; the methods of study in the various departments of human learning. It teaches incidentally the kind of behavior which enables the pupil as a member of the school to aid the work of the school as a whole, and enables him to get the benefit of its instruction. Regularity, punctu- ality, silence, and industry make possible the concerted action of the school, and make possible the aid of the individual by the teacher and by the class. In the course of three or four years in the elementary school the child will add to his own the vocabulary of geography and arithmetic, many tech- nical words from other sciences, and the most important words and phrases of literary writers who have written intense passages describing situations of the soul and explorations of thought which may be understood by children and uneducated people. These situations and thoughts, which before he had no means of expressing, and hence no means of objectif)dng to his mind now become utterable, and to a great extent thinkable, by the child who reads in the school readers. The writers who hold their places in literature have seen nature from a point of view different from that of the child, and they have presented their thoughts in gems of literary style. Such gems of style have been explored and collected by compilers of school readers, and the child has a collection numbering some two hundred of what is best in the literature of the language. Every one of them adds to the child some insight and gives him the power to express it. Literature lifts up the pupil to the window which looks out upon human nature and discloses the motives • which govern the actions of men. It shows how these actions begin in mere feeling; by and by these feelings become clear ideas and then convictions; lastly they become actions. Literature gives us this, the most important of all intellectual views, and yet Spencer puts this third study of the elementary school last among the items of knowledge of most worth. After learning all that science has to give, after learning one's trade and the care of his body, Spencer would permit litera- ture and art — *'if there is leisure for it." He can see nothing except idle amusement from this window of the soul. But the philosophic educator, ' the man who studies scientifically, will readily see that literature is the great- est educator that we have. Newspapers, periodicals, and books, with pic- tures of hirnian life and the motives governing our actions, go to make the public opinion which rules in an age of freedom; only tyranny and absolute despotism can exist where public opinion is not based upon free discussion and a true insight into the motives of one's fellow-men. In the light of a study after the manner of biological research, we see why school education has formed for itself the course of study as it is. We see also how hopeless is a crusade against this course of study with the hght which 54 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta Herbert Spencer throws upon it. Not knowing why the unconscious minds of the directors of education have taken the line followed in secondary and higher education, he takes for granted that there is no adequate reason for it, and proposes to abolish their work entirely. But it is evident that his inventory of our civilization is an utterly inadequate one; he omits from view the most important of all elements of human nature. He does not see that literature and art, exclusively devoted to the portrayal of human nature in its transmutation of feelings thru thoughts into deeds, are necessarily the central branch of study in the school education thruout its entire course. It does not occur to him to consider the method of his favorite science, biology, and he therefore does not see that Latin and Greek and the Hebrew oracles are in our education a study of the embryology of civilization, just as the study of growth of animals and plants as eggs and seeds furnishes the explanation of their development and shows the present trend also — for embryology is prophetic as well as historic. In secondary education we begin to come to the study of this spiritual embryology. In the higher or collegiate education we come to the comparative method of research ; each branch is more or less studied in the light of its own history, and each branch is studied in the light of the other branches in the course of study. In a word, the philosophy of each subject is learned. Educators, it is true, have adopted the course of study as it exists, not so much by a rational investigation as by an unconscious selection prompted by a blind impulse. But Herbert Spencer should have investigated and discoviered its purpose, which is a far deeper one than he has thought out, when he advocates its overthrow for the sake of knowledge that leads to direct preservation. Had he been studying the habits of bees and ants, he would have taken for granted that these habits have a deeper explanation than what he would expect to find in the consciousness of those insects. It increases our surprise, in fact, when we remember that Spencer as well as Darwin searched for the explanations of the habits of men in reasonable precautions adopted m prehistoric days, and whose rational purpose had long since been forgotten. He supposed, in fact, that Latin and Greek had been useful once as the lan- guage of learned men, and that these branches had been retained in the course of study much as the habits of former days had been retained when their conscious purpose had long since ceased to exist. In another direction than education we are bound to make a grateful recognition to a positive service of Herbert Spencer. From the beginning he has insisted on the value of science as organized knowledge rather than mere information. In his illustrations of universal progress he made this fertile suggestion, that science may be called an extension of our perceptions by means of reasoning. And again he says that undeveloped science [mere information, mere unorganized knowledge] is qualitative prevision — developed science is quantitative prevision.*' That is to say, mere experience enables us to anticipate events to some extent, but accuracy can come only of Superintendence] HERBERT SPENCER 55 organized experience made systematic by means of the introduction of mathematics. I doubt not his autobiography, when before us, will increase our high admiration and love of Herbert Spencer as a man, as well as instruct us more directly in all that was really positive in his contributions to the philosophy of science. II. HERBERT SPENCER'S FOUR FAMOUS ESSAYS JOHN W. COOK, PRESIDENT OF NORTHERN ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, DE KALB, ILL. It is more than forty years since the Appletons first presented Mr. Spen- cer's four famous essays on education to the American reading public. They had appeared in British magazines, and thus were not entirely unknown in this country. Their titles are familiar to you doubtless: (i) "What Knowl- edge Is of Most Worth?" (2) "Intellectual Education;" (3) "Moral Edu- cation;" (4) "Physical Education." When they appeared, the Education Act of 1870 was ten years in the future. England was at the rear of the procession of modern states, so far as any organization of public education was concerned. It was not this fact that inspired the essays, however; for the laissez-faire attitude of the government in this particular was in entire harmony with the political philoso- phy of Mr. Spencer; and nowhere does he make a plea for greater activity on the part of Parliament. It was the unphilosophic method of the existing schools that aroused his opposition and that explains his biting criticisms. His own education had been so free and individual that it was a protest against the stupid conservatism of the masters; and it is surprising that he remained so long silent in the presence of practices which he so unqualifiedly condemned. England has had a hard time with this problem of popular education. Ecclesiasticism has so interpenetrated the national life that the separation of church and state is nominal rather than actual. The Toleration Act secured unquestioned freedom of worship, with some social handicaps; but, while the only public education that France will tolerate is secular, the English public has never seriously considered it. And this applies to' the dissenters as well as to the Establishment. The religious question has been the per- plexing problem ever since Lancaster opened his school for poor children, about the close of the eighteenth century, and introduced his ill-conceived monitorial system to the world. He declared for "religious but undenomi- national" education. While the first word suited the public taste, the second was unpalatable. Dr. Andrew Bell represented the protest of the Anglican church. Each class was jealous of the religious influence of the other; as well try to mix oil and water. So they divided the education of the English youth between them. 56 NATIONAL EDUCATION AX ASSOCIATION [Atlanta Of course, the schools were poor. How could they be otherwise? There were no training schools for teachers; particular religious affiliation was the first condition of emplo3rment; tradition, with its iron rule, was the infallible guide; and every communicant, Anglican or dissenter, was a minute man and ready for the skirmish line on the warning of the leaders. They were bad enough, no doubt. Certainly this critic handled them with- out gloves, and in a fashion that always draws a crowd. In consequence, the essays are good reading. They raise a clear and unmistakable issue. No one else has done it in so masterly a style. They bring their author into close touch with the schoolmaster, and make so noteworthy a contribution to pedagogical literature that to confess ignorance of them is to acknowledge unfamiliarity with what every fairly informed teacher is assumed to know. It is to the first of the series that the sharpest objections have been leveled; and properly so, for it attempts to settle the most fundamental of educational questions. While method can never be a matter of indiflference, the content of the course of study is of the supremest importance. It is often said that it is not so much a matter of importance as to what one studies as to the way in which he addresses his mind to it; but this is an exaggeration of the value of method. There are certam kinds of knowledge that are indispensable, and no refinement of method can ever take their place. You have listened to a protest against the ruthless manner in which the himianities have been set aside in Mr. Spencer's analysis. I am in no small degree of sympathy with the view to which you have listened. I am not disposed to take the author of the essays altogether seriously, however. With all of its acuteness, it seems to me that this essay must be denied a place in Spencer's philosophical writings. It lacks the judicial attitude. One seeks in vain for that disinterested holding of the scales, that unbiased estimation of the different departments of human knowledge, that should characterize one who attempts to speak the last word in summing up the hot contentions of rivals who have passionately pleaded for their opposing causes. He is the advocate rather than the judge; the strenuous reformer, who feels the necessity of an overstatement of his view and an understatement of the value of existing conditions. He employs the torch rather than the win- nowing fan, and follows the lead of the revolutionary Rousseau rather than that of the devout and reflective Comenius. Keeping this view as a perpetual footnote, and as at least a partial pro- tection against the dominating influence of the author's overmastering genius, the' essay must be regarded as having immense value. In one sense it indi- cates a return to the Renascence ideal, for it manifests an idolatry of knowl- edge. If we substitute science for the humanities, we may imagine ourselves listening to the panegyrics of John Sturm, the German Cicero. Of course, the intense utilitarianism would prove a quick corrective. There is the same incapacity to understand the limitations of the child that is manifested by all of the reformers. Locke and Rousseau certainly underestimated the Superintendence] HERBERT SPENCER 57 ability of the child yet under twelve, and even Pestalozzi overestimated it. Spencer is as far afield in the latter particular as the old classicists were. He also attaches an exaggerated value to knowledge as related to the con- duct of the young. If his contention were true, the reformation of the world could be successfully accomplished by the schoolmaster. But one thing the essay has done: it has shown that the sciences must never be denied recognition, and generous recognition, in the course of study. Spencer has stated the weaker side of the argument. He has slighted the pedagogical significance of his contention in urging its economic claims. Many of the subjects which he champions lie in the child's familiar world. He presses against them every hour of his waking life. He realizes their reahty, and they never take on the conventional or artificial aspect of much that we attempt to teach him. He can assimilate them. Spencer is by no means the first to see this truth, but he has approached it from a new point of view. We may be impressed afresh by this vital truth, while we smile incredulously at the idea of instructing youth in matters of such remote interest as the bringing up of a family. But I cannot hope to do more than to offer the faintest suggestion in the brief space allotted me. The remaining essays are not characterized by the radicalism nor by the originahty of the first. They resay in an admirable manner much that has already found utterance in the Uterature of the innovators. The best thing they do is to hold clear and white before the reader the truth which Pestalozzi struggled so hard to express in his theory, and especially in his practice: ^^ There is a certain sequence in which the faculties spontaneously develop y and a certain kind of knowledge which each requires during its development; and it is for us to ascertain this sequence and supply this knowledge" Spencer would therefore turn upon the problem of education all of the developed knowledge and acumen with which scientific culture has equipped the race. What he so superbly urged upon parents and teachers forty-four years ago is doubly imperative now. The age is essentially scientific. This is but another way of saying that educated mind has stripped itself of the last vestige of that supernaturalism which has made men cowards and kept them so thru all the long cycles of evolution. The fundamental postulate of science is also the broad foundation of reKgion. The conception of a splendid unity is slowly forcing its way into the common consciousness. Science is only another name for that unfolding revelation that discovers reason as immanent in all of the phenomena of the material and spiritual world. Education is the oldest of the arts and the newest of the sciences. For centviries it was left in largest part to blind imitation. At last it has caught the attention of the masters of thought. Spencer declares that "the subject which involves all other subjects, and therefore the subject in which the education of everyone should culminate, is the theory and art of teaching." Who has placed a higher value upon the application of the choicest intelligence to the instruction and training of the young ? His reiteration of Rousseau's 58 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta familiar doctrine of the employment of the law of natural consequences in corrective discipline is as timely today as it was in the eighteenth century when the French genius gave it to the world in the pages of his charming Emile, His declaration that the aim of education is the production of a self- governing being has peculiar force when addressed to a people who have established a government upon the principle of self-direction, and whose hope for its perpetuity rests upon the conviction that thru suitable education a race may be developed to whose hands may be intrusted with safety the price- less jewel of political freedom. It was peculiarly fitting that the man who attempted the prodigious task of producing a complete system of philosophy should have left to his fellow- man his ideas of the kind of education that in his thought must be employed to secure that progressive development thru which in the processes of evolu- tion the great problems of life are to find their solution. ///. HERBERT SPENCER'S INDIVIDUALITY AS MANIFESTED IN HIS EDUCATIONAL THINKING W. S. SUTTON, PROFESSOR OF THE SCIENCE AND ART OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS, AUSTIN, TEX. The educational world is greatly indebted to more than one outsider for valuable criticism and direction. The beneficial influence of Rousseau's Emile, despite its many palpable absurdities, cannot be easily overestimated. Montaigne, and Bacon, along with other men who were not practical teachers, have contributed in no small degree to the art, as well as the science, of teaching. Herbert Spencer also finds a place, and a commanding place, among this class of man's benefactors; for the fact that, when he was only seventeen years of age, he served as a supply- teacher for three months does not justify us in enrolling him in the ranks of the schoolmaster. In this brief paper it is obviously impossible to discuss many of the impor- tant questions in education upon which Spencer has written with so much vigor and persuasiveness. I have, therefore, decided to invite your attention to only one topic, ** Spencer's Individuality as Manifested in His Educational Thinking. " In dealing with school problems, as with those in other fields of thought, he was singularly free from the influence of traditional opinions, and was at the same time little moved by the beliefs of his contemporaries. In his last work, published in 1902, is found this sentence, disclosing a marked individualistic type of mind: ** Early in life it became a usual experience for me to stand in a minority — often a small minority, sometimes approaching a minority of one. " Quick, in his Educational Reformers, very properly devotes a chapter to Spencer, in whom are to be found the essential attributes of leaders in reform — ability, disposition, and courage to expose error, however old and well-beloved, and to champion the truth however new and unpopular. Superintendence] HERBERT SPENCER 59 The four essays on education which Spencer contributed to British maga- zines in 1854, 1858, and 1859 are almost fierce in denunciation of the educational theories and practices of his times. It is no wonder that many conventional schoolmen in the English-speaking worid read his philippics with mingled feelings of disgust and dismay. If Spencer was right, they were wrong; if his teaching should triumph, theirs would go, and they likewise. Teachers of the classics especially looked upon him as the chief of the Philistines, and with tongue and pen sought to punish him for what they called his pedagogic presimiption and wickedness. It is believed (and I share the opinion) that his estimate of the value of Latin and Greek was false ; that he did not accord to the languages and literatures of the ancient Greeks and Romans the high culture-value they actually possess. It is thought, furthermore, by some emi- nent educators, our own United States Commissioner of Education among the number, that Spencer's conception of the educational value of the fine arts — including literature, the noblest of them all — is not to be justified upon grounds either a priori or a posteriori. Still other objections are urged against his conclusions with respect to what knowledge should find a place in the instruction of children and youth ; but, in spite of the floods of criticism that have swept over his essay on "What Knowledge Is of Most Worth?" the unprejudiced student of educational history will not fail to honor him for his valianfchampionship of the cause of natural science. It is because of the work of Spencer, Huxley, Agassiz, Eliot, and men of like minds, that the studies pertaining to the natural world have at length gained admission to the charmed circle of the liberal arts. Even in our own day are to be found educated men who yet regard these studies with indifference or distrust; but a half-century ago Spencer was not far from speaking the literal truth when he said: Had there been no teaching but such as is given in our public schools, England would now be what it was in feudal times. That increasing acquaintance with the laws of phenomena which has through successive ages enabled us to subjugate Nature to our needs, and in these days gives the common laborer comforts which a few centuries ago kings' could not purchase, is scarcely in any degree owed to the appointed means of instructing our youth. The vital knowledge — that by which we have grown as a nation to what we are, and which now underlies our whole existence — is a knowledge that has got itself taught in nooks and corners; while the ordained agencies for teaching have been mumbling little else but dead formulas. Again, he was not wholly wrong, tho perhaps not altogether just to the traditional curriculum, in the closing paragraph of the essay, in which science is lauded for both its disciplinary and its practical value: Paraphrasing an eastern fable, we must say that in the family of knowledges, Science is the household drudge who, in obscurity, hides unrecognized perfections. To her has been committed all the work; by her skill, intelligence, and devotion have all the conven- iences and gratifications been obtained; and while ceaselessly occupied ministering to the rest, she has been kept in the background, that her haughty sisters might flaunt their fripperies in the eyes of the world. The parallel holds yet further. For we are fast coming to the denouement, when the positions will be changed; and while these haughty sisters sink into merited neglect. Science, proclaimed as highest alike in worth and beauty, will reign supreme. 6o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta The denouement has been reached, but with a different result from that prophesied by Spencer in 1859; for neither science nor the classics nor mathe- matics nor philosophy, nor any other subject, is now allowed to exercise dominion over her sister-subjects, or even to display aristocratic airs in their presence. Thanks to the characteristic spirit of this age, there has been firmly established, not only democracy among men, but also democracy among studies, including even the science and art of education. From what has just now been said one would conclude that, in his plea for the teaching of science, Spencer refers to natural science alone. With him, however, "science" is a much more comprehensive term, including the new subjects (the natural sciences), and also the old subjects, but the old subjects so transformed by rational thinking as to render them practically new. For history, language, and other himian-nature subjects, as he found them, he had no word of commendation whatever, strenously insisting that only thru. the understanding of the science of these subjects can results in any wise desirable be attained. What he means by knowing the science of a subject he expresses in many different phrases, some of which are here given: (i) Knowledge of realities; (2) knowledge of the constitution of things; (3) knowledge of the content of things, not of mere symbols; (4) organized knowledge; (5) rational knowledge; (6) knowledge of general truths; (7) knowledge of fundamental principles, or laws — ^with all of which ideas the modem conception of education is in hearty accord. He nowhere better sets forth his view with respect to the dominating spirit of science than in this description of the scientific man: While towards the traditions and authorities of men its attitude [the attitude of science] may be proud, before the impenetrable veil which hides the Absolute its attitude is humble — ^a true pride and true humility. Only the sincere man of science (and by this title we do not mean the mere calculator of distances, or analyzer of compounds, or labeler of species; but him who through lower truths seeks higher, and eventually the highest) — only the genuine man of science, we say, can truly know how utterly beyond, not only hmnan knowledge, but human conception, is the Universal Power of which Nature, and Life, and Thought are manifestations. Herbert Spencer, not content with attacking the traditional curriculum, pleads vigorously for reform in the theory and practice of the several phases of education. In place of ignorant, if not wicked, neglect of training the body, he prays for scientific physical education; in place of arbitrary and artificial means of moral development, he asks that rational and natural plans be adopted; and in place of the old-time principles of authority and pain in edu- cating the intellect, he advocates with convincing eloquence the doctrines of self-activity and interest. In these several departments of education he called upon men everywhere to repent, and he may not improperly be called the educational John the Baptist of the nineteenth century. But some school superintendent or college professor who finds, for reasons familiar to us all, his tenure of office more or less precarious, may retort that it is very easy for a great layman like Spencer to play reformer. The school- Superintendence] HERBERT SPENCER 6 1 master, on the other hand, must needs be a more timorous soul. He cannot afford to break with his environment, especiaUy with that part of it which includes the board giving him employment, for, if he does, another locality is most probably added to the itinerary of his professional life. It is not to be disputed that the teacher has long been extremely diplomatic, not to say lacking in nerve, when brought face to face with progressive measures. It is none the less his business to cultivate that open-mindedness to truth and that courage of conviction characteristic of Spencer; for personal independence is an unmistakable attribute of manhood, and the first great qualification of the teacher is that he be a man. Of course, in manifesting his academic freedom and in laboring for reform, it is by no means necessary that one abandon the sense of the righteous opportunist, or the speech aud the behavior of the well-bred gentleman. Again, it may be suggested that Spencer, having neither wife nor children, could well afford to stand on the "firing line" of educational reform. Death under such circumstances would not involve unoffending victims. In reply to this view, it might be said that, if a man love house and lands, wife and children^ more than he loves truth, he is not made of the sterner stuff the reformer needs. To him who falters in the discharge of professional duty, let these words of the Psalmist bring consolation and courage: "I have been young and now am old; yet have I not seen the righteous forsaken nor his seed begging bread." Let him, furthermore, remember that courage is bom of doing things, and that the world is now looking, as never before in the history of the race, for men neither unable nor afraid to think their own thoughts and then to act upon their own responsibility. Time is left to call attention in briefest word only to the fact that Spencer's individualistic spirit was so intense as to prevent him from tolerating, or even seeing, the natural trend toward social unity. When but twenty-two years of age he published in the Nonconformist an article emphatically condemning the education of the people as a function of government. In Facts and Com- ments, published in his old age only a year before his death, he reaffirms his belief that state education is both unjust and unwise. This view is sadly out of harmony with that of the modern pedagog, philosopher, and states- man. If there is any one sign of our times more significant than any other, it is that the state, with ever-increasing activity, is to provide for all the people genuine education, which involves far more than intellectual training (a fact not taken into account by Spencer), and which has for its supreme purpose the enrichment of institutional life thru the generous development of the free, self-active spirit of the individual. In ancient Sparta man belonged, body and soul, to the state, there being two inevitable results — the atrophy of the spontaneity of the individual, and, in consequence, the final overthrow of the state itself. In the eighteenth century individualistic sanctions became sovereign, and the individual, as well as the state, was compelled to endure the Reign of Terror. The modem state, realizing the necessity of both 62 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta individual strength and social solidarity, seeks, thru proper educational means, to harmonize these two forces, which are at times apparently antago- nistic, but which, in reality, are mutually helpful. Strange, indeed, that so plain a lesson in history did not reveal itself to the great mind that so con- vincingly taught the world the value of the term ** Evolution"! By way of summarizing this brief paper, these two supplementary prin- ciples are submitted as worthy to guide the practice of modem education: 1. The sanctity of the individual human being is to be kept inviolate. 2. The law of social service — a law opposed not to individuality, but to individualism — conditions the spiritual progress of humanity. IV. HERBERT SPENCER AS AN EDUCATIONAL FORCE A. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR OF THE "JOURNAL OF EDUCATION," BOSTON, MASS. Herbert Spencer was the greatest educational force of the latter half of the nineteenth century. As an individual opinion this would have no sig- nificance but it is as near an official utterance as is possible for the United States government to deliver on such a question. In the Congressional Library in Washington, our noble shrine, the government has placed the names of ten educational leaders selected from the world's history. Only one of these was chosen from the latter half of the nineteenth century, only one was alive when his name was blazoned on the roll of honor. That was Herbert Spencer. In the presence of such a fact, it matters little what we may say here tonight by way of criticism. The edict has gone forth from an authority higher than that which now sits in judgment. This honor is all the more significant when we remember that he was not identified with any institution; that he failed to create as a genius, to develop the skill of an artist, or perfect the power of a master. Germany gave the world more than one educational genius in his day. Sweden produced more than one pedagogical artist. France made more than one attempt at the making of a master; but Herbert Spencer was a greater force than genius, artist, and master combined. What Bushnell, Beecher, and Brooks were in theology and in ecclesias- tical courage, Spencer was in education. His was the fascination of person- ality in phrasing, of relish in thinking. In whatever he thought or said there was a nervous impulse that set the schoolmen of the world aglow with interest in proportion to the spasms created among the philosophies before which he did not bow. What Darwin and Huxley were in science, Spencer was in education. He was an evolutionist in spirit, tho not as a scientist; in the social order rather than in the animal kingdom, in human nature as much as in nature. What Sheridan was in the Shenandoah, Spencer was among the school- VZ i Superintendence] HERBERT SPENCER. 63 men who awaited a leader. He was never an architect, but a fountain of heroic inspiration. Spencer was a literary man before he was a philosopher; a writer before he was an educator. He never knew the masters as a worshipful disciple. He bowed before no master, for he had been trained by none. His training was as a railroad engineer, and for eight years he threaded railroads over the British Isles. Thus he came to philosophy unbiased by tradition, and was able to think independently, to project ideas as he had projected railroads. This prevented the customary arrested development which afflicts so many philosophers, who, when once under the spell of a scheme of thought, are unable thereafter to think of or experience anything without being class- conscious from the standpoint of their theory. It is evidently a satisfaction for anyone to have the conceit of seeing every- thing in time and eternity as fitting into a philosophy as clear as crystal to themselves, as hazy as the milky way to everybody else; but such a state of mind often operates as an undertow, carrying one backward from the shore whenever he attempts to land. Spencer was always being carried forward on the crest of a wave, being a part of its foaming billow as it broke upon some new shore. He was not always right, and was rarely consistent; but he was always getting somewhere, was always attractive, always alert. He would have lived and died a railroad engineer, and never have dis- turbed the equanimity of the self-satisfied philosophers, had he lived in Amer- ica, where railroad building never ends; but in great Britian the end of the railroad boom came early in his career. He could be enthusiastic over the projecting of railroads into new parts, but he could not be content to play the part of a repairer of roadbeds, or of laying side-tracks of steel. Thus he abandoned the profession for which he was trained, and suggested new tracks for philosophy and pedagogy; and our mighty educational locomotives are freighting new philosophies into new fields because he refused to be a repairer of old lines of thought or a builder of side-tracks for the philosophies of Germany and Greece. Every flush of life and flash of light that reinvigorates the university of today is due to the rays that purpled the dawn when Herbert Spencer said: "Let there be light in every nook and corner of the educational world." V. HERBERT SPENCER AS A PHILOSOPHER W. ROSE, PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE, KNOXVILLE, TENN. Herbert Spencer gave his life, with peculiar devotion and singleness of purpose, to the cause of science. He has the rare distinction of having com- pleted the task which he set for himself. It is less than a decade since his 64 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta last volume was given to the public; and yet he is a recognized authority in no department of science. He has never been an authority in science. In fact, he was not a scientist in the sense in which Darwin was a scientist. Not from nature, but from books, he derived his facts; and upon this experi- ence taken at second hand he based his broad generalizations. Darwin repeatedly expressed regret that Spencer had not been taught to see; while Spencer in turn was unable to sympathize with Darwin's lavish expendi- ture of time and energy with meaningless details. Clearly, Spencer could not become an authority in any department of science, when he lacked the methods essential to the scientific speciaHst. But it may be said, and with justice, that he should not be held responsible for failure to accomplish that which was not only outside his life-purpose, but in opposition to it. His interest lay in the direction of generalization rather than in that of special discovery and experimental verification. Follow- ing this interest, he deliberately chose the field of scientific speculation, and set for himself the tremendous task of synthesizing the whole of experience and stating it in terms of universal law. He was not a botanist, and made no effort to become one; but he formulated the law of evolution and illustrated its application to vegetable life. The genetic method has given us a new botany, and in the hand of the specialist is today giving us a continued revelation of the law of evolution in the plant kingdom. But if, on the other hand, Spencer is to be ranked as a philosopher and judged accordingly, he fares no better. Of the deeper problems of philosophy he had not even an intimation. He assumes the order of nature, and assumes experience as a part of that order. The more fundamental problem of how such an order of nature is possible, of how knowledge is possible, Spencer's doctrine of evolution does not touch. The real problem of Kant and of Hegel did not exist as a problem for Spencer. Then, when we take him on his own level, we find his first principles involving essential contradictions. He juggles, for example, with two systems of reality. Hume found it necessary to negate the reality of the world-order that he might identify reality with feeling. Spencer accepts both systems and passes from one to the other with the facility of an expert riding two horses. The critical student of the First Principles finds his chief difficulty arising from the confusion of these two opposing systems. An example of this double dealing is found in his well-known theory of the Unknowable. After identifying the real with an absolute Unknowable, which should once for all preclude any further reference to it, especially on the part of a philosophy of experience, Spencer proceeds in a later para- graph to define the real as "persistence in consciousness;" and on the basis of this assurance informs us that the Unknowable is one, not many; that it is the causal energy on which phenomena depend and from which they spring; that it* is omnipresent, persistent, unchangeable, etc., etc.; thus giving us, in Mr. Mill's happy phrase, "a prodigious amount of knowledge ^ Superintendence] HERBERT SPENCER 65 about the Unknowable." Then a scrutiny of these attributes of ultimate reality reveals the fact that it is both static and dynamic. The Unknowable as changeless absolute becomes on occasion a causal energy with a succession of changes paralleled by a succession of changes among appearances. These are a few examples of the fundamental inconsistencies upon which his system rests. These inconsistencies, however, are not surprising when we know that he was unacquainted with the history and the problems of reflective thought. But while we thus frankly admit that Spencer is not an authority in any science, and that the fundamental principles of his synthetic philosophy do not bear the test of philosophic criticism, it remains, nevertheless, that he was a vigorous and independent thinker, and that he will occupy a promi- nent place among that group of men who in science and scientific speculation made Victoria's reign illustrious. In what, then, does his service to modem thought consist? Without attempting to be exhaustive, I will suggest two pomts at which his service has been conspicuous. In the first place, his genius for broad generalization and his tremendous capacity for stating abstract truth in concrete form enabled him to bring together into one articulate system ideas, doctrines, domains of experience, which had developed independently and had stood apart. This synthesis of the sciences brought to consciousness new problems and new clues. The broader relations thus revealed by mutual cross-reference between phases of experience hitherto isolated gave to scientific activity at once a new stimulus and a new leverage. It is a significant fact that most of the young sciences just now manifesting so much of energy and yielding so much of promise spell their names with a hyphen; as witness physiological-psychology, psycho- physics, physical-chemistry, etc. And not only have new sciences been born but old sciences have been rejuvenated by this interrelationship. It is a long count from the old botany, with its herbarium of abstract plants, its arti- ficial descriptions and classifications, to the new botany, with its concrete living plant — a plant conceived as a member of a life-colony, a plant facing and solving the problems imposed upon it by the complex relationships of the environment, organic and inorganic, under which its life is being lived out. In like manner have not only the physical and biological sciences, but psy- chology and the social sciences, been quickened into larger life by this mutual co-operation, and the broader outlook which it yields. Then, to the specialist in a given field there comes from this conscious kinship, not only the larger meaning, but a larger criterion of truth. For we demand that experience hang together. And in so far as the worker in a special field finds that his contribution dovetails into the whole system of experience, he feels added confidence in its validity. The functional point of view in psychology, for example, derives support from the fact that it is paralleled by present tendencies in mathematical theory, in physical theory, in ethics, logic, and epistemology. 66 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta These are bare suggestions of the significance for modern thought of the free interplay between the various phases of experience within the larger synthetic view. It is not here claimed for Spencer that this result is the product of his genius. It is not the contribution of any single man. I do think it safe, however, to claim for Spencer's synthetic philosophy that at this point it has rendered conspicuous service. A second service to contemporary thought worthy of recognition Spencer rendered in formulating the theory of evolution, and using that as the unify- ing principle in his synthesis of the sciences. The notion of evolution is as old as Greek thought. In modern times Goethe had stated the law of devel- opment as progressive differentiation and subordination of parts in terms which strikingly resemble Spencer's own formulation. Hegel had given the logic of evolution and had applied it in a synthetic view of experience. The notion of development was in the air. But it remained for Darwin to dem- onstrate the theory as a working principle in biology, and for Spencer to formulate it, give it broad application, and make it current in popular as well as in scientific thought. These two men, supplementing each other in genius and method, have thus co-operated in establishing evolution as a working hypothesis in the domain of science, and have put every man, in whatever field of thought, under the necessity of reinterpreting his world from this point of view. Evolution once established as a general point of view, the genetic method is inevitable. This method in the hand of the specialist has developed into the most effective instrument of contemporary science. We should have had the genetic method without Spencer; but, again, our recognition is that of conspicuous service. Finally, it seems peculiarly fitting that this body should pay tribute to the memory of Herbert Spencer; for nowhere, perhaps, has his influence been more pronounced than in educational thought and practice. This influence has come not so much from his Essay on Education as from his system of thought as a whole. Here again it is the genetic method and the larger synthetic view that have been effective. It is easy to criticize his evaluation of classical culture, of the national tongue, the national history, the national literature; it is equally convenient, on the other hand, to com- mend his crusade against verbalism and education as a system of cram; to recognize his restatement and emphasis of the Pestalozzian principles of interest and education thru self-activity. But this indirect service to which I refer has affected education in a much more fundamental and organic way. My illustration of the contrast between the old and the new botany, with change of terms, finds application here. The abstract child of the older psychology, with its equipment of abstract faculties to be artificially devel- oped, has, in response to the genetic method and the larger synthesis, given place to the concrete child frankly recognized as a living organism, with a past and a future, carrying on its life-processes, like the plant, as a member Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE SOUTH 67 of a life-colony, and under conditions of environment which set for it prac- tical problems to be met and solved. The entrance of this concrete child upon the stage has forced upon educational theory a tremendous expansion. When the child was primarily a thinker and education an intellectual affair, the problem was relatively simple. But now we must see the child as a marvelously delicate mechanism organizing for efficient response to stimuli; and in this process we are seeking rational control. Or, viewing him at any moment as a bundle of developing instincts, we must interpret these tendencies in the light of both their backward and their forward reference; must state them, on the one side, in terms of the animal series, as revealing their origm and organic significance, and, on the other, in terms of civiliza- tion, as revealing the child's destiny as free personality. Education thus becomes something vastly broader than applied psychology, in the older sense of that term; it is applied physiology, applied biology, applied sociology. The most hopeful sign, perhaps, m modem progress is just in this rescue of the problem of education from the narrower sphere of the pedagog's pecu- liar interests by making it the problem of dynamic sociology, which it is. The same method which is giving us the concrete child is reveaHng the law of social progress, and the child as the key to that progress. The child thus becomes the focal center of all social interests. And education, as self- conscious evolution, as rational control in the most complex phase of all development, becomes, in Herbert Spencer's own words, "the subject which involves all othef subjects, and therefore the subject in which the education of everyone should culminate." EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE SOUTH CHARLES W. DABNEY, PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE, KNOXVILLE, TENN. Social evolution, like everything else in the universe, is continuous. As the southern civilization of today is the product of that of yesterday, so the civilization of the future will be the outgrowth of that of today. The present educational needs of southern people arise from circumstances which to a large extent grew out of peculiar conditions in the past. The schools for which we strive must, therefore, be built by southern men and women on the foundations already laid and in accordance with the established principles of southern civilization. In the old South there was a caste system of four general classes: the aris- tocracy of wealthy planters and slave-owners; the small farmers, living chiefly in the hills; the poor whites of the low country; and the African slaves. The number of the planter class is greatly exaggerated in the popular mind. The 68 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta body of the people belonged to the class of the small farmer, a sturdy yeomamy, who by energy and thrift sometunes broke into the upper class. The planter, however, domineered all classes, and to a great degree repressed the small farmer and the poor white man, filling the r61e of the feudal lord in his rela- tion to his poorer neighbors. We speak of the Civil War as a revolution, and it was a complete revolu- tion of our whole life, political, social, and economic; but to the scientific student of history this cataclysm was only a phase of the regular evolutionary process, a necessary step in the development of our institutions. It has served much the same purpose in our social evolution that the French Revolution served in the development of the European peoples; it led us to form a new conception of the rights and powers of the individual, be he lord of the land, small farmer, poor white man, or negro. True it is that the southern concep- tion of the rights of the individual is still far from ideal, but it is growing, and will continue to grow with the educational and economic improvement of the depressed classes. The war not only freed the black man, it freed the white man as well. It made a way for the small farmers, Uberated the poor white man from the bonds of a semi-feudal system, and established both for the first time in full citizenship. It also freed the minds and spirits of the aristocratic classes, and by throwing them upon their own resources made them a stronger and a better people. In setting free all classes of southern people the war cleared the way for the true democracy which will come when all the people are trained to the responsibihties of the new day. The old civilization, whose ruling class was an aristocracy of land and slaves, has given place to a political and indus- trial democracy with no ruling class. But herein lies our danger, and out of this fact grows the special necessity for a system of popular education which shall train all our citizens to think clearly and act fearlessly each for himself. Now, this growing conception of the rights and powers of the individual is accompanied by a growing consciousness of his need of preparation for all his functions, especially for the performance of his duties as a citizen. Witness the great conventions of colored people like the one held recendy at Tuskegee. Witness the poUtical uprising of the poor white man a few years ago under the Farmer's Alliance and the PopuUst party. Witness, also, the great movement for better schools now stirring the whole South. The plain white man has awakened and is pressing for the rights of his child, and to him we now look as oiu: chief supporter in this effort for the improvement of the schools. The actual development of such a system of free public schools has been long retarded by the conservatism of the aristocratic class which refused to recognize the new individual and held as long as possible to old institutions and ideals. It has been delayed further by the poverty of the people, by the sparseness and consequent isolation of the population, and by the absence of roads and other adequate means of communication; but this new concep- Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE SOUTH 69 tion of manhood has now caught the mind of the plain man, and will soon give rise to a great new system of education, supported by all the people for all the people. History teaches us that systems of education are even more dependent upon economic than upon political and social conditions. Political and social institutions are, in fact, largely the outgrowth of economic environment. It will help us, therefore, to get a better view of the situation in the South if we recall a few simple facts of its economic history. The industrial organization of the old South was largely rural. A system of slave labor compelled the South to remain almost exclusively an agricul- tural section. It drove out all other labor, and so banished all manufactures except those of the plantations. Most of the simple arts and industries were represented upon the old-time plantation. The spinning and weaving houses, the wagon and blacksmith shops, the carpenter and cooper shops, were the factories of those days. They were also the industrial schools of the South. As the white family was the only social unit, so the plantation with its slaves grouped around that family was the only industrial unit. Commercial centers there were, but there were almost no manufacturing towns. The old plantation was similar to the old English manor, a community in which the labor of the members supplied all their wants except the finer groceries, the broadcloth, the silks, and satins. My grandfather, an old Virginia planter, boasted that he ordinarily bought nothing except cotton, bar-iron, and wool hats. In a society built on these foundations, education and all forms of culture developed along strictly aristocratic lines. Tho numerically in the minority, the wealthy planter, with his intensely individualistic ideas, was the controlling force poUtically and socially; consequently he alone determined the forms of education. He employed private tutors for his children, and sent the older boys and girls to the North for their higher education. In some cases several families might combine to support a school, but it was a private institution still, and the upper classes looked down on the common school as a thing beneath them. Some of the states had a few schools for the poor, commonly called "poor schools" or "hedge schools," which did little good even for the classes they were designed to benefit. There were few teachers of southern birth in the country. It was a pro- fession not highly thought of, and the tutors of the children were either wan- dering adventures, or young persons from the North who were sometimes ordered along with the fine groceries and silks. A letter from an old South Carolina planter to his factor in Providence inclosed a long bill of goods whose last item was: "One school marm, not too young or good-looking, who can teach French and drawing." The South was greatly indebted to the young "Yankee school marm" and to her brother, frequently a graduate of Yale, Amherst, or Williams; their office was duly recognized, and they rarely failed, 70 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta if they remained long enough, to attain to a high social position and to become devoted southerners. This service of the northern school-teacher was a broadening influence for both North and South, and I doubt not, if the author of Unde Tont^s Cabin had taught school for a period on a Georgia plantation, instead of in a Connecticut village, she would have greatly modified many statements in her famous book. In such a society as this, with a population essentially rural and intensely individualistic, scattered over a country sparsely settled, without towns or any larger social units, it has taken a long time to develop the social spirit and the habit of co-operation, so necessary for the support of good public schools. When to these conditions was added the burden of establishing and maintaining a dupUcate system of schools for the two races, side by side in the same village or neighborhood, the difl&culties in the way of the public schools became greater than any people of equal power had ever faced. The struggle of the southern people with this problem will, when fully known, command the admiration of every student of history. I.et us next seek to learn something of the present educational condi- tions of the southern populations. In 1900, out of the 8,500,000 whites ten years of age and over in the eleven south Atlantic and Gulf states, includ- ing Tennessee and Arkansas, one million were illiterate. One-third of the illiterates of the United States are found in these states, which have, how- ever, only one-fifth of the population. Of the 5,000,000 blacks in the same states ten years of age and over, 2,500,000 were illiterate. In the same states, of 4,400,000 males twenty-one years of age and over, 1,200,000 were illiterate. More than one-half of all the illiterate males of voting age in the United States live in the South. Disfranchisement can be only a temporary and partial remedy for this awful condition. We can never build a true democ- racy from this kind of material. How about the children and their schools ? In the same southern states there were last year about 4,000,000 white and 2,500,000 black children of school age. Sixty-two per cent, only was enrolled in the schools. Only 45 per cent, of the school population was actually in school eighty to ninety days. The reports of the superintendents show that the average child who goes to school at all stops with the third grade, which means that he barely learns to read and figure a little. One white child in every five is left prac- tically illiterate, and one-half the negro children never really learn to read. No wonder that 24 per cent, of the grown people in these states, whites and blacks together, cannot read and write. Three terms of schooling, at best, is what we are giving the average child as preparation for citizenship in the great republic! How, then, but by universal education shall we qualify the members of the democracy for the discharge of their duties? No selection of persons to be educated is possible. When you limit education to any class, you sow discontent over all the land, and the ignorant portion of the population simply HL. Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE SOUTH 71 adds to the state's burden, rather than to its wealth and power. Besides, when we select a portion of the people to be educated, we are sure to neglect the very ones who most need training. In a democracy the free public school is the only efficient agent. There is no way to reach all those who need to be educated except by training all the children at the public expense. Universal education by the state is the solution of the southern problem. This was the doctrine of Jefferson, the prophet of our American democracy, and this principle is now embodied in the constitution and laws of every state in the Union. It remains for us to carry out this doctrine in practice. Schools must be provided for all the children, both whites and blacks, and, when we once have the schools, we must have compulsory laws to put the children in them. This is the supreme duty of the day. Four-fifths of the southern people live in the country. The vital ques- tion, therefore, is how to provide elementary rural schools which shall be within the reach of every child. Every other consideration is a minor one compared with this one of good elementary schools for the people of the rural districts. Matters of school legislation and organization, plans for con- soUdation and transportation of pupils, and other such details must be decided in accordance with local conditions. They need not be discussed here. The vital question for the South at this stage is that of more money for the schools. In schoolhouses costing $300 each, with teachers receiving an average sal- ary of $27 a month, we are giving the children in attendance 5 cents worth of education a day for eighty or ninety days in the year. Georgia paid 6 cents a child a day to the teachers in her **poor" schools seventy-five years ago. So long as these conditions prevail the money for the schools must be a chief consideration. The question as to whether the South should accept national aid in per- forming this national duty is an academic one at the present time, but since it has been recently raised by such authorities as the president of Harvard University at the North, and the president of the University of Georgia at the South, it may be well to mention it here. Any plan of national aid should provide, not a largess for the South, but a consistent, rational plan for uplifting the retarded and depressed popula- tions in all portions of the country. The people in some counties in Maine and in Kew York are as illiterate as those in counties in the southern Appa- lachians. This is truly a national problem, not one for the South alone; and we need, therefore, to take a broad view of it. Some persons speak of national aid to the states for the purpose of popu- lar education, as if it were aid from the outside which it would be humiliat- ing, or at least unwise, to accept. It is a characteristically southern and a noble sentiment that suggests this idea. But do we southern people fully realize that we are an inherent part of the government of the United States, and that all matters of national concern demand national consideration and 72 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta assistance? Is not the national treasury our treasury? Is not the money in it our money, put there in part by us ? Is not the negro as much a ward of the nation as the Indian ? If the nation provides for the education of the Indian, this wild child of the plain, is it not under an even greater obligation to provide for the education of the negro, our fellow-citizen in these states ? During the recent wars the South was deeply stirred by national feeling and took a large part in the struggle ior humanity and the redemption of the Cuban people. When we give the blood of our sons to the nation in a serv- ice of war for aliens, may we not honorably accept the aid of the national treasury in this greater service of peace for our own children ? But some may fear that in national aid there lurks danger of federal interference with our state systems of schools. This, of course, we cannot permit. The right of the state to the control of its schools and all their affairs is a principle that has never been questioned in the national councils. Andrew Jackson himself favored the distribution of the accumulated national funds to the states for the purposes of education. There is a precedent already in the appropriation of national funds to the states for the support of their agricultural colleges and stations. No attempt at federal control of those institutions has been made or is likely to be made. When measures of national aid are actually proposed, if they ever are, oiu: representatives will be sure to maintian firmly the rights of the states to control their schools thru their own oflScials in accordance with their own methods. It will be done in this way or not at all. Methods can also be found to aid needy communities without paralyzing their powers, either of initiative or support. Assistance can be used in such a way as to arouse their initiative in improving educational conditions and in encouraging local support of the schools. National aid should be given in proportion to the needs of the people as shown by school population, illiter- acy, and poverty, and in proportion to their sacrifices to help themselves. While we are helping the Porto Ricans and Filipinos to establish their schools, we should aid our own neglected peoples wherever they need assistance. It is not a new Blair Bill that we want; we rejected that long ago, and I hope, for my part, that that particular measure may never again be brought forward, but that some plan may be adopted which shall make the wealth of the whole nation contribute to the education and general social improve- ment of all peoples who, by reason of their poverty, their isolation, their race or recent condition of servitude, or from any other cause, have not been able to take their place in the grand army of American citizenship, or to catch step with the march of modern progress. With these principles accepted, we need not add anything on the subject of the education of the negro. Our belief in universal education necessitates a belief in the education of the negro, for it presupposes that every human being, white or black, has a right to be educated. God has a purpose in Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE SOUTH 73 every soul he sends into the world. The poorest, most helpless infant is not merely an accident, a few molecules of matter, or a few eons of energy merely, but a "plan of God," as Phillips Brooks has said, a part of the divine plan of creation, and as such deserves to be trained for its work. This, it seems to me, is the fundamental argument for a universal education — that every child has a right to a chance in Hfe, because God made him and made him to do something in the universe. Every inteUigent southerner now beUeves that the right kind of education makes the negro a more thrifty, a more useful, a more moral, and a more law-abiding citizen, as it does every other man. Every southern state is now committed by its constitution and laws to the principle of negro edu- cation, and, in their legislatures and courts, they have, so far, successfully resisted all proposals to divide the school funds, or to reduce the resources of the schools of the colored race to the taxes paid by the people of that race. If we disfranchise the negro, it only makes more binding our duty to prepare him for the proper use of the prerogative of citizenship. In fact, the dis- franchisement acts are all working to compel his education. The southern people will be fair to the negro in these matters. Any other course of con- duct will not only dishonor, but will injure, their own race. The chief question now is not the kind of education we shall give these people, whether exclusively industrial, or partly literary, but it is the simple elementary training of the people of a child-race to perform the ordinary duties of Ufe and to become decent American citizens. It will be time enough to discuss the merits of industrial education, as against those of the higher education, when we have provided good elementary schools and teachers for the negro children. With or without national aid, the southern people will find a way to educate the negroes. It is merely a question of time and methods; but we will do our duty to these our childhood friends, the laborers in our fields and in our homes. We people of the South have already led the African slave to heights which he never could have reached without our assistance, and so, in freedom, let us lead him on thru the school to character, usefulness, and prosperity. In the words of that splendid young hero and prophet of Georgia, whose statue stands here in these streets to remind, southern men in all gen- erations of a life spent for the salvation of his beloved land: Let us make the negro know that he, depending more than any other on the pro- tection and bounty of his government, shall find in alliance with the best elements of the whites the pledge of safe and impartial administration. And let us remember this: that whatever wrong we put upon him shall return to punish us. Whatever we take from him in violence, that is unworthy and shall not endure. What we steal from him in fraud, that is worse. But what we win from him in sympathy and affection, what we gain in his confiding alliance, and confirm in his awakening judgment, that is precious and shall endure — and out of it shall come healing and peace. 74 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta n CHARLES D. MCIVER, PRESIDENT OF STATE NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE, GREENSBORO, N. C. [abstract] Local taxation, better school supervision, and stronger local educational leadership are the three great needs of education in the southern states. One hundred and fifty dollars a year for school-teachers and less than five hundred dollars a year for county superintendents, on the average, tell the story of school inefficiency, and no elaboration is needed. Whatever other improvements are needed, and however desirable they may be, the length of the school term, and the salaries of teachers and superintendents, must be increased. In order to discuss the question of educational needs in the South intelli- gently, the following facts and conditions must be kept in mind: 1. Area. — The area of the southern states is about 800,000 square miles — sixteen times the area of New York state. 2. Urban and rural population. — In all this territory there are only about twenty-five cities with a population above 30,000, and only 150 other cities whose population is over 5,000. Three states — North Carolina, Florida, and Mississippi — have no city in the former class, and four or five others have only one such city. Of the i ,800,000 people in North Carolina, i ,600,000 live in the country or in the villages of less than 2,000 population, leaving only 200,000 living in the cities and towns of more than 2,000 inhabitants. The proportion of urban population is a little lower in North Carolina than in the entire South. Mississippi is even more rural than North Carolina. 3. Local tax exists practically in all urban and in no rural communities. — In practically every community with more than 2,000 inhabitants a local school tax has been voted by the people to supplement the school fund pro- vided by the state levy and otherwise, and the result is public schools in these communities that compare favorably with those in communities of similar size elsewhere; but probably not 5 per cent, of the rural communities in the South have voted a local school tax. There are comparatively few counties that have voted a special tax on all their property. At least six states have no county that has levied such a tax on all its property. When it is remembered that wherever satisfactory public schools exist in this country, north or south, east or west, whether in urban or rural com- munities, from one-half to nine-tenths of the school revenue is raised by local taxation, the above conditions appear in their true light. 4. The county superintendent. — What is needed most urgently now is stronger men to lead the people in the rural sections to do what their neigh- bors in the cities and towns have already done. Unfortunately, ever since the Revolution, which was fought on a tax issue, the loudest-talking politi- cal leader has taught the people to hate the word "tax;" not any particular ■A4 'ji m-.*_ Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE SOUTH 75 tax, but just "tax.'* To persuade the people that the levying of any tax is a profitable investment demands more power than is possessed by the average county superintendent. The average salary of the county superintendent in several southern states is less than $300; the average in Georgia is $480. It ought to be said in this connection that there are some strong superinten- dents, and in their counties public schools are growing in favor and in strength; but $400 or $500 a year will not secure the services of a strong man for all of his time, nor the best service of the strongest man for even a part of his time. Men are now needed in these positions who can teach the truth that an indus- trious community may become rich by levying certain taxes for its own improvement; that taxation is one of the chief characteristics of civilization; and that the savage pays no tax. The adoption of local taxation for schools is the fundamental need of the South, and men must be secured who can persuade the people to vote this tax upon themselves. A persistent, tactful campaign alone can do this. 5. Salaries and school terms. — The fact that the average salary of the southern public-school teacher in the rural districts is only about $150 a year, and that the annual school term is only a little more than one hundred days, gives painful emphasis to all that has been said concerning the necessity for a local tax. There is nothing within sight of the audience in this hall which a dollar-a-day laborer would be allowed to work upon, except the brains of the people. 6. Strong educational leadership thru county superintendents demanded. — If strong superintendents could be secured for ten counties in each of the southern states, it would soon bring about a revolution in education in those counties, and their example would be followed by other counties. If the state legislatures, or if philanthropic funds now being invested in the South, could be used to bring about this result, the educational dividends from the investment would be enormous and almost immediate. I have seen the result of such an investment in one county. By special local aid the salary of a certain county superintendency was increased from $800 to $1,600, and an experienced superintendent of teachers was secured last July. Since he began his work, the annual school revenue of his county has been increased, by local taxes, voted, more than $3,000, and it is probable that within a year the annual school income of the county will have been increased by about $10,000, which is 33J per cent, more than it was when he took charge of the schools. An able, tactful superintendent will conduct a constant campaign for local taxation, and in addition he will raise the standard of the teaching profession in his county, not only by examination of teachers and inspection of schools, but also by conducting a teachers' institute or teachers' school annually for several weeks for each race. The securing of strong county superintendents everywhere would be the surest method of training the teachers, white and black, who are destined to teach a large majority of the 76 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta children in the South for the next ten years. It should be remembered in this connection that the majority of rural school-teachers, and perhaps even of urban school-teachers, thruout the country have never attended a normal school. I will use Massachusetts as an illustration. According to the official report of that state in 1900, we find that only 43 per cent, of the public- school teachers, urban and rural, had attended any normal school, and only 36 per cent, had graduated at a normal school. In 1890 these figures were 35 per cent, and 29 per cent, respectively. This is very significant and perti- nent when it is remembered that Massachusetts has a total population of nearly 3,000,000, with a rural population of only about 200,000, while North Carolina has a total population of about 2,000,000, with an wrftan population of only about 200,000, It must be remembered, too, that Massachusetts has thirteen state normal schools, and has had at least one normal school since the days of Horace Mann. Until the term of the rural schools is at least eight months, most of the teachers employed in them wiU have had no normal training when beginning their work, and must depend for that training largely upon their county superintendents. The local tax necessary to secure an eight-month school term also largely depends upon the county superintendent's ability to lead a campaign among the people. All this emphasizes the fact that the strategic point in the educational development in the public-school systems of the South is occupied by the county superintendent. THE FACTORY CHILD LAWTON B. EVANS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, AUGUSTA, GA. This is the day of problems in education. The city-school problem is solved, except the elimination of the personal equation. The normal-school problem is almost behind us. We are about saying the last word of what should be in the nural schools; and the problem of the negro has been dis- cussed to a standstill. There are three problems for the southern educators: that of the fields, which is the question of the rural school; that of labor, which is the question of the negro; that of the factory, which is the question I present to you today. The first of these questions has been discussed until it is threadbare; the second is in an inextricable tangle of contradictory practices and proposi- tions; the third, no less important, is pressing upon us for our consideration. This latter problem is present wherever there are factories or mills, and a distinctive population known as operatives. In those sections of our country where no child-labor laws prevail the question is how to get them passed by the legislature. In those sections where child-labor laws prevail, and com- pulsory school attendance does not, the question is how to lure the idler out Superintendence] THE FACTORY CHILD 77 of the streets and into the schools. In those sections where child-labor laws and compulsory school attendance both exist the question is what kind of education is best. • The factory child always will be and must be. Therefore we should not educate him out of the mill and into other activities; for that is avoiding, and not solving, the question. Rather we should make of him a better citizen, a happier man, and a more capable operative. To prove the importance of this problem for those of us who work in southern schools, allow me to call your attention to the remarkable shift of manufacturing emphasis in the last decade. The center of cotton-mill industry is moving to the cotton fields. In 1890 the South operated 26.4 per cent, of the total number of cotton factories in the Union; in 1900 it operated 41.1 per cent. Between 1890 and 1900 there was an increase of the nimiber of cotton mills in the United States equal to 7.5 per cent.; in the South the increase was 67.4 per cent. During that decade the number of spindles increased in the entire country 34 per cent.; in the South the increase was 176.6 per cent. The number of cotton wage-earners in cotton mills in ten years for the whole country increased 36.1 per cent.; in the South the increase was 167.7 P^^ cent. In wages paid during those years there was a general increase of 28.9 per cent.; in the South the increase was 145.9 per cent. In the amount of capital employed there was a general increase of 30.2 per cent.; in the» South the increase was 13 1.4 per cent. In the whole Union the increase of the value of mill products was 24.2 per cent.; in the South the increase was 128.6 per cent. It is known and honored of men that capital is finding its way into south- em enterprises, and that mills are building on every stream; and the sweet hum of industry betokens an awakened and prosperous people. The mill operative is exclusively white. He has generally come from the farm, which he abandoned because it was unprofitable, and because the allurement of ready pay, steady work, indoor occupation, and the likelihood of making every member of his family productive was too great a tempta- tion for him to resist. So the factories are building at the expense of the fields, and the increasing cry of labor for the farm intensifies the already acute feeling regarding the proper destiny of the southern negro. One of the incentives that draw the operatives to the mills is the fact that children, generally from twelve years and upward, are allowed to work and gain a small amount that adds to the family income. In many instances children of tender age are received into the mills and allowed to do work far beyond their strength. In some instances children have been allowed to work at night, and the only sunshine they knew was that which came to them upon the sabbath. The heartless greed and often the laziness of the parents are at fault in large measure. They beg the authorities to receive the children in the mills. They claim that their necessities demand it; that the children had better be 78 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta in the mills than on the streets; that they are often unprotected at home. The mill authorities generally prefer not to employ children, and would in most instances gladly dispense with them; but they allow it at the pressure of the insistent parent. And so the unprotected child is caught between the cupidity of his parent and the apprehension of the mill-owners, and his life is ground into a joyless, hopeless, pitiable existence. In all agitation for better child-labor laws the child is the last thing con- sidered. It is thought better to have more mills and to make larger dividends, than to care for the workers. The lawmakers are beseiged by the mill- owners to let things alone. The delegates declare that the operatives prefer to decide some questions for themselves, and all the agitation for reform is laid at the door of a few philanthropists who take upon themselves the imper- tinent office of meddling with other people's affairs. And so the wheels whir and tiun, and by them stand the tired little workers, who drop into their beds at night to forget their troubles, and awake to other days of debasing monot- ony. The slaughter of the innocents goes on, the insatiable thirst of the capi- talist is unslaked, the greed of the ignorant laborer is unrebuked, and there creeps about the reeking, withering mill the child with the pale and old- looking face and stooping shpulders that tell of long and hot hours of work, of little food and that badly cooked, of insufficient sleep and that in an unven- tilated room. And so after many years there comes about a startling condition of igno- rance among mill operatives, of general listlessness to other things in life, and an indifference to any of the comforts or joys of living. The children know only work and sleep. They have never learned to live. I know of no popu- lation apparently so joyless and helpless as that surrounding the ordinary mill. Nearly all the children are allowed to chew tobacco, to smoke cigar- ettes, and know how to swear. Not long ago I accosted a group of boys near a mill and challenged them for tobacco. They responded, every one. and one confessed he had been chewing since he was six years old. Aside from the moral danger arising from this condition, there is an industrial one. Children put to work at tender years, at a monotonous and unvarying machine, develop a fatigue for work and a distaste for it that beget idleness in later life. Work with them is something to escape from, since it has no joy with it. They have worked out and wasted their energies before they were mature and before there was any power of renewal. The enlightened sentiment of the world has come to recognize the propo- sition that the most productive and profitable labor is that which is happy and content, well cared for, with comfortable conditions for work, and whole- some occupation for the leisure hours. It is expensive to neglect or depress or subdue the working force. It begets carelessness, inability, stupidity, and revolution. We have come to know that the happiness of labor is the trust of capital, and that under no other conditions can a people prosper, or the best product be obtained from their efforts. There is a duty that is ■a:. Superintendence] THE FACTORY CHILD 79 owing to the homes, the children, the comforts, the amusements, and the education of the mill operatives resting upon the mill-owners, and upon those who have to do with the training of mill children. Those of us who have worked with this problem know that many parents enter the mills at daylight, leaving the children to rise, eat their breakfast, and make off to school or to play in the streets. The very young ones are the first problem, and that is solved by the kindergarten. If the kindergarten has any righteous work anywhere, and has a mission on earth, and a mes- sage to the little ones, surely the best place for its deliverance is in the crowded districts surrounding a mill. There they are, the tots from four to six years of age, in everybody's way — a problem to the home, a menace on the streets, waiting to be washed and cleaned and cared for. If it be true that our lives are set or bent for good or evil by the time we are seven years of age, the rescue of children under school age in mill settlements presses for consideration. The education of the school is only one phase of the training we get for life, and in school there should be emphasized those things which the busi- ness and home neglect. In the study of mill homes and children we observe that they are oppressed with much machinery. They know little else than the whir of wheels, the noise of loom and spindles, and they are beaten down by the click of the shuttle, as it weaves back and forth into the gray warp of their lives a filling of unutterable dullness. They want relief from tools and to get away from the sound of wheels. They want schools to give them that which life otherwise would not know. The emphasis of their education should be placed upon the spiritual rather than upon the industrial side of fife. They need the rounding influence of a training in habits of neatness and order, of love of books, flowers, and decorations, and of resources for the occupation of their leisure hours. They need to be inspired with hope and desire. They need to learn how to play, how to smile, how to love, how to be cheerful, and content. I have seen them enter school at the beginning of the year, with sullen, downcast, fearful faces, feeling that all the world was against them and school was a place of distrust. Their minds were bound, hard, sterile. At the end of a few months they learned that we meant no harm, and began to take notice and respond. They had awakened to better things. At last we have seen them enterprising noble things for others, preparing decorations for their homes; and aU with the frank, smiling, upturned face of the free. Unquestionably, domestic science is one of the studies most needed in all schools. The training in how to keep a house is of the most vital importance to girls; and the training in how to support one and to stay in it with pleasure is equally important for boys. The simple science of how to keep a house clean, how to decorate its walls, how to make it cheerful, how to cook and serve food, how to make up a bed, how indeed to live at home instead of staying in a house, is vital to the welfare of all people. Public schools, with 8o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta their limitations, can reach this problem only indirectly, but the home train- ing school is as necessary an adjunct to the mill school as is the kindergarten. The success of the experiments in Columbus, Ga., in conductiiig a school for home-keeping and domestic science shows the value of teaching children that which they have no other opportunity to learn. Along with such instruction will come better and neater dressing for boys and girls, more ribbon, more flowers, cleaner bodies and souls, and a greater self-respect which is at the basis of all culture and of all morals. When we can get the men and women to love their homes, take a pride in them, respect themselves and their surroundings, we have gone a long way toward redeeming them. There must necessarily drift into the mill communities many persons whose early advantages were Hmited, and who have grown to man's estate without education. They must work all day, and for such a night school should be provided. Into the night school should be admitted only those of mature years, who could not find admittance into the day schools. These night schools should deal with the most necessary and elementary education, and should teach the illiterate how to read and write and calculate the simple problems of everyday life. We have kept the record for many years of the results of night-school work among mill operatives, and while we register some failures, the large majority of cases have been able to earn higher wages and live in more comfortable and respectable surroundings. In conjunction with the night school we have experimented largely with the free lecture course. These lectures will be on all sort of subjects, designed to entertain and instruct — lectures on travel, simple science lectures, humor- ous lectures, anything indeed that will lift their souls out of the gloom of per- petual and uninteresting labor. Likewise a library has been established in connection with the school, with books to be carried home by the children and read to their parents; also a reading-room, open certain nights, with papers, magazines, and games, as a place to spend those dangerous hours that we call the leisure hours. So, if we can realize, as they have at the National Cash Register Co. at Dayton, Ohio, that the comfort and happiness of the laborers add to the value of the mill's output, that a contented employee is one of the sources of a dividend, and that the way to raise a prosperous mill population is to begin with the children, we shall be face to face with the problem and its answer. And the child will become grown — knowing how to have a decent home, clean and well ordered; how to have an abundance of wholesome, simple food, well cooked and neatly served; how to care for bodily wants and spirit- ual nature; how to love plants and flowers and music; how to dress neatly and becomingly; and, above all, how to exercise that restraint and self-respect which is fundamental in all true spiritual establishment. Then the mills wiU not grind at the expense of the children, and lives will not be sacrificed to increase profits, but a healthy, upright, contented Superintendence] ETHICAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION 8 1 population, with readiness for labor and resources for leisure, will add their voices to the music of the mills and swell the mighty diapason of a prosperous peace. THE ETHICAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION WALTER B. HILL, CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA, ATHENS, GA. The text for this paper is to be found in the following statement: THIS IS A CHRISTIAN NATION If we pass to a view of American life, as expressed by its laws, its business, its cus- toms, and its society, we find eveiywhere a clear recognition of the truth that this is a religious people. Among other matters, note the following: the form of oath universally prevailing, concluding with an appeal to the Almighty; the custom of opening sessions of all deliberative bodies and most conventions with prayer; the prefatory words of all wills, "In the name of God, Amen;" the laws respecting the observance of the sabbath, with the general cessation of secular business, and the closing of courts, legislatures, and other similar public assemblies on that day; the churches and church organizations which abound in every city, town, and hamlet; the multitude of charitable organizations exist- ing everywhere under Christian auspices; the gigantic missionary associations, with general support, and aiming to establish Christian missions in every part of the globe. These, and many other matters which might be noticed, add a volume of unofficial declaration to the mass of organic utterances that this is a Christian nation. These words, which sound like the language of some bishop or doctor of divinity, are taken from a decision of the Supreme Court of the United States.' The "organic utterances" to which the paragraph refers are set forth in the same opinion with great fullness, being taken from the language of the early charters of the colonies and the constitutions of the states. The Supreme Court adopts as its own the decision of the state courts that Chris- tianity is a part of the common law of the land. The case arose on the construction of an act of Congress, and the principle of interpretation adopted is that "no purpose of action against religion can be imputed to any legis- lation, state or national, because this is a religious people." The Supreme Court of the United States — the living voice of the Con- stitution— ^has thus declared that the nation is in a legal aspect a Christian nation. If so, its public functions necessarily partake of the same character. Public education is one of these governmental functions. The adminis- tration of justice is another public function. In a Christian nation such administration is Christian. Let us first examine this contention carefully with reference to the administration of justice. An analysis will help us to deal with the main point, as it affects public education in the United States. THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE IS CHRISTIAN What is meant by the statement that in this country the administration of justice is Christian ? We have already seen that the Supreme Court has » 143 U. S. 457. 82 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta adopted and approved the doctrine that Christianity is part of the common law. This does not mean that Christianity and the law are coextensive; on the con- trary, we know that there are many police and sanitary regulations — such as municipal ordinances against expectoration in public places, or building wooden tenements within fire limits — that are devoid of moral quality. On the other hand, we know that there are heinous moral offenses — such as ingratitude, avarice, impurity of thought — over which the law assumes no jurisdiction. If we use a diagram to represent the state of the case, we might draw a circle within an ellipse. The space within the circle — and thus within the ellipse — ^would represent the large domain in which law and morality, Christian morality, are coextensive; while the respective ends of the ellipse outside of the circle would represent the domain already mentioned in which they are not coextensive. This circle, or common ground, it is which supports the announcement of the court that Christianity is a part of the law of the land; and with the progress of society this circle is expanding, for the growth of the law is always in the direction of ethical enlargement. The lawyer who stands before the jury of American citizens invokes in his appeals to their consciences the maxims of Christian justice, so far as they are distinct from or an advance upon the maxims of pagan justice. The judges, in finding a ratio decidendi in the niunerous cases not directly con- trolled by judicial precedent, look for it in the principles of Christian ethics, as distinct from Confucian, Buddhist, Mohammedan, or naturalistic ethics. Does this violate any right of conscience ? Has the Chinaman just cause of complaint if in a controversy in the courts of this land the judges refuse to enforce the maxims of Confucius? Can the Mohammedan complain that the Koran is not recognized in the case to which he is a party, as the source of ethical rules that define justice ? For such grievances the American has but one answer. If you want Confucian or Moslem justice, you must go to China or to Turkey to obtain it. Historically and legally, this is a Chris- tian nation. Its character, its genius, is Christian; and its administration of justice necessarily partakes of that character. The analogy may be carried farther. I ask your patient consideration of these prolegomena; for we are now upon solid, undisputed, groimd, and the object is to prepare the way for the less accepted application of the same principles to public education. We raise again the question: How far is the administration of justice in this country Christian ? In a democratic coimtry the law comes from the people. This is not legal fiction; it is fact. Legis- lation is by the representatives of the people, but legislation plays a very small part in the administration of justice, as compared with the evolution of the law thru the courts. How does this evolution go on ? Whence does it start ? It starts with the people. Some citizen thinks that he has a legal right in his dispute with his neighbor, or that a wrong has been done him for which he wants redress. Observe that here is the beginning-point: the notion of some private individual about a right or a wrong. If he has no Superintendence] ETHICAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION 83 such notion, if he is too ignorant to conceive it, or too doubtful or indifferent or timorous to act upon it, there will never be a case or a trial, or a decision. But if he believes in his own sense of justice, he will take his crude concep- tions to a legal adviser, and in the lawyer's ojQ&ce the legal right will be can- vassed and investigated, as well as it can be done in an ex parte examination. If the coimsel advises the assertion of the right, the controversy becomes a case, and then in open court, with both sides as parties in the presence of a disinterested tribunal, the whole case is investigated and finally issues in a decision which is the rule, not only for the parties in that case, but for all parties who may ever have a like case. The process may be illustrated by gold-mining, where the crude ore mixed with earth is brought to the stamping-mills, and the final outcome is the dollar of the mint, the current coin of the realm. Now, the crude ore in the process is made up of the crude ethical notions of the people as to their rights and wrongs. Unless such notions are set into self-activity, no lawyer's advice is sought, no judge's ruling pronoimced. In this sense, then, the law originates with the people, and in a democratic community the law represents at any given time the social standard of justice prevailing at that time. Now, the religion of the people is the principle source of popular notions as to right and wrong. By forming and influencing these popular conceptions, the churches of the land, its corporate religious organizations, play an enormous part in the evolution of social justice. And just to the extent that any community is a Christian community the administration of justice will be Christian. It is no more certain that a river will be made up of water from springs that supply its tributaries than it is certain that the stream of justice will emanate from, and will represent, the ethical sense of right and wrong prevailing among the people who constitute the state. PUBLIC EDUCATION LIKEWISE CHRISTIAN All this, I now submit, applies to that other pubhc function with which we are specially concerned — education. Christianity is certainly no less a part of the education than it is of. the law of the land. Its materials are suffused with Christian conceptions. Geography cannot be taught in a . nation where Christianity is the prevailing reUgion without bringing out the substantial identity between this system and the higher civilization — the most potent argument of apologetics. History is, as Froude has well said, "the voice of God sounding across the centuries the laws of right and wrong," and it cannot be taught in Christendom without a Christian interpretation. The weekly recurring holidays of Sunday, and the annual holidays of Thanks- giving, Christmas, and Easter, make a reciuring religious impression. The situation is illustrated by the story of a father who, in a spirit not hostile to religion, but desiring to institute an experiment, determined that he would keep away all Christian prepossessions from his boy's mind — ^preserving his mind in youth as tabula rasa, so that when he arrived at the age of reason • 84 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [AUanta he could address himself without bias to the consideration of the subject. The father found that he would have to keep the boy shut in at home, for the lad could not walk abroad without seeing the spires of splendid buildings called churches, whose character and meaning he would wish explained. The newspaper must be excluded, or else the very year of publication, anno domini, would disclose the fact that a significant event in history had come to be an era from which men counted the calendar of time. In other words, the father soon realized that the subject of the experiment must be blind, deaf, .and dumb — a price he was unwilling to pay for so doubtful an advan- tage as was sought. To state the situation in other words, the enveloping atmosphere of education in a Christian state and nation is Christian. But the chief influence of this character is yet to be noticed. It is in discipline. If it were possible to separate education into the two divisions of knowledge taught and conduct inculcated; if we were denied the privilege of blending the training of intelligence and the training of character; if we were put to the necessity of surrendering one or the other, I suppose no one would hesitate for a moment to say: "We wiU sacrifice the knowledge of the schools and keep their discipline." Illiteracy, fearful as it would be, is preferable to anarchy. Now, the discipline of education in a Christian land is Christian. Discipline requires, in the first place, personal abstinence from evil practices; and, in the second place, it regulates the conduct of individual pupils in rela- tion to their fellow-pupils by the principles of Christian ethics; not ideally, of course, but with such practical approximation as is possible under existing conditions. To be effective, discipline must not be coercive, but must win the affection and the will. If the child never heard in school one word colored by moral sentiment, he could not possibly pass through its discipline without training in individual and altruistic morality; and the morality is that of the Christian type as distinguished from other types. The general view here presented finds the support of actual testimony in the replies of nineteen college presidents made to a questionnaire sent out by the Outlook. These replies justify the conclusion that public-school students who go to college exhibit as high a type of character as those who come from private or church schools.^ When, therefore, we hear the cry for "Christian education," our answer must be that given to the crew of the vessel which signaled to a passing ship that they were in want of water. Without knowing it, the distressed crew had drifted into the waters at the mouth of the Amazon, and the only help they needed was given in the words signified in the reply: "Let down your buckets." RELATION OF CHURCH AND STATE EDUCATION But usually the cry for Christian education means sectarian education; that is. Christian education plus an element of distinctively sectarian instruc- tion, which the state is forbidden by public policy and by written constitutions X Outlook, Vol. LXXVI, No. 2. k-iA. Superintendence] ETHICAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION 85 to supply. The precise situation is this: The two most important organi- zations of civil society are the church and the state. Each is bound by the law of its life to educate. A democratic state must educate, because intelli- gence is necessary to its existence, and thus education is a self -protective necessity to the state. The church must educate or perish, for any church that does not beUeve itself to be the depository of religious truth so essential and so vital as to justify that churches separate organization, and so essential and so vital as to prompt missionary zeal for its propagation, is dead or dying. Unless the state and the church undergo radical transformation beyond any present power of prediction, both must continue to educate; and those who expect either church or state to abdicate this function are victims of vain expectation. No true patriot would be willing to cancel either of these two great forms of education from our public Ufe. We in America are prepared to understand the correlation and harmony of these dual systems by our dual system of federal and state government, each discharging its separate func- tions, and yet both working in co-ordination. When we were using the administration of justice as an illustration, it was stated that law in a demo- cratic state represented the social standard of justice and really emanated from the people. It is an ethical barometer which registers the public con- cept of justice. To change the figure, law at any given time is a composite photograph of the mental images of justice in the bosoms of its citizens. So precisely education will always represent in a democratic state the social standard of intelligence. The people mirror themselves in their schools. The churches, by reason of their high ethical and spiritual mission, power- fully affect the standard of public opinion and conduct. They are the saving salt of society, and if their members are concerned for Christian education, they have the satisfaction of knowing that, while they are keeping churph education sectarian, as it necessarily must be, they are powerfully aiding to keep state education Christian. So long as the fires of pure religion bum on the altars of the church, so long will its glow be transfused in the teaching and training of all the schools. It would seem that Christian people ought to rejoice in their opportunity to influence public education in the ways which have been pointed out. Especially should this be true of Protestant churches, which, by general acceptance of the public schools, have practically abdicated the function of church education during the plastic period of child- hood and early youth. THE AGNOSTIC ATTITUDE We have now reached the great paradox of our subject. In this Christian nation religion cannot be taught in the public schools. One court (Wiscon- sin) has decided that the Bible cannot be used in them, even by reading without comment; another court (Nebraska) has decided that it cannot be used as a part of religious exercises. If an intelKgent visitor from another sphere, to whom we sometimes appeal for an a priori judgment, should be confronted with this problem, he would say at once: ** Certainly, I under- 86 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta stand this. It is because among your citizens there are some who are agnos- tics and some who may be opposd to religion, and they interpose their objec- tions against these practices." But this natural inference would not be correct. Mr. Huxley, the great protagonist of agnosticism, in a well-known passage has advocated the use of the Bible in the public schools: I have always been strongly in favor of secular education, in the sense of education without theology, but I must confess I have been no less seriously perplexed to know by what practical measures the religious feeling, which is the essential basis of conduct, was to be kept up, in the present utterly chaotic state of opinion on these matters, without" the use of the Bible. I wish that space permitted the introduction of the entire paragraph. It is important to notice that Mr. Huxley advocates the use of the Bible in the schools, not as literature, but, as he says in the opening sentence, as a prac- tical measure to keep alive religious feeling. Renan is quoted as having expressed a substantially similar view. No living writer has shown more genuine concern for Christian education than Mrs. Humphrey Ward. She has uttered an almost impassioned plea in its behalf. In the April number, 1903, of the International Journal 0} Ethic Sy^ Ellen Darwin has a striking article entitled **The Religious Train- ing of Children by Agnostics. " She earnestly deprecates the danger that an agnostic parent may cause his children to ** suffer, as it were, a spiritual blight by cutting them off from the spiritual life and traditions of mankind. " She counsels such parents to say to their children: The world is shut to you, if you do not understand and feel the beliefs of mankind. ... Unless you have an insight into the higher spiritual life of man, repellant and distorted on the surface, the best part of life is closed to you. THE BARRIER OF SECTARIANISM The planetary visitor would open wide his eyes at these amazing utter- ances, and ask whence then came the objections to education in the **best part of life. " He would open his eyes wider at the reply that it is sectarian Christianity that stands in the way; and this reply receives an astonishing emphasis in the fact that, so far as the record discloses the motives of the complaining parties, every law case in which a rule of exclusion or limitation on the use of the Bible has been invoked has been brought, not by an agnostic or infidel, objecting to religious instruction, but by a sectarian, objecting that the instruction was not in accord with the tenets of his sect. This is the situation which will some day bring the blush of shame to the most bigoted of sectarians. It looks back to the past, to the period of the Middle Ages, described by Judge Bleckley, "when every good man thought it his duty to burn some man who was better than himself. " In those days each ortho- doxy said to every "other-doxy": Quisquis qui credit aliter « Hunc damnamus aetemaliter. Happily the old order changeth. As far back as 1873 the Protestant I Vol. XITI, p. 269. Superintendence] ETHICAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION 87 denominations united in an Evangelical Alliance, and no representative of any one of them felt disloyalty to its special traditions because he spoke under a motto (printed across the stage) which announced: "unity in things essential; liberty in things doubtful; charity in all things." The most significant sign of the times in the direction of Christian tolerance and unity is in the growth of the Young Men's Christian Association. The inevitable tendency of such a movement will be to discover and to emphasize the vital and essential in religion. There are some college communities in which, I am informed, the Roman Catholic young men have united with the Protestants, and Hebrew students have enrolled themselves as associate members. One of the most important Association buildings in the southern states was presented to the young men of the city by a Jew. COMPROMISE ON A MINIMUM? The question may be raised: Is it now possible to find some common ground of belief which may be the basis of religious teaching ? The supreme court of Wisconsin, which has rendered the most radical of all the decisions against the use of the Bible in the public schools, indicates that this might be legally done. The court defined sectarian instruction as "instruction in doctrines believed in by some sects and rejected by others," and as an instance of a doctrine not sectarian refers to that of "the existence of a Supreme Being of infinite wisdom, power, and goodness, and that it is the highest duty of all men to adore, and obey, and love him. " Now it may be asked: Why not find the irreducible minimum of belief and use it as the basis of common agreement for religious instruction ? Might not the parties agree on what Dr. Martineau has called the three fundamental postulates of religion, which he has thus expressed: The universe which includes and enfolds us round is the life-dwelling of an eternal mind; this world of ours is the scene of a moral government incipient, but not yet complete; and the upper zones of human affection, above the clouds of self and passion, take us into the sphere of a divine communion. There is certainly no religion extant which would dispute these elementary propositions, but the scheme of finding by elimination the residuum of behef and proceeding with religious instruction to that extent is liable to the fatal objection that, according to the beUef of some of the churches, this residuum is not religious truth at all, except as interpenetrated with the peculiar tenets which are excluded by the compromise. The English Education Act of 1870 seems to have been framed by Mr. Foster on the conception that, if all the differences of English Christendom were stricken out, there would be found the beating heart of a common Christianity; but the difficulty of the view as a working scheme was perceived by the astute mind of Dr. Martineau long before the agitation emerged in the compHcated legislation of 1903. It will be interesting to reproduce his criticism. In 1893, in a letter to the Times, he wrote: ' I Life and Letters 0} James Martineau, Vol. II, p. 182. 88 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta It is often supposed, especially by latitudinarian thinkers, that religious unity may be reached by lopping off and disregarding the differentiating elements of sects and churches, treating them as a separate appendix to the mass of common elements which they super- fluously vary and deform. Under the influence of this idea reformers intent on healing divisions and promoting union have invariably made light of the distinctive features of each religious party and tried to negotiate for their relinquishment But this fascinating theory of "a common Christianity" on which the essentials are to settle, after leave of absence has been given to all else, will not work. It is doubtless true that there may be spiritual sympathy underlying great doctrinal differences; but the central concor- dance thus reached is affectional, not logical, and will baffle all attempts to lift it into expression. And, on the other hand, every creed-maker or creed-mender, every theo- logical innovator, is apt to become the enamored victim of his own little discovery till it blinds him to a universe beyond, as a sixpence may hide the sun. He at once enters his favorite doctrine among the "essentials," or in such relation to them that it is against his conscience to suppress it. However, Dr. Martineau himself, in 1804, in a letter to the Timcb,^ pro- pounded what seems to be the best solution of an insoluble problem. His suggestions will well repay perusal. How the present situation as to sec- tarianism affects the school life among us is dealt with in Mr. Marden's capital story Emmie LoUy Her Heart and Her Book. The chapter to which I refer is entitled "The Winds of Doctrine." The fearful charge of heresy becomes current among the children of the school. I make no apology for the citation, for the book is equal to a course in child study. The chapter, however, suggests the question : If such things as are there described happen with religion kept out of school, what would happen with religion in it ? RELIGION NOT TEACHABLE IN THE SCHOOLS How shall we appraise the gain and loss of these conditions ? In so far as it makes impossible the teaching of formal religion in the schools, I count it wholly good. It would be a sad day for religion when it was cut and quar- tered into the paragraphs of a text-book, and placed alongside of arithmetic and geography in courses of study. The natural heart of piety cries out with Sidney Lanier: Grim creed, with categoric point forbear To feature me my Lord with rule and line. There is no better proof of the vitality of Christianity than the fact that it has survived the catechism. The truth that is in religion is like the truth in poetry and art: unless it affects the imagination, it is moribund. The adult can verify this by comparing a noble hymn with a paragraph of a treatise on theology. He will find himself singing the hymn, but repelled by the statements of the dry-as-dust book. The primary sentiment in religion is reverence; nothing can be more fatal to reverence than to place religion on a parity with the other studies in a curriculum. ^ Ibid., p. 185. Superintendence] ETHICAL ELEMENT IN EDUCATION 89 THE USE OF THE BIBLE But, in so far as sectarianism stands in the way of a distinctly reKgious exercise of worship in the state schools, it unquestionably leads to a serious loss. In a great majority of schools thniout the United States such an exercise is held without challenge; but it is mournful to reflect that sectarianism may, under the provisions of many state constitutions, lay its forbidding hand upon these beautiful and wholesome practices. The precise point ruled in the last case on this subject ' was that, while the Bible could not be excluded from the public schools — while it can be read as literature or taught as ethics — ^yet it cannot be used as a part of the devotional exercises against the pro- test of an objector. What then ? Should those who believe in religious education take advan- tage of the poor boon thus offered and introduce as literature the Bible rejected as religion? My individual answer would be in the negative. I have seen the Bible used as a text-book in church schools, assigned as recitation work for Monday morning, in order to encourage its reverential study on the sabbath. In spite of these favoring conditions, the result was quite the reverse of edifying. The Bible, as the book is universally called, was irrev- erently described as '* Bible," in the same slang that reduces mathematics to "math" and political economy to "polit." The higher criticism seems to have caused confusion on this subject. Its proposal to study the Bible as literature is a wholly distinct proposition from that of placing the Bible on the footing of other documents in the study of literature. There are school readers in which chapters of Scripture are placed along with literary exercises. Is the gain of the little knowledge thus acquired offset by the discount of reverence? They reckon without their host who hope by such devices to retain the hold of the Bible upon the affections of mankind, and its influence upon thought and speech. Dr. W. T. Harris attributes the maxi- mimi power of suggestiveness in the symbolic language of the psalms, proph- ets, and gospels to the fact that the Bible has been kept apart from other literature, and held in such exceptional reverence as to be taken out of the natural order of experience. In a strong article on this subject in the Atlantic Monthly, September, 1903, Mr. Herbert W. Horwill shows that The old-fashioned saturation of style with scriptural terms and theology was not produced by any conscious selection of the Bible as a literary model, but was an indirect result of the emphasis upon its theological importance; and he quotes the Nation as pointing out Ruskin as an example that the English of King James's version became second nature to our forefathers by means of repeated reading and compulsory memorizing under the father's eye and at the mother's knee; and the imaginative association and the indelible memory of epithet and description were borne away frequently by children who read it in trembUng and holy reverence. In Morley's Life of Gladstone there is given an autobiographical note, in which » State vs. Scheve, 97 N. W. Rep. 169. go NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta Mr. Gladstone refers to various passages of Scripture which in times of stress came to him as directly as if borne on angel's wings/ For instance, after the decision in the Gorham case, which seemed to him to be a great blow to the Church of England, he refers to the following passage: And though all this be come upon us, yet do we not forget Thee; nor behave our- selves frowardly in Thy covenant. Our heart is not turned back, neither our step gone out of Thy way. No, not when Thou has smitten us into the place of dragons and cov- ered us with the shadow of death. In the dry air of the schoolroom "the place of dragons" would have disap- peared as mythology. It is not conceivable that the strong hold of such a passage could have been taken on the mind of the great Englishman except thru the operation of the religious sense, and in connection with the spirit of worship. MORALITY MAY BE TAUGHT While there are restrictions on religious teachings and exercises in the schools, all the authorities agree that morality may be taught, and it is no valid objection to an ethical text-book that it is founded on the Bible. The Wisconsin case, which goes farther than any other decision in the extent of its definition of what is sectarian, expressly holds that ethics is not sectarian. Thomas Jefferson made provision for such teaching in the original plan of the University of Virginia. But while there is no legal or constitutional barrier to the teaching of morality, and while there are some manuals on the subject that are recognized as fairly good and are in use in some states, yet there is probably no point on which professional opinion is more unanimous than that little is to be expected from direct ethical instruction. President Faunce has said : To force little children into moral philosophy, into analyses of their own mental states and deeds, is to produce insufferable prigs. Whether the general opinion could be changed by the production of an ideal text-book for schools cannot be determined in advance of its appearance. Teachers have sometimes found that a subject hitherto regarded as unteach- able is made teachable by a book of great excellence. At present the consensus is that the best results of moral education are secured by indirect teaching, and there is much encouragement in considering the extent and variety of the indirect methods that may be employed. In glancing over the index to the Proceedings of this Association, I find that specialists in almost every department have contended that morals can be best taught indirectly thru their special subjects. Thus I find two references to sustain the proposition that morals should be taught thru art; seven to the point that the subject should be taught thru biography and history; three, thru the kindergarten; five, thru literature; ten, thru music; three, thru the natural sciences and nature study; two, thru physical training; and one, thru sociology. » MoRL£Y*s Life of Gladstone, vol. I, p. 201. Superintendence] ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 91 EDUCATION INHERENTLY ETHICAL In conclusion, the ethical element of education is intrinsic; it develops power, and while some of it goes to the bad, the most of it goes to the good. The tendency at least is always upward. To one who points out the failures of Christianity there is the one sufficient reply that Christianity has never been tried. So to the critics of educational failures it may truly be said that education has never been tested. It is amazing that some people talk of the experiment of negro education as having failed, as if forsooth the little done in that direction was an adequate trial of the experiment. Macaulay said: **The only cure for the evils of liberty is more liberty;" and the same is true of education. President Washington of Tuskegee is able to say that no graduate of his institution has added to the heavy percentage of negro crimi- nality. The ethical element is inherent in education, for humility and rever- ence are its products. The human mind, as it faces the universe, asks three questions? "What?" "How?" and "Why?" Science answers the first and the second; it does not even attempt to answer the last. The more it shows of the what by analysis, the more it finds of evolution as the method; or the hoWy the Jtnore mysterious becomes the why. Science modestly, and one might say reverently, passes over that question to metaphysics — and metaphysics surrenders it to religion. The ethical element in education is permanent because of the nature of the teacher's work. That work is a self -bestowal. No teacher does his work without feeling that "virtue has gone out of him" — it has gone at the cost of his vitality into the souls of his pupils. No teacher would ever say of his calling: "Great is Diana of the Ephesians, for by this craft we have our living." There are some professions and some businesses in which a man works for the money there is in the job, and keeps the job. A teacher who worked just for the money in his job could not possibly keep it, even if he so desired; he would be a manifest failure and fraud. There is this inherent nobility in a teacher's work that, while it is performed in part for him- self, it is performed chiefly for others. It is not too much to say that the faithful teacher imitates in a humble, and yet not far-off, way that transcend- ent example of service and sacrifice that has forever fixed the wonder and the love of men. ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION I. THE SUPERINTENDENT AS A MAN OF AFFAIRS WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N. Y. The primary objects of school administration are, first, to take the meas- ures necessary to secure for every child his natural and constitutional right to an education that shall equalize for all, as far as education may, the oppor- 92 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta tunities for life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; second, to provide properly qualified teachers for our children; and third, to create those conditions under which each teacher may do his best work. The chief instrument in accomplishing these objects is, or ought to be, the school superintendent. Frequently we hear it said that the administrative rules which govern the work of a superintendent in a large city do not apply, because of changed conditions, to a superintendent in a small city; and that the methods of work in a small city or village must necessarily be very different from those used in a large city. Such statements are only partially correct. True, the super- intendent in a large city is compelled to devote his time chiefly to administra- tion, and sees comparatively little of the work in the schools; the superin- tendent in a small city has much greater opportunities of coming in contact with teachers and pupils. And yet, the difference is but a difference in detail. The superintendent in a large city should be both a schoolman and an administrator; so should the superintendent in a small city. Each, if he is to be instrumental in carrying out ideals of school administration, should be both a schoolman and a man of affairs. The only difference is that in the small city or village the superintendent performs the work himself, by his own personal exertions; in the large city the superintendent acts thru agents. The objects of public education are the same in a Rocky Mountain village as they are in The City of New York; in a hamlet of Mississippi as in the city of Chicago. And these objects are to bring the young of America, whether home-born or foreign-born, into harmony with American civilization, to put them into possession of their intellectual inheritance, to inculcate high ideals of life and of conduct, to develop power and skill, and to culti- vate those virtues of reverence, courage, and devotion to duty, without which the citizen cannot succeed and the republic cannot endure. These are the chief objects for which public schools have been established. The superin- tendent and the whole administrative machinery exist only for the purpose of accomplishing these ends; and the three great services which the super- intendent can render toward their accomplishment are, first, to aid in seciuing education for all children; second, to provide properly qualified teachers; and third, to create those conditions under which each teacher may do his best work. In order to secure education for all children, to the end that all may have equal opportunities for life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, legislation is necessary to require all children to go to school, to prevent children from being set to work while they ought to be playing and learning, and to curb and punish the greed of parents and the greed of corporations, that would coin money out of the flesh and blood of these little ones. In order to secure properly qualified teachers, the first essential condition is to establish a high standard of scholarship and of professional training for entrance to the teaching profession. When, in 1895, the law was enacted Superintendence] ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 93 by the legislature of the state of New York that no one should be licensed or appointed as a teacher in the public schools of any city or village of the state who had not as a minimum qualification a high-school course of three years and a professional course of one year, the most important step ever made in this country to raise the standard for entrance to the teaching profession was taken. Already in that state, thru the co-operation of the city and village superintendents with the state superintendent, this minimum has been raised to four years of high-school work and two years of profes- sional training. But we are still far from ideal conditions. Our teachers have not, even with these quahfications, that breadth of culture, that famili- arity with our intellectual inheritances, that insight into human affairs, which are necessary to enable them to discharge in the most stimulating and eco- nomical manner their duties as teachers. The next step forward should be to require at least two years of purely college work above and beyond the ordi- nary high-school course. It may be said that many of our colleges and universities, thru their chairs and departments of education, are already pro- viding such teachers. But, in the first place, it may be observed that there is no immediate prospect that the colleges and universities will be able to supply anything Hke the number of teachers required. In the second place, experience does not pronounce an unqualifiedly favorable judgment on the elementary-school work of the college graduate. When he enters on actual work, he is a pure theorist. He knows Uttle or nothing about practice. He is like the physician who should commence to practice medicine after listen- ing to courses of lectures and reading a few text-books, without having attended a clinic or tried his nerve and his skill in a hospital. What is needed is not college men who have taken pedagogical courses as part of their work for the A.B. degree, but college men and women who have laid broad and deep their foundations of culture, and then devoted all their energies for not less than two years to learning, thru study, observation, and practice, how to teach. The second condition for obtaining properly qualified teachers is some method of appointment and promotion under which the teacher's self-respect shall be maintained, and under which no influence — not social influence, not religious, not political — except that of merit, shall prevail. How can we expect to attract to the teaching profession ladies and gentlemen of culture and refinement, if, in order to obtain an opportunity for the exercise^ of their talents, they are compelled to beg the favor of politicians or humble them- selves in the dust before a little brief authority ? How can we expect teachers to inculcate by precept and example the duties of reverence, courage, and devotion to duty, if they are constrained to despise themselves for the methods by which they obtained their appointments? In some places, and with great success, an attempt has been made to root out this great evil by placing all power of appointment and promotion in the hands of the superintendent. The objection is that too much depends on the personal equation. In the hands of an able and fearless superintendent, the plan works well in a city 94 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta of moderate size. If, however, this power falls into the hands of a poli- tician, or even of a feeble man or a timorous, the last state of that city is worse than the first. My own view is that the best plan yet devised is that in use in Greater New York — appointment and promotion by competitive examination. This plan, however, is open to the objections of being some- what mechanical, and of being too often vulnerable, as the civil-service laws are vulnerable, when unscrupulous teachers take advantage of legal techni- calities that are sustained by the courts. Upon the whole, however, it has worked well, and has generated an enormous enthusiasm for self-improve- ment among the New York teachers. It will doubtless continue imtil a be**pr plan is devised. "Suppose an adequate supply of properly qualified teachers, what Condi- 's shall the superintendent seek to establish to the end that each teacher m ' be enabled to do his best work? They may be classified under four heads: (i) proper school accommodations; (2) adequate remuneration for teachers; (3) the assignment of each teacher to that work which he can do best; (4) the development of a code of professional ethics that shall be binding on all members of the teaching and supervising force. A few words upon each of these topics. I. PROPER SCHOOL ACCOMMODATIONS a) Schoolhouses should be sufficiently large and sufficiently numerous to provide accommodations for all of the children of the community, dis- tributed in classes of moderate size. Our aim should be to reduce the number of pupils to a teacher until a point is reached at which no teacher shall be required to teach more than thirty pupils at one time. Those who know the conditions in New York and Boston and Chicago may regard this as a coimsel of perfection. It is, however, a perfectly feasible aim, and will be attained in a few years if the superintendents of the country unite in demanding it. h) Schoolhouses should be so distributed thruout the community as to afford convenient opportunity to all the children of the neighborhood to go to school. The importunities of real estate speculators, and the opposition of rich and socially exclusive communities, are as much to be dreaded and as much to be opposed in the location of schoolhouses as is the interference of politicians in the conduct of the schools. While the superintendent should have no direct voice in purchasing a school site, his judgment should be poten- tial in its selection. There is no extravagance or waste in school-building comparable to that caused by the erection of buildings in unsuitable places. c) Schoolhouses should be not only properly heated, lighted, and ven- tilated, but properly furnished and equipped. Much progress has been made in these respects. Good high schools are now better equipped with laboratories than the colleges were twenty years ago. The old school benches have given way to the separate seat and desk; which in the near future will, I trust, disappear in favor of furniture better adapted to the needs of modem Superintendence] ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 95 education. I venture to say that ten years from now we shall be surprised that we ever allowed furniture to remain in our elementary schools, which is simply an obstacle in the way of every school activity except reading and writing. The school furniture of the future will subserve many different purposes — scientific experiment and observation, carpentry, drawing, model- ing, and the other forms of manual training that have found their place as essentials in the elementary curriculum, alongside of work in the ordinary branches. Here again, in every respect except the making of contracts, the superintendent's voice should make itself felt. n. ADEQUATE REMUNERATION FOR TEACHERS The last report of the Commissioner of Education shows that the average salary of men teachers in the United States is $49.05 a month and of women teachers $39.77 a month, while nearly one-half the teachers in the country change their positions every year, owing to the widely prevalent plan of appointing teachers for but a single year. Are these the conditions under which a teacher can do his best work ? Can he always be cheerful and gentle when chill penury freezes the genial current of his soul and prevents his imdertaking any sustained measures of self -improvement ? I submit that it is one of the first duties of a superintendent to secure adequate remunera- tion for the teachers under his supervision. Under this term I include a living wage increasing with years of experience, permanent tenure of office after a probationary term and during efficiency, and a pension when old age or infirmities render the teacher no longer fit for active service. I am not pleading for luxury or wealth for the teacher. Luxury and wealth have no place among his ambitions. The teacher's way of Ufe should always be frugal; but it should be the way of life of the cultured lady or gentleman. If he is to fulfill his mission, he must travel, he must study, he must mingle in refined society; and these things he cannot do on forty dollars a month. in. ASSIGNMENT OF EACH TEACHER TO THAT WORK WHICH HE CAN DO BEST As there is no source of economic weakness so great as setting men to work for which they have no fitness, so there is no more fruitful cause of waste in the schoolroom than setting teachers to work for which they have no adaptability; as, for instance, requiring a teacher whose taste runs to language and literature to teach mathematics; or a teacher who has no ear for music to teach singing. The assignment to duty should, therefore, always be made by an expert — an expert not merely in school-work, but in human nature. To do this work, or to see that it is done right, is one of the chief duties of a superintendent. IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CODE OF ETHICS THAT SHALL BE BINDING ON ALL TEACHERS Such a code will transcend legal enactments and school-board ordinances. It will be binding upon all teachers solely by reason of their own sense of honor. Such a code will forbid the teacher's appeal to any social, religious, 96 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta or political influence to secure appointment or promotion. Such a code \^ill enjoin never-ending preparation for life-work, gentleness toward all children as becomes the " under-shepherds of the Lord's little ones," and that optimism which, thru the mist of opposition and the obscurity of apparent failure, dis- cerns the uplifting of humanity thru the genius of universal education. Such are the conditions under which a teacher may do his best work — properly located and equipped schoolhouses, adequate remimeration, assign- ment to the work for which he is adapted by natural aptitude and by training, and a code of professional ethics that shall regulate all his professional conduct. What are the means by which a superintendent may bring about, or aid in bringing about, these conditions ? I answer, all means which an honorable man of affairs may employ. The time has gone by when a superintendent may confine his efforts to the class-room, his ofl&ce, and his study. He must work with his board of education, if that is in any way possible; against it, should that course unfortunately be necessary. Thru conferences, public and private, and by taking the leading members of the teaching force into his confidence, he must secure the co-operation of his principals and teach- ers. By his own written and spoken word, by inciting others to write and speak, and by encouraging local school exhibitions, he must strive to enlighten public sentiment and secure its support for progress in the schools. And, lastly, he must unite with his brother-superintendents to secure necessary legis- lation for the protection of the schools from the baneful influences of politics; legislation to insure a steady supply of funds, not dependent on the will of local authorities, and increasing automatically as population increases, so that the best energies of the teachers may not be diverted nor progress arrested by the whims and caprices of local politicians; and, lastly, legisla- tion to protect all children in their God-given right to an education. In a word, the superintendent should be, not merely a schoolmaster, but a states- man who has a definite policy to carry out, and who knows how to take advantage of time and opportunity to secure results. Defeat he may often suffer, but he will never be cast down. If his cause is just and his motives are pure, and if he has the perseverance as well as the far-sightedness of the true statesman, success will eventually crown his efforts. 77. THE ASSISTANT TO THE SUPERINTENDENT— HIS FUNCTIONS AND METHODS OF WORK MISS ALICE E. REYNOLDS, SUPERVISOR OF PRIMARY GRADES, NEW HAVEN, CONN. The functions of an assistant to the superintendent must vary with the size of the city. In order to speak intelligently, I wish to proceed from a concrete basis, and must ask your attention to the work in cities having a school population of not more than thirty thousand — cities which employ a Superintendence] ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 97 supervisor rather than a board of supervisors, and which delegate to him duties which are purely professional. The superintendent sets forth policies, the assistant must execute them; the superintendent edits courses of study, the assistant must carry them into effect; the superintendent employes teachers, the assistant must be ready to give them aid and advice. His time is spent in the schoolrooms — observing, listening, judging, encouraging, praising, suggesting, correcting. Using data thus gained, he should be ready to consult with the superintendent at any time, and to report skillful teachers who deserve recognition and promo- tion; misplaced teachers who should be transferred to other grades or other sections of the city; incompetent teachers, with a statement of their specific defects; crying evils which should be rectified as soon as discovered; question- able practices which need to be considered and modified; special courses which merit extention; sources of strength and weakness in the schools as a whole. An assistant whose time is devoted to schoolroom visiting comes to have a superior bird's-eye view of the whole situation. As year after year he goes from one end of the city to the other, he forms the truest kind of estimate of the relative value of teachers, and can establish standards of comparison not possible to the sectional worker. "The best primary teacher in my district" is often second-rate measured by highest ideals, and "the finest principal in the eighth ward" may be mediocre when com- pared with the progressive women who are developing in other sections. The assistant, then, is the one person who has an opportunity to discover that Miss F. out in the suburbs is the very woman whose missionary instincts fit her for work in the slums; that Miss S., located in the intermediate grades of an immense building, is full of the executive ability which fits her for a principalship; that an unsuccessful high-grade teacher looks happy when she steps into a kindergarten; that someone else who detests arithmetic and history is the joy of the special teachers in music and drawing. The funny page of the magazine dealing with our foibles treats teaching as a pastime: "What is your daughter going to do when she finishes at college ?" "Wall, I kinder reckon she'll teach school. She thinks she'd enjoy the vacations." It becomes the business of all school officials to ascertain what is enjoyed over and above vacations; to create the professional spirit, if it does not exist; to cultivate it, if it does. The recognition of diverse abiUty even in a given occupation is a first step toward securing the enthusiastic co-operation which works wonders. The dawn of the school millennium will have, come in any city when every vacancy is filled by the most deserving person; when each man's burden, so far as possible, is fitted to his bent; and when those who have no bent schoolwise are dismissed. An assistant to the superintendent should act as an entering wedge which will open the way for reducing these theories to practice. In his relation to the superintendent, an assistant's duties may be broadly outlined under five heads. He should be able — 98 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION lAtknta 1. To sense the essentials of the superintendent's policy. 2. To elaborate^ adapt, and enforce them. 3. To put the superintendent into intimate touch with the teaching corps, by fur- nishing facts which 'differentiate the especially strong and markedly weak teachers from the average. 4. To give information which will economize the superintendent's visiting time; Stating where he may see nature study well handled, which schools are in the van as regards seat-work, which teachers are originating the best plans for elementary number lessons, which rooms emphasize the need of a school for defective children. 5. To receive at any time a temporary assignment of a definite block of the superin- tendent's responsibility and authority. The all-important attribute of the assistant in his relation to the superin- tendent is an absolutely candid frankness. The man who delivers an ambigu- ous opinion, or who hesitates to express a conviction, or who disHkes to be quoted when an issue is at stake, will prove a poor saihng mate in rough weather. The man who is truly an assistant is willing to state his evidence, to draw his conclusions, to stand behind his gun, and to shoulder responsibiKty. Service rendered to the superintendent represents one-tenth rather than nine- tenth's of the assistant's working duties, and the end rather than the means. He should be the leader and director of the teaching force, exercising first of all an influence which dulls antagonisms between workers, which allays sectional jealousy, which places the common weal of the children and the good name of the city above petty local excellence. I can remember a city in which each district husbanded its good ideas under seal of greatest secrecy, lest some other school niight hear of its plans and try the same general scheme with equal or greater success. The assistant should stand openly and avowedly as a clearing-house for good ideas. A first business of his should be to collect worthy plans and devices, and to disseminate them broadcast. He knows more about the educational outlook than most teachers, and should bring it into their range of vision. He knows what our leading psychologists have each said about teaching reading; and they ought to know. He went to Boston last summer, and came to Atlanta this winter; and their rank and file were absent from both places, and need to go by proxy. He read the Novem- ber number of the Teacher^s College Record, and appreciated its exposition of the actual needs of a modern kindergarten; and they need have it read to them — figuratively speaking. Similarly the west end of the city needs to awaken to the excellence of the east side. The fourth-grade teacher who keeps to a dreary routine of long division needs to see what a wide-awake room her sister is teaching a few blocks away The teacher who will describe the woodpecker as if it were a feather duster needs to visit a neigh- boring district, where an animal cage costing $2.50 houses endless friends in feathers and fur; or she needs to take a bird walk with some school which is taught birds so that "their habitations in the treetops even are half-way houses on the road to heaven;" or she needs to hear some other teacher read Thompson-Seton's "Molly Cotton Tail" as if it were true — even if it isn't. Superintendence] ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 99 Grade meetings which discuss common problems, which voice common difficulties, which collect evidence from this one, specifics from that one, objections from the other one, help to strengthen the bonds of mutual depend- ence and friendship. Such meetings should enlist the sympathy of teachers in various sections by bringing together contributions from all quarters. One teacher may give a short class exercise in phonics; a second may read a brief paper on the subject; a third may have prepared a list of phonograms; answers to enquiries in a question box may involve others. As the result of such a conference the interest in phonics will be somewhat stimulated, and the interest in each other vastly increased. Such quotations as these show which way the wind blows: 1. "I have arranged an index to the arithmetic which classifies the problems so that it is easy to find thirty which illustrate the same principle. Do you think it would help the other teachers ? If it would, I'd Uke to hectograph enough copies for everyone." 2. "I used to dread to visit schools, because I thought teachers didn't want me; but lately everyone shows me good things, and teaches any class I ask to see. I stayed until five o'clock talking over work the afternoon I visited in Elm Street." 3. "Miss Graham has the best games I've ever seen. I wish we might have a meet- ing and hear from teachers who have succeeded in originating good plays for rooms filled with stationary furniture." General and free discussions, plus definite directions which are given, should foster unity in the work — unity as opposed to uniformity. It is not necessary that ^* every child in France" should be reading at ten o'clock, but it is extremely desirable that every child in the primary room should be spending at least one quarter of his school day on reading or tributary subjects; it is desirable that he reads eight books instead of learning one by heart; it is expedient that from the first he appreciates and delivers thoughts instead of focusing his attention on words; it is necessary that he be fur- nished with knowledge which will help him to help himself, instead of depend- ing on his teacher for every one of the thousand words which he may meet. Whether the third-grade pupil learns his multiplication table by adding two's, or by piling up two-inch blocks, or by measuring off two-inch sections on the yardstick, or by counting groups of two apples, or by committing the facts to memory as you and I did, does not seem to me, in the last analysis, a vital point, provided he has a level-headed, keen, interested teacher; but if he is ever to perform problems involving typical business transactions, it is extremely necessary that those same facts be rooted and grounded in his memory — and at the time, too, when his word-memory is strongest. Defi- nite general directions rarely cripple a teacher, especially if she understands that a valid objection or a reasonable experiment will meet with approval. '**Why, you can't find a teacher who wishes any more freedom than that," said a leader among the free lances; **the person who keeps on talking about freedom isn't a teacher, but someone who wants you to have freedom to do as he says." The assistant not only interprets the course of study and helps teachers ICX5 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta to work more out of it than any printed page can ever work in; but from seeing it in operation, and from considering it thru others' eyes, he comes to realize how it needs to be modified, either to meet certain local conditions, or to adapt itself to the present educational creed. A language scheme in English which is admirably planned for your sons may prove Greek to the children of the Ghetto; or the course may call for quotation marks in the third grade; but if the children are calling for stories and pictures and games, the marks had best be promoted to fifth grade. In all such matters the assistant has an especially Uberal background for action. In spite of the fact that very many seem to remain in the service for a long period, supervising oflBicers realize that the schools are actually taught by a body of workers who pass thru the grades in a long procession. After any five years the percentage of change is about 75, and the percentage of new material 45. Yet the school system must do more than maintain an average; it must adjust itself to a population which is ever increasing in quantity and decreasing in intellectual quality; and it must continually conform to current educational findings. Superintendents in large cities would wrestle with an impossible task if the friction caused by constant change was not overcome thru the efforts of assistants whose knowledge of details is minute, and whose time can be placed at the disposal of teachers who are meeting new problems in organization, instruction, or discipline. The intimate familiarity of an assistant with the conditions pertaining in certain quarters will often enable a teacher to accomplish in a single week tasks which could scarcely have been analyzed and arranged for in a month. No teacher is too thoroly experienced not to welcome the help of a man whose knowledge of the situation can make rough places plain. In this connection, then, the assistant represents a force which prevents the loss of time and energy incident to change. Moreover, most city vacancies are filled either by recent graduates of normal schools, by college graduates with no experience, or by the most enterprising teachers from the small towns and rural schools. The members of each group are blessed with youth, ambition, purpose, and zeal; but each needs the counsel and advice which flow from long and intelligent experience. When the novice faces a condition and not a theory, a dozen difficulties which she could not foresee take form, and a dozen others which she might never see lurk in ambush. The assistant should be a right-hand man to these beginners, helping them to distinguish between the substantial and the showy, to do thoro teaching, to secure reli- able results, to interpret their experience, and to avoid pitfalls. He can meet them in conference, and pour oil on the wheels of the first month's difficulties; he can anticipate questions which all are waiting to ask; he can teach with the teacher and for the teacher, thus enlarging her plan or chang- ing her prospective; he can discuss individual methods and emergency cases. Not infrequently by suggestion, advice, and correction he can raise the stan- dard in individual rooms from helow to above the average. Mir — - ^^^ Superintendence] ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION lOI It is imperative that a certain time each week be set apart for ofl&ce hours, so that each member of the force knows when she may be sure of a hearing. The effect of an assistant on the temper of the schools depends primarily on the spirit of the worker. I am inclined to believe that we too often mag- nify method, and overtook manner or, more truly, character. Whether his visit be long or short, whether he go with or without a notebook, whether he teach the class or listen, whether he commend, suggest, or correct, is of small moment, provided he stands to the teacher for a loyal, kindly, help- ful, interested friend — and in the long run of the years he will stand for exactly what he is. "How did you know that Hercules was a god?" "Because I was content the mo- ment my eye fell on him. When I beheld Theseus, I desired that I might see him oflFer battle, or at least guide his horse in the chariot race; but Hercules did not wait for con- test, he conquered whether he stood, or walked, or sat, or whatsoever thing he did." Less speedily perhaps, but not less surely, comes the verdict which labels each of us. Go in the spirit of a critic, and if you smile and say nothing, you leave an imcomfortable atmosphere behind you; go as a helper, and a direct criticism meets with ready appreciation, and leaves no scar. Any teacher worth her hire recognizes the visitor who is as quick to see merit as defect, who is more willing to mention improvement than failure, who is more eager to serve than to be served. There is rarely a person who has not some well-defined characteristic excellence: the wise worker finds it, gives credit where it is due, and seeks to develop each teacher along the line of least resistance. "You have often helped me by appreciating what was good. I wonder if you think I'd mind a scolding. Don't you wish to tell me today about something dreadful?" "Yes, I do feel Uke making a criticism. I can't magnify the point into something dreadful; but there is a little fox that spoils a good many of your vines." Now, the talk which followed opened no chasm between the assistant and a particularly sensitive, high-spirited girl; it rather cemented bonds of friend- ship. A single sentence from Superintendent Blodgett's address at Cincin- nati epitomizes the whole story: "Teachers need the helpfulness that reaches them from honest hearts, friendly hands, and plain words. " The kindliest sympathy, the readiest tact, and the most constructive sug- gestions are not incompatible with searching insight, nor, on occasion, with straightforward criticism. There came a time when Nathan dropped his alle- gory and faced David with four words of condemnation: "Thou art the manl'* So in this business of supervision there come times when no sugar coat should sweeten the medicine. "Do you think I shall ever get a first-grade room ?" said a notoriously lazy teacher immediately after such a vacancy had been filled. "I know you never will until you ccme to school every morning prepared for your day's work." Or again: "You feel disappointed; but I can't say much for a teacher whose voice and manner show petulance and arbitrary decision, and whose lessons do not ring true." The above may represent I02 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta the unusual measures, but my contention is that on every city pay-roll there appear the names of teachers who do not stand for honest effort, and whose constructive criticism must be preceded by what seems destructive and drastic. The great majority are earnest, hard-working, ambitious, trustworthy persons, but interviews with the unscrupulous, the indolent, the intolerant, or the hopelessly incompetent are among the disagreeable duties which face every public ser\ant and which must be met without flinching Any influence which helps the teacher towar.l higher ideals and sounder results must, of course, react on the pupils, but a direct benefit accrues to them from the frequent visits of any interested expert. His coming should enliven the routine, his praise should be sweet to their cars, his intimations regarding desired ends should be a goal to strive toward, his disappointment a thing to be regretted. So* long as older people crave human companion- ship and appreciation, it is safe to assume that children receive a wholesome spur by feeling an interest in their room and their achievement as a body which is not bounded by the school fence nor the district lines. "The chil- dren have learned a new song for you." "We have a new picture since you visited us." "The third class wish you to see if they are doing better in reading." "Children, what was that fine news about attendance which you had to tell?" "Our regular language lesson was to be a story repro- duction, but I promised the children that whenever you came they might tell about their visit to the stone quarry." Scores of such remarks give evi- dence of a healthful desire on the part of pupils to do well, to give pleasure, and to earn commendation. If kindly relations exist between special teachers and the assistant, he can be an invaluable help to them by co-operating with them to secure good results in season and out of season, and by preventing their subjects from becoming sharply defined and empirical. His plan of work should be known to them, and theirs to him. Any difference of opinion should be settled out of the presence of the teacher who is quick to exaggerate a minor difference of opinion into serious disagreement between doctors. Frequent consulta- tions should lead to full understanding, and in the main to concerted action. I am inclined to think that the main argument against supervision gains force because we who dictate appear to vary more widely in our directions than we actually differ in our beliefs. Such a course should be sharply reversed: after compromise, directions should harmonize, however much opinions may remain at variance. Circulars and pamphlets on which special teachers and the assistant have worked together possess peculiar force. He should report teachers who need prompt help along special lines; he should note good and poor instruction here as elsewhere; and he should be as interested in these results as in those of what we are wont to call the regular branches. The assistant, in common with all school ojficials, over and above his routine duty as a public servant owes a special duty to the public. A well- regulated school system managed by professional educators is always ahead -. ri Superintendence] ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION . 103 of the community at large in both method ajid outlook. Now, unless school needs and school aims are understood by the people, a gulf widens between them which is finally bridged only by criticism and protests from "taxpayer." The assistant should lend a hand to any undertaking which dignifies his office, or which seeks to establish points of contact between the public schools and the pubHc they serve. If there be parents' meetings, he had better attend; if there be mothers* clubs, he had better speak when asked; if the Sunday-school teachers wish an address, he had better give it ; if someone asks the rather dubious question "What do you do anyway "^^^ he had better explain himself in simple, indisputable terms, so that mothers and fathers shall grow to feel that no community should be without him. Lastly, then, remembering at the same moment the great public in the background, and pupils, teachers, and co-workers in the foreground, I should like to mention the assistant as one whose personality and work will add to the simi of zeal and enthusiasm which should radiate from the office of a superintendent of schools. ///. THE MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL DEPARTMENTS C. N. KENDALL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, INDL^NAPGLIS, IND. The special department appeared when the necessity of broadening the curriculum appeared. The regular teacher was generally unprepared to teach the special subject, so the special teacher was brought in. The sub- jects were often novel and external. They were sometimes dragged in bodily, either at the demand of the public, or by the fiat of school .boards and superintendents. What attempt was made to educate the pubUc to the importance of these subjects — di pubUc clinging to the traditional view of the common-school curriculum ? What attempt was made to prepare teachers to teach the new branch or branches? What adjustment was attempted of the old to the new in the coiu*se of study and in the organization of the school? What effort was made to secure a supervisor or director or special teacher with broad academic scholarship and with pedagogical training? The answers to these questions are factors affecting the management of special subjects, and determine whether they are to be permanently educative or temporary and sporadic. No pretense is made that these questions are to be answered this morning to the satisfaction of everybody or anybody. Only a few observations are offered bearing upon the questions, and therefore, if my premise is sound, upon the management of special departments. The management is far easier if public opinion sustains the teaching of the subject. The education of this opinion sometimes requires more patience than the education of the children themselves; but it is hardly less important, if there is to be permanence and stability, and the hue and cry of fads avoided. I believe the education of this sentiment is one of the most important and I04- NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta difficult of the superintendent's duties, and one which is most likely to be neglected. When we can secure the co-operation of a few influential men and women of the community, the support of two or three newspapers to whose opinion the public listens, the influence of clubs — clubs of the gentler sort — the indorsement of a chamber of commerce perhaps, we have taken a long step in the direction of making outside conditions favorable to successful management. In one city it was proposed to introduce cooking or domestic science into the schools. Only one kitchen or school was established, altho perhaps a half-dozen were required to take care of all the seventh-grade girls. Whether public sentiment sustained this movement was uncertain; but, to make it relatively certain, a series of luncheons was arranged, to which, from time to time, men and women were invited. The luncheons prepared by the pupils were appetizing, the teacher was a young woman of refinement, and the kitchen was open for inspection. In this way were seciured the interest and active co-operation of these fifty people. I suppose that we who are in the thick of educational movements little reaUze how far we may have left behind ordinary public sentiment as regards the course of study. The management is affected by the training, the education, and the standards of the regular teachers. This training begins, or should begin, in the high school, with those young women who are to become teachers, or who think they are. In the high school should begin instruction in music, in draw- ing, in color, in hand-work, in physical training, in natural science. In the theoretical department of the normal school, whether city or state, this train- ing should continue; a half -day each week perhaps, to be given to drawing and the various forms of art-work, under the direction, of course, of the super- visor of drawing; an hour each week in learning to read music, in the cultiva- tion of the singing voice and of the choice of songs; a half -day each week in manual training; an afternoon to nature study, including field excursions; two hours a week to physical training and the training of the voice; an hour each week in learning how to teach penmanship. There is nothing subtle about the pedagogy of the special subjects. It is no more difficult to teach music or drawing than division of fractions, but one must know how to divide fractions, to read music, or to use the pencil, before he can do any effective teaching of any of these. As any teacher should, broadly speaking, endeavor to make himself useless to his pupils, so should the supervisor, by education of teachers, make them less dependent. Considerable time in the training school therefore should be used in acquiring facility in the arts named. Pedagogical training will be of little real value to a teacher who finds herself called upon to teach technical sub- jects without any training in these subjects. Teachers should not be expected to teach things they know nothing about. Superintendence] ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 105 Teachers' meetings in which little is done other than talking about drawing, music, nature study, penmanship, or physical training should give way to meetings in which some of the time is spent in practice. The week before the schools open may wisely be used in this kind of teachers' institute. After- noon meetings during the term, when the schools are dismissed — not too often, of course — when the teachers take off their shawls and bonnets and are prepared to do a good afternoon's work; and special meetings on Satur- day mornings for new and weak teachers, are pracical means by which a corps of teacheftrs may be educated. For the time being, the young women should work at their desks as the children work at theirs, but here under the guidance or inspiration of the director. The vital thing in the management of these special departments is to have a corps of teachers who have been brought into first-hand rela- tion with these subjects. This is essential and fundamental. The special teachers should, of course, teach lessons to children. If he teaches all les- sons, the energies of the regular teacher are stunted, and there is no growth in his power or skill or equipment. To promote the growth of teachers, to enlarge their interests, to raise their standards, is no small part of the work of the director. If there is to be any vigor or life or spirit or inter- est, the teachers themselves must be on the move in the same direction as the children. The management should work constantly, patiently, and judiciously with this end in view, bearing in mind, of course, the limitations upon the teacher's strength and endurance and ability. The better the training of the regular teacher in the special branches, the broader will be her view, the greater the unity of all subjects, the more will correlation be practiced, the more is economy in the organization of the school day in evidence, and, withal, the less will be the danger of side- tracking either the regular or the special subjects. In visits to schools the special teacher should give more of his time to r some teachers than to others. Some teachers need little of the so-called special supervision; others need constant help. If this be so, then it is a manifestly wasteful process for the supervisor to divide his time equally among teachers, rooms, or buildings. Therefore, a supervisor working by mere rote among teachers, without regard to their varying degrees of efl&- ciency, is not working, in my judgment, at the maximum of his efficiency. He should be a co-operative officer with the superintendent. His business is to promote the efficiency of the schools, particularly along his own line of work, incidentally along all lines of work. If there is a weak spot, he should go there. If this half-day can best be spent looking at the penman- ship papers from his own schools or from those of other cities, he should do that. If the drawing in a particular building is weak, then he should focus his attention there. I am assuming that the supervisor is a person you can trust. I am also assuming that the superintendent shall exercise some directive power over io6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta his movements and how he shall distribute his time and his work. The superintendent of schools will not distribute his own time equally among his teachers, unless he wishes to be a mere piece of mechanism or a nui- sance. He goes to poor teachers to strengthen and suggest. He goes to strong teachers for ideals, for standards, and for inspiration. The super- visor should be allowed to work on similar lines. The danger of specialization is overemphasis in one direction — the mag- nifying of the subject and the subordination of the child, who is the being to be educated. How can this evil be minimized ? • First, by teachers who know something of the subjects, and a specialist who is really competent. A yoimg woman appears as an applicant for a supervisorship of music. What is her training ? She names a well-known conservatory of music. Of what college or university is she a graduate? None. Of what normal school? Not any. Of what high school? "I left at the end of the first year." What experience as a teacher? None at all. What pedagogical books have been read ? The reply, of course, is negative, with the mental reservation that the question is absurd. Is it good manage- ment to employ such a person ? On the other hand, here is a music super- visor with college training; a penmanship teacher who is a normal-school graduate, and one who has given time to the systematic study of children. Here is a penmanship teacher who has taken a course of lectures in a uni- versity or college; an elementary-science director who is called to the peda- gogical department of a leading woman's college; a manual-training super- visor who has taken a degree at a college and has spent two summers study- ing art; a physical-training teacher who has studied at Yale with Anderson, at Harvard with Sargent, who has been abroad to study the German and Swedish systems at first hand; an art director who has been successively a grade teacher, a school principal, a graduate of an art school, and a con- stant student of art. These are not fanciful cases, but real ones, not in any one system of schools, but in selected instances from several systems of schools. Broad-minded persons are likely to see things in relation. When the special- ist regards his field of work as restricted to his subject, when he blindly fails to see its relation to other subjects, there is a chance that he may be regarded as an interloper, especially when his salary is one or two or three times as great as that of the regular teacher. So far I have discussed the question from the point of view of those cities which have supervisors or special teachers. Some of the problems of man- agement would disappear if the supervisor or director were competent, and recognized as such by the teaching body. But how can the small town with limited funds employ a supervisor who will also be a leader and an inspira- tion to teachers? An answer may be found in two or more neighboring towns combining and engaging a good man or woman to divide his time among them. Objections of a practical sort may be suggested, but they are not insurmountable. This is the day of combination and organization Superintendence] ' ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 107 in economic lines; indeed, this plan is in operation in several parts of the country. The supervisor of penmanship in New Haven supervises, not only the work in New Haven, but that in West Haven, in Middletown, and in two of the three Connecticut normal schools. Good results are obtained in each place. Each secures the services of a two-thousand-dollar man. Middletown, a place of twelve thousand inhabitants, alone would hardly pay two thousand dollars a year for penmanship. Not so much attention can be given to each individual room in the city of New Haven as when the super- visor gave his attention exclusively to the schools of that city, but many rooms do not need such personal supervision. Might not a similar plan be carried out in other subjects and in other places? The combination of several towns in Massachusetts in employing superintendents is a well-known appHcation of the principle of organization and combination in order to secure good ability. There is, in my judg- ment, danger of too much time spent in the schools by the supervisor in the small city, if you accept my proposition that a supervisor should not be a teacher of children merely, but of teachers as well. Here are four small cities, each paying seven hundred dollars a year for a supervisor of drawing, or twenty-eight hundred dollars. Why should not these towns combine, offering a salary of, say, two thousand dollars — a net saving of eight hundred dollars — and secure a director who is far abler than any one of the seven- hundred-dollar teachers? The teachers in each of these four towns might then have a real leader. They would gradually feel able to do a considerable part of the work themselves. This would not only promote their own growth, but would result in the unification of subjects. Where a supervisor gives all the instruction in music, and the regular teacher during the process sits back of her desk as a mere spectator, you will, in the long run, create stag- nation in the teacher's growth, and have nothing like correlation of studies, and the instruction in music will not be so good as by the other process. The management of the special departments calls for some adjustment of the special subjects to other subjects of study. There is no need in this presence to speak of the growing importance of the correlation of studies. New subjects almost press themselves upon us, and school hours remain the same. I have time to mention only a few instances of attempts at correlation which have come under my observation. The supervisor of penmanship examines systematically the daily written work of pupils, and confers with teachers about it, whether they teach penmanship or not. The physical-training teacher and the manual-training supervisor co- operate in making apparatus for gymnastics. The physical-training teacher suggests games and plays for the recess, and earns his salary in making the recess a time of real recreation for girls as well as boys. The manual-training department and the teacher of arithmetic co-operate in the study of measurements. A miniature house is built in the shop — a lo8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta model, by the way, of a house actually going up in the neighborhood. Observe the interest of the boys in the problems which relate to the cost of liunber for this house, cost of labor, of papering, of carpeting, of painting, and numer- ous other details. Manual training and history: in the actual building of a model of the cotton gin, of a lock on a canal, of a model of the Parthenon, models of primitive agricultural implements, of the log cabin in which Lincoln lived, of the house at Mount Vernon, etc. Manual training and the equipment of the school: a screen for a stove, a dictionary-holder, window-boxes, boxes to protect newly planted trees on the play grounds. The drawing and manual-training departments, it is obvious, should work in active co-operation. The application of art, design, and color to the work in manual training is a field of correlation relatively new, it is true, but bound to grow as we realize in this country the necessity of making the useful also beautiful. In my own city the manual-training and the art teachers spend two hours each week working together. The art teachers, at one time, work in the manual-training shop, and the manual-training teachers, at another, study constructive and decorative design with the art teachers. Nature study and the art department: The teacher of nature study without color or design to reinforce her work depends upon language only for expression. I know of one director of art who distributes flower seeds thruout the schools; the subsequent results are used by the teachers in exer- cises which are both drawing and nature study. The field excursion is at once a lesson in geography, in nature study, and in drawing, if the teachers are working in co-operation, as some teachers do. The competent and tactful director of art will revolutionize school deco- rations, as many of us know. The illustrated composition gives new life to a subject often of little interest to pupils. The director of art can make profitable suggestions in meetings of teachers with this end in view. The director of art who sees the wide relation of his subject with other school subjects will be no stranger in meetings called to discuss English or history or geography. The management of the special department, as it has been reviewed, depends upon healthy public sentiment; upon the training, equipment, and ideals of teachers; upon competent directors — directors who are leaders, who know how to create intelligent interest, and who are willing to co-operate in adjusting the special subject to the school organization and to the child; and, finally, upon relations of confidence between the superintendent and the head of each special department. Superintendence] ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 109 DISCUSSION E. E. Bass, superintendent of schools, Greenville, Miss. — The paper has spoken for our large cities and for the more densely populated states of the North. It has covered the ground so thoroly and well that along those lines there is Uttle left for me to add. However, I represent a class of schools of the smaller cities peculiar to the South, too far apart to combine and avail themselves of the services of an expert teacher of the special studies, as suggested. How are they to broaden and enrich their courses of study ? My answer is: The superintendent or principal must become the expert. He must feel the need of the subject for his school, and must be able to demonstrate that need. He must become an enthusiast for physical culture, for art, for manual training; but let him not forget that he must temper his enthusiasm with patience. I have in mind two cities in the same state, about one hundred miles apart, which intro- duced physical culture and vocal music at about the same time. The first, the larger and richer city of the two, added these subjects without opposition. The experiment seemed to have worked well. I was surprised to find that both were dropped from the course at the end of the first year. The patrons of the school were delighted, the teachers and pupils enjoyed the work of the special teachers, and yet after fourteen years the sub- jects have never been reintroduced. Why ? Because the man behind the system knew Uttle of them and had no real enthusiastic desire for their continuance. By way of contrast, let me give the experience of the smaller city. The superinten- dent saw gymnastics and vocal music taught in other schools. He recognized that they were good things, and determined to have them for his own school. His board said: "We have not the funds to employ a special teacher." Not to be overcome by slight opposition, he mastered a system of gymnastics, and then taught it to both teachers and pupils. There were some croakers in that neck of the woods, and the subject of their croaking was this: "That man is making our girls bend their bodies to the detriment of their physical beauty." At the very first intimation of this and similar opposition, he determined to get on his side public opinion — that very essential commodity, which the paper has so well pointed out. He asked the children to invite their parents and friends Friday afternoon to an outdoor performance. The children of all the schools went through the manual, and there went up a shout of approval that killed the croakers in the first ditch; and today that school has a teacher specially trained by Dr. Anderson, of Yale, and there is more likelihood of tearing out one of the beloved three R's by its roots than of taking gymnastics out of that school course. So it has been with vocal music. Let me say that the superintendent must not only appreciate the importance of the special subjects, but he must have the tact and backbone to put them into execution. Back in the 8o's, when .Colonel Parker went about in that region as a lion, seeking whom he might devour; when there was a chaotic state of doing and making, of molding and modeling, of painting and imaging, I was infected with the art microbe, and I took it home. The board said: "We can't afford a special teacher*" I did the next best thing. I introduced a system .which I knew was very thoroly wooden, and yet it was the entering wedge by which I could make an opening for better things. Greenville has not only been infected, but we have spread art malady to several of our sister-cities, and I believe the day is not far distant when all of the schools in Mississippi will have special teachers of art. I can say this, that, so far as the Greenville schools are concerned, it's place is quite as well fixed as is that of any other common-school study. We no longer look upon it as a specialty, but consider it a staple. The introduction of manual training into the Greenville schools has been so recent, and my last encounter with opposition so new, that it may be set down as a current event. I shall confine my remarks to the opposition to the introduction of sewing. The board said: "Already our course is infringing upon the common-school studies; there is no time;" and again: "Sewing should be taught at home; you are trespassing upon the no NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta work of the mothers." I pleaded for a trial and got it. Now the problem was, first, to prove that no time was lost to arithmetic, language, etc., but that there was an actual gain; second, that the homes were really made better and brought nearer to the school by this manual art. I said to my teachers: "The teaching of seven stitches and the making of garments are trivial matters compared with the things that sewing must do for these girls." We had the children get from their fathers, or from friends, the actual cost of pro- ducing a bale of cotton. They took no one result, but from a sunmiary got the average. This is an important item in sociology, that no one man can establish the price or cost of a commodity. From this they got the actual cost of producing a pound of raw material We then had them go to the field and actually pick a pound of cotton, noting the time. They separated the lint from the seed. These operations brought them into contact with labor and wages, and made them appreciate what work meant. It impressed upon them the great importance of the cotton gin and the debt they owed to Eli Whitney, from whose brain that useful machine came, and to whom the South owes a magnificient monu- ment in marble or brass. We had them buy cailco and gingham, not by the yard, but by the pound. They equated the pound of the raw material with the finished product, and compared the profits earned by the producer with those earned by the manufacturer. Thus we started them on a problem for life. Washington's birthday we celebrate in our schools with the purpose of inculcating patriotism. This year I had the above data charted and made a display of the arith- metical and manual-training work of our children as a part of the celebration. I left for Atlanta before the conclusion of the day's program, but I was there long enough to see that mothers and fathers had been convinced tjiat manual training did not consume, or take away from, other studies; and that it did not infringe upon the domain of home, but rather had the effect to make better pupils, better citizens, and better keepers of home. In conclusion, whenever I find a subject taught in Boston or California schools, that I beUeve to have a real worth, it has been and ever will be my aim to get that sub- ject in my own schools; for I believe that the best is none too good for the children of our Southland. THE EXTENSION OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL PRIVILEGES I. THE ORGANIZATION OF A SYSTEM OF EVENING SCHOOLS THOMAS M. BALLXET, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. A system of public evening schools must differ in certain important respects from a system of day schools, and many of the defects of our evening schools are due to the fact that these points of difference have not been sufficiently recognized by school authorities. In the first place, the two kinds of schools must differ to a considerable extent in aim and purpose. The day school is attended by immature boys and girls, for whom the most important consideration is that they should grow up physically strong, and acquire that general education which will develop mind and character and lay the foundation for special training later. While the day school should be rA^or-fiVai and not ignore the demands Superintendence] EXTENSION OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL PRIVILEGES III of daily life, its chief aim must be to give its pupils general rather than special training. On the other hand, the evening school is attended mostly by mature young men and women, who are employed during the day in some gainful occupation, and with whom attendance at school in the evening is incidental to their daily work. A limited number of these attend an evening school for the purpose of broadening their general education, and for such ampla provision should be made in our evening schools for instruction in the studies pursued in the elementary and secondary day schools; but the large majority of evening-school students have a more directly utilitarian aim, and can be interested only in such studies and in such phases of studies, as have either a quite direct bearing on their daily work or will fit them to do a different kind of work which is more remunerative. Their chief object is to increase their earning capacity. The dominant aim of a system of evening schools must therefore be prac- tical in the utihtarian sense. While such schools must give an opportu- nity to those who desire it to pursue studies for general culture, they must also provide for special training to an extent impracticable, if not unde- sirable, in day schools. In the second place, the course of study of an evening school must be different in some essential respects from that of a day school. Attendance at the day schools is compulsory, or ought to be, for the majority of pupils; at the evening school it is wholly voluntary in most states. In a day school studies may be 'made compulsory, and, in fact, are made compulsory in all elementary schools and in some secondary schools. Persons who attend an. evening school not only do so voluntarily, but most of them come for a defi- nite purpose, to learn some specific thing. If the school does not give them what they most want, even if it is not what, in the judgment of the teacher, they most need; or if the school fails or neglects to ascertain what they want, as is not infrequently the case, such persons will soon drop out. While there should be a definite plan pursued in an evening school, which may be out- lined on paper in the form of a course of study, a rigid adherence to a fixed course, such as is prescribed for day schools, is undesirable and will inevitably reduce the attendance. In the third place, the work of the evening school must differ not a httle in method from that of the day schools. In the day schools each subject is developed systematically from beginning to end, and the various phases of it are presented in the order, in which they are most readily apprehended by the immature mind, regardless of whether they have a direct bearing on practical life or not; in an evening school even the most backward students are mature, and this order need not be adhered to at all to the same extent, nor is it always desirable to develop a study systematically. In the case of mature students, who come to study a specific thing to help them in their daily work, only so much of the subject should be taught as is necessary to make intelligible the special point in which they are immediately interested. 112 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [Atlanta Very often such narrow interest can be made the means of arousing a broader interest in the general subject and in other subjects. The point which I desire to emphasize is that, in order to secure and hold a large attendance in our evening schools, we must ascertain the wants as well as the needs of students, and then try to broaden these wants until they become identical with their needs, instead of forcing upon them arbitrarily what we may think they should study and so drive them out of school. Such a policy would materially increase the attendance in our evening schools. In the fourth place, the evening school must differ somewhat from the day school in the grading and classification of its students. Grading and classification are necessary in evening schools to make them effective. While more individual instruction, especially in elementary evening schools, is necessary than in day schools, all instruction which can be given to an entire class should be so given. The ungraded evening school is as waste- ful of time and energy as the ungraded day school. But while this is true, the principle of grading and classification must not be the same in the two kinds of schools. In the day schools pupils are classified according to their knowledge and ability alone; in an evening school age and occupation should be largely taken into account. Many men, and not a few women, would attend an elementary evening school, if they could be allowed to join classes of adults, and would not be obliged to be seated in the same class with boys and girls in their teens, who may be their neighbors' sons and daughters, and who, having but recently left the day schools, may be able to answer questions more readily and appear more intelligent than themselves. When you place in the same class persons of equal intellectual ability and educa- tion, but differing by almost a generation from one another in point of age, the older members will not remain very long; and yet this is precisely what is done in many evening schools. Moreover, in classifying students in an evening school, in so far as may be possible, those of the same or closely related occupations or trades should be grouped together. This does not apply so much to classes in which the aim of the instruction is general culture as to classes in which the instruction can be given a quite direct bearing on the occupation of the members. In such cases it is desirable that the teacher be familiar with the occupation of his class as well as with his subject, and be able to apply the instruction to their daily work. This will involve the necessity of employing more men as teachers than are now employed. A large number of men who might attend public evening schools free of charge are attending the evening classes at the Young Men's Christian Asso- ciations thruout the country, and are paying a fee large enough to cover all cost of instruction, mainly because the public evening schools ignore these two principles of classification. So much as to the general aim and character of the public evening school. What different kinds of schools should be included in a system of evem'ng schools ? Superintendence] EXTENSION OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL PRIVILEGES II3 1. There is need of elementary evening schools, such as are now found in many cities, in which instruction may be given in the so-called "common branches." Such schools should enable boys and girls, and young men and women, who were obliged to leave the elementary day schools before com- pleting the course in order to "go to work," to continue their general educa- tion. This function of the elementary evening school is similar to that of the so-called "continuation school" in England and Germany. Our ele- mentary evening school has, however, another function to perform which, on accoimt of our large foreign immigration, is in point of importance scarcely second to this. I refer to the instruction of adult foreigners in the English language, in American history, and in civics. As the public day school is the most effective means of Americanizing the children who come from for- eign lands to our shores in such large numbers every year, so the public evening school should be made the institution which shall Americanize their parents by teaching them our language, our history, and the principles of our government. In order to attract these foreigners to our evening schools, those of each separate nationality should at first be placed in classes by themselves, and given a teacher who can speak their own language and can make them feel at home; and such teacher's tenure of service should be made dependent on his ability to secure and retain a large attendance in his classes. As soon as they have mastered the language sufl&ciently, they should receive all their instruction in P^nglish, and should be mingled with other classes to prevent the fostering of a spirit of clannishness. 2. There is need of evening high schools in which instruction may be provided in the usual high-school studies, for the purpose of giving students who were obliged to enter practical life at the close of their grammar-school course an opportunity to broaden their general education. This feature of the evening high school would correspond to the higher grades of con- tinuation schools in foreign countries. But the evening high school should also provide instruction of a vocational or technical character, for the benefit of men and women who are employed in the daytime in technical lines of work, and who are in need of such academic training as will have a direct bearing on their special work. Such evening high schools should provide courses in .bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting, and other com- mercial branches; they should include instruction, not only in pure mathe- matics for general culture, but also in applied mathematics, in which all the varied applications of both the elementary and advanced mathematics may be made to the different lines of mechanical and scientific work. They should include classes in applied chemistry, in which men engaged in tech- nical work in different manufacturing establishments in which a knowledge of chemistry is essential may receive thoro technical instruction in this branch. There should be classes organized in applied physics and in mechanics, for the benefit of men employed in the mechanical trades and in various manu- facturing establishments in which mechanical work of a high grade is done. 114 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta It is thru such schools that foreign countries are training their skilled work- men in the theoretical phases of their work to an extent not realized in this country. Both the manufacturing interests and skilled workmen of our country demand that more provision should be made for such technical instruction in our public evening schools. 3. There should be evening schools in cooking, sewing, dressmaking, and millinery, for the benefit of young women who are obliged to earn their living by unskilled and underpaid labor in the daytime, and for whom such instruction is the only means by which they can fit themselves to do skilled labor for which they can secure higher remuneration. 4. There should be organized in every city evening schools for the teach- ing of free-hand drawing, designing, modeling, carving, house decoration, and various other forms of industrial art, for which there may be a demand in the community. The instruction, except in the elements of free-hand drawing, should be given, as a rule, not by professional teachers, but by persons who have had thoro technical training in the particular form of applied art to be taught, and who have had practical experience in the indus- try to which the art is to be applied. In other words, the instruction should be given by highly trained specialists who have had practical experience in some productive industry of applied art. 5. There should be established on a large scale evening schools for the teaching of mechanical drawing in all its manifold applications to archi- tecture, the mechanical industries, and the various mechanical trades. While such schools exist today in many cities, the instruction is for the most part very elementary in character, and does not appeal to any but beginners. The teachers are usually professional teachers of drawing instead of prac- tical draftsmen, and have but a theoretical knowledge of the trades and industries to which their instruction should be applied. While all students may profitably be placed together in a class to be taught the elementary principles of the subject, for the advanced instruction they should be grouped in classes according to their trades or occupations; and the teacher shoidd be a person who not only knows drafting, but who also has a practical knowl- edge of the trade or occupation of the members of his class. This is the plan on which the best drafting schools in foreign countires are organized, and the superiority of their work and their large attendance prove its correctness. 6. There is great need of the organization of evening trade schools in all our cities of considerable size. In this respect our own country lags far behind the progressive countries of continental Europe. The city of Berlin alone has twenty-eight evening schools, nearly all of which are strictly trade schools, attended by over twenty-five thousand students. Trade schools of almost every variety, both as day schools and as evening schools, may be found in all the principal cities of the German empire and of France, and in the manufacturing centers of most of the other countries of western Europe. Superintendence] EXTENSION OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL PRIVILEGES II5 The fierce competition in the markets of the world will soon force upon us also the necessity of providing more thoro training for the skilled labor employed in our own industries. The particular trades to be taught in any given community should be determined largely by the local industries; in this way there would naturally develop in different cities a variety of schools, differing not a little in char- acter, each of which would meet in an economical manner a limited variety of local needs. Such schools need therefore not necessarily involve the teaching of many trades in any one community, nor become a financial burden to the taxpayers. In all cities in which there is a manual-training high school, provision can be made, at comparatively small expense, for the teaching of a number of the mechanical trades by using the equipments of the shops of these schools, which would otherwise be idle after the session of the day school. The teachers in such a trade school must be rden who have learned the trade which they are to teach and have had practical experience in it. The teacher of manual training who has never actually learned a trade is riot qualified to give instruction in trades in such a school. In admitting students, preference should be given to men already employed at their trade, but who have never had an opportunity in the shop of learn- ing more than a small part of it, and who come to such a school for the pur- pose of broadening their mechanical education. The training of such men in the shops in which they learned their trade in many cases has been con- fined to the running of a single machine, and has consequently been so narrow that the learning of the complete trade is to them a liberal education. The evening trade school should meet the needs of such men, and of young appren- tices, before it admits boys and young men not engaged in productive labor in the daytime, for whom provision should be made for instruction in trades in a day school. I would emphasize the importance of giving preference to journeymen and apprentices in such schools, both as a matter of right and as a matter of pohcy. Men already engaged at their trade have, as a rule, families dependent upon them, and ought to have every opportunity that can be given them to increase their earning capacity. Moreover, apprentices have entered upon their trade as their life-work, and ought to have the prefer- ence over other boys, who in many cases would enter a trade school in which the instruction is free without any serious purpose, and without any inten- tion of pursuing the trade as a Ufe-work. As a matter of policy I would urge it, because any trade school which would flood the labor market with surplus labor would be likely to incur at once the opposition of the labor unions. A school which gives the preference to men already engaged at their trade, either as apprentices or as journeymen, will have the support of the employers of labor because it trains their workmen to do a better quality of work, and it will win the favor of the labor unions because it trains their members to do a higher grade of work, and enables them to obtain Il6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta higher wages, instead of flooding the market with surplus labor and depress- ing wages. 7. I wish finally to call attention to the necessity of providing a special school for the married women of our foreign population in the large cities, who find it impossible to attend an evening school because of their families, but who would be able to attend a school in the afternoon when their chil- dren are cared for in school. Such afternoon classes should be established in every school building in the foreign quarters of our large cities, and instruc- tion should be given in the reading and writing of the English language, in the rudiments of arithemetic, in personal hygiene and household sanitation, and, if possible, in cooking and sewing. Much of the work that is now done by various charitable societies, by social settlements, and by numerous other agencies could be done legitimately, and far more economically, thru the existing machinery of the public schools. All educational work which must be done for the public good should be done at the public expense. II. ADULT EDUCATION HENRY M. LEIPZIGER, SUPERVISOR OF LECTURES, BOARD OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK CITY We are co-workers in the cause of the education of a democracy; and when we reflect on the power which public opinion exerts today — that the will of the people is virtually the will of God — we see how important it is that public opinion should be sound and sane, and that the democracy which wields the power shall wield it in obedience to lofty ideals and pure motives. It is being seen that the history of the world is not the history of d)^as- ties, but the story of the people, and that to each individual man there is a mission. Up to the very beginning of the last century, education, even of the most limited sort, was the privilege of a very few. It is only seventy years since primary education was made public in Boston. It was only as a result of the defeat by Napoleon at Jena that the Prussian government heeded the counsel of Fichte and began its superb system of imiversal education; while the common school system in England dates only from 1870. During the present generation, what a marvelous development in educational lines there has been: the spread of the kindergarten, the increase of secondary schools, the increase in institutions for the liberal education of women, the spread of the free Hbrary and the free museum of art and science, all having as their purpose what? — the emancipation of the individual man and woman, in order that he and she may be free. The extension of the public school in great cities has during the past ten years taken on all of the following additions, tho elementary evening schools have been longer in operation: first, elementary evening schools, where the rudiments are taught to those who are obliged early to begin bread- Superintendence] EXTENSION OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL PRIVILEGES II7 earning; second, evening high schools, where advanced studies are taught. All these schools are not yet as thoroly organized as the day high school. In New York city the elementary evening-school term is ninety nights; begin- ning this year, school is held but four nights weekly. The evening high- school term is one hundred and twenty nights. The school term begins about October i. There are elementary schools and high schools (evening) for young men and young women. A striking feature in New York is the instruction given to foreigners. To acquaint them with English, instruction is given in Yiddish, Russian, ItaUan, and other languages. The most recent extension of the pubHc school has been the estabHsh- ment of vacation schools, originally an experiment of a philanthropic society. The excellent work done, and the need of it being done, were recognized by the dty authorities, and now vacation schools and playgrounds form part of the school system of our great city. Special directors, under the supervision of a district superintendent specially assigned, insures the edu- cational character of the work. The course of study is so arranged as to call into play the manual and artistic skill of the pupils. There are roof gardens where music is played, and baths where swimming is taught. As many of the exercises as possible are done in the open air. The further extension of the use of the pubHc school has been the estab- lishment of playgrounds and recreation centers in schoolhouses in the thickly settled districts. In these playgrounds the games of the children are directed and physical exercises taught. In the recreation centers amusement is pro- vided in the shape of innocent games and small selected libraries. The extension of the uses of the school in the ways that I have mentioned is for those who either attend school or are very near the school age. There seems to be little doubt as to the wisdom of ingrafting them on the educa- tional system. The admission, however, has broadened our understanding of what the word "school" once meant. The question now arises: Shall the education furnished by the state end with the high school or the uni- versity; or shall the state furnish opportunity for the continuance of educa- tion to those whose school Ufe has been limited, or who acquire, later in life, some yearning for higher things? In other words, shall we not now be compelled to admit that man needs knowledge, not alone as a means of livelihood, but as a means of life? A friend of mine, a librarian, tells me that a little boy went into one of the circulating libraries of the city and said he wanted a book called How to Get Educated and How to Keep So. Unconsciously, he spoke a great truth. It is one thing to get educated, and it is another thing to stay so. The school gives us the beginning of education, but some provision for adult education is necessary to enable us to stay so. Mark Twain, in one of his happy moments, said: "If you repeat a lie n8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta long enough, it becomes history. " Paraphrasing that apparently sage aphor- ism, we say that, if you repeat the truth often enough, it becomes a fact. No more clearly is this seen than in the growth and development of the free lecture system in New York city, the thirteenth season of which has just begun. We can now hardly realize how we moved from one part of the city to the other in the days of the horse car; similarly we can hardly imag- ine New York city without its provision for adult education, known as the **Free Lecture Course." Without pomp, parade, and with little adver- tising, it has won its way, and is regarded by the taxpayer of our city as one of the most judicious of civic investments. Compared with material con- struction, how insignificant is the expenditure for the wealth of intellectual and moral inspiration, gathered from the treasures of talented men and women, and distributed among our citizens, for the making not only of a greater, but also a better. New York 1 And its success has been so genuine, its growth so steady, its popularity so marked, and it has been so adaptable to each city in the land, that the lecture system of New York may seem to mark the crowning glory of public-school extension. Let me briefly state what it is. Its underlying principle is this, that "edu- cation should be a means of livelihood, and that education should be unend- ing;" that the adult's taste can be cultivated as well as the child's; that the work of instruction and education begun in the elementary school must be continued and completed. Of the school population of our land about 3 per cent, attend the high schools, and less than ij per cent, the colleges, universities, and professional schools. The great body of our citizens has but limited education, and the very persons best fitted to profit by educa- tion, and who need it most, are in most cases denied its beneficent influence. Those most in need of it are between fourteen and twenty years — the time of adolescence, when conscience is disturbed, when character is being formed. At that time all the safeguards of true culture must be put around youth. Then there is that large class of mature people who have a knowledge of practical life, and who appreciate the value of education most keenly. It is from such a class that our students — I call them that rightiy — of electricity, of physics, and of history are recruited. A lecturer on physics wrote to me the other day: "The questions put by my hearers were, as a rule, more intelligent than are asked inside of many a college." Fourteen years ago the system was tentatively introduced into six school- houses. Now there are more than one hundred and forty places where systematic courses of lectures are given, and to the 4,200 lectures during the past season there came a total of ifiore than 1,200,000 listeners. Begun in the old city of New York, by the operation of the new charter it is now part of the educational system of the city, and its influence is extended to every borough, so that not alone in the various halls of Manhattan is the lecturer heard, but even on Rockaway Beach he may be found contending with the roar of the waves, like Demosthenes of old. Superintendence] EXTENSION OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL PRIVILEGES 119 The fact should be emphasized here and always that this is a movement for the education of adults. Ample provision is now made for kindergartens, elementary schools, secondary schools, and colleges. New York is the pio- neer in this noteworthy movement for the education of grown-ups. Each year the sum appropriated for the worthy purpose has been increased; for the free-lecture movement has won the appreciation, not alone of the people, but also of the student of education. Bear in mind the fact that, according to good authorities, but 6 per cent, of the people of this country are system- matically educated after leaving the common schools, so that the inclusion of a provision for adult education in our educational chapter is one of the most noteworthy deeds performed in the last decade of the nineteenth century. That there is a large body of men and women who believe that they are not too old to learn is proved by the figures to which I have referred. They are volunteer students. They come not "like snails unwillingly to school," but come rather to realize the original idea of school as a place of recreation and leisure. It is a movement to afford complete opportunity for education to teach the truth that it must extend thru life, that it is not to be concen- trated into a few years, but that the stimulus shall grow and increase in power with the years. The people are awakening to the fact that education is a continuous performance; that the school gives the alphabet, but that the word must be formed during life. It is a movement to give men and women whose lives are lives of monotonous labor a wider outlook, and to bring them, in the most interesting form, in touch with the principles of science and recent discoveries, with the result of travel, and with the delight of music, literature, and art. A very gratifying feature evidenced during the course of the past twelve years has been the increasing demands made by the audiences which have been trained. The courses of lectures are arranged at many centers sys- tematically. At one center, fifty lectures on history and literature were given. At another, each Saturday night, for the past four years, a -lecture on some subject in natural science has been given. At a third center, subjects relat- ing to education have been the chief theme. It has been delightful to note the increasing number of those who wish to pursue a subject more thoroly, and who take pleasure in the application of the best methods that charac- terize the university. The audiences have been mostly adults — in many cases entirely so. Interesting it is to see, in a meeting-place like Cooper Union or the Institute in the Bowery, an audience composed almost entirely of men. Here the subject is perhaps political history or physical science. Where the subject is literature, or music, or art, or astronomy, the women predominate. Continuity of attendance is noticeable, and in the letters sent to me by lecturers who have given courses the returning of the same faces has been observed. Some of the auditors have written to me that they have been regular attendants of these courses for the past six or seven years. Does I20 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta not such an evidence of continuity compare favorably with the attendance at any university or college in our land? Is not, in fact, the ideal of the university being realized? For both in ancient Greece and in mediaeval Europe education was for the adult. And are we not taking a step in the right direction in preserving the harmony that should exist between all depart- ments of education, in the restoration of a belief in the old ideal? A course of eleven lectures on problems of education, in which six col- lege presidents, the city superintendent of our schools, and other prominent educators took part, attracted an average audience of one thousand, while a course of lectures on "The Development of the Nation" found equal popu- larity. A course of twelve lectures on "Art History" was attended by an average audience of four hundred, and reading and questioning accom- panied this course. The geography of the United States was exhaustively treated. Literature received its due proportion, one play of Shakespeare, Othello, hemg treated, to the great delight of the audience, in a course of six lectures. In the realm of music many lectures and recitals were given. A course of eighteen lectures, six of which included a course on the Wagner music dramas, was attended by auditors many of whom came long distances, while all the musical lectures appealed to dehghted audiences. At two of the centers a course of eighteen lectures with practical exercises in singing was given with marked success. A course of eighteen lectures on "Electricity" at the West Side Auditorium drew an average attendance of 250 — ^nearly all men who were engaged in work in which a knowledge of electricity would prove helpful. I cannot do better than to read a few extracts from the hundreds of appre- ciative letters which I have received from the people: A college graduate writes: "I believe there are many who think the lectures are only for those who have not had an opportunity to receive a high-school or college education. The more intelligent the hearer, the greater the benefit derived. As to benefits received from these courses, they are too numerous to mention; but I can gladly say that through my knowledge of 'First Aid to the Injured' I have been of use to dififerent persons, from taking a cinder out of the eye of an elevated-car conductor, to fixing up the sprain of a relation." Another: " I have attended seven years and noted the improvement in tone and quality. To learn is to live." "I think it [music] is best suited to our locality, as they are all working people; there is nothing does a tired body more good." "To keep up with all the lectures, I have read books."- "In connection with the lectures, I have re-opened my Shakespeare, opened my encyclopedia for the first time, although I have had them two years, and read Fiske's Critical Period and Channing's History. ^^ "In placing before our minds new ideas that set us to thinking, and aiming at higher .and nobler things than we have known in the past." "I always look forward to them as a hungry person looks forward to a good meal." Superintendence] EXTENSION OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL PRIVILEGES 121 One woman requests lectures on "How to Bring up Children. " Another, who has attended forty lectures, writes: "A busy and often very tired woman, unable to spare much time or sight for reading, gives thanks for the pleasure and comfort I have enjoyed through this means of instruc- tion. I cannot adequately express my feelings." Another writes: "I have been going to school over again." Another: "The majority of us know nothing but paved streets and brick walls. Nature stands at our doors, but we know nothing of her. These lectures give us instruction and mental exhilaration." And yet another: " I shall try my best to pass the examination [referring to a course oh " First Aid to the Injured"], although I am very absent-minded and nervous, having been a victim of typhoid fever a year ago, and of remittent fever last fall. If I fail, I shall at least have tried my best and learned something to my advantage. I cannot say anj^hing in favor of the Monday lectures, as my husband only attends them, because I have three small chil- dren who cannot be left alone. I am glad my beloved spouse stays with them Thursday evenings, to grant me the benefit of the lectures." This movement not only gives a broader and truer conception of the term " education," but is making a larger demand upon the equipment of the teacher; or shall we say, rather, will call into being a new kind of teacher, who wiU not only possess the gift of scholarship, but will combine with it the art of proper presentation and the gift of pleasing speech. He must not only have the power to teach, but the power to inspire. His must be the voice of the prophet, for it is his duty to awaken interest and to lead souls from " the lowlands of vulgarity, high up the mount where guile desolves in fire, that burns the dross away." Judging by the results of the past ten years in our city, and by rhe naany inquiries from all parts of our land, it would not seem improbable that ten >ears from now every great city in this Union will make provision for adult education, and that a class of teachers particularly adapted to dealing with the adult mind will come into being. Teachers are now classified into ele- mentary teachers, secondary teachers, and university teachers; and the most gifted from the ranks of these should be selected to engage in the work of adult education. We are beginning to recognize more generally that educa- tion does not belong to either sex, or to any particular period of Ufe. It seems to me, therefore, that no mor« honorable task could be placed in the hands of the teacher than to stand before such audiences as gather in our schoolhouses and halls and bring them messages of truth. The teacher must be saturated with his subject. He must be a believer in the message which he is to deliver. I know of no more sacred task than that of the teacher in a democracy, organizing, as he does, public opinion, directing reading, stimularing thinking, and inspiring to the higher Hfe; and, as some- 122 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta one has said, **the ideal teacher in a scheme of adult education must com- bine, with the university professor's knowledge, the novelist's versatility, the actor's elocution, the poet's imagination, and the preacher's fervor." The term "adult education," it seems to me, is to be preferred to the term ** university extension." University extension is included in the term "adult education," and is a portion of the means to that end. As heretofore practiced, all the teachers in the imiversity-extension movement are con- nected with the university. The subjects are mainly confined to literature, history, and art, and the majority of the lectures are not given to what may be called "the working people." The free-lecture movement endeavors to secure the best-trained minds from the university, to illustrate the fact that the highest scholarship must be brought in touch with the people and to empha- size the belief that scholarship must go hand in hand with service, and that the duty of the university to the city and the state is to Uft up our citizens toward higher ideals. But, in addition to those men who are connected with an organized university, there are men and women in the university of life who have traveled, have investigated, have observed; and they are included in our teaching stafi^, for they, too, have a message to deliver. Credentials alone cannot make the scholar or the teacher. Particularly in the realm of science is adult education comprehensive. It is to spread abroad the scientific spirit — the spirit of investigation, of observation, of accuracy, and of truth ; that is the end to be aimed at. The scheme of adult education, then, taking the trained teacher with his potent word, stimulates to study and to reading. The personality of the speaker has not lessened in our time. As has been said, "No power in human experience has wrought such mighty results as the spoken word;" and the spoken word of the lecturer stimulates, not alone fine conversation, but reading of the best kind, and leads the hearer into that greatest of all universities — the public library. The fact has been established that the people will come, and that the nation will go to school; so that there are now two kinds of lectures — one for larger audiences, where subjects which appeal to large bodies can be treated; and the other, more special in its nature, where those only will come who are interested in a particular subject. The entire winter, at some centers, should be devoted to but one or two subjects, and a definite course of reading and study should be followed. I am sure that by this time we have prepared some such body of students. The division satisfies those who are already prepared for higher study and those who are just entering on the appreciation of the delights of intellectual pleasure. Foi believing, as I do, in the educational purpose and value of these lectures, I also believe, to an extent, in their wisdom from the recreative side. The character of our pleasure is an index of our culture and our civilization. A nation whose favorite pastime is the bull-fight is hardly on a plane with one that finds pleasure in the lyceum lecture. So, if we can make the pleas- ure of our people consist in the delights of art, in the beauties of literature, Superintendence] EXTENSION OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL PRIVILEGES 123 in the pursuit of science, or in the sweet influence of music, and gradually turn them away from so much in our midst that is lowering, are we not doing a real public service, and is not this theory the real foundation on which the support of the free public library rests? Is not refinement, too, one of the ends for which we are aiming — not alone knowledge, but culture; not alone light, but sweetness ? And if we can turn our youth from the street comers to the school playground, transformed into a temple of learning, are we not helping to that end ? One thing can positively be stated : As a result of this lecture movement — for it is a movement, since it is full of life — there is a constantly growing element, in this New York of ours, that is looking for intellectual and spirit- ual guidance, that welcomes the knowledge of the scientist, is moved by the skill of the artist, is touched by the words of the orator, and is inspired by all to loftier lives. And it seems to me that the men who spend their lives in accumulating knowledge, in adding to the world's treasury of wisdom, should find the greatest deUght in its dissemination. It has given me the greatest pleasure to receive from university profes- sors, who in the beginning looked with some slight scorn at the attempt to popularize knowledge, letters in which they now admit their change of view. They certainly have carried out the advice of one of the speakers at a certain college dinner to some professors, that they "should rise superior to their superiority." The scholar owes his highest duty to the state. It is his duty to do what he can to raise the moral tone of the community in which he Kves; to be of it, not above it ; not to be lost in the mass, but to help leaven it. And never was that duty more demanded than in a great democracy; for our republic is still on trial. Nobly is it weathering the gales that beset it; for the popu- lar conscience has always responded to the right. So, I say, the highest duty that our scholars can perform is to bring their knowledge and raise the average. We have faith in democracy, and we believe that thru popular education, as Mr. Larned says, "the knowledge of the learned, the wis- dom of the thoughtful, and the conscience of the upright wiU some day be common enough to prevail over every factious folly and every mischievous movement that evil minds or ignorance can set astir." The university is the steward of the wisdom of the past, and part of its duty is to spread that knowledge, to diffuse it, to bring in all possible ways its treasures within th6 reach of the masses. Thus will the university be a veritable Hght- and power-house. For we beHeve, as has has been well said, that the period of mental plasticity is lengthening. Men do not fossihze so early in life as they once did. There are more men who are capable of expanding and changing their opinions at an advanced age than was once the case. In this respect Gladstone is not so much the prodigy of the era, but paving a way as the herald of that which is just begun. Not alone has there been given a new interpretation to education and to 124 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION lAtlanta the teacher, but a new definition of school has come into being. A school- house is no longer closed at three o'clock daily, but is open at all hours, summer and winter. Ten years ago there were, it is true, elementary even- ing schools and two or three high schools. Now the schoolhouses are open, not alone for free lectures, but for recreation centers, play centers, Ubraries, and vacation schools. Why not carry this conception of the schoolhouse even a little farther ? You may walk in portions of our city where block after block consists of tenement-houses, many of these occupied by hundreds of human beings. Little that is sightly attracts the eye; and yet in the midst of these unsightly blocks one comes upon a splendid school building, whose doors are closed. It is Sunday. The authorities of this city are now considering the proper means of grappUng with the excise law; how to recognize the demands of human nature and obedience to public betterment. You close the saloon. Where shall the youth of the city in these districts gather? Why should not the schoolhouse be open on Sunday afternoon, and in its main hall the people gather to listen to an uplifting lecture of a biographical, historical, or judicial nature ? Would not such use of our school buildings be justi- fied? Why should settlements need to exist at all? Why should not the schoolhouse represent all that is best in the so-called social settlement; and why should not every man and woman engaged in the work of public edu- cation be fired with the same spirit which is said to make the settlement worker? It seems to me that the tendency should be toward including in the public education all that is best in the movements for philanthropy which seem to mark our time. It is gratifying indeed to find an increasing response on the part of the churches in this work. Schoolhouses are in many cases unsuited for adult education; and the committee on lectures at a recent meeting took a wise step in recommending to the building committee that in all buildings hereafter to be erected by the board of education provision should be made for adult education, and that a proper auditorium, with proper seats for adults, should be provided. There is an added value in the establishment of a lecture system for adults in our schools. The whole object in the maintenance of our schools hitherto has been the education of minors. Generally, when our children reach the age of fourteen or sixteen, they have been weaned from the school- house. How few adults ever visit the scene of their school days! By the extension of the school, in the ways to which I have referred, it is made to extend its enlightening influence to the old as well as to the young, and the school becomes, not only, as Horace Mann says, "a nursery for children," but a place of intelligent resort for men. The school will no longer be an institution for diffusing the mere rudiments of knowledge, but for the bounti- ful diffusion of knowledge itself. There should be no necessity for citizens, desiring to add to their culture, sitting either in the low and ill-ventilated and unattractive school-yard, or Superintendence] EXTENSION OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL PRIVILEGES 1 25 climbing sixty or seventy steps to sit upon a bench built only for children; so that a change in the construction of our schoolhouses may result from the expansion of this use. The gratuitous use of chiu*ch halls for lecture purposes is a most sig- nificant sign of the times. Church work must by this means increase in efficiency. The church has for its purpose the strengthening of morality, and as true enlightenment breeds morality, it surely approves of spreading the gospel of the free-lecture movement. "Let there be light." The experiment of the platform library — i. e., of books being distributed freely from the platform — was successfully made. An examination was held at the close of the series, and after each lecture critical and intelligent questions were put to the lecturer by interested auditors. Part of the series was repeated in another section of the city. Three lecturers were engaged in giving a course of five lectures on "First Aid to the Injured." This course being the same that is given for the instruction of policemen. The hbraries feel the impetus created by the demand for good books; and as a result the public is being educated to the importance of the free circulating libraries. The lectures on science enable the visitor to the Museum of Natural History to look with different eyes on the collections; and those on art pre- pare men and women for the proper appreciation of our collections of paint- ings and sculpture. So an interest in hfe has been given to many. To some the lectures have proved the only bright spot in a cheerless existence; to others, a social factor; and to others, refining influences. The boisterous youth has been toned down, and those who came to scoff remained to learn. Summing up the value of this movement, it may be said, first, that the free-lecture movement has broadened the meaning of education, and forms a continuation school in the very best sense; it enables the professor to come in touch with the people; it reaches all classes of society, for the audiences are as democratic as all intellectual gatherings should be ; it binds together the high and the low in education; it brings culture in touch with the uncul- tured and produces the true solidarity of the spiritual life. Secondly, it has given a new meaning to the uses and possibilities of the schoolhouse; and, finally, its chief purpose is spiritual and not commercial. The lectures do indeed increase the productive power of the listener, do add to his stock of information; but their true end is to saturate the people with ideals. Without ideals one cannot live. It is by the help of noble ideals that purity and peace are given to masses of our fellow-men; and to help in shaping the ideals of a democracy is the purpose of adult education. Year by year our system will improve. Year by year more gifted men and women will come to these great aggregations which gather in cities, and leaven the whole lump by their upUfting message. In these days of shorter hours and larger opportunities, the toilers will find in adult educa- tion the stimulus for the gratification of their intellectual desires, and thru 126 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta the means of this movement a larger world will be given them to live in. The best characters in literature will be brought to influence them; their daily labor will be transformed into a noble task; new joy will come into their lives from this association of literature and science and art; this influ- ence will afiFect their homes and their lives; and it will be found that the true joys of life do not come from wealth, but from sympathy with and appreciation of the bounties and wonders of nature that lie round us. Adult education is just in its infancy, and it seems to me that in the future one of the chief jewels in our civic crown will be this movement for the edu- cation of the masses. May the other cities of our land deal as generously as New York has, and may the work of adult education go on, freeing thousands from error, year by year, and so bringing nearer that ideal city in which all of us would fain dwell! III. UNIVERSITY EXTENSION FOR TEACHERS IN SERVICE R. H. HALSEY, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, OSHKOSH, WIS. During the past twenty years school officials have been paying much more attention relatively to the preparation of those intending to become teachers than to increasing the efficiency of those already engaged in teach- ing. There is no doubt that if we cannot, with the means at our command, accomplish both results, the former, as the more elementary, is the more important. But there is no good reason for our not giving due attention to the agencies by which the training of the teacher is secured while in service as well as previous to entering upon service. The problem that has confronted the superintendent in his effort to help his assistant teachers to gain greater skill and broader culture has been the old one of trying to put thirty hours of work into a twenty-four-hour day. The requirements upon the average grade teacher have been such as to leave her neither time, strength, nor dis- position for a systematic course of reading and study that shall give her a greater professional efficiency, or the larger usefulness that comes from pursuing studies purely cultural. If we would secure the greatest degree of serviceableness from a corps of teachers, we must reduce to a minimum the amount of purely clerical. work that is demanded of them, the number of exercise papers to be corrected; and we must bring it to pass that the teacher is enabled to turn her back upon the school building each afternoon with her school-work finished for the day. What work she undertakes after that should be of a nature that will tend to refresh her instead of exhaust- ing her for the duties of the next day. For this reason it seems to me that a teacher is likely to do more efficient work who is carrying along with her daily school duties two distinct lines of study — one of a professional nature, and the other an academic branch, undertaken, not for its immediate service in her schoolroom, but because she feels that, by gaining the larger outlook Superintendence] EXTENSION OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL PRIVILEGES 127 upon life which a purely cultural study is likely to give, she will come back to her school-work rested each day by the consciousness of increased knowl- *edge and multipUed power. School ofl&cers have not always been quick to recognize the value of the culture studies to the teachers in their actual work in the schoolroom. We have been much more ready to admit the value of a course in pedagogical methods in particular subjects, or, to the teacher in the secondary school, a course in physics, biology, or whatever branch he may be teaching, than of a course that would appeal equally to the per- son not a teacher — a course of study that would help to give him a clearer insight into some of the graver problems of society. I shall not undertake to enlarge upon the value of university extension in general. This movement may be safely said to have passed the experi- mental stage in its history and to be nearing the time of larger harvests. It is with the movement directly aimed at providing the opportunity for teachers in active service to carry on one or more courses side by side with their regular school-work that I am concerned. Inquiry from the registrars of higher educational institutions in about twenty of our largest cities devel- ops the fact that there are eight such institutions now offering from eight to seventy-eight regular courses more especially intended for teachers. I do not include in this enumeration the valuable summer schools maintained by many of our universities in which courses for teachers are provided. These eight institutions are the University of Chicago, the University of Cincinnati, Columbia University, New York University, Northwestern University, the University of Pennsylvania, Rochester University, and Yale University. About three thousand five hundred teachers are enrolled in the extension classes of these eight universities. Five report that they find teachers pre- ferring the academic to the professional line of work. In all but one regu- lar attendance is required upon classes, and an examination at the close of each course is also required. Two do not recognize the work done in such classes as a portion of the work required for a degree, but the other six will- ingly grant it such recognition. One reports that work done in the univer- sity in this way is recognized by the school authorities; two say that it is encouraged; one says that it secures preference in appointment and pro- motion for the teacjiers; one states that it secures exemption for a teacher from regular teachers' examinations; two do not know that it receives any recognition whatever from local school authorities; and one says that these authorities do not recognize such university work on the part of the teacher in any way whatever. Probably the most noteworthy instance of such extension work is that undertaken during the past two years in the city of Chicago on the initiative of Superintendent Cooley, and largely under the tuition of the faculty of the Chicago Normal School. Seventy-six courses were ofiFered the school authorities holding themselves in readiness to start a class in any quarter of the city convenient for the teachers indicating their desire to join such 128 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta class, and offering to provide such instruction as the members of the class might elect. Nearly three thousand of Chicago's teachers have availed them- selves of this privilege. It is to me one of the most hopeful signs of intel- ' lectual and professional awakening on the part of a large body of teachers, to note the spirit with which the Chicago teachers have seized the oppor- tunity thus afforded them for increasing their effectiveness in the public service. It would seem that some recognition of a teacher's desire to fit herself better for her school-work should be accorded, and therefore we are not surprised to find the authorities in both New York and Chicago rewarding these teachers by making the maximum salaries for teachers who have suc- cessfully completed a number of courses in these extension classes higher than that attainable by teachers who depend upon length of service alone to reach their maximum of efficiency. The regulation of the Chicago board of education upon this subject reads as follows: Teachers in elementary schools are promoted from the second to the first group of salaries by a vote of the board of education, on recommendation of the superintendent of schools, and those teachers are eligible for such recommendation and promotion who have reached the maximum salary of the second group, and who shall receive upon the I romotional examination a final mark of at least 80 per cent., made up of three items, which shall receive equal credit, as follows: (a) efl&ciency mark for the preceding year, as equalized by the board of district superintendents; (6) mark obtained upon the pro- fessional study paper of the promotional examination; and (c) mark obtained on the aca- demic paper of the promotional examination, provided that no examination mark below 70 shall be considered. A plan similar to that adopted by these two cities is certain to appeal to school officials who are looking anxiously for some systematic course for their teachers to pursue, to replace the old haphazard plan of individual study. Still more strongly will it recommend itself in places where the superintendent has had reason to feel that one of the most serious evils threatening his schools was the lack of incentive for teachers to improve themselves in a broad way. Altho the conditions favorable to the formation of extension classes are more evident in a large city, yet opportunity for participation in such advan- tages are by no means limited to the teachers of such a system. One of the greatest improvements in our modern system of university education is the manner in which thru extension lectures and classes "Mahomet has come to the mountain." There is every reason why a body of teachers in a smaller center should avail itself of the privilege of securing a lecturer from the nearest university . and pursuing extension work along some Hne that may be attractive to the kree STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 139 "^x, ' ." .^ '^'^ wasted. The efficient teacher does his best professional work ' -t^ ^o matter how often he has taught the same subject before, . . ' he must again and again organize the subject anew, and 'onal life. V, of social service for an applicant from another [jut likewise for applicants to be doing so in their lount of energy, time, and money wasted in prepar- ^ examinations, and passing upon the manuscripts! examinations — county, dty, and state — together with the mals, or institutes, there should be, in every state, a system . pupil practice departments, dedicated to the organization of xf-active co-operative effort in the interest of the school, the home. The best available teaching power of the country should be placed schools of methods, ites now authorized or granted by state, county, and city boards should these schools of methods as an incident to the instruction. Certificates 1 would be a much better index to teaching ability than those issued by the system. In the first place, the boards issuing them would be much stronger. In cond place, these boards, during the several weeks* session of the school of methods, aid be given much better opportunity to judge of the applicant's power to attack sub- jects pedagogically. The boards would also have opportunity to become acquainted with the teacher's personality, and finally to see him handle a class of pupils in the prac- tice department. But not only should schools of methods under state authority be utilized, but private schools of methods, summer schools thruout the land, and especially the great schools of education, such as the College of Education of the University of Chicago and the Teachers College of Colimibia University. Many an ambitious teacher is prevented from spending a summer in these great schools by being obliged to renew his certificate in the grind of the county institute, with its accompanying examination. By all means, state authorities should be authorized to recognize certificates from schools of education and summer schools of high character. These summer schools, instead of frittering away their time upon the promiscuous crowd of students who drift in upon them, should be permitted to devote their energies largely to carefully selected representatives from the different states, who would be able to carry back to their constituencies the educational reforms inculcated, and would become leaders in their respective communities. These representatives might be sent by counties, senatorial districts, congressional districts, or by county, district, or state associations; or they might be sent by state schools of methods, by cities and towns, or by men of wealth. It might be expedient to send them on condition that they donate a certain amount of instruction in local schools of method on their return. The schools of education would probably be willing to meet this movement by granting a limited number of free scholar- ships on properly guarded conditions. In a word, it is proposed to take the energies now squandered upon certificate-getting and utilize it for gaining teaching power. The sacred demands of social service are that the energies now put forth in certificate mills be as unerringly dedicated to the good of the child as is the conscientious preparation by the teacher for his daily work. DISCUSSION State Superintendent G. W. Nash, of South Dakota. — ^This is an age of mar- velous activity. The United States, our beloved country, is extending her power com- mercially and politically. In world-affairs she is outstripping her neighbors. But to I40 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta retain her proud position as leader in the affairs of the world, she must be pre-eminent educationally. Gratifying progress in education is noted in all the states. Georgia, Texas, Florida, and the Carolinas, with their sisters of the South, are in touch and sympa- thy with present-day advancement. States of the North now vie with one another in undertakings that count for genuine development. All commonwealths, east and west, are included in the general forward movement. "In union there is strength" — educationally as otherwise — and we must unite our state educational plans into a tangible whole, if what we attempt is to be recognized as in any sense a national system. To establish national standards of qualification for those who shall teach in our public schools will be of substantial assistance in effecting the desired unity. The topic under discussion bears directly upon this general proposition and is, therefore, of great importance to the large body of American teachers who are well equipped scholastically for their responsible work. Shall the states of the Union remain petty educational monarchies, separated by walls of law, and given merely to the worship of local institutions; or shall they establish a national standard of excellence — neither too high nor too low — to which all sections may measure up and thus secure suitable recog- nition ? This seems to be the question, and the biased manner in which I have stated it indicates my view-point. The query may be an old one — ^it may have been debated many times — and yet it is pertinent today. I entertain the belief that we should have general recognition of state certificates and life-diplomas. This concession should be made, no matter whether such credentials are based upon graduation from the advanced courses of accredited normal schools, upon completion of approved college and university courses leading to degrees, or upon passing examinations in certain required subjects. Competent graduates of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Cornell, or of the State Universities of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Missouri, Virginia, South Dakota, who have taken satisfactory courses in pedagogy, should be recognized everywhere as entitled to receive, without examination, licenses to teach. Universities, colleges, and normal schools of high grade located anywhere within the borders of our Union of states are entitled to due consideration, and their graduates should be encouraged to enter into educational leadership thruout the land. But who shall fix the standard and accredit schools? To such inquiry I reply that the national Commissioner of Education could fittingly perform such service. The Commissioner's judgment would naturally govern with the several state departments. Some objector may advocate a less hberal policy. He may insist that the present New York or Nebraska attitude should prevail, and that teachers, regardless of training or experience, should serve successfully for a number of months in their adopted state before having original credentials recognized. But such contention seems to me unten- able. It stamps as valueless everything except local examinations and experience, and discredits many courses and schools especially fitted to develop superior teachers. Its tendency would be to eliminate entirely the young blood. Is it just and fair thus to ignore advanced credentials, and to require that a teacher shall be put to the test and serve as a probationist ? The law of comity demands that skilled teachers shall be permitted without embarrassment to pass beyond the borders of their own commonwealth. ^ It was my privilege last summer to communicate with the various state superin- tendents on this subject. Replies to my letters indicate a healthy sentiment in favor of interstate recognition of advanced teachers' certificates. "I believe in reciprocity along the line suggested, but regret to say that the laws of this state do not give the superin- tendent any latitude in the matter," is a typical answer. Several letters expressed a willingness on the part of superintendents to make certain concessions to the South Dakota department, provided that, in return, similar concessions should be granted. One would reciprocate on state certificates and life-diplomas granted purely on examination; another would agree to an exchange of courtesies based on certificates issued as a result of gradua- tion from university, college, or normal school; and still another would join in an indis- "^ I Superintendence] STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 141 criminate recognition of state certificates of high grade. If one is to reciprocate along the various lines suggested, a definite policy is impossible, and exact justice to the individ- ual teacher is out of the question. Superintendents, generally, recognize the need for legislation upon the point at issue, and will, I believe, be willing to urge the passage of wise laws bearing upon the situation. The standard of education in South Dakota is high, yet we shall gladly raise it, if need be, so as to secure recognition under interstate reciprocity. If practically uniform laws governing the issuance of Umited state and life certificates shall be secured, and if then, in generous mood, the state superintendents shall exercise their rights under such laws, one of the barriers to real educational progress in America will be removed. INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF RURAL SCHOOLS ARTHUR LEFEVRE, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, AUSTIN, TEX. So many things are requisite for such efl5ciency of the rural schools as would even approximate practicable reforms that it would be futile to attempt to describe details in the time allowed. The problems are many-sided, and emphasis might be greatly varied as bearing more on skill in education as a process, or on the right essence of education as a result, or on administrative questions of ways and means. Whatever may be the point of emphasis, however, wise discussion of any aspect is possible only among those able and willing to consider each in the light of all. Perhaps few men can successfully spe- cialize in more than one of the three departments; but whether he be teacher, or organizer of courses of study and executive ofl&cer in general, or representative and administrator of the sociaJ energies which furnish the physical basis, each, I say, needs intelligent sympa- thy with the functions of the others. Only when teachers, school superintendents, and educational boards work with such reciprocal comprehension can they cease to work at cross-purposes. As for state superintendents, is it possible for anyone of narrow interests to be a useful counselor and friend of all these, and in addition do his part toward arousing and guiding the social forces that supply the motive power tv^hich it is the business of teachers and school ofiicers to apply? Truly, none is sufficient for these things; but in this heyday of specialization there is need to uphold the idea that in education specializa- tion ought to be a matter of emphasis, not of exclusion. Before any system of instruction can be rightly called educational, it must be ascer- tained, not merely whether its pupils have learned something, but whether they have been put on the way of education; for it is a process which lasts as long as life lasts. To be intelligently sympathetic with every sort of human activity is to be educated. Neither blind sympathy nor unsympathetic knowledge yields genuine education; but only the union of sympathy with knowledge. An essential object of the first stages of formal instruction is to awaken and maintain interest; of the last stage, to lead to independent investigation and judgment, nowhere tending to dry up the fountains of sympathy, nor to confine the waters of understanding from all save certain regions. This ideal is not mentioned with any rhetorical purpose, but to indicate a potent line of action. To have ideals simply means to have a "clear head," to know the ends striven for. EflFort without ideals is anarchy; effort under false ideals is thraldom. Every, practical exigency should be dealt with as such; but the true purpose ought to be kept in view. It has often been shown that education, when it is dallied with or mistakenly attempted, is costiy, troublesome, and skeptically regarded; but those who have perceived its true nature and aim never complain of its cost, never harbor a doubt about it. The high aim is the practical and efficient one, because all incidental utilities are included, and if inner qualification for the right use of wealth does not keep pace with its acquisition, society 142 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanu plunges toward ruin like a runaway locomotive engine. We should never confine pleas for the proper support of schools, or for progressive educational enterprises, to the scope of a hard-headed debate with a close-fisted computer of pecuniary returns to the individ- ual. It is the doom of selfishness that it cannot see clearly; and the people are not as selfish as they are supposed to be by many men who, while priding themselves on their practical sense, are blind to some of the most practical laws of nature and himian nature. It is the purpose of this round-table session to bring the fruits of experience and reflec- tion to bear upon means of increasing the efficiency of those schools which belong to our vast expanses of rural Ufe, the very foundations of the commonwealth. The four sub- heads for the discussion which is to follow this preliminary paper have been chosen by the designer of our program with wisdom and insight. They embrace all the phases of our problem, and pointedly bring out the need of considering each in the light of all, which has been responsible for my somewhat discursive introduction to the suggestions which I now offer under the four assigned heads. I. CONSOLIDATION OF SCHOOLS It is important that leaders should be able to look ahead, but it is almost equally important that a new movement should not be advocated until conditions have been ripened for it. The time seems to have come for the application all over this country, where suitable to local conditions, of a remedy for the peculiar embarrassments of rural schools. The remedy is no longer an experiment. In the execution of any design it is the individual that counts; but in so far as organization can secure results, every condi- tion changed by normally developing consolidation is changed for the better. The consolidation of rural schools is a broad administrative question requiring, as a condition precedent, the formation and guidance of an effective pubUc opinion. It is only upon this phase of our first subtopic that it is fitting for me to speak in this company. In Texas I write and speak about consolidation, reporting as best I can the experience of others, and our State University and our College of Agriculture and Mechanics are responding to my appeals for bulletins giving detailed accounts of the work of leaders in this reform;, but the movement in Texas is only in its inception. In Texas we need no legislation on the subject. Compulsory laws ought to be avoided. If necessary, simply repeal restrictive, or enact permissive laws. Zeal for uniformity has wrought much damage in the educational work of states. I am opposed to compelling people to do things better left to their free will. Simply break the shackles and let the rural school districts be permitted to help themselves by consolidation and local taxation, where the majority of their citizens are so disposed. It would remain for us to inform the people of assured facts, in order that they may learn what the most satisfactory way of managing rural schools is, unless local conditions compel the continuance of weak little schools. We should not be in over-weening haste — that bane of many reformers. It is often profitable to reflect upon the long centuries which have led to the stadium at which we find ourselves. Misapplications of theory may thus be avoided; and each step could be a permanent advance. II. IMPROVEMENTS IN COURSE OF STUDY AND SYSTEM OF GRADING These problems of educational processes concern some of the ends of administrative measures like consolidation; but they in turn need to be dealt with as means to supreme aims. We consolidate in order to improve courses of study. We should frame courses of study, and make assignments of time for completing them, in order to develop the self- activity which is the object of any truly educational regimen, and in order to direct that self-activity to make suitable advances toward the comprehensive intelligence and sjmapa- thy and efficiency which belong to the full stature of a man. It is one of the reasons for consolidating poor Uttle rural schools, that it thereby Superintendence] STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 143 becomes feasible to provide suitable studies in subjects relating to agriculture, together with teachers capable of offering such instruction. No one need dream, however, that the complaints of those who are justly dissatisfied with the results of schools can be cured by so simple a remedy as changing the course of study. Such improvements make good teachers more effective, and may diminish stultifying effects of incompetent teachers; but there is no help for the results of attempts to educate the young by means of unedu- cated teachers hired at starvation wages, except to quit the absurd attempt. Refreshment of courses of study, and especially a genuine correlation of subject- matter such as has never yet been attempted, demands now and will ever require the best efforts of the best schoolmen. There is more than time — ^priceless as time is — ^to be thus gained by the mutual reinforcement belonging to cognate studies. How neglected this means of increased efficiency has been is apparent upon the mere mention of present text-books, which almost completely ignore it. The easiest and most definite improvement in prevailing systems of grading is to reduce the number of years assigned for the elementary course of study. The one advan- tage that the old-fashioned rural school has enjoyed is represented by the significant fact that pupils, there fitted to enter high schools, have been prepared in a much shorter time than the preposterous eight years of the city elementary school. Vital correlation of subject-matter of instruction must remain the chief means of improving and economizing teaching in the old-style country schools; but for the reformed rural school conditions of systematic grading will not differ materially from conditions in cities and towns. Such is one of the chief claims, and justly so, of the consolidating reform. In this, therefore, as in most other matters, we shall hear less and less of differences, and more and more of the essential likeness, of country and town schools; and it is of immense importance that the new rural school should be saved from imitating city schools in grading to a twelve-year standard for elementary and high-school courses combined. All that is attempted in the prevailing twelve-year course can be better accomplished by the same teaching force in ten years. The twelve-year plan was foisted upon our American systems by would-be imitators of the German system, who did not understand it; because that system accomplished in nine years all that they tried to spread over twelve. The last two or three years of the usual eight years of elementary school, by common experience, present the most troublesome problems. It is more difficult to walk min- cingly than to step out along the pathway. It is hard, also, to make an empty bag stand upright. It is chiefly here (and not in the high schools) that the boys take a disgust for study and an undue proportion of them leave school. And how can this be wondered at, if we face the- fact that they are asked to spend eight years preparing to enter the lowest grade of the high school, and find themselves at fifteen or sixteen conning infantile manuals under female tutelage? There is not the slightest difficulty in "telescoping" an eight- year course into a six-year course. If you will adopt six years for the standard elementary grades, among other benefits too numerous to mention, you will begin to keep the boys for the high school. (In consolidating rural schools, talk about six-, not eight-, room houses.) The most discouraging experience of my own professional life has been the slowness with which protests against the eight-grade system have gained a hearing, even among students of its evil consequences. How will diminishing the college course by half help the boys who rightly spurn the stultification of the elementary schools ? And if two years be saved at the stage where they are worse than wasted, what need for lopping off at the top ? I hope for speedy results from the investigations of our new Society of Educational Research. No statistics could make the truth clearer to me than it has been for many years; but those researches will place the facts beyond the sphere of individual insight, and will, I hope, cause them to be recognized by all. 144 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta III. HIGHER STANDARDS IN THE EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS To secure good teachers two things are necess iry: right discrimination on the part of those who select the teachers, and money to pay them. Both are necessary, altho the best human service is too exahed a thing to be priced in the coin of the market; and if those who receive such service conceive that they "hire" it, they make a mistake whose tendency is to pollute the very wellsprings of noble action. Persons charged with the responsibility of licensing teachers for the rural schools, whether by examination or by normal-school certificates, can do much toward raising standards; but the most effective measures are those which will gradually preclude incompetent trustees. Districts that take no care for their schools must continue to drag along with short-term schools, housed in shanties, and often with incompetent teachers chosen and underpaid by incompetent trustees. Only where public opinion repudiates the notions of economy whereby the cheapest teacher is sought regardless of qualifications is the service of competent teachers deserved. But if leaders do their part, gradually a correct conception of the practical conditions of educational work will be formed in public opinion, until, after much con- solidating of weak little schools, and the consequent election of suitable trustees to man- age such larger affairs, the whole tendency will draw the backward districts into line with the general advance. By such means, it may at last be proved that we have dealt wisely with the paramount governmental problem of a free people. A proper conception of the immensity of the work will save from impatience and discouragement. Great things develop slowly. We must depend in part upon the youths who leave existing good schools. They will soon be electors and trustees, and will help bring to pass all needed reforms. IV. EXPERT SUPERVISION The supervision of rural schools devolves in the main upon the county superinten- dent, or some officer of similar functions. The conditions of the work vary greatly in different states. In the southern states problems of support and organization need expert solution. If the people and school trustees are allowed to sit in darkness, only small and incidental benefits can be secured by overseeing teachers as they struggle with impossible tasks. Where conditions demand it, it is the superintendent's paramount duty to direct public attention to the plain business propositions which the people must deal with prop- erly, before teachers can accomplish by strictly professional means the vital results of education. The people of our rural regions in the South stand more ready to do their part than Mwexpert supervisors of rural schools commonly report, if only the way be clearly shown to them. The first duty of supervisors is to explain to trustees and people the necessity of certain improvements and the means of obtaining them. The support of schools nowhere in the United States depends upon the wealth of the state, but upon the local appreciation of public education. As a cold economic proposition, every state can afford good schools of every needed variety, and cannot afford poor schools. The man who claims that his district is too poor to maintain good public schools is not only mistaken as a matter of fact, but he also perpetuates his own and his neighbor's present poverty. A part of the amount contributed by any state for the Cuban and Phihppine wars would have given that state public schools as well supported as any in the Union. Tell the people that they may estimate from their own experience with reve- nue stamps how difficult it would be to resume a part of that now happily abolished expen- diture, in order to provide sanitary and refining schoolhouses and grounds, longer terms, the needed libraries and equipment, refreshed courses of study, and efficient teachers for the children for whose good in all other respects they labor with continual self-denial. The method of supplementing state apportionment by local supp>ort is not only accordant with the fundamental principles and highest hopes of a true democracy, in its fostering of self-responsibility instead of entire dependence upon distributions by the tate government, but it is the practical method thruout our common country. In the Superintendence] STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 145 United States at large 4 per cent, of the money expended on public common schools is derived from permanent funds, 16 per cent, from state taxation, leaving $0 per cent, supplied locally. No details of technical supervision can be included in these condensed remarks; but I may say that uniformity is not a criterion of excellence, nor is systematizing an end in itself. In such regards there seems to be as much need for self-restraint as for exertion. Flat requirements in such matters as daily programs are generally ill-advised, and too minutely prescribed courses of study do more harm than good. Those who demand one rigidly prescribed course for all the schools of a county, or even of a state, are visionary admirers of uniformity for uniformity's sake, who do not concern themselves with existent facts. Let supervisors require and test results. I trust the discussion which is to follow will bring out in some detail many things that I have been able only to refer to in general terms; and, in conclusion, I shall merely state that signs of educational progress are not confined to the advances observable in our own profession, but there are many evidences of such encouraging progress made by the people within the last two years in their share of our great undertaking as should inspire the teachers of this country to do their part still more nobly in the future than in the past. CONSOLIDATION OF SCHOOLS J. Y. JOYNER, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION OF NORTH CAROLINA In discussions of this sort most benefit is derived from comparison of experience in dealing with similar problems. I. FACTS SUGGESTING REASONS FOR CONSOLIDATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS IN NORTH CAROLINA 1. Large number of districts, small area of each district, and small number of chil- dren in each district: 5,370 white and 2,346 colored school districts; inhabitable area of state, 48,000 square miles; average size of white school district, 8.9 square miles; average number of white children per district, 84; average number in 1902, only 73; average num- ber of colored children to district, 93; average number in 1902, only 82. 2. Rapid increase in number of districts until 1902: 47 per cent, of all white school districts and 44 per cent, of all colored school districts contained less than 65 children of school age — the minimum allowed by law except for sparsity of population or geographical barriers, such as streams, swamps, mountains, etc. In reports of all white teachers of two entire townships, in township meetings recently attended by the state superintendent in one of the most level counties of the state, practically free from geographical barriers, only one teacher reported a census school population of 65 — the minimum fixed by law. In these townships there was a little one-room box of a schoolhouse for every mile or two of the public highway, notwithstanding the law which has for years forbidden building of a new schoolhouse within three miles of another. 3. Some natural results of this multiplicity of small districts and schools: From 1874 to 1902 the state and county school tax had been increased from 61 to 18 cents on $100 of property, the total school fund had been more than quadrupled, and yet a special state appropriation of $200,000 was necessary in 1901 and since, to give even a four-month school term in all public schools. During the quarter of a century before this appropria- tion was made the public-school term had been increased in length less than three weeks, and the average salary of the public-school teacher had been increased not one cent. Fifty-nine per cent, of all the districts needing aid from this special appropriation for this purpose were small districts containing less than 65 children of school age, many of them containing only from 20 to 30, and some not more than 10 or 15. The increase in the number of districts had more than kept pace with the increase in population, wealth, and 146 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanu school fund, and the efficiency of schools had been increased but little. With a fixed school fund for each county, the larger the number of schools among which it must be divided, the smaller the amount of money each school will receive; the smaller the number of schools, the larger the amount of money each school will receive. More money for each school means more house, more equipment, more teacher, longer term. Further facts are unnec- essary to prove the existence of too many little districts and schools in North Carolina, the folly of retaining them, and the wisdom of consolidating them. n. OBSTACLES TO CONSOLIDATION 1. Selfishness and politics. — Most men naturally desire a schoolhouse as near their doors as possible, for the convenience of their own little family circles or for the employ- ment of their own dear daughters, sisters, cousins, or aunts as teachers therein. They are naturally loath to give up their little schools for the greatest good to the greatest number, when once established because of convenience, profit, love of control, attachment to the old schoolhouse, and conservatism in clinging to the old rather than trying the new. Poli- tics is often a cause of little districts and an obstacle to their removal. The cry of a school- house at every man's door is not an unpopular one, and the demagog who is always ready to catch votes with any sort of a promise, without regard to the possibility or wisdom of keeping it, is ever ready upon occasion to raise the cry for temporary gain. The political sorehead is ever ready to flaunt in the face of the timid the scarecrow of ruin to the party, to procure or keep for his selfish ends his little district and his little school. Before the disfranchisement of the negro this was often used very effectively in counties in which the contest was close and no white votes could be safely lost. 2. A large territory and a sparse population. — ^It is almost impossible for states with a comparatively small territory, a dense population, a large school fund, and, only one system of schools to appreciate the difficulty of this problem of larger schools in a state with a large territory, a sparse p>opulation, a small school fund, and .two separate systems of schools for two races. To illustrate: Average nvunber of inhabitants in North CaTX>- lina to the square mile, 39; average number of white children of school age to the square mile, 9; average population to the square mile of north Atlantic division of states, 129.8; average of the state of Massachusetts, 348.9; area of Massachusetts, about one-seventh that of North Carolina; her school population, one and seven-tenths that of North Caro- lina; her school fund, eight times that of North Carolina; she supports one system, while North Carolina must support two in practically all her territory. 3. Bad roads. — To make the problem of consolidation in North Carolina, with her sparse population, large territory, small school fund, and double system of schools, still more difficult in many of the very districts where the population is sparsest and the need for consolidation greatest, the condition of the county roads is such, during the season when the schools are in session, as to render transportation of pupils impractical without greater expense than can be supplied out of a small school fund, and to stand in the way also of requiring children to walk far to get to a schoolhouse in a larger district. Without better roads and larger school funds, transportation of pupils in most rural districts of the South is hardly practicable. In any event, I believe that, at present, consolidation of dis- tricts cannot successfully be carried beyond the point of leaving a schoolhouse within reasonable walking distance of every child. In a mild climate any healthy child can walk over an ordinary road two or three miles to school without injury. Later, when improved roads and more favorable conditions make transportation practicable, these districts will probably become the nuclei of larger districts still and the feeders to the township high schools. 5. Lack of county maps showing townships, roads, streams, centers of population, etc., and the consequent lack of information in regard to size, boundaries, topography, distances, etc., of small districts and proposed consolidated districts. Such maps are an absolute necessity for consolidating intelligently. Superintendence] STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS . 147 ni. WHAT WE HAVE DONE IN CONSOLIDATING RURAL DISTRICTS IN NORTH CAROLINA DURING THE PAST TWO YEARS During the year ending June 30, 1902, there was a decrease of 179 in the rurul dis- tricts in North Carolina; from July i, 1902, to June 30, 1903, the number of white school districts was reduced from 5,653 to 5,370 — a decrease of 283 white districts during that school year; during the same year there was a decrease of 95 colored school districts, making a total decrease of 378. This represents a consolidation of at least 600 white and 200 colored districts in one year. In two years the total number of districts, white and colored, has been decreased 557, representing a consolidation of at least 1,200 small districts. IV. HOW WE HAVE DONE IT Our general method has been to convince, persuade, lead the people; not to force, or seem to force, them when it could be avoided. Radical action, in defiance of the wishes of a majority of the people concerned, always brings about harmful reaction. The objections to consolidation are natural and human, and should be met wisely, tact- fully, and sympathetically with reason and argument and patience, not with abuse and dogmatism and impatience. The final movement for consoHdation should come from a majority of the people most concerned, as a result of enhghtened public sentiment on the question, and not from outsiders. The movement in each county must be led, if possi- ble, by home folks; the natural leaders of this and all other educational movements in each county are the school officers, the county superintendent, the members of the county board of education, the school committeemen, the teachers. If these forces can be organ- ized, informed, interested, set to work, and directed, the battle will be won. In our state and district associations, county superintendents have discussed the question, committed themselves, individually and collectively, to the movement, and taken counsel together about ways and means of seciuing consolidation. Thru circular letters and conferences, county boards of education, committeemen, and teachers have been reached and interested by the county superintendent and the state superintendent. Thru bulletins on the subject from the office of the state superintendent, and such other literature upon the subject as could be obtained, thru the county newspapers, ever willing to aid in any good cause, the general pubUc has been reached and informed, and pubUc sentiment aroused. County superintendents have been urged to talk it privately and publicly in districts in which the conditions were favorable for successful consolidation, and to interest, if possible, a few influential citizens in such districts in the subject and set them talking it up. Thru blanks sent out for the purpose, each county superintendent has reported to the state superintendent and the campaign committee for the promotion of public education districts in which the conditions are favorable for consolidation, and some of the people are interested in it. During the summer, with the aid of the funds furnished by the Southern Education Board, a regular campaign for pubUc education has been carried on under the direction of this committee, of which the governor, the director of the Southern' Education Board for North Carolina, and the state superintendent are the executive conmiittee. At the favorable points in the various counties reported by county superintendents, appointments have been made for educational raUies and addresses by state superinten- dents, local speakers, and speakers sent by the executive committee. When the time was ripe, petitions asking for consolidation were generally circulated and signed by a majority of the patrons of the public schools in the districts concerned. Frequently consolidation has been encouraged and secured by standing offers of the county board of education to aid liberally in erecting large and comfortable new houses centrally located, provided the people in small districts, with old uncomfortable houses, would agree to consolidation. The state board of education has encouraged and stimu- lated consolidation by giving preference to the appUcations of consolidated districts for loans from the loan fund for building and equipping schoolhouses. 148 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanu V. HOW IT WORKS I have time only for a mere mention of some of the beneficial results of consolidation: 1 . Better teachers, better houses and equipment, longer terms, better classification. 2. Increase in enrollment and attendance. In many instances these have doubled the combined enrollment and attendance of the two or three little schools consolidated. 3. Increase in pride and enthusiasm of students, and in confidence and jespect of patrons. 4. Stimulation of greater competition to greater effort by students and teachers. 5. Economy in house and fuel, in number of teachers, and in time and energy of teacher, thru concentration on fewer subjects and classes. 6. Best objective argument for consoUdation, and best and surest silencer of honest opposition. 7. Increase in value and demand for property by inducing desirable immigration. 8. Preparation for local taxation and stimulus to this and to voluntary subscriptions for schools. IMPROVEMENTS IN COURSE OF STUDY AND SYSTEM OF GRADING DELOS FALL, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, LANSING, MICH. It can scarcely be claimed for the present course of study for rural schools that it is the natural product of a steady and gradual evolution from its early form to the somewhat complicated condition in which it now exists. The fact is that that growth has been rather spasmodic and irregular. Forty years ago it consisted in the exaltation of the three R's to the exclusion of everything else; but gradually, by the persistence and energy of its advocate, the particular favorite study of some enthusiastic educator was somewhat reluctantly admitted. He in turn was followed by someone else equally ardent or some other study, which was likewise admitted; until we now have a course which is enriched, as the common tradition goes, but rather what some other more thoughtful would possibly characterize as congested, by the introduction of history, ancient and modem, and science in the form of nature study, physiology, civil government, literature, manual training, music, drawing, elementary algebra, geometry, and several others. We have doubtless outgrown the idea that the aim of the school is to minister simply to the intellectual Ufe of the child, filling his mind with facts and figures, laws and prin- ciples, all properly labeled and pigeon-holed in the mind, to be called out and utilized as the exigencies of life demand. Theoretically at least, we assent to the statement, so often made by educational leaders, that a course of study should have as its ultimate and sole aim the development and enrichment of the child's Ufe-experience, and provide a means for the training of his powers of self-expression and achievement. The rural school must be so improved as adequately and thoroly to prepare a boy for the new and taxing duties which willl)e required of him when he attains to his majority in the middle of the twentieth century. I think it must carry the pupil farther than the traditional seven or eight grades; for I cannot escape the conviction, which I have so repeatedly urged, that the minimum amount of schooling which will train a boy to take his part in the world is that represented by the present high-school course. If a high- school training could be given to every boy and girl in the land, it would lift the general level of citizenship and push America to a position even more decidedly in the front than the commanding one we now occupy among the nations of the world. It is a general principle, applicable to city and country alike, that the course of study should embrace subjects drawn from the environment, and should have constant reference to the everyday life, of the pupils. It therefore follows that the rural school course cannot Superintendence] STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 149 be like that of the city school; and the old saying that "what is good for the city is good for the country" is at once destroyed as being illogical and unpedagogical. In several important respects the school must be more distinctly rural than it now is, so as to fit its pupils for a life upon the farm, to teach them to acquire an intelligent appre- ciation of the country, its beauties, its elevating and refining tendencies, and to adapt themselves to and enter into all its privileges. The course of study must be planned with this in view. It is not necessary that it should be made to conform to the curriculum of the city schools, for many studies which are perfectly adapted to the youth of the city have no appropriateness here. Nature study, agricultural science, a critical study of the soil, the sky, the forest, the field; botany, zoology, meteorology, manual training, and domestic science, will take place of Latin and Greek; ancient history will be replaced by United States history, special prominence being given to recent and current history; civics will be emphasized; the study of the human body will be continued, but with a greater reference to the maintenance of health arid the production of a robust, strong, and virile manhood. I venture to say that athletics, systematized so that all shall get the benefit arising therefrom — ^rationalized and modified greatly from the present exaggerated form, which seeks to take nine or eleven young men, already abnormally developed, and make them still more abnormal — ^will continue to be pursued, and will properly supplement the physical exercise incident to farm-life. In the improved course of study attention will be given to such studies of the country immediately surrounding the schoolhouse as will furnish a proper basis for the study of geography, and as will give material for oral and written descriptions to be used in language work. These will include a study of the general features of the landscape — the soil, the vegetation, the hills and valleys, the streams, springs, wells, and lakes, and their relation to the underlying rock, etc., etc. The great value of this method of procedure over that which places its main dependence upon the printed statements found in books will be that the pupil will be trained in the habit of obtaining his knowledge at first hand, as a result of his own observation, thereby developing an independence of observation, of mak- ing inferences from what he observes, and a power to think for himself, which no other method can produce. A marked result will be — and the human race has made a great gain when this result is reached — that the pupil will have learned to make direct reference of his knowledge to the actual conditions which prevail in country life; better still, he will be able to change those conditions and to determine what they shall be. He is no longer a creature of circumstances, bound to endure whatever the fates bring to him; but he rises superior to his surroundings in his power to control and mold them. It is worth repeating that the township high school will not afford all the advantages of the city high school; but it is equally true that the rural high school will furnish many advantages which, in the very nature of the case, cannot well be afforded by the city school. At the best, the work of the dty high school must be done, so far as the pupils are concerned, thru the medium of books. Most of their knowledge must be obtained by the method of authority from the printed page, and only in exceptional cases will they learn by an appeal to the real objects of knowledge, thus obtaining their knowledge at first hand. On the other hand, the student in the rural high school will go to the original source, to nature itself, for the facts of zoology, botany, mineralogy, meteorology, physics, chemistry, physical geography, and the Uke. By this method he will acquire the power to read and interpret facts at first hand, and he will insist upon carrying the same valuable method into lines of research. He will be given an independence of thought and a habit of reliance upon his own powers; he will be impressed by the largeness and freedom of the country; he will be freed from the artificiaUty and conventionality which more or less dominate life in the city and are quite characteristic of the city school; he will broaden in spirit and in aspiration by drinking in the free air of the country, by his contact with and study of the broad expanse of nature — the sky above him, the fields and forests; and the 150 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta country will continue in the future, as it has in the past, only in a more emphatic sense, to furnish the truly great men of our nation. To speak more specifically of the actual working and conduct of the school, I suggest that it must exalt the two R's, reading and writing, into supreme importance, teaching them to the exclusion, if need be, of many of the subjects which are now crowded into the curriculum of the public school. In the last analysis of the method employed in obtaining what is called an education, it will be seen that one effort which must be made is supreme above all others. The pupil must mentally discern the object he is studying, whether it be a printed page in the text-book, a map or a chart, or an, experiment in the laboratory. He must not only see the separate parts into which the problem is divided, but he must also see the relation which these parts sustain to each other, and finally see the parts forming one harmonious and complete whole. By the same order of mind and by the same process, he will afterward see and inter- pret the facts of nature, discern the signs of the times, estimate the future of the wheat crop, or divine his political duty. In all this, and in the acquiring of all that which will finally develop the boy into a forceful citizen, there is used a process that has long been considered as important, but which has not been emphasized as it ought to be — ^a process called by the common term " reading.'* Too great a distinction is ordinarily made between reading and the process known as " study." To study does not require a different order of mind from that employed in reading. Study is only intensified reading, and a large proportion of the difficulties encountered by the child in his studies would vanish if he were taught to read properly. In this connection it is urged that a much-needed change in our course in mathe- matics is to remove altogether all formal abstract mmiber-work from the first four grades ^all so called figuring and dealing with abstract problems. The number-work of these grades should be wholly concrete, and only that which grows incidentally and naturally out of the other subjects pursued. In the place of what was formerly done in arithmetic, there should be more language-work, consisting of conversations concerning objects which have been observed by the pupils. Reading should be so emphasized and taught that the child will have mastered the mechanics of reading by the time he has completed the third grade. On the other hand, it may be affirmed that a proper definition of the process by which the knowledge obtained by reading and study is utilized is the one conmionly known by the name of "writing." The expression of thought, by whatever method employed, is by a natural and logical expansion of the ordinary definition, only that of writing. These words with which I had hoped to impress you with my point of view were put together by a process which is narrowly and technically known as writing. I am now, as I speak to you, employing identically the same process, with the same end in view. At another time I might take the brush of the painter, the pencil of the artist, the facile touch of the musician, the skill of the architect, or the marvelous power of the artisan with his tools, as he accurately expresses his thought by the creation of his skill and invention. All this is writing. The acquirement of a thought is reading, the expression of the thought is writing; and I would have every pupil in our public schools thoroly grounded in these two arts. Give the boy these two powers, and he will educate himself. The first great end, then, which is to be reached by any course of study is to fix habits of study by which the pupil may gather and interpret knowledge of the world in which he lives. The second end is to develop the power to express fluently and accurately the thoughts obtained by the first method. Both these lines of work may, with a proper expansion of the ordinary definition, be included under the term "language study;" and the problem of the course of study and the conduct of the school, for the first three grades, at least, may adequately be solved, first, by furnishing the objects of knowledge and stimulating the pupil consciously to use the accurate sense-perception which often lies dormant until aroused by a skillful teacher; secondly, by so inspiring the pupil as to cause Superintendence] STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 151 him to express himself freely and accurately, either by word of mouth, by drawing, by the aid of tools in manual training, or by some other form of expression. For the rural schools the language-work should be based almost entirely upon obser- vations which the pupils may make in what is known under the general name of " nature study." This observation should not be undertaken so much for the science to be discov- ered as, rather, to get proper material for language work. For this reason, the work in geography shoiild return more to what may be called local geography, including the study of locations, distance, direction, boundaries, etc. The relation of physiography to every- day life should be emphasized, and the ordinary course in geography might well be enriched by paying more attention to commercial geography. Geography and arithmetic can well be correlated by teaching many of the ordinary practical measiirements, in fields, bins, haymows, and haystacks; estimates by weight of live stock, and estimates of limiber and wood in standing timber; cost of building fences, etc., simple forms of bookkeeping, such as keeping accounts with fields of grain, orchards, herds of stock, flocks of sheep,vetc. The rural school of the future will be a positive and forceful social center, growing out of an enlarged appreciation of those adjuncts which inevitably accompany a well- organized and advanced system of education. Literary societies, debating clubs, women's clubs, farmers' clubs, lectures, concerts, grange meetings — these, separately or all com- bined, will be recognized as consistent and logical factors of the public school. The good to be gained by this combination of educational appHances will be realized by old and young alike, and all will catch the enthusiasm for accurate knowledge and more of it, and will enter into one common campaign for education. Money will be invested in appli- ances for scientific demonstrations, in laboratory equipments, lecture-room apparatus, maps, charts, and libraries, all of which may be used in the interest of all classes, lecture courses, grange and club meetings. It may be added that the Michigan State Manual and Course of Study for fiural Schools provides a course which follows the general outline given in this paper. It pro- vides a course for ten grades. HIGHER STANDARDS IN THE EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS FRANCIS P. VENABLE, PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA, CHAPEL HILL, NORTH CAROLINA [an abstract] The efficiency of- the rural or any school is practically determined by the qualifica- tions of the teacher. All other matters are side issues and of secondary importance. The teacher is the key to the whole situation. The standards in the employment of teachers should be held as high as the supply of available teachers and the rate of remuneration will admit. There are many difficulties in the way of maintaining these standards. The qualifications are many and not easy to measure. Among them may be mentioned mental equipment, skill in dispensing knowledge, attractive personality, high character. No system of examination will give an absolute valuation of such qualities. In some parts of the country the supply of available teachers is small, and the pay so little that it is difficult to secure any, even under very low standards. I maintain that it is idle to speak of raising the standard in their emplo3mient, unless larger salaries are offered. The rate of pay has improved in recent years, but not in proportion to the reward in other lines of employment. So many avenues of usefulness have opened up, so many ways in which a living may be earned, that the greater number of those who once 152 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta sought employment in this direction can no longer be induced to undertake the work. The more ambitious find the prospect uninviting, few remain long in the ranks, and fewer still can afford to fit themselves better for the work. The pay does not return the interest spent upon an education. For many of us in the South, then, the question is not one of raising the standards, but first of increasing the pay. II M. L. BRITTAIN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, FULTON COUNTY, ATLANTA, GA. 1. ^ith the first point argued as necessary by Superintendent Lefevre — namely, right discrimination on the part of those who select teachers — I agree most heartily, and in doing so I wish to say that to make this discrimination requires proper qualification on the part of superintendents and boards of education. If there is ignorance and incom- petency here, the stream is poisoned at its source, and there is little hope for good teachers except by the merest accident. It seems only reasonable that there should be the same educational qualifications for county superintendents as for teachers. To the average mind it is ridiculous to expect proper selection of teachers and competent supervision of school-work where the superintendent cannot make the lowest average required of his teachers to obtain a license. Other qualifications are, of course, necessary, but it does seem only reasonable that, for this office or for a place on the board, men of education should be required. 2. The petty school-hoard hindrance. — There is a custom — with some legal sanction — in many states and counties that operates seriously against raising the standard of the teaching force in our schools. I refer to the practice of leaving the nomination, and in reality the selection, of teachers with certain members of the different county school com- munities designated as local trustees. At first glance it might seem reasonable and proper to commit the appointment to these patrons, but in practice it is the parent of serious ills to our educational work. From this custom it frequently results that support is thus provided, at the expense of the children, for some influential family's poor relation — "Cousin John," "Aunt Polly," or some other good soul who happens to be out. of work. When there is no local supplement and the dependence is entirely upon state funds, the selection of teachers is a duty and an obligation falling legally and properly upon the county board of education and the superintendent. If these are not competent to attend to it, other men should be found who are. It is no more sensible for the appointments to be made by the rural-school patrons of each individual school — farmers as a rule — than it would be for the grocers and machinists, for instance, who patronize one of the city schools to dictate in the matter of their children's teachers. Such presumption would be considered ridiculous on the part of any neighborhood of a city; yet it is not diflicult to find a group of cross-roads citizens who still claim it as a right, and hundreds of poorly qualified teachers are "keeping school" under this arrangement and defrauding their pupils of an education. There is an instance in this state where a local board of trustees placed three different teachers — all failures — in charge of their school in one year by reason of a common desire to share in the spoils. In another instance a most embar- rassing situation developed when one member had a son, another a daughter and a third a niece, all applying for the same position. 3. Minimum requirements. — In the report of the Committee of Fifteen the statement is made that the minimum standard for the teachers of our common schools should be a high-school diploma. This is a wise recommendation. Hardly anything can be more deadening than to take even the most proficient of the pupils who pass thru our common schools for teachers without further training. Not only is new blood needed, but the embarrassment to a teacher who is just ahead of her classes in scholarship effectually prevents good work. If we can get high-school graduates who have had normal-school Superintendence] STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 1 53 training, the work is much better; and where, in spite of short terms and poor pay, we can secure teachers with college as well as normal training, fortunate indeed is the situation. From this combination we should have the right to expect results of the highest order; from the fact that liberal scholarship is always more certain to succeed than the normal training which lacks this culture, and for the further reason that in this way the costly practice of raw scholarship upon young minds is eliminated. 4. The real obstacle. — The absolutely essential fact, then, which we must face in trying to attain to higher standards in the employment of teachers is the necessity for more money to secure their services after these trained teachers have received proper training. Human nature is much the same in all professions, and it is not to be expected that a teacher will be long content to labor in a five-month's school at a small salary after having spent much money and several years in preparing herself to teach. The boy on the farm should be given the same opportunities as his brother in the town, and to do this local taxation must come, in order that he may have at his command the same well-trained instructor. The very spirit of the age is in accord with this demand; for never before has mankind been so insistent, not merely upon the worker's finishing his task, but upon his completing it in a workmanlike manner. Gone forever is the time when the common people were satisfied with the clumsy tool or the ungainly garment. As the rude Attic speech of the early Greek flowered forth into the musical cadences of Homer's Iliadj so man, as the years go by, seeks more and more to make the work of his hand and mind, not merely fair, but beautiful and true in the sight of the unseen God. EXPERT SUPERVISION HON. ISAAC W. HILL, SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION OF ALABAMA, MONTGOMERY, ALA. The board of education is the primal cell from which has been evolved the American superintendent of schools. Boards, in the performance of their duties, met the practical problems of organization, classification, direction, and unification of schools, instruction of teachers in the best methods of teaching, arrangement of courses of study for both teachers and pupils, adoption of rules and regulations governing the conduct, the teaching, and the promotion of pupils. The solution of these problems required ability not found in the average man of affairs; and, hence, the school superintendent. From the character and nature of the duties to be performed, it seems to us perfectly clear that no one but an expert can do the work efficiently. The distribution of labor which characterizes our higher civilization requires system and order. "Where the several portions of a complicated process are assigned to special hands, a general plan must bind together the related parts, and secure their harmonious and efficient action; and back of this plan there must be an intelligent guiding influence." This "intelligent guiding influence" is recognized as the force requisite to success in every great enterprise in the business world. The man who would essay to direct and supervise any great business enterprise must possess, not only general, but specific, knowl- edge of the work to be performed. Such requirements are not made in the educational world. The idea too frequently obtains that it requires no special qualifications or training to supervise schools. Especially is this true of the rural schools. We often find men filling the office of county or district superintendent of schools possessing none of the special quahfications necessary for efficient supervision. To this, as much as to any one cause, may be attributed the deplorable condition of many rural schools. Experience has demon- strated, in my own state as elsewhere, that where the "mighty engine of supervision" has been wielded by competent men — men possessing scholarship, n)en with successful experi- ence in teaching, nien of true moral worth, men p)ossessing tact and common-sense — 154 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta the educational interests are in a flourishing condition. The superintendent of schools must possess scholarship; otherwise he cannot arrange courses of study for both teachers and pupils, nor examine schools to ascertain whether the outlined work is being performed. The superintendent should be an experienced teacher, in order that he may criticise, instruct, and direct the teachers under his supervision. The superintendent should pos- sess true moral worth, in order that he may give to his teachers and schools a healthy moral tone. The superintendent must possess enthusiasm and untiring energy; otherwise he will not impress upon others the importance of the work he seeks to accomplish. He must possess tact and common-sense; if he do not, much of his labor, tho properly done, will count for naught, so long as human nature retains its imperfections. The man possessing the qualifications necessary for efficient service as a superinten- dent of schools is too frequently forced into other professions or vocations of life by the miserable compensation offered for such services. The superintendent should not make money the prime object of his labors, but "the laborer is worthy of his hire." In Ala- bama the office of county superintendent, with a few exceptions, has simply been an office for the disbursement of the per-capita school appropriation made by the state. A recent act of the legislature, however, has changed all this, and, beginning with the new school year in October, the county superintendent will be superintendent of schools under a county board of education. We hope so to improve conditions by the time the legislature meets in 1907 that the office will be so dignified that the importance of competent men to fill the position will be appreciated by our legislators. The salaries of the office vary by counties, and range from two hundred and eighty to two thousand dollars per annimi, the average being between five and six hundred dollars. The office' is elective by the people in sixty-two out of sixty-seven counties in the state. I am glad to be able to report here that, without the assistance of any law requiring qualifications for superintendents, the good people of Alabama have begun to recognize the importance of the office; and when- ever and wherever an aggressive campaign has been waged by a practical schoolman for the place, his efforts have proved successful. Alabama reports progress all along the line. The principle of local taxation for school purposes is recognized in our new constitution for the first time in our history. We are building better schoolhouses; we have made provision for qualified teachers; and we t^m with hope to the future for expert supervision. CITY SUPERINTENDENTS THE EXPEDIENCY OF IMPORTING TEACHERS OF APPROVED MERIT FROM WITHOUT A TOWN OR CITY SAMUEL T. DUTTON, PROFESSOR OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY Before we can well settle the question of expediency in any particular case of this kind, we must consider what the custom has been in the community, and what weight should be given to public sentiment. I have yet to meet the superintendent or the principal who would not wish upon occasion to go outside the town or city, and find that superior teacher who could bring to the work newness of life and high professional ability. But in many cases my educational friends would deem it inexpedient to do so, because of local conditions. While a school officer should always act the part of leader, and should be courageous in doing what is best for the schools and the children under his charge, he may well hesitate before doing anything that is likely to arouse a sentiment of personal hostility, and so impair his influence and usefulness. Superintendence] CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 1 55 Being anxious to know just what the traditions and practice in different parts of the country are, I wrote to a considerable number of state and city superintendents asking what the custom is, and to what extent the community is agreeable to the importation of teachers. The returns show a more favorable condition of affairs than I had expected to find. It would appear that in the education of the popular mind which has been going on in recent years, a more friendly sentiment toward this matter has been developed. The officers whom I addressed all appeared to favor an occasional importation of outside teachers, and are doubtless throwing their influence in this direction. This fact partially explains the improvement to which reference has been made. It is surprising however, to find how the tradition and sentiment of one state differ from those of another. For example, the superintendent of education in Vermont writes that "there is perfect freedom in importing teachers from abroad. The school officers are. as free in making contracts with teachers in law and under public opinion as they are in making any other contracts." On the other hand, the superintendents of New Hampshire and Maine said that the feeling is decidedly in favor of home talent; altho in the latter state teachers of recognized abiUty are sometimes brought into the larger cities and villages. There are several states — as, for instance, Connecticut, Illinois, and Kansas — ^where it would appear that the principle of free trade in teachers has made considerable progress. I gather from what the superintendent of Minnesota writes me that a very large part of the teachers in that state have been imported, many coming from other states, and that there is no serious criticism of this practice. Letters received from city and town superintendents show similar conditions. In a very few cases, as in Medford, Mass., appointments are made from without. The oppo- sition to this course is not serious. A majority of the superintendents say, in substance, that they do occasionally import teachers from without, but if they were to carry the prac- tice to any considerable extent, they would expect serious opposition. Reading somewhat between the Unes, I gather from this correspondence that wherever school boards have asserted their right to do what is best for the schools, they have been able, partially at least, to educate the community to their position. It would also appear that in the country at large there has been a manifest growth in breadth and tolerance toward this, as well as other attempted reforms in school administration. It should be said, in passing, that in the larger cities, where an eUgible list is formed upon examination, as a rule outside candidates have the opportunity of competing for places on this list. This is true in New York dty; and the newspapers in that city frequently publish com- munications attacking the practice, and revealing considerable hostility to the open door. Very recently a bill has been introduced at Albany which provides that, in order to be eligi- ble for an appointment as principal in any public school, a teacher must have had four years' experience in the public schools of the dty, and in order to be an assistant principal three years'. The senator who introduced this bill declared it his intention to prevent the superintendent from going to other states for his prindpals. This is only one of many instances where a politidan, caring nothing for the schools and the benefits which come from broad and business-like methods of administration, endeavors to curry favor with the people by acting as their champion. The question now arises why it is that almost every intelligent school officer appre- ciates the value of the occasional outside teacher. It may not be easy to state the reasons why. It is one of many instances where the advantages of the teacher possessing qualifications which espedally fit her for a difficult position transcend the power of lan- guage. Teaching is to a large extent ethical and spiritual in its essence. Its products cannot be accurately estimated or measured; neither can its methods be fully formulated. The working of one personaUty upon another is mysterious, and the process is difficult to describe. Indeed, it is often difficult to say why one teacher is better than another. We feel sure that it is so, but it is only by careful observation, continued for a considerable length of time, that we are able to state, with any degree of fairness or accuracy, the reasons for our conviction. 156 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta Many of you will think of actual instances in your own experience where a new and fresh personality has given such an impulse to the working force iti a school a? to attract the attention of the whole community. I should like to state one or two instances in my own knowledge. In a certain city, several years ago, there was a condition of things not unlike what could be found in a number X)f larger communities. The mechanical features of the graded system had in the space of fifteen years been worked out to perfection. The marking, reporting, and bookkeeping would have done credit to any business house where fullness of detail was required. In many of the grammar schools, as well as in the high school, pupils were seated by rank, and weekly diaries were sent to the homes giving the marks of the pupils in every study for every period. In the high school a printed list of all the pupils in the four classes arranged according to ran with the marks of each pupil for the month, and a supplementary list of those who had fallen below the required standard, were sent to every parent. The use of the high-school library, which was an exceptionally good one, there being no public library in the city, was granted to those students only who attained a certain rank, which, I believe, was 70 per cent. About one-third of the pupils were thus deprived of the use of the Ubrary. I believe no teacher had been imported for at least ten years. Two or three principals had been brought in, and it is the experience of one of these, who took charge of a large grammar school, to which I particularly refer. Whatever was excellent in the system under which the schools were organized and super- vised was, of coiirse, to be seen in that school. The utmost uniformity prevailed in respect to every phase of the school-life. One class-room was very much like another; the curriculum was narrow, and the methods of teaching were formal, so that the atmos- phere of the school was somewhat tame and monotonous. There was little initiative and enthusiasm, altho the teachers were earnest and did honestly what the regulations required. The school building in its surroundings and appearance was as depressing as were many of the events which took place there. The chief function of the janitor seemed to be to stir up the dust which had been accumulated for many years. It was evident to the new principal that something new was needed to make the school what it should be, and as he had come from a city where he had seen the advantages of freedom of action, he naturally felt that a new teacher would help to redeem this school. When after a few months a vacancy occurred in one of the higher grades, he immediately called, first upon the superin- tendent, and then upon the chairman of the school board, and got them both to consent to his going out and finding such a teacher as he wanted. Without giving them a moment to repent their action, or the opportunity of consulting together, he took the first train and went to another state to negotiate with a teacher whom he had already known and had seen at work. I cannot describe in detail what happened after the new teacher was installed; but that a number of things did happen is certain. The newcomer was some- what commanding in appearance, was entirely self-possessed, and wore somewhat better clothes than had usually been worn in that school. She was a brilliant teacher of gymnas- tics, as well as of reading, and used fresh and cheerful methods in all her work. While at first there was some jealousy and gossip on the part of the other teachers, they were soon glad to visit the new teacher and see her work. Her class, which had been a discouraging one, began to be proud of itself. The personal appearance of the children became better, and on certain public days, when they gave class exercises before the whole school, quite a profound impression was made. A new and better spirit began to manifest itself. Even the old janitor began to wield his broom more effectually, and appeared during school hours in a more decent suit of clothes, wearing a clean collar. Without going further into detail, it is enough to say that in the course of one year quite a remarkable change took place, not only in the superficial appearance of the school, but also in the general tone and quality of the school-work. And I believe the influence and example of the new teacher had more to do with this change than all other causes combined. The result was recog- nized by principals of other schools in the city, and they soon wanted outside teachers, and succeeded in getting them. It is more than twenty-five years since this event occurred, Superintendence] CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 1 57 and the frequent importation of new teachers has contributed largely to the change which has taken place in that school system. Let me state another instance, which occurred in the same city a few years later. The superintendent persuaded the board to erect a new building for a training school, where the graduates of the city high school could receive some instruction in the theory of education, as well as practice in teaching under skilled supervision. He imported three young women, graduates of normal schools of high standing, with several years of successful experience. One of them was made principal, and the other two were made her assist- ants. This proved to be a case where the importation of teachers of approved merit affected, not merely one school, but an entire school system. Each year from twenty-five to thirty young women who had received what the training school was able to impart in the way of skill and enthusiasm were sent out into the schools of the city, carrying with them a new spirit and the newer methods, which in those days were quite in contrast to the old. I feel safe in saying that the school system was renovated and upUfted thru the indirect efforts of those imported teachers in the training school. Red-tape and formalism had to make way for things that were vital and fruitful. When the late Dr. Sheldon began his great work at Oswego, he imported a trained teacher from England, who in his estimation played a very important part in the remark- able record made by that normal school. It is true also of many of our colleges and uni- versities that their caUber and effectiveness have been greatly increased by going out into the world's market and finding men of rare scholarship and teaching ability. In the same way, in the fields of architecture, engineering, music, and art, America has made rapid strides largely because she has extended a hand of welcome to master-spirits who are willing to come and make their home with us. The principle of inbreeding cannot be followed to any extent without the danger of decadence and inferiority. Looking at the side of the teacher, it is true that a prophet is not without honor save in his own country, and a person who can begin his professional work away from his own home and acquaintances has some marked advantages. He stands for a Httle more. There are no prejudices to weigh him down, if he is truly successful. His preferment comes the more quickly, his professional career is richer, and his rewards greater, than if he had remained at home. I believe this to be especially true of men. The personal advantage to young women of going among strangers to teach depends upon their own force of character and the people among whom they are placed. This, however, opens a field which my theme does not bid me enter. Let me rather summarize some of the prac- tical arguments in favor of the importation of teachers, then some considerations in favor of home talent, and finally such conclusions as can be drawn on the question of expediency. In behalf of the imported teacher it may be said, first: He is Ukely to be selected for his good qualities and the promise he gives, rather than because of local influence, or the fact that he is eligible and must be provided for. Second: He enters upon his work with a presumption of abiUty and character which is not always accorded a person who has grown up in the community. He is more likely to be taken at his face value than the one who has come up thru the local schools, and gained his position thru the ordinary routine of examination and appointment. Third: Working in a new field, it is easier to cultivate singleness of purpose, and to shun those obligations of a social and churchly nature which it is so easy for a teacher to incur to excess. It is to his advantage that he can choose the circles in which he moves, and to a good extent select his intimate friends. Fourth: . It is easier for a body of teachers to recognize and emulate the excellencies of a stranger than those of one of their own circle. Finally: No sUght advantage Ues in the fact that if the imported teacher is unsuccessful and has to surrender his position, it becomes easier for him and the school board than if he were an old inhabitant. On the other hand, I believe it better that the great body of teachers in a community should be residents thereof. Under the right conditions, and with a vigorous administra- tion, home teachers may be a powerful influence in shaping public sentiment. An appeal 158 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta can be made to them on the ground of local pride, and they may become in the best sense a stable and conservative element. In times of reaction and excitement, scattered, as they are, thruout the homes of the city, and being in touch with a large number of people, they become a sort of balance-wheel in steadying popular opinion. With these things in mind, it is quite safe to conclude that, while a large majority of a corps of teachers may well be residents, it should always be possible to go out and find the exceptional teacher. It is expedient to do this, even if a yellow press voices the protest of the selfish and unintelligent. There is no better way of educating the public to a broad and wholesome view of this matter than by importing now and then such teachers as will justify \he action by their superior work. I am not saying that a superintendent should ignore public sentiment in this or any other matter, or do those things which tend to make his position untenable; but the moral questions involved are of such moment that I believe the best people in any community can be brought to view with favor a method which is sure to redound to the welfare of their children's schools. Whenever it seems expedient to a superintendent to import a teacher, he should, if necessary, argue the matter with the school board and the public, on the broadest grounds of educational policy, and of duty to the children whose interests are involved. He should continue to do this until right- minded people are won over to his position. Then duty, expediency, and opportunity are all favorable, and he can act, feeling confident that the end will justify the means. SHOULD TEACHERS BE REQUIRED TO PRESENT FROM TIME TO TIME EVIDENCES OF INCREASED SCHOLARSHIP? IF SO, OF WHAT NATURE — EXAMINATIONS, CERTIFICATES, OR CREDITS FROM RECOGNIZED INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING? WALTER H. SMALL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PROVIDENCE, R. I. To what end ? The teacher's stock in trade is scholarship, personal presence, moral character. It is necessary and desirable that the incremental part of the stock in trade should be increased as far as may be, but personality with low scholarship is more potent than high scholarship without personality. Arnold's estimate of a teacher is contained in this: I want a man who is a Christian. I do not so much care about scholarship — and yet, on second thought, I do very much care for it, because I think even the elements are best taught by one who has a thorough knowl- edge of the matter. However, if one must give way, I prefer activity of mind and interest in his work to high scholarship; for the one may be acquired far more easily than the other. The same thought was in the mind of that superintendent who said that in the selec- tion of teachers he required, first, high moral character; second, fine manners; third, good scholarship; and last, professional training. The ideal teacher contains all these elements; the real teacher with whom our lot is cast, not quite all, and the element most frequently lacking is mature scholarship. But if the end in view is a mere emphasis of scholarship, if we are to hold that the first element in a teacher's work is the cultivation of the intellectual side above all else, I should argue against the increased scholarship and for the injection of good red blood into his veins, to the end that he might become a man and not a pedant. There is danger in the term "scholarship," unless it is properly interpreted. It includes more than mere book knowledge. There is in schools today too much green scholarship. As Holmes puts it: "Knowledge and timber shouldn't be much used till they are seasoned." Book and paper reading, attending lectures, spasmodic study, a little of this and less of that, is not scholarship; there should be something of many things, but there should also be sufficient of one thing to be an effective power. Superintendence] CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 1 59 If the end in view is to broaden the mental horizon of the manly man and womanly woman, for the enrichment of their own lives and that they may exert a broader influence on those whom they instruct, there is no argument; we are all agreed. Such teachers do grow, as much as circumstances will allow. Scholastic growth depends on three things: mood, motive, means. Providence furnishes in its normal school, its Rhode Island School of Design, and its Brown University peculiarly favorable circmnstances to show if present-day teachers possess the mood. A questionnaire was sent to the 700 teachers, with a note asking them to answer frankly and freely if during their service as regular teachers they had studied at any of the above-mentioned institutions, with private instructors, or had increased their scholarship by any other means; what studies they had taken; for how long a time; if the work had been done evenings, Saturdays, vacations, or on leave of absence; and if they had received any degrees or certificates for their work. Over 600 repUed. Of the 15 grammar masters, 9 have done systematic work at the university; some of them have earned their A.M.'s and Ph.D.'s. The general feeUng of these men is that study is neces- sary for their own life and growth. As one put it, he " wanted the tonic that comes from outside work." Of the 33 high-school men, 23 have taken distinct courses at Brown or other colleges, and several have studied abroad. Of the 45 high-school women, 31 have done similar work at Brown or elsewhere. Eight men have received A.M.'s or Ph.D.'s, and 17 women have received A.M.'s. These degrees have been given for work accompUshed; they are not honorary. Many certificates have been received from Har- vard, Clark, and the University of Chicago for summer work. Much work has been dt)ne privately with Brown professors. In every case there is evidence of quiet, persis- tent, continuous study. Growth from mood is ever)rwhere evident, the desire to better the scholastic side of their working capital. Of the 45 kindergartners, 40 have pursued studies, some along the line of their work, while others have taken broad-culture work at Brown. Of the 464 grade teachers, 151 have not studied, 313 have. Of these, about one- third have taken courses at Brown, one-third have studied privately, and one-third have studied at sunmier schools or the School of Design, or have taken Uterature and modern- language courses in the Evening High School. This work has been done almost entirely evenings, Saturdays, or diiring vacations. Seldom has leave of absence been asked for, except by the high-school teachers who desired a year abroad. While about two-thirds of both the high-school and grade teachers have studied, the high-school teachers have taken longer and broader courses. Their initial velocity is greater in that they are college graduates, while the grade teachers are normal graduates. The former have the larger salary, and a day so arranged that extensive work is easier. The grade teachers are handi- capped by the smaller salary and by the fact that possible financial rewards will not be so great. Yet it is siuprising to what an extent mood has carried these teachers in their studies. Some have pursued systematic work for ten, fifteen, or twenty years, and they are still working. I apprehend that this mood is not copyrighted by Providence teachers, but that it is common among the great body of teachers all over the country. It is evidenced by the great attendance upon summer schools, some of which add to scholarship and some do not, by the attempts at child study which is not a study of children, and by the attend- ance on lecture covirses of broad c\ilture like the Twentieth Century Courses in Boston. What is lacking is the motive and the means. Teaching is not a permanent occupation to many who enter its ranks. To the men it is a stepping-stone to something else; to the women it is a way station on the road to matrimony or some other misfortune. Teaching does not offer rewards for continuous study and growth. On the average, it furnishes a scanty livelihood. The doctor keeps up with new remedies and operations, and frequently discontinues practice for a period at the best American or foreign schools and hospitals. The lawyer absorbs decisions on new points of law. To each is the reward of renown and big fees. The minister grasps the new interpretations; to him appears the vision of i6o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta the New Jerusalem — the city church with its influence and its salary. But to the average city teacher, what ? Except in a few rare instances, only the $600, $700, or $800 which comes to her after four or five years of work; and in most cities this comes not because of added worth so much as merely added years of service. Until cities furnish motive in the way of substantial rewards in position and salary, so that there may be means for study, we have no right to require additional scholarship from the teacher who had sufficient in the beginning to enter upon the work. Even under the best conditions I would not require. Scholarship is desirable both along professional and academic lines, but it should come thru encouragement of the mood inherent in most teachers, rather than thru any mandatory methods. Additional scholarship is desired only in those who have shown that they know how to use that which they already possess. Scholarship for mere scholarship's sake is no criterion, but scholarship practically applied in the schoolroom is greatly needed. Furnish the motive and the means, and scholarship will result. Teachers have a right to look for sufficient increase in pay to meet at least a part of the expense of this additional study. The same motive should be furnished teachers that is furnished every other toiler in public or private business — increased power, increased position, increased pay — ^when it is shown that by scholarship, measured by schoolroom results, this increase has been earned. "By their fruits shall ye know them." Scholarship which grows out of the mood of the teacher should be encouraged to the utmost. We should bless it; we should reward it with the highest material gift in our possession; in our every possible act we should manifest our appreciation of the spirit shown, that it may say unto all others, " Go thou and do likewise." But to require it without supplying the motive is unfair and dangerous. It is unfair to expect the six- hundred or seven-hundred-dollar teacher who must support herself and a dependent mother, who must aid a sister thru the normal school or a brother thru college, to have the strength and the means for additional study, even when she has the inclination; it is dangerous in that we can require just so far as we can pay for the requirement, and no farther. The abler minds that can do better financially in other fields for the same or less requirement will leave us, and the present standard of personality and culture will be lessened. It is not a matter of sentiment or of what we should like.jllt is purely a business proposition, a matter of dollars and cents. There should be no advance promises, but there should be the fair surety that, as in business, preparation for advancement will in time be rewarded. Such is not the general condition now, but teachers are advanced in too many places on years of experience rather than on any other consideration. To what extent do cities offer any motive to teachers to increase their scholarship ? The following enquiries were sent to fifty-five leading cities: 1. In the appointment of teachers in your city, what preparation in scholarship is reqiiired? 2. Must applicants pass preliminary examinations? 3. During service, are additional examinations required ? 4. If so, along what lines and for what purpose ? 5. Are credits given teachers for study at educational institutions during the year, on Saturdays or during vacations ? 6. Is such study required ? Is it encouraged ? 7. Are teachers granted leave of absence for study ? 8. If so, under what conditions? 9. What reward in the way of advancement in position or salary does your city offer teachers to continue study ? Rephes were received from forty-five. The initial preparation in most of them is high school and training school, high school and normal, high school and experience. The majority require normal training. About one-half require preliminary examinations. None require additional examinations during service, except that in those cities where there are different grades of certificates examinations are required in passing to the higher grades. No special credits are given for increased scholarship, but all recognize it indi- rectly. Study is not required, but it is encouraged in all cities, except one. Leave of WH Superintendence] CITY SUPERINTENDENTS l6l absence is frequently granted on request, the general condition being loss of pay, tho not loss of position. Cambridge, Mass., has a regulation as follows: Any teacher who has served in the dty for ten years may, on recommendation of the superintendent and vote of the board, have leave of absence for one year for purposes of study or travel, and may receive one- third of his salary, provided the amount in no case shall exceed five hundred dollars. This rule was adopted in 1896, and in six years fourteen teachers applied for such leave of absence. In Chicago for the past year and a half the superintendent has had the authority to grant leaves of absence for the period of one year to successful teachers, who wish to continue their studies in colleges, universities, and higher institutions of learning. He imposes the following conditions: Teachers who make application for leave of absence under the above rule must make a written statement of the lines of study they intend to pursue, and at what institutions of higher learning. When they return at the expiration of their leave of absence, they must present official statements of the time spent and work done at higher institutions of learning during the period of their absence, as evidence that they have complied with the conditions of their leave. Incentives are offered in the form of advancement, in position and salary, based on schoolroom efficiency and this increased scholarship. Other cities, so far as heard from, seem to offer no tangible incentive, tho all favor the scholar, other things being equal. The point of view of the teacher in this connection is interesting and instructive. Besides the questions already noted as having been asked the Providence teachers, these also were asked: Has your position in the schools been advanced since this study? Has your salary been advanced? Do you consider such advance in position or salary due to your increased scholarship? The answers can be summarized in the reply of one teacher: "Not directly; yet advance could not have been secured without growth." Perhaps a dozen believe their advance is due directly to this element, but many more feel their scholastic growth has received no recognition or reward. Only five men think their advance is due even indirectly to their increased scholarship; fifteen women think their advance is due, not to the scholar- ship per se, but to the added power which the increased scholarship gave plus the power which came from added years of experience in the schoolroom. The replies to the question, " What returns should teachers expect from this increased scholarship?" reveal much. It shows the prevalent mood for study, and the feeling that growth should receive material rewards. In the opinion of the men, there should be greater efficiency, self-satisfaction, increased pay. I quote three replies: *'None, unless the increased scholarship shows itself in teaching." "None, except as their services prove more valuable." "Other things being equal, principals and superintendents should regard it as a recommendation for promotion." I quote the following from the women: "Personal satisfaction in better command of their subject is the most evident return." "Increased salary in proportion to increased proficiency in school-work." "The assurance of ability to enter upon more advanced positions, if such are offered." "A broader grasp of their subjects and a greater facility in imparting their knowledge, and hence a bigger market value for their work." "Increased culture, greater efficiency, broadening influence, more joy in living." "Increase in salary, providing it is accompanied by an equal increase in teaching and disciplinary ability." "Thru their attitude as l(;amers, greater sympathy with pupils." "Increased efficiency thru greater familiarity with subjects they teach." "Broader culture and more liberal ideas thru study of subjects they do not teach." "The stimulus that comes from contact with greater minds than their own." To revert to the original question: Should teachers be required to present evidences of increased scholarship ? I answer, no. The mood for increased scholarship is inher- ent in the good teacher. Increased scholarship in the poor teacher is merely increased evil. Hence there is no need of requirement. What is needed is incentive or motive 1 62 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [AUanta furnished by the city in the way of advancement in position and salary, that the mood may be nurtured. There should be a gradation of salaries based on something besides "first year, second year, third year," and there should be special salaries which may be given as a recognition of special scholarship and special ability, on recommendation of principal and superintendent. Degrees or credits from recognized institutions should be proof of the scholarship; the opinion of the principal and superintendent should decide the ability. This is the end toward which we should labor, that out of it may result natural growth in maturer scholarship, its better application in the schoolroom, and hence the elevation of the school system. DISCUSSION Superintendent J. H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md. — The plan in use in Baltimore is not put forward as ideal under all conditions. We do not have unlimited funds at our disposal, as in New York, nor do we have $10,000 for normal-school extension, as in Chicago. What we do must be done with small means. We hold that to advance salaries without discrimination as to the quality of service rendered is merely to increase the burdens of the taxpayers without adequate return. In deciding upon a plan, our problem was to make a limited sum serve to set a salary standard that would appeal to all elementary teachers as worth working for, and to fix conditions that could be met by them without undue strain in view of the very moderate increase then available, $96 a year for one hundred teachers (now two hundred and fifty teachers). We prefer to give $96 per year increase to each of two hundred and fifty teachers, rather than to give one- half that sum to each of five hundred teachers, or one-fourth as much to each of one thousand teachers. Any plan that discriminates is bound to meet with more or less opposition in its inception; but time makes the adopted plan customary, opposition dies down, and pro- fessional activity is doubled among all teachers who have a future before them. The rules of the board under which the promotions in question were made provide that those nominated for promotion must have taught in the public schools of Baltimore at least five consecutive years; that the nominations must be based upon efficiency and an examination in some one subject selected by the teacher from a list of subjects approved by the superintendent; and that continuance on the promoted list shall depend upon con- tinued efficiency. In Baltimore each of twenty-four principals has under his supervision from fifty to eighty teachers. Each principal was asked to send in the names of a few (not exceed- ing ten) of the best teachers in his schools, without regard to the grade taught, arranging the names in the order of merit. There were already on file in the superintendent's office two previous annual estimates of efficiency and a personal statement from each teacher giving facts as to education, training, experience, date of appointment, and special courses of study pursued since appointment. These personal reports were carefully examined, the principals' lists were compared with reports already on file, and changes in rating, where any had been made, were carefully inquired into. Nearly two hundred names were handed in. An entire month was spent by super- intendent and assistants in reviving impressions of the schoolroom work of each of these teachers by visits to the schoolrooms. At the close of the inspection one hundred names were agreed upon, and invitations were issued to the one hundred teachers to meet the final conditions set by the board. Seven invitations were declined. Seven additional invitations were thereupon issued and accepted. From the first, applications were dis- couraged. It is now fully understood that the initiative in matters of promotion is to be taken by the supervisory officers. The examination took the form of an oral defense of a Superintendence] CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 163 dissertation or thesis written by the teacher at her leisure (the summer vacation), on a topic chosen by her from the following list: I. Froebel's Laws Applied to Primary Work, a. Educational Value of Plays and Games. 3. Individuality in Class Management. 4. Flexible Grouping. 5. A Discussion of Herbert Spencer's Educational Theories. (Any other great name may be substi- tuted, as Herbart, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Comenius.) 6. My Method of Teaching , together with the Educational Principles upon Which My Method is Based.(The blank may be filled with any school subject in which the teacher is specially interested.) 7. Conditioils Favorable to the Development of the Child. 8. The Scope and Purpose of Authority. In school, is it limited, as Bosanquet holds for the state, to "Hindering Hinderances to the Best Life" ? 9. Essential Differences in Ideas of Old and New Educational Regimes. 10. Conditions in Modem Life an Index of Requirements in the School, zi. Reciprocal Relations of Formal and Culture Studies. 12. Psychological Value of the Arts as Material for Study. 13. Development of Social Sense in School-Life. 14. Humanistic Values and Technical Values in Nature Study. 15. The Basis and Purpose of Correlation. 16. Psychological Value of Hand- Work. In the preparation of papers, teachers were purposely left free to consult and to quote authorities, giving proper credit in marginal notes, with page references, to all authorities cited. Originality in the absolute sense was not so much expected as grasp of the subject and reasonable constructive power. We did not want any attempt at "fine writing," but we did want evidence of the possession of ideas, and the ability to express those ideas in clear and concise English. The oral examination consisted in a defense of all state- ments made, and, when desired, an explanation of all references and quotations. Previous to the oral examination, each paper was read by each of the three members of the examining board, notes being made as a basis for questioning. Each teacher spent from thirty to forty minutes with the examining board. We thus came to know the teacher behind the paper — a matter increasingly difficult for the superintendent in large systems of schools, but of great practical importance. The knowledge thus gained has already served as a guide in promotions to positions calling for personal qualities that might not have been discovered in any other way. It is not an easy thing to determine the relative efficiency of teachers; yet, when con- siderations such as those indicated above are carefully observed, the result cannot be far from correct. Enemies of civil-service reform allege that examinations do not examine; and its best friends readily admit that there are many important elements of which the ordinary written examination fails to take account. By our plan of promotion we have an additional test of merit which is free from some of the imperfections of the ordinary examination, and, therefore, more conclusive. Undoubtedly there are some in the service who think their merit superior to a number of those who were invited to prepare papers. But as these critics have not had an oppor- tunity, as have the supervising officers, to see the schoolroom work of the teachers in ques- tion, their opinions gain httle support. Our plan has brought forward teachers who, in their modesty, would have been the last to claim any special merit for themselves. It has enabled us to hold up ideals in such a way as to make these ideals immensely influential in improving instruction. Two hundred and fifty teachers in all have now been promoted in this way. I believe there has been less dissatisfaction with a plan which limits invitations to the number for whom the increased salaries are available, than there would have been with a plan which would admit to competition a larger number, many of whom would necessarily have to be rejected. l64 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta There is a g;reat professional activity, not only among these two hundred and fifty teachers, but among twice as many more. The advance in salary has been within the reach of teachers of all grades. A glance at the list of topics will show that a primary teacher could meet the conditions imposed without diverting her attention from the work she was actually doing. It must be remembered that an excellent paper is not the first consideration. Excel- lent schoolroom work has been considered the prime requisite in all these nominations. Many teachers whose schoolroom work is ordinary, or even below mediocrity, are able to prepare good papers; their theory outruns their practice. It is better for any school system that such teachers wait for promotion till their practice overtakes their theory. SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF ACTIVE MEMBERS ENROLLED SINCE THE PUBUCATION OF THE BOSTON VOLUME, 1903 MARCH a8, 1904 1903 Robert J. Aley, A.B., A.M., Indiana Univ.; Ph.D., Univ. of Pa. 189 1, ProfesscMT of Mathematics, Indiana University; and (1903) Editor of Educalor- Joumal; 203 Forest PI., Bloomington, Ind. Leonard T. Baker, A.B., '88, A.M.. '93, Coll. of Charleston. 1903, Superintendent ot Mt. Zion Institute and Public Schools, Winnsboro, S. C. Santord Bell, A.B., '99, A.M.. '00, Indiana Univ. X903, Professor of Education, University of Colorado, P. O. Box 173, Boulder, Colo. Lydia R. Blaich. 1899, Suiiervising Principal of Public Schools, 422 Fulton St., Indianapolis, Ind. John J. Blair. Superintendent of City Schools, xoa Orange St., Wilmington, N. C. S. LiLDiN Blaisdell. 1902, Primary Supervisor, State Normal School; 509 S. Broad St., Mankato, Minn. W. H. BOWEN. X903, Superintendent of Public Schools, 21x7 Avenue G, Ensley, Ala. 1904 Minnie Bronson. X902, Superintendent of Elementary and Secondary Education, Louisiana Purchase Exposition; 572 x Chajmborlain Ave., St. Louis, Mo. Edward Franklin Buchner, A.B., ^89, Western Coll.; Ph.D., '5)3, Yale Univ. X903, Professor of Philosoi^y and Education, Umversity of Alabama, Univeraty, Ala. X902 S. R. BXTTLER. X893, Superintendent of Public Schools, Himtsville, Ala. X904 Harry O. Buzzaird. Superintendent of Monroe County Schools, 4x2 E. 4th St., Bloomington, Ind. X903 Walter O. Cartwright, A. B., '8x, Brown Univ. Supervise of Schools, Central School District, 590 Center St., Wallingford, Conn. Ernest W. Childs, A.B. X904, County Superintendent of Schools, Cuthbert, Ga. James Elton Clark. X903, Superintendent of Schools, 60 £. 14th St., Holland, Mich. Richard A. Clayton. 1900, Siiperintendent of Public Schools, 5304, xst Ave., Woodlawn, Ala. Stonewall Jackson Cole. X89X, Agent for Ginn & Co., Birmingham, Ala. OsMYN P. Conant, A.B., '79, Dartmouth Coll. Publisher, Member of Firm of Ginn & Co., 70 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. 190X W. F. Cramer. x88o. Superintendent of Public Schools, Waverly, la. X900 Rupus J. Dearborn, Grad., *oo, Ind. St. Nor. Sch. X902, Superintendent of Schools, Oakland City, Ind. X903 Frank D. Farr. Representative of Silver, Burdett & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111. W. B. Ferguson, A'.B., *8o, Yale Univ. Superintendent of Schools, 205 S. Main St., Middletown, Conn. James H. Foster, A.B., '84, Howard Coll.; LL.B., '9X, Sute Univ., Ala. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, 815 Queen City Ave., Tuscaloosa, Ala. James H. Fuqua, Sr., A.M., '61, Bethel Coll. X904, State Superintendent of Public Instructicm, Frankfort, Ky. 1902 E. £. Gaylord. X899, Director of Commercial Department, High School, xi Baker Ave., Beverly, Mass. X903 William Chester Goble. X903, Superintendent of City Schools, 424 W. North St., Greenfield, Ind. Louis A. Goodenough, A.B., '86, A.M., '88, Colgate Univ. X900, Superintendent of Schools, 2x8 Broadway, Paterson, N. J. William C. Griggs, A.B., '98. Brewton, Ala. Luther Halsey Gulick. Director of Physical Training, City Schs., Park Ave., and 59th St., New York, N. Y. 1904 AuiERT Ralph Hager, B.Sc.,*97, Univ. of Wis. X903f Chief, Educational Department, Philippine Exposition Board; absent on leave from Physical Laboratory, Insular Normal School, Manila; address, Philippine Educational Exhibit, World's Fair, St. Louis, Mo. William P. Hart, B.Sc., *8i, M.Sc., '88, Nat. Nor. Univ. X903, Superintendent of City Schools, 53 Poplar St., Huntington, Ind. W. C. Hazzard, A.B., '95. Leland Stanford Jr. Umv. State Agent in Wisconsin for Silver, Burdett & Co., Plankinton House, Milwau- kee, Wis. Thomas A. Hillyer, Ph.B., '00, Univ. of Chicago; A.M., 'ox, Harvard Univ. X90X, Superintendent of Training Department, State N(xinal School, 618, 8th St. S. Moorhead, Minn. John D. Hodges, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Trinity Coll., N. C. 1900, County Superintendent of Schools Mockville N.C i6S 1 66 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Atlanta X904 Lyman G. Horton. 19031 Principal of the East Greenwich Academy, East Greenwich, R. I. McG. Ingkum. 1903, Principal of High School, Rogersville, Ala. Charles H. S. Jackson, A.M., LL.D., Mercer Univ. President of Monroe College, Forsyth, Ga. John H. Jarman. 1904, Superintendent of Schools, 47 Kyle St., Alabama City, Ala. Darrell Joyce, A.B., Miami Univ. 1903, Superintendent of Schools, 340 Heaton St., Hamilton, O. J. Nelson Kelly, A.M., Emorv and Henry Coll.; LL.B., Lake Forest Univ. 1903, Superintendent of City Schools, 531 S. 5th St., Grand Forks, N. D. Charles Pendleton Kemper, A.B., '77, A.M., '78, B.L., ^81, Bethany Coll. Superintendent of Schools, VickJsburg, Miss. George W. Kendrick. Superintendent of Schools, 319 Arch St., Leavenworth, Kan. William Heard Kilpatrick, A.B., '91, A.M., '9a Mercer Univ. 1897, Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, Mercer University, 657 College St. Macon, Ga. George Handley Knibbs, F.R.A.S. 1903, Educational Commissioner of New South Wales, 38 Bland St., Ashfield, Sydney, New South Wales. William C. Lawson, B.Sc., Nat. Nor. Univ.; B.Pd., A.B., American Univ. of Harriman. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, Pulaski, Tenn. Arthur Lepevre, C.E., '94, Univ. of Tex. 190 1, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Austin, Tex. Homer P. Lewis, A.B., '74, Dartmouth Coll. 1903, Superintendent of City Schools, 14 City Hall, Worcester, Mass. William J. Marquis. 190 X, Superintendent of City Schools, Two Harbors, Minn. O. B. Martin, A.B., '9a, Furman Univ. 1903, State Superintendent of Education, Columbia, S. C. James E. Mathis. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, 530 Lee St., Americus, Ga. Arthur N. McCallum, A.B., '87, Davidson Coll. 1903, Superintendent of Schools, Austin, Tex. Robert O. Meek, A.B., '93, A.M., '03, Southern Univ. 1904, Superintendent of Pu " J. A. Mercer, A.B., '71, Univ. of Mich. 1904, Superintendent of Public Schools, Attalla, Ala. 1883, Principal of Lincoln School, Peoria, 111. Stanley H. Moore. 1904, Director of Manual Training, McKinley High School, St. Louis, Mo. Samuel S. Murphy, A.B., Univ. of Ala. 1900, Superintendent of Schook, 78 Dauphin St., Mobile, Ala. Seymour A. Mynders, A.B., '80, Univ. of Tenn. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Nashville, Tenn. George A. Newton, A.B., A.M., Trinity Univ., Tex. Superintendent of Public Schools, Greenville, Tex. G. F. Oliphant, A.m., '99, Univ. of Ga. 190 1, President of Gordon Institute, Bamesville, Ga. E. M. Phillips. 1901, Superintendent of City Schools, 330 Vine St., Albert Lea, Minn. Charles A. Prosser, Ph.B., '97, DePauw Univ. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, i3o6 Elm St., New Albany, Ind. C. B. RiDGAWAY, A.M., '83, Dickinson Coll. 1896, Department of Mathematics and Physics, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo. L. B. Robeson. Agency Manager for Ginn & Co., 135 N. Pryor St., Atlanta, Ga. John C. Rockwell. School Commissioner and Manager of Schermerhom's Teachers' Agency, 3 £• 14th St., New York, N. Y. F. F. RowE, A.B., '96, A.M., '98, Davidson Coll. 1900, President of R. E. Lee Institute, Thomaston, Ga. 1903 Charles H. Sears, Ph.D., '03, Clark Univ. Teacher of Psychology and Pedag(^y, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. Ernest Shawen, L. I., '94, A.B., '99, William and Mary Coll. 1903, Principal of Brambleton Grammar School No. 3, 383 Freemason St., Norfolk, Va. E. Hershey Sneath, Ph.D., Yale Univ.; LL.D., Lebanon Valley CoU. 1898, Professor of Philosophy, Yale University, 385" Whitney Ave., New Haven. 1898 £^RA M. Sparlin, A.B., '85, A.M., '88, Univ. of Rochester; Ph.D., '03, Univ. of Wooster. 1886, Prindp^ of Andrews School No. 9, 474 Alexander St., Rochester, N. Y. 1903 Robert Spear, A.M., '98, Valparaiso Coll. 1885, Principal of High School, iioo E. Columbia St., Evansville, Ind. 1904 A. B. Stroup. 190a, Superintendent of City Schools, 333 N. Walter St., Albuquerque, N. Mex Lucy Hale Tapley. Superintendent of Teachers' Professional Department, Spelman Seminary, Atlanta Ga.; home address, W. Brooksville, Me. J. B. Taylor, A.M., Hartford Coll. 1903, Superintendent of City Schools, Hopkinsville, Ky. Francis P. Venable, Ph.D., '81, Gottingen; LL.D., '03, Univ. of Pa. 1900, President of University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. Amasa Walker. Manager of Educational Department, Longmans, Green & Co., 93 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. Superintendence] SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF MEMBERS 1 67 1904 Thomas R. Walker. 1901, Superintendent of City Schools, Wylam, Ala. F. H. Warren, A.B., '96, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1903, Superintendent of Schools, Hillsboro, O. Evangeline E. Whitney. District Superintendent of Schools, Park Ave. and 59th St., New York, N. Y. Henry J. Willingham, A.B., A.M., '93, Howard Coll. 1900, President of Fifth District Agricultural School, Wetumpka, Ala. institutigns Brockton Public Library. Librarian, , Brockton, Mass. Carleton College Library. President, William H. Sallmon; Librarian, George Huntington, Northfield, Minn. Free Public Library, Montdair, N. J. Librarian, S. Augusta Smith, Church St., Montdair, N. J. 1903 Gilbert M. Simmons Library. Kenosha, Wis. Librarian, Mrs. Clara P. Barnes, Kenosha, Wis. Hearst Free Library, Lead, S. D. Librarian, Mrs. Julia Concannon, Lead, S. D. Helena Public Library. Librarian, Marguerite Bowden, Helena, Mont. Kenyon College Library. President, William F. Pierce; Librarian, Mrs. Ellen D. Devol, Gambler, O. 1904 North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. President, Geo. T. Winston, West Raleigh, N. C. The Peck Library, Norwich Free Academy. Prindpal, Henry A. Tirrell; Librarian, Nancy M. Pond, Norwich, Conn. 1903 Public School No. 13, Primary Department, Manhattan. Prindpal, Sara A. Robinson, 239 E. Houston St., New York. St. Louis Mercantile Library Association. Librarian, Wm. L. R. Gififord, St. Louis, Mo. St. Stanislaus Seminary, St. Louis University. President, Charles B. Moulinier, Florissant, Mo. Winona Public Library. Librarian. Jeannette A. Clarke, Winona, Minn. The Woman's College of Baltimore. President, John F. Goncher; Registrar, W. H. Maltbie, St. Paul and a4th St., Baltimore, Md. _ -LL 1 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION L Id .A/ 237 39/ PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE AT THE ANNUAL MEETING HELD AT MILWAUKEE, WIS., FEBRUARY 28, MARCH I, 2, I905 PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION 190S PRINTED AT Jlbc TIlntver0fti2 ot Cbfcago preee ^905 CONTENTS MILWAUKEE MEETING— 1905 PAGE Secretary's Minutes --.---------5 Review of the Educational Features of the Universal Exposition at St. Louis: I. The Foreign Educational Exhibits — Rogers . . - - - 11 II. The American Educational Exhibit — Lyte - - - - - - - ^7 III. Lessons from the United States Exhibit — Blewett 23 Means of Increasing the Efficiency of our Public-School Work: I. Providing Better Teachers — Carr - ._ . -*- - -30 II. Adequate Leadership, Progressive Teachers, and Fewer Subjects — Pearse - 34 Discussion — Carroll _..- 38 III. Changing the View-Point — Crane -------- 40 Discussion — Keating^ Martin --------45 Conditions which Cause Variation in the Rate of School Expenditures — Harris - 45 Group Morality of Children — Vincent .--- 64 Charter Provisions for Organization of School Systems — Maxwell - - - - 64 A Nonpartisan School Law — Eliot 73 Charter Provisions for Reorganization of School Systems — Soldan - - - - 81 Round Table of State and County Superintendents: High School Privileges for Country Pupils — Cary 86 Report of Committee on Interstate Recognition of Teachers' Certificates - - 90 Round Table of City Superintendents: The Merit System of Appointing and Promoting Teachers in St. Louis — Blewett ^ 91 Outlines of Methods of Appointing and Advancing Teachers: The Baltimore Method — Van Sickle - - -94 The Denver Method — Greenlee - "95 The Omaha Method — Davidson 96 The Chicago Plan — Lowry ----- p6 The Kansas City Method — Greenwood - - - - - - --98 The Lowell Method — Edmund - - 98 The Newark Method — Poland 99 The New York Method — Maocwell -100 Discussion — Carroll ^ Carlisle ^ Gove^ Davey, Blodgetty Hughes - - - 100 Manual Training in the Elementary School — Haney - - - - - -103 Child Labor — Addams - 109 Discussion — Evans - -iii Manual Training in the Secondary Grades and in Colleges — Woodward - - -112 Supplementary List of Active Members - - - - - - - -121 3 ■y^ JMlHBSt!**^ ' ^C«* DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE MILWAUKEE MEETING, 1905 SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST DAY MORNING SESSION.— Milwaukee, Wis., Tuesday, February 28, 1905 The department met in* the Davidson Theater, and was called to order at 9:30 A. m. by Edwin G. Cooley, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111., president of the department. A chorus of five hundred boys from the city's public schools gave to the assembled superintendents the first installment of welcome in song. The welcome was continued by William George Bruce, editor of the American School Board Journal ^ and Carroll G. Pearse, superintendent of the city schools, representing respectively the civic and the educational interests of the city of Milwaukee. A response on behalf of the department was made by President Edwin G. Cooley. The topic, "Educational Features of the Universal Exposition at St. Louis," was discussed in papers as follows: 1. "From the View-Point of the Chief of the Department of Education": Howard J. Rogers, first assistant commissioner of education, Albany, N. Y. 2. "From the View-Point of the Chairman of Group z and Department Jiuries on Education and Member of the Superior Jury of Awards": Eliphalet Oram Lyte, principal of the First Pennsylvania State Normal School, Millersville, Pa. 3. "From the View-Point of a Member of the Jury of Awards, Group 1, Elementary Education": Ben Blewett, assistant superintendent of instrucdon, public schools, St. Louis, Mo. The president announced a complimentary banquet to be tendered Wednesday even- ing to Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, at the Plankinton House. A. pleasant incident occurred at the beginning of the morning session, when a large picture of Dr. Harris was brought upon the stage and greeted with a round of applause. On motion, the department adjourned until 2 o'clock p. m. AFTERNOON SESSION.— Tuesday. February 28 The afternoon session opened at 2:30 p. M., President Cooley in the chair, with music by the Glee Club of the Milwaukee State Normal School. Three papers were given on "Means of Increasing the Efficiency of Our Public-School Work." The first speaker was John W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Anderson, Ind. He took the place on the program allotted to Albert G. Lane, of Chicago, who was absent on account of illness. The second paper was given by Superintendent Carroll G. Pearse, of Milwaukee. The third paper on the topic was by William I. Crane, superintendent of schools, Marshalltown, la. The general discussion which followed was participated in by J. F. Keating, superin- tendent of schools, Pueblo, Colo.; Gustavus R. Glenn, president of North Georgia Agri- 5 6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [MUwaukec cultural and Mechanical College, Dahlonega, Ga.; F. Louis Soldan, superintendent of public instruction, St. Louis, Mo. ; W. O. Thompson, president of Ohio State University, Columbus, O.; Elmer A. Lyman, professor of mathematics. State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich.; George H. Martin, secretary of Massachusetts Board of Education, West Lynn, Mass.; A. S. Downing, third assistant commissioner of education, Albany, N. Y.; Charles F. Carroll, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N. Y.; and George J. . Miller, principal of Woodward Avenue High School, Kalamazoo, Mich. The discussion was summed up in the following resolution, introduced by John W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Anderson, Ind. : Restdved, That the paramount educational question of the hour is the employment and retention of suffi- cient numbers of well-qualified teachers to fill aU of our public schools; and that this department pledges itself to use its best endeavors to secure sufficient compensation to enable teachers to prepare themselves properly for their work, and to justify them in remaining permanently in the profession of teaching: The president announced the following committees: COlOfrrTEE ON NOMINATIONS £. H. Mark, Louisville, Ky. Ben Blewett, St. Louis, Mo. T. A. Mott, Richmond, Ind. Frank B. Cooper, Seattle, Wash. L. C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo. i COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS L. H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich. C. G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis. J. A. Shawan, Columbus, O. A. B. Blodgett, Syracuse, N. Y. W. F. Cramer, Waverly, la. On motion, the meeting adjourned. EVENING SESSION.— Tuesday, February 28 The evening session was called to order at 8:15 p. m. by President Cooley. The exercises were introduced by music by the Treble Clef Chorus of the Milwaukee Public Schools. Then followed an address on " Some of the Conditions which Cause Variation of the I Rate of School Expenditure in DiflFerent Localities," by Dr. W. T. Harris, United States \ Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. Music by the Glee Club of Milwaukee-Downer College. j An addiess on "The Group Morality of Children" was delivered by George E. ! Vincent, professor of sociology, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. On motion, the meeting was declared adjourned to 9:30 A. M. Wednesday, March i. SECOND DAY MORNING SESSION.— Wednesday, March i The department convened at 9 : 30 A. M., with President Edwin G. Cooley in the chair. Music for the opening of the program was furnished by the Mandolin and Glee Club of Marquette College. N. C. Dougherty, superintendent of schools, Peoria, 111., referred to the serious illness of two highly esteemed members of the Association, President Harper, of Chicago, and Bishop Spalding, of Peoria, and offered the following resolution, which was unani- mously adopted: Resolved^ That we, the members of this department, extend to President William R. Harper and Bishop John Lancaster Spalding, by a telegram, expression of our sympathy in their affliction, and of our sincere hope that each may soon be able to continue his good work. "Charter Provisions as Related to the Organization of School Systems" was dis- cussed by — X. William H. MaxweU, superintendent of schools for the dty of New York, and President of the National Educational Association. ■■ m Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES J a. F. Louis Soldan, superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis, Mo. 3. Hon. Edward C. Eliot, former president of the Board of Education, St. Louis, Md. The following telegrams were sent in accordance with the instructions of the depart- ment: President WHltam R. Harper^ University of Chicago, Chicago, III.: The heartfdt sympathy of the Department of Superintendence is extended to you, and the confident hope is expressed that you will fully recover your health, and with renewed vigor and energy continue the great work of service to your fellow-men to which you have devoted your life. E. G. CoOLEY, President. EvANGELmE E. Whitney, SecrOary. Rt. Rev. John Lancaster Spalding, Bishop of Peoria, Peoria, lU.: The Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association recognizes the great service you have rendered to the teachers and children of the public schools of the country, and of all schools, and sends loving greetings and heartfelt sympathy to you in your afiBiction. The department expresses the sincere hope that you may soon be able to continue your great life work. E. G. CooLEY, President. Evangeline E. Whitney, Secretary. BUSINESS SESSION The business session of the department was called to order by the president at the close of the morning session. A report of the Committee on Simplified Spelling was presented by the chairman, Superintendent W. H. Elson, of Grand Rapids, Mich. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SIMPLIFICATION OF SPELLING To the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association: Gentlemen: Youtr committee appointed last year to present to the Board of Directors of the Nationa Educational Association, and to ask their acquiescence in, your resolutions petitioning them to appoint a com- mittee of prominent and scholarly men to head and direct the movement toward simplifying our spelling, and to put in its hands for this purpose a fund not to exceed $2,000 a year for five years, on condition that an equal fund be given to the committee from outside sources, begs leave to report that, in accordance with the spirit of your instruction, steps were at once taken to ascertain the attitude, as far as practicable, of every active member of the National Educational Association on the points involved, in order that the directors and members of the Council might be duly informed as to the desire of all who were directly concerned in the proposed action. We are gratified to be able to report that the votes footed up 1,545 approving the proposed action, and only 17,1 opposing. A limited edition of the lists for and against, arranged alphabetically by states, was printed and distributed to the directors and members of the Coimdl. It is an interesting docimient. The remainder of the edition is here for distribution to those who desire to examine these lists. At the St. Louis meeting of the Board of Directors your resolutions were duly submitted, together with two alternative outline plans for the business organization of the proposed commission. According to the usage of the Association, the resolutions and plans were received and referred for advice to the Coimdl Com- mittee on Investigations and Appropriations. This committee gave your rei»:esentatives a patient hearing and carefully considered the whole subject, finally deciding to ask the advice of a committee of experts as to what course they had better recommend in the matter. They designated as this committee Superintendent W. H. Maxwell, President of the National Educational Association, chairman ex officio, H. H. Seerley, president of the Iowa State Normal School; C. M. Jordan, superintendent of schools, MinneapoUs; George Hempl, pro- fessor of philology. University of Michigan; and Calvin Thomas, professor of the Germanic languages, Columbia University. This committee is a-sked to report to the president of the Council by June, i, 1905. We are all awaiting with interest the action of this committee. The time seems ripe for a discreet, system- atic, quiet, and thorogoing effort, on a business basis, to disseminate accurate knowledge in regard to Engli^ spelling and to promote its simplification. This effort must be more or less of an experiment, of course; but the more we study the problem, the more fully are we satisfied that the general business plan outlined in the petition of this department and indorsed with surprising unanimity by our active members, and by sixteen or more large state and section associations of teachers, is one that is practicable and which should be put into operation with- out needless delay. Respectfully submitted, W. H. Elson, Chairman, Grand Rapids, Mich. Calvin N. Keitoall, Indianapolis, Ind. F. T. Oldt, Dubuque, la. A. W. Rankin, Minneapolis, Minn. Edwin B. Cox, Xenia, O. Committee, 8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee A motion to accept the report of the committee was unanimously carried. W. H. Elson : I think it must be evident to this body that there is much remaining for this committee to do, and that it is advisable that this conunittee or a similar one be appointed for another year. I wish, therefore, to suggest that the present committee be continued, excepting myself — since I have become a member of the Board of Directors of the Association. I would recommend that Herbert M. Slauson, superintendent of schools, Ann Arbor, Mich., take my place as a member of this committee, and that E. B. Cox, of Xenia, O., be appointed chairman. It was moved, seconded, and unanimously voted that the Conunittee on Simplified Spelling be continued for one year, with the provision that E. B. Cox act as chairman and Herbert M. Slauson be added to the committee to fill the vacancy left by the resignation of W. H. Elson, of Grand Rapids, Mich. E. O. Vaile, chairman of the Conunittee of* Conference on a Universal System of Key Notation, on behalf of the conference committee comf>osed of members of the Ameri- can Philological Association, the Modern Language Association, and the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association, ref)orted that the joint com- mittee met at Boston at the time of the National Educational Association meeting in July, 1903, and appointed a subcommittee to take the work in hand. This subcommittee consists of Professor Calvin Thomas, Columbia University; Professor George Hempl, Michigan University; Professor C. P. G. Scott, Yonkers, N. Y.; Professor O, F. Emerson, Western Reserve University, and E. O. Vaile. The most of the labor has been performed by Professor Thomas and Professor Hempl. The manner in which they have accomplished their work proves their eminent fitness for it, and it is confi- dently hoped that the members of the Department of Superintendence will give the report careful study, and take it up for discussion and adoption at their next meeting, thus joining in the movement to establish a rational and scientific substitute for our presjent cumbersome and complicated system of diacritics. The complete alphabet, as recommended by the committee, provides a separate letter for each of our forty-two distinct vocal sounds, adopting as its basis the vowel signs recommended in 1877 by the committee of the Philological Association headed by Professor Whitney and Professor March. The present report merely adds enough new signs to provide single characters for the consonants and diagraphs, the step which Professor Whitney avowedly left to be taken in the future. The report of the committee is now sub- mitted for discussion and amendment. All suggestions should be sent to Professor Thomas, the chairman, and will be carefully weighed before the report comes up for appiDval and adoption at the next meeting of each of the bodies represented in the joint committee. Two hundred printed copies of the report will be distributed to the members present. Others can be obtained by writing to Professor Calvin Thomas, Colimibia University, New York city. By request, the report of the Committee on Resolutions was deferred until a sub- sequent meeting. The Committee on Nominations recommended that the following be* elected officers of the department for the ensuing year: For President — ^J. W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Anderson, Ind. For First Vice-President — ^J. H. Phillips, superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Ala. For Second Vice-President — Ida C. Bender, supervisor of primary grades, Buffalo, N. Y. For Secretary — Ella C. Sullivan, district superintendent of schools, Chic^o, 111. The nominees were elected by a unanimous vote of the department. The selection of a place of meeting was declared the next in order of business. Louisville, Ky., Niagara Falls, N. Y., Washington, D. C, and Hot Springs, Ark., were each in turn proposed. Superintendent E. H. Mark and Principal Reuben P. Halleck, of Louisville, Ky., Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 9 presented that city's claims to the honor, which was indorsed by letters of invitation from the governor of Kentucky, the mayor of Louisville, and the presidents of the board of trade, of the school board, and of various civic clubs of Louisville. Hon. John H. Hinemon withdrew the invitation to meet in Hot Springs, Ark., and indorsed the invitation of the city of Louisville, Ky. Louisville was then chosen by a standing vote as the next place of meeting. There being no further business before the house, on motion, the meeting was declared adjourned. AFTERNOON SESSION.— Wednesday, March t ROUND TABLE SESSIONS The Round Table of State and County Superintendents met in the large Colonial Room of the Plankinton Hotel at 2 : 30 p. M., with Alfred Bayliss, state superintendent of public instruction for Illinois, as leader, and W. T. Carrington, state sui>erintendent of public instruction for Missouri, as secretary. The topic under discussion was "High-School Extension to the Children of Rural Districts." A paper on the topic was read by C. P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruc- tion, Madison, Wis., and was discussed at some length. The committee appointed at the Atlanta meeting of the Round Table, on Interstate Recognition of High-Grade Teachers' Certificates made a report through its chairman, G. W. Nash, state superintendent of public instruction for South Dakota. The report was, on motion, adopted. The Round Table of City Superintendents met in The Arcade of the Plankinton Hotel at 2:30 p. M.; the leader, Frank B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, O., presiding. The topic for discussion was "The Merit System of Appointing and Promoting Teachers and Principals." Ben Blewett, assistant superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. I«ouis, Mo., presented a paper on "The Merit System in the Public Schools of St. Louis." This was followed by a series of brief outlines of " Methods of Appointing and Advan- cing Teachers," presented by the superintendents of various cities. A general discussion followed. The greatest mark of honor ever paid by the Department of Superintendence to one of its members was the banquet tendered to Dr. W. T. Harris, on Wednesday evening, March i. A dinner was laid for two hundred covers in the French dining-room of the Plankinton House. At the close of the dinner President Cooley, with whom the idea of the banquet originated, introduced the guest of honor to whom he paid a high tribute, and then made way for Superintendent William H. Maxwell, President of the National Edu- cational Association, who oflSciated as toastmaster. Those who responded successively to toasts in honor of the guest of the evening were: Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis; Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston; Superintendent J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City; Inspector James L. Hughes, Toronto; Miss Elizabeth Harrison, Chicago. A response was made by Dr. W. T. Harris, the guest of honor. THIRD DAY MORNING SESSION.— Thursday, March 2 The meeting came to order at 9:30 a. m., President Edwin G. Cooley in the cha The exercises were introduced with music by a chorus from the German F^tr^^ Academy of Milwaukee. lO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee President Cooley announced the receipt of communications as follows: from the Milwaukee Teachers' Association, expressing appreciation of the honor to the dty of Milwaukee conferred by the meeting of the Department of Superintendence in their midst; and from the Federal Council of the North American Gymnastic Union, inviting the members of the department to attend the Twenty-Ninth Festival of that body at Indian- apolis, Ind., June 21-25, ^Q^S* President Cooley then announced the absence on account of illness of Edgar Gardner Murphy, executive secretary, Southern Educational Board, Montgomery, Ala., and Georfi;e H. Conley, superintendent of public schools of Boston, Mass., and stated that it had been suggested that the afternoon and morning meetings be combined by taking over the afternoon speakers into the morning session. He asked for an expres- sion of choice by the department. A motion was made, seconded, and unanimously carried that the afternoon and morning sessions be combined. The first speaker on the program by rearrangement was James P. Haney, director of manual training. Boroughs of Manhattan and The Bronx, City of New York, who spoke on the general topic, "Manual-Training Work in the Elementary, High -School, and College Curricula." At the close of Mr. Haney's paper the following members took part in general dis- cussion: William H. Elson, superintendent of schools, Grand Rapids, Mich.; C. Val- entine Kirby, instructor in art and manual training. Manual Training High School, Denver, Colo.; Charles Milton Carter, director of art, public schools, Denver, Colo.; Miss Ella A. Rowe, teacher in city schools, Chicago, III. ; and Miss Ida C. Bender, super- visor of primary grades, Buffalo, N. Y. The next topic on the program was "Child Labor," on which Miss Jane Addams, of Hull-House, Chicago, III., gave an address. At the conclusion of Miss Addams' address, William H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools of the city of New York, stated the child-labor law in that city, and described how the teachers were combating the circumvention of the law by parents. William F. Slaton, superintendent of schools, Atlanta, Ga., gave a graphic picture of the conditions existing under his own observation. Lawton B. Evans, superintendent of schools, Augusta, Ga., described the conditions of the factory child in the South and the efforts to combat the evils of child labor. The last paper on the program was given by Calvin M. Woodward, dean of the School of Engineering and Architecture of Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., on the topic, "Manual-Training Work in the Elementary, High-School, and College Curricula." The Committee on Resolutions reported as follows: Resolvedf That our thanks are due, and are hereby extended, to Superintendent C. G. Pearse, to William George Bruce, editor of the School Board JourtuU, and to Charles McKenny, principal of the Milwaukee State Normal School, for their untiring efforts and unusually complete arrangements for the success of this meeting; to the board of education, for their interest*, to the Citizens' Committee of twenty-five, for the carefully planned details; to the public schools. State Normal School, Milwaukee-Downer College, Marquette College, and German American Academy, for the most excellent music furnished at our sessions; to the dty press, for the prominent space given and the full reports of the proceedings published; to the hotels, for the uniform courtesies extended to all; to the railroads, for the usual reduction in rates granted; to the speakers on the program who are not directly engaged in educational work, for the time and labor given in our behalf; and to the president and other officers of the department, for the excellent program prepared for our meeting, and suc- cessfully carried out at the various ses.sions. Resolved, That the proper officers of the Department of Superintendence be directed to express the thanks of the department to Hon. Edward C. Eliot, for the valuable paper presented at .this session, and which the Association considers of great practical importance. Resolved, That this department approves of the bill now hdore Congress extending the franking privilege to state educational departments covering the mailing of reports and other official documents, and urges the passage of the same. Resolved, That the paramount educational question of the hour is the employment and retention of a sufficient number of well-qualified teachers to fill all of our public schools; and that this department pledges Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION ii itself to use its best endeavors to secure sufficient compensation to enable teachers to prepare themselves properly for their work, and to justify them in remaining permanently in the profession of tearbin?. L. H. Jones, Chairman. C. G. Peakse. A. B. Blodgett. J. A. Shawan. W. F. Cramer. On motion, duly made and seconded, the resolutions were adopted. The president then read an invitation from the South Di\ision High School Girls* Club, inviting members of the Association to an "at home" from 2 to 5 p. m. On motion, the department adjourned sine die. Evangeline E. Whitney, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS TOPIC: REVIEW OF THE EDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION AT ST. LOUIS I. THE FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS HOWARD J. ROGERS, CHIEF OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION AND DIRECTOR OF CONGRESSES The Department of Education found most favorable conditions in St. Louis from the outset, inasmuch as the Exposition Company had fixed upon education as the fundamental principle for the development of the exposition, and the National Educational Association was particularly anxious for a comparative presentation of the educational methods of other countries. The former condition predetermined a generous attitude toward the exhibit department which embodied as a concrete science the ideal of the exposition; the latter carried as its corollary the combined support of the educational efforts of the United States. From the favorable comments which had been made, both in foreign and domestic journals, upon the educational exhibit of the United States Com- mission at the Paris Exposition of 1900, a discussion had arisen concerning the relative merits of the different systems of education in various nations, and it was felt that a more thoro comparison could be made from the St. Louis exhibit. That the theory of public education in Europe was different from that in this country was an admitted premise. Whether each was best adapted to the conditions underlying its own national development; whether each contained methods that could be advisedly adapted to the system of the other; whether the tendencies of the two were more widely, or less sharply, divergent than formerly; and whether conclusions could be drawn clearly as to which has had the most beneficial effect on the commercial and industrial develop- ment of the coimtry, were the larger problems for which the educational exhibit was to furnish the solution. 12 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION iMflwaukee The educational exhibit was planned from two standpoints: first, its foreign participation; second, its domestic representation. With the former only this paper has to do. On its material side it was thoroly satisfactory, inasmuch as twenty-one nations were represented — five from Asia, twelve from Europe, and four from our Latin-American neighbors to the south. This representation varied from a single institution, or class of schools, to a complete presentation of the educational activities of a country. How best to present the saHent facts in this brief paper, whether by nations or by subjects, is a problem which I shall probably solve by each method in part. Two hues, widely divergent from American practice, stand out prominently and must always be in mind in comparing educational systems. The first is the promotion of class distinctions by educational training, as illustrated in the systems of primary and secondary instruction; and the second is the train- ing of young men for commercial and political fields, particularly in reference to colonial and foreign service. To these two general subjects, and to some special matters which seem to be of interest to the United States, I shall confine my remarks. The system of public instruction in this country is articulated so as to form a symmetrical unit. The transitions from the elementary to the high school, from the high school to the college, and from the college to the professional school, are made without a break, and form a steady progression. A pupil may drop out at the end of the elementary, or at the end of the high-school, or in the middle of the high-school course; but he has had the same training as those who go on to the end, and if he returns to his school after an interim of two or three years, he can pick up his work where he left it, handicapped in no respect but by age. We have grown accustomed to see the entire sequence of studies under one administrative head, and much of our recent thought has been given to so interrelating the different parts as to put forward the time when a student may become a self -supporter. It is confusing to the standards of our teachers in considering foreign educational systems to see elementary, or primary, education displayed as an independent entity, controlled by a separate administrative head, and designed to perpetuate the social castes, or orders, by training the children of the masses manually and artistically for the trades in store for them. The average age for completing this course in France and Belgium is nearly fifteen. Parallel with this course, so far as the ages of the pupils are concerned, is the system of secondary instruction under quite another administration, embracing a study of the classics and humanities in general, and leading to the cultural professions. This instruction, tho under public control, is not free to the public. It is not my intention to draw comparisons between these radically different theories of free public education. I have twice done it before this Association, and it is so interwoven with the history and develop- ment of civilization, and with the social evolution of each country, that it is a distinct topic in itself. My only point is that no intelligent observation can ^ft**^""* Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION 13 be made of the educational work of another country at an exposition, or else- where, that is not based upon a thoro appreciation of this truth. We cannot assert that the European system is not the best for the social conditions that Europeans have to face. We only know that it is not in accord with the theory of our institutions, and that a system of instruction which tended even in the slightest degree to promote class perpetuity could not stand. It fol- lows, as a corollary to this proposition, that it is a sound policy to go slow in the introduction of foreign methods and ideas when they touch the roots of things. There are plenty of methods, and details — administrative, teaching, and other — which we can adopt, and a neglect to observe which would prove us narrow and provincial. From this view-point in particular, the exhibit of training-schools for teachers was difficult to classify. This matter is put very clearly in the report of the jury of Group I, Elementary Education: In the chief foreign countries professional schools for the training of teachers are easily classified by virtue of their administrative relations; but in our country the different orders of pedagogical training merge into each other almost imperceptibly, because they are all based upon the same fundamental conception of the teaching profession. There are also disclosed by the exhibits striking dififerences in the spirit and methods of instruction. In France the teaching is logical and anal3rtical. The stress of peda- gogical training in that country is upon the treatment of subjects, and the abiding effects of that training are seen in the theses by teachers and by school inspectors (the latter all men of professional training) which form a very interesting and instructive part of the exhibit of that country. The analytic principle is maintained in the manual training which, as shown by the examples presented, consists of a graded series of exercises upon the elements that enter into simple constructions. Germany adheres more closely to the authoritative method of instruction, a fact plainly shown by the photographs of classes in which every child seems listening with breathless attention to the word of the teacher. From the photographic displays one would readily infer that in our own country the emphasis of class exercises is upon the activity of the pupil; in Germany, upon the per- sonality of the teacher. The second divergent line noticeable in the exhibit was the training given to young men by Germany, and some other nations, but noticeably Germany, in foreign commercial relations. The aim of the "technical high school," as announced in the official catalog, is to afiFord a higher education for the technical professions in the civil and pubUc service and in commercial under- takings, as well as to cultivate arts and science in so far as they come under the head of technical instruction. In one of the rooms devoted to technical exhibits was an exhaustive display of methods for colonial training, in which appeared not only the careful study of the geography and topography of the country, its routes of trade, its fertile and sterile regions, etc., but also actual specimens, and a careful description including their commercial value, of every agricidtural and mineral product of the country, together with an equally complete representation and description of every bird and animal native to the clime. All this as a matter of class routine and regular curriculum; so that when an agent or employee goes to east Africa or the south Pacific, 14 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee he goes as one familiar with every possibility of the country and not as a stranger. I might multiply this by similar examples drawn from Belgium and France, but it would be duplication, and Germany seems to have a long lead. It is a matter which we can well take under consideration; for, blessed as we are with natural advantages which have rendered easy thus far our commercial suprem- acy, it needs no tongue of a prophet to foretell that with the decrease of these advantages, consequent upon a more thoro occupation of the country, we cannot hold our own in the markets of the world unless we train equally well our agents and factors. We have been prone to believe that to give a boy his elementary instruction, and a year or two, or perhaps all, of his high-school course, and then turn him into business, relying on his native shrewdness and adaptibility to push along, is sufficient for a business training. It may have been under old conditions; it is not enough in the present-day world-competi- tion. Our so-called business colleges have been a makeshift and devoted to turning out bookkeepers and stenographers — good enough in their way, but a short way. They can contribute nothing to the solution of the question unless they are thoroly reorganized. Two or three cities have provided for high schools of commerce, but they are as yet John the Baptists crying in the wilderness. The question has come, and come to vex us till we solve it. Among the great crowd of scholars, statesmen, business men, and others who visited us at St. Louis last summer, no nation was better represented than Germany. They came not only to see, but to take notes, and since their return their comments have been many and varied. These opinions have been carefully observed and reported by Consul-General Mason, of Berlin, and embodied in a report to the State Department. Among other things he says: There are, say these critics, a pervading ignorance and indifference about everything outside the United States that, from the German standpoint, will be, unless corrected, a serious handicap in our quest for foreign trade. The careless confidence with which agents and salesmen are sent abroad, with no special preparation and with no knowledge of any language but their own, to do business in countries where only a trifling percentage of the population understands English, strikes these careful, methodical European experts as amazing. The meagerness of technical education, the trifling annual contingent of chemists, engineers, educated dyers, weavers, and electricians, as compared with the throng of lawyers, physicians, dentists, and unspecialized graduates turned out by our colleges and universities, seems to them short-sighted and improvident. The high stand- ing and excellence of a half-dozen great technical schools in the United States are frankly conceded; but what are these in a country of 80,000,000 of people, in which practically every student is destined for an active and useful life ? But most surprising of all appeared to the German visitors the absence of any adequate system of special education for commerce, banking, and foreign trade. Reduced to simplest terms, these investigators generally conclude that the reliance on a general and more or less superficial education, together with natural adaptability, to fit young men for almost every walk in life, and the lack of specialized study in physical science, modern languages, and the industrial arts, will, if i>ersisted in, neutralize much of the advantage which our country enjoys through natural resources and advantageous geographical position for the South American, Mexican, and Asiatic trade. Superintoidence] EDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION 15 Without enlarging further, these seem to me the two greater lessons to be drawn from the foreign educational exhibits. With the first we may weU remain content, as our system seems absolutely unassailable; with the second we shall have to reckon. Concerning some of the special features, no account of the exhibit would be justified unless mention was made of the wonderful scientific exhibit of the faculties of the German universities. From the elaborate medical exhibit, which was the delight of every physician who visited the grounds, to the exhibit of instnunents of precision and scientific research, it was unsurpassed. This is a scientific age, and naturally the exhibits of the universities would assume that form ; but everything has its reason, and this exhibit seems to me a magnificent attempt on the part of Germany to demonstrate that in the field of special training, particularly in biology and medicine, her universities are still the foremost in the world. In view of the marvelous advance of American universities in this respect in the last fifteen years, and the acceptance of the idea that it is no longer necessary for American students to be trained abroad, the exhibit assumes a most interesting aspect, even if it may not be deemed to become historic in its purpose. The Swedish exhibit was particularly interesting to Americans on account of its sloyd, which brought to many the source of inspiration pure and undefiled. A rich display of pupils' manual work was brought over, as well as a thoro exemplification of the Sloyd Training College at Naas, the original home of the Swedish National system. Another interesting feature of the exhibit was the chart describing the lectures on social topics before the Secondary School for Girls in Stockholm. Among the topics for 1904 were: ** Features of the Swedish Poor-Law Administration," "Private Charity in Stockholm," ** Hous- ing Question," "Legal Position of Swedish Women,' "Social Settlement Projects and Their Practical Realization." Perhaps no exhibit was richer in suggestive details than that of Belgium. Blessed with a^ fruitful peace of seventy-five years, enjoying the respect and legal protection of its powerful neighbors, it has an enviable record for con- tinued improvement of the condition of its people, materially, intellectually, and morally. All the elementary public instruction is directed by the com- munes, represented by a council of seven members as a minimum, thus placing in a small board supervision over a small area. . The teachers enjoy security of position, with rights of appeal, guaranteed by the constitution. Their salary is fair, bringing a regular increase at recurring intervals, and carrying with it lodgings at the commune's expense. At the age of fifty-five or sixty years they are entitled to retirement on a pension equal to two-thirds the highest salary they have received. Efficient government and cantonal inspec- tors visit each school at least twice a year. Four times a year each cantonal inspector meets, by districts, every member of his teaching staff. Attendance is compulsory; expenses are paid. Teachers selected by lot (here is a good point) give to the children of the school where the conference is held two prac- l6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee tical lessons, relating to the theoretic questions treated in the papers submitted to the conference. After the pupils are dismissed, these lessons are criticised by those present. Over sixty per cent, of the teachers who begin in a com- mune finish their life-work in the same commune. You can readily infer the devotion and pride they bring to the advance of their schools, and the power of their influence over the community. The commune provides also a garden where the elements of agriculture taught in school are practically explained and demonstrated. The trees and flowers planted are placed under the protection of the pupils, and, while con- tributing to their aesthetic development, promote also a respect and guardian- ship for public property. More might be said of their professional training, their continuation schools, their intensive study of agriculture; but the time limit forbids. In the three countries of France, Austria, and Italy the industrial training stood forth pre-eminent. France, it is true, gave in charts and printed volumes a full record of the work of her primary, secondary, and higher instruction; but, unfortunately, it was not so installed as to be easily studied, and all infor- mation obtained had to be dug for. Her attractive and carefully considered exhibits came from the higher professional primary schools maintained by the cities and under the supervision of the ministry of commerce and industry. The exhibits of the art and industrial schools of Austria and Italy have never been surpassed on American soil, and were at once the admiration and despair of American critics. The exhibits of both nations were limited to Groups IV and VI, Art and Industrial Education. The international jury on Group IV said: We feel, as jurors, that it is a part of our duty to call the attention of American educa- tors to these excellent exhibits [referring particularly to Austria], as showing that art is not only an ornament, but an excellent investment when properly directed. These schools, as well as the excellent schools of Great Britain and Ireland, are under the direct control of the government, and opportunity is given pupils to perfect themselves in all art-industrial pursuits; special training being supplied for those who are fitting themselves for foremen and directors of manufacturing establishments wherein an art-knowledge is necessary. Special attention is given in various schools to local industrial demands. The art schools of Great Britain and Ireland have been mentioned in the foregoing extract, but the typical feature of the English exhibit was the selec- tion of certain features of schools, or of class work, and their presentation in a most attractive manner. This policy accorded very well with the unorgan- ized and varied educational efforts, public and private, state and church, which are to the American mind inextricably interwoven in English educational administration. It certainly had the merit of clearly setting forth many admirable features of English schools. From the Orient the great exhibit was from Japan, whose statistical charts set forth in a most graphic way the marvelous growth of education in that country since 1867, when the old system of education gave way to the western system. The development in the last ten years has to be seen to be credited. y. SvLTmrmU^tnct] EDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION 17 The percentage of elementary-school attendance is nearly 92 per cent. Every group in the official classification contained Japanese exhibits, but, in accord- ance with the theory of the country's development, great stress was laid upon art as applied to the trades and industries. The exhibit of the University of Tokio was specially remarkable in the field of applied science. It was very easy to note the marks of American influence in every field of admin- istrative effort. The exhibit of the Chinese commission was interesting from two facts. It was the first exhibit of Chinese education ever made, which gave it, as coming from the oldest recorded civilization, an intense historical value; and, second, the interesting comparison between the old education and that intro- duced by means of foreign schools in the seaport towns. Little progress has been made by the latter compared with the field of possibilities, and the con- trast with the supremacy in Japan of western methods is striking. The exhibits of the Latin-American nations were attractive and instructive, particularly Cuba, where the steady growth from the impetus given by Ameri- can occupation is gratifying, and in Argentina, where the progress of public instruction in the more thickly settled section, and the growth of normal schools, are highly creditable. BrazU showed great unevenness, ranging from the excellent administrative system of the province of San Paulo to practically nothing in the northern provinces but unorganized private effort. The same may be said of Mexico, but in each of the four coimtries were many beautiful and progressive exhibits from higher educational institutions. Such is a brief T6smn6 of the more prominent features of the foreign exhibits. Those of you who attended the exposition know well their wealth of material, to which could have been given months of careful study; and their installation, which was characteristic in a high degree of the individuaUty of the nation. We feel confident that an opportunity has been given for comparative study which will not occur again in our generation, and we shall rest highly content if the educational public deems it worthy in a remote degree of the high ideals which governed the inception of the Exposition of 1904. II. THE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT, EXCLUSIVE OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ELIPHALET ORAM LYTE, CHAIRMAN OF GROUP ONE AND OF THE DEPARTMENT JURY, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, AND MEMBER OF THE SUPERIOR JURY There is a limit to the utility of the laboratory method in acquiring the art of teaching. Experience is a dear teacher often, and always when the experiment must be made upon the growing and aging mind. What has been accomplished by others blazes the way for us. All exhibitions of the products of man are educational, both in teaching us what has been done and in showing us what may be done, and thus saving time and energy that i8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Mflwaokcc we might otherwise expend in doing again what has been done, or in trying to do what cannot be done. The most striking characteristic of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition was the predominance of the educational idea, not only in the Educational Department, but also in most other departments. While the exhibits of school work in the Educational Department seemed in many cases to be almost too exhibitional — if I may use the word — ^it is true that many of the exhibits in the various other departments of the exposition were largely educational. The erection of a separate building in the most conspicuous part of the exposi- tion grounds devoted to educational purposes was in harmony with the domi- nant idea seen and felt in all departments. The incarnation of this idea at St. Louis was one of the most flattering testimonials which the world has offered to the profession of teaching, and its effects will be seen in the greater dignity with which the vocation of teaching will be regarded in the twentieth century. World's fairs crowd upon us so fast that the recollection of one has not lost its vividness before the next one treads upon its heels. The changes made in any department of progress can consequently be seen without effort. In some respects St. Louis repeated Chicago, which in turn repeated Philadelphia. But there were many new and striking features in the educa- tional department at St. Louis. The rural-school exhibit stood out as never before, as witness Indiana and Pennsylvania; the great high schools of the great cities commanded respect and admiration; and many other institutions devoted to general education and numbers of special schools showed new methods and marked improvements on older ways. Too much credit cannot be given to Hon. Howard J. Rogers, chief of the Department of Education, for his labors in providing a suitable building for education, in arousing the countiy to the importance of the exposition, in securing from all classes of educational institutions representative products of their labor, and in the intelligence and skill displayed in so arranging the entire exhibit that it was easy for a student to obtain an intelligent idea of it. The division of the exhibit into eight groups and twenty-six classes enabled the student to find what he desired to see without waste of time. These eight groups consisted of: Group I, Elementary Education, with its four classes: (i) kindergarten; (2) elemen- tary grades; (3) training and certification of teachers i (4) continuation schools, including evening schools, vacation schools, and schools for special training. Group II, Secondary Education, two classes: (5) high schools and academies, manual- training high schools, commercial high schools; (6) training and certification of teachers. Group III, Higher Education, five classes: (7) colleges and universities; (8) scientific, technical, and engineering schools and institutions; (9) professional schools; (10) libraries; (11) museums. Group IV, Special Education in Fine Arts, two classes: (12) art schools and institutes; (13) schools and departments of music, conservatories of music. Group V, Special Education in Agriculture, one class: (14) agricultural colleges and departments, experiment stations, instruction in forestry. Group VI, Special Education in Commerce and Industry, four classes: (15) industrial and trade schools, evening industrial schools; (16) {a) business and commercial schools, Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION 19 (6) higher instruction in commerce; (17) education of the Indian; (18) education of the negro. Group VII, three classes: (19) institutions for the blind, publications for the blind; (20) institutions for the deaf and dumb; (21) institutions for the feeble-minded. Group VIII, five classes: (22) summer schools; (23) extension courses, popular lectures and people's institutes, correspondence schools; (24) scientific societies and associations, sdentific expeditions and investigations; (25) educational publications, text-boots, etc.; (26) school furniture, school appUances. One could not help receiving the impression from some of the exhibits that the serious purpose of the Department of Education was possibly not fully appreciated by all exhibitors. Some exhibits seemed to have been hastily gathered together, without a well-defined thought of the real object of the exposition Many exhibits seemed to show that the intention of the exhibitor was to exhibit a finished product, with the steps in the process of making the product hidden, instead of laying bare, or revealing the processes by which the exhibit was brought to the state in which it was shown. Some exhibits might almost be said to have been too perfect for school exhibits. But many of the exhibits were illuminating in clearness, and gave the educator an opportimity of learning what was done in the different fields of educational activity, that left little to be desired. The pubHc high schools of the country have made remarkable progress in th^ past decade, and, as exhibited at St. Louis, present lines of work that indicate that the molders of these "people's colleges" are fully aUve to the increasing demands made upon them by the busy business world. It was natural that in an exhibition of school work, manual training, color-work, and photographs should be largely in evidence. The reasons for this are obvious. Manual training, drawing, and photography mix the mental and the physical, and easily lend themselves to the exhibitor's art; while the more purely mental subjects are less easily displayed in cases or charts. If one did not remember this fact, one would think that time is wasted in our public schools in manual training. And yet a careful examination leads one to see that probably manual training does not receive an undue share of school time. Much of the work in manual training deserved praise; some was excellent, as, for example, the exhibits from Philadelphia and one or two other places; some was mediocre; and a few exhibits were imeducational in both purpose and execution. Two or three leading manual-training schools showed products of so great value that it was easy to see that the old appren- tice system of learning a trade has been most admirably supplanted by the training in wood- and iron-work given by the public schools of manual train- ing and mechanic arts of our large cities. But this side of manual training, as shown at St. Louis, is not the important side. One could see that this branch is used, with the other branches of school work, to develop the youth, to train his creative and artistic powers, and to give his mind control of his body, to teach his physicial powers to obey his mental powers. It s impossible, of course, to show in an exhibition more than a small part 20 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Mflwaukec of the real work of a college or university. But even here the scientific spirit of the age made itself felt, and there were fine displays of equipments for labora- tories in which the secrets of nature were revealed to the student, for engineering, for medicine and surgery, etc. The literary side of college work was shown by the volumes exhibited by professors and students by charts, histories, photographs, etc. Permit me to quote from an article in the Educational Review for December, by Miss Anna Tolman Smith, a member of the jury of one of the leading groups in the Department of Education: The complete models of site and buildings presented by several universities, notably by the University of Wisconsin, Washington University, and the University of New York, excited imiversal admiration. Harvard showed a fine model of its students' stadium and, on the scientific side, a remarkable representation of intestinal digestion as seen under the Rdntgen rays, and a case of the exquisite Blaschka glass models for botanical study; Columbia, a model of the beautiful new Ubrary building, with the majestic statue of Alma Mater in the foregroimd; and Yale suggested the highest outcome of university ]ife by portraits of famous alimini. For aesthetic effect, pure and simple, the exhibits of the University of Michigan and ot Columbia University surpassed all their sister- institutions, while the University of California excelled in photographic representations. The transparent views of her mining school, including class, laboratory, and field opera- tions, afforded the highest example of this ^lode of exhibit as regards technical finish and illumination. But the special value of the university exhibits was in the conditions they illustrated rather than in their actual material. The lavish equipments answer to the expansion of knowledge and man's increased control over the forces of nature; beauty of environment and of architecture, to the hunger of the spirit for ideal things. Lessons such as these could not fail to be caught by the mere casual observer, while the nature of the subjects selected for representation brought clearly to mind the lines of recent progress in matters and methods of university instruction. The American exhibit of special education in fine arts, while it showed that we have something to learn from foreign coimtries, was highly creditable to us. In the entire exhibit one could not help noting with pleasure the growing tendency to combine the beautiful and the useful, or rather to beautify the useful, so that many objects of utility were clothed in a beautiful dress, thus showing, as quoted by my distinguished predecessor on the program, that "art is not only an ornament, but an excellent investment when properly directed." To quote from the report of the chairman of the jury of Group rV to the department jury: In our own schools we find the same strivings as in foreign countries, but, lacking government support, and working without the same sympathy and help, they have as yet been unable to produce that perfection of workmanship and execution which we find in some of the foreign schools. This does not mean that we do not find the most excellent results in the handicrafts, as taught in the American schools, but opportunity is not here offered on the same terms to young workers in the art industries by which they may perfect themselves in their trade or profession. A volume might be written upon the exhibit in Group V, Special Education in Agriculture. Let me quote from the report made by the chairman of the group jury: Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION 21 In the exhibits illustratiiig special education in agriculture by far the most notable was the " Collective Exhibit of Sixty Colleges of Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment Stations of the United States." Nowhere on the exposition grounds, perhaps, were the processes of education more completely exemplified, for here were model laboratories for every branch of agricultural education fully equipped, in charge of experts, and, so far as possible, actual laboratory demonstrations were carried on. Valuable as these model laboratories were, however, they were far surpassed in interest by the research work displayed in this exhibit. A well-Icnown educator recently said that in no field of education is there today so great an opportunity for a man to make a name and fame for himself as in the field of agricultural research. For, while the realms of the classics, of mathematics, and of pure science have been exploited through periods of time extending in some cases at least through centuries, research in agriculture is but in its beginning. The jury was much impressed by the splendid results already attained and by the yet more splendid promise of future gains in this field. We congratulate Chief Rogers and the exposition management on the great success of this first collective exhibit of the agricultural colleges and experiment stations in the United States. Besides this collective exhibit, the United States is represented in this group by displa3rs from various state agricultural colleges and experiment stations. Most notable among the institutions thus shown were the agricultural colleges of Illinois, Missouri, and Ten- nessee. From each of these came exhibits showing original research and experimentation of a very high order. It may be added that the beginnings of instruction in agriculture were shown in the exhibits of the rural schools of several states, and the study of the products of the earth, their planting and cultivation, and of harmful insects and their destruction, was a fruitful subject of the agricultural schools. This subject, which touches everyone so closely on its practical side, is coming to the aid of the farmer and fruit-grower, and will bring rich blessings to mankind. The chairman of the jury of Group VI, Special Education in Commerce and Industry, said in his report to the department jury: The exhibit of Indian schools was found limited in amount and poor in quality. The only exceptions to this statement should be made in favor of the Indian schools on reservations in the state of New York. Negro schools were creditably represented by institutions in various parts of the South, and in states as far north as New Jersey and Missouri. In the main, these exhibits were of students' work in wood and metal for boys, domestic science for girls, and from schools for such special trades as boot- and shoe-making, textile word, etc. The amoimt of material represented by negro schools was large and its quality good. The jury would probably concur in the statement that the wood- and metal-work from Hampton Institute was the equal of any similar work examined. The negro schools of the state of Missouri, particularly in Kansas City and the Lincoln Institute at Jefferson City, and the negro schools of St. Louis, call for special mention. These schools show much work which seems to indicate that they have gone far toward solving the problem of industrial education for the negro. The jury was disappointed at the limited showing of the evening-school work for the United States, but, while making this statement, desires to call attention to the excellent exhibit of the evening school of trades in Springfield, Mass., and the work centers of the city of Boston. The exhibit of the evening schools showed that the idea of continuation schools was a prominent one with them, with classes in millinery, dress- 22 ^ NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Mflwaukee making, typewriting, and other branches for young persons beyond the school age. The state institutions for the deaf and dumb and the blind from several states were represented by classes of students with their teachers, and the latest methods of teaching these unfortimate persons were illustrated almost daily. Crowds were constandy observing and studying the classes whenever an exercise was given, and were alike interested and instructed by the "living exhibit." Of the special forms of education classified in Group VIII time will not permit me to say more than a word. The latest text-books, school furniture, and appliances were displayed, plans for extension schools and vacation schools were exhibited, and correspondence schools explained their modus operandi to large numbers of interested listeners. In text-books and school furniture America seemed to lead the world, and showed striking advancement over Chicago ten years ago. No report can be made of the exposition without at least a reference to the charts and statistical tables that were found everywhere and that were of great value to the student. Of the foreign exhibit it is not within my province to speak. Our own country presented charts and tables that were studied by large numbers. Thru the wide influence of the Bureau of Edu- cation, exerted here as elsewhere to the great good of our schools, the charts were sufficiently uniform in plan and matter to form a valuable basis of comparison in the data given by them, and the information presented by them became doubly important as a consequence. It is to be regretted that it is possible to present here only a superficial view of this marvelous exhibition of the work o^ American teachers. While defects were seen and might be pointed out, the Educational Exhibit as a whole made a most profound impression upon the thoughtful student, and will prove a source of encouragement and inspiration to the teachers of the land for many years to come. The predominance of the tendency of Ameri- can education in all grades of schools toward reaching an end which is expressed in a material creation is most marked, and probably is an evi- dence of the impression that the mine and mill, factory and foundry, are making upon the education of our youth. In a country that has no national system of public education, the striking resemblances of the state pubhc systems must excite comment. This resem- blance was seen not only in public-school systems, but also in the exhibits of the most advanced institutions of learning, and confirms the opinion of the optimist that American schools are working in harmony with the intangible, yet none the less real, American idea, that has lived thru the generations, and that is leading our beloved nation upward to the goal of a free, united, peace- ful, prosperous. God-fearing, and man-loving people. As we contemplate that marvelous array of cities and states, of empires and republics, presenting to the gaze of the world the choicest products of Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION 23 the choicest minds of the world, forgetting for the while the intense rivalries that have long existed, remembering only that each dty, each state, each empire, each republic, brings its best gifts to teach its fellows, and comes to its fellows in humiHty to learn what better there is to learn — as we contem- plate all this, we feel that, below or above the bickerings of business and the strife of war, there exists a imiversal brotherhood, which is tjrpified by the wonderful exhibition just closed at St. Louis; and we realize that the whole world is not only wiser, but also better and nobler, because of the Universal Exposition at St. Louis. ///. LESSONS FROM THE UNITED STATES EXHIBIT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION BEN BLEWETT, MEMBER OF THE JURY OF AWARDS, GROUP I, ELEMENTARY EDUCATION POSITION ACCORDED EDUCATION Those of you who did not realize the fact thru the exquisite pleasure of seeing it have been told time and again how the scheme of organization of the Universal Exposition at St. Loiiis recognized education as the alma mater of modem manhood, and enthroned her in her own magnificent palace, established in the seat of highest honor. You know how the whole world, the islands of the sea, and the great empires vied with each other in show- ing what they were doing for the development of intellectual and moral power thru the training of their children and youth. You know the artistic form and the vast extent of the installation that made suitable setting for this, the most significant part of the exposition. These things need, at this time, but be mentioned, not reviewed. It was no accident that gave to education this recognition, imapproached> in the previous imiversal expositions. The recognition but measured the growth of an influence that had become a dominant power in the Ufe of men, in every occupation, in every land. In other palaces you saw the processes of national hving; in the Palace of Education and Social Economy you might discern the ani^lating principles of these processes as shown in the national ideals toward which the youths were trained. One stood in open-eyed amazement before the displays made by Japan in industries, manufactiures, and arts; yet the explanation of her marvelous achievements was complete to one who studied her scheme of education and its development. Education was accorded its honorable position on its merits, and to edu- cators was given the most difficult problem to be worked out by exhibitors. Mind manifests its power thru material forms that attract at a glance and that, in large measure, may be comprehended without weariness. Even one uninitiated in the uses of machinery can quickly see the import of the rotary steam-engine. The processes thru which the powers of the intellect, of the 24 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Mawaukec will, and of the soul are unfolded and trained are much more difficult to illus- trate in ways that will seize the eye and be easily understood. To illustrate these processes was the problem given to the educators, and its solution was accomplished with unparalleled success. INSTALLATION In the Palace of Education, Group I was assigned to elementary educa- tion imder four classes: 1. Kindergarten. 2. Elementary grades. 3. Training and certification of teachers. 4. Continuation schools, including evening schools, vacation schools, and schools for special training. The display from the United States in this group had distinct significance; first, in its evidence of the existence of an American system of education; second, in the demonstration of the treatment of the peculiar and complex problems of metropolitan schools; and, third, in the promise of a brighter future for rural schools. All the conditions of actual schoolroom li e were realized as nearly as could be. One state presented models showingthe development of school buildings, from the log cabin, thru successive advances, to the modem high-school build- ing. Another showed a modem rural-school building, in size and equipment just as it would be used. Other states, thru biogens, thru moving pictures of large size, and thru photographs of almost every conceivable tjrpical school condition, left little for the imagination to supply. One dty, daily for a period of six months, showed living classes of children engaged in such schoolroom work as could be conducted under such distracting conditions. Graphic charts gave, in forms easily read, historic and statistical facts, and the relation of the various parts in lesson plans and courses of study. The photographic illustrations were a distinct improvement over that old type which showed rooms of children very conscious of the fact that their pictures were being taken. In these the photographer had caught charac- teristic groups of children at typical school work; and every inch of the picture told its tale to the examiner. The selected and typical work of individual pupils, and the corrected or uncorrected work of whole classes, either in written exercises, in drawings, or in the materials employed in manual training — all these made it possible for an earnest investigator to get dose to the purpose of the work, its method and its restdts. There were several distinct schemes of installation in the different states: first, that in which the work was grouped by towns and counties; second, that in which it was grouped by subjects, the work in any subject being collected from all parts of the state; third, that in which it was grouped by subjects, a subject being assigned to some one town; fourth, four large dties made exhibits independent of the other parts of their respective states. Twenty-nine states and three territories were represented. Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION 25 Here was the state that justly boasts of its public school established over two hundred years ago, and by its side the vigorous young territory that stands knocking at the door of the Union. Here was the great metropolis with all its complex Ufe and here the rural school of the wUdemess into which only the pioneers had as yet pushed. And here were all the stages of institutional development lying between the widely separated extremes. AN AMERICAN SYSTEM That the participation in the exhibition was so universal excited the great- est surprise and admiration, and was most impressive in the evidence it gave of the existence of an American system of education. With the school unit of organization being, as it is in almost every state, the small district with its local board, and with no central authority to direct or even suggest plans for shaping and strengthening the work, a chaos of plans seemed inevitable. Yet the direct opposite of this was plainly the actual condition of the work. From Massachusetts to Louisiana, from Pennsylvania to California, from New York dty to the rural school of Arizona, the same purposes dictated the general scheme of the courses of study, the same pedagogic philosophy determined the relation of 'the several parts of the work in this general scheme; and the differentiations were only such as local conditions and individ- uality in administration made inevitable. One whose estimate was formed by that which attracted the eye easily, and who had no opportunity for close examination, would tell you that manual training was receiving an unwar- ranted attention — an attention beyond that given to other material or apparatus for educating. But this impression did not remain with one who read the outlines of courses of study, or examined those parts of the exhibits which, from their nature, need not and could not be conspicuously installed. Although the school journals, the reports of administrative officers, and the frequent coming-together in great meetings have kept American teachers in close touch with each other, and presumably familiar with the actual prac- tice, still this assembled evidence of unity in work was startling in its conclu- siveness. France and Germany, with their highly developed centralization of control, showed no closer recognition of a common directive principle, nor a greater uniformity of results. The United States has evidently accomplished this end thru the healthy incentive of friendly rivalry and thru sympathetic co-operation. The creed of the American schoolmaster could be read in each unit and in the display as a whole as plainly as if it had been printed on illuminated tablets: 1. It is our function to direct the natural and balanced development and training of the intellect, will, and soul of the child, giving to the spirit the power to comprehend the environing world and to react upon it. 2. Under the conditions of our social institutions, there are but few artificial barriers of custom which can prevent the individual from selecting the life that he wills to follow. 26 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION llfilwaukee and for which he has the innate or trained faculty. No social caste obstructs his path, and no tradition binds him as an apprentice to the trade of his forefathers or father. 3. The education of our children must then give them flexibility for adaptation, strength to choose and persist, and a sympathy that shall go out to the lives of all men. 4. The process of being educated is not alone the process of being acted upon. This receptivity has its complement in the reaction of the pupil which expresses itself sometimes thru language, sometimes thru music, and sometimes thru the grosser materials that must be shaped by the hands. P£CUL[AR PROBLEMS OF METROPOUTAN AND RURAL SCHOOLS Certain features of the exhibit, however, were emphasized by their diver- gence from a scheme that in most respects was homogeneous for the entire country. Although the genius of our institutions demands a training for the children which shall throw down any artificial barriers that might bar their entrance into any attractive field of life, and tho the schools in every quarter of our country, under the shaping of this genius, are remarkably similar in type, still broad differences in conditions have developed characteristic modi- fications of the common t3rpe. Two of these modifications must be noticed in a paper that hopes to pre- sent the saUent lessons of the exhibit. One relates to the conditions met in the administration of the modem metropoUtan school system; the other, to the conditions met in the administration of rural schools. The two conditions are as far apart as the poles. One is the product of the abnormally con- tracted life of the grea metropolis; the other, the product of the natiural, but unorganized life, of the rural districts. These two fields of activity are attract- ing the attention of the best talent for organization and development. METROPOLITAN PROBLEMS The mere mention of the annual expenditure for public schools made by New York city startles one. Twenty-five miUion dollars is an immense sum of money; yet a study of the uses to which thi> money is put makes us lose oiu: admiration for the amount expended in our admiration for the kind of work that it does. Annually the increase in the number of pupils seeking admission to the schools is about thirty thousand. Additional accomodation and instruc- tion for this number must be provided. This is in kind the same difficulty that every growing town has to meet, the difference being only one of degree and increasing in arithmetical ratio only. But the conditions that ar pro- duced directly by this growth of population are so complex that the difficulty of handing them increases in geometrical ratio. The great mass of humanity compacts by centripetal force till life in its congested portions is distorted out of all semblance to natural health. A home becomes a few square feet of standing-room in a caravansary, and the child is deprived even of the solace of a neighbor's cellar door for a sliding place; no refuge anywhere; the sky, the far-off roof of an artificial canon; the earth, a floor of granite; his neighbor, the fellow who crowds him. ."." . .^mJS^JMiii^ -. Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION 27 This seems like tragedy to us who, when children, looked thru clear air up to the sun and talked with the fairies under sheltering trees. How can you educate into decent citizenship a child pent up in this way ? Here is a ques- tion pecuHar to the great city. And it should be the glory of our profession that there have been hearts that throbbed at the pathos of it all, and brains that joyed in contending with the difficulties. The public schoolhouse must be made the place where the child may trully live. The floor rooms and the roof garden are his parks. Yet better still are the playground where, from the piers, he may look out upon a space that seems limitless to him, or where he may come in contact with the earth, tho its extent be only a city block. The evening schools, recreation centers, vacation schools, historical excursions — all these are skillfully devised to attract the youth away from suggestions that degrade to the things that interest, entertain, and cultivate his better nature. A few quotations from the report of Assistant Superintendent Evangeline E. Whitney will give some idea of what is being done to help city youths to right Hvingi Only those acquainted with life as it is in tenement districts can realize what these spacious, well-warmed, and well-lighted class-rooms mean to the children of the street, of whom none ought ever to knock at their doors in vain. But our Umitations necessitate directing efforts chiefly to boys who have left school, to become wage-earners, and who nightly roam the streets searching for amusements. Before reaching his teens every boy of this class undoubtedly belongs to a group or gang — for "the boy is a gregarious animal'' — especially when fate makes him a city resident. A peculiar bond of s)Tnpathy will hold a dozen or more lads together so that for months or years they will act as a unit. If the leader has a strong bias for crime, Herculean tasks of mischief may be accomplished. In one of our centers a boy recently said to the principal: "Say, I want to tell you some- thing— but don't tell the rest of the gang — ^you have broken up a gang of thieves by keep- ing and interesting us fellows." That lad revealed a double secret, for the power that holds the boys is the fulcrum on which all efforts for turning them into good citizens must rest. In the buildings where shower-baths could be taken, this luxury was used as an incen- tive for securing obedience and fair play. Only the good boys stood chances of getting tickets, but the bath never lacked patronage. One school reported 1,125 making successful application in one afternoon. In the fifteen swimming-pools, the supervisor reported that 1,652 boys and girls took the required number of lessons and learned how to swim- The roof playgrounds were the happiest places, I think, in the city. Thousands of feet, nimble and slow, climbed the long stairs night after night, whether skies were bright or lowering. There for three blissful hours the people would play games or watch them, talk or dance, sing together, or Usten to the band music. The program this year was supervised by Dr. Damrosch, and had fewer numbers of the rag-time order than in former years. Favorite airs from good operas and classical selections were interspersed with popular melodies. One night a poor woman, touched by some pathetic strain, stepped up to the leader and said: "I don't expect to go to the cemetery but once; won't you please give us a jig?" To refine and elevate taste is the work of the roof as well as of the ground, and it is gratifying to note that in the general appreciation of good music — ^in neater dress and more decorous manners — a higher standard was reached than ever before. Not all of the schools were in the congested districts. It was felt that the children of the well-to-do, remaining in town through the summer, were just as much entitled to share these special advantages as were those who excited our pity. Schools in the so-called good neighborhoods were well patronized. If they turned the attention of even a few boys 28 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee and girls toward the vast fields of industrial pursuits, which tomorrow will call for as well-educated artisans as do the professional walks of today, these summer efforts will be richly recompensed. The following is Miss Whitney's tribute to the teachers in the recreation centers: The workers who patiently toil here month after month are the most heroic people I have ever met. I know several who spend freely their leisure time and money in efforts to raise the down-trodden and teach the ignorant; they have visited every tenement and family within their districts, and their experiences are more thrilling than those published by sensational reporters; but with them confidences are too sacred to be made public. Having intimate knowledge of the temptations, sorrows, and struggles of those among whom they labor, they learn how to win them, how to infuse higher ideals of life, and, by extending the sympathy and good-will of the new world, cause many of the ugly prejudices and customs of the old world to disappear. Here the youth of Latin, Slav, and Hebrew races meet as comrades, and in learning to speak a conunon language gather some under- standing of the duties and privileges of American citizenship. RURAL PROBLEMS The condition of the rural school is the problem that involves the welfare of more people than any other. The importance of this problem lies both in the number immediately affected and indirectly in the potency of these lives in giving character to the nation. However enticing it may be, the life of the great towns is artificial and misshapen by the pressure of the great throngs. In its atmosphere the human forces are devitalized and dwindle into abnormal weaknesses. This is so true that the great enterprises of the dty are sustained only by the infusion of the strength of men who have held the plow handles or wielded the ax. The old story of the giant Anteus, like all great myths, is but the embodi- ment of a natural law. To get his strength and to hold his strength, the child must touch his mother earth, must struggle with the cold and with the heat, must know how the plants grow, must experience how the knot yields to the skillful wedge, must wrestle with labors that test his endurance, and must feel the joy of his own masterfulness. The demands of his life develop in the coimtry boy a self-reliance and a faculty for adaptation which, tho hidden imder a cloak of awkwardness, give him a power not possessed by the child who has not had this natural training. It is from such people that the leaders of the world come. The great centers of population act as maelstroms which gather into their swirling rush all that the outermost circles of their influence can reach. To coimteract this tendency, to hold the youth on the farms, so to organize his life there that his natural longing for social intercourse will be satisfied — to accomplish these ends, some of the strongest efforts of oiu* school-masters are being made. The exhibit from Winnebago county, HI., gave the most striking evidence of this activity, and its spirit glows in the words of County Superintendent O. J. Kern: Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION 29 My fundamental proposition is that the country child is entitled to every whit as good an educational opportunity as that enjoyed by the most favored city child attending the public school. To have this equality of educational opportunity, the country people must spend more money in a better way. In his address at the dedication of the first consolidated school building in Winnebago county, Eugene Davenport, dean of College of Agriculture and director of Experimental Station, University of Illinois, said: All people should be educated in two environments and from two standpoint*:. One is the world at large — general and broadening; the other is that in which his life has unfolded and his individuality developed, and in which in all likelihood his future will be cast. The only sufficient reason for changing one's environment at the school age is the certainty that the future calling is to be different from that of the family, and then some- thing of educational value has been lost if the transplanting has taken place too early. It is better not to turn the back upon the things of childhood until we can look out upon the world through the eyes of a man. The consolidated school is the only solution for the educational necessities of country people. This new agriculture, therefore, demands three achievements in the way of education. One is a better training in the technique of the profession in order to make the best farmers possible of the individuals who occupy our lands; the second is that this education shall be secured without disrupting the country home; and the third is that, when it is over, the product shall be a normal country child, to the &nd, if he remains in the country, he will make a good country nlan, and that, if he later goes to the city, he goes intelligently and for a purpose, in which case he will make a good citizen. I hope now that you will meet these needs by doing the natural thing; and what I mean is this: I hope that this will not be a city school transplanted into a corn-field. I hope it will be a country school, surrounded by all that will make it attractive — ^beautiful, and filled with all that will make it effective. Why should this not be a city school ? Is not a city school as good as a country school ? Yes, for city people; but a city school for country people is as far from what is best as would be a country school for city people. It is not that one is better than the other, but it is that they are different. The city school has been long developing, and it is to be assumed that it has come to meet fairly well the conditions and needs of city people. Now, the conditions and needs of country people are not less and they are not greater, but they are different. I would, therefore, have in such a school a good portion of agriculture, shop practice, household arts, and of science in general. Why ? Because these are specially characteristic of country life. Some of them are also characteristic of city life, some of them are not; the city people will look after that; but in the meantime it remains for us to put into country schools the things that are characteristic of country life — those things that give it character, flavor, distinctness — that make the differences by which we dis- tinguish it as country life. A number of the states have already achieved noticeable progress in revo- lutionizing the condition of the rural schools. They have declared that the unsightly and unsanitary one-room district school must be abandoned, because it is imsightly and unsanitary; and in its stead must rise the modem building, equipped for comfort and health, and with rooms enough and children enough for efficient classification of work. This consolidation puts the school a long distance from some pupils. These pupils must be transported to and from school at public expense, and to make this feasible good roads must be built. This consolidated school, they tell us, will require fewer teachers for the 30 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Mflwaukec same number of pupils taught in the abandoned one-room buildings, and for the same total of expenditure for salaries will secure a higher grade of pro- fessional skill. The incidental expenses are reduced, altho the cost of trans- portation has been added. A single example will demonstrate the superiority of the consolidated school as a business proposition alone. The report of La Grange county, Ind., for the school year 1903-4, shows the schools of the eight townships con- solidated in fourteen buildings. Thirty-eight old schools had been aban- doned. The number of teachers had been reduced by thirty-one, with a saving in salaries of $16,051.60. Add to this a saving in fuel and repairs, and there is a gross saving of $12,911.60. From this subtract an expense of $6,170.86 for transportation of children, and there remains a net saving of $6,734.74- The new school radiates its influence in all directions. The lawn and garden surrounding it are part of its science and art work, and from them and the decorations of the rooms taste develops and is carried into the homes. The school library brings to the children the best of the world's thinking and feeling, and expands the horizon of their S5rmpathies and desires. The building becomes a social center for the community, offering opportimity, thru clubs or lyceums, for the discussion of questions that touch the business, the recreations, and the culture of their membership. A scientific knowledge of the elements with which he is working makes nature the farmer's willing benefactor. The field and the flocks return to him an abundance. Better roads and the telephone minimize distances, and there is no longer the isolation that drives men to the towns for the companion- ship which the social instinct demands for them and their children. The youths are at home upon the land, and feel that their lives may be completer here than in the shops or factories of the cities. This is the vision of faith of the modem county superintendent. And thus, thru their faith and their works, he and his brother in the crowded city, brighten the lives of children, and become potent factors in shaping national character TOPIC: MEANS OF INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL WORK I. PROVIDING BETTER TEACHERS J. W. CARR, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ANDERSON, IND. Some years ago I was chairman of a church committee to purchase a new pipe-organ. We were an ambitious congregation, and nothing but the biggest and the best would suffice. We purchased a magnificent instrument — ^three sy Superintendence] EFFICIENCY OF OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL WORK 31 manuals, tracker, pneumatic action, 1,944 pipes, and all the necessary swells and stops; cost, $5,000. It was a "thing of beauty," and we expected it to be a "joy forever." The congregation was pleased; the committee was deUghted. But somehow things did not go well. Sister Jones, the old organist, would not touch the new-fangled thing. "Too much machinery aijd too much show," she said. Of course, we were adverse to going outside of the congregation for an organist. So we' tried Minnie Wright, the deacon's daughter; but Minnie could not manipulate the stops and swells. We next tried Josie Grayson, an orphan girl who really needed the place. Now, Josie could play with her hands, but when it came to playing with her feet also, she coulcf not do it. We next tried Seth McGraw, who had been to college and who, in addition to his musical ability, was able-bodied and strong. Seth put all the power on the motor, pulled out all the stops, and kicked and pawed with might and main. The Organ shrieked and bellowed and roared. As for noise, the bulls of Bashan were outclassed. But as for music — ^well, it requires more than a big organ and a big man to produce that. The congrega- tion was disappointed, disgusted, and fast becoming desperate. They said that the organ was too big, too complicated, and that it had at least nineteen himdred pipes too many. There were charges of mismanagement and even fraud against the committee, and hints that "something might be doing." Now, Indiana lies in the north central-portion of the lynching belt of the United States, so the committee felt a trifle uncomfortable. To my way of thinking, there is a marked similarity between the musical experience of this congregation and the educational experience of many com- munities in this country. We have built great schoolhouses and prepared elaborate courses of study, with more manuals, stops, and swells than charac- terized the great organ of Newtown. The old course of study, which was so simple that even Sister Jones could play it by ear, has given place to a new, elaborate, and highly organized course which is difficult — entirely too difficult — for the Minnie Wrights and Josie Graysons, no difference if the one is a relative of some member of the school board and the other is the daughter of a poor widow. It requires something more, too, than an able-bodied man to get proper results from the course of study, even if he has been to college and played fuU-back on the football team. He may make a great ado about it, but the results will be very similar to Seth McGraw's music on the pipe- organ — calculated to incite a riot. It is this weak and poor attempt to carry out the course of study that causes many good people to cry out against expense and the so-called fads in the pubUc schools, and to sigh for the good old times when we had only the three R's, and when anybody could teach school. There is no doubt in my mind but that the old-time teaching of reading, writing, speUing, and arith- metic was superior to some of our attempts to carry out the modem course of study, with all its "enrichments" and "culture studies," and a little reading, writing, and spelling taught ncidentally. But this does not necessarily mean 32 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION pifilwaakee that the course of study is radically wrong. It more likely indicates our lack of skill in carrying it out. After listening to the feeble attempts of Minnie, Josie, and Seth, a majority of the Newtown congregation was ready to use the big organ for kindling wood and to prosecute the committee for the mis- appropriation of funds. They longed for Sister Jones and the old reed- organ. But, before consigning the organ to the' scrap-pile, the committee decided to make one more attempt. Hitherto they had employed only such persons as they could get cheap. This time they agreed to give the organist jlfty dollars a week. Such extravagance! Would they ever receive forgiveness? But the new organist wrought miracles. The feeble and discordant notes gave place to hymns and anthems of praise. Now it was a joyful Te Deum^ as when David danced before the Lord; now it was a mournful lamentation, like the exiles weeping by the waters of Babylon; anon it was a benediction, sweet and solemn, as when the Master spoke "Peace" to the raging waves of Galilee; and when at last he played old "Coronation," it seemed that the angels came down among the people. That congregation had never heard such music before. The committee had been vindicated. There was nothing the matter with the organ either. It only needed the master's touch. From that day it was not too big nor too grand nor too costly for that congrega- tion. The return of Sister Jones and the old reed-organ was now an impos- sibility. They had heard real music. What is needed, above everything else in our public schools, is the master- hand that can bring unity, harmony, and results out of our modem course of study. The course is not too rich nor too complex nor too elaborate to suit the tastes and to meet the needs of our enlightened and progressive people. The difficulty has been, and still is, that the art of teaching has not progressed as rapidly as the building and equipment of schoolhouses and the development of the course of study. What the public schools need even more than the committee needed the master-organist is the master-teacher — the man or the woman who knows his instnmient and knows his art. But we could not go backward if we would. We may sigh for the old curriculum and the citizen teacher of the olden time, but they wiU not return. We might as well attempt to turn back the hands on the dock of fate as to attempt to bring them back. We live in a different age, and our people have different hopes and different aspirations. The Newtown congregation could never have gone back to the little frame house and the old reed-organ after they had occupied the new stone church and listened to the grand music of the new pipe-organ. So it is not a question of desire, it is not a question of expediency, it is not a question of expense; but it is a necessity that sufficient number of competent teachers be provided to fill the American public schools. This is the first and chief requisite for increasing the efficiency of our public- school work. I am aware of the fact that there are other educational problems whose Superintendence] EFFICIENCY OF OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL WORK 33 proper solution would greatly increase the efficiency of our school work. But the solution of most of these problems would follow as a result, if we once solve the greater problem — the supplying of a sufficient number of well-equipped teachers for the pubUc schools. To illustrate: The course of study needs elaboration, elucidation, and especially elimination. But the educational doctrinaire can no more do this work properly without the guidance and assist- ance of the practical teacher than John Locke could evolve a suitable scheme of government for the American colonies. There is the problem of carrying out the course of study, after it has been formulated, so as to get the best results. But no number of rules or regulations will enable amateurs, or other persons poorly equipped for their work, to do this properly. There is also the problem of the recognition and proper development of the individuality of pupils while teaching the mass in classes; but it is folly to speculate on this problem unless we place master-teachers in the schoolroom. There is still a greater problem. It is the use of the course of study, the discipline, the playgroimd and the child's whole range of school experiences so as to develop properly his moral and reUgious nature, resulting in the formation of right character. But this miracle can no more be wrought without the child com- ing into contact with a noble personaUty than Simon Magus could purchase the gift of the Holy Ghost. In making this special plea for better teachers and more of them, I am aware of the fact that I have said nothing new. Indeed, it is about the oldest and the tritest thing that could be said. But it is what ought to be said and what must be done, if the American pubUc schools are not to prove the greatest disappointment of the age. The gospel is old, but nothing new has been, or ever will be, found to take its place. How is a sufficient number of well-qualified teachers to be obtained for our public schools? Create a greater public desire for good teaching by demonstrating the difference between the counterfeit and the genuine article. Break down the Chinese walls that seem to surround many towns and cities, and employ good teachers wherever they may be found. Eliminate poHtics, nepotism, favoritism, and the whole brood of like isms from the management of school affairs. Magnify the office of the teacher. Make the tenure of position for good teachers absolutely secure; absolutely insecure for poor ones. Promote for efficiency; dismiss for inefficiency. Protect professional teachers from ruinous competition with non- professionals. Pay teachers in proportion to the services rendered. According to the New York Sun, the "dog-catcher "of the city of Washington, euphoniously styled the "pound-keeper," receives $1,500 a year; grade teachers, $500 a year. Whenever the American people are willing to expend as much for great 34 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [MUwaukcc teachers as they do for great school buildings, then we shall have great schools* and the next important step will have been taken to improve the efficiency of our school work. And ^o, in closing, I wish to make one appeal. I wish to appeal to the superintendents of the United States to use their utmost endeavor to secure a higher degree of efficiency among teachers. I wish to appeal to school officers everywhere to subordinate personal interests to the welfare of the pubh'c schools, and to employ none but the best teachers available. I wish to appeal to the teachers themselves, not only to make the best preparation pos- j^ible for their daily work, but to strive continually for clearer insight, broader sympathy, and greater power, in order that they may do the most possible for the children intrusted to their care. I wish to appeal to the great American press — the greatest press in any coimtry — to use its mighty power in building up a public sentiment that will demand a competent teacher for every child. I wish to appeal to the fathers and to the mothers of the nation not to be con- tented with any person but the best — the best in character as well as in scholar- ship— to teach their children. And, finally, I wish to appeal to the great Ameri- can people to render such moral and financial support to the public schools as will enable them to employ and to maintain the best teachers, thereby mak- ing it possible for the public schools to attain the highest degree of efficiency. //. ADEQUATE LEADERSHIP, PROGRESSIVE TEACHERS, AND FEWER SUBJECTS CARROLL G. PEARSE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MILWAUKEE, WIS. The topic we are asked to discuss this afternoon is one which everybody feels qualified, and a great many people feel called upon, to discuss, tho much of the counsel which is offered to us reminds one of that offered to the man whose horse is back-stepping or rearing or has fallen in the street. And since the public-school system has not yet attained perfection, we shall doubtless not only continue to receive counsel on the subject from all our friends, but shall do as we are asked to do this morning — discuss it as a busi- ness matter among ourselves. Alexander the Great, or some other ancient notable who was a successful warrior, is reported to have said: *'I would rather have an army of deer lead by a lion than an army of lions lead by a deer." This is his way of expressing the value of proper leadership; and proper leadership is just as important in matters educational today as in matters industrial or political, and just as important in any of these lines as it was in the days of Alexander; and one of the great needs of our public schools is more adequate leadership on the part of those who fill positions as superintendents and principals. This is not to say that the persons who are doing this work are not of as great ability or as good intentions as those who fill positions of leadership Superintendence] EFFICIENCY OF OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL WORK 35 in other lines of business. It is to call attention to the fact that in such places the schools today need, as much as any one thing, trained leadership. There are schools without number where the scholastic qualifications needed by the teacher or the principal or the superintendent can be obtained; colleges and imiversities, collegiate institutes and normal schools, are all ready to supply this side of the equipment. There are, too, many institu- tions in which teachers are trained in the principles and practice of instructing children. But when it comes to the broader and more responsible duties of school administrations, there has as yet been developed no institution in which young men or women planning to enter this particular department of educa- tion can receive the necessary training. The only way that has so far been opened is the time-honored way of experience — "exposure." The yoimg man has been obliged to begin his work without any adequate preparation, and has learned what he could by the actual practice of the duties of such a position. What he has learned he has learned from the the result of his own experience. He has not been able to profit by the experience of others, as he would be if he entered most other professions. To be a successful administrator of schools, various sides of educational work must be imderstood. The head of a school system needs to know the financial side of school management — ^how school revenues are gathered and should be expended. He should know something of the development and operations of the minds of children, as well as of the subjects of study which will develop their minds and characters in the most satisfactory way. This he must know in order that he may include the proper subjects in the course of instruction, and may arrange those subjects to the best advantage and in the proper order. He must have proper standards of school work and accom- plishment; he must know how to direct and supervise the work of others. These and many other things are necessary to his success; and just now there is no place where he can learn these things, even theoretically, before begin- ning his work. The need of training for the profession of law or medicine, civil or mechanical or electrical engineering, is universally recognized, and ample provision is made for it; but for this profession, which is more impor- tant, so far as future welfare of the commimity is concerned, than any one of these, proper training has so far been left entirely to chance. Strangely enough, there is almost no literature upon the subject; the voliunes which treat of it are so few that they can almost be told on the fingers of one hand; and the treatment which it receives in current periodical literature is insufficient. To supply even this lack would do something toward improv- ing the quality of the work done in the schools of the country. Another way in which the average quality of work in American schools may be bettered is for the corps of instructors to realize more fully the need for keeping alive intellectually, and for keeping abreast of the times, both in a general way and educationally. It is so easy for teachers, as well as for those who oversee and direct their work, after having followed the employment long 36 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [MUwaukee enough to become reasonably familiar with its outward forms and processes, to rest back upon the technical skiU so far acquired; this enables them to do the work day by day in a mechanical way, but without proper thought or that originality which is so desirable. K in some way those engaged in teach- ing could be impressed with the importance of a thoughtful attitude toward all new improvements of education, and a habit of questioning the methods and processes used; or could consider more frequentiy what improvements might be brought about; if this duty could be seen and met by all engaged in the work of education, the results in our schools would be much improved. To this should be added the value to the teacher of keeping alive his own intellectual life and his interest in the things of the mind and in the affairs of the world; this in order that he may be a better citizen of the world, and thus a better citizen of his community, as well as a well-rounded practicer of his profession. Another way in which we may improve the efficiency of our work is to present to the pupils in our schools fewer subjects of study, and fewer items in these subjects, than is the general practice today. If one of us goes into a large department store and walks casually thru it, he gets very Uttie impres- sion of the contents of the store; it requires many such visits to get even a general knowledge. If we meet a crowd of people, one thousand or two thousand, we must meet them many, many times in order to get a very good knowledge of even a part of them; but if we enter a room which contains only a few objects, a few \isits will give us a pretty thoro knowledge of what the room contains; and if we meet a small party of people for a reasonable number of times, we have not only a good knowledge of the individuals mak- ing up the company, but a pretty good knowledge of their characteristics and personalities. It is so with our subjects of study in the schools. I remember a conversation with a teacher working in a large city, who was discussing nature study as taught in her school. She said that the require- ments for ** nature study" were so ma'-y and extensive that no time was available to study nature; all it was possible to do was to place the "nature- study outline" on the blackboard and have the children commit it to memory. If, however, instead of such a long list of items in natvire study, this teacher had been permitted to take for the year spent in her grade, a bird and a flower and a tree and perhaps one or two other interesting objects in nature, and spend the year upon them with her class, the pupils would have grown not only into a pretty good knowledge of the particular things studied, but into some general interest in nature and into the habit of observing the things in nature. In the same way we sometimes try to familiarize children with literature and the work of great authors; we present to them in kaleidoscopic fashion brilliant selection after brilliant selection from the works of one after another of the galaxy of the writers who have delighted us at different times during the ages. As a result, the child has only a confused impression of the bril- Superintcndeaicc] EFFICIENCY OF OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL WORK 37 _ _ Hanqr and magnificence of the selections presented to him. He gets no adequate knowledge of, and no satisfactory acquaintance with, any author, or with the works or the characteristics or the message of any of those whom he has looked upon so briefly. If, instead of covering so many authors, he had been permitted to dwell upon the works of some good author for a year, imtil he had become familiar with the writer's characteristics, and his friends, and the notable events of his life, with the writings and the message which these contain, and with the characteristic note soimded in them, he would have acquired strength from the study and a liking for the author and the author's work. This would not only have been a pleasure to him thru life, but a standard to judge of other authors, and a suggestion that he might acquire familiarity with their works. The carrying out of such a plan as this thru the grades of the common schools would put the child into intimate touch with a limited number of our best English authors, and would be of far more value than the desultory glance at. a great nimiber of authors which we now so frequentiy give. What is true in "nature study" and in the study of our authors is equally true in many other subjects in our curriculum. Those children who attend schools in cities and large towns may have their school work much improved, and their strength and usefulness after leaving school materially increased, if we will cultivate in them more than we do the power of initiative and of independent judgment in the use of minds and hands; if we will develop in them greater self-reliance. Our town life furnishes so littie for children to do outside of the schoolroom, so littie with which they may employ themselves, and particularly so Uttie in which they may employ their hands and cultivate the habit of doing things, of studying out ways to do things, that we are coming to recognize more and more the necessity for cultivating this side of the child 's powers in the schools. Hence the growing tendency toward giving children things to do in school or suggesting things for the children to do with their hands as a part of their school work. Where a boy Hves out among the things of nature, and has his horse and his dog, his boat upon the lake, his playhouse which he builds for himself, his sled which he makes for his coasting, he has his constructive quality developed and strengthened. He learns to use the natural things about him for his pleasure and the promotion of his purposes. But where the boy has no place to be but in the house or upon the paved street, there is little which he can do to develop this side of his nature. Our methods in school, too, are sometimes shaped too much to secure drill — promptness of response, rather than thoughtfulness on the part of the pupils and ability to accompUsh things independentiy. Now, if our courses of study were so planned as to include more of those subjects in which children cannot rely on the answer given them by the teacher or by the book, but require the answer to be worked out by their hands or by independent thinking, the quality of self-reliance will be increased, and the general efl&ciency of oUr boys and girls will also be increased. 38 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Ifilwaukee DISCUSSION Clarence F. Carroll, superintendent of schools, Rochester N. Y. — The first speaker of the afternoon took as a major topic "Providing Better Teachers," affirming that as the teacher so is the school. This is true, but ought to be assumed without dis- cussion. The second speaker referred at/ length to the "Training of Teachers." This brings us much nearer to our subject, which is "How to Improve the Public Schools." It would have been, not only entertaining, but helpful, to the superintendents present, had Superintendent Pearse given some account as to his methods of traim'ng his teachers. I shall assume that this topic calls for an informal discussion, and that the experience of superintendents is in order. Acting upon this theory, I shall venture to refer to the method of training the teachers in service adopted in Rochester. Instead of the institute week found in many states and cities, the teachers of a given grade are called together on Friday for an entire day. At this meeting the superintendent and his primary supervisor set forth such suggestions or directions as may seem desirable. The supervisors of special subjects are also allotted a part of the time. The most impor- tant feature of this institute day is found in the class recitations which are obser\'ed by the teachers present. One part of the hall, in which the meetings are held, is organized as nearly as may be possible in the form of a schoolroom. Classes best illustrating methods or principles are brought before the teachers. Sometimes several lessons upon a given subject are presented, sometimes a variety. Suggestions from the lessons are freely dis- cussed later. The influence of these meetings, especially of the grade lessons, is very powerful and far-reaching in the system. It provides regulated visitation on a large scale, and affords the most excellent opportunity to present the philosophy and theory of education with the best illustrations that can be provided. Indeed, the lesson may be made a demonstra- tion of a general principle. At least three series of these grade meetings are held in each school year; that is, the first grade, for example, is three days in session under the conditions prescribed above. This system was organized before I assumed charge of the schools, and therefore I claim no credit for originality, except to say that in the schools of Worcester, Mass., we had for many years such class recitations and grade meetings, held, however, usually after school or during a part of the afternoon school session. Superintendent Pearse referred at length to the study of literature in the schools. I shall venture to present a bit of experience upon this point. From the primary grade thruout, literature has become a large element in school instruction everywhere. Folk-lore, traditions, and classic myths constitute the bulk, or a large part, of our best reading-books. We are likely, however, to pass so rapidly over this vast, delightful realm of childhood as to leave only vague impressions. A seventh-grade class recently gave The Lady of the Lake at an institute meeting. The pupils had become familiar with every part of the story, with the setting, geographical and historical. Each pupil could repeat pages of the poem, and in the form of dialogue the pupils were able to dramatize effectively almost every act and scene. They were supplied with paraphernalia of the Scottish chiefs, and were dressed in their costume. They entered seriously into the play, showing no evidence of self-consciousness, which is always visible in every superficial effort of this kind. The head of the English depart- ment of the high school was present and pronounced the work to be, from his standpoint, of the very highest character. The pupils had studied this play for its content avoiding, for the most part any technicalities, and yet their written reproduction, illustrated and illvmiinated from the art side, was certainly creditable as composition exercises. The most interesting thing, however, that I can say with reference to this dramatization was that these pupils had studied The Lady of the Lake intensively for several months. Other shorter selections had been taken \ip for the time, but this play was made their principal Superintendence] EFFICIENCY OF OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL WORK 39 business and afforded numerous exercises in oral language, in written composition, in art, and in free constructve work in connection with manual training. It may be of interest to the members of the Association to know that for the coming semester the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades of the entire city will make such an intensive study of some longer poems selected from a list of eight or nine productions formerly a part of the high-school curriculum; that is, these literary productions, instead of being a part of the high-school work, will now be relegated to the grammar grades. The par- ticular order in which these will be taken up in each grammar-school building will be determined by the principals and the teachers. We have come a long way to this meeting, from the East and from the West. It is always a disappointment to the professional superintendent that so little is said that bears directly upon the class-room. Upon this program, as upon other programs, we have devoted a half-day to school organization, another half-day to child labor, another to the St. Louis Exposition, and so on. The program is useful to the superintendent of larger cities, and interesting to all; but it touches only in spots the real business at hand. If a company of physicians or a company of lawyers should travel thousands of miles and discuss only the construction of hospitals or jails, or the mechanical operation of forces and influences that support and control these institutions, they would be railed upon by an interested and critical public. The lawyer discusses rather the increment of law, and the physicians discuss disease germs, antiseptics, pathology, and remedies. These are con- structive arts and our profession should be based upon constructive art. Whenever such a professional discussion is launched in this body, there is breathless attention, and the deepest interest is shown. This is not intended as a criticism upon the program nor upon this body. I speak a deep conviction, which I know is voiced by many present, that we need often to discuss questions of the schoolroom which are pressing upon us in our daily work. The question of the individual pupil; of the physial life of the schoolroom; of free construction as a part of education; of grouping children in a class-room; of individual instruction as opposed to group instruction; such vexed questions as the teaching of read- ing by so-called phonic systems; of grade examinations, and of many others, are upon our hands, and yet they are seldom mentioned here. You will recall that at the Atlanta meeting a year ago a lady spoke upon her experience in the class-room. I can safely say in this presence that nothing so impressed this audience or was so well remembered as were the words of wisdom based upon her experience. The whole question of the self-activity of the child bears down upon us with tre- mendous weight. Those of us who Uve in cities and have families of our own know very well that o\ir hardest problem is in trying to find proper stimulus for seJf-activity and proper opportunity for its exercise. The city child is at a serious disadvantage, however well trained in school; however well dressed and entertaining, he is likely to lack power when he has finished his school course. The reason for this is chiefly because city life is limited in its opportunity and in its incentives to independent effort. I trust the time will come when the public school will provide as much time for manual training and free construction work as it gives to the study of books. This principle is the secret of the attempt of the southern schools for the uplifting of the negro. This principle has found a place in our schools, but has advanced so painfully and so slowly that it has affected but little the status of the city boy. It is the business of this organization to address itself seriously to some of these prob- lems which we carry upon our hearts, and with which we are earnestly struggling at home. But the question before us is: What can we do to improve the public schools? I hope my suggestions have not been off the question. I am simply pleading that the marvelous strength and judgment and the wisdom of this great body be so directed that the American child shall be benefited by our deliberation, and that we shall not waste our time upon questions of less importance. 40 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee ///. CHANGING THE VIEW-POINT^ WILLIAM I. CRANE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MARSHALLTOWN, lA. (an abridgment) THE VIEW-POINT The view-point which we hold in any matter of thought or of action deter- mines our opinion or conduct with reference to that matter. In all judgments, the human mind must have a measimng imit. It cannot judge correctly of extension, capacity, weight, of good, of joy, or of beauty, except by the possession and application of a correct measuring unit. In matters of opinion and action, one's view-point is his measiuing unit. It governs his opinion in all cases. It therefore governs his actions; for these are guided by his opinions. A battle is a very diflFerent thing to victor and to vanquished; yet it is the same battle. In our school work, our courses of study and our teach- ing are the necessary sequences of our view-points. There are two view-points held generally by school people. The one which prevails directs the chief attention toward the subjects of instruction, with little regard for the child. We hear much of teaching arithmetic, geog- raphy, English) and Latin, but little or nothing of teaching the child. This is not a mere quibble; for the advocates of the old view-point believe that if the course of study be properly hammered into the child, the child must be properly prepared for life. To them the child exists for the system, and not the system for the child. The other view-point is that the system exists for the child, and that a course of study can be rationally determined only by a study of life and of the child's needs in meeting the conditions of that life. It holds that tradi- tions and customs count for nothing, but that the child and the human ideal are all. It holds that the so-called courses of study should be simply pre- scriptions suggested by a diagnosis of the child's needs. If we study the purposes of our work, we shall find that the old view- point has led us far astray; and that the best thing we can do to improve the work of our schools will be to study carefully the view-points before we go farther. If we do so, we shall find that in life we need qualities more than we need learning, which is the main purpose of the old view-point. The men we admire are the men of qualities. But in our educational plans we forget this fact and plan for learning almost to the exclusion of qualities, KNOWLEDGE Knowledge is clearly subordinate to qualities. It is to qualities what a carpenter's tools are to his skill. It is indeed necessary, but always secondary. It is most easily acquired, not by itself, but while doing. Facts acquired ■Since this paper as presented exceeded the limits allowed for publication, the following abridgment has been made by the Editor. The changes from the tex have been almost altogetlm confined to the omission of illustrations. — Editoe. Superintendence] EFFICIENCY OF OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL WORK 41 while doing have glue on them — and in them. ' I rejoice that modem science is rapidly crossing Pizarro's line to the new and true view-point; that she is walking hand in hand with nature and talking with her face to face. I shake hands with you, brother of the college and the high school, who has realized that books are only about things; that they are not things^ and cannot take the place of things. The tragedy of the race was when men, who had Kved next to things, began to fancy that if all that nien knew could be gathered into contrivances called books, and the children shut in a building with these books, they could learn all about the world on which gravity chains us, without the trouble of ever looking at the things themselves. When I was a little boy I was once studying in geography the animals of the Rocky Mountains. Just then a boy rushed in breathless, and said that there were "four men outside with three big bears." The teacher shut the door and cracked me on the head for looking out over the high window-sill. And yet those men had brought to our door the very real things concerning which we were studying. But school was about book bears, not real bears. Once in the University of Cincinnati I saw a young woman assiduously studying an oyster. Perplexed, she looked up and asked the professor a question about the thing which she was studying. The professor walked to her table, looked carefully at the oyster, and answered her. Why didn't she ask the oyster ? Even the professor had to do so. The oyster was the court of last resort, and it was in session before her; but the old view-point had so walled in her vision that she could not even see the decision before her eyes. To read things out of books requires a former experience of things. Let us go back to things. THE "essentials" The old view-point takes much stock in what its advocates are pleased to call the "essentials." By this are meant the "three R's," especially "rith- metic." This word "essentials" has been so long accepted that few seem to think of questioning it. Sometime we shall wake up to the fallacy of these so-called essentials, and we shall be as much surprised as was Monsieur Jourdain when he discovered that he had always been talking prose. From the old view-point, if the money for the schools should run short, the first thing to be cut out of the course of study would be manual training. Then the public would dispense with music. But they would hang on to arithmetic like a Chinaman to his queue. And yet, strange to say, a fair examination would show that if we had to dispense with any study, many parts of arithmetic should be the first to go, and manual training the very last. An ounce of manual training is worth a pound of arithmetic both for utility and for manual training; and trained creative power is worth a library of arithmetics. 42 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Mflwaukee Has it occurred to us that creative designing has always preceded com- putation in the history of the race ? Chair existed before three chairs. Num- ber did not arise in human consciousness until things designed and made had occurred. And yet in our schools there is almost no attempt to develop the power to design or to create mentally, while years of precious time are wasted on useless arithmetic and worse than useless Latin, another of our precious "essentials." The old view-point takes but little cognizance of the child. We do not say, "Teach the child;" we say, "Teach arithmetic, teach geography, etc." Yet nothing can be taught except an animate thing. The old view-point has no tenable purpose. Its chief concern is to have the children complete a traditional course of study. It immolates our children on the altar of our ancestral traditions. Every system must stand or fall by its results. What are the results of the old or traditional view-point ? It is safe to say that they have not been good. The average high-school graduate is but ill prepared for life; and to prepare for life is what a school should do, or it is a failure. In fact, school often sequesters the student from life. One's education is not in what he can recite of books. It is the ' * gumption " he has when he has forgotten his books. But our course of study does not contain this commodity. Knowledge comes, but gumption lingers. The old view-point smoothes the way and arouses us from our sliunber with the touch of a rabbit's foot with the claws removed. Then comes life's rude awakening. We are ill prepared for the shock with which she awakens us, for our path has been carefully cleared of difficulties and hardships. We have had little practice in surmounting obstacles. So we sit down on a milestone of life and wait for them to get out of the way, while the rightly trained boy sets his jaw and clambers over regardless of torn hands and bruised knees. So our boys pull back and whine at hardships; they quit at a tough proposition in geometry where the life-qualities of initiative, pluck, and perseverance are required. They will buck the line in football, but they will not buck the line between two points. The habit of bucking the line will be worth more than the knowledge of geometry. But the old view- point calls for the geometry only. Let us study life for the basis of our course of study. It will teach us to quit smoothing the way; it will teach us instead to put rocks and hurdles in it; and will teach us to put a strong but gentle hand on the shoulder of the boy and whisper in his ear with a loving voice: "Now, Jim, don't squeal 1" A naturalist was watching a butterfly get out of its chrysalis. He watched the poor thing in its agonizing efforts to escape to the realms of air. At length it got its body out beyond the attachment of its wings. Then began a horrible struggle to escape into life. The tender-hearted naturalist, over- come by his sympathy, picked up the chrysalis and tenderly helped the struggling occupant to liberty. But he had for the moment forgotten that the Superintendence] EFFICIENCY OF OUR PUBUC-SCHOOL WORK 43 ichor of white blood of the butterfly is driven into the muscles and filaments of its wings by this very struggle. That butterfly never sailed the seas of air on gauzy wings; it had been helped too much. THE NEW VIEW-POINT The better view-point teaches us to ask a few questions before requiring the children to do things. Why should a child do this or that ? Why should he work in a "pin-drop" silence? Life isn't thus. A bank bookkeeper must figure on, even tho there be a dog-fight outside the rail, and make no mistakes. But he can't learn to do so in a "pin-drop" school. The better view-point tells the teacher that a good school should have the movement of business in it, if the pupils are to learn to work amid the bustle of life. Why should all the pupils stand and move alike? It is pretty, I admit; but does it tend toward the true purpose ? Life isn't that way. Such school discipline may make good Russian soldiers, but it will not make men and women of initiative and individuality. The best school I have ever seen was one in which there was absolute freedom and individuality of movement. We do these things because it is "customary." It is like grandmother's medicine; it is "good for the child." But grandmother did not know the therapeutic effect. Why should children be stuffed with more things than they can assimilate ? Men tack the feet of geese to the floor and stuff them willy-nilly with balls of food. That will do when one's purpose is to make enlarged goose livers, but it is a poor way to teach children how to live. "Cover the groimd," the watchword of the old view-point, would make a better sign over the gate of a cemetery. Some one objects: "Your plan is impossible in the present graded system." His question proves my proposition that we sacrifice the child to save the system. No intelligent hiunan act can ever begin without a purpose. In all rational doing there are at least four steps; namely: 1. The formation of a purpose. 2. The determination of the steps necessary to attain the purpose. 3. The finding of means to take the steps to attain the purpose. 4. The application of the means to enable one to take the steps to attain the purpose. Yet we begin with number four, or the application, with juvenile haste, of traditions which are not means; to take steps which have not been deter- mined upon; to attain purposes which have not been thought of. No won- der we fail. No wonder that our product is not fitted for life. We are like the little girl who started out to draw a picture — ^not a picture of anything, but just a picture. After many futile efforts, she sighed and said : "I dess I '11 put a tail to it and call it a dog. " We should first determine carefully and thoughtfully that the true purpose of a school is to fit the pupils for true living. A school has no right to exist 44 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Mflwaakee if its operation does not tend toward this end. Then we should carefully study life to determine what would fit the children for their lives. We should find out from this study what qualities and what knowledge they wotdd need. Then, with these as our purposes, we should carefully work out the steps necessary to attain these purposes. Then we should look aroimd for means to aid the children in taking these steps. These means would be a "course of study," as it is called. I should prefer to call it a course of living. Then we should apply these means carefully, always remem- bering that the ultimate principles are those of evolution and that the children, and not ourselves, should go thru the processes. Children cannot possibly be wisely interested in a state of passive receptiveness. How contrary to every principle of the attainment of qualities is it when teachers will persist in going thru the processes themselves I For example, a teacher desires her pupils to learn to think and "to speak on their feet," as we say. Yet the teacher does all the talking. It is just the same thing as if Lou Dillon's trainer should hitch her to the fence while he ran around the track to make her swift. In the better view-point, the schoolroom will be considered the practice groimd for processes for the children, for processes planned to attain certain qualities necessary to fit the child to live. And what a pruning there will be 1 What a brush-pile of arithmetic, names of capes, ancient . languages, and memorized but not comprehended definitions I And what joy as the children, with long-suppressed shouts, dance around that bonfire! We shall teach them to follow directions as a first quality necessary for life. We shall teach them initiative, and how to plan, and to will and to be prompt; how to care for their bodies, and many other things without which life must be a failure. We shall not be content until these things are habits, not mere possessions of knowledge. We shall diagnose our patients day by day as does the physician who has the true method. We shall give them the rational freedom which is demanded by both their self-activity and the conditions of life. We shall cease to be jug fimnels, and become directors of the energies of children. We shall walk hand in hand with the children thru the dark valleys of processes. We shall climb with them, not jor them, the rocks and mountains of the diflSculties of life. We shall diagnose before we treat. We shall learn from the piano teacher that the pupil, and not the teacher, must do the practicing. O let us break down the wall of tradition of the old view-point I Let us remember that books are only about things, only men's opinions about things. Let us lead our children, as did the immortal founder of the kindergarten, back to things, back to realities. Let us purpose more wisely. Let us not treat till we have diagnosed. Then we shall no longer treasure om: normal school notebooks of devices; for every stick and stone. and leaf and living thing will, in response to our search for a means to attain a clear life-purpose leap up and say, "Take me!" Superintendence] VARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES 45 DISCUSSION J. F. Keating, superintendent of schools, Pueblo, Colo. — ^The great objection to the paper just read is that it does not represent the educational thought and spirit of this representative body of educators. The paper will give the impression abroad that the educators of this country are opposed to manual training, domestic science, and other practical phases of school work; whereas the fact is that they have long ago accepted these reforms and are adopting them as rapidly as conditions will permit. It is this misrepresentation of the attitude of the great teaching forces of the country that calls for direct and positive refutation. Here, too, we must challenge the statement that the children get too much arithmetic. Too much time may be spent in the -learning the little they get, but it remains to be proved that any of them have an excessive amount of arithmetical training. Neither is the statement true that honor men are failures in life. The fact is that the great leaders come from those who stand in the front ranks of their classes. The statement of the paper, carried to its logical efiPect, would discourage effort and place a premium on the mediocre and the trifler. The best answer to all this is the progress of this country whose citizenship has received its training in the public schools. It is time to substitute constructive criticism for such destructive criticism. In this regard the paper of Superintendent Carr has the right ring. He proposes, as one means of increasing the efficiency of the schools, paying teachers salaries that will encourage preparation for their work, and will also invite to the ranks of the pro- fession the best minds. Everything possible should be done to promote this idea. George H. Martin, secretary. State Board of Education, Boston, Mass. — The view-point presented by Mr. Crane is not wholly new. It has been presented many times before this body, and the superintendents of the county are wholly in sympathy with it and have been endeavoring to modify school practices in accordance with it. How far they have succeeded may be inferred from the testimony of the members of the Mosely Commission, many of whom in their reports express their interest in Ameri- can methods of instruction as tending to develop initiative, self-direction, and independ- ence. They found less bondage to text-books in America than in England. It would appear from this testimony that things are not quite so bad as Mr. Crane has represented in his paper, and that the members of this department may take courage and go forward. SOME OF THE CONDITIONS WHICH CAUSE VARIATION IN THE RATE OF SCHOOL EXPENDITURES IN DIFFER- ENT LOCALITIES W. T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF SCHOOL FINANCES Political economy has borne the name of **the dismal science." It has deserved this name when it stood for Malthusianism — the doctrine that the world will in time become so thickly populated that there will not be food enough to support the people. "Population increases in a geometric ratio, while food increases only in an arithmetical ratio." This is a dismal outlook surely. The doctrine which this suggests is: jyAL AS5iXXAr::s iijwizs lie 7 eaZr Ksu Ti^ sac ■»£ ao.-QH- i^^i-^t! A. ■■'-— — ■ laearr « rei^ icn Rkxzi^ aJ>?c: ac jear zSss. T5ac ridiea stCs ire irsi ziur p>s br zsi=: Tx ies ie^iJe icCt iiic- n^aei ±» rii ii^i hue iZ be^ n'fc^T Ct. T^^ irsz be£=^: ibc ika ^^x^ de^aof CkiGS ncx ^ z^uc =• i^ie •^^a^nx = njae cr crcps berse^ cxm isd ibe pxm 'tiraa^ wii^ ^E^y he hid frie br Tie peccie »i>:> tZ nie Taesr Br i^i by il :ae ri^ setls- wC be ccr^wd — ar»i u tbe p«x *;Qs. *». kx i=ai gitrir — arwi k-^r-^t:- bbor »Z be rr«ir5eii :^ i c.Ti:=z^iiZT iecexscs prwhin -i j>3d «z>d ct^t- nze citzf Its. races fnc: g:^j »r»-: -.,.»<:'-" ''«', i^i iZ — ^i — iff ct airaaj- Ai b-tae tids nnn: Tnew srt h'stb^ d-,)::^ a.t.-rrrK^ nraa.-af^ fei i: :v e-vi .■<" :Ss; i^T i: ea; ant. w-x:. Z^czarj ti.i tt Lnaniin.-x .a: .-Trir.;rf o.v.-.:,vts. i: .-:. EaiL ie loraiiiasi i. tut -.> .jc ii..i»s3 ui. raes-^ vV,ii:w :N'^:,i^; liwi' s.:is: EI fc^nal titr^irt pr:>;arD."i:: a: nrce :isz: :\v^ cfr,r> a -.it* t^*^ M^^t al tie re:;::^! 3: ii^d n: rjt Cnitfti Satc^ fAvn in vl««t 1 2»e iea: tii^-je had ax i^tu'rueid is eschrr ywirs, *;;ho llM- \-»Ul«' of yrripaiT — h-.rjj^s and ins .-r-.incr aiw inca:)$ *il" irstisivrtaii.m, a»\t 46 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee Let there be no charities^ and no studies with a view to public hygiene. For it is the support of the poor, and the prevention of pestilence and famine and epidemics, that will hasten the dreadful day when the strong will struggle with the weak for a morsel of food — the strong getting the morsel and the weak growing weaker from hunger. Such a political economy is not only dismal, but it is subversion of all moral ideals of the race of men. No thorofare to civilization on that road: only retrogression to savagery; for it says that "vice and crime are beneficent checks to the increase of population"! People of this generation need not be told that the one hundred years following the publication, in 1798, of the Malthusian doctrine of overpopu- lation was a progressive demonstration of its falsity; for it was foimd that food increased in a geometric ratio, while population fell to an arithmetric ratio, on the whole, in the most highly civilized populations, as in France and gen- erally in families of wealth and nobility. Then there was another dismal doctrine — ^a theory of rent, advanced by Ricardo about the year 1820. The richest soils are first taken possession of by man ; the less fertile soils later when the rich lands have all been taken up. Then rent begins; the rich soils demand enough rent to make up the di£Ference in value of crops between them and the poorer lands, which may be had free by the people who will take them. By and by all the rich soils will be occupied — and all the poor soils, too, for that matter — and human labor will be rewarded by a continually decreasing product of food and crea- ture comforts. This Ricardian view assisted Malthusianism in discrediting the ideas of a Christian civiHzation that sent out its devoted missionaries, "from Green- land's icy moimtains to India's coral strand," to deliver the lower and lowest races from error and superstition, and all manner of savagery. At home this Christian civilization preached other- worldliness; and if it practiced worldli- ness, it did it in the name of other- worldliness. And what has been the verdict of the century following Ricardo? An age of rapid transportation has fol- lowed an age of exploration and discovery. We have learned that the soils of northern Europe, of which Ricardo wrote as the rich soils first taken pos- session of, are as nothing in the matter of fertility to the soils of the tropical regions as yet scarcely occupied by man. The Amazon valley, with its two million square miles, alone, when cultivated to its full capacity, will supply ten times the food and clothing needed by the present population of the entire globe. The age of machinery has come upon us — a new Avatar succeeding upon the Avatar of hard labor and physical drudgery; and men are called up higher into directive power out of mere muscular labor. The intelligent mind armed with science — the tools of the mind — ^is commanding the forces of nature; the elemental powers of heat and electricity, reinforcing the bodily force of man by multipliers of ten, one hundred, one thousand; annihilating, by commerce and its means of transportation, the intervals of distance that Superintendence] VARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES 47 — ■'■■,' separate man from man in space to such an extent that food, clothmg, and shelter come everywhere they are wanted; and a myriad of natural produc- tions that were formerly not property, but only a useless incumbrance where nature had placed them, now by transportation become real wealth to the distant people who need them. At the beginning -of the nineteenth century political economy was a dismal science. At the end of the nineteenth century everybody is buoyant with hope, so far as food, clothing, and shelter are concerned ; a plenty is in sight even for the poorest races of mankind, and possibilities of migration are right at hand for any countries that are really overpopulated. Gladstone estimated in 1870 that labor-saving machinery was doubling the world's production of wealth once every seven years. Eight millions of laborers in Great Britain, armed by machinery, were at that time producing as much as one or two himdred millions of laborers of the entire world at the beginning of the nine- teenth centiuy. This was the cheerful response of political economy at the «nd of the nineteenth century to the dismal Sphinx-riddle propounded by Malthus and Ricardo at the beginning of that century. Altho there are dismal enough doctrines preached even at the end of that •centiuy, they are not doctrines of starvation, but only of relative poverty with plenty to eat and wear. Luxury and an abimdance of creature comforts, it says, shall be forbidden to the poor household. Henry George thought that the persistence of poverty in the midst of advancing wealth is due to private ownership of land. But careful investigation has shown that the rental of land in the United States is a small burden, only one-eighteenth of the annual earnings of the people in 1880 — two and one-fifth cents per day, as against an actual average production of more than forty cents a day f o^ each inhabitant. A grain of economy or thrift on the part of individuals will •compensate for all the rental of land in the United States. Even in Great Britain the land value had not doubled in eighty years, altho the values of other property — ^houses and machinery and means of transportation, and creature comforts — ^had increased seVen times. Land for the purposes of mere agriculture is everywhere cheap; it is only for building purposes that land commands a high price. The land on which New York city stands is worth one-seventh of all the land in the United States. ' The same amount of acreage on a rich borderland can be had for thirty thou- sand dollars, but the land of New York city is assessed at three billion dollars, and is worth much more in market; it is worth one hundred thousand times as much per acre for international business purposes as for mere agricultural land without a city market near by for its produce. Karl Marx, the father of recent socialism, in his famous work on Capital, about 1870, wrote the German words which I translate as follows: "Along with the constantly diminishing number of great capitaUsts who monopolize the instruments of production, there is a constantly increasing mass of misery, oppression, bondage, deformity, and extortion." But this law of Karl Marx, 48 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee which has been adopted by Henry George in the terse form of the epigram, "The rich are growing richer, and the poor are growing poorer," has not been found to be valid even in England, where Marx made his generalization ; for the income-tax returns showed in 1885 that the class of the very poor had decreased by the transfer of a large number to the lower middle class, which lower middle class was nearly three and one-half times as large in each million of the population as it had been thirty years before. The same transference of the lower middle class into the higher middle class had been going on, and from the higher middle class to the wealthy class, and so on to the very wealthy class, so that there were three times as many in each of the higher classes per million as thirty years before.* And the average earnings of the lowest class, that of people who get less than $750 per family and do not pay an income tax, had nearly doubled in thirty years (it had been $265 in 185 1, and had risen to $415 in 1881). It had increased whether measured in money or in the comforts of life that can be bought for the increased wages. The (Question of present annual earnings, in the form of wages, salaries, or profits from a business, is only a single one of the many items that have to be considered in the year's income. There goes down from the savings of a people a certain amount of wealth from one year to another and from one generation to another. The people that come after do not have to earn this money over again, but they have the annual use arid benefit of it as an inheri- tance. Thus the previous generations, in so far as they were thrifty and accumulated property in the form of permanent improvements, assist the later generations to live. PubUc buildings, business houses, and dwelling-houses belong to this kind of property; also highways, bridges, railroads, canals, water- works, sewers, ships and steamboats, etc. The rental of these buildings and the use of the railways as a means of transportation, as well as the improve- ments on the farms, appear in the annual output of productions; but the actual rental value of the dwelling-houses is a separate affair, and must be added to the bulk of productions as tho it were actual earnings for the year. The growth of the United States in production has been carefully estimated and re-estimated by the directors of the United States census. The bulk of the wealth transmitted from year to year did not amount to any considerable sum until after the introduction of steam navigation on rivers, lakes, and the ocean, and after the first building of railroads. This had begun and was an appreci- able item by 1850, when the valuation of the United. States was reckoned at 7 billions of dollars. In the decade 1850 to i860 this had increased to 16 billions; in twenty years— that is, by 1870 — to 30 biUions; in 1880, to 44 billions; in » See Leoni Levi, Wages and Earnings of the Working Classes (London: John Murray, 1885), pp. 48 and 58; also see Robert Giffen. The Progress of the Working Classes, ••Economic Tracts" No. 16 (New York). Leoni Levi reports incomes from $750 to $1,500 in 1880 as three and one-half times as many as in 1850; incomes of $1,500 to $3,500, three times as many; incomes of $3,500 to $5,000, two and one-half times as many; incomes of $5,000 to $xo,ooo, two and one-half times as many; incomes of $10,000 to $15,000, two and three-quarter times as many. The laboring class, whose annual incomes are less than $750, av^aged $365 in 1851, and in x88i, $4x5- One hundred and eighty thousand of these had ascended to the class of incomes between $750 and $1,500, during the thirty years after 1850. Superintcndeiice] VARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES 49 1890, to 65 billions; in 1900 it is estimated by some at 94 billions of dollars. The average amoimt of property in 1850 for each inhabitant was therefore $308; in i86a, $514; in 1870, $780; in 1880, $870; in 1890, $1,036; in 1900, Si,235-' This property, which is transferred from one generation to another, con- sisting of the machinery of production, and of improved farms, city buildings lots and buildings, includes nearly all of the taxable property in a community, and it will be seen at a glance what a diflFerence in that power which capital gives there is in the United States owing to increase of the taxable wealth of 1850 over that of 1900. The taxable wealth of 1900 is $1,235 per individual inhabitant, while that of 1850 was only $308. The individual of 1900 is represented by four times as much reaUzed wealth, and therefore can bear a burden of taxation equal to four times that of 1850 with greater ease, because the larger the income from vested property, the greater the tax possible with- out stinting the individual in his necessities. In 1880, after studying the census and such other sources of information as then were accessible as to the earnings and taxable property of the United States and Great Britain, I constructed a table stating as nearly as I could ascertain the actual annual income of the nation from various sources for the years 1850 and 1880. When the census report of 1890 had become available in 1895 ^^^ 1896, I continued the comparison so as to include 1890. It is not yet quite time to construct such a table for the year 1900, but two of the three most important items have been accessible for some time, and I have partially reconstructed my table so as to include 1900 in four of its items, agricultural and manufacturing items being accesssible in the census returns. The items needed are the statistics of the productions of mines, freight by water, fisheries, and a number of small items. There is no study more illuminating in political economy than the study of the actual earnings of a people in the several classes of productions. The actual total earnings of the United States in 1890 I made to be 51.5 cents per day per inhabitant. This was an increase over the earnings of 1880, which smnmed up 44.5 cents per day for each person. The earnings for 1850, cal- culated on the same basis, but with less rehable data to go upon, were 30 cents a day for each person; for 1900, 58.12 cents. * See United States Census for 1890, Wealth, Debt, and Taxation, p. 14. PER CAPITA WEALTH IN THE UNITED STATES F&OM CENSUS REPORTS, 1850-90 The United States North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division. North Central Division. Western Division 1890 1880 1870 i860 $1,036 $ 870 $ 780 $514 1,232 1,209 1,243 528 579 495 384 537 569 435 334 598 1,129 932 735 436 2,250 1,291 843 434 1850 I308 363 333 290 208 187 S3 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee I insert the results of my studies in the two tables following: TABLE I EARNINGS PER DAY PER INHABITANT OF THE UNITED STATES IN IQOO Value of farm products Value of manufactured products Value of mineral products (estimated) Value of products of fisheries (estimated) Freight earnings (land) Drayage, etc. (estimated at i8 per cent, of freight earnings) Freight earnings (water) estimated Expressage (estimated) House rent (estimated) Furniture rent (estimated) Railroad building (estimated) Household manufactures not reported (estimated) Agricultures not reported (estimated) Miscellaneous (partly estimated) Total earnings per inhabitant per day Value Per inhab- for itant 1899 per Day $3,742,129,357 So. 13s 5,656,521,284 .203 704,469,710 • 0254 55,476,039 .002 1,052,602,235 .038 189,468,402 .0068 166,428,129 .006 55*476,040 .002 1,109,520,79s .040 416,070,298 .015 360,594,258 .013 1,109,920,79s .040 1,109,920,795 .040 415,680,325 .015 $0.5812 TABLE II EARNINGS PER DAY PER INHABITANT OF THE UNITED STATES AT DIFFERENT EPOCHS Agricultural, including live stock Manufactures as reported From transportation in enhanced value of products . . Agricultural products consumed in the household and not reported Household manufactures not reported Building of railroads Mining, fisheries, and miscellaneous House and furniture rent Total cents per day for each person 1850 $0.1200 .580 . 120 .320 .480 ■ 075 .025 .200 $0.3000 1880 $0.1450 .1080 .370 .410 .440 .x8o .220 .300 $o.44SO 1890 1. 1080 . 1840 .470 .400 .400 .130 .424 .400 $0.5144 1900 $0.1350 .2030 .528 .400 .400 .130 .424 • S50 $0.5812 A city that has a history extending back for eight generations has accumu- lated vast property in the way of buildings and improvements, graded streets, sewers, bridges, water- works, etc., and can realize a large sum of money for the support of its city government, charities, schools, etc., from a compara- tively small tax rate. In considering school finances, one must remember that the borderland, with the unfinished condition of its public and private property, has by far more needs for taxation for the purpose of public and private improvements than the old and thickly settled states; while, on the other hand, it has a small assessed value to be taxed even for the absolutely necessary expenses of the year, without counting in any investments for new public works. Contrast the city of Boston with St. Louis, Kansas City, or even Chicago. The population of Boston is estimated at 621,000 people for the year 1905; its assessed valuation of all taxable property and its real valuation are the same — one and one-quarter billions of dollars ($1,237,038,- 851). Chicago has more than three times the population (1,968,800) and less than one-third of the assessed valuation ($411,424,280) of the taxable prop- Superintendence] VARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES 51 erty. The real value of the property of Chicago, however, is something more than two billions of dollars ($2,057,121,400) ; for it is assessed at only one-fifth of its true value; its tax on the real value of its property is about one and one- sixth per cent., against one and one-half per cent, in Boston. The Boston tax yields about $30 per inhabitant; the Chicago tax yields about $11 per inhabitant. The population of St. Louis is estimated at 750,000; it is assessed at $466,201,650; but its true value is $666,000,000. Its annual tax is about one and one-third per cent, on the true value, and yields $13.60 per inhabitant. City land can reimburse itself, whatever its rate of taxes, from the rentals paid by its tenants. If the business is suflBicient to afford the rental, the. lessee can afford to pay it. If not rented or rentable, the property must fall in value until it reaches an assessable value which can be covered by the rental; for the rental must cover the proper interest on the real value of the property, and its annual taxes; if not, the assessment must be corrected. This is the weak point in the single-tax theory; for the agriculturist cannot recover his tax from the crops he raises, having to compete with all other localities. But the city has its reason for existence in local conditions, which force a transfer of merchandise there, it being necessary to collect and redistribute at that point. Whatever profits are made by collection and redistribution create the rental price of the land which must be used there for commerce and the accompanying manufactures, and this real value cannot be arbitrarily affected. Inequality of the census 'divisions as regards the amount of wealth: In 1890 the total real wealth of the South Atlantic Division of states per indi- vidual was $579. This is not quite one-half of the average value in the North Atlantic Division, which was $1,232. The per capita wealth in the South Central Division was $569. In the North Central Division the wealth equaled $1,129 per individual — ^almost exactly one-half of the amount of wealth per inhabitant in the Western Division ($2,250). The average inhabitant of the South Atlantic Division would procure by taxation, at the rate of i per cent, on the taxable wealth, less than one-half as much money for schools as the average inhabitant would procure in the North Atlantic Division. And in the North Central Division, where the taxable wealth is nearly the same as in the North Atlantic Division, the amount procured by a i per cent, tax would be one-half what each inhabitant of the Western Division of states would procure at the same rate of tax. If we compare these census divisions as to their annual earnings in agriculture and manufactures, the disparity is quite as great, for the daily earnings of each inhabitant in the South Central Divi- sion for 1900 amounted to 5.6 cents for manufactures, and 14.9 for agriculture, which makes 20.5 cents earnings for each inhabitant per day; while the North Atlantic Division produced 38.4 for manufactures, and 6.4 for agriculture — a total of 44.8 cents per day for each inhabitant. That of the South Atlantic Division was nearly the same as that of the South Central Division, being 20.3 cents per day per inhabitant. (See Table III.) Therefore, in these two most important items of production the inhabitant of the Gulf states or 52 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee TABLE III United States. North Atlantic Division . South Atlantic Division South Central Division. . North Central Division. . Western Division NoETH Atlantic Division- Maine New Hampshire Vermont , Massachusetts/ Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania South Atlantic Division — Delaware , Maryland District of Columbia Virginia West Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida South Central Division — Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas ». . Oklahoma. : Indian Territory North Central Division — Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin , Minnesota .' Iowa , Missouri North Dakota South Dakota Nebraska Kansas Western Division — Montana Wyoming Colorado.^ New Mexico Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon California Manufactures. — Amount Agriculture. — Amount Earned Earned per Day by per Day by Each Inhabi- Each Inhabitant tant 1800 1900 1890 1900 $0,184 $o.ao3 $0,085 $o.X3S .357 .384 .049 .064 .075 .097 .079 .X06 .048 .056 .103 .149 .163 .187 .103 .186 .15a • 175 .122 .193 .183 .230 .067 .X08 .277 .348 •073 .X06 .148 .221 .no • 175 .S08 • 471 .028 .033 .52s .561 .028 • 034 •459 .504 .051 .067 .384 .389 .055 .069 .313 .379 .044 .051 .291 • 345 .046 .066 .267 .278 .084 . IXO .210 .226 .056 .081 .263 .278 .004 .008 .063 .086 .059 .109 • 054 .091 .060 .X05 .030 .061 .075 ."5 .031 .051 .112 .X28 .049 .060 .110* .114 .071 . no .075 .084 .093 • .091 .081 .130 .049 .060 .071 .1x9 .041 ■ 055 .107 .122 .018 .033 .138 .160 .060 .077 .121 .131 .042 .047 .X20 .x88 .025 .044 .106 .X38 .COS .018 .0X6 • 257 .... .012 .... .162 .224 •254 .078 .132 .121 .178 .118 .170 .272 • 295 .101 .X50 .161 .178 .083 .124 .167 .201 .085 .153 .155 .140 .119 .200 .066 .078' .165 • 323 • 150 .150 .083 .142 .029 .031 .268 .463 .018 .030 .147 •359 .066 .107 .132 .320 .060 .079 .140 .300 .065 .274 .107 .265 .058 .072 .085 .295 .144 .182 .071 • 136 .015 .037 .029 .128 .027 .286 .042 .138 .061 .082 .053 • 134 .040 .053 .124 • 335 .025 .033 .102 .248 .171 .199 .091 .157 .171 .132 .139 .21X .211 .212 .177 .2X8 of the South Atlantic states produced as daily earnings less than one-half what the inhabitant of the North Atlantic Division produced. The North Central Division produced 18.7 in manufactures, and 18.6 in agriculture, making a Superintendence] 'VARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES 53 total of 37.3 cents per inhabitant per day, as against 44.8 in the North Atlantic Division. The Western Division averaged 17.5 in manufactures and 19.3 in agriculture, making 36.8 cents per day per individual — half a cent per day less than the North Central Division. The less received from taxation at a given rate for public expenses — say, school expenditure — the more the individual must pay from his own earnings; that is to say, if he is to expend an equal amount with a census division that possesses a greater amount of assessable wealth per capita. Hence, if the inhabitants of the South Atlantic and South Central Divisions, possessing less than one-half of the amount of assessable wealth per capita, are to continue their schools for the same length as the school session in the North Atlantic Division, and if they are to pay as high salaries as in that division, a very large sum would have to be made up from the annual earnings of the individuals, or else a rate of taxation nearly double that in the North Atiantic Division must be adopted. But the individual earnings in that section, as it appears, are less than one-half those in the North Atlantic Division, and any tax paid by the individual for schooUng is to the average citizen of the South a far greater burden than in the northern commimity. I quote here from my annual report for 1902 a series of tables, showing a comparison of 1880, 1890, and 1903, as to the true valuation of real and personal property in the several states, together with the amounts expended for current expenses of pubhc schools, and also for the three epochs, 1880, 1890, and 1903, showing the number of cents actually expended on each $100 of true valuation of all property. The amount on the $100 valuation varies from 53 cents on the $100 in New Jersey to 22.5 cents in Connecticut. Con- trasting this with the South Atlantic Division, as to the amount of school expenditure per $100 of true valuation, the South Atlantic Division expends from 43 cents in West Virginia down to 14 cents in North Carolina, the aver- age for the whole division being 23 cents on $100, while it is 27 cents in the North Atlantic Division. Taking these figures in connection with those above discussed — ^namely, the fact that the assessment in the North Atlantic Division is more than twice as great as in the South Atlantic Division — ^it will be seen that the amount of money raised by the rate percentage in the South is less than one-half of that raised in the North. In the North Cen- tral Division the amount expended on $100 varies from 47.5 cents in North Dakota to 16 cents in. Wisconsin, and the average is 27.5 cents. The Western Division varies from 40 cents on $100 in Utah to 10.3 cents in Wyoming and Nevada. (See Tables IV-K). The next set of tables (X-XV) shows the average monthly salaries of teachers for the different sections of the United States and the average number of days' schooling given. Here we find the results of the figures as to daily earnings and as to amount of taxable property. The North Atlantic Division, with its double of daily earnings and double the amount of taxable property, gives $58.64 per month for its male teachers and $39.50 for its female teachers, 4* 0 54 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [MUwaokee as against $30.84 per month for male teachers in the South Atlantic Division and $29.02 for the women teachers. The salaries of teachers in the South Central Division average considerably more than for the South Atlantic Divi- sion, the men getting $43 a month and the women $35; but another item comes in here: the average length of the school term in the South Central Division is 105 days, while in the North Atlantic Division it is 178^ days. The school term in the North Atlantic Division is practically a scholastic year; hence the male teacher in the North Atlantic Division can be hired bv the year and can depend upon his salary for his yearly support; while in the South the period of schooling includes about one-half of the days (105) in the regular scholastic year, and hence the teacher must shift to some other employment to make up his years' income. The North Central Division pays, on an aver- age, $5 less per month than the North Atlantic Division to its men teachers ($53.96 against $58.64). The next set of tables (XVI-XXI) shows the expenditure per capita of aver- age attendance for various school purposes. In the whole United States the amount expended for buildings and sites is $4.19, as against $14.21 for salaries. But the North Atlantic Di\ision, having the most wealth and the highest rate of earnings per day, leads with an average of $8.09 for buildings and $20.16 for salaries of teachers. The South Atlantic Division spends about one-seventh as much for buildings and sites, and a little more than one-third as much for salaries. The Gulf States expend one-tenth as much for buildings as the North Atlantic, and a trifle more than one-third as much for salaries of teachers- The North Central Division expends not quite one-half as much per capita for buildings and sites as the North Atlantic Division, and only three-fourths as much as the North Atlantic for salaries. The Western Division expends a trifle more for salaries, and about three-fourths as much for 'buildings. It is well known that the number of persons five to eighteen years of age is a larger fraction of the whole population in the South than it is in the North ; there are more children and fewer adults to support them. The total amoimt expended for schools on an average for the whole nation is $11.17 for each person five to eighteen years of age, and $11.32 for each adult male. In the North Atlantic Division the amount raised for each person between five and eighteen years of age is $18.13. The amount for each person of school age (five to eighteen) in the South Atlantic Division is $4.18, and the amount per adult male is $5.56. The amount raised in the South Central Division is only $3.94 for each person of school age. The amount for each per- son of school age in the North Central Division is $12.75. The Western Division in its amount per individual of school age exceeds that of the North Atlantic, being $20.16 for each person. The number of children of school age in the population is a larger percentage of the whole than it is in the North Atiantic or any of the other di\dsions. It is noteworthy that all of the southern states are increasing their pro rata of manufactures — steam- and water-power are reinforcing the power of the • • • • *• •••»•• • • Superintendence] VARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES ss hand. North Carolina has doubled its manufactures per inhabitant in the last decade, rising from 3 to 6.1 cents per day; and the whole South Atlantic Division has increased from 7.5 to 9.7 cents per day for each inhabitant. But agriculture has gained in the same ratio and keeps much in advance of manufactures. In the South Central Division, the great cotton states, agri- culture predominates still more over the manufactures, although even there the manufactures have increased 17 per cent, faster than the population. A poHtical economy that sees the gradual, but continuous, growth of man's conquest of nature for human purposes; that sees how man's use of the instru- ments of civilization imites all peoples into one by commerce; that avails to elevate all who study it into a theoretical understanding of the ultimate purpose of the conquest of nature, which is to unite all peoples by religion into a partici- pation of the same view of the world — the Christian view of the world —this sort of political economy is not the dismal science of Malthus and Ricardo, of Karl Marx and Henry George, of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche. TABLES IV-IX Showing: (i) true valuation of real and personal property for 1880, 1890, and 1903 (1880 and 1890 taken from census reports; 1903 calculated from data given in World Almanac^ 1905); (2) expenditures for public schools (excluding debt paid) for 1880, 1890, and 1903; (3) amount expended for public schools on each $100 of true valuation of all real and personal property for 1880, 1890, and 1903. TABLE IV THE UNITED STATES True Valuation of Real and Personal Property Expenditure for Public Schools (Ex- cluding Debt Paid) Expended for Public Schools on Each $100 of True Valuation of all Real and Personal Property z88o 1890 1903 1880 1890 1903 1880 1890 1903 $43,642,000,000 $64,829,040,611 $97,142,708,523 $78,094,687 $140,506,715 $251,457,625 Cents 17.9 Cents 21.7 Cents 25.9 TABLE V NORTH ATLANTIC DIVISION State True Valuation of Real and Personal Property Expenditure for Public Schools (Excluding Debt Paid) Expended for Public Schools on Each $100 of True Valua- tion of all Real and . Personal Property 1880 1890 1903 1880 1890 1903 1880 1890 1903 Me $ 511,000,000 363,000,000 302 000,000 2,623,000,000 400,000,000 779,000,000 6,308,000,000 1,305,000,000 4,942,000,000 $ 489,134,128 325,128,740 265,567,323 2,803,645,447 504,162,352 835,120,219 8,576,701,991 1,445,285,114 6,190,746,550 $ 559,093,487 363,167,582 275,429,141 5,171,268,181 676,458,765 1,575,341,188 ' 16,922,900,288 1,481,320,550 9,689,140,474 $1,067,991 565,339 446,217 4,983,900 526,112 1,408,375 10,296,977 1,873,465 7,369,682 $1,327,553 844,333 711,072 8,286,062 884,966 2,157,014 17,543,880 3,340,190 12,928,422 $ 1,952,083 1,167,464 1,093,238 15,170,070 -,856,376 3,526,615 41,418,095 7,824,147 24,354,888 Cents 20.9 156 14.8 18.9 132 18.1 16.3 14.4 14.9 Cents 27.1 26.0 26.8 29.6 17.6 25.8 20.5 23.1 20.9 Cents 34.9 32.1 39.7 29.3 27.4 22.4 24. 5 52.8 25.1 N.H Vt Mass R.I Conn N.Y N.J Pa Total $36,714,119,656 $98,362,976 ■ • • • ■ • • • 26 8 56 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Biilwaiikee TABLE VI SOUTH ATLANTIC DIVISION Sute True Valuation of Real and Personal Property • Expenditure for Public Schools (Excluding Debt Paid) Expended for Public Schools cm Each $100 of True Valua- tion of all Real and Personal Property x88o X890 1903 x88o X890 1903 x88o 1890 1903 Del $x36,ooo,ooo 837,000,000 330,000,000 707,000,000 350,000,000 46 X, 000,000 333,000,000 606,000,000 X20,000,000 $ 175,678,795 1,085,473,048 343,596,733 862,318,070 438,954,881 584,148,999 400,911,303 852,409,449 389.489,388 $ 200,000,000 1,313,902,873 441,085,362 883,005,583 563,2x9,5x6 *,o83,433.350 486,680,664 X,039,893,769 420,378,o6x $ 207,28X 1.544,367 438,567 946,109 707,553 376,062 334,639 471,039 114,895 $ 375,000 x,9Xo,663 905,777 1,604,509 X, 198,493 714,900 450,936 1,190,354 516,533 $ 453,670 3,549,497 1,540,379 3,137,36s 3,403,555 1,533,041 x,046,x44 2,240,247 793,919 Cents 15.3 18.5 19.9 13-4 30. 3 8.2 XO.I 7.8 9.6 Cents 15-7 X7.6 36.4 x8.6 37.3 X2.2 XX. 2 14.0 13.3 Cents 22 7 Md 19-3 34-9 34-2 43.7 14. 1 31. S 3X. 7 D.C Va W.Va N. C S.C Ga Fla x8.o Total $6,42 X, 598, X78 $X4,686,7X7 • • • • • • • 22 .0 TABLE VII SOUTH CENTRAL DIVISION Sute or Territory True Valuation of Real and Personal Property Expenditure for Public Schools (Excluding Debt Paid) Expended for Public Schools cm Each $xoo of True Valuation of all Real and Personal Property x88o X890 1903 x88o X890 1903 x88o X890 1903 Ky $903,000,000 705,000,000 438,000,000 354,000,000 382,000,000 825,000,000 286,000,000 $x,X73,232,3i3 887,956, X43 622,773,504 454,342,688 495,30X,597 3,xo5.S76,766 455,147,432 $x,4X9,368,885 8x8,053,881 768,759,031 474,143,670 640,883,451 3,935,911,994 657,313.442 $x, 069,030 744,180 500,000 830,705 411,858 x,o3o,ooo 387,056 $3,140,678 x,526,24X 890,000 1,109,575 8X7.XXO 3, X 78,300 x,ox6,776 $2,663,863 3,X59,444 1,057,906 x,868,544 1,551,333 5,683,X33 1,550,697 i,X79.409 48x,5x6 Cents XX. 9 X0.6 XX. 7 33.5 X0.8 13.5 xo.o • « ■ • • • ■ ■ Cents X8.3 X7.3 14.3 16.5 15.1 33.3 • • • • • • ■ • Cents 18.7 "' Tfsnn Ala 36.4 13 8 Miss La 30.4 24.2 Texa.s Ark Okla 19 3 23 4 I T . . . Total $7,704,334,352 $x8, 193,734 • • ■ » • • • » 23.6 TABLE VIII NORTH CENTRAL DIVISION State True Valuation of Real and Personal Property Expenditure for Public Schods (Excluding Debt Paid) Expended for Public Schools on Each$xoo of True Vahiation of all Real and Personal Property x88o X890 1903 x88o X890 1903 x88o X890 1903 Ohio Ind $3,238,000,000 X, 68 X, 000,000 3,2x0,000,000 x,58o,ooo,ooo x,X39,ooo,ooo 792,000,000 X,72X,O0O,00O x,562,ooo,ooo 1 xx8,ooo,ooo 385,000,000 760,000,000 •3,951,382,384 2,095,176,626 5,066,751,719 2,095,0x6,272 1,833,308,523 i,69i,85x,927 2,287,348,333 3,397,903,94s / 337,006,506 \ 435,X4i,399 1,375,685,514 1.799.343.501 $4,373,955,555 3,318,158,875 6,769,068,6x8 3,670,000,000 4,380,963,406 3,487,X50,437 3,790,576,443 , 3,356,330,067 / 450,786,480 1 534.868,888 1,965.194,960 X,99i,338,953 $7,166,963 4,49X,85o 7,0x4,093 3,775,917 2,x77,o23 x,328,429 4,484.043 3,675.364 1 345.000 x,xo8,6x7 1.818,337 $xo,6o3,338 5,345,2x8 xi,645,X26 5.349.366 3,8oX,2X2 4.187,310 6,382,953 5,434,363 I 636,049 1 1, 199,630 3,376.333 4,973,967 $x 5,691,039 9,3x6,083 30,366,6x8 8,777.252 7.009.x 59 6,774,336 9,834,319 8,363,128 f 2,140,565 \ x,847,8x3 4,390,751 4,804,563 Cents 22. X 26.7 2X.9 X7.6 X9.X x6.8 26.1 17.1 '20.8 28.8 23.9 Cents 36.8 25.0 23.0 25.5. 30.7 24.7 27.9 23.7 fx8.6 138. 3 26.S 27.6 Cents 34 9 37.8 Ill 39.9 Mich Wis Minn Iowa Mo N.Dak S.Dak Neb Kan 33.9 15.9 37.3 35.3 24 9 /47.5 135-3 33.3 34.1 Total . . $36,o78,39X,68x $99,115,625 • ■ • ■ • • • • 27. 5 Supcrintwidcnce] VARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES 57 TABLE IX WESTERN DIVISION Sute True Valuation of Real and Personal Property Expenditure for Public Schools (Excluding Debt Paid) Expended for Public Schools on Each$ioo of True Valuation of all real and Personal Property x88o 1890 1903 x88o X890 1903 x88o 1890 1903 Mont Wyo Colo X.Mex Ariz Utah Nev... Idaho Wash....... Oreg Cal $ 40,000,000 54,000,000 340,(X}0,000 49,0(X>,ocx> 4X,(X}0,ocx> X 14,000,000 X56,(xx>,ooo 39,(X}0,000 63,000,000 x54,ooo,ooo x,343,ooo,ooo $ 453,135,209 169,773,710 1,145,712,267 231.459.897 x88,88o,976 349,411,234 180,323,668 207,896,591 760.698,726 590,396.194 2,533,733.627 $ 6x 3,65 X, 848 245,773,363 2,447,368,42 X 220,I7X,400 302,x85,58o 375,264,320 202,794,657 562,282,39X x,o29,i75,789 6x9,856,746 3,6o5,840,i4X $ 78,730 28,505 395,227 28,973 6x,x72 132,194 220,245 38,411 112,6x5 307,031 2,864,571 $ 364,084 225,(XX> x,68x,379 85,000 i8x,9X4 394,685 i6x,48x 169,020 958,xix 805,979 5,x87,i62 $1,236,353 253,551 3,xoo,855 300,531 397,972 1,496,056 209,484 826,598 3,580,742 1,526,366 8,x7o,x65 Cents 19.7 5.3 16.5 5.9 149 XZ.6 14.1 X3.2 X8.3 19.9 2X.3 Cents 8.0 133 14.7 3.7 9.6 XX. 3 9.0 8.x 12.6 13.7 30.5 Cents 30.I 10.3 12.7 13.6 132 39 9 10.3 14.7 348 24.6 af2 .6 Total 1x0,224,364,656 $2X,o98,S73 ■ • • • • • • • 30.6 TABLES X-XV Showing: (x) average monthly salaries of teachers; (2) average length of school term in days; (3) average number of days' schooling given for every child five to eighteen years of age (for 1902-3 unless otherwise indicated). TABLE X THE UNITED STATES Average Monthly Salaries of Teachers Average Length of School Term in Days Average Number of Days' School- ing Given for Males Females EveiT Child 5 to x8 Years of Age $40.98 $40.51 147.2 7X.8 TABLE XI NORTH ATLANTIC DIVISION Sute Maine New Hampshire (x9oi~2) Vermont Massadiusetts Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Average Average Monthly Salaries of Teachers Males $ 37.37 43.58 47.16 145.27 1x9.06 X02.44 44.82 $58.64 Females $ 27.60 29. XX 29.68 54. 6x 51.90 45.26 34.11 $39.50 AverM;e Length of School Term in Days 178.5 Average Number of Days' School- ing Given to Every Child s to 18 Years of Age 92.3 58 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwatikee TABLE XII SOUTH ATLANTIC DIVISION State Delaware (1889-90) Maryland District of Coliunbia (1897-98) Virginia West Virginia North Carolina South Carolina (1897-98) Georgia Florida (1901-2) Average Average Monthly Salaries of Teachers Males $36.60 94- 48 34-56 26.72 25.96 39*68 $30.84 Females $34.08 64-31 27.20 24.28 23.20 33-67 $29.02 Average Length of School Term in Days zx8.o Average Number of Days' School- ing Given to Every Child 5 to x8 Years of Age 49.0 TABLE XIII SOUTH CENTRAL DIVISION State or Territory Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas , Arkansas Oklahoma Indian Territory Average . . . Average Monthly Salaries of Teachers Average Length of School Males Females Term in Days $50.90 $39-18 41.00 33-70 3100 27.00 33-54 36.25 29.46 31-43 56.00 36.17 31-93 42.30 32.75 26.20 • ■ ■ • $42.97 $34-79 105.6* Average Number of Days' School- ing Given to Every Child 5 to 18 Years of Age 43-9 TABLE XIV NORTH CENTRAL DIVISION State Ohio Indiana (1001-2) Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota South Dakota (190 1-2) Nebraska Kansas (190 z-2) Average Average Monthly Salaries of Teachers Males $45-00 66.80 65-83 54 76 81.93 5540 45-99 44-55 45-46 40.03 52.03 44.24 $S3-96 Females $40.00 48.00 55-62 38.72 40.78 38.87 32.60 42.00 39-00 33-52 40.84 36.55 $4x09 Average Length of School Term in Days 156.9 Average Number of Days' School- ing Given to Every Child 5 to 18 Years of Age 83.6 Superintendence] VARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES 59 TABLE XV WESTERN DIVISION State or Territory Montana Wyoming (1894-95) . Colorado New Mexico (1901-2) Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho Washington Or^cn California Average Average Monthly Salaries of Teachers Males $ 76.89 73-68 60.63 64.77 80.33 71. II 108.69 63.00 57-54 51-30 97-21 $70 82 Females 52-04 43 36 53-04 64.77 67 -53 48-31 63.64 5300 46.82 40.02 80.44 $59. 35 Average Length of School Term in Days 146.3 Average Number of Days* School- ing Given to Every Child 5 to 18 Years of Age 85.3 TABLES XVI-XXI Showing: (i) amount raised for each person five to eighteen years of age; (2) amount raised per adult male; (3) progress of School expenditure: total amoimt expended for schools. TABLE XVI THE UNITED STATES Raised Each Per- i 5 to 18 an of Age Amt. Raised per Adult Male Progress of School Expenditure: Total Amount Expended for Schools «i bi B V 1870-71 1879-80 1889-90 1899-1900 1902 3 $11.17 $11.33 $69,107,612 $78,094,687 $140,506,715 $214,964,618 $251,457,635 . TABLE XVII NORTH ATLANTIC DIVISION State Amt. Raised for Each Person 5 to 18 Years of Age Amt. Raised Kr Adult ale Progress of School Expenditure: Total Amount Expended for Schools 1870-71 1879-80 1880-90 1899-1900 1902-3 Me $13 . 70 11.39 13-59 33.98 16.13 15.78 30.6l 15.37 16. 03 $ 9-39 7.65 10.07 16.97 12.77 11-73 16.40 • 12.94 14-74 $ 950,662 418,545 499,961 5,579,363 461,160 7,496,981 9,607,904 2,302,341 8,479.918 $1,067,991 565,339 446,217 4,983.900 526,112 1,408,375 10,296,977 1,873,465 7,360,682 $1,327,553 844,333 711,072 8,286,062 884,966 2,157,014 17,543,880 3.340,190 12,928,422 $1,713,795 1,052,202 T,074,332 13,826,243 1,548,675 3,189.249 33.431.491 6.608,693 21,476,995 $1,952,083 1,167,464 1,093,338 1^.170.070 N.H.(i9oi-3). Vt Mass R. I 1,856,376 3,526,615 41,418,09s 7,824,147 24.354,888 Conn N.Y.(i9oi-2). i^' J Pmiii Average. . . Total.... 18.13 11.32 $29,796,835 $28,538,058 $48,023,492 $83,910,564 $98,362,976 6o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee TABLE XVIII SOUTH ATLANTIC DIVISION Sute Amt. Raised for Each Person 5 to x8 Years of Age Amt. Raised er Adult ale Progress of School Expenditure: Total Amount Expended for Schools 1870- 7 X i879-*c 1889-90 X899-X900 X002-3 Del. (i899-'oo). Md. (x9oo-x)... D. C 8.X0 7.58 24. 21 3.52 7.62 2. XX 2.32 2.74 4.58 $7.34 7.82 X7-49 4.6X 9.08 3x8 3 79 4.05 5- 36 $ X53.509 1,2x4,729 373.535 587.472 577,7x9 X 77,498 275.688 292,000 X29,43X $ 207,281 x,S44i367 438.567 946, X09 707,553 376,062 324,620 471,029 XX4,895 $ 275,000 X. 9x0,663 905,777 x,6o4,509 x,X98,493 7x4.900 450,936 x,X90,354 5x6,533 $ 453,670 2,803,032 X, 076,62c x,989.238 2,009,123 950,317 894,004 X, 980,0x6 765,777 $ 453,670 2,549.497 1.^40.270 Va 2,137,36s W. Va 2,403.SSS N. C x,sa 3.04X S. C X. 046.x 44 Ga 2.240.247 Fla. (X90X-2).. 792,9x9 Average. . . Total.... <4.x8 $5.56 $3,78x,58x $5, X 30,492 $8,767,165 $X2,92 1,797 $X4,686.7X7 TABLE XIX SOUTH CENTRAL DIVISION State or Territory Amt. Raised for Each Person 5 to x8 Years of Age Amt. Raised per Adult Male Progress of School Expenditure: Total Amount Expended for Schools X870-71 1879-80 1889-90 X899-X900 1902 3 Ky $3.94 3x4 x.50 3-35 3.29 5x5 3.54 5.79 3x4 $4.8x 4.14 2. 21 5 07 4. 54 7.X3 5.00 6.6x 4.3X $x,o75.ooo 758,000 370,000 950,000 53X,834 650,000 520,000 $1,069,030 744,x8o 500,000 830,70s 4xx,858 1,030,000 287,056 $2,140,678 1,526,241 890,000 x,xo9,575 8x7,1x0 3, X 78,300 x,ox6,776 $3,037,908 1,751,047 923,464 x,385,xx2 i,i3.S,i25 4*465.255 x,369,8xo 686,09s $2,662,863 Tenn 9.ISO.A^A Ala. (X901-2).. Miss. (x9oo-x). La 1.057.906 1,868,544 1.551,232 $.682.12^ Tex Ark x,55o,697 I,X70.400 Okla. (1901-2). Ind. T. .' 48i. 23,000 365,520 904.323 $7,x66,963 4.49X,8so 7,0x4,092 2,775.9x7 2,X77.023. 1,328,429 4.484,043 2,675,364 245,000 x,xo8,6x7 x,8x8,337 $10,602,238 5,245,2x8 XX, 645,126 5.349,366 3,8oX,2X2 4,x87,3Xo 6,382,953 , 5,434.262 f 626,949 \ x,x99.63o 3,376,332 4,972,967 $X3,33S,2XX 8,x82,S36 17,757,145 7,297,691 5,493,370 5,630,013 8,496,522 7,8x6,050 [ 1,526,090 \ x,6os,623 4,403,222 4,622,364 $iS.69X/>39 9,2x6.082 20,266,6x8 8,777.252 7,009,159 6,774,336 9.834.319 8,363,128 I a,X4o,s6s \ 1,847,813 4t390,7SX 4,804,563 Ind. (190X-2).. Mich. (X90X-2). Wis. (1901-2).. Miim la Mo N. D S. D. (X90X-2) . Neb Kans. (190X-2).. Average Tata's. $12.75 $X2.SS $28,430,033 $35,285,635 $62,823,563 $86,165,827 $99, XX 5,625 Superintendence] VARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES 6i TABLE XXI WESTERN DIVISION State or Territory Amt. Raised for Each Person 5 to x8 Years of Age Amt. Raised Kr Adult ale Progress of School Expenditure: Total Amount Ezpoided for Schools X870-7X 1879-80 x889-n90 X899-X900 1903-3 Mont $30.68 13. 03 39.83 5.18 XO.76 X5.x8 37.05 X8.06 33.35 18.7s 3X.43 $10.99 7. ox 3X.4X 563 7.76 20.37 13 76 15.51 14.91 14.13 13.35 $ 35,600 7000 67,395 4,900 • ••■••■a XX 7,000 85,000 19,003 3S,ooo x6o,ooo I,7i3t43i $ 78,730 28,504 395.227 28,973 6x,x73 132,194 330,345 38,411 113,6x5 307,031 3,864,571 $ 364,084 335,000 i,68x,379 85,000 181,914 394,685 x6x,48x X69,030 958,111 805,979 5,187,163 $ 923,310 253,551 3,793,648 343,439 299,730 1,094,757 334,633 400,043 2,375,753 1,594,420 6,909,351 $x.3?6.3<;t Wy. (i899-'oo). Colo. (X90X-3).. N. M 253,551 3.xoo,85S vx>.^^x At ^07.073 Utah Nev. (x9ox-3)... Id 1,496,056 309,486 836.508 Wash ^.c8o.7d3 Greg. (X90X-3). CaUf 1,526,366 8,i7o,i6s • Average Totals $30.16 $X4.28 $3,344,339 $4,367,673 $xo,3X3,8x5 $17,313,614 $21,098,573 TABLES XXn-XXVII Slowing: (x) expenditure per capita of average attoidance: (a) for sites, buildings, etc.; (6) for salaries', (c) for all other purposes; id) total per pupil; (3) average daily expenditure per pupU: (a) for salaries only; {b) total. (3) per centage of total expenditure devoted to — (a) sites, buildings, etc.; ih) salaries; (c) all other purposes; (4) expenditure for schools per capita of population; (5) same per capita of average attendance. TABLE XXII THE UNITED STATES Expenditure per Capita of Average Attendance Average Daily Expendi- ture per Pupil Per cent, of Total Ex- penditure Devoted to— School Expendi- ture per Capita of— For Sites, Build- ings, etc. For Sala- ries For All Other Pur- poses Total per Pupil For Sala- ries Only Total Sites, Build- ings, etc. Sala- ries All Other Pur- poses Popu- latum Average Attend- ance $4.19 $14-21 $4.35 $22.75 9.7 Cents 15.5 Cents X8.4 63.5 X9.X $3.15 $33.75 TABLE XXIII NORTH ATLANTIC DIVISION State Me N. H. (X90X -3) Vt Mass R.I Conn N.Y ^•J Pa Average . . Expenditure per Capita of Average Attendance For Sites, Build- ings, etc. $4 10 .3.93 3-93 7 .24 8. 30 4-73 X3.I4 7.09 5.88 $8.09 For Sala- For All Other Pur- ries poses $13-24 $2.70 1502 5.75 14 47 4.05 23.67 8.13 21.86 6.51 18.57 6.28 25.82 6.66 19.96 7.08 14.20 7-47 $30 . 16 $6.94 Total per PupU $30 . 04 23.69 22-45 39 04 36.57 29.58 44.62 34.13 27.55 $35-19 Average Daily Expenditure per Pupil For Sala- ries Only Cents 9-3 7 3 7 3 xo. 9 12. II. 9.8 13-7 10.4 8.5 XX. 3 Total Cents 14. o 16.9 14-5 21.0 19.0 15-7 23-7 17.9 16.6 19-7 Per cent, of Total Ex- penditure Devoted to— Sites, Build- ings, etc. 30.4 12.3 17-5 18.6 22.4 x6.o 27.2 20.8 21.4 23.0 Sala- ries 66.x 63-4 64-5 60.6 59-8 62.8 57 9 58.4 51-5 57.3 AU Other Pur- poses 13-5 24.3 18.0 20.8 17.8 21.3 14.9 20.8 27.1 19.7 School expenditure per capita of — a) population h) average attendance $ 4.44 35.19 62 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee TABLE XXIV SOUTH ATLANTIC DIVISION State Del. (i899-'oo) Md. (1900-1).. D.C Va. (1900-1). . W. Va N. C. (1901-2) S. C Ga Fla. (1901-2).. Average . . Expenditure per Capita of Average Attendance For Sites, Build- ings, etc. $3.13 •94 8.66 .92 2.42 .52 •34 .76 1.31 $1.15 For Sala- • For All Other Pur- nes poses $11.05 $3 75 iS^o8 2.79 25.10 6.73 7.46 1-13 9.47 3 57 3.78 1.36 4.38 .28 6.33 ■13 7.90 1.20 $7.57 $145 Total per Pupil $17-93 18.81 40.49 9-51 15 46 556 S-oo 7.2a 10.41 $10.17 Average Daily Expenditure per Pupil For Sala- ries Only Cents 6.5 7- 14. 6, 7 4- 4 5 7 6.4 Total Cents 10.5 9.9 233 7.8 12.6 6.5 5-4 6.1 xo.o 8.6 Per cent, of Total Ex- penditure Devoted to— Sites, Build- ings, etc. 175 5.0 21.4 9- 15 9. 6. xo. 12. .6 7 2 7 5 .6 11-3 Sala- ries 61.6 80.2 62 78 61 66 87.8 87.6 759 744 All Other Pur- poses 20.9 14.8 16.6 II. 9 23-1 24.1 5-5 1.9 "•5 14,3 (x) School expenditure per capita of — a) Population b) Average attendance $ 1.34 . 10.17 TABLE XXV SOUTH CENTRAL DIVISION State or Territory Ky Tenn Ala. (1901-2), Miss La Tex Ark Okla Ind.T Average . Expenditure per Capita of Average Attendance For Sites, Build- ings, etc. $0.95 .62 * • 23 .64 1-43 .64 2.98 * $0.83 For Sala- ries For All Other Pur- poses $ 716 5^17 396 6.75 8.06 10.66 6.22 8.29 14.61 $ 0.48 • 51 •45 X.03 1.26 .69 •41 2.62 17.86 $7.24 $0.85 Total per PupU 12 7 8.59 6.30 4.41 8.01 9.96 78 27 13.89 32.47 $8.92 Average Daily Expenditure per Pupil For Sala- ries Only Cents 8.0 5-4 3 9 55 6.2 9.2 6.8 93 9.2 6.9 Total Cents 5 .6 3 9- 6. 4 6. 7. II. 7. 15 20. 8.4 Per cent, of Total Ex- penditiire Devoted to— Sites, Build- ings, etc. XI. X 9.9 * 2.9 6.4 II. I 8.8 21.4 * 9.3 Sala- ries 833 82 89 84 80 83 85.6 59.7 45 -o 81. X All Other Pur- poses 5 8 10 12 12 5 5 18 55 .6 .0 3 9 7 4 6 9 o 9.6 * Included in "expenditures for all other purposes." School expenditure per capita of — a) population h) average attendance $1.22 8.92 Superintendence] VARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES 63 TABLE XXVI NORTH CENTRAL DIVISION State Ohio Ind. (100X-2).. ni Mich Wis Minn , la Mo N. D S. D. (igoi-a).. Neb Kans. (1901-a). Average Expenditure per Capita of Average Attendance For Sites, Build- ings, etc. $273 a. 37 76 69 73 70 42 68 6.33 3. ox 4.39 1.91 $3.96 For Sala- ries $16.36 13 76 16.30 13 23 15-39 16.79 17.43 "•34 17.86 15.50 16.54 13.13 $1500 For All Other Pur- poses ^ 6.4s 5-07 4.78 4.96 4.73 3.48 6.60 3.96 13-71 6.86 4.03* 3.56 $5.03 Total per Pupil $25 -54 33.10 36.84 31.88 34.85 35.97 37.44 17.98 37-79 2537 24-85 17 59 $33.98 Average Daily Expenditure per Pupil For Sala- ries Only Cents 9.9 9.4 10.3 8.0 8.5 X0.6 X0.9 7.8 11.9 IX. 7 9-9 9.6 9.6 Total Cents 15-5 15.1 16.8 13-3 138 16.4 17 X3. 25 19 14 14 15.3 Per cent, of Total Ex- penditiire Devoted Sites, Build- ings, etc. 10.7 10.7 21. 5 16.9 19.0 35.8 12.5 30.5 16.5 XX. 9 17-3 10.9 x6.s School expenditures per capita of — a) population b) average attendance , $ 3.61 33.98 Sala- ries. 64.0 63.3 60.7 60.S 61.9 64.6 63-S 63.1 47.3 6x.i 66.5 68.9 63.6 All Other Pur- poses 25.3 37.0 X7.8 33.6 X9.1 9.6 34.0 X6.4 36.3 37.0 x6.3 30.3 30.9 TABLE XXVII WESTERN DIVISION State or Territory Expenditure per Capita of Average Attendance For Sites, Build- ings, etc. Mont Wyo. (i899-'oo) Colo. (190X-2).. N.M Ariz Utah Nev. (X90X-3).. Idaho Wash Ore CaKf Average . . . $11.66 3.86 455 X.63 5- 30 6.0s 3.58 * X4.04 3.54 4.90 $6.xs For Sala- ries For All Other Pur- poses Total per PupU $30.71 18.69 3X.40 8.33 19.35 13.93 31.80 13.21 17.96 16.34 36.61 $30.33 $6.91 4.72 9.39 1.69 8.17 36 15 10.83 3.42 3-89 6.87 $6.38 $39.28 36.37 35 .24 11.53 32.83 36.33 39.53 34.04 35.42 23-77 38.38 $32.85 Average Daily Expenditure per Pupil For Sala- ries Only Cents 19.4 17 14 9 15 9 3o xo 15s X0.6 15.1 13.9 Total Cents 36.7 33.8 23.0 131 35.6 18.7 25. 4 19.4 30.5 15-5 31.8 33.5 Percent, of Total Ex- penditure Devoted to— Sites, Build- ings, etc. 29.7 10.9 13.9 X4.0 X6.3 33.0 6.5 * 39.6 14.9 13.8 18.7 Sala- ries 52 71 60 71 58 49 80. 5 54-9 50.7 68.7 69.3 61.9 * Included in total expenditure per pupil. School expenditure per capita of — a) population b) average attendance $ 4.80 32.85 All Other Pur- poses X7.6 18.0 36.4 14.7 24 27 13 45 9 16.4 17.9 19.4 64 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukc THE GROUP MORALITY OF CHILDREN GEORGE E. VINCENT, PROFESSOR OF SOCIOLOGY, UNI\rERSITY OF CHICAGO [an abstract] Social psychology is restating problems of life which for more than a century and a half have been formulated in terms of an abstract individualism. The new view regards social groups as unities in which persons live, and from which they get their meaning. To "place" a stranger is to relate him to various groups, and then to read into him what one knows of these groups. The group not only molds and cozens, but consciously coerces the person into conformity. Moreover, the ideals and standards of a group change with a changing environment. In time of war miUtary heroes eclipse the captains of industry who in days of peaceful prosperity are exalted for emulation. Children's lives are largely spent in juvenile groups, nursery groups, play groups, ** gangs," schools, classes. By these associations children are formed and modified in important ways. The child, Uke the savage, is conventional, and suffers keenly from ridicule. He is coerced by his group standards. The " tattie-tale " is to the child group what the " scab " is to the labor union. The child's group changes its values in adjustment to the conditions it confronts. Under a tyrannical and exacting teacher, sullenness and rebellion will be social virtues, natural means of protection against a common enemy. To a sympa- thetic and friendly instructor a class will respond by exalting co-operation and courtesy. Children recognize the existence of adult groups — the Olympians, as Ken- neth Graehme calls them — ^with their own peculiar, and too often unalluring, views of life. A child is ** goody-goody" when he conforms, not to the ideals of his comrades, but to these grown-up standards. One aim of modem educa- tion is to substitute for the direct — and largely futile^-imposition upon children of these mature ideas, the indirect and sympathetic control of child-life by fos- tering the growth of the worthy ideals which germinate in these juvenile groups. It behooves all who deal with children to study carefully their social organi- zation; to look at the world thru their eyes; to live with them, not to lord it over Ihem; and ever to remember that we adults with all our i;\dsdora are but "children of a larger growth." tHARTER PROVISIONS AS RELATED TO THE ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOL S Y STEMS WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS FOR THE CITY OF NEW YORK In any consideration of the regulations that ought to be inserted in a city charter with regard to the public-school system to be conducted for the people resident within the city's borders, the fundamental principle to be borne in Superintendence] CHARTER PROVISIONS OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS 6$ mind is that the state, and not the dty, is primarily responsible for public edu- cation. In all the duties imposed on the city regarding education, whether they pertain to the physical side, as in the building and maintenance of school- houses, or to the intellectual and moral side, as in teaching and supervision, the dty acts only as the agent of the state. The members of the board of educa- tion, whether they are elected by the people or appointed by the mayor, and the executive officers of the board, such as the superintendent of schools and the superintendent of buildings, are primarily state officers and only secondarily dty officers. Like all other sodal and political distinctions, this prindple has its roots in a remote antiquity. Among the laws attributed to Solon in Athens is one enjoining on parents to have their children instructed in music and gynmastics, and providing also that no son was bound to support his father in old age if the father had neglected to have the son instructed in a trade at which he could earn his hving. In Sparta the state charged itself with the entire education of all male children after six years of age. Plato, and more particularly Aristotle, made education one of the chief functions of government. Every European country has now its ministry of public instruction, charged with the duty of providing and enforcing popular education. A long series of dedsions in the courts in several of our states has enundated and confirmed the prindple. The most recent, and perhaps the strongest, of these dedsions was rendered only a year ago by the Court of Appeals of New York. In expressing the imanimous judgment of the court. Judge O'Brien wrote as follows: We have seen that the policy of this state for more than half a century has been to separate public education from all other mimicipal functions, and intrust it to independent corporate agencies of its own creation, such as school districts and boards of education, with capacity to sue and be sued in all matters involved in the exercise of their corporate powers. This view of the law is in accord with the fitness of things. No agency less extensive and less powerful than the state has the necessary authority and the necessary resources to provide and to enforce universal education. All history shows that, when education is not provided and enforced under the authority of the law, it is poorly provided and never enforced. It would scarcely be worth while to occupy your time and attention with this prindple, were it not that there is constant necessity to restate the funda- mental truths on which our institutions are constructed. In the storm and stress of modem life, in the emulation among individuals and commimities, the respective rights and duties of the state and of local authorities are either for- gotten or mingled in inextricable confusion. Such is the condition of thought today in many places with regard to the attitude of the state, on the one side, and of local authorities, on the other side, toward public education. The time was in the older states when the local community was entirely willing that the state should do as it pleased regarding education, as long as the local tax- 66 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Mflwaukee payer was not called upon to pay the bills. A striking example of this dis- position was the attitude of the Free School Society of New York city, which came into being just a century ago. That society proposed to foimd schools for poor children that were not under instruction in the schools of any religious sect, and to support them by voluntary contributions with such aid as might from time to time be obtained by grants from the state. In his address deliv- ered at the opening of the society's first school building in 1809, De Witt Clin- ton, great statesman tho he was, argued against local taxation for the support of public schools on the ground that such taxation would set the people against education. Having instanced the tax for free schools in Pennsylvania, he went on to say: "The people of Pennsylvania are therefore interested agaibst a faithful execution of the plan, because the less that is applied to education, the less they will have to pay in taxation." How false this view was, the history of public schools testifies. As the school tax has increased, instead of becoming interested against public schools, the people have become interested in and for public schools. And this sentiment is altogether natural. People are always interested in what they are paying for, and particularly when the object of their disbursements is so near to them as the education of their own children. Such an opinion as that expressed by De Witt Clinton is possible only where free schools are regarded as charity schools — schools for those who cannot afford to pay for the tuition of their children. With the advent of a broader view of the objects and possibilities of public education, such opinions tend to disappear. When men begin to imderstand — and the generality of men do not yet fully imderstand — ^that public schools are the people's schools, that they are for all, rich and poor alike; when they realize that one of the prime objects of public education is to provide, as far as public education can provide, equal opportunities for all; and when they bring home to themselves the profound truth that democratic institutions wil^ remain democratic only on condition that the people remain enlightened; then will they take a keen interest in their own schools. But in every com- munity there are those who realize these things only in part; in every commu- nity there are forces that would use the schools for wrong or selfish purposes. These persons may perhaps be divided into two classes: first, those whose opinions have not advanced beyond those of De Witt Clinton, and his friends who founded the Free School Society of New York, and who argue that, as free public schools should be only for the children of the poor, their work should be confined to the rudiments of an English education — the three R's, so to speak ; second, those who believe, tho they proclaim their faith by their acts rather than by their words, that the position of teacher, principal, or superintendent is one of the spoils of office, and should go to whoever has the requisite politi- cal influence to obtain it. The complete triumph of either class would set edu- cation in any commimity back at least a generation. When the conmumity is unable or unwilling to protect itself and its public schools against these evil influences, it has a right to the protection of the state. Supcrintcndeacc] CHARTER PROVISIONS OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS 67 exercised thru the state's proper oflScers. In view of the duties to be performed and the dangers to be avoided, the functions of the state regarding education may be regarded as threefold : First, either to provide education for all, or to require that suitable educa- tion be provided by each commimity. Second, to provide, or to require the community to provide, the means of enforcing education upon all children; because the man who fails to give his children education commits a twofold crime — a, crime against his children, whom he deprives of much of the happiness and success of life, and a crime against society, whose strength and prosperity are diminished by the ignorance of any of its members. Third, to provide such laws and such machinery as will protect the schools against the attacks either of foolish doctrinaires or of unscrupulous politicians. There is one great danger, however, in the exerdse of the state's educa- tional functions; namely, that, if too much dependence be placed upon the state, local spontaneity and local effort may be discouraged. The best means hitherto found to enable the state to reinforce, without discouraging local authorities, is the enactment, by its legislative branch, of laws laying down minimum requirements, and the making of regulations by its educational offi- cers which have the force of law. These laws may either be general enact- ments, or they may be embodied in city charters. They should embrace at least the following provisions: 1. The limits of age within which all children must go to school. 2. The minimum extent of school buildings which each community must provide in order to accommodate its school popvdation. 3. The minimum amount of time to be spent in academic studies and professional training by candidates for teachers' Ucenses. 4. The establishment of institutions in which such training may be given. 5. A method of appointing teachers that shall eliminate political, social, and every other consideration, except that of merit. 6. A sure and certain means of raising revenue that shall increase as population increases. 7. A minimum salary for teachers that shall be in some degree commensurate with their training and with the social position they ought to occupy. 8. Pensions for old age after physical and mental disqualification. It should be made by law the duty of the state's educational executive offi- cer— call him state superintendent, commissioner of education, or what you will — ^to see that such laws are enforced by local authorities, and to determine, always with the aid of a council of educators, minimum courses of study for all grades of pubHc schools — elementary schools, high schools, and training schools. It follows that he should be clothed with ample authority to carry the laws into effect and to enforce his own ordinances. The community or the municipahty should always have the authority to go as far beyond the minimum requirements of the state as the people, or their representatives in a board of education, may determine. In this way the schools have the protection of the state, while local enterprise is encouraged. 68 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Mflwaukee In proof of this statement I dte the experience of New York. In 1895 that state enacted a law laying down the minimum amount of time to be spent in academic and professional training by candidates for teachers' licenses in cities, and authorizing the state superintendent to lay down minimum courses of study for the institutions in which such traming is given. There is not a dty in the state that has not made requirements exceeding the minimum requirements both in duration and in extent. It has fallen to my lot in this discussion to set forth the reasons why the state should prescribe minimum requirements with regard to the training and appointment of teachers in cities. For the present I shall confine myself to the training and appointment of teachers in elementary schools. I shall assume in this presence that there is no difference of opinion as to what should be the minimum amount of time a teacher in elementary schools should devote to training. The academic training should be not less than four years of high- school or secondary-school work, which should include English, mathematics (at least algebra and plane geometry), a foreign language, history, biology^ physics, drawing, music, and gymnastics. All of these subjects are required to develop and strengthen the powers of the mind, and to provide the foimdation upon which professional training may afterward be built. The minimimi amount of time to. be devoted to professional training should be two years. * The specific question, however, arises : Should a dty of considerable size — one, say, that requires a hundred or more new teachers each year — ^be required by law to maintain a training or normal school for teachers ? This question should be answered in the afl5rmative for the following reasons: 1. While it is highly desirable that a considerable proportion — say, one- fourth or one-third — of the new teachers appointed in a city school system each year should come from outside the system, yet experience has shown that in all our large dties the majority of the teachers are and must be drawn from the system itself. Local sentiment enforces this policy; necessity compels it. In any one of our rapidly growing dties it is simply impossible to obtain a suffi- dent number of teachers from outside to fill vacancies, and to teach the new classes which it is necessary to form each year in order to meet the increase in population. It follows, therefore, that each large dty must train the greater part of its own teachers. 2. The pressure from politicians, on the one hand, to have the sons and daughters of their friends, or of those whom they desire to favor, appointed teachers, is a constant force with which we must reckon. The pressure of parents, on the other hand, to secure teacherships for their children, particu- larly the daughters, at the earliest possible age, is also a constant and even stronger force. These two forces acting together are ever tending to lower, or even to break down, the barriers which local educational authorities set up to exclude untrained teachers from the schools. So powerful are these forces that a dty training school is in constant danger of being emasculated, if not overthrown by their corrosive strength. It should, therefore, as a necessary condition of good schools, be established and protected by law. Saperintendence] CHARTER PROVISIONS OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS 69 3 . In a large city a training school for teachers is necessary to maintain edu-. cational standards. In a dty school system, owing to the rapid multiplication of schools and teachers, there is a constant tendency to sag, to lower the st ad- ard of results. If anyone doubts this statement, he has only to reflect f r a moment on what must be the effect of bringing a large number of inexperi- enced teachers — ^in New York it is over one thousand — each year into the schools. Of the measures that may be adopted to neutralize the demoraliz- ing effects of too rapid growth, a training school for teachers — ^particularly if it embrace, as it should, a model school — ^is probably the most effective. Here will be a school which is always manned by teachers of experience and of the largest ability; a school which is never weakened by an influx of inexperienced teachers. Such a school is a model, a standard, a tonic for all the other schools of the system. Its estabHshment and maintenance under the authority of law is, therefore, demanded as one of the protective measures which the state is called upon to enact for the preservation and uplifting of its public schools. 4. City training schools are necessary, because, if I may judge from my own experience, there are very few institutions, other than dty training schools, which provide the spedflc training that teachers in large dties require. Under the conditions of life in our large dties, the schools must supply, as far as schools may, the training which in the country is obtained by work in the home or on the farm. The coxmtry boy who does chores about the house or on the farm before and after school, who cuts firewood, or brings in water, or tends the cattle, or helps to train a colt, or who plants seeds and protects the seedlings from birds and weeds, is acquiring a knowledge, and receiving a training in the use of his hands and eyes, in judgment, in carefulness, and in executive power, which is denied to the dty boy. If the crowded populations of our great dties are not to degenerate physically and mentally, the dty teachers must be trained to sup- ply in some measure the defidency. It is not enough that a dty teacher should be able to teach language and grammar and penmanship and arithmetic and geography and history and drawing. She must be a trained observer, in order to detect and to treat properly the idiosyncrasies of children brought up under peculiar and always artifidal conditions; she must be an athlete, to teach gym- nastics and lead in children's games; she must be a mechanic, to give boys the use of their hands thru exerdses in wood and metal; and she must be expert with sdssors and needle, to teach girls to sew and to make their own dresses. It is chiefly in the large dties that all these quaUfications are demanded. As far as my experience goes, the dty training school is almost the only institution that is turning out teachers adapted to the dty's needs. The lectures of the university professor of pedagogy on the prindples and history of education are admirable in their stimulating, knowledge-giving, and view-enlarging effects for teachers of experience; but they constitute a poor preparation for the young teacher, full tho his head may be with theory, when he suddenly finds himself confronted with fifty imruly urchins, who perceive their teacher's defects and limitations much more quickly than he does himself. The state normal 70 NATIONAL E UCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee schools, with some exceptions, have not adapted themselves to dty conditions. For the most part they are still secondary schools, with a littie professional train- ing thrown in. They have not yet risen to the height of the great argument that teaching is a profession, and requires a peculiar institution in which its intend- ing professors shall devote their whole time and thought and energy to learn- ing the science and acquiring the art of teaching. For the present at least, therefore, we must depend upon dty training schools to develop the peculiar type of teacher which the conditions of Ufe in our large dties demand. For purposes both of minimiun requirement and of protection, dty train- ing schools should be established under the authority of law. We may now pass to the second part of the subject — the licensing and appointing of teachers. The theses which I lay down may be stated as follows : 1. All licenses should be probationary, and should be made permanent only after the ability to teach well has been demonstrated and the habit of skillful teaching has been acquired. 2. Teachers should be nominated and appointed and promoted by an expert, or a body of experts, as nearly as possible in the order of standing from eligible lists prepared as the result of examination by an independent board of expert examiners. The first thesis — that teachers' licenses should be temporary and revocable imtil success has been demonstrated — ^is so obviously in the interest of the schools and the people, and, indeed, is now so generally adopted, that I shall not consume time in stating the arguments in its support. Nor is it necessary to discuss at length the proposition that teachers should be appointed and promoted, not by laymen, but by experts in teaching and school management. K the prindple of appointment in order of standing from an eligible list is accepted, the principle of assignment to duty by experts follows as a matter of course. Appointment, then, means assignment to posi- tion; and surely, if any part of the procedure requires expert knowledge, the pladng of each teacher at that kind of work which she can do best, is that part. The real crux is: Should appointments be made in the order of standing from eligible lists prepared as the result of competitive examination? To make appointments of teachers in this way is to apply to the teaching pro- fession the prindple of civil-service reform which has now been introduced with comparative success into other branches of the public service, munidpal, state, and federal. Such a system is undeniably better than the system it sup- planted. Said George William Curtis, before this department fourteen years ago. Whatever foolish questions may be asked, whatever possible frauds practiced in an examination, they are wholly insignificant when compared with the unspeakable folly and the certain fraud of appointment by patronage, or mere personal and partisan favor. Having closely watched appointment of teachers by personal and partisan favor for nearly twenty years, and having participated both in examination and appointment under the merit system for nearly six years, I am fully pre- Superintendencei CHARTER PROVISIONS, OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS 71 pared to say that the merit system is as far superior to the personal system in the appointment of teachers as Mr. Curtis found it in other branches of the public service. What are the objections that are argued against the merit system ? It is said that an examination cannot determine fitness for class- room duty. Were examination the exclusive test, there might be some force in the objection; but it is not: probation is a vital condition of the merit system ? Examinations, however, may be so conducted as to determine fitness very closely, certainly to exclude the grossly unfit. Every well-conducted examination consists of two parts — a written and an oral. A well-ordered written examination is an almost infallible test whether an examinee has the ability to marshal his resoiurces at a sudden call, whether he can think clearly and coherently, whether he has an adequate mastery of written discoiurse, and whether he has the executive ability to adjust the task to the allotted time with due sense of proportion. All of these powers are powers which the skillful teacher ought to possess, and which may be fairly tested by a written examination. As the lawyer who cannot think of the proper argument to put forward, or the physician of the appropriate drug to prescribe, until after the critical moment, is at an enormous disadvantage, so the teacher who cannot think of the right thing to do or say, or the principal whose pedagogical knowl- edge is so profound that he cannot give it expression, is at as great a loss in the class-room as in the examination hall. The written examination, to serve its purposes, must, of course, be a test of whether or not the appHcant has the knowledge, the power of thought, and the facility in expression that a teacher ought to have. An examination that would test mere book knowledge or memory would be practically useless for the piupose in^^view. There are certain things, however, which a written examination cannot determine. It is not a certain test of moral character, or of personal charm, cleanliness, address, or even of teaching power. It does not reveal bodily deformity, sickness, faulty enunciation, or foreign accent. It is even within the limits of possibility that a man may write well who talks very badly and, hence, is unfit for teaching work. To determine these matters, other methods of examination must be resorted to. The other methods which we use in New York I shall now describe briefly: I. An oral examination is given only to those whose marks in the written examination indicate that they are worthy of further consideration. II. By the term "oral examination'* we mean not merely the presentation and answering of oral questions, but also an exhaustive investigation of the past history and present qualifications of the applicant, both personally and professionally. The ratio of the maximum record mark to the maximimi oral mark varies according to the license sought. Some licenses require little or no teaching for eUgibiUty, as, for instance, the initial license. Other licenses require large teaching experience, and this experience must necessarily be . made a matter of investigation. Just here let me say that written statements regarding teachers must be 72 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee received and rated with the utmost care. They must be rated for what they do not say, no less than for what they say. For instance, I have before me, as I write, the record of a graduate of a largely attended normal school. The principal reports her as "good" in scholarship, as "high" in pedagogical work, as "good' ' in practice-teaching. He further says that his estimate of her gen- eral teaching ability is "good,' 'and, in answer to the question, "Does the appli- cant speak the English language articulately and correctly ? he replies "Yes." At the close of her first year of work in New York schools the principal of the school was called upon to report upon this teacher's work under several headings, as — Ability to comprehend instructions; skill in blackboard work; skill in questioning; thoro- ness in developing subjects; use of objective illustration; self-control and manners; use of voice; control of class. Her statement is: Miss Blank is deficient in all these qualifications. Her imperfect knowledge and very deficient enimciation of the English language render her incompetent to control or interest any class in this department. This is only one sample out of hundreds which I might adduce to show that school authorities often use unnecessarily roseate language in writing testi- monials. Episodes of this kind have led the board of examiners to lay great stress upon what they term the "oral examination. " They now lay such stress upon the mark on record, personahty, and ability to speak the English language that a bad mark in any one of these particulars nullifies the whole examination. Turning from processes of examination to results, I am happy to be able to report that recent investigations have shown — First, that those persons who have received the highest standings at our examinations have, upon the whole, done better than those who received the lowest standings that were considered possible. Second, nine-tenths of those whom it has been necessary to dismiss at, or before, the close of the probationary term, are to be foimd in the class of per- sons who received comparatively low standings at the examination. Third, the examinations have been the means of bringing to the New York schools many teachers of high character and ability from other places, whose services it would not have been possible to obtain in any other way. When it is known that the teachers in a dty school system are appointed as the result of competitive examination, honestly and skillfully conducted, the best teachers from all over the country will flock to that dty. I am very far from daiming that the New York system of examination is perfect. I only say that it has served the purpose for which it was intended, upon the whole, in an admirable way. Indeed, I quite agree with professor Caddell, who recently said: To devise and apply the best methods of determining fitness is the business of the psychological expert, who will probably represent at the dose of this century as important a profession as medicine, law, or church. Superintendence] A NONPARTISAN SCHOOL LAW 73 Some of my audience may be inclined to say that much better than the New York plan of appointment by competitive examination is the plan, which has been tried in some cities, of committing the entire matter of selecting, appointing, and promoting teachers to one man, the superintendent. If, as one of my colleagues in New York recently expressed it, a man could be foimd who is infinite, eternal, and unchangeable in his being, wisdom, power, holi- ness, justness, goodness, and truth, we should all be entirely wiUing to place such vast powers in his hands. As such men are not to be foimd, the follow- ing objections to "one-man power" are, it seems to me, not unreasonable: I. No one man has the abiHty or the knowledge to perform so colossal a task in a large city. He might do it in a dty of forty or fifty thousand inhabi- tants, but not in a city of half a million. II. Where this plan has been tried it has not infrequently resulted in the overthrow of the superintendent who has honestly tried to perform a task, too great for any individual, under most distressing circumstances. III. The eflfect upon the teaching force is not good. It is one of the weak- nesses of our poor himiah nature that men and women will cringe before the man who has the power to aid or to injure. Teachers tend to lose independ- ence of thought and action when they are placed absolutely in the power of a superintendent; and, just in proportion as they lose legitimate independence of thought and action, by so much is their good influence as teachers diminished. I trust I have said enough to show that, in our large cities, training schools and the appointment or promotion of teachers as the result of competitive examination, should be established by law. A NONPARTISAN SCHOOL LAW EDWASD C. ELIOT, FORMER PRESIDENT OF BOARD OF EDUCATION, ST. LOUIS, MO. In accepting the invitation of the Department of Superintendence to address it upon the subject of school legislation, I take it for granted that my chief, if not only, usefulness in that respect arises out of my experience with the St. Louis public schools. An essay upon the theory of the subject, derived from an examination of the books, is available to any person interested in the matter. It is the practical side, illustrated by the situation in one of the leading cities of the Union, which is of interest to you. The original organization of the St. Louis public schools was under a special act of the Missouri Territorial Legislature, enacted in 1819, foUowed in 1833 by a more formal incorporation of the free white inhabitants of the dty of St. Louis into a body politic, dignified by the formal name of "President and Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools." The dty was small, having then a population of less than dght thousand people, and was divided into 74 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Mihraukee four wards, representation being provided for each ward. The board was unwisely given the power to contrql the election of its own members. This law continued in operation imtil 1897, when the dty had grown to nearly its present size. Various intermediate acts of the legislature had entered into the law affecting the schools, and the nimiber of members of the board had been increased, by the addition both of representatives from new wards and of members elected at large, until it had become overburdened. The two most dangerous features of the law remained — the district or ward representa- tion, and the power of the board over the election of its own members. It would be a great injustice to the large number of conscientious and able men who took part in the public-school government in the long interval between 1833 ^^^ ^^97 ^^ intimate that the system was not a success; on the contrary, the results were generally good, and there was a considerable nimi- ber of years in which, under the efficient administration of Mr. W. T. Harris, now your honored Conmiissioner of Education, when the pubUc schools of St. Louis took the first rank. But, as the dty grew in size, and became more subject to the corrupting influences which attend the expenditure of large revenues, an era of bad politics and jobbery came in, and it became apparent to thinking men that the system had been outgrown, or that its inherent faults could no longer be offset in so large a community. A bill was submitted to the legislature providing for a board of nine mem- bers, to be appointed by the mayor, one of whom should give his entire time to the affairs of the schools, and receive an adequate salary. The remaining eight were to be appointed with reference to their special qualifications for different departments of school work. The bill failed to pass, but it served the useful purpose of calling public attention to the necessity for change, and contained the idea of individual responsibility which is at the bottom of the law operating at present. In 1897 ^ conunittee of dtizens was selected, of which Mr. Frederick N. Judson, now the able counsel of the Board of Ekiucation of St. Louis, was made chairman, and the frame of the present law was prepared. Under the new charter the board consists of twelve members, elected at large — that is to say, without individual constituency, each member repre- senting equally the entire public of the dty. The term of office is six years. Great pains were taken to remove the schools from the influence of politics. The members are precluded from holding any other office, and must make oath that they will not be influenced by any consideration except that of merit and fitness in the appointment of officers and the engagement of employees. They receive no compensation. The business of the schools is divided under the law into four departments, which take the names of "Instruction," "School Buildings," "Finance," and "Auditing and Supplies." Over each of these is required to be placed an administrative officer, whose position is one of great independence. To make dear its force, in its administrative portions, I call attention to the following parts of the law: Sapamtendence] A NONPARTISAN SCHOOL LAW 75 The board of education shall have general and supervising cx)ntrol, government, and management of the public schools and public-school property of the city. The superintendent of instruction shall be appointed by the board of education for a term of four years, during which term his compensation shall not be reduced. The board of education may, on the nomination of the superintendent of instruction, appoint as many assistant superintendents as it may deem necessary, whose compensation shall be fixed by the board, and who may be removed by the superintendent with the approval of the board. The superintendent of instruction shall have general supervision, subject to the control of the board, of the course of instruction, discipline, and conduct of the schools, text-books, and studies; and all appointments, promotions, and transfers of teachers, and introduction of text-books and apparatus, shall be made only upon the recommendation of the superin- tendent and the approval of the board. The commissioner of school buildings shall be appointed by the board of education for a term of four years, during which term his compensation shall not be reduced. He shall devote all his time to the duties of his office, and shall be charged with the care of the pubUc-school buildings of such dty, and with the responsibihty for the ventilation, warm- ing, sanitary condition, and proper re|>air thereof. He shall prepare, or cause to be pre- pared, all specifications and drawings required, and shall superintend all the construction and repair of all such buildings; shall make a report each month to the board of education, showing in detail the costs of repairs and other work for the previous month on each build- ing, embod3ring therein the amount of bills outstanding for work ordered by him, and stat- ing specifically the cases where work was done, or ordered, without public letting; shall superintend all the advertisements for bids and the letting of contracts; and shall, vdthin the limits of appropriations theretofore made by the board of education for repairs, make all contracts for the repairs of school property, except where the cost of such repairs shall exceed the sum of fifty dollars. Subject to the approval of the board of education as to the number and salaries, the commissioner of school buildings shall have power to appoint as many engineers, janitors, and other employees and agents as may be necessary for the proper performance of the duties of his department, for whom he shall be responsible, and whom he shall have power to remove; but the board of education may provide for a competitive examination for the positions of janitors and engineers; and when such provision shall have been made, the com- missioner of school buildings may be required by the board to appoint janitors and engi- neers from the list obtained by such examination. He shall appoint such assistants and deputies as may be authorized by the board of education, whose compensation shall be fixed by the board; and one of said assistants shall be a trained and educated engineer, qualified to design and construct the heating, lighting, ventilating, and sanitary machinery and apparatus connected with the public-school buildings. Such assistants and deputies shall be subject to removal by the commissioner of school buildings, who shall be responsible for the proper performance of their duties. The board shall select a competent secretary and treasurer, who shall hold office for a term of four years. He shall exercise, subject to the control of the board, a general supervision over the fiscal affairs of the public schools of the city, the collection and payment of funds to the school depository, and the disbursement of all revenues and moneys belonging to the board. He shall have supervision, under the direction of the board, of the permanent school fund of the city and the investment thereof, and all invested property of the board. .... He shall be the custodian of all securities, documents, title papers, books of record, and other papers belonging to the board, under such conditions as the board may direct. It shall be his duty to see that no liability is incurred or expenditure made without due authority of law, and that appropriations are not overdrawn. Subject to the approval of the board as to number and salaries, he shall have power to appoint assistants, for whom he shall be responsible, and whom he may remove. 76 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Mflwaukee The board shall appoint a com|>etent person as auditor, who shall serve for a term of four years It shall be his duty to examine and audit all accounts and demands against the board, and to certify their correctness to the secretary and treasiirer of the board. The law dedaxes that the superintendent of instruction shall be responsible for the condition of the instruction and discipline of the schools. The com- missioner of school buildings is charged with the care of the public-school buildings and responsibility for their ventilation, warming, sanitary condition, and repair. It is made the duty of the secretary and treasurer to see that no liability is incurred or expenditure made without due authority of law, and that appropriations are not overdrawn. The auditor must examine and certify all accounts. All of the officers have fixed terms of office and may be removed for cause (which involves a trial) by a two-thirds vote of the board or by the courts. The officers have the sole power to appoint their assistants and clerks. Only "the superintendent of instruction can nominate teachers. Only the commissioner of school buildings can appoint janitors. The power to dis- charge teachers rests practically with the superintendent. The power to remove janitors lies wholly with the commissioner. All text-books and appa- ratus for the use of the schools must be recommended by the superintendent. The plans for all buildings must come from the commissioner. The board cannot attend to any of these matters on its own initiative. When the first surprise at these facts passes away, it becomes a natural inquiry: What is left for the board to do ? The answer is: Only those things which lie within the qualifications of men of general intelligence and business ability, not experts in education or construction. The board may adopt rules governing the conduct of the officers in general terms, so long as such rules do not impair their expressed powers and responsibility. In this way general poUdes are laid down. All contracting power rests in the board. The officers must come to it for the right to expend money. The appointment of teachers must be approved by the board, and it may, by express provision in the law, regulate the appoint- ment of janitors under civil-service rules. The levy of taxes, within constitutional limits, rests with it. It is the ultimate source of power, chooses the administrative officers, and, having the power of removal, is responsible to the public for their effidency. Supplementing the provisions of the law, and strictly within its purpose and spirit, the first board elected adopted rules which predude the individual members from exerdsing any executive fimction, and from directing in any wise the action of the administrative officers. Both the law and rules prohibit members from being directly or indirectly interested in contracts with the board, and the ownership of stock in a cor- poration dealing with the schools has been held to be within these provisions. The twelve members are divided into four committees, permanent in char- Superintendence] A NONPARTISAN SCHOOL LAW 77 acter, the personel of the committee changing only at long intervals, corre- sponding to elective changes. The rules provide: The president of the board of education shall be an ex-officio member of all conunittees. He shall, upon his election, assign the other members of the board to the committees, filling each committee, as nearly as practicable, with members holding office for long and short terms. Upon each reorganization of the board and election of a president, the assignment of members to the committees shall be revised and rearranged, if deemed necessary by the president. No member of the board shall serve upon two committees, except by reason of death, absence, or other disability of a member of the board, or insufficiency in ntmiber of members to fill all committees otherwise. A new member, by appointment of the mayor, shall take the place of his predecessor upon all committees until the next reorgani> zation of icommittees. When the assignment of members to the committees is made, a record thereof shall be entered in the minutes of the board. A list of the committees and their members shall be posted in the office of the secretary and treasurer, and of the superintendent. The committees provided for shall have supervision over the departments of public- school work to which their names, respectively, apply, and all of the administrative business of the school shall be subdivided among such departments. In the event of any question arising as to which department any matter of business pertains, or of any difference of opinion between the committees as to which has charge of the same, the matter shall be referred to the president for temporary action, and to the board for permanent assignment, at its next meeting. Each committee shall be responsible for the affairs of its department, and shall see that the administrative officer in charge of each department fully and ade- quately performs the duties pertaining to the same. To each committee shall be referred in the first instance all complaints which may be presented to the board, or any member thereof, respecting the conduct of any officer, employee, or subordinate in its department, and of any defective or insufficient service therein. All such complaints shall be consid- ered by such committee, and acted upon by denial or reference of the same to the board, at its discretion. Each committee shall have power to present charges against any officer or employee in its department, and it shall be its duty to do so whenever it finds that there is sufficient evidence of inefficiency or misconduct on the part of any officer or employee. The chairman of every committee shall be prepared, at all times, to make written or verbal reports to the board, when it is in session, as to any matter pertaining to its depart ment. Each committee shall, from time to time, recommend to the board such action in respect to its department as it may deem advantageous for the interest of the schools. Each committee has the supervision of a department, but not the slightest power to direct. Practically the committee is the adviser of the executive officer, and the intermediary of the department and the board. It keeps in touch with the affairs of the department and its necessities, and is the source of information at board meetings. If complaints are made, the committee hears them and reports. It has the power to call to its sessions any officer or subordinate, and to investigate errors and abuses. If it disagrees with the department head, it may express its disapproval to the board, and that body may act accordingly; but the member has no power, except when occupying his chair at the sessions of the board. The board greatly facilitates the dispatch of business by requiring the sub- stance and subject-matter of all proposed action to be forestalled in print, and handed to each member and officer a few days before the meeting. When the law went into effect, the public mind of St. Louis was ready for 78 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [MBwwikec it. The people were thoroly disgusted with the effect of partisan politics upon the school revenues, and welcomed the idea of a nonpartisan administration. Fortunately for the success of the new law,-the members first elected were high- class citizens, fully intent upon carrying out the law and in sympathy with its theory. Without this, during the period when its principles were new and its battles were to be fought, it might well have failed. But under honest and efficient administration it has steadily gained in public confidence. The origi- nal board was composed of eight Republicans and four Democrats. At the election held two years later this disproportion was changed, so that there- after and imtil the present time the number affiliated with each party has been equal. This, of course, is in theory bipartisanship, but it is intended as non- partisanship, and has so operated in practice. When the terms of members expire, the two political parties divide the candidates, or both nominate the same persons. Among the party managers the memberships in the school board are spoken of as **non-politiral offices." Citizens of the best standing willingly accept election. At the present time, eight years after the original election, the board is composed of three lawyers of high standing; three busi- ness men at the head of their respective occupations; two civil engineers, one of whom has a national reputation; a physician; tne manager of the lead- ing Grerman newspaper in St. Louis, and well known to you as the director in charge of the Department of Education at the World's Fair; a retired railroad capitalist, ripe in years and experience; and last, but not least, Dr. C. M. Woodward, director of Manual Training School, and dean of School of Engineering and Architecture of Washington University. For officers the board has men of training and capability, among them Mr. William B. Ittner, the commissioner of school buildings, whom we regard as the leading school architect in the United States; and Professor F. Louis Soldan, superintendent of instruction, for whom my personal friendship is too close and my admiration too great to admit of commendation from me. One of the consequences of an honest administration of the school business has been a substantial increase in the amount of money available for new build- ings. A saving of three or foiu* hundred thousand dollars a year out of jobbery and corruption has certainly been made; and an intimation from the board of education, backed by the Commercial Club of St. Louis, resulted in an amend* ment to the state constitution which has increased the available school revenues by nearly seven hundred thousand doUars annually. This money is rapidly going into the best school buildings which can be constructed. The absence of district representation has been most beneficial. The edu- cational needs of the city can be handled as a whole, without regard to local prejudices and demands. The ward worker has not been present, with his falsely pretentious claims for the improvement of his district; and no substan- tial complaint has been made by the people of any part of the dty of unfairness in the placing of new schools. The law and its administration have been most satisfactory and receive unstinted public approval. Superintendence] A NONPARTISAN SCHOOL LAW 79 Eight years is a short time within which to change the whole school aspect of a dty of six or seven hundred thousand people; but that has been done in St. Louis. If we look for causes, we must, of course, see primarily the integrity and independence of the men in charge. But the board members became available by the nonpartisan declarations of the law; and the independence of the officers was made possible by the frame of the charter. Now, for * 'independence' ' read "expert ability," given its opportunity to do unhampered work; and for * 'non- partisanship" read * 'common honesty." This is the gist of the situation. There is something radically wrong with the public conscience when it can hear patiently breaches of public trust called by the name of "party loyalty," and stealing called "politics." I am addressing the right body of men to look to for a cure in that respect. In the daily press men of like political faith are praised and flattered. Men of the opposite party are too often con- denmed and beaten down. The wrong is palliated and excused, if it is chargeable to oiu* side, and the right is depreciated and minimized, if it comes from the other side. But the men and women who have the education and guidance of the children in the schools can and ought to inculcate a juster standard. The youth of the land ought to be taught that no ofl&ce is filled imless it is filled imselfishly and honorably; that no politics is worth an3rthing imless it is honest; that party loyalty is a disgrace if it means the theft of public money and the debauchery of the public service. My experience with the St. Louis law and its operation leads me to believe that the best results can be obtained in all municipal affairs by clothing men with ample power, fully commensurate with the purposes of their offices, and holding them to full responsibility for the results to be obtained. The less machinery provided in this respect, within reasonable limits, the better it wiU be. There is nothing which a corrupt body of men, intent upon making public affairs a means for personal ends, more thoroly desires than a complication of law which hides the responsibility. Biu^eaucracy and red-tape are the meat upon which corruption feeds. The system of checks and balances which has been so long vaunted as the protection afforded the people imder the rule of democracy often fails of its purpose. This happens when it serves to restrain an officer in the exercise of his legitimate functions, or to obscure the real nature of his actions. You may remember the incident which is told of the Russian system of govern- ment, where it is said that, upon a wager, the Lord's Prayer, in writing, was pushed thru all the departments and received the official approval of the gov- ernment as a document of state, without any person having stopped to read what was written. Under such a system no one is held responsible, since each official act has its prior justification. I venture to predict that in the march of events the over-legislative process which has been going on so extensively for many years will be followed by forms of government greatly simplified and plain enough to read. The next 8o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee charter of Greater New York may be nearer a dozen pages in length than the five hundred and sixty which it now covers. I go so far in this respect as to deprecate very seriously the lengthening of constitutions of the state governments, which are incorpK>rating into their provisions so many legal details affecting the affairs of the people that constitutional conventions become as necessary as sessions of the legislature. It would be better for the organic law to be confined practically to the bill of rights and adequate provisions for honest elections. It is a radical mistake to frame the laws for administration by bad, or even indifferent, men. That this has been done largely accounts for the fact that the people have been willing to elect bad and indifferent men to office. It would be better to suffer for a time from the faults of t3nrannical officials clothed with extensive powers, than to dog public affairs with too much machinery. The severity of the experience would inevitably result in resort to the one ultimate necessity of a republican form of government, the elec- tion of honest and competent officials. Necessity is a great teacher. I was much* impressed recently, upon a visit to Texas, to see how one body of American people responded to a severe experience. After its great flood in 1900, the people of Galveston foimd themselves in a situation which did not admit of trifling with public funds. At the time in question the city's credit was not particularly good, and it was subject to the usual troubles in municipal affairs. But the luxury of bad government would not be afforded thereafter. The affairs of the city were intrusted to a conmiittee of citizens which gave its services devotedly to the interests of the city. Notwithstanding the immense loss of property, $17,000,000, and of lives, 6,000, necessary abandonment of portions of the city, the exodus of people, the loss of business, and the urgent necessity of protecting the city from the inroads of the sea ^y the construction of a sea wall and the raising of the level of the city itself as an entirety, the people of Galveston, I was told on my visit in November last, had all of its bills paid, a large surplus in the treasury, and an absolute credit for anything that they want. Such a result almost makes us pray for calamity. Reverting to my subject, it may readily be conceded that the St. Louis law is not perfect. If a new school law for a large city were to be prepared, it would be best to eliminate from the form of the St. Louis law many of its detailed provisions which are not quite consistent with its theory, and which hamper rather than increase the value of its main purpose. There should be incorporated into the organic law some of the matters which now rest solely in the rules of the board; particularly the provisions which qualify the initiative of individual members and make their positions valueless for political objects. There should be emphasized, in the draft of such a law, still more strongly the power to be given to the administrative officers. Within the limits of appropriations to be made by the board, there should be left to them more completely than now appears in this law the responsi- Superintendence] CHARTER PROVISIONS OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS 8l bility for policies, as well as for administration. Under such a system great men cotdd be developed. A railroad president of the highest rank who has attained a leading position while still quite yoimg in years, said to me a short time ago that no one knows what a man can do until he is given the oppor- tunity. It was the principle upon which his success had been attained. Promising men were placed in positions of responsibility and let alone to see what they could do. No system for the administration of business affairs or of public affairs is well devised which makes automatons of its officers or employees. This fact has been discovered even in warfare. A soldier is a better soldier for knowing what he is about, and for being intrusted with the direction of all that is beneath him. But you are quite at liberty to reject these theories. I have heard John Fiske say, with his usual clearness of mind and expression: "The power of generalization is an excellent servant, but a very bad master." The scien- tific way is to take the facts and to make deductions, when the accumulation in that respect is sufficient to justify a hjrpothesis. CHARTER PROVISIONS AS RELATED TO THE REORGANIZA- TION OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS F. LOUIS SOLDAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, ST. LOUIS, MO. During the last decade changes in the laws controlling city school admin- istration have been made which differ from previous methods in several respects. The following are some general features of the new charters: 1. They aim at the elimination of political influences. 2. They propose to give more scope to the educational expert. 3. They attempt to locate definitely the responsibility for eventual mismanagement. A widely spread dissatisfaction with the administration of school affairs was the chief reason for the new charters. In not a few cities boards of educa- tion contained elements whose apparent purpose in serving was individual gain or the promotion of private interests. Persons connected with some building trade, or engaged in certain kinds of business that made the patron- age of teachers a source of profit, sought places on the school board, while it became at times difficult to get the prosperous business or professional men to to serve. The erection of new school buildings and the repairs presented opportuni- ties for improper profit which were not always neglected. In the appoint- ment of teachers, political or social influence made itself strongly felt. There was little possibility of rescuing the children from the hands of an incompetent teacher, when the latter happened to have influential friends. In the appoint- 82 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee ment of janitors, political considerations were pre-eminent, and the lower dass of ward politican found a refuge and sinecure in the janitorship of some public school. While these evils were by no means universal, they were common enough to constitute a general danger, and to invite the best elements in the cities affected by this disease to find a cure. To these conditions the new laws owe their existence. They were to furnish the remedy for existing evils. The boards created imder the new laws are in some places appointed by the mayor; in other places they are elected by the voters. Where the mayorality is occupied by a worthy man, the school board is, as a rule, well chosen, and the many contingencies of proper selection and nomination which the direct election by the people involves are avoided. However, where the mayor him- self is an imf ortunate choice, or where he is under strong party bias, his appoint- ments are likely to be poor and objectionable. The character of the whole school board dep>ends on the contingency of the quaUfications of one man. Where the school board is elected by the voters of the dty, the tendency of the new laws is to free the nominations from political partisanship. This is often brought about by a tadt understanding between the two leading parties to have an equal representation. Instead of the old system of ward representation, the new charters favor the election of a ticket at large, because experience has shown that it is easier to make good nominations if the candidates can be selected from the whole dty, regardless of their residence in one ward or another. Each man elected on a ticket at large feels that he is the representative of every school interest in the whole dty, instead of thinking of his ward as the center and limit of his duties and efforts. Another direction in which the new charters attempt to bring about a change relates to the functions of school boards. In every large dty the administration of school affairs is a business of extensive, technical, and labori- ous character. It requires spedal information, skill, experience, and, very emphatically, time. As a rule, members of school boards serve gratuitously and disinterestedly. The new charters have not adopted the proposition, so often discussed, to make these positions salaried ones, because salaried posi- tions would be hkely to attract persons who are in politics for a living, and would probably repel the dass of persons who are willing to serve because of the honor of such service. But the new charters have lightened and adjusted the duties of the school board so as to make it possible for an ener- getic business man or professional man to serve without an undue tax on his time. Another proposition which has been advanced is to intrust the manage- ment of pubhc schools in large dties to a commission of five or seven men who devote their whole time to this work and receive liberal compensation for their services. This body was to be composed of experts in the various lines which are covered by the public schools. The commission was therefore to indude an educator, an architect, an engineer, an attorney, and a business man. Superintendence] CHARTER PROVISIONS OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS 83 While such an organization would place the administration into the hands of experts, it would separate it too much from the direct influence of the com- mimity, and would lessen the touch between the school administration and the people. Moreover, such a board, with the salaries and patronage controlled by it, would inevitably become the prey of politicians. The slowly accumu- lating skill and experience of one set of officers would be wasted by the peri- odic changes which are characteristic of all political offices. If, therefore, a board of education, appointed by the mayor, or elected by the people, is the proper body for the administration of the pubHc schools in a large city, what shall be its function, and how can its work be so consti- tuted as to make it possible for the public-spirited business or professional man to serve without giving to this gratuitous work an undue share of his time ? The new charters answer these questions by making the functions of the school board legislative, administrative, and supervisory, while they assign the laborious executive duties to salaried chiefs of departments, whom they invest with large and independent powers, so that they can be held responsible for the conduct of their respective departments. The board controls the revenues and the annual appropriations which limit the expenditure for each line of ser- vice; it elects the officers and controls their action by rules; it approves or rejects the appointment of teachers, the recommendations for text-books and supplies; it decides what schoolhouses shall be built and repaired. But the initiative in these actions and the conduct of the daily business, it leaves in the hands of the experts whom it employs. The gentiemen who have preceded in this discussion have dwelt on the charters of New York and St. Louis, respectively. Leaving the discussion of the general features, I desire to present a few additional details in the prac- tical working of the new charter in St. Louis. 1. New school sites are selected and recommended to the board by a committee of officers composed of the superintendent, the architect, and the treasurer. 2. Teachers are nominated by the superintendent and appointed by the board. (The appointment of teachers and the marking of their standing by the principals will be fully discussed by Mr. Ben Blewett, assistant superintendent, in the afternoon meeting, and, in order to avoid repetition, a further treatment of this topic is here omitted.) 3. The superintendent has power to arrange the course of study, subject to the approval of the board. In actual fact, the present course of study was worked out in detail by the grade teachers and principals of the city, who met n committees for this purpose. 4. The charter prescribes that the initiative in selecting text-books is in the hands of the superintendent. He recommends, and the board confirms or rejects. A sweeping change was made in the books eight years ago, after a thousand opinions from the teachers had been solicited and received. 5. Contracts for supplies are awarded once a year. The charter requires that the awards for all educational supplies be made on recommendation of the superintendent. In practice, the selection of the proper supplies, pens, and pen-points, crayons and slates, paper and pencils, is left to the workers who are to use them every day. The workman selects his own tool. Committees of principals and teachers are formed who test the samples of the various bidders and report their recommendations to the superintendent. 84 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee 6. The charter gives to the superintendent the right to appoint his own clerical force, without further confirmation. The board decides the number of clerks and their salaries. These detaUs show the underlying principle of the new law: The adminis- tration of the schools is intrusted to pedagogical and technical experts, under the supervision of the representative? of the people. It may be said that in the new charters the teaching profession is on trial, as far as its ability is concerned, to. take an important share in the government and administration of public- school systems. In St. Louis a new charter has been in force for eight years, and it must be judged not only by the apparent reasonableness of its provisions, but by what it has actually accomplished. It must be known by its fruit. If the following conclusion of this paper recites briefly what has actuaUy been accomplished in the public-school management in St. Louis during that period, I beg to disclaim any spirit of boastfulness. Other cities have done as much or more. But it is necessary for my argument to show that the practical working of an ideal law has led to material results. Under the new charter the whole system of schools in St. Louis has been reorganized. An absolutely new type of school building, fire-proof and two stories high, has been devised. The new school plan embodies the best pro- visions for heating and ventilation. Buildings of this kind have been erected in every part of the city, and antiquated buildings are being gradually replaced by them. The new sites purcha^sed are located by experts, and a whole block of ground is not considered too large for a school site. In the most recent buildings, gymnasiums and shower-baths are provided. A new course of study, made by the co-operation of the whole teaching force of the city, has been adopted. An entirely new set of text-books has been introduced, selected by teachers and superintendent with no other consider- ation than the merits of the books. A library of supplementary reading, in sets of no less than twenty-five to thirty books of each title, has been gradually placed into each school building, amounting to no less than 140,000 volumes at present. Two large high schools, each costing about $500,000, have been erected in the last three years. Each of these schools has the usual Kterary and scien- tific equipment of modem high schools, and, in addition thereto, a fully equip- ped manual-training department for boys, including bench- and lathe-work, forge- and machine-work. For the girls there is a domestic-science depart- ment, including artistic needle-work, dressmaking and fitting, millinery work, and art- work in leather, wood, and metal; the lessons in cooking are connected with the study of the hygiene of the home, and the chemistry and physiology of food. Over fifty new high-school teachers have been appointed in the last two years, the selection being made with no other consideration than that of efficiency. The service of the colored schools of St. Louis has been entirely recon- Superintendence] CHARTER PROVISIONS OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS 85 structed. Their standard of scholarship is now equal to that of the white schools. The corps of teachers in the colored high school has been practically renewed in order to obtain the most efficient service. A fully equipped manual- training department has been added to it. Manual training and domestic science have been introduced into the district school course of all the city schools. No boy leaves the schools without having had some training in the use of the ordinary tools. No girl leaves the higher grades without having had instruction in the household arts and household knowledge. The evil of early withdrawal of children from school has, in a measure, been checked. The attendance in the higher grades has increased. The enroll- ment in the high schools has doubled in five years, from 1,500 in 1900 to 3,500 today. Teachers' salaries, while still low, have been raised. In case of the ordi- nary grade teacher, the increase amounts to 25 per cent. The increase of the principals' salaries, in first-class schools, amoimts to about 20 per cent. The text-books in all grades, including the high school, are furnished to the children at public expense. So is all stationery used in school. In the teaching force inefficiency is being steadily eliminated; but the teacher feels absolutely safe that her continuance in office depends on no one's favor, but on her own efficiency. The principal's position has been ele- vated in value and dignity. Every teacher feels that his opinion of her efficiency is of importance, and that his suggestions are heeded. In the daily teaching a spirit of greater freedom prevails. Supervision no longer tests results only, but appreciates the methods of the teacher, and her efforts at self-culture and progress. There has been a strong awakening of the pedagogical spirit. There are numerous grade meetings, at which attendance is voluntary; no record of attendance is kept. It is rare for such meetings not to draw a full quota. The first principals' meeting, called by the superintendent at the beginning of this year, which was open to aU, was attended by 1,200 teachers. The pedagogical Society of St. Louis, which is a volimtary organization for self-improvement and professional study, and which meets every second Saturday in each month, enrolls over 1,500 members. The spirit of the whole teaching fraternity is loyal and thoroly harmonious. The conduct of the business of the board under the new law has been free from friction. The board exercises its controlling power constantiy, and scrutinizes every officer's action with great care. It uses freely its supreme power to decide the policy of the schools and to regulate it by legislation. But, at the same time, it encourages the chief officers to use their own independent judgment in the conduct of public business, within the limitations of its rules. I do not know of any friction between the board, or members of the board, and its officers. The actual condition is in full harmony with the spirit of the new law. 86 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee ROUND TABLES ROUND TABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS HIGH SCHOOL PRIVILEGES FOR COUNTRY PUPILS C. p. CARY, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MADISON, WIS. That it is desirable for the country boy and girl to have educational privileges equal to those offered city boys and girls may be taken for granted. The intelligent people of our country — and this means the vast majority of our citizens — are no longer satisfied, if indeed they were ever satisfied, with the mere rudiments of an education such as is com- prised in the common-school c\irriculum. The education of the country boy and girl is a matter in which all are vitally and zealously concerned. It is a truism that country pupils should have every possible facility and encouragement to develop thru secondary and higher education in all their latent possibilities. Such facilities and encouragements many of them do not now have. It is the business of all persons of influence in the mold- ing of affairs of this sort to do all in' their power at this time to place the country pupil and the secondary school in the closest possible proximity. Our problem is one of ways and means. Within the past few years numerous attempts have been made to bring the high school within reach of the country child. In some states coimty high schools have been established; in others township high schools have been encouraged; and in still others district high schools, all looking toward the training of the country child. The county high school has received more attention in Kansas than in any other state, and, as I am informed, the results have been satisfactory. There are some reasons, however, why a high school established with the county as the unit should not be popular^ The location of the school would naturally be at some central point, and it will readily appear that if the county is of average extent, the school would in many cases be so remote from the homes of the inhabitants that the ex|>ense of attendance would probably equal, if not exceed, the expense necessarily incurred in attending some normal school, or other educational institution, offering equal or superior advantages. The burden of sustaining a county high school must, of course, be borne by the taxpayers, a very large majority of whom are in no position advantageously to avail themselves of the oppor- tunities offered by the school. The remoteness of the homes of tht patrons would cer- tainly have a marked deterrent effect upon the attendance. The township high school is better in respect to the matter of facilities for attendance, because the territory from which the attendance is drawn is much more limited. On the other hand, the equipment of the school for efficient work is likely to be somewhat inferior, for the reason that the support of the school depends upon a comparatively small area and consequently the burden falls with greater weight upon the taxpayers. This is not an argument against township high schools. It is simply the limitation which is found in the less thickly settled townships, where no city or village is at hand to assist in its main- tenance. The town or township is a convenient unit for high-school purposes, and such schools should be encouraged in all sections of the country remote from good high schools. In this round-table discussion I shall discuss Wisconsin conditions only, leaving to other superintendents the discussion of conditions in their own states. Wisconsin has been liberal in the encouragement of free high schools. Thirty years ago special state aid was provided for, to be paid annually to such schools, in amounts not to exceed $500 to any one school. In 1885 the legislature made provisions for township free high schoob Superintendence] STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 87 suj^X)rted by districts comprising all the territory in a town. The legislative act provided a separate fund of f 25,00c a^ special state aid; and also provided that one-half the amount expended for instruction in these township free high schools should be paid to such school district each year. It was supposed that this would stimulate the organization of free high schools of this class. The result was that a very large part of the special aid for the township free high schools remained uncalled for in the state treasury. Later on the legislature provided that the unexpended balance of this fund should be placed in the district free high-school fund. This largely increased the apportionment to each district free high school organized at that time. The total number of free high schools in the state at the present time is 248, of which 232 have adopted, and are now maintaining, four-year courses of study. The nimiber of three-year free high schools in the state is rapidly diminishing; that is to say, they are developing into four-year schools. There are now but sixteen three-year-course high schools, whereas there were thirty-two in operation during the year ending June 30, 1904. There are also fifteen schools known as independent high schools. These schools with- out exception offer strong four-year courses of study. They are located principally in the larger cities, Milwaukee alone having four. It is evident that the greater the num- ber of high schools, the more accessible they become for the rural population, provided attendance is duly encouraged. I now come to the consideration of a law that has within the past few years worked very beneficial results in Wisconsin. This law has for its title "An Act relating to encour- aging attendance upon free high schools by residents of towns and villages having no free high schools, and prescribing the conditions entitling persons to attend." This is com- monly known as the high-school tuition law, and reads as follows: The free high-school board of any free high-school district organized under the laws of this state shall admit to the high school under its control, whenever the facilities for seating and instruction will warrant, any, person of school age prepared to enter such school, who may reside in any town or incorporated village, but not within a free high-school district, and who shall have completed the course of study in the school district in which he resides or one equivalent thereto. Provision is made in another section of the statute for the payment of tuition by the town in which the pupil resides, the maximum rate being fixed at fifty cents per week- The free high-school district may charge a higher tuition than fifty cents per week, but the town in which the pupil resides is under no obligation to pay more than the rate fixed in the statute. This law is proving exceedingly stimulating and valuable in the direction of bringing high-school privileges to country pupils. The average annual increase of attendance of rural pupils at high schools prior to the passage of this law was about two hundred (the total attendance at high schools of country pupils was about 3,500), but the annual increase since the law went into operation is about five hundred, or two and one-half times as great. Based on the actual attendance, the increase for the past three years has been 1,334, or 37 per cent. This increased attendance means more of a forward movement in the matter of high-school education than appears on its face. It is well known that whenever a member of any family, or for that matter of any community, takes work in advance of the common-school course, other members of the family or com- munity are stimulated thereby in the same direction. The free high schools are in this way extending their sphere of influence in every community that is within reach of a high school; and with 248 free high schools in the state, high-school privileges are convenient to a very large percentage of the school population. Again, high-school graduates are in Wisconsin quite largely drawn upon, in counties where county training schools do not exist, to fill positions as teachers in rural schools. This means a large improvement over the "home product" of past years in the prepara- tion and ability of those placed in charge of the common schools, with a consequent stimulus to pupils and encouragement for them to take high-school courses. The number of graduates from all free high schools in the state for the year ending 88 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [MUwaukee June 30, 1903, was 2,441, and of this number 1,103 ^^ reported as having taught in the public schools for the year ending June 30, 1904. A few quotations from letters received from high-school principals and county super- intendents will show how the free high-school tuition law is regarded by those who are in a position to judge. A city superintendent writes thus: "The attendance in this high- school [from the country] has nearly doubled in the past three years because of this law. Thus the poorest country pupils may have the advantage of a high-school education." Another writes: "The results of the law is that the attendance has been doubled and is rapidly increasing now, and the county superintendent tells me that a larger number of pupils finish the common-school course, their ambition being to attend the high school." It is needless to multiply examples. They are numerous. High-school principals, with rare exceptions, report an increased attendance of country pupils of from 20 to 100 per cent, in the past three years. County superintendents report that in the country schools there is an increased attendance and more interest shown. I shall quote the words of two or three of these officers. The superintendent of Dane county writes: "The effect upon rural schools has been excellent." The superintendent of Sheboygan county writes: "This law seems to have created a new incentive for the young people to complete the conmfion school course, and secure the common-school diploma." Candor compels me to state that a few superintendents do not find the law so satisfactory. One writes: "The attend- ance of non-resident pupils has not increased to any great extent, if at all, because of the law. Parents bring pressure to bear upon teachers to graduate pupils, even if they are weak, because the children wish to attend high school." This last statement, however, reveals the fact that there is a powerful incentive at work, and that it draws pupils toward the high-sdhool course. I desire to say a few words, parenthetically, bearing upon the desirability of modify- . ing the high-school courses in a measure to adapt them to the needs of country boys and girls. There should be, it seems to me, courses of study, which country boys and girls may at least elect, which will look toward the farm and farm life,rather than professional life. We do not want to make it necessary for a young man to go into the profession of law, for example, in order to get the practical benefits of his high-school education. He ought to be able to get the practical benefit of his four years* work in school when he turns his attention to farming. We have in Wisconsin two kinds of schools that, in some measure at least, take the place of county high schools, tho their purpose is different from that of the high school and the courses of study are shorter. I refer to the county agricultural school having a two-year course, and the county training school for teachers with a one-year course. The agricultiu-al school, especially, may in a few years develop into the equiva- lent of a high school, with large emphasis on the science and art of agriculture. The county training school for teachers — and there are seven of them in active operation and well attended at this time — provides especially for training in methods of instruction in rural schools. As a rule, the students in these schools are of somewhat mature age, and some of them have already had experience as teachers. It is not probable that these training schools will,for years to come, if at any time,take upon themselves high-school responsi- bilities, altho review and advanced work in academic branches is necessary, and thus the education of those who attend is extended and strengthened. STATE GRADED SCHOOLS One of the results of the agitation for better conditions of the rural schools is the state graded school. In the year 1900 a committee that had been previously appointed by the State Teachers' Association recommended, first, that the system of direct aid to high schools be extended to graded schools not connected with high schools; second, that state inspec- tion be provided for supervision and perfection of organization of these schools, to the end that they may become, in every sense of the word, higher rural schools, and thus bring equally to rural districts a realization of higher ideals. Later this suggestion was framed Superintendence] STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 89 _ into a bill, and in 190 1 the bill became a law. Under this law, $60,000 annually is granted as state aid to state graded schools. In order that the schools may receive state aid, the following requirements must be met: First, the school must be maintained at least nine months during the year, and the average daily attendance must not be less than fifteen pupils for the entire school year, in two departments, in schools of the second class, and in at least three departments in schools of the first class. Second, the teachers employed must be competent. The principal of a state graded school of the first class must hold some form of state certificate. One assistant may hold a third-grade certificate, one a second grade, and the other assistants first-grade or state certificates. In the state graded schools of the second class the principal must hold a first-grade certificate, or a state certificate of some f(nm. When third-grade teachers are employed, one year's experience in teaching is required. Third, the schoolhouse, grounds, and accessories shall be ample, and free from unsanitary features, and the furniture and equipment shall be adequate for meeting the needs of the school. Country schools of one department have been stimulated to organize state graded schools of two departments. Graded schools of two departments have pushed on and organ- ized schools of three or more departments. The larger graded schools have organized high schools. Thruout the state*these schools are being equipped with all necessary apparatus. In many instances systems of heating and ventilating are being put in. The work has been organized and graded in conformity to the state course of study. Better teachers have been procured at higher salaries. Sanitary conditions of school buildings and outbuild- ings have been greatly improved, and the general tendancy in these schools has been toward a steady advancement. The course at the present time correlates well with the high-school course. Thoro- ness in the common branches, followed by systematic study of the higher branches in the larger schools, has been a wonderful incentive to the smaller schools to add to their teach- ing forces in order to carry advanced work, and to the larger schools to push on and establish high schools. I attribute it to the results of the work accomplished in the graded schools that more high schools have been established within the last two years than any equal length of time in the history of the state. The marked increase in the number of state graded schools, the increased efficiency and growth of each individual school, together with the establishment of such schools in rentbte farming sections, supplementing the large one-room school, and causing in other instances two or more schools to unite to form a state graded school, verifies the statement that no educational law passed in recent years has done more to advance the cause of education than the state graded school law of 190 1. To restate briefly, in slightly modified form, what I have already said, the laws in our state give every facility for organizing high schools. Almost any group of people, regardless of district boundaries, may decide to organize as a free high-school district. The only conditions for securing state aid are that they must have within the district twenty-five or more pupils prepared to take up the high-school work, as determined by the examination given under the direction of the state superintendent, and must organize and conduct the school according to statutory enactment. The demand for high-school privileges is rapidly growing, and every year finds the interest in and demand for secondary education spreading to the more remote districts. The county high school has not made any headway in Wisconsin, and probably will not do so, because of the fact that in nearly every community there are already convenient high schools that serve the purpose. Town- ship high schools exist in about a dozen places in the state. Many more would doubtless be desirable, but the idea has not thus far met with a hearty response from the people. The reason for this is that in most of the townships of the state there are villages and small cities as centers of population. These are frequently located at one edge or one comer of the township, and consequently there are many inhabitants situated so far from the high-school building that it would be necessary, in case of attendance of their children, 90 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee • to make arrangements for board and lodging. They often claim that they may as well make arrangements for attendance at high schools in the district, or for attendance upon some of the state normal schools. Upon the whole, the best thing we have found for extending high-school privileges, and for stimulating coimtry pupils to remain in school until they have completed the common-school course, and then moving on to the secondary schools, is the law requiring the township in which the pupil resides to pay the tuition at the high school. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON INTERSTATE RECOGNITION OF HIGH GRADE TEACHERS* CERTIFICATES To the Members of the Round Table of State and County Superintendents: A meeting of the committee, appointed by this Round Table at Atlanta, in February, 1904, to consider the "interstate recognition of high-grade teachers' certificates," and to report at the next meeting, was held in the Palmer House, Chicago, 111., December 14 and IS, 1904. The following members were present: State Superintendents* G. W. Nash, of South Dakota; W. T. Carrington, of Missouri; C. P. Gary, of Wisconsin, and E. A. Jones, of Ohio. Superintendent W. W. Stetson, of Maine, was unable to attend. Superintendent Nash, chairman of the committee, presided, and Superintendent Jones was appointed secretary. The chairman presented the results of his correspondence with the educational depart- ments of the different states. From the letters read it appeared that, while many of the certificating authorities were in favor of a limited recognition of certificates from other states, they had no legal authority, under present statutes, for such action. After much informal discussion, it was unanimously decided to recommend: 1. That such legislation be secured as will authorize state departments of education to indorse and validate state certificates of high grade issued by departments of education in other states. 2. That a certificate be so recognized which has been issued under the direction of the state department upon the following conditions: On examination in reading; orthography; penmanship; arithmetic; grammar; (!om- position; political and commercial geography; United States history; civics; physiology; elementary algebra; physical geography; scientific agriculture; literature; pedagogy (includ- ing principles of method, management, psychology, and history of education); any two of ancient history, mediaeval and modern history, English history, advanced American history; any one of botany, zoology, geology; any one of physics, chemistry, astronomy; either geometry or advanced algebra; and any one of rhetoric and advanced English litera- ture, Latin, Greek, German, or French. In addition to the foregoing, an applicant for such certificate shall pass an examina- tion in some academic or professional subject in which he has specialized, and one other allied subject, the two taken together being an equivalent of the last two years of under- graduate work in the chosen subjects in a college of high rank. Provided, that a diploma from any approved college having a courseof study in which at least four years' work above an approved four-year high-school course is required, may be accepted in lieu of an examination in the subjects named, if the applicant has in his college course pursued pedagogical studies for at least two years. In case the holder of such diploma has not taken the required work in pedagogy, the deficiency may be made good by examination. Provided, further, that a diploma from any state normal school having a course of study in which at least two years' work above an approved four-year high-school course is required may be accepted in lieu of an examination in the subjects named. Superintendence] CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 91 Those who apply for such certificate by examination shall submit evidence of at least forty months' successful experience in teaching. Applicants who present diplomas shall after graduation teach for at least two years on a provisional certificate before being entitled to the permanent certificate. G. W. Nash, of South Dakota, Chairman; E. A. Jones, of Ohio; W. T. Carmngton, of Missouri; C. P. Gary, of Wisconsin; ComtniUee, ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS CONDUCTED BY F. B. DYER, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, CINCINNATT, O. TOPIC: THE MERIT SYSTEM OF APPOINTING AND PROMOTING TEACHERS L The advisability of a merit system of appointing teachers, and the difficulties in the way. II. Methods of ascertaining fitness of candidates, and of rating them for appointment, m. Methods of promoting teachers on merit. Should there be prcxnodon by grades ? IV. The influence of promotional examinations, and of other methods of promotion based upon efficiency and srholastic advancement. THE MERIT SYSTEM IN ST. LOUIS BEN BLEWETT, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, ST. LOUIS, MO. It seems quite impossible that one should now seriously raise the question whether any criterion but merit should determine the appointment and promotion of teachers. It seems axiomatic that, if a teacher is to be chosen for the training of children, the most capable and the best-trained persons that could be obtained for the money available should be employed. The importance of the interests involved would suggest this as the only logical procedure, and this is the procedure that wise men follow in the administration of all business enterprises. A teacher should be selected because of her peculiar fitness for the work to be done, and for no other reason. Fitness determined by competent authority. — ^What constitutes this peculiar fitness is a complex question, which can be properly answered only by competent and responsible judges. Those who are to make the selection should, thru professional training and an extended experience, know the essential quaUfications of a skillful teacher and the require- ment of the partiojlar work to be done. They should, further, be held responsible for their selections, that errors if made, may be traced to the source and the responsible party be made to bear the burden of his mistakes. If the superintendent, to whom is intrusted the direction of the schools, is not to have the power of nominating all teachers, how can he be held responsible for results ? On the other hand, if this power is given him and his selection proves to be inefficient, the responsibility is traced back directly to him, and the remedy is quickly suggested and easily brought about by removing the cause of the mistakes. The promise of fitness, — That the teacher selected must be peculiarly fitted for the work to be done, does not mean that no one must enter upon the work of teaching until she be sure that her first efforts will be rewarded with eminent success. All strength has its period for development and has its beginning in weakness. The one who judges of 94 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee of a teacher, but are of the greatest value where principals and superintendents change, these records standing as important evidence of what the teacher has been to the school. The following outline of the report on principals, made by assistant superintendents of instruction, indicates the scope of the records of merit: X. PersonalUy. — ^What is his scholarship? Is he active and industrious? Are his personal habits in every way such as you would expect from a teadier ? Does he bear a good reputation concerning payment erintendent. If her work improves sufficiently, her name is removed from the list of probation. If it does not improve suf- ficiently for her to be satisfactoiy, her name is dropped from the list of teachers. This action is final, if not disapproved by the board of education. If a teacher's name remains on the Ust for appointment more than a year, she is given a second mark for efficiency, provided she has substituted or cadeted for a period of two months during that time. Her mark on the eligible list now becomes the average of the two efficiency marks. The teachers in the system are marked twice each year by the principals in the dif- ferent schools. These marks are filed in the office of the superintendent. An important part of the marking system is the work of the board of district superintendents. The marks received from the principals are often inequitable. Since different principals may have different standards of marking, and since the marks of the teachers must all go on the same list, it is necessary that they be reduced to a common standard. All the marks and all the information about the various cadets, substitutes, and teachers are referred to the board of district superintendents, which acts as a board of equalization. The marks of the principals are not filed until approved by this board. Any teacher whose mark of efficiency is 80 or above, and who has reached the maxi- mum salary of the second group of teachers, is entitled to take the promotional examination, and upon passing the same is advanced to the first group and receives an increase of salary. The promotional examination for teachers of elementary schools consists of (i) an exami- nation in professional study, psychology, pedagogy, and history of education; (2) an examination in one of a number of academic subjects, such as English, any foreign lan- guage, physical, geographical, or biological science, manual training, household arts, draw- ing, music, etc. The mark of a teacher in the promotional examination is the average of the mark which she obtains in her academic subject, that obtained in the professional paper and the mark she has obtained for efficiency of service in the school. The average of these three must be eighty or above. A somewhat similar plan is carried out with reference to the promotion of principals of elementary schools and teachers in high schools. The system of promotional examinations has been in effect for three years. When first adopted, such a large number of teachers sought opportunity to take up various lines of study that it was found difficult to find teachers for them. To meet this difficulty, the board has adopted a plan of normal extension. According to this plan, wherever a group of teachers, in any part of the city, agrees to take up a certain line of study, the board furnishes the room necessary and provides a teacher free of charge. The plan has proved very popular and very successful. The work is carried on in various schoolhouses thru- out the dty, in the Chicago Normal School, and in various rooms in the central part of the dty. The enrollment of these classes at present numbers 3,025. This enrollment is much lower than it was some months ago, when it was found that some teachers had been enrolling in a number of classes and were doing more work than their strength per- mitted. As a consequence, a rule was adopted to the effect that no teacher could be enrolled in more than two classes. It is probable that in time the work will become so fully organized that credits in these classes will be substituted for a part or the whole of the examinations. By no means all the work done in these classes is for the sake of prepara- tion for examination, however. The classes are open to teachers in private schools as well as public schools. Many teachers are taking up the work who have already passed the pro- motional examinations, and many others are taking up classes of a sort which do not fit for the examinations. This is espedally true of such*work of the normal school instructors as deals directly with the proper presentation of various subjects in the school curricu- lum. This work, when presented to normal-school students, is often but little under- stood, because these students have no body of experience with which to interpret it, but to teachers of experience it is of the greatest value, because they see its bearing and are able to test its value at once in school work. 98 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee THE KANSAS CITY METHOD James M. Greenwood, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo. — ^In Kansas City our rules were revised in June, and a provision was made that after the fourth year of service, the salary being $720, an examination may be taken in professional subjects and literature, upon passing which, teachers shall be entitled to receive a salary of $760. After one year they shall be eligible to take a second examination, and, upon passing it, shall receive a salary of $800 for one year, and shall thereafter, upon recommendation from the superintendent's office, receive a salary of $825 per year with- out further examination. Eligible lists are made for appointment somewhat as in St. Louis, but power to appoint or dismiss rests with the board; the superintendent can only recommend. Records are kept of the teacher and her school, including the following particulars: 1. The Teacher. — Appearance in school; personal peculiarities; air of refinement; ability to secure co-operation of the pupils; special and general scholarship; power to hold attention and seou'e honest work; seeing all that is going on; skill in imparting and fixing instruction; mode of questioning and getting replies; assigning lessons; method of recita- tion; mastering points in detail; keeping school records; working for the good of the school; professional spirit and etiquette; disposition to improve. 2. The School. — Orderly and neat appearance; class and individual movements; pupils' attention to business; the character of pupils' work; care of school property. The promotional plan has led to a remarkable awakening. Classes of teachers have been organized, lecture courses arranged, syllabi of work prepared, and mental activ- ity aroused which indicates a genuine revival of learning in the city. THE LOWELL METHOD Miss Gertrude Edmund, Principal of the Training School for Teachers, Lowell, Mass. — I am not in sympathy with the sentiment that a merit system is applicable only to a large city. I believe it is just as necessary in a small city, and I know it is possible, for, in spite of strong opposition from politicians, the merit system has controlled the appointment of teachers in the elementary schools of Lowell for more than fifteen years. To take appoint- ments entirely out of politics, the Lowell Training School for Teachers was opened in 1899. At present we take into the school only college and normal-school graduates who have passed a satisfactory examination in mathematics and English, and have shown physical fitness and ability to teach. The examination is conducted by the superintendent of schools and the faculty of the training school and is open to graduates from any first-class college or normal school in the United States. Last year we had applicants from such colleges as Cornell, Vassar, Bryn Mawr, Radcliffe, Boston University, Smith, and Welles- ley. As the school was established to provide teachers primarily for the Lowell schools, the number of students in the entering class is limited to the demands made upon us by the city schools. The applicants admitted to the Training School are those who stand highest on the examination list. The course of study comprises one year's work in p>edagogy and actual charge of a room in the practice school. At the end of a year the teachers who are graduated are ranked according to character, ability to teach and discipline a school, and scholarship. There are three lists: primary, grammar, and high school. The substitute work is entirely in ^Jie hands of the principal of the Training School, and the teacher ranked first on the primary or the grammar list is the first to be sent out to substitute in primary or grammar work, and the first to be elected to a permanent place in these schools. In the high-school work the rule is slightly modified, providing for the appointment of Superintendence] CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 99 a teacher in the department of ph3rsics, for example, who has specialized along such lines,, rather than one who has made a special study of Latin or Greek. THE NEWARK METHOD Addison B. Poland, superintendent of schools, Newark, N. J. — I am asked to describe briefly the system employed in Newark, N.J. At the present time our board employs over fourteen himdred teachers. A rule provides that all appointments, promotions, and transfers shall be made only upon the recommendation of the superintendent; also, that the superintendent's recommendation shall be based upon the experience, merit, and fitness of candidates, to be ascertained as far as practicable from the records filed in his office. This necessitates a careful inquiry into the scholarship, merit, and fitness of all teachers in the employ of the board, as well as of candidates seeking positions. The first step toward providing an efficient merit system was the creation of a city board of examiners. This board consists of the city superintendent of schools, the princi- pal of the city normal school, the principal of the high school, and four others. The city superintendent is chairman ex officio of this board. By a provision of the state law, this board has the sole power to issue teachers' licenses in and for the dty of Newark. . Eligi- ble lists have been created by this board from time to time for positions of every grade. From these lists the superintendent makes his nominations when vacancies occur. Candi- dates are usually rated by the board of examiners upon the following basis: scholarship, 50 per cent.; experience, 25 per cent.; fitness, 25 per cent. Candidates for the lowest grade license who are graduates of a four-year high-school course and a two-year normal-school course, or of a college course, are exempt from written examination. All candidates, however, are required to pass an oral examination to deter- mine experience and fitness. In order to secmre reliable information as to class-room efficiency of teachers, reports are called for twice a year. Principals are required to send to the superintendent their estimates (ratings) of the efficiency of their teachers under two heads, namely, (a) instruc- tion and (6) discipline. Supervisors, both general and special, are required to make similar ratings. Teachers are grouped (rated) under the following heads: "excellent," "good," "satisfactory," "poor," and "failure." The first three groups of teachers are entitled to a stated increase in salary. About 95 per cent., generally speaking, of oiu: teachers are included in the first three groups. > Our salary schedules are based upon years of experience and grade of license. The maximum salary is reached at the end of five years. This salary is S750 for kindergarten teachers and teachers in grades I-VI, inclusive. To teach a seventh or eighth grade a candidate must obtain a first assistant's license. This license is given to those only (college graduates excepted) who pass a written exami- nation in certain academic studies. All must possess a satisfactory record for class-room efficiency. The maximum salary of this grade is $800 to $1,000. The next promotion grade is that of vice-principal, which is obtained in the same manner. The maximum sal- ary in this grade is $1,200. In all elementary grades men and women are paid alike. We have also a head assistant's license — a teacher in charge of a floor — who receives a maxi- mum salary of $900. The introduction of this system met with some opposition at first on the part of both principals and teachers; but it has steadily won favor, until today few, if any, of our teachers would be willing to go back to the old system, namely, "to get a promotion is to get it." Rarely, if ever, is the justice or wisdom of the superintendent's nomination from the eligible list challenged either in the board or outside the board. If a board of examiners is careful and impartial, so that its records of experience and fitness are to be relied upon, the superintendent will be able to make his nominations with impartiality and with reason- able certainty of general approval. lOO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [MOoEukee THE NEW YORK METHOD William H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools, New York dty — ^Let us not attempt to settle questions by a show of hands. At the dose of Supointendent Poland's remarks the question had been asked whether teadiers in higher grades should be paid higher salaries. A large majority indicated that there should be no distinction in salary with regard to grade below the high school. In New York there are three grades of salaries: the lowest, from the kindergarten to the sixth grade; the second, in the seventh and the first half of the eighth grade; the highest, in the upper half of the eighth grade. The lowest salary is $600 and increases annually by $40 thru the seventh year of service. The progress of the teacher and her work is then inspected, and the board of superintendents determines whether the particular teacher shall be advanced to a higher grade and salary. This is done again at the end of her twelfth year. The last advance is to $1,240. We beUeve that teachers do better work when confined to a specialty; therefore in the higher grades we have one teacher for English, another for history, etc. Our teachers are thus stimulated to aspire to broader knowledge and a higher grade of service. What we want in the teachers of today is knowledge of matter quite as much as knowledge of method. We must hold out the hope of advance and betterment to teachers; other- wise they are a disheartened lot. I desire to state that in New York, as in Kanftas City, with a merit system of promotion there has come a revival of learning. I was impressed with the suggestion of Mr. Van Sickle, that there may be a better way of secur- ing scholastic advancement of teachers than by resorting to the ordeal of protracted written examinations. DISCUSSION Claiience F. Carroll, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N. Y. — ^Superintendent Maxwell has described the system of promotion in the schools of the city of New York. If I understood Mr. Maxwell correctly, he stated that the tendency is for teachers to seek pro- motion from the lower grades to the higher grades in the elementary schools. The higher salaries paid in the upp>er grades would naturally have this effect. In consequence, the primary teacher would always be inclined to look forward to the day when by examination and by promotion she might leave the service of little children and aspire to teach children of the grammar grades. I must assume that the primary teacher in the New York schools regards herself from the first as performing only a temporary service, and that the best tal- ent cannot therefore be retained in the primary grades, for the ambitious and artistic teacher would eventually, attain her aim and secure her promotion. This proposition will, I am sure, appear to the average superintendent as a menace to the work in the early grades. It has been my experience, and I am quite sure it has been yours, that the first-grade teacher ought to be a good teacher. That is stating it mildly. I may put it in stronger terms and affirm that no service rendered to any hiunan being is higher than that of the successful primary teacher in the public schools and kindergarten. I shoiild be interested to know if Mr. Maxwell would place the same stimulus before kindergartners to lead them constantly to seek "advancement'* from their work. Cer- tainly in every community in which I have ever labored the work in the kindergarten and early grades has been regarded as a post of honor. This work calls not only for skill, but for culture, for insight, and for consecration. I should be compelled to say that any propo sition to discount the importance of this early work, any influence which would tend to make teachers doing such work dissatisfied and discontented, would be a public calamity. Under the influence of such a system as Mr. Maxwell has described it would not be just for us to blame teachers for seeking this so-called "advancement. " The theory itself Superintendence] CITY SUPERINTENDENTS lOI appears to me to be vicious, first, in that it places this service to little children relatively below that rendered to the older children, and, second, in that it would tend to destroy in the lives of a host of noble women the highest impulse ever given to woman, and to blight the sentiment that has so long dignified the kindergarten and primary schoolroom. It would, I believe, tend to put back the progress of the public-school system and the progress of civilization indefinitely, if these principles were to be generally adopted and acted upon. There are present many women supervisors, who are authorities in their work. They are our dependence and strong support, and their work is done more especially in that part of the school system where the highest efficiency and the finest results are usually attained, namely, in the primary grades. It is my earnest hop>e that some of these ladies may be called upton to carry forward this discussion. If we should hear oftener from the lady members of this department, especially when there is anything to be said that really has anything to do with the schoolroom, we should get much nearer to the heart of the ques- tion at issue. So much of our time is given to organization, and to other parts of the mere shell of our habitation, that it is comparatively seldom that they have the opportunity of joining in our discussions. I am certain, Mr. Chairman, that you will not fail to take advan- tage of their presence and of their wisdom. Miss Ellor £. Carlisle, Supervisor, public schools, Boston, Mass. — ^Primary teachers should be made to feel that they have the highest, noblest, and best-paid work that their qualifications open to them. All teachers should continue their habits of aca- demic study, for inspiration in their work, and for the renewal of their youth. I should like to see primary teachers receive an increase of salary after some years of work, on giving evidence of efficiency and scholastic advancement. The greatest thing this association can do is to forward the idea in the pubUc mind that appointment and promotion shoidd be only thru the merit system. Aaron Gove, ex-superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo. — Our agreement upon the desirability of the appointment of teachers upon merit is pronounced. It is difficult to understand how the superintendents can approve any other method. The larger part of the discussion relates to the application of such machinery as is necessary to execute the plan of appointment upon merit, chiefly upon examination, followed by confirmation based upon successful trial, according to the report of inspectors. Most of us are engaged in administering school S3rstems of cities of a hundred thousand people or less. The greater cities, which latterly are so admirably conducted, are scarcely profitable examples for the superintendents in smaller communities. The impersonality of the superintendent in Greater New York or Chicago has no place in the smaller jurisdictions. In a city of fifty thousand people the superintendent is a dis- tinct f>ersonality, known socially and politically to every inhabitant. In the initial exami- nation of a candidate, failure is met by individual remonstrance from the friends; then after a year's trial, if the reports concerning the novice do not justify a confirmation of the appointment, the superintendent is forced to meet people and discuss each case. How many of us are obliged to hear unanswerable questions from dear and influencial fnends — questions from which the superintendent of the great dty of New York is far removed: "Why was she not confirmed?" "Is not her scholarship proved by her certificate?" She has a good room; I have been in it. " " Miss B. and Mr. C. tell me she is superior. " Here is a petition signed by thirty of the mothers asking that she be retained. " " The other candidate, who is the daughter of an alderman, was confirmed. My friend has no aldermanic relation." One also hears from the judge, the senator, the ward "captain," and so on. Each one knows personally the superintendent; and so I submit that we need most, at a time like this, to hear how to remove the obstacles in the way whereby the super- intendent of the small dty seeks to base appointments upon merit. Inalienable rights are assumed to belong to the daughters and kinfolk of several dasses found in each community. Of such are "the man who has always paid taxes for the « (I I02 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Mihraukcc schools/' ** the man whose daughter went thru the schools, " " the man whose home is there, and who must have a living for his daughter/' " the clergymen of the great churches/' " the leading politicians," and the large class whose methods of intrigue are wickedly powerful when assaults are to be made upon the school management, and who threaten seriously to harm the whole structure, unless the given candidate be assigned to a position. These intimations will be recognized in some smaller cities as obstacles in the proper execution of appointing teachers upon merit — and they are not encouraging. Greater New York stands as. the shining monument today of proper methods of appointment successfully accomplished, but even there frequent threats are already heard from unfriendly poUtical powers. Vernon L. D avey, city superintendent, East Orange, N. J. — ^A large majority of the members in attendance are from cities having a population of less than seventy-five thou- sand. To be of value to them, the discussion should embrace the following points: (i) the source of supply; (2) the method of selection; (3) the appointing power; (4) promotion of teachers. 1. It is not customary or necessary for small cities to maintain training schools. The product of the state normal schools should be sufficient in quantity and much better quali- fied. The source of supply should be unlimited as regards area. Each schoolroom is for the benefit of forty-five children, not for the benefit of one young woman. Home talent should receive equal consideration with that from other localities, but not greater. 2. All appointments should be made on the nomination of the superintendent, who should be given unlimited control. In the smaller cities he should be expected to nominate only those persons of whose ability and qualifications he is morally certain. To insure this, he should be given the privilege of visiting candidates in their schoolrooms, and should be expected to use the privilege. 3. The nomination of the superintendent should guarantee appointment by the board of education. This in effect gives him appointing power. 4. Promotion may be in salary or grade, or both. If salaries are equal in all grades up to the highest in the grammar schools, as I think they should be, but few teachers will care to be advanced in grade. Increase in salary should, in my opinion, be by schedule, with the consideration that there shall be no advance at the end of any year if the principal and superintendent do not agree in recommending the teacher as having done at least good average work. The above plan is in operation in East Orange, a city of 25,000 people. The chief obstacles are two: first, the overcoming of the demand for places for home talent; second, the increased cost if nonresident teachers are employed. A judicious and well-balanced superintendent should be able, by his own efforts and the influences that he can bring to bear, so to mold the sentiment of the members of the board of education, and thru them the community, that these methods of appointment will be approved by the taxpayers and the necessary funds will be provided. A. B. Blodgett, superintendent of schools, Sjracuse, N. Y. — It is certainly gratifying to find the merit system in such general use; it is still more gratifying to find such remark- able unanimity of sentiment in favor of it. I rise to question whether a system that seeks to reward merit can rely wholly on examination, even in, first appointment. Scholastic attainments and professional preparation are good, but they are not all. The personality and character of the candidate are to be considered, and that fine thing called teaching power which cannot be weighed in the scales of an examination, whether oral or written. It seems to me that there are three things to be considered in rating teachers for appointment: (i) scholastic and professional preparation; (2) character and physical fit- ness; (3) efficiency in the schoolroom; and two things for which teachers should be rewarded by promotion: (i) marked and increasing efficiency; (2) professional improvement by scholastic advancement. Superintendence] MANUAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 103 James L. Hughes, inspector of schools, Toronto, Can. — ^In Canada we have not this problem. It is solved for us by the government. Everything there is on the civil-service basis. Teachers are trained in government schools, and inspected and graded by educa- tional experts in the employ of the government. There is no outside influence whatever. MANUAL TRAINING IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JAMES PARTON HANEY, DIRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING, BOROUGHS OF MAN- HATTAN .\ND THE BRONX, NEW YORK CITY The term "manual training" has no weU-defined meaning, and in con- sequence no well-defined practice. Some think of it only as constructive work ; others, as motor training in general. At the present time, in the higher coun- cils of its advocates, there is an active debate on the question of how far the natural activities of the child shall determine the industries he pursues in the elementary school. Both sides agree that the child must have manual work in abundance, if he is properly to develop. Both sides agree also that his natural interests must be consulted in determining what special phases of manual work he is to do. But one side holds that his natural activities form a reliable guide to the industries which he should undertake, while the other protests that no activities seen in school are really natural. All rise more or less, say they, in response to the stimulus of the teacher; therefore they urge that stimulus be given to lead to interest in those activities which now make up the world's work. The first would give the child insight into the history of man's rise; the second would prepare him for future work in the world. Faint echoes of this discussion have reached the class-rooms wherein elementary teachers are essaying to present the diflFerent phases of manual work. As a discussion they look upon it as theoretic and of small concern, while they turn to their inmiediate superiors for specific directions as to the manner in which they are to treat the practical problems which the arts present. Whether they solve the latter well or ill depends largely upon the teaching of these leaders and upon the standards which they erect. But leaders are fallible. Many a superintendent regards all motor work as "special," and is content to turn it over to a special teacher to organize and develop as best she may. But special teachers, as a rule, come to their task with training limited and one-sided. They are ill advised as to the imder- lying principles of the curriculiun, and believe that success lies in keeping their special subject intact. To this end they labor, striving by isolation to magnify its importance. Thus there results much manual work taught in a manner not justified by sound pedagogy. Often there is an attempt to distinguish sharply between related activities. Art and manual training are held apart, despite the fact that they are to the little child common means for expression — concrete, graphic expression. Thus the first canon in the manual- I04 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee training creed is violated. This states that drawing, construction, and design form the manual arts — one subject — and as such should be developed. Many reasons urge this identity. The arts are necessary to one another in practice. They cannot be successfully taught apart. Knowledge of drawing is needed in design, and knowledge of design in construction. The teaching of exer- cises— ^art for art's sake — should not be tolerated. The beauty the child learns should be beauty for use. Design unapplied is jejune and pointless; construction without art is an offense. Developed apart, the arts suffer. Their natural relations are obscured and their technical requirements exalted. Each appears to exist only for the cultivation of some peculiar skill. Such teaching is a mistake; it exalts the technical ideal. Whenever rapidity and skill aire sought at the expense of original expression, one recognizes worship of this ideal. It accepts, even seeks, the smooth product of automatic performance. It praises exercises which have required hours of mechanical work, tho they may not have had given to them ten minutes of actual thinkings It axlheres to rigid sequences, despite the fact that neither the child's interest nor his imderstonding conform to steps so ordered. Overemphasis upon the technical side violates another canon. This declares that the arts must be made developmental, not technical in aim; that they must be offered in each stage of the child's growth with sjSedfic con- sideration of his characteristics in that stage, and of the changes he must undergo before he can advance to the next higher stage. TedmicaU ideals look to the product; developmental ideas, to the producer. We may distinguish three growth periods in the child's life. From the sixth to the ninth year he develops thru sensory channels. His language is limited, and drawing and making form his chief means of expression. From nine to twelve his interests multiply. Expression thru speech becomes more free. His brain reaches its maximum size, and a desire for motion and things in motion becomes marked. Difficult muscular adjustments are now easily acquired, and habits of action readily fixed. The period from the twelfth to the fourteenth year sees the pupil pass from childhood to adolescence. The girl precedes the boy by a year or nDK>re. In this change nature shows to us a mystery. Striking alterations occur in the child's physical and mental make-up. As a child he was a sensory being; as an adolescent he is a sensitive one. He rises now to heights of appre- ciation and understanding quite beyond his power to express; to him may be presented those aesthetic relations heretofore beyond his comprehension. The arts on the {^ysical side make a direct response to each of the periods named above. Arrest of motor development follows a failure to offer them at the i^oper time and in the proper manner. If they are begun and aban- doned, a distinct atrophy of the developed power occiurs. As educational ele- ments they require early presentation and constant use. On the mental side they conserve individuality. They foster personal and Superintendence] MANUAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 105 not mass instruction. They necessitate constant judgment concerning form and pattern. They seek initiative and self-expression, and markedly stimulate ^ the imagination. They deal with concrete ideas and concrete things, and thus aid to build up that apperceptive background to which the child must relate all that he truly learns. The arts, besides, act as a moral or disciplinary agent thru the periods of development. They cultivate habits of cleanliness, system, and order. They inculcate perseverance, and hold up ideals of self-reliance and honesty. They lead by interest and are undertaken wiUingly— with avidity. Discipline in their presence becomes more natural and rational; the atmosphere of the schoolroom is made by them less formal. They give pleasure in their doing, and serve thus to balance outside attractions. They are of marked service in keeping the child in school. The specialization and segregation of the arts tend to violate another impor- tant principle of their teaching. This principle defines them as socializing agents ci marked service in revealing to the child his physical environment. The arts naturally relate themselves to the life about the pupil and help disclose to him his relations to his fellows. They develop social action and lend them- selves to joint or communal work. Their exercises are never so interesting as when they offer results of service in the class-room or the home, or when they meet the child's interest in the world outside the school, by reflecting in minia- ture the tools and a^^liances used in real life. The sodal conscience may be best wakened in tlie little child in this way. The interests of the arts are so varied, and their forms of expression so various, diat they give in their pursuit too many points of view. Such social impres- sions react as expressions, and the good teacher will seek to have the chUd make such reaction habitual. Never is the drawing or the making so interesting as when it responds to some present need. Those who seek to develop technical ideals are apt to ignore or slight this fact. They endeavor to secure well-finished exercises, and to this end require copy after copy for practice sake. In so doing they traverse a fovuth canon of sound teaching. This requires that in the arts the element of reality appear; it demands that they concern themselves with real processes and real things. The child passes thru the symbolic stage at the threshold of school life. Later his play spirit may lead him to many games of make-believe; but even in his games he seeks reality wherever he can find it. In school it is important that he be not asked to undertiake work the meaning of which he does not understand. The arts frown on formal expression built upon a basis of dictation and command, and robbed of all motive save that of fear. Real reasons should move the child to his work. Each exercise should have behind it intelligent purpose and before it concrete achievement. Formal stq>s to develop any process must be followed by an opportunity for free expression; for a chance, that is, to do original work in which the new process Io6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee appears. Thru formal training and practice exercises the child never gains the incentive to application; he never acquires conscious power to use his drawing, design, or construction to definite purpose. He may learn to make ^ a neat drawing or model; but this, however attractive it may seem, has served small purpose if it has not the child's own thought in it. Conscious power comes when the products of the child's labor are tangible and useful. In the earlier years immediate results are necessary, but at the dose of the pre- adolcscent period the child is prepared to accept practice as necessary to technical exceUence. Technique is a subject which demands **a background of actual experience." The child should learn to look ujwn original expres- sion as the goal of aU preparation. The aim of technical training should be to put the child in a position to use his knowledge for practical and personal ends. The skill taught should appear of real worth, the beauty as a positive excellence to be sought in aU constructive and decorative expression. The plans drawn should be for ser- vice; so should the designs and the constructed forms. In short, every phase of practice of the arts should be instinct with reality. Four principles have been presented as guides in teaching. To these must be added a fifth. This sees the error of allowing the arts, even*as a well- co-ordinated group of subjects, to remain a group separated from the other subjects of the curriculum. As a principle, this requires that the relation between the arts and other branches be made direct and intimate. The arts should act in the spirit of service. They shovdd help in teaching, lending interest thru doing, and aiding to give concrete form and shape to cloudy mental images. To find the various ways in which they may thus assist in the development of language, nature study, number, and other school interests is the business of class and special teacher. Some courses of study look to them as central subjects, while some admit them only as related topics: but whether developed from within or related from without, it must be the busi- ness of the teacher to see that they lend themselves to the teaching of all phases of the curriculum. There is no surer way than this of identifying them as essentials. One who has once discovered their power to make vivid and direct her teaching in other subjects will not again attempt to teach without them. Five of the principal tenets of the manual-training creed have been dted. Put into a single statement, these declare that the arts are one — that they are part of the birthright of the little child, and should form, as developmental and socializing agents dealing directly with use and beauty, an integral part of the course of study he pursues. How, in the light of the prindples, would they appear in the ideal school? In the first or primary stage we should not find them as separate subjects at all. We should discover them being used, as a means of teaching, as agents injecting the concrete into many subjects of the curriculum. We should find the teacher constantly turning to her drawing and her making, in Saperintendence] MANUAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 107 connection with her langiiage work, her folklore tales, her nature study, her number lessons, and the like. The arts would be, as it were, dissolved in the curriculmn, serving constantl}' as modes of teaching, as means for secur- ing the child's personal expression. Some of the children's work would deal with those occupations which have busied man thru the centuries, but such piursuits would appear, not as devices presented for the sake of ha\*ing the pupil reconstruct the primitive industry, but rather as instruments giving him insight into the simplest elements of the life about him. Thru such work we should find him learning his uwn social setting, his studies turning about those things — food, shelter, and clothing — which make for his comfort and sustenance. Technical accuracy thruout these years we should find subordinated. The work done would require no fine muscular adjustments. None of it would be small — ^trying both to sight and fingers — ^and none mechanical, leading to hours of automatic performance in braiding or weaving. The materials used would be many. Original expression would constantiy be evident. The things made would belong to their makers. With the children of the pre-adolescent stage we should not find as marked emphasis on free expression thru drawing and construction. With such pupils, the arts would be found serving as agents giving precision of haudUng, and of self-control. Many processes would appear in the class-room — drawing, painting, cutting, pasting, sewing, binding; envelopes, calendars, booklets, etc.; all in use in developing concrete forms of immediate value. We should find, too, the pupil's rising critical sense being employed to determine the necessity for drill, and drills being undertaken as failures showed the need of them. Higher in the school we should find the children well advanced in knowl- edge of processes, the boys in the school shop, and their sisters studying the principles of domestic economy in the school kitchen. Plans we should find being used in the shop — ^plans made by workers busy in carrying them out. At times we should find the boy working in individual fashion; at other times as one of a group employed on some elaborate model for the school. Applied designs, too, of no little beauty, we should find him making and using. His knowledge of both construction and design should appear in the simple lines of his self-planned model and in the suitability of the decoration designed for it. The fourteenth year should find our pupil with his elementary school life completed. He stands with his native interests heightened by cultivation. His hand is gifted with no little skill. He can perform some score of operations and is familiar with some score of tools. He will make for you a simple plan and use it. He can design a simple decoration and apply it. He has com- pleted, during his school life, half a hundred models or more— books, toys, home utensils, and simple pieces of scientific apparatus. Thru his work he has conceived a strong constructive bent and has learned to see the world about him as a constructive world. He has had wakened in him an aesthetic Io8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Mihra»kee sense, has had his eyes opened to beauty. He has learned to know it thru search- ing for it to discover fiine lines, harmonious proportions, and fitting decorations. Above all, he has had revealed to him himself; he knows something of the power which lies in his creative brain and in his dexterous hand, something of his own ability to mold and shape the environment in which he lives. Thus the arts have served their purpose as essential elements to his elementary schooling. We have stated our theory and pictured our ideal. The question that remains is to state how this ideal may become real, how this theory is to be made practice. If one is at perfect liberty to organize a course of study, the theory may be followed closely, and we may make the arts central, using them as forms of indvistrial and social activity from which aU the other work of the class- room proceeds. Certain isolated schools have thus developed them. Such development leads to perfect imity in the coiurse of study. Another method of affecting close relationships is to organize the general curricuhim on the culture-epoch plan. Here the pupil in studying the lives of primitive peoples faces man's elemental needs for food, shelter, and cloth- ing. In such a curriculum the arts spring from the child's study of primitive occupations, from essential elements in his re-solution of the first great prob- lems of his kind. It will be noted that these two plans represent in practice the beliefs of the two parties in the debate to which reference has been made. Both develop the arts as essentials; but the first makes them central, presenting them as activities evoked in response to a study of immediate surroundings; while the second sees them as forms of industry which must be studied if the child is to re-live the life-history of the race. Both plans have advantages; but it is not the purpose to discuss their relative merits. Courses of study which follow the lines indicated are not conotmon. To the great majority of teachers the problem of the arts is to relate them to a curriculiun organized in manner suggested by the Report of the Committee of Fifteen. Five co-ordinate branches, present themselves in such a curriculum, the greater emphasis being upon language. To relate the arts directly to these branches, it is necessary that in the early years cer- tain centers be selected, to which the drawing, construction, and design may be immediately referred. Many such centers offer in language work, nature study, geography, etc., the first course of study at hand suggesting the follow- ing in its syllabus on English: First year — pla3rthing9, pets, games, outings. Second year — the home, occupations, holidays, and seasons. Third year — Readings on the Indians, Eskimo, Arab, Dutch, and Chinese. Around each of these may be gathered the work of a week or more, as each gives rise to a variety of lessons in drawing, construction, and design. In a practical development of this scheme the writer has seen the work of a third-year class revolve for several weeks about the hero Hiawatha. The Superintendence] CHtLD LABOR I09 Story was read and talked about, the hard words spdled, the scenes illustrated in graphic fashion. The tepees, canoes, weapons, moccasins, snow-shoes, and the like were made of simple materials, and suitable designs were thought out and applied. The whole series of lessons was alive. The children vied with one another in offering suggestions for possible use in drawing or making. Their keen attention followed as their interest led. In the higher grades it will not be found possible to relate the arts, as direcdy as in the lower, to other branches of the curriculum. It is now a matter of having the pupil express himself thru the arts, as of having him skillfully construct some form of use and permanent value. A great variety of such forms are to be developed about school and home. The school offers opportunity for the making of various communal or group models in con- nection with the study of science, nature study, geography, and mathematics. Other very satisfactory exercises will be those which gather some score of lessons in free-hand and mechanical drawing, in color, design, and construc- tion around a form, useful in the class-room or needed in the home. Various questions regarding materials and methods must here perforce remain undiscussed. Those relating to expense may be briefly considered and dismissed. A liberal school board means the possibility of working in many media; an economical one means that pencil and paper must suffice, with such additional material as the children themselves are in a position to furnish. It is, however, to be imderstood that the spirit of the creed which has been presented may be maintained, however liberal or meager the supplies. This spirit looks to see the arts in use, helpful, vivifying. Understood, it makes possible their successful development as well in the one-room country school as in the great city system. This spirit must find expression as well in the office of the school superintendent as in the class-room of the lowest grade. Thus do we return to our first proposition. Failure in the arts must lie at the door of the school officer who leaves them as specialties to work out their way alone. Success comes to him who studies them, and who causes his teachers to study them — ^in their relations. That curriculimi will develop best in which they are taught by those who comprehend their peculiar power, and who have been led to employ them directly, and in personal fashion. Success in the arts is to be measured in terms of use. They must be taught for use and not for show. CHILD LABOR JANE ADDAMS, HULL-HOUSE, CHICAGO [an abstract] The labor of little children has never been so valuable to the business world as in the past twenty-five years, fifty, or 100 years, if you choose. The heavy work which formerly required a man's strength is now done by machin- no NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION fMOwaukec ery which a child may guide, and so we have the temptation to use the labor of little children, because they can be obtained at less wage. Gradually in England there have been made, since 1832, simple legislation against the evils of child labor. The evil has gone on into the third generation now, and child labor is almost 100 years old. Many of our states have very defective laws, if any at all, with regard to child labor. In Pennsylvania they are inadequate; children over thirteen years can work aU day and all night. There are more children under the age of sixteen at work in the Pennsylvania mines and factories than in all of the cotton states of the south. We wonder why the public conscience is so slow to take up this question. There are many reasons. One line of responsibility lies with the educators. So rapidly as the children have left the schoolroom the educators have lost all interest and responsibility, and have turned the children over to the business world. K they do their full duty to the children within the four walls of the schoolroom, they feel they have no further duty or responsibility. Industry is constantiy wearing out the children at the period of their lives when they possess abnormal strength, a strength that should naturally go into growth and development. The state furnishes vastiy expensive public school buildings and systems of education, and then, when the child leaves school, merely because the state laws offer no protection to the child against this premature labor, the state must afterward resume their care when they are worn out and thrown aside. And the factories are constantiy saying to the schools: "Give us more> we have worn out and used up that which you gave." It is a fact that children employed in these heartless factories, if they live at all, are broken, absolutely crippled, and imable to work and support themselves after they have reached years of manhood and womanhood, and must be supported in the public asylums and hospitals. Children are com- mercially most advantageous between fourteen and eighteen years, for most employments. If this great body of public school instructors had been interested in the children as citizens, they would have asked, "What becomes of the children after they leave the schoolhouse door?" Is there such a thing as regulating hours of labor, such a thing as continuing instruction, preparing them for citizenship? What are we doing to protect them? Teachers are only one factor in the problem, but we have a right to expect more help from them than the past child labor ca'mpaigns have shown. In Virginia the children cannot go to work until they are thirteen, are guarded then and allowed to work but certain short hours, and prohibited from injuri- ous industries imtil twenty-one. There is getting to be a strong sentiment in the United States that we have banked too long on the quantity of our products, and that we will soon be required to judge our work by its quality instead. We must protect and Superintendence] CHILD LABOR III educate our children in order to raise up the trained, skilled workmen necessary to the product of fine qualities. • The child is waked up when he leaves the routine of the school and begins to earn money. When that takes place prematurely, we have a boy-man, without the initiative of the man, or his reliability, but with an aggressiveness bom of his pride in being an earner. He is unable to make the connection between what he learned in school and what he sees in the factory. K we could only get hold of him when the amount earned is all his pride, if the schools could only assmne that many of the children are going into the fac- tories, and give them a little of what the factory life means! We have allowed industry to modify education more than education has modified industry. We are cowards if we will not acknowledge the effect of prematiure labor on premature child workers. The compulsory education and factory laws are coming together more and more, and in some places where both are good and well enforced they are working marvelously together. Thus we get a faint idea of what would happen if educators would remain interested in the child until he tumbled into his grave, and if he tiunbled into his grave prematurely would feel in a measure responsible. It is too true that factory inspectors in many states are but too easily influenced by commercial interests. The enthusiasm of the American schoolmaster would carry him over into the child labor agitation for the protection of the child very quickly if he were once interested. DISCUSSION Lawton B. Evans, superintendent of schools, Augusta, Ga. — ^I am in intimate contact with the conditions that have been referred to by Miss Addams, and the improvement of which should be the care of every superintendent of a mill community. The question arises before us: What shall we do after the mills exclude the children, and compulsory education laws force them upon our hands ? What kind of education should we provide for them? I do not believe that manual training, as we know it, quite meets the case of the factory child. The whir of wheels has already drowned the sweet voice of life, and the tool has already cut away all the joys of existence. What they really need is less of machinery and tools, and more of books, music, pictures, flowers, and the spiritual side of life. Allow me to tell you of a model home enterprise, at a minimum of cost, and at a maxi- mum of adjustment to the real needs in the life of the factory child. Near one of the large factory schools in our city a house was rented, by the teachers, just such as the children live in — ^no more no less. It was painted, inside and out, roof and all, in artistic color; it was furnished with kitchen, dining-room, sewing-room, and library furniture — ^just the cheap but dainty sort that every family ought to have. The equipment of pictures, bric-k-brac, and curtains was inexpensive, but in perfect taste. The girls are taught the woman's side of housekeeping, decorating, cooking, sewing, and whatever else belongs to her sphere as a home-keeper. The boys are taught the man's side of home-keeping — ^protection, provision, repairs, gardening, wood-work. The read- ing-room is open all afternoons for reading and simple games. The design at large is to 112 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee teach pupils, who soon will have homes of their own, the real meaning of a wholesome, attractive hom^ and all without expense beyond their means. How eagerly their starved natures have responded is evident by the crowded classes, by the willingness to do and pro- vide, and by the great pride they are showing in their handiwork. I do not know of any better work than this for children of the factory who have their afternoon hours free. MANUAL TRAINING IN THE SECONDARY GRADES AND IN COLLEGES CALVIN M. WOODWARD, DEAN OF THE SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHI- TECTURE, WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, ST. LOUIS. MO. Manual training, properly so calied, is from its very nature and content a secondary-school subject, and the cdleges and technical schools should rele- gate it to secondary sdiools, and should recognize a full course of manual training as a preparatory study. In other words, they should treat manual training as they now treat algebra, geometry, and Latin grammar. This change cannot be made immediately, since but a small part of the high schools and academies have full coiurses of manual training, and as it is an essential preparation for technical schools, the latter must supply it until the high schools are equipped. The logic of my suggestion is readily seen. In a technical school the pupils need a knowledge of materials, tools, and processes in their laboratory work. Take, for instance, the laboratory of engineering, in which the pupils come immediately in contact with engineering appliances, with machines for testing the strength and elasticity of materials, with hydraulic apparatus, with electrical appliances, with ventilating machines, and with mechanical inventions of all kinds which involve theory as well as practice. All such work requires continual use of mechanical knowledge and skill; adjustments must be made; pieces must be fitted; and auxiliary apparatus must be con- structed. While this work is going on, it is a dead waste of time to stop to learn the use of tools. One might as well stop to learn the rules of arithmetic while performing the duties of an accountant, or elementary algebra and geometry and calculus while solving problems in applied mechanics. No, manual training is strictly preparatory work — preparatory to a great many things, and especially to the laboratories of a technical school, as well as to a thousand and one operations in practical life. In what I shall say further please remember that I am thinking and talking of pupils who are not less than fourteen years of age, and who may be eight- een or twenty years of age. I am not thinking of little boys, but of those who have considerable physical maturity, physical strength, some knowledge of algebra and perhaps of geometry, and who are quite familiar with mechanical drawing. They are supposed to be able to read drawings readily, and to make projections, sections, and developments, as may be required. Superintendence] MANUAL TRAINING IN GRADES AND COLLEGES 113 I regret that I must confine myself, during the few minutes in which I am permitted to speak, to manual training for boys, excluding the girls; but I wish it understood that girls can with almost equal .profit take all the wood- work and all the drawing that the boys take. Such subjects are highly educational, very interesting, very helpful in their studies, and extremely serviceable later on. I assume that every boy in the secondary school takes manual training for at least one year. Every boy owes it to himself to take it, and we owe it to him to give it. When properly taught, it opens up a new field, and it furnishes educational opportunity that no one can afiford to miss. After a year of such work the secondary schools should differentiate between those which have manual training and those which have none. I do not approve of pupils taking "occasional" shop lessons; that is, join- ing a class of "regulars" whenever they feel like it, or whenever they have time, and confessedly doing less than the full amount of work in it. Such work is very disappointing, and such students are very demoralizing to a class. Manual training should be treated with respect. The student should be held to strict account, and his work should be graded and counted as other work is graded and counted. Both the appliances for manual training and the nature of the work itself depend upon the purpose of manual training. What is its great object and aim ? If we ginswer that question, it will be easy to specify how best to secure what we are aiming at. The object of manual training is mastery — mastery of the external world, mastery of tools, mastery of materials, mastery of processes. Only recently have the mechanical arts been studied, analyzed, and arranged in logical order for the purpose of being taught. It was formerly assumed without argument that the only way to learn to use tools and to master materials and mechanical processes was to go into a shop as an apprentice, or associate one's self with workmen engaged in the execution of ordinary .commercial work. The idea of putting the mechanic arts into a school and teaching them step by step was a new thought, just as it was a new thought when law, medical, naval, and military schools took the place of the court-room, the doctor's office, the deck of a ship, and a military camp. But the world has made progress in educational matters during the last fifty years, and in nothing more emphatically than in this one item of teaching the mechanic arts. You will notice that I am not thinking of future occupations so much as I am of a general preparation for life, altho I do recognize that not only the ndustries, but the physical, the chemical, the biological, the engineering, the architectural, the dental, and the medical laboratory — all need manual training in their preparatory courses. Manual training leads up to all studies, and it shuts nothing out. On the other hand, it opens the doors, and lifts the shades which hide or obscure the activities of the world in which we live. Many mistakes have been made, arising from a wrong notion of the object 114 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee of manual training. Hence in one locality manual training has a strong tendency to nm into trade work; in another it runs into art work; in another it runs into the factory idea and aims at production rather than education. Some people fancy that manual labor is the same thing as manual training. We are frequently told that the boy from the farm has had manual training; and it is true he has had some manual training, but he has had a great deal of manual labor along with it. I know because I was a farm boy and learned everything that could be learned on a farm previous to my college course. I learned to use correctly the hoe, the shovel, the plow, the scythe, the cradle, and to swing an ax; but I never learned the proper use of bench tools, nor had we a machine tool of any kind. I knew nothing of drawing, nothing of the mechanic arts, properly so called. Nineteen-twentieths of my time was spent simply in hard labor, which had no education in it beyond the study of crops and soils, and the market. Manual training would have been of great value, and a few lessons would have saved me much time and much money. Recentiy I heard a gentleman from New York city, who evidently had seen somewhere a kind of manual training that was of very little value, say that a boy would learn more about the use of tools in half an hour by watch- ing a good workman than he would learn in a month in a manual-training school. No man could have made that remark if he had seen manual training, properly so called, for the very thing which he wanted he would have found in a good manual-training school. He would have seen an expert workman using his tools correctly, treating his material correctly, and follo¥dng the details of a process in logical order. He would have heard every step fully explained, seen every movement shown and justified; and then, in addition to the demonstration and the explaining, he would have seen that the boy himself had an opportimity to test the methods and to acquire something of the same skill and mastery. That is exacdy what a manual-training school is for. The teacher is put there to teach. He is put there to explain and analyze, to illustrate, and to show how to solve mechanical problems. I am reminded of a remark made to me recently by a gentleman in middle life, a very excellent carpenter, whom I saw watching my boys, twenty-four of them, at work making their first weld in the forging shop. He seemed intensely interested as he watched one of the young men at his work. I said: "You seem to like to see the boys work. Do you understand what they are doing ? " "Yes," said he, " I worked a year once in a blacksmith shop." "Well," said I, "then I suppose this operation of welding is a very simple matter to you." "Not at all," said he; "I never made a weld in my life. I never got a chance. I kindled the fire and blew the bellows, and I did some striking for other men; but they never let me try to make a weld." Then he added, with a good deal of feeling: "These boys learn more in one week about the really essential art of forging than I learned in half a year." And the secret of it is they have a thoroly skilled workman who is competent both to teach and to demonstrate every principle involved. Superintendencel MANUAL TRAINING IN GRADES AND COLLEGES IIS The factory idea has done nothing but harm in manual training. It has resulted in a great waste of time and a great loss of interest and respect. A teacher once said to me that he had had what they called manual training during his freshman year. Among other things, he said he was shown how to make a wooden hat-rack with a variety of pins and joints, and he foimd the work interesting and profitable while he made a single hat-rack to fasten to a wall. "But," said he, "after I had learned all there was in it, I was told to make six more hat-racksl They had received an order for six, and I must make them. I rebelled and said it would be a great waste of time on my part. I wanted the time to be learning something new; but they had the order, and I had to fill it." The correct course is to abandon a process the moment one has mastered it, and go forward to the mastery of a new one. In that way every day is a step forward, and the pupil never has the feeling of a waste of time. Now for the appliances. As I have already clearly intimated, the most important appliance in manual training is the teacher. To be sure, he is an expert mechanic, but he is a great deal more than an expert mechanic. He is a weU-educated man, familiar with mechanical drawing; famiUar with elementary physics; familiar with algebra and geometry; and withal a man who can both talk and write good English. He must be a bom teacher, logical, clear; and he must understand boys and understand what they are in his shop for; that they are not there to fill orders, to execute work, or to have the tools taken out of their hands and their exercises done for them; he is to teach them how to do the exercises. He is to show them the whai and the how and the why every time. The first teacher I ever engaged to teach tool-work — and that was thirty years ago — ^was reputed to be the best workman in St. Louis. He utterly failed as a teacher. He could see only one object in all that he and his pupils were doing, and that was the finished article; and again and again he found it very much easier to do the work himself than it was to teach the boys to do it; and, besides that, his work was much better than theirs and made a much better showing. I discharged him within two months of his engagement. Secondly, the shop or tool laboratory where manual training is to be taught must be large, light, and wholesome. It must not be relegated to the base- ment. It must be furnished with blackboards, blue prints, charts, and com- plete benches and outfits of tools for the individual pupils. In the case of edge tools, which the pupil should be taught to keep in perfect order, each pupil should have his individual set, and for these he should be strictly responsible. Only imusual and occasional tools should be represented by single specimens and kept in charge of the teacher. I object to a very expensive outfit, and to outfits which attempt to rival commercial establishments. I know of. two or three manual-training schools in the East which have shops fitted, as I think, in a very extravagant and unnecessary manner. The men in charge have designed their outfits, not Il6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee from, an educational standpoint, but from a conunercial standpoint. Accord- ingly they are prepared to undertake work luinecessarily large and unneces- sarily special in character. The fundamental principles can be taught at comparatively little expense, and it is not wise to make arrangements for the construction of show pieces, and often it is foolish and wasteful to build appliances for the shop itself. The shops I recommend are wood-working shops in which ordinary bench tools are used, where a variety of hard and soft lumber is wrought upon, and where the fundamental principles of workmanship are taught; secondly, a wood-turning shop, which is always a pattern shop, where opportunities for learning the complete alphabet of steps in wood-turning are provided; thirdly,, the first metal shop, in which n^etals are heated and thereby made ductile and pliable. The fundamental processes of a forging shop are very few in number, altho their appUcations are countless; but these fundamental processes must be learned step by step, studying all the while the degree and influence of heat, and the behavior of iron and steel when heated, and heated to different degrees. There is so much in a forging exercise for the learner to master that it is better to di\dde it, the first step being a question of form and of manipulation; the second, a question of heat and the flow of metal under the hammer. The first can be learned with an extremely ductile metal like lead; the second* with hot iron and then with hot steel. Up to this time forging shops have been largely equipped in the old- fashioned way, with coal forges and a blast. The new forge will be a gas forge, where a mixture of gas and air is driven by a pressure blower, producing exactly the heat required with a minimum expenditure of time and dirty work. I am at the present time equipping a forging shop for twenty-four students, the outfit being twenty forges for the students, partly gas and partly coke, and a coke forge for the instructor. I may say here that the appliances for instruction should be of the best sort. It is the function of the teacher to teach both the art and the science of the art, and he must have the best of opportunities for doing so. It. is a popular fallacy to assume that the master- workman, who is skilled in the use of the best tools, is relatively imskilled and helpless in the presence of but a few tools and those inferior. Similarlv, is it held to be a truism that the accomplished cook, who is familiar with the cooking appHances of a mod- em first-class hotel, would utterly fail if put into an ordinary kitchen with a coal stove and a common kitchen outfit. In point of fact, both assumptions are totally wrong. The true expert is always an expert, whether in tuxedoes or jumpers; in a palace of machinery, or shipwrecked on a desert island; and his skill is never more apparent than when he makes poor tools seem like good ones, and when he gives to narrow appliances a range which the untrained plodder never dreamed of. Did you ever hear a first-class organist perform on a third-class organ, and did he not make it talk and sing thru all its octaves in a manner most surprising? Superintendence] MANUAL TRAINING IN GRADES AND COLLEGES 117 Brazing and soldering are arts which involve the behavior of certain alloys when heated, and they can be readily taught with few appliances, either in the pattern shop or in the forging shop. The fourth shop is the molding and casting shop, where the use of patterns is fully illustrated, and the methods of making molds are mastered so far as the elements go. The process of molding and casting determines many of the details of patterns, and the pupil learns how patterns must be divided; what cores are for, and how they are made; and what core-prints are, and how they are used. The quality of a mold is determined by filling it with a liquid which readily solidifies, and thus takes on the form of the mold itself. The liquid may be thin plaster-paris, or molten lead, or an alloy. I do not recommend iron or steel casting, inasmuch as it is very expensive to test molds with such metals, and it is almost impossible to work successfully with small quantities of mate- rial. If the school uses large quantities, there is a great deal of coarse labor and expense which is not justified by the educational result. Commercial work should never be thought of in a school. In practical life a great many things are cast in molds, such as works of fine art in bronze, in plaster, in brass, and other alloys; as well as in iron and steel in the industries. It is a great mistake to multiply simple castings the patterns for which are borrowed or constructed elsewhere. For example, a purchased medallion in low relief may be molded and cast with littie difficulty and the product put up as an evidence of "art work" on the part of the students, when really there is but a minimum of art work in it — ^no more art work than there would be in molding and casting a plane geometrical soUd. The most expensive shop of all is the fourth, in which the use of tools for cut- ting and fitting'the harder metals without the assistance of heat is learned. This is ordinarily known as the "machine shop," inasmuch as the tools are largely machine tgols of considerable complexity, altho there is always a certain pro- portion of bench work connected with all machine work. It is in this shop that we find the most elaborate, the highly scientific, appliances, and it is a fine educational achievement for the pupil to master the separate tools, to learn their uses and their requirements. The whole theory of metal-chipping, filing, drilling, planing, and turning is new to him, and intensely interesting. Accordingly, the shop should be equipped with certain standard tools for the processes I have named. The lathes, drills, and planers need not be large, but they should be ample for such exercises as are found useful in the course of instruction. As the pupil's mastery grows, he sees more quickly the logic of a machine, and he thinks over again the thoughts of the designer or inventor, and appreciates, as he never appreciated before, the high qualities of the skilled expert. The machine shop, like all other shops, should be fitted for regular sections of students numbering not over twenty-four, nor should it accommodate less than twenty. H8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Mttwaukee In a modem school all the machinery should be driven by electric motors, and the machinery in any one shop should be absolutely imder the control of the teacher of thaf shop. While he is giving his demonstration of theory and practice, the shop machinery should be still, and such as he needs at his own instruction table should be driven by a separate motor. The cost of the tools for a well-regulated manual-training schooKcontaining three hundred boys, should not be less than $10,000, and it need not exceed under any circumstances $15,000. I shall have little to say upon the course of instruction other than to follow the lines suggested by the shops and tool appliances. . There is no royal set of models or exercises in shop work, any more than there are royal selections in literature or royal examples in arithmetic and algebra. The live teacher who studies both his subject and his pupils will never be content to use this year just the series of exercises he used last year. He will see how they can be improved, how certain fimdamental principles can be more dearly pre- sented and illustrated, and how both time and material may be saved by judicious combinations. More and more every year, from what I see in my own school and else- where— and my observation has been very wide — do I deplore the waste of opportunity in needless repetitions, and the folly of bad arrangements. I have seen incompetent teachers yielding to the lawless whims and fancies of pupils, when those whims and fancies should have been guided and controlled. The untaught boy has no appreciation of the importance of sequence, nor the neces- sity of knowing just how tools should be used before he undertakes to use them in a project. If left to himj^elf, he undertakes what he is not prepared to do; he uses the wrong tools, or the right tools in the wrong way; and his workmanship is invariably bad. His object is not manual training; it is a project; and his estimate of the value of manual training is based upon the value of the completed exercise. Again and again have I state4 — and my judgment is coni&rmed by the judgment of any number of mature students who look back upon their training — that the main thing is the boy and not the article; and that, were all the exercises of the year shoveled into the fxir- nace and burned, so far as they are combustible, all the manual training would survive in the developed brains and trained fimctions of the pupils. At the same time, as a justification of the logic of every series of elementary steps, the pupil should be required, under the direction of the teacher, to make what we call a synthetic exercise, in which the elements are combined into an article for use or beauty, or both. Such exercises we call "projects," inas- much as they are supposed to be the fruit of a mastery of the elements; and it is desirable that every pupil should be made to imderstand that when one has mastered the elements he can then be a. master-builder. These projects naturally form a large part of a manual-training exhibit, but they should not mislead anyone, as it should always be imderstood that they are based upon a preliminary mastery of the elements involved. Snvaiaumdeoct] MANUAL TRAINING IN GRADES AND COLLEGES IIQ In connection with every branch of manual training, pupils should be held to a dear comprehension of the principles involved in good workmanship. Examinations, not in descriptive phrase or language learned from books, but in actual laboratory performances, and reports of personal experience, should be frequent, and all exercises should be carefully criticised and graded, both by the student himself and by the instructor. In the weekly program manual training should have its proper place, and that place should not be interfered with by other exercises. It is extremely demoralizing to do what is often done, viz. : keep a boy away from the shop in order to punish him for failiure in some other line. While it is a severe pimishment, it is absolutely destructive of all standards in manual training. Shop periods should never be so long as to tire the pupils and dull the edge of interest; for the moment the work becomes tiresome and the mind wan- ders, education stops. Boys of fifteen can work two hours with unabated zeal and interest, but three hours woxild be too long. Pupils of eighteen or twenty years can work three hoiirs, but it would be a mistake to have them work four. This has been tried, and there was no doubt about the ill effects of the longer period. Please remember that I am not talking about men at trades or in factories, or engaged in industrial work. They are working for wages and not for education, and, as we all know, there is but littie education and a good deal of the automatic in it. In a foiur-year course of study six hours of work a week of shop work during the first two years and nine hours a week of shop work during the next two years is a fair proportion of time. These hoiu"s include the time spent in washing and dressing. As a general rule, pupils ought not to be allowed to work without supervision, for the reason that the method of working, the tools they use and how they use them, the material employed and how it is used — these are the very things which are of chief importance; and, accordingly, they should be imder constant supervision. If you answer that the boy knows how to do the work perfectiy, and therefore needs no supervision, then I reply that he' need not do the work; he should do something else that does need supervision. Probably the best fruit of manual training is the power of mechanical analysis. This power cannot be learned from books, nor from lectures, nor from endless notes and drawings. It must be learned by actual work with tools and materials, imder the best possible guidance, and with the constant use of drawings. The ability to analyze a complicated series of operations into a series of simple steps, logically arranged, leads to the habit of always making an analysis in every concrete problem; and that habit once formed has its influence upon every mental operation, whether concrete or abstract. It runs into every exercise the student has in mathematics, in language, in literature, in science, in ethics, and in art. In it one finds the great intel- lectual value of manual training. I have not time to dwell upon the importance of mechanical drawing, 1 20 NA TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L A SSOCIA TION [MUwauk ee which from the beginning to the end should accompany shop work. The drawing easily outnms the shops. It goes into fields too difl&cult and too complicated for the shop teacher to follow, but it should be thoro and thoroly intelligible at every step; not for art work merely, nor for the crafts, but for both, and for the culture of the geometric imagination. So long as drawing is based upon principles which can be clearly stated and understood, it is within the reach of every rational pupil; and every pupil, boy or girl, fast or slow, can become a fair draftsman; and even in the realm of free-hand drawing great progress can be made and a fair degree of skill acquired almost without the pupils being aware of it. I regret that I have not time to point out more fully some of the more flagrant instances of mistaken emphasis; perhaps with 3, clearer idea of the meaning of it all, the cultivated teacher will correct the emphasis. I have, however, time to say to you superintendents; you who stand at the helms of educational systems, who arrange courses of study, approve of weekly pro- grams, and direct the supervisors of manual training — ^that we rely on you to see to it that the manual-training contingent does not shipwreck on the shoals and shallows of whims and fancies of imtaught children, and the ethical and sesthetical delusions of imskilled teachers, on the one hand; and, on the other, that it shims the depths and whirlpools of bUnd constructions born of ambition and lack of sense. Keep the smooth, safe channel of common-sense and approved educational methods. SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF ACTIVE MEMBERS ENROLLED SINCE THE PUBUCATION OF THE ST. LOXHS VOLUME revised to april ii, iqos 1905 Wilson R. Andress. 1894, Michigan Reju-eseiitatiTe of Ginn & Co., 738 Wealthy Ave., Grand Rapids, Mich. 1905 Charles Arnot. 190a, County Superintendent of Schools, Fremont, Neb. 1905 Amnie M. Atkinson. Piindpal of Public School No. 140, Manhattan, 236 W. 130th St., New York, N. Y. 1905 Lola M. An. 1889, Teacher in Public School No. i^, Bronx, E. 335th St., Woodlawn, New York, N. Y. 190a Clarence Dwight Baker, A.B., Macalester CoU. Representative of D. Appleton & Co., Des Moines, la. 1905 Jaxes F. Barker, M.E., Cornell Univ. 1903, DirectcMT of Manual Training Public Sdiools, 117 Barclay St., Grand Rapids, Mich. rA C. Beller, B.Sc., '04, Columbia Univ. 1889, Teacher in Model School, New York Training School for Teachers, 51 £. 133d St., 190$ WiLHELMiNA C. Beller, B.Sc., 'oa, Columbia Univ. icher in Model Sd New York, N. Y. Z904 Edward A. Bending. Director, Hackley Manual Training School, Muskegon, Mich. 1905 Florence Bermingham. Teacher in Public School No. 119, Girls, Manhattan, aoa W. 138th St., New York N. Y. 1895 B. D. Berry. Educational Publishing House, 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111. 190a E. C. Bishop, B.Pd., '97, Lincoln Normal Univ. Deputy State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lincoln, Neb. 1905 Jakes B. Borden, A.B., Univ. of Wis.; A.M., Milton Coll. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, Marshfield, Wis. 1905 Cora E. Bowen. / 1893, Teacher in Public School No. 145, 105 Pulaski St., Brooklyn, N. Y. 1905 C. B. BOWRY. Representative of Silver, Burdett & Co., 334 W. Main St., Decatur, IlL 1905 W. M. BOYDEN. County Superintendent of Schools, Coalville, Utah. 1905 John Strove Brazier, A.B., '86, Marietta CoU. Representative of Silver, Burdett & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago; res., 933 Lunt Ave., Rogers Park Sta., lU. 1904 Thomas H. Brigos, Jr., A.B., '96, Wake Forest ColL 1900, Instructor in English, Eastern Illinois State Normal School, Charleston, 111. 1904 William D. Brightwell. 1905, Superintendent of Schools, 805, nth St., New Brighton, Pa. 1904 Ella E. Brite. 1901, Teacher of Drawing, Art Department, Hughes High School, aioo Grand St., Walnut Hills, Cincinnati, O. 1905 Kendall P. Brooks, A.B., '97, Alma Coll.; A.M., '00, Univ. of Mich. 1904, Superintendent of Schools, 346 £. Aixh St., Marquette, Mich. X904 John Callahan. 1901, Superintendent of Schools. 509 First St., Menasha, Wis. 1904 Evalyn E. Calmerton. 1890, Principal of 17th Primary School, i4aa State St., Milwaukee, Wis. 1905 Alrota S. Cardwell. 1898, Assistant to Principal, Public School No. 84, 7a Mo£fatt St., Brooklyn, N. Y. 1904 George A. Chamberlain, A.B., '91, Harvard. Principal of £. D. High School, 366 Prospect Ave., Milwaukee, Wis. 1905 William H. Clemmons, A.M. President of Fremont College, Fremont, Neb. 1905 W. N. Clippord, B.Sc., '98, Des Moines CoU. Superintendent of Schools, 306, 5th Ave., Coundl BlufiFs, la. 1904 Alvin N. Cody, B.Sc., '01, M.Sc., *oa, Univ. of Mich. 1904, Superintendent of Schools, iaa6 Church St., Flint, Mich. 1905 Frank Cody. 1891, Superintendent of Schools, Delray, Mich. 1905 Jacob Grant Collicott, A.B., Ind. Univ. Principal of High School, 113 PoweU Ave., EvansviUe, Ind. 1904 Frank H. Collins. 1898, Director of Drawing and Manual Training, Public Schools, Park Ave. and 59th St., New York; res.. Port Chester, N. Y. 1904 Clara F. Cooper. 1903, Supervisor of Primary Grades, 1503 Georgia Ave., Omaha, Neb. 1904 R. B. Cousins, A.B., '82, Univ. of Ga. State Superintendent of PubUc Instruction, 1109 West 6th St., Austin, Tex. 1904 Katherine L. Craig. 1905, State Superintendent of Pubtic Instruction, State House, Denver, Colo. 1905 Nathan D. Cram. Manager of Educational Department, D. Appleton & Co., 436 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. 121 122 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaakec 1904 John A. Cranston. XQoa, Superintendent of Schools, 723 Fifth Ave., S., St. Cloud, Minn. 1905 Be»na«d Cronson, A.B., Coll. City N. Y.: Pd.M., Pd.D., N. Y. Univ. Prindpal of Public School No. las, Manhattan, 180 Wooster St., New York, N. Y. X904 Cbas. £. CxTLLEN, A-M.^ Univ. of Mich. T004, Supenntendent of Schools, 44a Norway St., Norway, Mich. X904 Georgr a. Davis, A.B., '99, Olivet Coll. Superintendent of Schools of L'Anse Township, L'Anse, Mich. X905 K. C. Davis, Ph.D., '00, Cornell Univ. Principal of Dunn County School of Agriculture, Menomonie, Wis. X905 John H. Denbigh. Prindpal of Morris High School, loaa E. 183d St., Bronx, New York, N. Y. 190S Bernard J. Devlin, A.B., '88, Coll. City N. Y.; A.M., '93, Coll. St. Francis Xavicr, Pd.M., 'gS, N. Y. Univ. Prindpal of Public School No. 13, Bronx, 938 E. x7sth St., New Yoik, N. Y. TO05 AoNES Bartholomew Devoe. x9oa, Teacher in Model School, New York Training School for Teachers, xoo Convent Ave., New York, N. Y. 1904 Susan A. Dillin. x89a, Prindpal of Broadway Public School, 1235^ Euclid Ave., Cleveland, O. 1905 T. D. DOUTHETT. Agent for American Book Company, aao Bowery St., Ravenna, Ohio. T905 Anita M. Earl. Teacher of Sewing, Manhattan and the Bronx, xx8 W. x3oth St., New York, N. Y. 1905 Isaac N. Failor, A.M. '78, Ohio Wes. Univ. X897. Prindpal of Richmond Hill High School. Ehn St., Richmond Hill, New York, N. Y. X896 John Huston Finley, A.B., '87, A.M., '90, Knox Coll. X903, President of College of City of New York, 17 Lexington Ave., New Ycvk, N.Y. X905 Isaac K. Funk, L.L.D. '98, D.D. 90, Wittenberg Coll. President of the Funk & Wagnalls Company, 44-60 E. a3d St., New York, N. Y. X904 GusTAV W. Gehrand. X903, Superintendent of Schools, 4aa, 5th Ave., Baraboo, Wis. X905 Edoar Georoe, A.B., Mercersburg Coll. xgoo. Superintendent of City Schools, Northfield, Minn. X905 Grace A. Gibson. Teacher in Model School, New York Training School for Teachers, aco W. 44th St, New York. N. Y. ^ •« X905 Mrs. Mary L. Gordon. X903, Teacher in Public School No. 17, Manhattan, 400 W. 58th St., New York, N. Y. X90S Willard C. Gore, Ph.D., *oi. x9oa. Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of Chicago, 5329 Greenwood Ave., Chicago, 111. X904 Guy H. Grahaic. X904, Superintendent of City Schools, Havelock, Neb. X904 John C. Hall, A.B., '00, Univ. of 111. Superintendent of City Schools, Whiting, Ind. 1905 Henry E. Hard. Principal of Public School No. 78, 199 Sterling PL, Brooklyn, N. Y. X905 Martha K. Harkness. Teacher in Public School No. 17, Manhattan, 3x8 W. 47th St., New York, N. Y. X898 Edwin S. Harris, A.M., '89, Union Coll. Superintendent of Schools, Troy, N.Y. X904 Walter C. Hewitt, B.Pd., '91, M.Pd., 'oa, Mich. Nor. Coll. State Institute Conductor, 631 Algoma St., Oshkosh, Wis. 1905 WnxiA D. Hill, Grad. Mich. St. Nor. Coll. Superintendent of Schools, Crystal Falls, Mich. X90X George W. Holden. President of Holden Patent Book Cover Co., Springfield, Mass. X90X Miles Carter Holden. 67 St. James Ave., Springfield, Mass. X904 H. H. Holues, B.Sc., '8s, So. Ind. Nor. Coll. 1897, Chairman of Mathematical Qepartmoit, Central High School, 931 NOTtonTSt., Kansas City, Mo. X904 J. T. Holmes. 1903, Principal of High School, Wahoo, Neb. X904 Walter D. Hood, A.B., '94, Yale Univ. X903, Superintendent of Schools, 64 Howe Ave., Shelton, Conn. X905 Alice Jackson. Prind^l of Public School No. 150, Manhattan, 508 W. X43d St., New Yock, N. Y. 1905 William H. Jamieson, B.L., 'ox, Univ. of Wis. 190a, Superintendent of Schools. Tomahawk, Wis. X905 Emma L. Johnston, A.B., '90, Adelphi Coll. 1904, Prindpal of Brooklyn Training for Teachers School, Prospect PL near Nostrand Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. xgo4 Jas. T. Johnson, A.B., '91, Univ. of Nashville. 1901, Superintendent of Public School, Piano, Tex. X904 Joseph French Johnson, A.B., '78, Harvard. 190X, Professor of Pohtical Economy, New York University, 3a Wavcrly PL, New 'Yoik, N.Y. 1903 Richard O. Johnson. 1889, Superintendent of Indiana State School for the Deaf, Indianapolis, Ind. X905 Theophilus Johnson. Prindpal of Public School No. xi. Queens, 3d St., Woodside, New York, N. Y. X901 William M. Jolliffe, B.Sc.. '96, Lawrence Univ. Crystal Falls, Mich. X905 James Hamilton Bancroft Kaye, A.B., 'oa, Univ. of Mich.; A.M., 'oa, AlUon ColL X904, Prindpal of Northern State Normal School, Marquette, Mich. Sapetintendence] SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF MEMBERS 123 1905 AXXXN p. KSITH. X904, Superintendent of Schools, 36 Prosjiect St., East Providence, R. I. 1905 John A. H. Kettr, A.B., '99, A.M., '00, Harvard Univ. i899t Professor of Pedagogy, Northern Illinois State Normal School, De Kalb, IlL 1905 William J. KramASD. Principal of Public School No. 5. Bronx, 3436 Webster Ave., New York, N. Y. 1905 Walteb M. Kxrn^ A.B., Ind. St. Univ. 190Z, Superintendent of Qty Schocds, Cohunbus, Neb. X905 Maagaset Knox. Principal of Public School No. 15, Manhattan, 478 Mott Ave., New York, N. Y. 1904 Geokge H. Landgkap, B.L.. '921 Univ. of Wis. 1904, Superintendent of City Schools, 1024 Cook St., Marinette, Wis. 1905 EuGENXB C. Levis. 1903, Assistam Principal, Public School No. 73, Manhattan, xo8 £. 91st St., New Yoric, 1904 B. E. Lewis, A.B., '01, A.M.., oa, Univ. of Kans. x9oa. Superintendent of Schools, Eureka, Kans. 1904 FsAMCis Eknest Lloyd, A.B., '9X, A.M., '95, Princeton Univ. X897, Adjunct Professor of Biok^, Teachers College, 373 Manhattan Ave., New Yock, P%m X • 1905 J* A. Gregor Mac G. MacDonald. 1904, Inspector, Signal Hill, Long Beach CaL X905 Masy S. Mack, B.Sc., 'oa. Teachers Coll., Columbia Univ. x9oa. Supervisor of Primary Instruction; 501 £. Washington St., Bloomington, HI. X90S Frank A. Manny, a B., A.M. Univ. of Mich. Superintendent of Ethical Culture School, 33 Central Park West, New York, N. Y. 1905 Ci>*»Tna» W. Martindalc A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Drake Univ. X904, Superintendent of Schools, 320, 6th St., Moorhead, Minn. 1905 Anna £. Masterson. X897, Principal of Public School No. x8, Girls, Manhattan, ax W. xa8th St., New York. N. Y. 1905 J. L. McBrien. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 7x6 S. x8th St., Lincoln, Neb. 1904 James H. McDonald, A.M., Wooster Univ. x8p5. Superintendent ol Schools, Gladstone, Mich. X905 Henry G. McDonough. 1903, Teacher in Public School No. 5X , Queens, as N. Washingtcm St., Jamaica, New York, X^ • X ■ X903 Malcolm Ross McElroy, A.B., B.M., '95. A.M., '98, Univ. of Wooster. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, Berea, O. 1905 George A. McGee. 1904, Superintendent of Schools, 4x6 N. Simons St., CadiUac, Mich. X904 Edward F. McGinnis, B.L., Univ. of Minn. 1899, Representative of Giim & Co., 1399 Third Ave., Detroit, Mich. 1904 Anna Jane McKeag, Ph.D., '00, Univ. of Pa. X003, Associate Professor of Pedagogy, Wellesley College, Wellrsley, Mass. 1904 Junius L. Mertam, A.B., '95, Oberlin CoU.; A.M., 'oa. Harvard Univ.; Ph.D., '05, Columbia Univ. X904, Assistant Professor of Theory and Practice of Teaching, Teachers College, University of Missoiiri, Columbia, Mo. 1905 John E. Miller. 1904, Superintendent of Public Schools, 618 Summit Ave., East St. Louis, IlL X905 Frank K. Montfort. X893, Principal of Public School No. 57, Queens, Bayside L. I., New York, N. Y. X903 Max M. Muenich, B.Sc., '01, Univ. of Wis. 1904, Superintendent of Schools, JFefferson, WLi. 1904 Albert A. Murphree, A.M.. Univ. of Na.ermtendent of Schools, Stanley, Wis. X905 John Henry Stauff, A.R., '99, Univ. of Wb. Supervising Principal of Schools, Lock Box 7a, Sharon, Wis. 1904 John William Steenis, Ph.B., '04, Univ. of Wis. 1904, Superintendent of Schools. De Pere, Wis. X905 Helen A. Stein. 1898, Principal of Public School No. 13. Manhattan, X58 E. 7ad St., New York, N. Y. X904 Edwin Lewis Stephens, A.B., '92, La. State Univ.; Pd.M., '97, Pd.D., '99, New York Univ. 1900, President of Southwestern Louisiana Industrial Institute, Lafayette, La. 1904 William Logan Stephens, A.B., '89, Univ. of Neb. 1903, Superintendent of City Schools, Lincoln, Neb. 1905 VE.STA L. SWEEZY. Teacher in Public School No. 150, Manhattan, 61 Convent Ave., New York, N. Y. 1898 William M. Swingle, Ph.D. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, 294 Central Ave., Orange, N. J. 1905 Emma Sylvester, Pd.M., '00, New York Univ. 1903, Assistant to the Principal, Public School No. x86, New York City; res., 6x Queen's Ave., Flushint;, Long Island, N. Y. X904 A. O. Thomas, Ph.D., '96, Amity Coll. 1 901, Superintendent of Schools, West a 7th St., Kearney, Neb. X903 Silas B. Tobey. Superintendent of City Schools, sao W. Willow St., Chippewa Falls, Wis. X904 Jonas E. Wagner, B.Sc., 'oa. Pa. State Coll. 1904. Department of Science and Mathematics, High School, Bellefonte, Pa. 1905 Kate A. Walsh. Principal of Public School No. a8, Primary Department, Manhattan, 371 W. xaoth St., New York N. Y. 1903 Lindsey Webb, A.B., '97, Univ. of Minn. 1900, Principal of i8th District School, 511 Cramer St., Milwaukee, Wis. 1905 Marcus A. Weed. 1801, Principal of Public School No. 84. 675 Jefferson Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. X904 Joseph M. White, A.B.. '81, A.M., 'oa, Mich. Univ. i903> Superintendent of City Schools, 1103 Garrison Ave., Carthage, Mo. Superintendence] SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF MEMBERS 1 25 1905 Andkew J. Whiteside. Principal of Public School No. 69, Grammar Department, Manhattan, 251 W. 133d St., New York, N. Y. X905 Frank P. Whitney, A.B., '98. Oberlin Coll. iQoi, Superintendent of Schools, 16 Laurel St., Collinwood, O. Z905. Mss Adela C. Wilson. 1895, Principal of Public School No. 119, Primary Department, Manhattan, 1878, 7th Ave.. New York, N. Y. 1905 Clementine D. Witte. 1903, Teacher in Public School No. la. Manhattan. 236 Columbia St., Brooklyn, N. Y. X905 IjZZIE £. WOOSTEB. Author and School Book Publisher, 315 Wabash Ave., Chicago, DL X904 William F. Young. Yice-President, Benj. H. Sanborn & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago, Dl. 1905 P- J- ZiMMESS. 1904, Superintendent of Schools, 555 Prairie Ave., Kenosha. Wb. INSTITUTIONS Z904 Atlantic City Free Public Libkaky. Librarian, A. P. Abbott, cor. Pacific and Illinois Aves. Atlantic City. N. J. X904 East Orange Free Public Library. Librarian; Sarah Slater Oddie, East Orange, N. J. 1904 Elkhart Carnegie Library. Librarian, Katherine Sage, Elkhart, Ind. X904 George Peabody College for Teachers, University of NashviUe. Secretary, John M. Bass; Librarian, Jennie E. Lauderdale, NashviUe, Tenn. Z904 Louisville Free Public Library. Librarian, William F. Yust, Louisville, Ky. Z904 Plainfield Public Library and Reading Room. Librarian, £. L. Adams, Plainfield, N. J. xgos Public Library of the District of Columbia. Librarian, GecMrge F. Bowerman, Washington, D. C. X904 RiGGS Library, Georgetown College. Vice-President, Rev. W. G. R. Mullan; Librarian, Rev. Henry J. Shidelo", George- town College, Washington, D. C. X904 Rockford College. President, Julia H. Gulliver, Rockford, 111. X904 Southwest Texas State Normal School. Principal, Thomas G. Harris, San Marcos, Tex. 1905 Western State Normal School. Principal, D. B. Waldo, Kalamazoo. Mich. PUBLIC SCHOOLS, NT:W YORK CITY borough of BRONX 1905 Morris High School. ii6th St. and Boston Road. Principal. John H. Denbigh. Public School No. 9, Primary Deprtment, 735 E. 138th St. Principal. Sarah A. Cooper. Public School No. ii ORden Ave.. Highbridge. Principal. John T. Maguire. Public School No. 12 Second St.. Westchester. Principal John F. Condon. Public School No. 13 Park \\e.. Williamsbridge. Principal. Bernard J. Devlin. Public School No. 14 Eastern Boul.. Throg's Neck. Principal Philip O'Ryan. Public School No. 22, 599 E. 140th St. Principal, Elizabeth C. Kelly. Public School No. 30 141st St. near Brook Ave. Acting Principal Mary E. O'DonneU. Public School No. 31. Mott and Walton Aves., 145th and 146th Sts. Principal. Elijah D. Clark. Public School No. 38, i.s7th St. and Third Ave. Principal, Mary A. Conlon. borough of BROOKLYN Brooklyn Training School for Teachi:rs. Prospect PI. and Nostrand Ave. Principal. Emma L. Johnston. Girls' High School, Nostrand .Ave. and Halsey St. Principal, Wm. L. Felter; Librarian, Miss M. J. Brink. Public School No. 4, Berkeley PI. and Fifth Ave. Principal. T. F. Downey. Public School No. 9 Sterling PI. cor. \anderbilt Ave. Principal Lewis H. Tut hill. Public School No. 20. Union .Ave. near North 2d St. Principal. Matilda C. Skene. Public School No. 33 Hcyward St. near Broadway. Principal Caroline R. Gipner. Public School No. 34, Norman Ave. Principal. James T. Carey. Public School No. 35. Decatur St.. cor. Lewis A%'e. Principal. Alfred E. Ives. 126 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Milwaukee 1905 Public School No. 39. 6th Ave., cor. 8th St. Principal. Cora A. Sloan; librarian, Ada Callaghan. Public School No. 4a. St. Mark's near Classon Ave. Principal. Elizabeth H. Doherty. Public School No. 43. Uocrum St. near Manhattan. Principal. Charles D. Raine. PuBUc School No. 45, Lafayette and Classon Aves. Principal, Purvis J. Behan. Public School No. 54. Walworth St.. near Myrtle Ave. Prmcipal. lizzie I. Dowling. Public School No. 58. Degraw near Smith St. Principal, .^mie £. Hull. Public School No. 61. Fulton St.. cor. New Jersey Ave. Principal. Anna L. McDevitt. Public School No. 8a. 4th Ave., cor. 36th St. Principal, Jennie M. Mackay. Public School No. 87, Herkimer St. and Radde PL Principal, Ella Kelly. Public School No. 89. Newkirk Ave. and E. 31st St. Principal, Mary A. Ward. Public School No. 9a, Rogers Ave. and Robinson St. Principal, Louise Castle. Public School No. 100. 3965 W. Third St. Principal, Tames C. Rogers. Public School No. 107, 13th St. and 8th Ave. Principal, Sarah B. Van Brunt. Public School No. 114, Remsen Ave. cor. F. Principal. Mrs. Mary J. McHench. Public School No. ia3, Lrving Ave. cor., Suydam St. Principal. Joseph G. Furey. PuBUC School No. 139, Quincy St. and Stuyvesant Ave. Principal, Ed. P. Crowell. Public School No. 143, Havemeyer and N. 6th St. Principal, Carrie Ikelheimer. Public School No. 145, Central Ave. and Noll St. Principal, Henry Ludwig, Jr. borough of MANHATTAN High School op Commesce, 15s W. 6sth St. Principal, J. J. Sheppard. Wadleigh High School, 114th St., west of 7th Ave. Prindpail, John G. Wight. Public School No. 6, Boys, 8sth St. and Madison Ave. Principal, W. F. Hudson. Public School No. 7, Boys, Chrystie and Hester Sts. Principal, William A. Kottman. Public School No. 7. Girls, Chrystie and Hester Sts. Principal, Catherine V. Davis. Public School No. 10, Boys' Department, 117th St. and St. Nicholas Ave. Principal, Ernest R. Birkias. Public School No. 14. Grammar Department, aas E. aTth St. Principal. John L. Fruauf. Public School No. 14. Primary Department, aas E. 37th St. Principal. Kate A. Reid. Public School No. 16, 308 W. 13th St. Principal, J. H. Zabriski. Public School No. 18. Girls. lai E. sist St. Principal. Anna E. Masterson. Public School No. 30, Boys. Rivington and Forsyth Sts. Principal. H. Wilfiam Smith. Public School No. 38, Primary Department, 357 W. 40th St. Principal. Kate A. Walsh. Public School No. 33, Primary Department, 4x8 W. 38th St. Principal. Eliza Hoffman. Public School No. 34, Boys' Department, 108 Broome St. Principal, Frank A.' Schioidt. Public School No. 36. Girls. 710 E. oth St. Principal, Ellen T. O'Brien. Public School No. 37, 113 E. 87th St. Principal, Margaret P. Duggan. Public School No. 41, 36 Greenwich Ave. Principal, Katherine Bevier. Public School No. 46, 915 St. Nicholas Ave. Principal, William A. Boylan. Public School No. 53, Primary Department, 307 E. 79th St. Prmdpal, Wilhelmina M. Bonesteel; librarian, M. Louise Carbin. Public School No. 54, Amsterdam Ave. and xo4th St. Principal, K. Leonard. Public School No. S9, aaS E. S7th St. Principal, Mary C. McGuire. Public School No. 71, x86 Seventh St. Principal J U. D. Secord. Public School No. 73, Primary Department, Lexington Ave. and xo6th St. Principal, Sarah Smith. PuBUC School No. 73. Girls. Lexington Ave. bet. xosth and io6th Sts. Prmdpal, Helen M. Fanning. SapantadeDoe] SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF MEMBERS 127 X905 Public Scbdol No. 77, Boy?, 400 £. 86U1 St. Priiicipal, Edward A. Pa^c- Public School No. 78, Girls' Department, 36a Pleasant Ave. Principal, Kate M. Fahey. Public School No. 78- Primary Department. 36a Pleasant Ave. Prmdpal. Mra. Kate Callahan. PuBUC School No. 80. 225 W. 4xst St. Princiml, Wm. L. Bulkky. Public School No. 87. Boys 77th St. and Amsterdam Ave. Principal. Edward H. Beyer. Public School No. ^3. Girls. Amsterdam Ave. and 93d St. Prmdpal. Mrs. Emma. S. Landrine. Public School No. 94. Girls. Amsterdam Ave. and 68t]i St. Prmdnil. Elkn C. Phillips. Public School No. 94. Primary. Amsterdam Ave. and 68th St. Prmcipal. Cordelia S. Kilmer. Public School No. 96, Girb' Department, Ave. A and 8iat St. Principal, Mrs. Eliza S. PdL Public School No. 103. xx9th St. and Madison Ave. Principal. Thcmas J. Boyle. Publk School No. 104, 413 E. i6th St. Principal, Isabella F. Wrifl^ Public School No. 109. 9Qth and looth Sts., ad and 3d Avcs. Principal. Frank J. Cokman. Public School No. 1x4, 73 Oliver St. Principal, Mrs. Jeimie M. Tower. Public School No. xx7. X70 E. 77th St. Principal. Mary S. Cimnningham. Public School No. xx9. Girls. X33d St.. 7th and 8th Aves. Principal. Emma C. Schocxmaaker. Public School No. xx9. Primary Department. X33d St., 7th and 8th Aves. Principal. Mrs. Adela C. Wilson. Public School No. xai, 227 E. xoad St. Principal, Teresa C. Burke. Public School No. 12^, x8o Wooster St. Principal, Bernard Cronaon. Publk School No. 129. 433 E. X9th St. , Principal, ,^ma A. McNulty. Publk School No. x3x, 272 E. 2d St. Principal, Ellen M. PhiDipa. Publk School No. X35. xst Ave. and 51st St. Principal. Mrs. Emma H. Ailing. Publk School No. X37, Grand and Essex Sts. Principal. Kate M. Stephens. Publk School No. xsx, oxst St. and First Ave. Principal, Mrs. Agnes O'Brien. Publk School No. X57, Girls. St. Nicholas Ave. and X27th St. Principal. Olivia J. HalL Publk School No. X65, Bo^ 240 W. 109th St. Principal, D. E. Gaddis. Publk School No. 166. Boys. 89th St. and Columbus Ave. Principal. Thomas Moore. Publk School No. x68. Primary Department, xosth St. near ad Ave. Principal, MiUicent Baum. Publk School No. i8o, ^o Vandewater St. Principal, John E. Brown. PtJBuc School No. X83, 419 E. 66th St. Principal, Anne J. Farley. Publk School No. 186, C2x W. X4;th St. Principal, Joseph H. Wade. Publk School No. X90, M3 E. 82d St. Prindpal^ Sarah Goldie. BOKOUGH OF QUEENS Fak Rockawat High School, Far Rockaway. Principal. Sanford J. Elllsworth. Flusrhig High School, 231 Sanford Ave., Flushing. Principal, John HoUey Clark; Librarian, Jean Ely. Publk School No. 4, Prospect St. and Beehe Ave., Long Island City. Principal, R. L. Conant. PuBUC School No. xx, Woodside, L. I. Princiinl, Theophilus Johnson. Publk School No. 20, 21 x Santord Ave.. Flushing. Principal, John Hollcy Clark. Publk School No. 39. Far Rockaway. Principal. Sanford J. Ellsworth. Publk School No. ^7. Morris Park, L. I. Prmcipal. Frank K. Montfort. Publk School No. 66. Union PI.. Brooklyn Hills. Principal. Frances H. Seeley. Publk School No. 72. Maspeth. Principal, Robert Eadie. Publk School N0.67. Glendak St. Principal, J. Wesley Drumm. Publk School No. 80. Greenpoint Ave. and Pearsall St., Long Islaxid City. Principal, John J. Dempsey. 128 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Mihraukce BOSOUGH OF KICHMOND 1905 CiTRTis High School, Hamilton Ave. and St. Marks PL, New Brighton, S. I. Principal O. D. Clark. Public School No. 6. Rossville. S. I. Senior Teacher, Willis L. Rowlands. Pdblic School No. 8, Gifford's. Senior Teacher, Bale F. Randolph. Public School No. 33, Graniteville. Principal, Edgar W. Robinson.