$2.00 a Year wha 2 neh dala Seok eae anne Ramm diapers my witages > ete SET MER ¥ STUDENT-COUNCIL HANDBOOK A HANDBOOK DESCRIBING THREE HUNDRED SIXTY-ONE STUDENT COUNCILS SUPPLEMENTED WITH SOME PERTINENT LITERATURE OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS Ellen Boothroyd Brogue of staff of the National Association of Secondary-School Principals Paul B. Jacobson Assistant Professor of Education, Principal of University High School University of Chicago Published by THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIA TION H. V. CHURCH, Executive Secretary 5835 Kimbark Avenue Chicago, Illinois Il. III. The Bulletin Student-Council Handbook Contents CHAPTER FOREWORD—Charles Forrest Allen PREFACE—The Authors Tue DevecopMENT oF STUDENT ParticiPATION IN SCHOOL GOvERNMENT Purposes of Pupit Participation 1N Schoo. ConTRoL 1. Theoretical objectives 2. Purposes as stated in replies to questionnaire 3. Definite, concrete reasons é ‘ 4. Specific purposes OrGaNniziInG a CoUNCIL . Pupil participation should fill a felt need . Launching the student council . Gradual introduction . Types of student government in operation a. Council of home-room presidents b. Council of home-room representatives c. National government type d. City government type e. Forum type f. Council of class representatives g. Council of representatives from organizations h. State government type 5. Expression of dissatisfaction with type in operation 6. Size of council 7. Veto power of the principal 8. Name of council 9. Written constitutions wm 10. Constitutions of different types of organizations a. Home-room representatives—school of 385 pupils— Flemington, New Jersey b. Individual plan based on home-room representatives —bursar and board of finance—clubs—charters— activity points—Newton High School, Newtonville, Massachusetts VotuME 24 Marcu, 1940 Numser 89 43 IV. VI. StuDENT-CouncIL HANDBOOK c. Class representatives—small high school— Shakopee, Minnesota d. Federal Government plan—large hiigh school— judicial department—Simon Gratz High School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ee e. Representatives of organizations—all pupils represented—budgeting—evaluation of votes— University High School, University of Chicago f. Municipal government—large school—Washington High School, East Chicago, Indiana — g. Home-room presidents—home- -room organization combined with student-council organization—East High School, Sioux City, Iowa ....... h. Federal combined with local government—junior high school—Junior High School, Holland, denmontd eens 11. Committees and their duties a. Sub-committees _..... b. Standing committees 12. Drawing up the constitution } 13. Shall standards of scholarship be set for membership in council? - 14. Do activities provide sufficient work? 15. Electing the student officers 16. Installation exercises a. Cleveland, Ohio—South High School b. Mobile, Alabama—Murphy High School Cc. Baleienese, Maryland—Forest Park High School d. St. Joseph, Missouri—Central High School e. Louisville, Kentucky—Louisville Girls’ High School - f. Richmond, Virginia—Student Codperative Association THE Strupent-Councit MEETING 1, Peapeeen. Se Oe ee 2. Order of business 3. Excerpt from business meeting—High School, Oceanside, New York Facutty Supervision 1. Appointment of advisors 2. Financial duties 3. Selecting a sponsor sil 4. The principal as supervisor —..... 5. A faculty member as supervisor 6. Tests for a student-council sponsor StupEent-Councit Projects 1. Types of projects - 2. School dances 3. Assembly programs a. Student-council assembly—High S School, Austin, Minnesota - Z . Aid to board of education - School publications — . School cafeteria Nua» 52 . 58 = . 63 — — .. 66 66 67 . 68 69 _. 70 70 70 70 + 72 72 a 77 77 78 81 _ 83 _. 84 _ 85 85 _. 86 —_— — — 9] 93 _. 98 1940] VII. CoNTENTS 7. Student Day a. Student Day at Morgantown, West Virginia b. Student Day at Excelsior Springs, Missouri 8. Family Night 9. Youth Conference 10. Combating truancy 11. Observing Mother’s and Dad’s Days 12. Radio programs 13. Courtesy Week 14. Best Citizens 15. Messenger service 16. Merit system ' a. Example of merit system 17. Supervision of clubs 18. Granting charters 19, Miscellaneous projects 20. Infrequent projects How Prositems Are Beinc SoL_vep 1. Time 2. Interest 3. Absence and tardiness 4. Behavior problems 5. Traffic 6. Securing proper student officers 7. Council wants more power 8. Lack of co6dperation 9, Financial problems 10. Lack of support for school activities 11. Lack of school spirit 12. Limitation of student activities a. Point system in use in the Public High School, Harttord, Connecticut b. Service point system—High School, Buckeye, Arizona c. Point system—Bailey Junior High School, Jackson, Mississippi 13. Not enough to do 14. Too much to do 15. Freshman representation in council 16. Orientation of new students 17. Reticence of council representatives 18. Regular attendance 19. Integration of rural pupils 20. Recognition of outstanding citizens 21. Conducting school dances 22. Time for calling committee meetings 23. Student officers and their responsibilities 24. Lack of scholarship 25. Lack of participation in activities 26. Efficiency of representatives 27. Giving publicity to work done by council 28. Lack of uniformity in enforcing rules 102 102 102 102 103 104 104 105 106 106 106 107 107 108 109 109 109 110 110 111 111] 11] 11] 112 113 113 113 114 114 114 114 114 115 116 116 116 116 117 117 117 ee ‘s ; | ¥ VIII. IX. STUDENT-CounciL HANpDBOOK 29. Too much work for one sponsor 30. Interschool _ relations 31. Parliamentary procedure enna, 32. Wearing of unearned pins and emblems 33. Attendance recording 34. Miscellaneous StupENT-CounciL AssocIATIONS AND CONVENTIONS 1. Development of organizations 2. Are conventions desirable? 3. Organizations a. Associations in Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin b, Associations in Delaware and New Jersey ; c. Associations in Arkansas, Florida, Idaho, Kansas, Michigan, North Carolina, Oregon, Texas, and Utah d. Associations in Ohio, Arizona, California, Iowa, and Missouri e. The Northwest Federation of Student Councils f. The Central States Federation of Student Councils g. The Southern Association of Student Government . h. The Student Leaders’ Conference i. The Student Codperative Association j. The New England Regional Association k. The Territorial High-School Student Government Association 4. Conventions a. Time b. Place c. Delegates (1) Selection of delegates (2) Defraying expenses of delegates d. Suggestions for convention programs (1) Planning the program (2) Length of the conference (3) Housing the conference (4) Program details (5) Discussions (6) Demonstration meetings and assemblies (7) Practical suggestions (8) Section meetings bia (7) ae oe eee (10) Consider size of school (11) Registration and entertainment — ~— THe Orcan For STUDENT CouNCILs AND STUDENT-COUNCIL INSIGNIA 1. Student Life 2. The emblem a Various forms of insignia 118 118 118 118 119 119 121 121 121 123 124 130 1940] XI. X. Srupent-Councit FINANcEs 1. 11. . Miscellaneous practices 1S; 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. ConTENTS Size and selection of schools . Size of councils . Does the council control extra- curriculum funds? . A student-council budget—New Trier Township High School, Winnetka, Illinois . Periodic report of funds . Financial statement of East Lansing High School . Appropriating balances . Should the council levy a tax? . The activity ticket . Practices in schools which employ the activity ticket a. Data furnished by Bloom Township High School, Chicago Heights, Illinois b. The activity ticket of Garfield High School, Seattle, Washington c. Forms illustrating plan of Garfield High School d. The activity ticket at Hanover Center, Massachusetts e. The stamp plan at Schenectady, New York Selling practices Financial projects a. School dances b. Paid assemblies c. Movie benefits d. School carnivals e. Book Exchange and Lost and Found f. School stores g. Autograph books and glossy prints h. Magazine drives Amount of money handled by the council Methods of accounting for student-council funds Bonded treasurer Auditing accounts Receipts for money a. Sample treasurer’s receipt—Evanston Township High School, Evanston, Illinois . Purchasing by requisition a. Sample of requisition blank—Fairfield Township High School, Hamilton, Ohio . Payment of bills a. Form used by Shaker High School, Shaker Heights, Ohio . Controlling accounts and sub-accounts a. Illustration furnished by University High School, University of Chicago - Hints ror Stupent LEapeErs 3. 4 3. 4, 5. Who may become leaders 2. Physical fitness Ability to speak Parliamentary procedure Keep in advance of lay members 134 135 135 136 139 139 140 140 14] 145 142 145 146 147 149 149 149 150 150 150 15] 151 151 152 152 152 153 154 155 155 155 156 156 156 157 158 158 160 160 160 161 162 162 NAS penetra ai pe 6. i 8. 9, 10. APPENDIX 1. i tt Yt VI W bdo StupENT-CounciL HANDBOOK The value of planning One thing at a time Neatness in appearance Begin meetings on time Care in appointing committees Duties of officers APLC UMN Ts. A a. President : b. Vice president _.. nome aan c. Secretary iinhasaiineposcaiesadiiiicintibaiel d. Treasurer e. Sergeant-at-arms . Questionnaire No. I—The finding questionnaire - Questionnaire No. II—May, 1939 - Questionnaire No. [[]—January, 1940 a - Student-council bibliography satis . Schools participating in surveys of May, 1939, and January, 1940 163 —_ eo — . 165 165 165 165 165 165 166 166 168 170 176 FOREWORD “Learning to do by doing” is a principle of procedure so generally accepted in theory by modern educators that it is usually found restated in some form in almost any book dealing with educational methods. In practice, however, the theory is not so clearly followed. Probably nowhere else in the educational program, curricular or extra- curricular, is there greater need for the practice in learning to do by doing than is to be found in organizing and administering school control. The authors of A Handbook for Student Councils have aptly distinguished be- tween “student self-government” and “student participation in school government.” That students have inalienable rights is clear; but that the rights of students in any well-organized system of control are, or should be, limited must also be clear in order that the students may learn to under- stand and appreciate the limitations imposed upon the individual’s rights in civic life. School authorities, by virtue of the positions they hold, have certain obligations for which they are held responsible. They may delegate certain rights and privileges to students; but they are held responsible for the successful operation of the school program. Herein lies the fundamental difference between constituted authority and delegated authority-—a differ- ence that all concerned should fully understand. This theme is well de- veloped and illustrated in a timely manner throughout the discussions, the projects, and the other valuable suggestions of this book. Principals, sponsors, other faculty members, student officers, and lay- men interested in school administration and civic life will find this treat- ment of school government a storehouse of helpful information and suggestions. Too often such a book deals chiefly with the theories and prob- lems affecting the large school. This collection of materials and suggestions is as applicable and helpful to the small and to the middle-sized school as it is to the cosmopolitan school. The chapters have been aptly selected and capably treated; the use of paragraph headings and the carefully arranged table of contents make the book readily usable both as a textbook and as a reference guide for the type of information that sponsors and council members will most need. A well-organized system of student participation in school control is essential to efficient administration of any modern high school; and a knowledge of the information and suggestions contained in this small volume will aid in making any system of school government more efficient. Charles Forrest Allen PREFACE With the increased scope of the publication, Student Life, and the responsibility entailed by its being designated official organ for the student councils in secondary schools by the National Association of Secondary- School Principals of the National Education Association at Cleveland, Ohio, February, 1939, came a realization of the need for a handbook to serve the thousands of councils which are struggling along without the support and guidance of affiliation with an association of student councils, and to offer information and advice to other scores of schools now seeking to establish student participation in school government. As the bibliography at the end of this book discloses, much has been written on the subject of student participation in the control of school affairs. Much attention is being paid to it in the extra-curriculum activi- ties courses now offered in teachers’ colleges and work-shop summer schools. However, the letters which have been received at the headquarters of the National Association of Secondary-School Principals since Student Life became actively interested in the welfare of student councils indicate that there is need of such a manual as this handbook attempts to be. Principals, sponsors, and students are asking for the practical, workable suggestions of these whose qualifications to advise have been acquired through actual experience, not from the logical theories of philosophers. The eagerness of the response to the questionnaires issued by this department of the National Education Association is witness to the desire to codperate in making possible the fulfillment of this need. In spite of the fact that much of the correspondence of necessity was carried on while the schools were experiencing the throes of winding up a year’s work, hundreds of answers poured in from every state in the Union, from Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and even from England. It is from the material sent in by these cooperating student councils that this hand- book has been compiled. Without their aid it would have been impossible to issue a work of this nature. Not only was valuable material received from principals, sponsors, and teachers, but the student viewpoint was secured through questionnaires filled out by the student secretary of the student council. In addition to the information received from the articles, letters, and replies to questionnaires that were submitted by the student councils, inferences were made from the study of hundreds of constitu- tions of the councils of both junior and senior high schools and of the handbooks issued by the schools for the use of their own students. Large schools and small schools, rural schools and city schools, schools having busy, successful student councils and schools in which student government is a failure, are represented in this study. y 10 StupENT-Councit Hanpsook [ March The research necessitated in the preparation of this handbook coupled with the marvelous codperation of the schools throughout the entire coun- try, including the territorial possessions, has rapidly promoted the efficiency of the national office in its capacity as clearinghouse for the student coun- cils in secondary schools. The bibliography does not by any means include all the available material on the subject of student government. It is presented here in the hope that it may be useful to the sponsors who are responsible for the con- duct of student councils. It offers a wealth of variety in the nature of the subject matter and in the manner of its treatment and presentation. The books may be found in the educational section of almost any library, but an unpublished master’s thesis can be obtained only from its author or from the library of the university from which the author obtained his degree. Acknowledgment is made to the principals of high schools, the spon- sors of student councils, and the student officers who took the time and trouble during the closing weeks of school to furnish the ground- — work for this handbook. The National Association is grateful to Mr. Charles Forrest Allen, sponsor of the Southern Association of Student Government and former Supervisor of Secondary Education, Little Rock, Arkansas, for his painstaking review of the manuscript, and for his helpful criticisms and suggestions, and to Mr. Arthur Brogue, former Director of Research, J. Sterling Morton High School, Cicero, Illinois, for his aid in compiling the statistical tables. Ellen Boothroyd Brogue Paul B. Jacobson CuHapTer | THE DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENT PARTICIPATION IN SCHOOL GOVERNMENT Student councils and student participation in school government are phrases that appear frequently in the literature devoted to secondary-school administration. These terms are also well known to high-school pupils, for they picture activities that are rapidly becoming an integral part of the school life of secondary-school pupils. Only the hopelessly reactionary teacher or administrator now feels that student participation in school control is a fad. Participation has amply proved its case. The fact that the phrase student participation in school control has replaced the term student government is mute evidence that school administrators have not in the least relinquished their final responsibility for control of the school, al- though they recognize the advantages of delegating to pupils some partici- pation in the government of the school. To expect immature pupils to govern themselves without help is un- reasonable if not naive; to refuse to grant pupils a share in managing their own affairs constitutes a failure to see the possibilities of training youth from twelve to eighteen years of age, under guidance, to participate in democratic processes. It cannot be gainsaid that isolated cases may be found in which the council conducts a court successfully, administers the school for a day without teachers, or metes out punishment for offenders. But in many more such cases student government has failed miserably; and almost always he who sponsored such a council properly found him- self at liberty to secure employment elsewhere. For several years after the turn of the century student government languished. Of late there has been the tendency to grant participation in school control as part of the democratization of secondary-school adminis- tration. For every successful student court, the investigator can find a hun- dred cases in which the student council controls the extra-curriculum budget; prepares and presents, under faculty guidance, an excellent series of assemblies; conducts a lost and found department; aids in ushering at school events; helps maintain order in the lunchroom; or furnishes moni- tor service during the passing of classes. The council should be the hub in which the entire extra-curriculum program is centered. And in a large number of the three hundred sixty-one schools investigated in this study this was the case. Similarly, in a recent study of one hundred sixty student councils in Michigan, Lent found that in over three fourths of these schools the council acted as a clearinghouse and forum for the consideration of extra-curriculum problems.’ iLent, H. C., The Status of the Student Council in the Class A and B Junior and Senior High Schools of Michigan, p. 62, Unpublished Master of Arts Paper, Dept. of Educ., University of Chicago, 1939. Il StupENt-Councit HanpBook | March Student participation in school control was not unknown in the re- mote past. Evolving through the centuries, its beginnings may be traced to the times of Plato and Aristotle, although there are long gaps in the historical narrative. Student government in ancient Greece was a reality. Student prefects kept order and were known, in some cases, to select the teacher. Plato’s institution, the Academy, was accessible to all fellow stu- dents of philosophy, and they faithfully maintained its traditions. The president or leader of the school was in the first instance nominated by the founder; afterwards, the office was generally filled by election.’ In the Academy this appointment was made by the direct secret vote of all the young philosophers. When Plato was absent, two of his students, Speu- sippus and Menedemus, carried on the instruction. Such a student leader, called a scholarch, was elected by his fellow students. Later, Aristotle, the real leader among Plato’s students, set up his own school, the Lyceum. It was organized as a group to pay sacrifices to the Muses. There was a Master of Sacrifices and an Overseer of Good Order elected every month from among the students. Student participation in school government is the embodiment of a sound principle that youth should learn to control itself by being given ever greater responsibility as it is able to assume it. Forms of student participation in school control were found in European universities under monarchial and autocratic governments in medieval times. Instances of this type of control have been recorded more than five centuries ago in a boys’ school conducted by Vittorino da Feltre at Mantua, Italy, 1398-1440." This school furnishes a remarkable instance of a departure from the accustomed methods employed in student discipline and control. In the fourteenth century the University of Paris‘ was organized into nations, each nation having its own form of government and each responsible for the discipline of its citizens. After the fall of the Roman Empire the schools of Europe were buried within the Roman Church until the Renaissance. The Byzan- tine scholars, driven out of Constantinople after its fall, became the teachers of Western Europe. Because their number was insufficient to supply the demand, a monitorial type of instruction was instituted, which led to more and more student participation in the management of the schools. Valen- tino Trotzendorf at Goldberg, Germany, as early as 1500, introduced a system of government consisting of a senate of twelve students, a council, and other officers, similar in many ways to the modern form of student participation in secondary schools.’ Early recorded examples of student government in England attest that it was employed at Eton and Rugby 2Gomperz, Theodor, Greek Thinkers, a History of Ancient Philosophy, Vol. Ul. p. 272, J. Murray Pub. Co., London, 1905-1912. ®Woodward, W. H., Vittorino da Feltre and Other Humanist Educators, pp. 182-183, Cambridge University Press, 1905. ‘Seeley, Levi, History of Education, p. 140, American Book Company, New York, 1899. Laurie, S. S., Rise of the Universities, pp. 163-166, D. Appleton and Co., New York, 1892. 5Seeley, Levi, History of Education, p. 178 ff, American Book Co.. New York, 1899. 1940 | DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENT ParTICIPATION 13 in 1786.° Shortly before this, Pestalozzi, the first of our great educators, had introduced the system into his Institute at Burgdorf in Switzerland.’ The monitorial system was not unknown in the schools of Colonial Amer- ica, in fact, was quite in vogue for a number of years. In spite of the relative youth of America’s educational institutions, pioneer examples of student participation may be found. One of the first instances in the New World occurred in 1779 in the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia.” Thomas Jefferson went beyond the plan used in the College of William and Mary when he formulated the system at the University of Virginia,’ which he founded in 1819 at Char- lottesville for the very purpose of giving the training needed to make the students good citizens of the Republic in which they were to live after graduation. In the midwestern states, Frances E. Willard, president of the Evanston College for Ladies, the successor to the Northwestern Female College, was the pioneer advocate of student self-government. Shortly after the amalgamation of the Evanston College for Ladies with Northwestern University (1873), Miss Willard resigned her post as Head of the Woman’s College at Northwestern University largely because her advanced notions in regard to student government conflicted with the ideas of the president and trustees of the university.” As a matter of fact education for citizenship was a principle of the founders of the American public school as evidenced by innumerable pamphlets collected by Allen Oscar Hansen in 1926." The founders of the Republic were of a like mind. Early New England high schools provided meagerly for participation of students in government; it was not until 1825 that a really notable ex- ample was recorded when the New York High School adopted a moni- torial system.” The Temple School in Boston furnished another early ex- ample in 1834.” Here the pupils elected a superintendent from among their number, and they became subject to his control. The results were reputed to have been most satisfactory. It is stated that the worst boys when put into office became scrupulously just and got an idea of superintending *Lyte, H. C. Maxwell, History of Eton College, pp. 295-317, Macmillan & Co., New York, 1889. 7De Guimps, Roger, Pestalozzi’s Institute at Burgdorf, pp. 201-250, Appleton & Co., New York, 1901. 66, Whittet and Shepperson, STyler, L. G., The College of William and Mary in Virginia, p. printers, Richmond, Va., 1907. *%Ibid., p. 66 ff. Bruce, P. A., 4 History of the University of Virginia, Vol. 1, pp. 6 Macmillan Co., New York, 1926. WWilde, A. H., History of Northwestern University, 1855-1905, Vol. II, pp. 66-69, p. 86, p. 107, University Publishing Society, New York, 1905. UHansen, A. O., Liberalism and American Education in the Eighteenth Century, The Macmillan Co., New York, 1926. This is a source book for the period. As yet the sources for the period of which this volume treats are scattered in many libraries, but the work was made possible through the courtesy of the New York Public Library, the New York Historical Society, the Wisconsin Historical Society, Colum- bia University Library, and the private individuals, including William Washington, who proffered their own collections in providing every service in the furtherance of the research. 12Palmer, A. E., The New York Public School, p. 25 ff, The Macmillan Co., New York, 1905. Peabody, E. P., Record of a School, p. 18, James Munro & Co., 1835. Morrow, Honore W., Father of Little Women, p. 140, Little Brown & Co., Boston, 1927. Source book for Mrs. Morrow's book, Diary of Amos Bronson Alcott, in the Alcott home, Concord, Mass. -7, Vol. Il., p. 313, The 14 Stupent-Councit Hanpsook [March themselves which nothing else could give. Probably the best example of student government in the earlier years of the history of American secon- dary schools was that of the Hartford Public High School, Connecticut, in 1852." The plan very closely resembled a modern setup of student govern- ment, because the headmaster reserved the right of absolute veto. There seems to have been no other outstanding example of student participation in school government until the establishment of the George Junior Republic at Freeville, New York, in 1894." This really was the be- ginning of a system of self-government, and for the next twenty years or more, se/f-government became the watchword of educators and leaders in reform methods of school administration. In 1897, Wilson L. Gill in- troduced a form of self-government known as a “School City” in the Nor- folk Street Vacation School, New York City; there have been many school cities established since that date. The early proponents of so-called self-government, however, recog- nized a certain degree of difference between constituted authority and dele- gated authority. These men blazed the trail for the participation of students in the control of activities in which adolescents, as chief actors, were most vitally concerned. In the desire of these pioneer educators to release their charges from subservient obedience, they often erred in swinging too far toward the other extreme. Hence, the term, se/f-government. Yet even in these earlier attempts to acknowledge the status of students as citizens of the Republic and to accord them training and practice in the performance of the duties of citizenship, these advocates of extreme revolution in methods of school administration were fully conscious that responsibility rests with constituted authority regardless of existing systems in which it was delegated to others. In 1930, William McAndrew, a former superintendent of schools in Chicago, wrote that he had had participation of pupils in every school in which he was employed for forty years. He stated that it worked; that it fostered responsibility, honesty, and consideration for general welfare.” It is due to such leaders as William McAndrew, Elbert K. Fretwell, Harry C. McKown, Charles Forrest Allen, Joseph Roemer and others that return was made from the byway of student self-government to the highway of student participation in government. The word “return” is used advisedly. A careful study of the arche- MHertzler, Silas, The Rise of the Public High School in Connecticut, pp. 130-132, Warwick and fork, Inc., Baltimore, 1930. Gill, W. L., A New Citizenship, pp. 78-83, American Patriotic League, Philadelphia, 1913. George, W. R., The Junior Republic, entire monograph, D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1910. Smith, J. G., Introduction to The Adult Minor, George, W. R., pp. xvii-xxv, D. Appleton- century Co., New York, 1937. Gill, W. L., Boys and Girls Republic, p. 5, pp. 48-91, Am. Pat. League, Philadelphia, 1913. Gill, W. L., A New Citizenship, pp. 53-83, p. 180, Am. Pat. League, Philadelphia, 1913. McAndrew, W., Preface to Tomorrow's Americans, Bowden, A. O., and Clarke, I. C., G. P. Put- aam's Sons, New York, 1930. DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENT ParTICIPATION 15 1940] types of student -government, as revealed by the ideas and practices of Plato and Aristotle and other early educators who first shaped the educa- tional policies which have persisted to this day, discloses convincing evi- dence that the systems of student government adopted by leaders in the dawn of educational history were of a participating nature in which stu- dents shared in the government of scholastic institutions. They shared in the government, but did not govern. The most casual reader is aware of the dominance of Plato and Aristotle over the Academy and the Lyceum. Even though both of these great philosophers were absent from their schools for long periods of time, they at no time relinquished their author- ity. They delegated authority to their students, but they did not give it to them. It must be remembered, too, that these students were mature men— not the adolescent youths to be found in the secondary schools of to-day. The experiences in student government in Italy, Germany, Switzerland, England, and France, when carefully analyzed, are found to be of a par- ticipating nature. The early New England high schools, which are often named as examples of self-government, were not in reality self-governing. It was literally a “return,” then, when ideas of turning over the govern- ment of the school to students for them to rule themselves were abandoned in favor of granting students the privilege of participating in making and executing the laws of the school under guidance. In tracing the history of student government the thread of continuity is often broken, sometimes is completely lost, but it is always found and taken up again, perhaps in some obscure corner where the spirit of de- mocracy in school government has been kept alive and nurtured un- molested in the midst of monarchial and autocratic civil government. Even during the Dark Ages, when the culture and learning of civilized Europe were saved from destruction only through the sustained determination and prodigious effort of the monks in the monasteries, we find isolated instances of student participation in school control. Thus has the idea of student participation in school government been preserved and handed down to succeeding generations. It is not new, but the twentieth century has given it such an impetus that its growth and development in the last twenty-five years has brought it more sharply into focus than ever be- fore. Perhaps historical research will disclose earlier forerunners to the present-day council. Such evidence as exists indicates that some activities of the kind usually associated with the council had appeared before 1850 in the American secondary schools, but the student council as it exists to-day is a relative newcomer in the extra-curriculum family. Jones has investigated the date of inception of certain activities in two hundred sixty- nine secondary schools. In these schools he found no councils before 1900, 16 Stupent-Councit HanpBook [March whereas he found one newspaper as early as the period 1870-1874." The median date for the establishment of the one hundred thirty-two councils in the two hundred sixty-nine schools which Jones studied was 1924; for football the median date of establishment in one hundred forty-seven of the same schools was 1907.” In fact, in the two hundred sixty-nine schools which Jones studied only eight activities were established later than the council. These were: school handbook (1926), golf (1929), tennis (1925), swimming (1926), wrestling (1930), hockey (1926), honor clubs (1926), and special interest clubs (1927).” Further evidence about .the age of student councils is available from Lent’s study, made in 1938, of one hundred sixty councils in the Class A and B high schools in Michigan. In these schools Lent found the median age was nine years; only nine had operated more than fifteen years, and one had flourished for a period of twenty-five years.” Patrick, in a study of 74 councils, found that the median age was 10 years.” Just how extensively student councils have been established in the American secondary school is impossible to determine exactly because all of the studies to date have been based on inadequate sampling. The more recent studies indicate that from two thirds to three fourths of the high schools have some form of pupil participation in school government.” The information available in this study shows that eighty-one per cent of the schools that responded to the questionnaire of April, 1939, issued by the National Association of Secondary-School Principals, had some form of student participation in school government. The April questionnaire was an effort to locate student councils and to determine how extensively they participated in local affiliations. The blanks were enclosed with the regu- lar mail of the department. One thousand nine hundred ninety-two of these blanks were returned, of which seven were duplicates, thus leaving one thousand nine hundred eighty-five usable replies. Of these, one thou- sand six hundred eight reported active systems of student participation and three hundred seventy-seven had none. Nine of those which had no council merely indicated this and failed to give the name of the school and its location. Nine of the three hundred seventy-seven schools that had no councils reported that they were planning to establish student participation in government the next semester. Miones. Galen, Extra-Curricular Activities in Relation to the Curriculum, p. 17, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 1935. “Ihid., p. 17 Ibid » 89 “Lent, H. € Schools of Michigan, p. ot Chicago, 1939 patrick, H. E., Pupil Participation in School Administration and Government in Eighty Secon- The Status of the Student Council in the Class A and B Junior and Senior High 31, Unpublished Master of Arts Paper, Department of Education, University dary Schools, Unpublished Master of Arts Paper, Department of Education, University of Chicago, 1938, o. 40 Lent, opus cit., p. 29 American Educational Research Assn., Review of Educational Research, Vol. 3, No. 3, p. 233, 1933 Decker, J. C., Student Participation in School Government in the Junior High Schools of New York State, pp. 23-24, Department of Secondary-School Principals, Bulletin No. 62, Chicago, May, 1936. TABLE I Tue Finpinc QuESTIONNAIRE OF APRIL, 1939 DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENT PARTICIPATION Affirma- tive Replies No. of Usable Replies Received Negative Replies Percentage | | Affirmative Percentage Negative 1985 1608 377 81% 19% TABLE II THE FinpING QUESTIONNAIRE OF APRIL, 1939 Distribution of Affirmative Replies by Regions and States North Central New pineal and Middle Atlantic Maine _._.. sit . 34 New Memgshive rns 4 icc oo Massachusetts __ vibienatiemegtnieen tan Rhode Island _.---.--.-...-.--..-._ 13 Connecticut z . 42 RE ARN) thccbiecasnitiiictinnenninethinritectns — New Jersey . 60 Pennsylvania .. 63 —_—_ 315 Total __. South Atlantic Delaware _.... Maryland ae District of Columbia iibsiait Virginia a West Virginia -. . 39 North Carolina —.—-.......-...---------- 17 South Carolina —. 3 IE icaitescreninectecmaenes UN cen i idea 17 ae 22 Total a 142 Kentucky _. 21 Tennessee —.....-_- hai - 5 Alabama 41 Mississippi 2 ee See Soe 17 i ee a = Oklahoma . 42 Texas -_. Total Ohio _._... : .. 141 Indiana —._.... Illinois 138 Michigan _... . 144 , Cid”:«é«‘i RE ee Minnesota _....... Iowa ....... Missouri 42 54 PU TO acacia South Dakota —... Nebraska Kansas yp PSS abd ete mai Rocky Mountain Montana _._......_.......- Idaho __.. PE a eiherdaceinioscoeantniencininegnininadine || eet Rae Re eS AER, 3.0 Ae New Mexico —....-.—...... Arizona MIR, ari 1> sa cinsth nslpainintchcshgshaibiaieiaieennieeiad Nevada Washington _. Oregon . California Total Territories and Foreign Countries Hawaii Puerto Rico England Total 4 Grand Total —_.. 18 62 800 and Pacific StupENT-CounciL HANpBook TABLE III Tue Finpinc QuESTIONNAIRE OF ApRIL, 1939 Distribution of Negative Replies by Regions and States Middle Atlantic New England and Maine . New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut New York —-..-.... New Jersey Pennsylvania Total Delaware Maryland a District of Columbia Virginia West Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida Total Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi Arkansas Louisiana Oklahoma Texas Total oM tw WW AN WwW +e nN _ SCON NN ON = — | al oS North Central Ohio RENEE RE Ea Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa I cepinsieissaniedaductiodenctoso PD North Dakota -..............................- I ili i icinitinnciitacamn PI Sochiecisissiiscanacceictaesaninnacsindtbhinetan Kansas Total Poe Behe i ees Rocky Mountain and Pacific Montana ; mae iniaoiacennte Idaho Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah __ Nevada Washington Oregon California | ANAOK NK Awe DA Total : a = wn > Territories and Foreign Countries Negative replies —..... No location given Grand Total In May, 1939, a two-page questionnaire was then sent to the one thousand six hundred eight schools that had existing government or- ganizations. By this time many schools had closed for the summer va- cation, but three hundred sixty-one, or twenty-three per cent, returned usable questionnaires. Tables II, III, and IV show the distribution by states and regions of the replies to the April and May questionnaires. This handbook does not presume to be a study of median practice of student-council prerogatives and activities. It is a statement of conditions which were found in three hundred sixty-one schools which answered the 1940 | DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENT PARTICIPATION 19 questionnaire sent out in May, 1939. Whether or not these conditions are typical is a matter of conjecture. In the opinion of the wrifers of this Bulletin, the facts presented constitute actual practice in three hundred sixty-one schools but probably represent practice above average, since schools which have good student councils, or are proud of their councils, are most likely to reply. Certainly these high schools are not a random sample of the second- ary institutions in the United States, because the median size of the three hundred nineteen whose size is known (see Table V) is about 800; the median size of all high schools is between 100 and 1235. In addition, the authors have supplemented the returns from the questionnaires with the literature of school administration wherever it appeared advisable to do so. TABLE IV THE QUESTIONNAIRE OF May, 1939 Distribution of Replies by Regions and States New England and Middle Atlantic fT Re AR ETRE EDL oA OT LP ELS ee Oklahoma Texas Maine New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts _..... Rhode Island —_.... Connecticut New York New Jersey - Pennsylvania Total Ohio . Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin South Atlantic Minnesota Total Delaware Maryland ecto : District of Columbia . TN ib aia cicncesnttiocanesnbotoanioinenance West Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia |! OE ROOT PS Se Flerida North Dakota South Dakota je ea Be cae hy Deel. Kansas i wre ON OCW eK Wh Rocky Mountain and Pacific | I aRRAL EO Me cee IIB ie Idaho - WI so rncccnckscnietan naa Kentucky ‘ = Colorado __... p eee New BGesieo Alabama . eenctendnesenmniematies PE Se ed RE ae, ANE, Be aR Mississippi adie Scie senaaiali Utah nN wm Total _ SrupEenT-Councit HanpBook TABLE IV—Continued Tue Finpinc QuEsTIONNAIRE OF May, 1939—Continued Rocky Mountain and Pacific—Continued FOTN tinct iinnctntowiheicniomaness Territories and Foreign Countries Washington ee 326 Hawaii Th I ence iccctiniceretieemenesnnreionaes 3 Failed to name school & location ....._ 1 California 5 ——: Total ; es 30 Grand Total _.-......... 361 TABLE V S1zz oF ScHoots WHIcH ANSWERED THE May QUESTIONNAIRE 99 / 2000 |. or less | 100-199 | 200-499 | 500-999 | 1000-1999] or over | Not given 42 78 42 22 76 94 7 Cuaprer II PURPOSES OF PUPIL PARTICIPATION IN SCHOOL CONTROL Theoretical objectives Practically all of the objectives of extra-curriculum activities have been, and may rightly be, claimed for pupil participation in school control. In a recent study in Michigan Lent found the following were the five main objectives claimed by the principals for the student council in 160 high schools. TABLE VI* Osyectives oF Pupit ParticipaTION IN SCHOOL CoNTROL NO. OF OBJECTIVE PER CENT SCHOOLS 1. To develop student responsibility, initiative, leadership, and school pride 150 93.7 2. To promote worthy citizenship training 111 69.3 3. To provide for pupil expression 82 51.2 4. To provide a working model of a governmental unit under which students will live 36 22.5 5. To promote welfare of the school through proper student-faculty relationship 2 1.2 These purposes are valid ones, which may well be sought in any school which is seriously attempting to develop adolescents to be discriminating and thoughtful citizens in a democratic society. No one who has seriously considered the methods which may be used to train adolescents to be well informed, serious-minded citizens would claim that inaugurating a student council is the principal method of pro- moting future good citizenship in the state. The total process is promoted by, or hindered because of the lack of, democratic pupil-teacher relation- ships, teacher-principal relationships, the curriculum content, and many other factors. Probably the most effective way of developing future good citizenship is to emphasize it through democratic living in the classrooms and corridors as well as in the council meetings and on the playing field. Certainly the curriculum must bear a major responsibility in training for citizenship. The student body must learn the basic facts relative to the social, economic, and governmental problems, both national and inter- national, which face citizens. A recent study in New York state’ indicated that by and large pupils graduated from, or dropped out of school, without acquiring the appreciation of, or a knowledge about, the pressing economic, *Taken from Lent, H. C.,: opus cit., p. 37, and slightly rearranged. 1Spaulding, F. T., High School and Life, McGraw-Hill Company, 1939. 21 StupENT-Councit HanpBook | March political, or social problems which face the American people to-day, and which the adolescents now enrolled in the secondary school must help solve in the decades which will follow. Other illustrations of inadequacies in the present curriculum could be mentioned. But to treat them ade- quately would require space which is not available in this monograph. It must suffice to say that forward-looking schools are reorganizing the cur- riculum to make it function in the everyday living of the future American citizen. Student participation is not a panacea for the difficulties which beset the public schools; it does offer an excellent method for giving pupils a habit of mind that will consider the public business a matter of interest to the private citizen. Pupil participation is not a fad. It helps to teach citizen- ship by doiag, just as industrial arts, football, and dancing are taught. It is one method by which actual training and experience in citizenship can be had. Its prevalence in public-school systems may well be expected to increase. Purposes as stated in replies to questionnaire Of the scores of school administrators who coéperated in furnishing material for this handbook, an overwhelming majority stated, con- cisely and each in his own way, the theoretical purposes given above as his specific purpose for maintaining a system of student codperation in his school. A very large percentage of high-school principals believe that stu- dent participation in school government is an excellent preparation for active interest in community affairs. But a few gave selfish, narrow-minded reasons for the establishment of a system of student government, and in practically every instance of this type they admitted it had failed of its purpose. Those who thought to be re- lieved of the burden of maintaining discipline found to their grief that a so- called self-governed school does not run itself. To their amazement and chagrin they found that it needs a stronger man, a better woman, a keener mind to manage a system of pupil government than it does to control an office-centric organization. In all fairness to those whose specific purpose for the establishment of pupil participation seemed to have been influenced only by personal motives, it should be explained that many of them added other purposes of a decidedly altruistic nature. However, some of them did not. One whose sole purpose was to secure better order confessed that from the very moment the pupil-centric system of government was insti- tuted, it became instantly more difficult to secure order. A writer discussing this very phase of the situation states that if, in the experience of any school, the installation of pupil codperation in government has resulted in disorder, it has been because those in charge have not thought out in ad- 1940 | Purposes oF Pupit Participation 23 vance what to do with the activity which they have freed from confine- ment.’ More will be said about this in another chapter. It is to the credit of the pupil government systems now in operation and to those responsible for their conduct, that the secretaries or presidents of the student councils were able to give to the question on purpose, replies distinguished for their discernment and aptness. It was intended that secre- taries should secure the help of a sponsor or of the principal in replying to the questionnaire, but in many cases it was evident that they had not com- plied with this request. It was extremely good fortune that some of the answers were not supervised by teachers. Otherwise we should have missed the student viewpoint which could not have been obtained in any other way. For example, one secretary states the following specific purpose: “To discipline the students who were uncontrollable by the principal.” Insolent? Not at all. Merely naive and forthright. A study of the con- stitution and an examination of other material relating to the school con- firmed the opinion that the student secretary had given a discriminating answer congruous with a keen understanding of the affairs of the organi- zation of which she was an officer. Many of the student answers were couched in language as dignified and accurate as that employed by any of their elders, and often the stu- dents succeeded in sensing the information desired and in making a cour- teous effort to give that information better than did many of the adminis- trators. Taken all in all, the questionnaires filled by student officers were of great value, not only in giving the pupil version of certain situations, but in giving thoughtful attention to each question asked. The sponsors were equally conscientious in trying to give clear, complete, and correct replies to the questions asked. The attempt to keep separate the specific purposes of organization of a student council and the objectives of student participation in school government was finally abandoned, because it was apparent that in most cases this distinction had not been made in the re- plies. Answers received from principals, sponsors, and student officers are represented in the following lists. Here are some of the definite, concrete reasons given for pupil par- ticipation: “To keep down absences and tardiness” “To sponsor worthy projects” “To put into effect an honor system for examinations” “To foster school spirit” “To direct student-body activities” “To sponsor drives, school campaigns” “Primarily to improve conduct” “To improve music standards of the school” “To improve literary standards of the school” Bowden, A. O., and Clarke, Ida C., Tomorrow's Americans, p. 19, excerpt from address delivered at Adelphi College, Brooklyn, by Goldwasser, I. E., G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1930. Srupent-Councit HanpBooK “To improve athletic standards of the school” “To formulate a budget and pass upon financial propositions” “To expedite collections for student activities, yearbook, etc.” “To supply school needs such as Lost and Found, Guide Book, and monitor system” “To make school a better place in which to study” “To be a court in conjunction with the study-hall discipline” “For publicity purposes of the school” “To furnish laboratory training for those studying in the social sciences” “For training in speaking before a large group” “To aid in seating pupils for formal assemblies” “To handle problems possible for students to take care of” “To conduct student assemblies, campaigns. and dances” “To encourage social functions and to provide a program of such” “To institute student control of conduct in halls” “For grading behavior and rating citizenship on reports to parents” “Organized in 1918 to promote the sale of thrift stamps and other war activities” Two rather unexpected replies were: “To help run the school,” and “To keep up with the times.” Perhaps the reader imagines these replies were given by students. They were not. One was given by a principal and one by a superintendent. By consulting the table below, one may discover that others expressed the same idea, though not so bluntly. Practically all of the following answers were repeated more than once and some of them many times. The highest number of repetitions was received for the idea embodied in the purpose: “To create better codpera- tion and a closer relationship between students and faculty.” Eighty-eight of the replies gave this objective. In the smaller, localized study conducted by Lent, this objective ranked fifth. Next in frequency came, “To give joint participation in school affairs between faculty and students.” “To promote the general welfare of the school,” ranked third with a frequency of fifty. The theoretical purpose of student participation as given by most educators in dealing with extra-curriculum activities: “To train for citizen- ship, promote good citizenship, raise standard of citizenship,” held fourth place with forty-one schools naming it as their specific purpose. constitutions, while usually more lengthy and written in a more formal style, were practically the same as those given in the following table of re- plies to the questionnaire. The number at the right of each answer indicates the number of times it appeared. To create better codperation and a closer relationship between students The purposes of the organization of student councils as given in the TABLE VII P SpeciFic Purposes 88 and faculty - seach sa deceinds ae To give joint participation in school affairs 52 To promote the general welfare of the school 50 Purpose or Pupit ParricipATION TABLE VII—Continued Speciric Purposes—Continued To train for citizenship—promote good citizenship—raise standard of I acs cassncannsnin -etrresnvererninisttlamaimpecnidalicceeis 41 To promote pupil activities and participation -.... . 36 To foster school spirit (and traditions) ........ : bo Oe . 33 To give students opportunities to develop eadersip is in » hendllig. pro affairs... panvakembalintsnatiesdlsanssananehcndsciemeiet. To give students a voice in ‘hed ‘ie 9 AEN SB. 31 To encourage, develop, and extend opportunities pany parang responsibility 29 To sponsor worth-while school projects, such as Publication of school paper or magazine Publication of guide books, handbooks, school annuals, (yearbook) Conducting school assemblies, class elections, inter-home-room contests, campaigns, drives, etc. Providing entertainment for visiting teams Planning school outings, school parties, school dances, and other social affairs Taking charge of “lost and found,” monitor system, ticket sales, hall “pages,” etc. Taking charge of Christmas and Thanksgiving boxes, philanthropic enterprises, better care of building, etc. Sponsoring athletics, debates, dramatics, operettas, band, orchestra, etc. 29 To aid in the internal administration of the school 24 To give training in self-government —.......... maeawueiicassseceiecste: aa To discuss and solve problems concerning the student body we ad MR ot 21 To unify all student activities and organizations —.......................... 20 To give training in democratic living ) renee the democratic process) 18 To create a devise he ieee opinion res as “pulse” ed the dries 17 To direct student-body activities pence en ae To encourage social functions and provide a social program —..................... 15 To promote student welfare © 22 2 nee nen cnnne innenneneenenennnnneennneeeneees 13 To establish a mutual understanding beewenn cmodent ond feculey ~ ee To promote good order in the school FLD ES OL LO ONE ce A To improve the morale of the student body 0. .2-..---2-------eee--—- 11 To coérdinate the various activities of the chest Re tence Melee wae aa To represent the student body in its contact with the sdealebtintien. ete 11 To raise the standard of scholarship... --------------- nen nee To create spirit of loyalty in the school — eee To regulate traffic and conduct in halls and colenade' MOET 8 To help students become more adept in taking part in ellnies. pay as will confront them after leaving school — eae To encourage student participation in schoo! affairs —. To govern school activities To foster school spirit (and wotiieas’ To make school more democratic — To organize extra-curriculum activities — To promote and maintain the highest standards of truth, bis ‘ae duty To offer suggestions of betterment to the administration To supervise activities — To give students actual practice in self-government ° SUMAN UA YY & StupENT-CouNcIL HANpDBOOoK TABLE VII—Contnued SpeciFic Purposes—Continued To raise and maintain the standards of the school To develop student initiative To regulate extra-curriculum participation To act as governing body of the school To promote fellowship and codéperation among students To establish justice—give the students their “rights” To teach student body how to conduct their own government To improve the moral standards of the school To develop in students the educational responsibility of, ond the peiniiege of participating in, democracy in a school To democratically work together in school activities To promote means for student legislation To facilitate student activities encourage the highest possible development of ooh student . To encourage good will between school and community To promote better inter-scholastic relationships To act as advisory council to headmaster (or principal) To act as a court in conjunction with disciplinary problems To develop self-control among the students improve the athletic standards of the school To put into effect an honor system for examinations To inspire a feeling of personal pride in the school To manage and direct student business To For publicity purposes of the school Because other schools had them To furnish laboratory training for students in social science classes To provide a balanced activity program To regulate extra-curriculum activities To afford general opportunities for student experience To organize noon-hour activities To help make a 100% success of any school olen attempted To formulate a budget and pass upon financial propositions To expedite collections for student activities, yearbooks, etc. To help “run” the school To assume full responsibility for many minor ‘dain of administration (especially minor disciplinary problems) bring about better social relationships between classes handle problems possible for students to take care of provide machinery through home rooms for assembly programs, room programs, checking attendance, etc. To give students a better understanding of the ongsnlasin of the weed To give expression through a representative group to the ideas, wishes, and complaints of the student body To help form school policy To be helpful to the school To help improve the school - To improve music standards of the shoal To teach pupils to solve their problems by themselves To promote sportsmanship | March wwereenne ae yp NN NN RN NNN NNR NN NKR WwW ww ww 1940 | Purpose oF Pupit Participation TABLE VII—Continued SpeciFic Purposes—Continued To improve the literary standards of the school To create respect for the school and its laws —........... To assist in developing the school as an educational an nen ene: Basen To make school a better place in which to study : To assist in developing the school as an educational and moral force in the COIN sre ccitrsancccesirisscintiticsicmssiciannstacabsiaaalnialat To develop self-discipline — To develop courtesy To develop character To develop obedience To “secure gentlemanly enten ond. ‘thoughtful mine a -echiaiel regulations” Zz ; To make school more interesting 7s puraae and venchere cae “To stimulate moral, educational, and social progress” To make students conscious of their faults and the faults of their school _.. To promote the sale of thrift stamps and other war activities To do the things of importance in the school that are not taken care ail — elsewhere ; To make a more perfect school system —............... To carry on the business of the student bel ak es in ORS ee Oe To preserve the best and make improvements where i For training in speaking before a large group Because students requested it slings Because everyone is doing it To keep up with the times To practice good citizenship here ond NE No clibied tetanic Pd lil To give students partial self-government To give experience in carrying on elections To give student control of activities To study and meet life's situations : decane To give students a knowledge of methods oki government _....... To develop a democracy designed to produce intelligent and conscientious Ll ee ee eo _ _ school citizens - ‘ To provide education for denen To create a democratic self-governing system in the school To train for leadership in democracy --..... = To show students that they can be governed ie dates: To stimulate interest in the need of good government —........-.............-. To promote interest in school activities... To urge clubs to codperate with the school To have a more organized student body 2-2-2. To improve all aspects of school activities For guiding student affairs in school ‘ To stimulate the desire of the student body for higher education To broaden the student viewpoint To consider matters and discharge duties that may be assigned to it To more closely unite home rooms and organizations Understanding of school aims, ideals, and services — To establish activities on an efficient financial basis Ll ee _ Srupent-Councit HanpBook TABLE VII—Continued SprciFic Purposes—Continued To help students of school follow. rules and regulations of school —....... To aid in athletic finances To raise money for worthy causes . - To help keep down absences and tardiness To help school on special occasions To seat pupils for formal assemblies me To establish and maintain codperation in desielinny gubiom = To consider matters referred by the principal To develop careful judgment concerning problems ~......... To plan inter-scholastic activities - To codperate with the faculty in student enlightenment To assist with problems of guidance - To be helpful to the principal - To give representation to each school organization —....... For the making of any laws necessary for the general a oli ae peal in keeping with the general policy of the school . To allow students to participate to the extent of their ability in self- _—_ government setgalieed To make it easier to get infarmation | to paren ee To act as representatives to the administration in cases of dissatisfaction To obtain codperation of whole school in handling school affairs -.. ...... For grading behavior and rating citizenship in reports to parents To discipline students who were uncontrollable by the principal —.... iia : To give students an opportunity to express and execute some of their ideas To make it possible for any pupil to be heard by the school or the principal on any matter that he considers important —............ To socialize the school Not organized for any specific purpose ... ‘ Organized for a specific purpose, but none given .. These specific purposes as stated have been reclassified into several broad categories which are listed in Table VHI on the next page. From this summary it is clear that student councils in the 361 schools which answered the questionnaire have responsibility for regulation of, or participation in, the management of some or all of the extra-curriculum activities. This accounts for more than one third of the total. About one half (1 and 2) are concerned with the problems of extra-curriculum ac- tivities, because the development of student responsibility, initiative, and leadership is generally the result expected from participation in the man- agement of the extra-curriculum, as well as a method of furnishing train- ing for citizenship in a democracy. Approximately one third (numbers 2, 4, and 8) were concerned with furnishing some sort of training for citizen- ship. About one fourth (numbers 3, 5, 6, and 7) aimed to improve the 1940 | Purpose oF Pupit PaRrTIciIPATION 29 internal organization of the school, to improve relationships between pupils and teachers, or to provide for pupil expression. TABLE VIII SpeciFic Purposes SUMMARIZED GENERAL GROUPING OF SPECIFIC PURPOSES N % To allow pupils to participate in or manage extra- curriculum affairs 34.0 To develop student responsibility, iniative, and lead- ership To promote proper student-faculty relationships 11.6 11.2 64 7.0 15.2 To furnish citizenship training To promote general welfare To aid in the internal administration of the school 49 5.5 To provide for pupil expression 33 3.6 To furnish a working model of government 33 3.6 Miscellaneous 75 8.3 Total 908 100.0 This summary is a striking illustration of the trend which has been discernible to students of secondary-school administration over the past two decades. The council is increasingly being used as the center from which radiate the activities of the school. It often is a means of promoting the teacher-pupil relationship and the internal organization of a school. It is considered an excellent means of training pupils in democratic living. But it is not an organization to enable pupils to govern themselves. Cuapter III ORGANIZING A COUNCIL When a principal is considering the possibility of inaugurating a system of student participation in government, he should make a thorough study of the subject before initiating any plans or taking any steps in the direction of effecting an organization. First of all, he should become acquainted with the ideas of leaders in this area whose writings are listed in the bibliography of this handbook. Also he should consult with the principals and sponsors who are in charge of organizations that are operating successfully in neighboring schools. He should take time to visit schools in which the work of the student council is outstanding; and perhaps he should attend the convention of his own district association, if one exists. After this has been done, the principal should take time to study the needs of his own particular student body, and, equally important, take time to consult the faculty and determine its attitude. The advice of those with the longest period of, and most successful experience with, student participation in school control is to proceed slowly and cautiously, and never under any circumstances attempt to spring a full-fledged organiza- tion upon the school overnight. It is much better to delay organization a few weeks or months or even a year than to set up hastily an organization that does not fulfill the needs of the particular school and is not adapted to the situation created in that particular environment. It is better to start with the right organization from the beginning than to find it neces. sary later to abolish completely the system and reorganize. However, those in charge should not hesitate to do this when they have become con- vinced that the type of organization to which the school has been com- mitted is not the one suited to the best interests of all concerned. Pupil participation should fill a felt need Pupil participation should fulfill a need in the school felt by pupils and faculty. This may grow out of a desire for assembly programs, the need to control traffic in the corridors, or from many other causes. The council should begin with a concrete problem which it can solve. By so doing, it will gain confidence in itself and prestige in the eyes of the stu- dent body. Lent, in his study of the councils in Michigan, found that the demand came from the pupils in sixty-two per cent of the cases, and from the principal in fifty-three per cent.’ How frequently the principal had stimulated this demand cannot, of course, be determined. ILent, H. C., opus cit., p. 50. This indicates that the demand came from both pupils and ad- ministrators in some cases. 30 1940] Orcanizinc a CounciL Launching the student council The following table in which is presented the list of persons respon- sible for the inauguration of the councils investigated by the National Association of Secondary-School Principals is not in entire agreement with the findings of Lent. The school administration was responsible for launching the council in sixty per cent of the replies, although the prin- cipal alone was responsible in thirty-two per cent of the replies. Perhaps it will suffice to say that the principal has had the major respon- sibility for organizing the council. If he does not believe in it and give it his support, the council is unlikely to make a significant contribution to the life of the school. Next in line, the students as a whole or a group were responsible for twenty-five per cent of the student councils. Five per ceut of the organiza- tions did not know to what person, organization, or influence they owed their origin, though only one and one-half per cent frankly admitted it. By referring to Table VIII, it can readily be noted that in a great many schools the councils grew out of a need felt by pupils and faculty. This should always be the case. And a perfectly objective and easily managed project should be attacked first. Regardless of how or by whom the organization of a student council is instigated, the educative process and the preparatory steps should not be omitted. This responsibility lies with the principal. If the student boay and the faculty are receptive to the idea of student participation and if no antagonism exists in any quarter, this period may be shorter than would be the case if opposition must first be overcome. Gradual introduction Pupil participation should be introduced gradually. It is best to begin with a concrete problem which can be solved and to add to the duties or prerogatives slowly. In the study by Lent, referred to previously, the principals ranked as first in importance among ten items which have contributed to the success of the council, “Gradual development; little at- tempted at first.” In another recent study of the student council in seventy- four schools, Patrick found that of eight factors contributing to the suc- cess of the organization, the one ranked first in importance was, “Gradual development—not too much attempted at first.”* The rank order of the first five factors contributing to the success of the council in the seventy-four schools which Patrick studied were: (1) gradual development—not too much attempted at first, (2) good *Lent, H. C., opus cit., p. 50. 5Patrick, H. E., Pupil Participation in School Administration and Government in Eighty Second- ary Schools, unpublished Master of Arts paper, p. 70, Department of Education, University of Chicago, 1938. ‘suossod jo sdnoiZ 30 suosiod soy. YM UONSUN{UOD ul peie yapuajutedns Jo yediourd ayy saoueysur Aueu Ur yYI IeJ Fy) UT sot] sJaquINnU UT ADUedaIDSIP ay] “~gz¢g JO [BI0) B SayeUT SIyT CS I ~ Jooyss sJayouer jo Aynoey pue jedouug Wo - [R20], Joyjoue jo jediouig I SIOYBUIPIOOL) ecient ; [BOL [0], vorun, Aytjepog SIIWIWIOD JOUOP{ Ja\seuIpeapy wooy 2wO}{ sdnoiz ul 40 AjBuUls syuapMs b 1Z quopuajuLsdng santjiqisuodsas —————= yuauyredag A10\stp] qeapnys UO sUOIssNosic] SseID ABOOID0g joryrs soy Ar1Jod sejnSes jo poo SseIQ swI2|qQOIg URHIIWY ine nate — wayshs & JO poou ayy yy | y~ —— ~~ SassejQ) SAID Ayai0g sOUOF{ 1Z Anoey . “ ai —— mt eit quaun sede BIUSIIS yeros jeuonen, jo sadeyp zZ1 jedioug € uoneonpy jo pieog SIO voueusUIUpy ; a Zz < so ~ 3) Zz =) ° ) kK z _ a » B 72) MON LNGIG | HaMSNV ON SAO0aGNVTISOSIN SdNOUS CAXIN SLNAGOALS NOLLVULSININGY ¢MONNOD LNAGALS V 40 NOLLVTIVISN] FHL GALdWOUg NOLLVZINVOYG YO NOSMAgG LVHA\ XI ATAV.L 1940 | ORGANIZING A CoUNCIL 33 faculty advisors, (3) strong pupil leaders, (4) favorable pupil sentiment, and (5) a sympathetic faculty." Of eleven factors which had hampered the success of the student council, Patrick found the following ranked first in order of importance: (1) difficulty of securing efficient and successful pupil leaders, (2) problem of getting all members to participate in work, (3) pupils made leaders on the basis of popularity rather than ability, (4) lack of interest and responsibility on the part of pupils, and (5) objection to telling on and being disciplined by fellow pupils.’ Another step to be taken by the principal who contemplates estab- lishing a system of pupil participation in his school is the study of the various forms that have been used with success. This study should be carried on jointly with the faculty and with the student body. The principal should be prepared to guide the pupils toward the adoption of the plan that seems best suited to his particular group. No plan has been found to be the ideal one for every school. If a school decides upon a form of government based on state or national government, it should carefully consider any modifications that should be made. One very important matter to decide is whether or not the student government shall attempt to maintain the three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, as found in the pattern it wishes to follow. Of the 361 schools canvassed, 320 did not have constitutions based on state or national government. Of those whose constitutions followed state or national plans, sixty per cent did not make provision for all three branches. The judicial branch was most frequently omitted, though in a few cases the legislative was lacking. TABLE X Exercise oF ALL THREE Powers—LeEcIsLaTIvE, EXECUTIVE, AND JUDICIAL No. based on state or| No. based on state or national government, national government, and |Not based on and exercising legislative,| not exercising legislative, |state or national executive, and judicial] executive, and judicial | government powers powers 17 24 320 Types oF STUDENT GOVERNMENT IN OPERATION A tabulation of the results of the questionnaire shows that the principal forms of student organization are: council of home-room presidents, council of home-room representatives, national government plan or a ‘]bid., p. 70. S]bid., p. 73. 34 Srupent-Councit HanpBook [March modified form of it, forum plan, city government plan, council of class representatives, state government plan, unicameral legislatures, council of representatives of organizations, and advisory or record-room representa- tives. About one fifth of the schools employed individual plans of such dissimilarity that they could not properly be classified under any of these headings. Neither were these ten classifications distinct and diverse. For example, some listed their plan as the “forum plan.” A description of the plan showed that the forum consisted of representatives from the home rooms. Others employing exactly the same plan listed it as “council of home-room representatives.” Still others called it a “unicameral legis- lature.” In like manner many organizations were designated, “council of home-room representatives,” but an outline of the plan revealed that it closely resembled that of the Federal Government. This happened in so many instances that when the answers to the question, “If based on state or national government plan, does council maintain house of representa- tives and senate and employ judicial, executive, and legislative powers?” were tabulated, the result was not consistent in that the sum of the “yes” and “no” answers was larger than the total number of councils listed as operating on the state and national government plans. The trouble lay in the fact that many councils of home-room representatives, or home- room presidents, had adopted forms of state or national government. This necessitated striking out all answers of “yes” or “no” given by those councils whose plan of organization was not listed as that of state or national government. The number of each is given at the right. TABLE XI Type oF CounciL ORGANIZATION Council of home-room presidents Council of home-room representatives Modified form of national government . Forum ; City government National government Council of class representatives Modified form of city government Modified form of state government Representatives of classes and organizations State government ES Se Representatives from home rooms and classes No answer ; : seeceaemeniae Representatives from home rooms and organizations . Representatives from home rooms and student body — Hlome-room presidents and representatives from organizations . Representatives from home rooms, classes, and organizations Council of class representatives and others , hata Class presidents and representatives of organizations - Home-room presidents and representatives - Senators from home rooms and clubs —_. Class officers and organizations —_ Honor roll and class officers — ORGANIZING A CoUNCIL TABLE XI—Continued Types oF Councit OrcANIzATIONS—Continued Home-room senators -..........-..-------------------<--------<---=0--- Home-room vice presidents -............. Form under development Service club Modified form of local “and state government Modified form of national and state government Modified form of town government Class presidents, assembly presidents, and representatives-at-large -_............... Council ot representatives from all organizations Class officers and organization presidents .. Class officers and shop and club representatives Class presidents, cadet corps commander, and one appointed member Class presidents, class representatives, and student body officers —............. ‘ Student officers and representatives from organizations Council elected by students Class presidents and class representatives Study hall representatives _.... Class officers and one representative-at-large _. Class presidents and home-room chairmen .... One representative for each 30 students Home-room representative and class officers Officers elected by student body mane chairmen of seven nidatien committees “Totalitarianism plan”... DGTP ARS _ On? One One Ok Ome One nd Gad Ont bd Smt Ome Od Od Os OES Ome Sees Gee Send bend bd Ww s| a Council of home-room presidents The most popular type of organization is the council of home-room presidents. This type presupposes a home-room organization which sim- plifies the setting up of a general organization. Every member of the student body is a member of the government organization and exercises his right of franchise in the home-room elections and in the general election of a president and vice president. The candidates for these two offices are usually nominees from the Senior and Junior classes, respec- tively. Later, the secretary and treasurer are frequently appointed by the president, with the approval of the sponsor or principal, from the com- mercial classes. Sometimes they are chosen at the general election with the president and vice president. One of the chief advantages of this plan lies in the fact that the home-room president not only represents his home room in the student council but bears the brunt of responsibility in his home room. He reports to his fellow students the actions of the council and provides for the execution of the decisions of the council; he takes charge of the home room and starts the class to work pending the ar- rival of a delayed teacher; and he sees to it that the home-room secretary calls the roll, reports the attendance to the office, and attends to multi- tudinous details from which many teachers are glad to escape. An objection to the plan of having the home-room president act as representative to the council is that by so doing an opportunity is lost for further distribution of participation in service. Then, too, many point 36 StrupENT-CounciL HanpBook | March systems prohibit a student from holding two major offices. This would prevent dual service under those systems in which both the home-room presidency and representation in the student council are ranked as major offices. Council of home-room representatives Next in favor is the council of home-room representatives. More frequently than not a boy and a girl are chosen from each home room. These representatives carry suggestions and complaints to the council and bring back reports of the council actions, but further than that they bear no responsibility in the home room. The president and vice president, and sometimes the secretary and treasurer, are usually elected by the student body, though sometimes they are chosen within the council by their fellow members. Sometimes the council functions as a unicameral leg- islature or a forum, and sometimes it follows forms of city, state, or national government. National government type Next in frequency came the national government plan or a modified form of it. Representatives are chosen in various ways. As has already been intimated, they are often selected in the home rooms, the classes, the advisory, or the record rooms. Another favorite method is the division of the student body while in assembly into states and congressional dis- tricts. Each state elects two senators and a proportionate number of representatives, while the assembly as a whole elects the president and vice president. The president appoints the members of the supreme court and the senate ratifies the appointments. The court chooses its own chief justice. Many small high schools follow the national government plan in a general way, but omit numerous details, and adapt the framework to their own particular needs. Sometimes the senate is endowed with judi- cial powers, or these are invested solely in the faculty. In many instances the judicial branch of the government is eliminated entirely so far as student participation is concerned. Large high schools often reproduce the national system quite completely. One of the most exact reproductions is that of the McKinley High School, Honolulu, Hawaii, but the principal finds that it is rather cumbersome. He feels, however, that it is worth the trouble required to maintain the operation of the system because of the object lessons it affords to the native students in understanding the government of the nation to which they owe allegiance. Right here it might be well to sound the warning that many attempts at student govern- ment have failed because they applied too faithfully the form of the Fed- eral Government. No system should be so unwieldly that it takes too long to secure action. It is risky to permit two coordinate powers to conduct the business. At the present time a large city high school is struggling with 37 1940 | OrGANIZING A COUNCIL this situation. The Senate and the House are not responsible to each other, so each passes laws not recognized by the other. City government type In the city government plan the ward is the basic unit, and the methods employed in laying out the wards usually differ according to the size of the school. Many designate the home rooms as wards; others have just four wards, one for each class; and still others divide the assembly into wards. When a class becomes a ward, it is customary for each home room to serve as a voting precinct. Instead of president and secretary, the school votes for mayor and clerk. Some of the schools have adopted the commission form of municipal government, and some the city man- ager plan. The Saint Theresa High School of Detroit, Michigan, affords an example of the latter. In this plan voters elect a board of commissioners each of whom has control of one particular department. The forum type The forum plan for the most part functions merely as a discussion group. By this means the principal determines student opinion and can be guided in his course of action by knowledge gained during the threshing- out process in the forum; but all legislative, executive, and judicial powers remain in the hands of the school’s administrative officers. Council of class representatives In the council of class representatives the size of the council is de- termined by the size of the school and the extent of student participation in the control of administrative affairs. The delegates are then apportioned so that the Senior class has the highest percentage, the Junior class the next highest, the Sophomore fewer than the Junior, and the Fresh- man class the fewest. In a very few cases the Freshman class has no repre- sentative in the council. Sometimes the Freshman class is permitted to elect representatives for the second semester. In other cases the Freshman representatives attend council meetings and take part in the discussions, but have no vote. Some schools give the Freshman class a special course in training to prepare the members for citizenship under their system of student government. Most of these schools provide this training only dur- ing the first semester, and the class is considered competent to elect voting representatives in the second half of the year. Council of representatives from organizations Another type of organization is that in which the representatives are chosen from the various organizations of the school. The main difh- culty, as was discovered in examining the constitutions of the schools using this system, was that in most of them a part of the student body seemed not to be represented, because a number of pupils did not belong 38 StupENT-Counci, HanpBook [ March to any organization. The council should be chosen from the school in such a way that every pupil feels that he is represented. In some schools the organizations such as Boys’ Club, athletics, publications, etc., form the basis of representation. This form will work satisfactorily if every pupil belongs to an organization which receives regular reports from its representatives. Home rooms, since they are used so extensively in schools, offer a very satisfactory basis for representation. State government type The least favored plan of all the major ones submitted is that of state government. Comparatively few schools reported a system of student government incorporated on this plan. Like the Federal Government most schools find it too unwieldy unless it were revised to such an extent that in reality it becomes an original method. Even the names of governor, lieutenant governor, etc., militate against its adoption. However, a few schools are operating quite successfully with the entire setup of state government. Traffic in the halls is regulated by state police, and to the most minute detail the state system is applied to the administration of the school. Expression of dissatisfaction with type in operation Only seven per cent of those answering the questionnaire expressed dissatisfaction with the type of organization chosen. Twelve per cent said they were not entirely satisfied with the operation of their systems. Several did not wish to commit themselves, as their systems were new and had not been given a thorough trial. All the others were satisfied with the mode of government chosen for their schools. TABLE XII Are You SATISFIED WITH THE OPERATION oF YouR Type or STUDENT CovuncIL? No Undecided | No Answer 25 43 | 8 This tends to confirm the belief that the actual machinery through which student participation in the government of the school is carried on is not so essential as is the whole-hearted codperation of the principal, faculty, and student body, the efficiency of the executive officers, and an indomitable will to succeed. In so far as students are concerned, Pope’s aphorism holds true: OrGANIZING A COUNCIL “For forms of government let fools contest; Whate’er is best administer’d is best.” Size of council The size of the council should not be too large. If the home room is used as the basis of representation, there would of necessity be over one hundred members in large schools. If such a condition exists, it is necessary to choose an executive committee from the council. The working group, which probably should not exceed thirty members, should report back to the whole council regularly. In Chapter X are described the practices of 376 schools with respect to student council finances. The median size of the student councils in 349 schools which supplied the information was twenty-four members. Veto power of the principal It is generally conceded that a student council should have a consti- tution which delimits its powers and duties. The principal as chief execu- tive officer of the local school has the power delegated to him by virtue of his position. It cannot be emphasized too strongly that the student government organization draws its power from the principal, just as the principal re- ports to the superintendent, who in turn must answer to the board of education. The board of education is held responsible by the citizens of the community. In no case should a principal yield his right of absolute veto. He should always hold the reins of government in his hands, even though he holds the reins loosely and inconspicuously most of the time. In connection with the study of student-council finances, described in Chapter X, it was found that in 365 of a total of 376 schools the principal had the power of veto; in 371, or 98.3 per cent of these schools, it was unnecessary to use the veto power, or it was used very rarely. Many princi- pals who report student councils which have operated over a decade have never found it necessary to use the power of veto. Name of council The organization through which pupil participation in school govern- ment functions is usually known as the Student Council. Other names which are applied are Student (Government) Association, School Council, General Organization, Student Codperative Government or Association, and Student Activities Organization or Association. Infrequently the or- ganization may be called Student Affairs Board, Student Senate, Senate Council, High-School Government, or Pupil Government. The name Stu- dent Council, however, has been adopted so overwhelmingly that it is typical. 40 Stupent-CounciL HanpBook | March Written constitutions Almost eighty-eight per cent of the student councils have constitutions; less than ten per cent have no written constitution. A few schools failed to answer this question. One sponsor explained that the high school is small and the relationship existing between pupils and the faculty is so intimate that to draw up such an instrument would be a violation of trust. In this school there is a tacit agreement in regard to the form of govern- ment, and a set procedure is followed in the matter of elections and the discharge of duties without the aid of a written constitution. This seems to be the situation in the case of most of the other councils which operate without written constitutions. One council in a fairly large high school is trying out a certain scheme before committing the plan to paper, and a few are either in process of formulating a constitution or revising the old one. TABLE XIII Dors Councit Have a Written ConstTITUTION? No In process No answer 33 ConsTITUTIONS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONS The constitutions reprinted here are not intended to be models. They are instruments that are being used successfully by their respective schools. Each one furnishes a fairly good illustration of its particular type of gov- ernment. Although each constitution, whether derived from municipal, state, or federal sources, is modified to a certain extent, all the revisions made in the following constitutions are fairly consistent. This is not true of many of the constitutions that were examined. For instance, one constitution provided for an attorney general in a municipal type of government; a prosecuting attorney was elected in a national government plan. One constitution fashioned after a state government made pro- vision for the senators to be elected from wards. If the objective in simu- lating civil constitutions is to make the students familiar with civil govern- ment through practical application of its terms, political divisions, and general setup in everyday usage while in school, the purpose is de- feated if the offices, the political units, the methods of election and ad- ministration, are not adhered to by the school in following the special form of government. Rather it would be better to discard entirely the idea of setting up any existing civic system, and to originate a distinctly individual method. Many schools have done so. 1940 | OrGANIzING A CouNcIL Council of home-room representatives The student council of the high school at Flemington, New Jersey, which enrolls 385 pupils, is composed of home-room representatives. This constitution does not provide for a judiciary department. The Flemington council took the initiative in 1939 in organizing a county student-council conference. CONSTITUTION Preamble We, the members of the Flemington High School, in order to foster a spirit of cojperation amongst the students and faculty, codrdinate and regulate student activities, maintain a high standard for the school by upholding high standards of personal conduct, promote and encourage activities for the best interests of the school, and develop good citizens through experience in gov- ernment, do hereby establish this constitution for tie student council of the Flemington High School. Article I Organization 1. There shall be a student government whose membership shall consist of the entire student body of the Senior and Junior high schools. 2. There shall be a student council which will act as the legislative branch of this government consisting of the four executive officers and one representative from each home room; with the exception that home rooms containing twenty-five students plus a major fraction thereof, shall have two representatives. Any room that has an executive officer will have its own rep- resentative as well. 3. There shall be a faculty advisor nominated by the student council and voted upon by the entire student body, who shall remain advisor for as long as he or she desires to serve in that capacity. 4. The term of office for all representatives and officers of the student council shall be one year. Any representative may be recalled by a majority vote of his home-room members or at the demand of the faculty advisor, after which the home room shall immediately elect a successor. Any representative who fails in scholastic standing for any one marking period will have to appear before the faculty advisor or principal for explanation and may be recalled. 5. The executive officers of the council shall be: president, vice president, secretary, and treasurer. 6. In June of each year the entire student body will vote for the execu- tive officers who will hold office beginning the following September. Any stu- dent desirous of being a nominee for an executive office must submit a petition signed by twenty-five students to the council faculty advisor the last week in May. ‘These nominees will be voted upon the first week in June by preferential ballot. 7. Any student who is desirous of being nominee for representative from his home room must submit a petition signed by ten members of his home room to the student-council faculty advisor. These nominees will be voted upon the third week in September, and the student who receives the most votes by a preferential ballot will be elected. The student council will hold its first meeting the fourth week in September. 8. Should a representative be absent the day the council meets, the home- room teacher will appoint a substitute to attend the meeting. Article II Duties of Officers 1. The president shall preside at student-council meetings, shall perform such duties as usually devolve upon presidents of similar organizations unless otherwise ordered by the constitution, shall appoint the necessary committees 42 StupENT-Counci, HanpsBook [March with the advice and consent of the council, and shall call special meetings when deemed necessary. He shall be responsible to see that the council gets under way promptly in September. 2. The vice president shall assume the duties of the president in case of his absence or disability. 3. The secretary shall keep a record of all meetings of the council and provide a copy of the minutes for each representative for discussion in the home rooms and copies for members of the administration, shall carry on the correspondence of the student council, and shall keep a record of attendance at council meetings. 4. The treasurer shall collect the student-council taxes from the home- room treasurers, shall deposit all money in the central office, shall keep a record of the expenditures and receipts, and shall make a report of the finances at each meeting of the council. Article III Meetings 1. The council shall meet once a week at a time and place agreed upon by the council and approved and regularly scheduled by the administration. 2. Special meetings may be called by the president if approved by the administration. 3. All members of the administration and faculty are welcome to attend council meetings. Article IV Taxes 1. Like all governments, the student council shall be maintained by taxes from the student body. 2. The council will submit a budget of proposed expenditures for the following year and the entire student body will vote on it before the close of the school year. From the budget a tax rate will be levied which will go into effect in September. 3. The usual subsidy from the Board of Education will pay the expenses of the Honorary Society. Article V Powers 1. The student council shall make regulations by a vote of two thirds of those present at the council meeting. A quorum for transaction of business shall consist of two thirds of council membership. Article VI Veto 1. These proposals shall then be put in regulation: a. If these proposals do not meet the approval of the student body, after going into effect, they may then be vetoed by a two-thirds vote of the entire student body. A petition presented by twenty-five students to the council will bring the proposal to the vote of the students. b. Any regulation passed by the council concerning the Junior or Senior school may be vetoed by the supervising principal with the option of making a counter proposal or giving a satisfactory explanation before the council. Article VII Petitions 1. A request for the consideration of any problem concerning student government by one student or a group of students may be presented to the council through their home-room representative. It shall be the duty of the representative to present it before the council. 2. A petition by a member of the faculty or administration will be con- sidered in either of the following ways: a. Presenting it to a council member who will in turn present it to the council. b. Appearing before the council and presenting it personally. OrcANIzING a CouNcIL Article VIII Amendments 1. A petition for an amendment to the constitution may be presented to the student council after having been signed by one third of the student body of the school concerned, or in the event that the proposed amendment concerns the entire student body, the signatures of one third of the pupils of both schools shall be necessary for a consideration of the amendment. Article IX Committees 1. The student council shall establish committees to perform certain functions necessary to school government. The nature and purpose of these committees shall be held responsible to the council and the committees shall be decided by the council. The chairman, whenever possible, shall be a member of the council, and the faculty advisor shall be appointed by the council. Individual plan—Home-room representatives The constitution of the High-School Associates, Newton High School, Newtonville, Massachusetts, a high school enrolling 2500 pupils, has been worked out in detail and gives a comprehensive treatment of activity points, the chartering of clubs, initiative and referendum, and publications. It exemplifies in its creation of a board of finance and a bursar’s office, sound financial policies. The judiciary department comprises a court for the interpretation of the constitution and bylaws and of any act or regu- lation that has been passed, but does not act as a court of justice in the punishment of offenses. The plan of government is based on home-room representation. The constitution outlines an excellent system of elections, conducted in the same manner as city elections, with regular voting ballots, election officials, and tally sheets. By the installation of small, collapsible voting booths, it is possible for one hundred people to vote at the same time. CONSTITUTION Article I Name 1. The name of this organization shall be the Newton High School Associates. Article II Purpose 1. The purpose shall be to combine the school into a “civil body politic, for the better ordering and preservation and furtherance” of the name, spirit, and traditions of the Newton High School that there may be framed and enacted such just laws that the liberty of all may be preserved. Article III Membership 1, The membership of the Newton High School Associates shall consist of all the bona fide pupils of the school. Article IV Officers 1. The officers shall be an honorary president, president, boys’ vice presi- dent, girls’ vice president, clerk, treasurer, bursar, representatives to the Tegie- lature and the executive council, and the members of the administrative boards. 44 StupEeNnT-Councit HanpBook | March Article V The Executive Council 1. There shall be an executive council to consist of a student representa- tive elected from each board, and of faculty supervisors to be appointed by the school authorities. Article VI The Legislature 1. There shall be a legislature to consist of representatives elected from home rooms on the following basis: Class XII rooms of over twenty pupils shall have two representatives. Rooms with twenty or less shall have one representative. Class XI rooms shall have one representative from each room provided that the ratio of the number of representatives to the number of Juniors shall not be greater than one to thirty. Classes X and IX shall have one representative for every two rooms. Article VII . Administrative Boards 1. The administrative boards shall be as follows: finance, publications, athletics (one for boys and one for girls), social affairs, civic affairs, music, and dramatics. 2. Each board shall consist of three members chosen by the president from the Newton High School Associates, and of the faculty supervisors of the respective activities. Article VIII Vominations and Elections 1. The officers of the Newton High School Associates and of classes shall be elected by the Australian ballot at the general election which shall be held the last week in May or in June for the following year. Sophomore class officers are elected in January or the first week in February. 2. The term of all officers, unless otherwise provided, shall be for one year, the term to begin on the Wednesday following the election. 3. All of the details necessary to the administration of the general elec- tion shall be determined by the executive council and by the election officials authorized by the council. Article IX Vacancies 1. The executive council shall fill vacancies in any office temporarily and shall call such special elections as may be necessary. 2. Vacancies among room representatives shall be filled temporarily through appointment by the room teachers until such time as a special election may be held. Article X Referendum 1. The executive body shall submit at its discretion measures from time to time for the approval or disapproval of the student body, provided that the voting shall be conducted in a manner which the executive body shall t designate. ’ Article XI c Initiative d 1. Any student may obtain necessary blanks from the clerk of the executive body in order to secure signatures of students favoring a measure which it is desired to propose, provided that the number of such signatures be at least 150 pupils from each class, and provided that when such a number of signatures has been secured, the blanks shall be returned to the clerk that + a the signatures may be verified. And when the necessary number of signatures has been verified, the de executive body shall submit the proposed measure, in a manner which the executive body shall determine, for the approval or disapproval of the ql Associates. 1940 | OrGANIZING A CoUNCIL 45 In the event of favorable action by the Associates such measure shall, to all intents and purposes, be as binding upon the Associates as any measure passed by the regular legislative bodies. Article X11 Bylaws 1. The legislature, subject to the approval of the executive council, shall have power to adopt and enforce such bylaws as shall not contravene this constitution. Article XIII Amendments 1. Amendments to the constitution or bylaws may originate in the execu- tive council, legislature, faculty, or Associates; and shall be ratified by a three-fourths vote of the legislature, the executive council, and the approval of the Honorary President. : 2. The constitution or bylaws may be amended at any regular meeting of the legislature by a three-fourths vote of the membership, provided that a written proposition for such an amendment shall have been submitted to the legislature at a previous meeting. Article XIV Source of Power 1. Since the Honorary President is immediately responsible to the school authorities for the welfare of the school in all its activity relations, it is necessary that all pupil power be delegated by the Honorary President, and that it may be revoked by him at any time. Article XV Judiciary 1. The Honorary President and the faculty supervisors shall act as a court of interpretation and decision in reference to any article, bylaw, or rule of this constitution and bylaws, or of any act, rule, or amendment hereinafter enacted by the officers, executive council, legislature, representatives, admin- istrative boards, or any other subsidiary organizations. Article XVI Veto Power 1. In accordance with Articles XIII and XIV the Honorary President may veto any act, bylaw, amendment, or resolution that has been regularly passed by the executive council and the legislature, provided that he shall present to the legislature and executive council his reasons for such actions. BYLAWS Article I Nominations and Elections 1. Preliminary nominations shall be made at least two weeks preceding the general election, and final nominations are to be determined at least one week prior to the general election. 2. For the final nominations each voter shall name on his ballot two candidates for each elective office irrespective of the home room of the candi- date, provided such names were chosen at the preliminary nomination. Article II Meetings 1. The executive council shall meet semi-monthly as may be conveniently arranged. 2. The legislature shall meet regularly once each month. 3. Special meetings of either body may be called by the Honorary Presi- dent or by the written request of one fourth of the membership. 4. A majority of the membership of either body shall constitute a quorum. Stupent-Councit HanpBook [March Article III Rules of Order 1. Robert’s Rules of Order shall apply in all cases of order not provided for in this Constitution or Bylaws. 2. The presiding officer of the legislature shall appoint a parliamentarian for that body who shall with the Honorary President make such parliamentary interpretations and decisions as may seem necessary. Article IV Duties of Governing Bodies 1. The executive council shall appoint a secretary who shall keep a journal of its proceedings. 2. The executive council shall have power to levy taxes upon the various organizations in order to create a general fund, to make appropriations from such fund, grant charters, pass emergency measures, initiate and approve legislation, direct the work and formulate the policies of the administrative boards, and exert general control over all student activities. 3. The legislature shall be the deliberative body of the school. It shall have power to initiate and approve legislation, recommend charters, recom- mend appropriations, and to represent the school in all matters that are legis- lative in character. Article V Duties of Officers 1. It shall be the duty of the Honorary President to preside at the meet- ings of the executive council and to make such interpretations and decisions as may be necessary. He shall be a member ex-officio of all boards and com- mittees. 2. It shall be the duty of the president to preside at all meetings of the legislature of the High-School Associates and at special assemblies, to call special meetings of the legislature on the written request of one fourth of the membership, to appoint all committees not otherwise provided for, and to perform all duties usually devolving upon the presiding officer. He shall be the recognized head of the student body. 3. It shall be the duty of the boys’ vice president to preside at meetings of the legislature or High-School Associates in the absence of the president. The boys’ vice president shall be the head of the boys’ organization and shall preside at all boys’ assemblies. He shall be a member of the civic affairs board. 4. It shall be the duty of the girls’ vice president to preside at meetings of the legislature or High-School Associates in the absence of the president and the boys’ vice president. She shall be the head of the girls’ organization and shall preside at girls’ assemblies. The girls’ vice president shall be a member of the civic affairs board. 5. It shall be the duty of the clerk to keep the rolls of the legislature, a journal of the proceedings, attend to the correspondence, and such other duties as may be assigned. The clerk acting with the president and the faculty advisor of the legis- lature shall be the immediate connection between the legislature and the executive council. 6. It shall be the duty of the sergeant at arms, who shall be appointed by the legislature, to assist the president in maintaining order, to attend the doors, and to perform such other duties as may be assigned. 7. It shall be the duty of the bursar, who shall be appointed by the school authorities, to keep a record of all receipts and disbursements in such manner as will show at all times the total receipts and payments on the account of each activity, to make formal monthly and annual reports to the executive council, to have charge of printing, distribution, and sale of tickets for all events to which admission is charged. He shail supervise the taking of tickets for all events to which admission is charged, and audit at least twice a year the records of cash receipts as kept by each treasurer or collector. The funds of all activities shall be delivered by the respective treasurers and collectors to the bursar or his official representative on the date when received or collected. 1940] Orcanizinc A CouNcIL 47 All disbursements shall be made by the bursar upon written warrant of the treasurer of the activity whose account is to be charged, with the signature of the faculty supervisor attached. The bursar shall be bonded to an amount equalling the average yearly receipts, and his accounts and records shall be audited annually by a certified accountant. He shall be a member of the executive council. 8. It shall be the duty of the student treasurer to be an immediate assistant to the bursar, to make reports to the legislature, and to be super- visory agent of the various activity treasurers. He shall be a member of the legislature. 9. There shall be a treasurer for each student activity who shall receive, collect, keep a record of all dues, cash receipts, and contributions, and shall deposit all receipts with the bursar. Complete reports on regular forms are to be made to the bursar within a week’s time after a change. The treasurer shall present to the bursar for payment such bills as are authorized by the organization. In cases of emergency, the faculty supervisor and execu- tive officers of the respective activities shall have the authority to make “P propriations. He shall have his accounts audited by the bursar semi-annually and shall make necessary financial reports to his respective organization. 10. In order that the many different branches of the Newton High School Associates may be properly coérdinated in a supervisory way, it has become advisable to have an executive officer from the faculty. The Honorary President appoints the executive secretary as his personal representative and invests him with the necessary authority as the chief ad- ministrative officer of the Associates. All questions of interpretation, of immediate decisions or unusual] circum- stances, of eligibility, and of coérdination and administration are to be re- ferred to the executive secretary. As the chief supervisory officer, the executive secretary is a member ex-officio of all organizations, boards, and committees, and in such capacity may attend all meetings. The executive secretary shall appoint a committee of three from the executive council as a standing advisory committee to determine questions of eligibility. Article VI Classes 1. There shall be four class organizations: XII, XI, X, IX; or Senior, Junior, Sophomore, and Freshman, respectively. 2. The officers of each class shall be a president, a vice president, a secre- tary, and a treasurer, except that the dreiee class shall have two vice presidents. 3. There shall be a faculty sponsor or supervisor for each class who shall supervise and direct the various class activities. Article VII Clubs 1. Clubs in the Newton High School shall be classified as departmental, service, and general. 2. The membership in all clubs shall be limited, subject to the approval of the executive council and eligibility requirements in Article X. 3. Regular meetings shall not be held oftener than once each calendar month. There shall be no meetings in September or after May 20. Meetings should not be held for a longer period than one hour except by sanction of the faculty supervisor. Article VIII Charters 1. No activity or organization shall be formed except by charter which shall be recommended by the legislature and granted by the executive council. 2. Organizations may be chartered upon the petition of one teacher and ten or more pupils. The petition shall cover the following proposals: 1. Name; 2. A worthy purpose; 3. Dues, if any; 4. Place, number, and time of meetings; 5. List of charter members with limitation plan; 6. Offices; 7. The faculty supervisor who shall be appointed by the school authorities. 48 StuveNT-CounciL HanpBook [ March 3. All organizations are subject to the direction of the Newton High- School Associates and are delegated power through their respective charters. Charters may give organizations power to establish constitutions, bylaws, or rules, ete., except that all enactments shall not contravene the constitution, bylaws, or rules of the general organization. Copies of all constitutions, bylaws, ete., must be filed with the clerk not later than three weeks after the granting of the charter. 4. Any organization which disbands shall surrender its charter to the legislature and executive council. Article IX Activity Points 1. To avoid the possibility of overloading a pupil with official responsi- bilities, and to give the largest possible number of pupils the advantages which come from holding positions of leadership, a system of points shall be admin- istered by the executive council. 2. A pupil may not hold more than nine “pointed-rated” offices. No stu- -. dent may hold more than three offices in one school year, totalling no more than nine (9) points. 3. Five-point positions: President of the High-School Associates. (Elective) Clerk of the High-School Associates. (Elective ) President of the Senior Class. (Elective) Editor of the Newtonite. Editor of the Newtonian. Managers of the Yearbook. Business manager of the Newtonite. Managers of Athletic Teams. (Major) Three-point positions: High-School Associates officers other than president and clerk. Officers of the Senior class other than president. Presidents of classes other than Senior. Presidents of clubs. Members of Yearbook staff. Assistant editor-in-chief of the Newtonite. Circulation manager of Newtonite. Heads of departments of the Newtonite staff. Assistant business managers of the Newtonite. Editor of the Orange Book. Business manager of the Orange Book. Captains of major teams. Managers of athletics teams. (Minor) ( Boys’ and girls’ teams not listed under Section 3.) Stage committee. Chairman of lunchroom squad. Home-room managers. One-point positions: All other class officers not hereinbefore mentioned. Club officers other than president. Executive council members. Chairmen of committees. Other members of the Newtonite editorial and business staffs not hereinbefore mentioned. Scoreboard squad. Lunchroom squad. Assistant home-room managers. Other offices not here mentioned may be rated by the executive council or the executive secretary. ORGANIZING A COUNCIL Article X Eligibility for Office 1. In order to be eligible for an elective or appointive office or club mem- bership, a pupil must pass in all subjects and carry at least fifteen eligibility periods or the equivalent. Unprepared work counts half. 2. Any pupil failing to maintain the eligibility requirements in Section 1 will be allowed to continue for one marking period (four weeks). If he has not restored his eligibility status according to Section 1 at the end of this marking period (four weeks) he becomes ineligible for club membership and all school offices. When full eligibility status as defined in Section I is re gained at the end of a subsequent marking period, he can recover club mem- bership in a method prescribed by the respective club. 3. plus number as -the column headed “Advisor does not contain the same Elected by.” . In schools xceeds the number of schools replying the ex officio advisors e 1940 | Facutty SUPERVISION 83 tion of the student council. In one community interest in the student or- ganization of the high school was so general that a supervisor was ap- pointed by the board of education. The data from Patrick’s study indicate that a teacher, appointed by the principal, is usually the council advisor.’ Financial duties Two schools appointed a supervisor of finances in addition to a zen- eral advisor. Both of these student councils handled all the money acquired by the school through extra-curriculum activities. In both cases the sum of money received by the treasury of the student council exceeded one thousand dollars. Principals who allowed the council to handle extra- curriculum funds are enthusiastic about the business training acquired by pupils, and praised the efficiency, fairness, and honesty of the council officers. Twenty-four per cent of the student councils managed the extra- curriculum finances. In their schools a thorough system of checking was in force, and through the wise oversight of the financial supervisor the stu- dents were shielded from too much temptation. Some stated that an auditor examined the accounts periodically; others worked with the princi- pal, the faculty treasurer, or the treasurer of the school board. A few student treasurers received the extra-curriculum funds, but the student government exercised no control over their disbursement. Twelve per cent of the student governments took charge of their own finances, but not of the entire school. More than half of the schools did not entrust any financial matters to their student organizations. It was apparent that these organizations were not student-governing in the best sense of the term, for the powers were so limited that they became either merely advisory bodies or glorified service clubs. In the opinion of many school ad- ministrators these schools are missing an excellent opportunity to fur- TABLE XVII Dots Your Councit Hanpce Extra-CurricutumM FINnances? Yes Partially No No answer Total 87 47 361 nish practical business training as well as the development of character, leadership, citizenship, and service. Of course when students handle money they must be carefully supervised, but when effective checking and auditing systems are employed, the students who are permitted to do so are made to realize that they are responsible, trusted members of so- ciety. It was noted that the student councils having authority over finances were among the busiest, the happiest, and the most efficient and codpera- Patrick, opus cit., p. 52. 84 Stupent-CounciL HanpBook | March tive student organizations. The matter of Student Council finances is handled at length in a separate chapter. Selecting a sponsor Regardless of the manner in which the choice of sponsor is made, great care should be exercised in the selection. If the constitution of the student council provides that the principal shall be the advisor, the princi- pal should make sure that he is well fitted to act in that capacity. Some excellent principals are not particularly successful in dealing directly with students. Their success lies in their executive ability translated into .ad- ministration through adult intermediaries. But such principals are the exception. A student-council advisor must be one who is able to meet the students on their own level without condescension, and who is congenial without being unduly familiar. He must possess the happy faculty of being acceptable to the students in direct contact with them. This is more im- portant for this office than executive ability or knowledge of parliamentary law. The principal should carefully note the reaction of the council mem- bers to his presence at their meetings and to his comments and suggestions. He should be especially sensitive to the effect of his veto of some legislative enactment of the council. If his presence causes embarrassment and a lack of initiative on the part of the pupils, if there is a tendency to place too great a dependence upon his opinions and the part he takes in shaping the course of action, or if keen resentment is shown upon his negation of some course of action desired by the council, the principal should cast about for a substitute or successor who possesses the necessary qualifications of a sympathetic advisor. In all probability such a successor could be found in the person of a well-liked teacher, who could act as the principal’s as- sistant and save the situation without necessitating a change in the consti- tution. If the principal decides that it would be wise to withdraw entirely from the supervision of the council, the constitution should be amended to delegate the office of advisor to the principal or his appointee. Before undertaking the duties of supervisor of the student council, the principal should devote considerable time to introspection. He should con- sider his own qualifications as punctiliously and with a judgment as un- biased as if he were weighing those of various other candidates for the office. As a matter of fact, he should compare not his scholastic attainments, his administrative skill, nor his expertness in parliamentary procedure, but his ability to win and hold the confidence of the students throughout a close association, and his adroitness in guiding them to right decisions in their counsels, with similar qualities in persons who, within the range of possibility, might be called upon to assume the responsibility. He should realize that if he, or another advisor, possesses in a sufficient degree an aptitude for bringing student opinion to his point of view, it would never be necessary to exert his power of absolute veto. Even the most inex- 1940 | FacuLty SUPERVISION 85 perienced principal can readily understand that it is better to take all pre- cautions in avoiding an issue than to be forced to take this extreme meas- ure—the last resort when diplomacy has failed. The principal as supervisor The principal of a large high school probably should not undertake to act as sponsor of the student council, because there are so many duties and obligations required of him, not only in connection with the adminis- tration of affairs within the school, but because of his position in the com- munity, that it is impossible for him to devote the necessary time and energy to the task of supervising the council. Although the principal holds the power of veto, it is not necessary for him to veto acts passed while he was present in meeting, since this would cause embarrassment. Rather he should consider the matter in private and report his reasons in writing. Some administrators feel that a faculty sponsor who tries to show pupils the reasonableness or inadvisability of a specific action can obviate the necessity of vetoes. In many schools the veto power has never been ex- ercised. A faculty member as supervisor In selecting a faculty member to serve as advisor of the student council, the principal should take plenty of time for observing the attitude of the students toward the different teachers, not only in the classroom, but in the corridors, assembly, gymnasium, or athletic field. There are teachers who acquire a cheap flamboyant popularity with certain sets of students, but the principal must look for something deeper than this. He must dis- criminate between this type of popularity and genuine, lasting respect for a capable, level-headed, sincere, and sympathetic teacher. If possible the teacher selected for advisor should be well-versed in parliamentary pro- cedure, although it would be better to waive this qualification than the personal qualities. After a teacher has been selected and has accepted appointment as sponsor of the student government, the principal should not consider that he is relieved of further responsibility in the matter. He must make sure that the smooth functioning of all departments of government and that coéperation of officers and members with the sponsor upholds his judg- ment. If he finds that his judgment has been faulty, he must immediately set about making a substitution. Usually, however, a capable, congenial sponsor may be found in every school without difficulty. If the right sponsor had been found for the student council which was described as “totalitarian,” in all probability a great deal of friction might have been avoided. The secretary of this council complained bitterly that the sponsor frustrated everything the council wished to do. It is possible that some of the measures adopted by the council should have been vetoed. But it is equally certain that a tactful sponsor would have in- 86 StupeNT-Counci, HanpBook | March fluenced the group to an acceptance of the adult point of view without being obtrusive. This council is seeking to add an amendment to the constitution whereby a measure may be passed over the sponsor’s veto by a two-thirds vote of the membership. Such an unfortunate situation means trouble ahead for the school administration which may be obliged to veto the amendment, or other acts of the council, a situation which will result in unnecessary friction. The principal might have spared himself this trouble by appointing a sponsor who meets the qualifications which follow. TEsTs FOR A STUDENT-COUNCIL SPONSOR In the March, 1932, issue of the Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary-School Principals, Edgar G. Johnston presented twelve tests for a club sponsor.” As these tests apply with equal force to the sponsor of the student government organization, they are reprinted here: 1. Does he really like to associate with boys and girls of high- school age? A sympathetic interest in boys and girls ought to be ex- pected of every teacher. It is absolutely indispensable to success in the in- formal relationship of club work. 2. Does he enlist the confidence of boys and girls? A teacher may sincerely like boys and girls and yet be so out of touch with the points of view, the interests, and the prejudices of modern youth as to make im- possible the free, natural, and unconstrained relationship which is essential to club success. Fortunately this is pretty well within the power of the sponsor to develop. Youth is usually quite responsive to sincere interest in its problems and an attempt to see its point of view. 3. Is he keenly interested in the world around him? The “insati- able curiosity” which drove the elephant child through numerous difh- culties to ultimate success is a quality essential to the make-up of any successful teacher. If the club is to develop a constructive program expand- ing interest and increasingly educational activities, the sponsor must be keenly alive to the significant events happening around him every day. 4. Has he contagious enthusiasm? Enthusiasm is likely to be a corollary of intelligent curiosity. The sponsor who is not the least bit “ex- cited” about the things the club is doing is not likely to prove a stimulating companion and leader to the group. Enthusiasm is a flame which kindles from contact with a glowing interest. A word of warning seems necessary. Flames must always be kept under control. An unbalanced and unintelli- gent enthusiasm may do a great deal of damage. 5. Does he seek to become expert in some of the fields of ac- tivity in which the club is engaged? Obviously a sponsor with keen interest and enthusiasm and a desire to render service to boys and girls can offer much to them as he learns with the group. At the same time, *Johnston, E. G., ‘‘Tests for a Club Sponsor,"’ Bulletin 40, National Association of Secondary- School Principals, 1932, pp. 86-8. 1940| Facutty SvPERVISION 87 a fund of knowledge and sound experience commands the respect of members and constitutes a distinct asset to the club sponsor. 6. Is he able to give constructive suggestions for activities in the club? Of a certain camp counselor, it was said by one of the boys, “He seems to radiate ideas.” The difference between a lukewarm attitude and an enthusiastic interest on the part of club members may be simply the difference of a club sponsosr who thinks of “something new” when interest flags or who can suggest a constructive outlet for super-abundant energy. 7. Is he able to guide without dictation? This is a corollary of the previous test. A sponsor who has many good ideas but is too insistent upon seeing them carried out in Ais way may hinder rather than encourage pupil growth. The sponsor must be able to keep hands off to the extent that pupils may learn by organizing, planning, and executing. If the sponsor isn’t able with perfect good humor to see his suggestions modified or disre- garded, he had better not make them. 8. Has he ability to plan systematically? Organization is impor- tant if learning is to be assured in classroom situations. It is much more important for the advisor in the informal club group. He will, of course, not deprive officers and committees of the growth and experience which come from planning for the work of the club. As guide and advisor he must see the need of planning and understand how to do it in order to help officers and committees in this important function of theirs. To make a club successful, it is necessary that many members are kept working with enthusiasm and initiative; it is quite as necessary to make sure that their various efforts are codrdinated and not frittered away in a variety of unre- lated or conflicting activities. They must be directed toward some com- mon goal if the progress of the club is to continue uniformly and con- structively. 9. Is he willing to give time and thought to making the club work a success? A sponsor cannot make a success of club work if his at- titude is one of “punching the time clock.” A club hike may crowd out an afternoon of golf, or an evening meeting with club leaders may replace a trip to the movies. If the club sponsor does not feel that the time invested with his club is paying rich dividends, he is not likely to make a success of his sponsorship. 10. Is he democratic in spirit? Is he as keenly interested in the inconspicuous pupil or the one from a poor family as he is in the school leader or the socially prominent? One of the rare opportunities which the sponsorship presents is that of developing the powers which lie latent in every individual. The club should afford every pupil an opportunity for growth. 11. Has he a sense of humor? No single characteristic will be a greater asset to the club sponsor than the ability to see a joke even when 88 StupENT-Counci, HanpBook | March it is on himself. He must be able to endure the exuberance of youth and its occasional silliness without becoming annoyed. With a group of lively adolescents, there are times when both the furniture and the sponsor’s nerves must be built of the solid oak variety, built to stand wear and tear. 12. Is he able to find his chief satisfaction in pupil growth and not in expressed appreciation of his efforts? There will be many oc- casions when pupils and parents may recognize with sincere gratitude the development club activity has fostered, but the real reward of club work will come in seeing the retiring pupil develop confidence; the awkward, cleverness; and the individualist, codperation. . Cuapter VI STUDENT-COUNCIL PROJECTS A student council which has been granted the right by constitution of participation in the government of the school does not, as a rule, directly undertake or sponsor, as an organization, any kind of projects. Its super- vision of various enterprises is carried on vicariously through committees and clubs and organizations whose authority is derived from legislation enacted by the student council. The financial problem, which usually determines whether or not a project may be launched, is solved in a variety of ways discussed in the chapter on finance. Various schemes for raising money to supply their needs are employed by the clubs and other associations with the approval of the council within the limits prescribed by council legislation or by the administration of the school. Projects other than those dealing with financial matters are handled by direct delegation from the council. Those affecting the entire school are managed by com- mittees, either standing or special, appointed by the council or its execu- tives, while those affecting some special group become the responsibility of that group. Many student councils, however, do not enjoy the privilege of com- plete participation in the administration of the affairs of the school. Money is not provided for the operation of the student government, and the other organizations of the school are not under its control. These student councils are under obligation to raise money not only for the functioning of their own organization, but often, also, for the use of other departments and groups within the school. More likely than not, they are compelled to put forth their efforts for the achievement of certain ends in direct competition with other organizations of the school. It is evident, then, that to councils whose participation in government is restricted and whose every accomplishment must be secured either by being first to enter the field or through successful rivalry, projects are a matter of deep concern. From a report compiled by a committee of graduate students of Professor Fretwell’ a frequency list of student-council activities in sixty- eight high schools was obtained. One hundred thirteen separate and distinct activities, fully eighty-five per cent of which could be properly termed pro- jects, appear on this list. First is the publication of a handbook, a project undertaken by thirty-one of the sixty-eight councils. Twenty-one councils appointed committees to supervise the lunchrooms; fifteen appointed assembly committees; fourteen had traffic committees; thirteen provided library committees; eleven councils took charge of the school equipment, and the same number maintained order in study halls; the school annual 1Fretwell, E. K., Extra-Curricular Activities in Secondary Schools, Houghton Mifflin, 1934. 89 [ March 88 SrupENT-CounciL HANpBOoK it is on himself. He must be able to endure the exuberance of youth and its occasional silliness without becoming annoyed. With a group of lively adolescents, there are times when both the furniture and the sponsor’s nerves must be built of the solid oak variety, built to stand wear and tear. 12. Is he able to find his chief satisfaction in pupil growth and not in expressed appreciation of his efforts? There will be many oc- casions when pupils and parents may recognize with sincere gratitude the development club activity has fostered, but the real reward of club work will come in seeing the retiring pupil develop confidence; the awkward, cleverness; and the individualist, codperation. CuHapTer VI STUDENT-COUNCIL PROJECTS A student council which has been granted the right by constitution of participation in the government of the school does not, as a rule, directly undertake or sponsor, as an organization, any kind of projects. Its super- vision of various enterprises is carried on vicariously through committees and clubs and organizations whose authority is derived from legislation enacted by the student council. The financial problem, which usually determines whether or not a project may be launched, is solved in a variety of ways discussed in the chapter on finance. Various schemes for raising money to supply their needs are employed by the clubs and other associations with the approval of the council within the limits prescribed by council legislation or by the administration of the school. Projects other than those dealing with financial matters are handled by direct delegation from the council. Those affecting the entire school are managed by com- mittees, either standing or special, appointed by the council or its execu- tives, while those affecting some special group become the responsibility of that group. Many student councils, however, do not enjoy the privilege of com- plete participation in the administration of the affairs of the school. Money is not provided for the operation of the student government, and the other organizations of the school are not under its control. These student councils are under obligation to raise money not only for the functioning of their own organization, but often, also, for the use of other departments and groups within the school. More likely than not, they are compelled to put forth their efforts for the achievement of certain ends in direct competition with other organizations of the school. It is evident, then, that to councils whose participation in government is restricted and whose every accomplishment must be secured either by being first to enter the field or through successful rivalry, projects are a matter of deep concern. From a report compiled by a committee of graduate students of Professor Fretwell’ a frequency list of student-council activities in sixty- eight high schools was obtained. One hundred thirteen separate and distinct activities, fully eighty-five per cent of which could be properly termed pro- jects, appear on this list. First is the publication of a handbook, a project undertaken by thirty-one of the sixty-eight councils. Twenty-one councils appointed committees to supervise the lunchrooms; fifteen appointed assembly committees; fourteen had traffic committees; thirteen provided library committees; eleven councils took charge of the school equipment, and the same number maintained order in study halls; the school annual Activities in Secondary Schools, Houghton Mifflin, 1934. 89 1Fretwell, E. K., Extra-Curricular 90 StupENT-CounciL HanpBook | March was published by nine councils; four maintained Book Exchanges; and four councils carried on Lost and Found departments.’ These are but a few of the leading activities carried on by the schools included in the survey. Of the one hundred thirteen activities not one was a project for the purpose of raising money. The survey conducted by the National Association of Secondary-School Principals attempted to make a discrimination between the duties and responsibilities of student councils and the projects which they sponsored. However, it seemed to be impossible to draw a sharp line between the two. The activities which were designated as duties of the student council in some schools were listed as projects of others. They were even found on both lists in the same school. In the main the following activities were specified as fixed responsibilities of the student council: welcoming new students, directing the honor system, crusading against absence and tardi- ness, sponsoring plays, picture shows, and ball games, taking charge of wel- fare work, the promotion of better school spirit, increasing community interest in school activities, the enactment and execution of laws, handling all interschool relations, making rules for earning school letters, awarding letters in all activities, the appointment of fire chiefs and conducting fire drills, proctor duty in halls and cafeteria, harmonizing student activities, the chartering of clubs, taking charge of philanthropic and social affairs, the collection and disbursement of funds, the maintenance of a scholarship fund, appointing committees, the trial of acts of dishonor, taking charge of athletics, and keeping a scrapbook record of all school events. In Table XVIII the number at the right indicates the number of times each activity was named as a specific duty of the student council. TABLE XVIII StupENT-Councit AcTiviTiEs 1n 361 ScHooLs Philanthropic and social affairs 175 Awarding letters and medals Chartering of clubs 123 Appointment of fire chiefs Appointing committees Harmonizing activities funds _ 42 Directing honor system Managing elections 41 Management of cafeteria —....... Charge of welfare work 37 Crusading against absence and Sponsoring plays, etc. Trial of acts of dishonor 31 Making and executing laws —.. 28 Welcoming new students 26 Making rules for letters Interschool relations ; _26 Keeping scrapbook In charge of athletics 26 Maintenance scholarship fund Proctor duty in halls 108 Collection and disbursement of _ 34 tardiness Drawing up budget Promotion of school spirit - */bid., Pp. 197- 1940] Stupent-Councit ProjEcts Types oF Proyscts School dances In the survey conducted by the National Association of Secondary- School Principals, the activity appearing most frequently either as a proj- ect or as a duty assigned to the student council was that of sponsoring the school dances. In some schools it appeared that the student council existed for that specific purpose. In other schools dancing is still a bone of con- tention, especially in rural communities where it is looked upon with dis- favor. The young people in these schools are invariably anxious to be per- mitted to hold school dances, but the principals and sponsors are not willing to brook the displeasure of the patrons by granting permission for the student councils to add social dancing to the list of activities. In some cases it was apparent that considerable friction exists between coun- cil members and the sponsor on this very score. To the young people who have appealed for advice in regard to seeking ways and means of over- ruling the veto of sponsor or principal in this matter, there can be only one answer: All the authority vested in the student council is derived from the principal, and his veto or that of his vicar is absolute and final. The principal owes his allegiance, through the mediating agents, the superin- tendent, and the board of education, to the patrons of the school. When the majority of the citizens of a community takes a stand against an activity which in the minds of some people raises a moral or religious issue, the principal is in duty bound to respect the wishes of the citizens rather than yield to the demands of the students. In a few schools the controversial subject was not whether or not there were to be school dances, but whether or not the dances were to be open or closed. Here also the student-council members should yield gracefully to the decision of the principal or sponsor, who are in a position to know better than they which course should be adopted. Assembly Programs Next to the project of arranging for and supervising school dances came that of providing assembly programs. A considerable number of councils planned the entire program for each assembly to be held during the year, but by far the greater number merely made announcements during the time allotted on each program for this purpose. Some provided a feature of entertainment for each program or for certain programs, and others took complete charge of one assembly during the year. It is usual in many schools to devote one assembly to the demonstration of a student- council meeting. This, in the opinion of some who have tried it, is likely to be one of the most worth-while assemblies of the year. It cannot be emphasized too strongly that the council can and should have a committee which sponsors and arranges the assembly program. A 92 StupENT-CounciL HanpBook [March committee appointed by the council under the guidance of a faculty spon- sor may canvass the possibilities for programs for a semester or a year in advance. Some clubs will wish to present programs which illustrate their activities. Departments in the school may wish to furnish information about their work. For example, the presentation of Cinderella in French by the students in the French classes is much appreciated as entertainment, yet it helps to interpret the curriculum. If one believes that some assembly programs should grow out of the curriculum and return to the curriculum to enrich it, the Cinderella assembly referred to above is an excellent ex- ample. Social Science classes may wish to commemorate Washington’s Birthday, Armistice Day, or some other calendar event. The physical edu- cation department may wish to present an assembly at which the basket- ball coach and selected players demonstrate the common fouls and explain their penalties. A demonstration of the “fine points” to look for in team play will increase pupil’s enjoyment of the game and will almost certainly result in better sportsmanship on the part of spectators. Similarly instruc- tional assemblies may be held for football at which the signals used by officials to signal various types of fouls to the spectators may be explained. The school musical organizations may wish to present assemblies at which they exhibit their prowess. Dramatic productions, other one-act plays prepared by the Dramatic Club, or excerpts from longer plays which, in many schools, are presented to the public by the Junior or Senior class, are always well received by assembly audiences. In those schools in which the council possesses funds or controls the extra-curriculum finance it will be possible to secure entertaining and worth-while programs from com- mercial agencies which arrange itineraries for traveling troupes. Light opera, magicians, marionette shows, and lecturers are generally available. Sometimes such programs may be secured through the extension division of the State University; at other times they may be secured through book- ing agencies. Commercial programs should never comprise a large part of the total, since the assembly program should grow out of the life of the school, but they do furnish a variety in the total program which cannot be achieved otherwise. If an assembly committee of the council is to be maximally successful it must plan its series of programs well in advance rather than to look about each week for a suitable one. The program should be planned for at least one month in advance; a semester is better. By duplicating the pro- gram for a semester and posting it in every room, the program will be known to everyone. In addition it may be well to issue a supplementary bulletin, and to remind both teachers and pupils through the daily bulletin. If the assembly program is to be carried out smoothly the committee must have criteria of performance. These may well include attending re- 1940} StupENT-Councit Projects 93 hearsals, for example, to see that pupils speak toward the audience in dramatic productions or skits, and to time the program. If the program is too long, it must be cut. If it is too short, provision must be made for the remaining time. In schools which have an orchestra or a band, the musical organization may play during the remaining minutes. In other schools the teacher of music may lead the school in popular songs with piano accompaniment. In those schools which are fortunate enough to possess a pipe organ, the instrument may be used effectively to utilize time at the end of programs as well as to lend dignity to the time con- sumed in entering and leaving the hall. Criteria may also be developed for the character of the performance, variety of assemblies, and conduct at assemblies. Student monitors, under commission from the council, may assist in seating and in recommending that pupils whose behavior is not exemplary should be excluded until their conduct improves. If a committee on assemblies has representatives from all classes the younger members may grow into their responsibilities as the Seniors gradu- ate. Coaching by the faculty sponsor will enable upper-grade pupils to pre- side at assemblies or to announce the programs. The announcer at the assembly should tell the assembled pupils what the purpose of the pro- gram is, if this has not already been done. At the end of the year an awards assembly may well be held. At this assembly all awards for the year are presented, rather than distributed piecemeal throughout the year. Such an assembly is always effective. If the council sets up criteria for awarding letters, pins, or insignia, and then presents the awards, the program will be doubly effective. It is repeated for emphasis: The school assembly is a perfectly con- crete project which can be carried out successfully by a committee of the council. It is a part of the extra curriculum in which pupils should have a share, and which is logically a responsibility of the council. No school should be without. assembly programs. No school needs to be without assembly programs which reflect the life of the school. Assem- bly programs planned and presented by pupils, under guidance of a faculty member, and by commission from the council, are inexpensive and satis- fying to all pupils. For the benefit of those schools whose assembly programs are not planned by the student council, the following program is presented to illustrate how one council took advantage of the opportunity to take charge of an assembly by presenting a program of a specific nature, deal- ing with its own peculiar situation. This assembly program, given by the student council of the Junior-Senior High School of Austin, Minnesota, was given in order to increase the prestige of the student-council members and to improve the attitude of the school toward home rooms. The ideas for 94 Srupent-Councit HanpBook [March the program and the content of the speeches came from the members themselves. PROGRAM (The representatives from cach home room who comprised the student council were seated on the stage when the curtains parted. The advisor also was present.) High-school principal introduces president of student council who responds: “Thank you, (supply name) . P “We of the council feel that this year it is important that we establish our council of students as a traditional extra-curriculum activity. These students on the platform are your representatives, because each home room has selected the student it wants as a council member. “Because we meet bi-monthly only, we cannot hope to accomplish too much, but we must remember that Rome was not built in a day. We just have to feel our way. As soon as we learn that we are capable of shouldering responsibilities, we will be given more tasks to execute. As yet, we have not proved ourselves. The hope of the Senior High council is that this year we may stand high in the estimation of our teachers and our fellow students so that next year’s group will find the way paved for them. “Any suggestions or ideas concerning our school system should be talked over in the home room. Then the representative can present the opinion at council. Therefore, each council member has a serious responsibility to his home room and to his school. The people who voted for him also have to share in this. They should support him and listen carefully to his ideas brought from the council and from other groups. One rep- resentative alone cannot make progress unless he has the codperation of his classmates. At this time I'd like to introduce to you the students elected from each home room. Please refrain from clapping until the entire group has been presented. (Introduces them.) (Each student rises as he is introduced by the president.) “I know we're all happy to*have our advisor with us to-day, , who (supply name) has encouraged and helped us much. Our hope is that our school will continue to develop better leaders and better citizens so that this community will point to our organization with pride. “Each home-room president also has an enjoyable but difficult task. He must pre- side in a pleasing and forceful manner at all meetings. On his shoulders a great deal of blame can be laid if meetings are not conducted in a business-like and successful manner. His student friends should assist him in every way possible. We feel that to- day you would like to meet the presidents of the various home rooms. The presidents have been asked to come to the platform to receive their gavels. (The presidents, who have formed a line off stage, are conducted to the platform by the vice president of the council. He presents each president with a gavel as the council president reads the home-room number and the name of the home-room president.) At this time I want to present to you your emblem of authority, which we hope you will use wisely and fairly. (Presents each gavel.) “The council wishes you luck, enjoyment, and progress on your year’s program in home room. (Presidents leave the stage.) “__ a council member from Miss Blank’s home room has been asked (supply name) to speak on ‘What I Owe My Home Room.’” “Mr. Chairman: Rather than speak as a council representative, I am going to speak as a student of Austin High School only. “In the first place, every student should contribute something to his group. A member shouldn't be a ‘bump on a log,’ so to speak, but should serve on committees 1940} Srupent-Councit Projects 95 when it is his turn. He shouldn't wait to be drafted but should offer his services. If we complain that the same ones are always leaders, the fault probably lies with us. “True, only certain ones can be officers, but as followers we should be coGperative and patient with these people who are doing their best. In life the majority have to be followers at some time or other, but there is such a thing as followers codperating. “We also owe dependability to our home room. When we have a committee meet- ing, we should turn up and be on time. We should carry our responsibility as seriously as if we were being paid for it. It is obvious that when this is done, the programs are really enjoyed by the entire group. “Up to date, a number of important projects have been executed through the home room. Homecoming is one of these. Every year the homecoming floats are planned, the queen elected, the slogan chosen, and some details of that day are worked out in the group meetings. It is a medium of advertising for many school projects which are enjoyed by all of us. “At Thanksgiving time, each home room votes to give a basket to a less fortunate family. This is purely voluntary but a very worth-while project. “Last year the Mantoux tests for tuberculosis were given free to all Juniors and Seniors and to Sophomores who wished to pay the small sum of one dollar. It wouldn't have been possible to carry this testing program out so swiftly and efficiently without home-room cooperation. “In the Senior High School this year, the tenth grade is receiving an orientation or adjustment course to all phases of high school; such as, learning how to study, how to use leisure time, and how to get along with people. “The Juniors are mainly directing their attention to the Junior-Senior prom. One home room, for instance, has offered to sponsor a mixer to help raise money for the Junior class. Each home room for Juniors is also submitting a theme for the Junior prom. These suggestions will in turn be handed to a committee who will act on them. The Seniors, of course, are making plans for next year; so a vocational outlook has been assumed by them. They are eager to learn about college requirements, or vacancies in the business world which they are capable of filling. “At the basis of all our home-room planning, of course, we find a study of parlia- mentary law and a desire to develop personal efficiency through personality develop- ment, study of behavior habits, and analysis of difficulties arising in scholarship ratings. If there are other problems confronting us, we should bring them to the attention of the officers or the faculty advisor. “If any one complains that he does not get profit from his home-room activity, the fault lies with him. Suggest your ideas, have your group work on the phase or activity which you need most. “There is a fine balance between privilege and responsibility. The individual has the privilege of working on programs and outlining ideas, but he also has a definite responsibility in carrying out these suggestions.” President: “Thank you. And now we have asked one boy to give us his ideas of what home room means to him. A newcomer to our school has purposely been chosen, because his point of view should be entirely objective. —-————-— who has come to (supply name) us from ———————— will tell us what home room means to him.” «(name of school) “Mr. Chairman: At the outset I want to say that as soon as I enrolled in —__—_———— I knew that the students were friendly and that the teachers were kind (name of school) and helpful. Sometimes I probably didn’t deserve these considerations, but I was really impressed with the business and activity that was going on in school. “The school from which I came had home rooms which met for fifteen minutes 96 StupENT-Counci, HanpBook [ March the first period every morning. Attendance was checked and the bulletin read at that time. The individual teacher sometimes tried to work out an educational plan, but there was no unified system of progress. “My idea of what home room means to me includes the personal guidance of the teacher, and a closer pupil-teacher relationship than can possibly be had in the class- room. The instructor should not only advise courses of study, but wherever it is needed she should give help on personality problems. In —---————— we are checked (name of school) on our make-up work, encouraged to raise our scholarship, and given personal inter- views by our home-room teachers. “Second, to me, home rooms mean well-planned programs that are both interesting and helpful. Personally, I like open-forum discussions on problems of school life. “Third, home room makes one feel a sense of belonging to the school. It is help- ful to know that a group of students and a teacher are interested in your progress, and that in this situation you can learn many things that do not come under the heading of regular academic work found in a book or in a course of study. Not only does such a small group make a stranger or a shy person feel at home, but the student recognizes that he has found a definite place where he can present his personal problems and re- ceive guidance. “Fourth, since coming to ———---—— (name of school) sports are explained in home room, There is no excuse for anyone not going to an athletic event because he does not understand the game. Every activity such as the school paper, class plays, and lyceum programs get equal publicity by being advertized I have observed how the rules of the by the students for the students. “I think credit should be given to a council of teachers called the home-room council, which meets outside of school hours to organize the objects and aims of home rooms and to unify the entire program. So I know that through home rooms students have received and will receive more help in personality development, that they have opportunity to show leadership, and that they receive training for similar club situations.” President: “Thank you. We have asked four ‘would be’ actors to dramatize a typical situation relating to home rooms. If you see yourself in this picture, be a good sport about it. The speakers are —--—————.” (give names) This skit was performed outside the curtains. Two girls, an ideal high-school boy, and a “slacker” are the characters. SKIT (Sue and Kate ad. lib. as they come from stage left carrying books. Jim coming from stage right, interrupts them in the center.) Jim: Hi, girls, where you been? Sue: Why we're just coming from home-room committee meeting. Jim: Home-room committee—gosh, do you really do things in home room, Kate? Kate: Well, I hope—it’s more fun than just sitting around. Jim: Well, I can’t see what home room is for any way. None of the boys like it, I can tell you that. The girl who's president certainly takes a beating. We make life miserable for her. I can’t see any fun or anything funny in that. We have Robert’s Rules of Order, and we practice them, too, (Sam comes from stage right and crosses to far stage left.) Jim: Hey, where's the fire? Sam: Home-room committee meeting. What’s on your mind? Jim: You, too? Kate: Oh, I thought boys didn’t take part in home rooms. ow R&T — ao rv Oo = 1940] StupENT-Councit Projects 97 Sam: Kate: Sam: Jim: Sue: Kate: Sam: Sue: Jim: Kate: Jim: Sam: Kate: Jim: Sam: Jim: Kate: Sue: Kate: Jim: Kate: Sam: Jim: Sam: Who told you that? Jim just said that boys didn’t work in home rooms. But Sue and I were telling him that everybody coOperates in ours, because we follow parliamentary rules. Well, that’s the way I used to feel, too, until we took pride in correcting errors such as “I make a motion” for “I move.” Since our program on parliamentary procedure last month, we've all been on our toes, and our president is really someone to be proud of. Well, we don’t do anything, and I can’t see any point in having home room. Just what do you do for your home room, James Matthews? If you want a good home room, you have to do your share. In a school as large as ours, home rooms serve as a central place to make an- nouncements, elect class officers, and vote on projects. And don’t forget home-room cabinet officers. We couldn't very well organize the giving of Thanksgiving baskets to needy families if we didn't have home rooms, Yes, Thanksgiving comes once a@ year. Why organize for that? Can you tell me, Katie, dear? That's not all. How could we organize a parade for Homecoming and plan floats and boost school activities? Couldn’t we do these things in class? We have something else to do in class. Besides, in the classroom Miss Smith's our teacher, and in our home room she’s our friend and advisor. In our home room we've discussed aims and are guided in making plans for the future. Well, Dad says that when he went to school, all they learned was the three R’s— Readin’, 'Ritin’, and "Rithmetic—and let it go at that! Miss Smith says that to-day we're training for attitudes and ideals, because knowledge alone, without proper application, will not make a good citizen. Besides, we'll all be members of organizations of one kind or another after we leave school, and it’s to our advantage to learn how to be a good president and a good member. It’s always the same one who takes the lead, though, and the same kids get offices and work on committees. If you want to be one of those who leads, Jim, you'll have to show that you can assume responsibility and prove that you are dependable. You have to be a follower before you can be a leader, and it’s just as important to be a good follower as it is to be a good leader. Yes, we won't be in classrooms governed by teachers all our lives. We may as well learn good citizenship and good manners while we are in classrooms. If you just get together in your own gang, there’s not much chance for you to widen your circle of friends. Maybe that’s a gentle hint that I should pay attention when we're practicing etiquette in home room. Well, by the way, what we're doing now is definitely wrong. What do you mean, wrong? We learned that it is not courteous to stand on the street and have our conver- sations. It is much better to walk along as you talk. (Jim beckons them his way—stage right) O. K. Let’s get going and amble down for cokes. (as he starts to leave) Sorry, I'm due at a committee meeting where we are planning an aviation program. (as girls cross in front of Jim) Sorry, we want to get this report ready for next 98 Stupent-Councit HanpBook | March home room, but I'll take a rain check on the coke. (Exit) (Jim is left in middle of stage alone and perplexed) Hey—wait a minute—Gee, do you suppose I could go with you? Come on along—you'll like the way our home room does things! By the way, I read an article in Popular Mechanics the other day on acronauti- cal engineering that I'd like to talk about. Will the gang be surprised! But I think it won't be long before they fall in line, too. President: “This concludes our program for to-day, and we hope that you have re- ceived stimulus to do even more to raise the standards of rooms in our high Jim: Sam: Jim: school.” Aid to board of education Like many parent-teacher associations, a student council sometimes acts as an auxiliary agency of the board of education. For example, one council purchases material for the bicycle rack, buys material for special classes and donates money to aid others, purchases books for the school library, and provides scholarship medals. Others spend considerable effort in raising money for campus landscaping and for repairs and improvement of building and grounds, all of which rightfully should be taken care of by the school board. The purposes are worthy ones; however, the board of education, not the council, should underwrite such expenditures. A legitimate method of aiding the school board is employed by many student councils in assuming the responsibility for protecting school prop- erty and equipment from malicious and thoughtless damage by students, and in keeping the grounds neat and orderly. In addition to this, many student councils take special precautions to prevent damage on Hallow- e’en. To this end plans are often made for elaborate functions to absorb the attention of even the rowdiest students on this night. During the hours when mischief is most likely to be perpetrated an increased student patrol keeps watch over the building and grounds. This project is one worthy of wide emulation. School publications One of the most ambitious projects to be undertaken by the student council is the publication of the school newspaper. This is accomplished in different ways. The councils having complete participation in the con- trol of school affairs appoint, with the advice of the principal and other faculty members, the editors and department managers, and allot the main burden of responsibility to the journalism department of the school. In this way student councils direct the committees and groups which are the real working organizations. Other councils with less authority assume full responsibility for the publication, and all the actual labor of production is performed by the individual members or committees within the council. When a school paper is issued weekly, as is frequently the case even in small high schools, one may readily comprehend what a heavy burden is being carried by the student council. When one considers that the councils 1940} Stupent-Councit Projects 99 often may also be under obligation to publish a handbook and an annual and at the same time carry out projects for raising money, one can but marvel at their ability to achieve. Taking into consideration that these pupils must also maintain satisfactory grades in their courses, administra- tors should plan to distribute extra-curriculum work as widely as possible, and make certain that the function of the student council is to supervise rather than to perform. In those schools which have an activity fee, or in which they control the extra-curriculum moneys, the council weuld quite rightly delegate the responsibility for the publications and subsidize them. School cafeteria A great deal of variance is shown by student councils in regard to the school cafeteria. Practically all councils assist in maintaining order during the lunch periods. This is usually accomplished by means of proctors or cafeteria officers who are stationed throughout the cafeteria at places where they will be most helpful. For each cafeteria period there is a shift of officers in charge of a captain. Some go farther by dismissing the students to the campus for the last twenty minutes of the period and taking charge of cleaning and straightening up the cafeteria. In inclement weather the officers are in charge of the gymnasium into which the students file. When NYA help is employed to do the manual labor in caring for the cafeteria these officers act in a supervisory capacity. It is questionable, of course, whether or not NYA students or council members should be used in cleaning the cafeteria, since the cleaning up is properly the re- sponsibility of the regular employees of the board of education. The student councils enjoying full participation in school control have a voice in the management of the cafeteria and in arranging the details of service. In a few instances the management is extended to cover all business trans- actions connected with the purchase of supplies, overhead cost, the fixing of prices, and an estimation of profit and loss. This procedure, too, is questionable, since it is properly the responsibility of the board of education. Such projects as Lost and Found and Used Book Exchange are handled by student councils both as money-making activities and as gratuitous service for the welfare of the school. Student Day A few schools have Student Day. Before enlarging on this project, it would be well to say that many schools now consider it unwise. One school had held Student Day regularly for several years. Each time the experiment had resulted satisfactorily, so that the attention of near-by secondary-school principals was focused upon it. Then, one year, the principal failed to take into consideration the possible effect of a divided student body. Two rival factions had developed. When Student Day arrived, and the teachers were absent, as is usual on such occasions, the two factions engaged in 100 StupeNnt-Counci, HanpBook [ March battle with disastrous results. A verification of the reiterated statement that responsibility rests with constituted authority, not with delegated author- ity, was given in the dismissal of the principal. To point the moral, the school authorities should be very sure of their ground before permitting the observance of Student Day. It must not be taken for granted that it will be successful at the present time because it was successful the pre- ceding year, or because it has succeeded in other schools. The following accounts illustrate how successful the project may be when conditions are auspicious. Student Day at Morgantown, West Virginia In 1936 the Demonstration High School of the University of West Virginia, Morgantown, achieved national fame by conducting school for three days without teachers. The student council was in complete charge. Mrs. Franklin Roosevelt visited the school and congratulated the student body on the success of the experiment. This was repeated in 1938. (Taken from November, 1939, Student Life) Student Day at Excelsior Springs, Missouri The student council of Excelsior Springs High School, Missouri, with the approval of officials, sponsored a like demonstration one day in April, 1939. Students conducted classes and maintained their own discipline. Regular teachers stayed home or spent the day fishing. The student teachers were appointed by a board of education elected from the student body. In each of these cases the result was a huge success. Family Night Among the various activities sponsored by the student council of the high school at Excelsior Springs, Missouri, is Family Night at basketball games. The purpose of Family Night is to entertain those who are in- terested in the school and to further their interest in the basketball games. For this event a particular basketball game is selected which is expected to be very interesting. The family of each student is invited to attend without cost of admission if the family come together. The classes com- pete in endeavoring to secure the highest percentage of families present. Between the halves of the game, free passes to the remaining games of the season are awarded to the family coming the longest distance, the largest family present, the oldest father of a member of the basketball team, and the family of each student in the class having the highest per- centage of families in attendance. In this school, Family Night has proved very effective. The year in which it was instituted at Excelsior High School the team had been playing losing games until Family Night brought about the turning point of the season. 1940] Stupent-Councit Projects Youth conference The student council of the Woodrow Wilson High School, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, sponsored a three-day youth conference as its major project in the year 1938-39. This was not only a conference of a local student- council association, but representatives were present from schools having no form of student participation in extra-curriculum activities. The prob- lems of youth were considered and in addition, concrete help was secured through the codperation with near-by Merchants’ and Businessmen’s As- sociations. Combating truancy Gratifying success has attended the efforts of the student council of the high school at Batavia, Illinois, in combating truancy in the school. For the first offense a truant must make up after school all time lost. No exemptions are allowed. For later offenses he may return to school only when accompanied by at least one parent or his guardian. A smaller project, but a very helpful one, was a campaign carried on by the council to secure a sufficient number of glasses in which to serve a beverage at the Junior Prom. This was achieved by requesting each pupil to bring from home a small glass which had originally contained cheese. Observing Mother’s and Dad’s Days On Mother’s Day in May and Dad’s Day, observed in November, the student council of the Sudlow Intermediate School, Davenport, Iowa, has full charge of the registration of guests. A system of registration is used similar to the one commonly observed in state and national conventions. Each guest is tagged and ushered to the class in which is enrolled the child whom the guest wishes to visit. The class teacher receives the in- troduction slip of the guest. The council members are in charge of all the filing and typing, and the registration and ushering of the guests. The guests arrive early in the day, stay for lunch, visit classes, and attend a movie program and style show. Although this is the project of a junior high school, it could be used with equal success in senior high schools. Radio programs The student council of the San Diego High School, San Diego, Cali- fornia, on a radio program, participated in a panel discussion, sponsored by the interschool council. Financial and social problems were discussed. Courtesy Week At Kankakee High School, Kankakee, Illinois, a special week was set aside for a survey of the school’s courtesy status. If a student observed another student in an act of courtesy, he was asked to jot down the name of the student and also the act performed. During the last class of the day 102 SrupEent-Counci. HanpBook [March a committee was chosen by the student council to collect and record the names and the deeds. Tests on etiquette were given in the home rooms. It was found that the boys excelled in practical courtesy, while the girls stood highest in the tests. (Taken from December, 1937, Student Life) Best Citizens Every month for fifteen years, the high school of Ponca City, Okla- homa, has given the Best-Citizen Award to some outstanding student. At first only one student was elected each month, but now two—one boy and one girl—are chosen. Each home room selects its own candidate from the student body. The names are then referred to the citizenship committee of the student council. The council chooses for the ballot six students— three girls and three boys. This ballot is then distributed to the home rooms for the final election of one boy and one girl. Any student who maintains the school average in scholarship and attendance is eligible. The qualities of good citizenship are requisites stressed in the election. A gold pin bear- ing the inscription, “Ponca City High School, Best Citizen,” is presented to each best citizen during the general assembly each month. (Taken from October, 1939, Student Life) Messenger service The student council of the Junior High School, Woonsocket, Rhode Island, provided messengers for the Musical Festival of the Rhode Island School Bands. Its members also are in charge of telephones when teachers are not in their rooms. Merit system A project carried out by some student councils is that of devising merit and point systems. In some instances a merit system, like the point system, is included in the constitution. In other cases a committee appointed by the student council formulates the merit system, which must first be ratified by the student council and later by the faculty. The system then becomes operative for the entire school. One high school employs the following merit system: MERIT SYSTEM Each student begins the semester with a record of 100 merits or points. Merits will be lost for the following offenses: 1. ‘Tardiness, one for each offense. For truancy absence per period, one. Late excuses, one. Leaving the school or campus without a permit, two. 5. Misconduct in class or halls. Teachers may recommend a maximum of 5. But offense requiring more than 5, the teachers shall send the pupil to the office. 1940] StupENT-Councit Projects 103 6. Stealing, smoking on the campus or school grounds, and other misdemeanors considered sufficiently serious by the principal are punishable by suspension, and if reinstated, there shall be a loss of 15 to 25 merits. 7. For misuse of property, athletic equipment, or tampering with heating or lighting equipment, a loss of one to five merits. 8. For a failure in a subject, one for each six weeks. Students losing merits who feel that the loss is not justifiable, must report the incident at once to the superintendent. An average of 80 or better is required of all Seniors who desire to be recommended for college work or a position. Any student whose record falls below 80 shall be ineligible for membership in the student council. A student whose record falls below 80 will be ineligible to hold the positicn of Student President, or Student-Council President, or for any elective office, or represent the school in any manner during the semester or following semester. Merits may be added to the current semester in the following manner: 1. Perfect attendance record for any semester, 5 merits. 2. No tardiness for six weeks, 2 merits. 3. For each six weeks no demerits, 2 merits. 4. Meritorious service to the school, 5 merits. (Student council to pass on all meritorious services.) Scholastic requirements for membership in the student council have been discussed in Chapter ITI. It can be expected that one of the provisions of this merit system may cause the school to be represented by inferior talent in some of its departments, such as dramatics, art, manual and in- dustrial arts, and music. There is doubt in the minds of many thoughtful students of secondary- school administration concerning the advisability of a merit system in any school. The system represents a negative control through fear, or by living up to an arbitrary code, rather than a positive control built up as the un- written code, or spirit of the school. Probably the best way to develop such a positive control is through group discussion and a vital program of instruction and activities. However, since a few schools use the merit system, an example is included. Supervision of clubs A moot question which perplexes many student-government organiza- tions is whether or not they should have the authority to charter clubs. Thirty-four per cent of all the student councils which responded to the May, 1939, questionnaire took the stand that if students are to participate in the government of the extra-curriculum, the chartering and supervision of all school clubs naturally becomes one of the duties of the student or- ganization. They interpreted participation to include a voice in the ad- ministration of all extra-curriculum activities, not barring the musical and athletic organizations and national associations such as the National Honor Society, and Quill and Scroll. 104 Stupent-Councit HanpBook | March Granting charters Thirteen per cent of the student-government constitutions granted power to charter clubs, but went no further. The clubs, under the super- vision of the teacher sponsors, drew up their own constitutions and planned their activities without any regulation on the part of the student council. Eleven per cent of the student councils were empowered to charter certain clubs only. In some instances the clubs falling under the jurisdiction of the student council were very closely supervised, while others received no special attention unless it was requested. The attention of the student council was usually aroused by a request for financial aid. The remaining forty-two per cent exercised no authority whatever over any of the school organizations. Councils having authority to grant charters should make definite regulations regarding the procedure, for it is unlikely and undesirable that the constitution of the council should give explicit details. If it is worth while to grant a charter at all, it is worth while to do it in good form and with fitting formality. A uniform charter should be devised and printed in which blank spaces for the date, name of organization, and other matters are provided. These may be added in writing, but it is much better to engross them, if it can be done without too great expense. Needless to say, this should be done only if organizations to be chartered are of a permanent character. When an organization disbands, its charter should be surrendered to the proper authorities. It is unwise to charter clubs that exist for only a term, although there is, of course, a place for these fugitive organizations which meet a temporary but vital need in the lives of some pupils. Miscellaneous projects Other projects which were carried out by a large number of student councils, and which need no further comment, are: Stunt Day, Play Day, Field Day, Hobo Day, May Day, Leap Week, Open House, the supervision of All-School Week, and other similar observances, Freshman initiation, acting as big brother or big sister to Freshmen, ushering, according hospi- tality to visitors, initiating a gate-keeping system, the establishment of a course of artists’ numbers, taking charge of the recreation room, forming a leaders’ club to encourage the use of parliamentary law, conducting student forums and conferences, holding a faculty tea in the fall, estab- lishing a student employment bureau, conducting a talent survey, pro- viding a student-loan fund and a student-injury fund, taking charge of postal savings accounts and student banking, overseeing the sale of Easter and Christmas seals and Memorial Day poppies, giving an infantile paralysis ball, initiating country student-council conferences, providing band uniforms, campaigning against smoking, appointing Safety and 1940 | How Prostems Are Beinc Sotvep 105 Health committees, conducting rallies, subscription drives, and elections, and controlling the seating in assembly. Infrequent projects Some of the infrequent and original projects are: Fingerprinting, taking charge of convocations, conducting spelling bees and arranging for county spelling contests, providing room inspection, home-room rating, amateur hours, decorating a school float for the Fourth of July, sponsoring marble, ping-pong, or badminton tournaments, securing standard school ring contracts and announcement contracts, publishing term calendars, and making provision for printing and multigraphing. By consulting the Sixth Handbook of the National Honor Socicty, issued by the National Association of Secondary-School Principals, 5835 Kimbark Avenue, Chicago, student officers will find many activities not included in this discussion. These activities are as suited to the purposes of student government organizations as to chapters of the National Honor Society. In those cases where all organizations of the school are subject to supervision by the student council, these suggestions could be passed on to the local chapter. If there is no chapter of the Honor Society, the proj- ects described in the Sixth Handbook could be carried out by a service club or some other student group. Cuapter VII HOW PROBLEMS ARE BEING SOLVED Time One of the problems mentioned most frequently as problems which confront the student council is that of time—time for the mectings, time to accomplish the work, time for reports to home rooms. Some of the councils admitted that they had found no solution to this problem, but that they are still seeking one. Others stated that by giving the matter definite study, and enlisting the codperation of administrators and teachers, it was possible to arrange a suitable time for meeting during the regular schedule. It is agreed that the resulting better attendance, not to mention the increased respect of both faculty and student body, warrants a recognition of the importance of the student government organization by giving its council a regular meeting time on the weekly program. Time in which to accomplish the work is being found by means of division of labor. Tasks hitherto assigned to a few council members are distributed among a greater number of individuals and committees. By appealing to the principal, one student council secured the codperation of the home-room teachers in allotting time to hear the reports of the council meetings. Unless time for reporting council de- liberations to the home rooms is allowed, the council may fail for lack of interest. Carefully planning the semester and weekly programs and budgeting the respective time allotments will aid materially in solving the “time” problem. Interest A large number of student councils find it is a problem to arouse the interest of the student body at large and to create a desire to par- ticipate in the council activities. Some discovered that by constantly so- liciting suggestions from the student body; by informing the student body of all activities projected by the executive board; and by making these activities as interesting as possible, the interest of the school is gradually being secured. Giving a report of the state or local convention in an entertaining manner has proved to be helpful. In addition, it may be well to remind student officers that in general people are interested in enterprises in which they have a part. The more students engaged in carrying on the duties and tasks of the student council the wider spread will be the interest and enthusiasm in the student government. For this reason, also, the principal officers of the student organization should be elected by the entire student body. The interest created by a lively election campaign will often produce enough momentum to last until time for the next campaign. More and more schools are discovering the advantages of electing student officers in the spring shortly before 106 1940) How Prostems Are Beinc SoLvep 107 the close of school. There is nothing quite like an exciting election cam- paign to revive the flagging interest in the council the last month before the summer vacation. Furthermore, this plan provides officers ready to assume their responsibilities when school opens in the fall. All-school social affairs sponsored by the council awaken interest and create desire to participate in the activities of the student council. Absence and tardiness Some councils complained that there is too much absence and tardi- ness on the part of pupils in spite of crusades against these practices. However, councils are attacking this problem with some success by awarding special privileges to the home room having the highest per- centage of attendance and to the one having the highest percentage of punctuality. Comment on this problem was made in the chapter which dealt with student-council projects. Behavior problems Student behavior has not ceased to be a problem with the general establishment of systems of student control. However, in many cases it has been much improved, and in any case the burden does not fall upon the shoulders of the principal alone. Student councils are attacking this problem with vigor and determination and some have achieved remark- able results. A school which gives a rating in citizenship with frequent reports to the parents has an influence that enables student councils to cooperate with the administration in securing better order in a manner less objectionable to the student body than is otherwise the case. In schools which employ this practice it is usual for pupils and teachers to be supplied with charge sheets for the purpose of recording the names of offenders and the offenses committed. Not only are misdemeanors recorded on these sheets but praiseworthy acts as well. These sheets must be signed before they are handed in to the student council. The merits and demerits that are handed in are discussed in council meetings, and they afford considerable assistance in determining the rating in citizenship for the reports to parents. If it is found that an offense of a serious nature has been committed, the matter is referred to the student-council court, which convenes at least every six weeks. When the court convenes, the offender is brought to trial.* Many schools feel that positive action, such as making the activities interesting by building up school spirit *The solution presented here is given exactly as it was submitted by a certain school. Many others conduct student or traffic courts in a similar fashion. Most principals will agree, however, that in school discipline six weeks is too long an interval to lapse between sessions of the court. Punishment, to be effective, must be certain and immediate. They will probably agree, too, that should deal only with minor offenses; that upon the student courts, under careful supervision, the matter before the school authorities. Ciscovery of a serious offense, the court should lav 108 Stupent-Councit HanpBook | March to the point that unsatisfactory behavior is discountenanced by the groups, is much to be preferred to the negative procedure of demerits. Misbehavior in the hall, the cafeteria, and the assembly is punished by a system of fines and other penalties, and even suspension for a few days. Breaking traffic and safety rules, smoking on the premises, cheating, and stealing are punished in the same way. These, too, may be better solved through guidance and building school morale than by negative prescriptions. One council solved the problem of boisterous or offensive behavior on the part of students on street cars and in the stadium by extending the authority of the school marshals to serve in these places. One school had been greatly annoyed by students, especially boys, loitering in front of the school building. They had the habit of coming early and were among the last to enter the building when school was called. They also lingered after classes were dismissed. Presumably they made comments or engaged in petty vandalism. The student council stopped this annoyance by constructing shuffleboard and horseshoe courts in the rear of the building. Benches were placed near the courts. Now, not only the crowd of former loiterers, but other students as well race to secure places on these courts or to attain vantage points as observers. The manners of students at dances and social affairs are sometimes deplorable. Taking it for granted that such defection is due to ignorance of the rules of etiquette or lack of home training, some schools make it a point before a social affair to call together those who expect to attend for the purpose of giving them instructions in manners and conduct. Some include advice in regard to proper costuming and the intricacies of social etiquette, so that no students will feel that this instruction is directed toward certain individuals. If all this fails to curb noisy exuberance of spirits and rude conduct, the leaders in insubordination are subjected to the suspension of certain privileges. It may even be necessary for the monitors to eject the worst offenders. Traffic One of the big problems in a great many schools is that of traffic congestion both in the halls and on the streets in the neighborhood of the school. A codrdinated system of patrol of the halls by monitors, proctors, or marshals carrying out simple but definite regulations, has been found to be the best method of handling hall traffic. In contending with the problem of congestion in auto traffic, one council found it helpful to secure the traffic rules for the city and apply them to the high- school situation. Copies of the rules are kept posted on the bulletin boards. As many high-school buildings now in use were built long before the advent of the automobile, or at least before its general use as a means sc co th 1940 | How Prostems Are Beinc Sotvep 109 of transportation to and from school by high-school students was foreseen, the question of directing trafic and finding suitable parking places re- quires grave consideration. Some student councils lend assistance by appointing a committee to list parking spaces and assign stalls to cars. Such a committee reports cars that are parked in the wrong place, and also sees to it that parked cars are not molested. The Courtesy Com- mission of one student council stresses the details of and need for “auto drivers’ courtesy,” and an educational program is carried on through the columns of the school paper. Securing proper student officers A common complaint from the councils is their failure to get the most efficient students elected as officers in the council; that it is difficult to elect students on their own merits. In many schools the boys who do not go out for athletics seldom receive enough votes to put them in office even though they may be the most capable. In order to overcome this tendency the majority of schools insist on a high scholastic rank for the officers. In others the names of all candidates for office must be found on an approved list prepared by the principal and faculty. Still others insist that if a quiet supervision of the election is maintained, elections may be conducted in a purely democratic manner and without demand- ing that certain standards of scholarship be met by the candidates. Council wants more power Usually when a student council wants more power it should have it. Many principals recognize that this is so, and are attempting to rectify the situation by reorganization. One principal wrote that he had found the commission plan of municipal government to be the best solution of the problem. Some teachers feel that council members assume too much if their powers are not definitely restricted. Again, if the warning of the head of a university training school is heeded in stressing pupil participation not pupil government, and if the constitution clearly sets forth the powers and duties of officers and members, there should be no reason for council members to become too presumptuous. If there is fear on the part of the faculty that the council will assume too many duties, the fact is usually that the council is not nearly so active as it should be. The faculty members should all be conversant with modern trends in student participation in school government. For those who are not, the bibliography at the end of the Handbook will prove enlightening. Lack of codéperation Lack of codperation on the part of both pupils and teachers will soon nullify the most carefully planned student government. Lack of coéperation is most likely to be felt when the student council is some- thing apart from the life of the students. If the council members ex- 110 StupeNT-Councit HanpBook | March perience a sense of frustration, they are apt to attempt to force upon the school an authority they do not possess. As a result the council may be regarded as a dictatorial unit by teachers and pupils alike. The first step in the solution of this problem is to make sure that the student council is not merely a separate club. The students must feel that the student council is the instrument by means of which their participation in school government is administered. A popular election is one of the means ot making students realize that the student council is their representation in the government of their school world. It should be made clear to them that they not only have the right but are urged to make known their views on any subject pertaining to the conduct of school affairs to their representatives in the council; that it is their duty to ask their representatives to present for council legislation any matters which they consider important to the welfare of the school as a whole or to a large group within the school. The powers of the council should be so well defined that there can be no danger of its overlapping the authority of the teachers. This may necessitate some changes in the constitution be- fore complete adjustment is made. By all means the principal should be consulted when a council is doubtful of its authority. After this, me- chanical devices to attain closer contact with the student body may be resorted to. For this purpose a great many councils hold meetings before the student body in assembly, invite students to visit regular council meetings, post suggestion boxes in conspicuous places, and hold frequent social affairs. Financial problems Nearly every student council is faced with financial problems, which, even though they have once been disposed of, have a habit of recurring with monotonous regularity. This subject has been discussed in the chapter on finances. It is mentioned here as one of the problems which councils must face. Lack of support for school activities Support for football games, the school paper, and other enterprises is frequently increased by progressive student councils by including all activities for which a fee is charged in the student activity ticket. One council takes the profit from a lyceum program, which added to the advertising fees defrays the expense of publishing the school newspaper. The paper is then given to all students without charge. In connection with the complaint that it is difficult to get the activity ticket in the hands of more than fifty per cent of the students, it would be well to read how the student council of Hanover High School, Hanover Center, Massachusetts, secured the purchase of activity tickets by seventy per cent 1940} How Prostems Are Beinc Sotvep 111 of the students. The account is to be found in the chapter, Student- Council Finances. Lack of school spirit The question of how to develop school spirit is answered in one school by the Courtesy Commission which disseminates such propaganda as “Boost Your School” and “Did You Know?” School spirit develops simultaneously with the increased attendance at games, contests, and debates in those schools where a moderately priced activity ticket includes all paid activities. Limitation of student activities Councils which were vexed by the realization that the number of offices and memberships that a student may hold in extra-curriculum organizations should be limited, solved the problem by formulating a point system. The point system eliminates the possibility of members becoming loaded with too many activities. The Hartford, Connecticut, High School restricts the number of offices a pupil may hold in the fol- lowing manner: A pupil may 1. Hold either one presidency and one other office, or two offices (excluding choirmaster of the a cappella choir and concertmaster of the inter-high orchestra) ; Hold one elective graduation office (officers to be chosen in the order of their importance) excluding the business and editorial boards of the classbook; Belong to three clubs in addition to Honor Society Student Council Athletic Association Boys’ Club Girls’ League Freshman Girls’ Club Orchestras Glee Clubs A Cappella Choir (Chronicle and Owlet boards will be treated as clubs; therefore, the editorships will be considered as presidencies.) No restrictions are placed on athletics. The following Service Point System is included in the constitution of the student council of the high school at Buckeye, Arizona: Service Point System 1. Purpose a. “The purpose of the service point system shall be to distribute more evenly the opportunities for student participation in extra-curriculum activities, to pre- vent the student from overloading, to develop and maintain a higher standard of attainment, and to equate activities where credit for graduation is required. No one shall be awarded points for the same service more than once in the same year. Offices must be satisfactorily filled before any service points are awarded. StupENT-CounciL HanpBook | March The secretary of the student body shall be responsible for the service point system with duly appointed assistants. Any questions or complaints arising concerning the service point system should be made in writing to the student council who will have authority to investigate the matter and make decision. Manner of amending service points: As extra-curriculum activities increase in the school, the service point system may be amended accordingly by the student council. The Point System—Bailey Junior High School, Jackson, Mississippr The Point System is a method set up to encourage and to limit pupils in taking part in the activities of the school. This system attempts to divide evenly the activities and to give awards for a limited number of points earned by each pupil who takes part in school activities. All points earned will be recorded and kept on file by members of the student council and by the secretary to the principal. The objectives of the Point System as set up by the student council of the Bailey Junior High School are as follows: 1. To distribute the opportunities of pupil participation in school activities. To prevent a pupil from overloading with extra activities. + > 3 To develop a high standard of attainment in extra activities. To give awards for points earned by participation in these activities. Distribution of Points I. Organization II. Physical Education President of: Class Club Home room Honor Society Student Council Vice President of: Class Club Home room Honor Society Student Council Secretary of: Honor Society Treasurer of: Honor Society Sec.-Treas. of: Class Club Home room Student Council Reporter of: Club Home room Boys: Member of team (basketball- football ) School Letter Cheerleader Girls: Phys. Ed Letter Squad Leader Cheer Leader III. School Paper Editor Member of staff IV. Student Assistants In the library (1 point each term) In the office (1 point each term) Monitors (each 2 weeks) (not to exceed 4) Safety Patrol (1 point each term) V. Miscellaneous Captain of Band Member of Honor Society *Outstanding work *To be determined by members of the faculty ind the student council. For the year 1938-39 any pupil earning forty points shall be given an award, 1940 | How Prostems Are Beinc Sotvep 113 A pupil cannot be president of more than one of the following organizations: Honor Society Student Council Class Pupils working on NYA are not eligible for points for work in the office or in the library. The student council is the logical organization to limit participation of some pupils in the extra-curriculum and to stimulate the participation of others, since the council quite generally assumes responsibility for the extra-curriculum. Setting up a point system and keeping a record of points awarded to pupils is a project which may be carried out success- fully by the council. It offers an excellent opportunity for participation of pupils in school government. Not enough to do In every case of a student council reporting that it did not have enough to do, it was found that the council is so restricted that it func- tions as a service club rather than a body empowered to participate in the administration of the school. Often the student secretary frankly stated that the principal and faculty are afraid to entrust any authority to the student organization. It is not well for a student council to have too little to do. This gives the members a feeling of the futility of their organization which does not augur interest or efficiency in performing the few tasks that are assigned. A student council participating fully in the extra-curriculum does not complain of a lack of things to do. Too much to do Many student councils attempt to do too much at one time. They will find it is better to clear up all old business before attempting new. Then, by attacking one major piece of business at a time, or, if several items demand attention at once, by dividing responsibilities, and by assigning as much work as possible to be handled in committees, they are not over- burdened with work. Freshman representation in council In schools having student government based on class representation it is customary to elect fewer Freshmen to the council than are elected from the other classes. The matter of restricting the number of Freshmen presents more of a problem in schools where the home-room organization forms the basic unit of the government. Some councils solve this prob- lem by putting the Freshmen through a training period, permitting them to be represented only after they have passed a citizenship test. In the opinion of many school administrators there is no reason why the Fresh- man class should not have the largest representation. Ordinarily the older pupils will assume leadership even though they are in the minority. 114 StupENT-Councit HanpBook | March However, the majority of principals and sponsors agree that the vote of the Freshmen delegates should be limited. They see no reason why the Freshmen delegates should be enabled to outvote the delegates repre- senting the older, but smaller, groups. Democracy demands the largest representation from the largest group even though that group may be least able to govern. Orientation of new students This is being accomplished by means of student-council guides, signs placed in strategic positions during the first week of school, an information bureau, and student handbooks. Mixers and other social affairs given early in the year are of assistance in orienting the Freshmen. One of the duties of the courtesy committee of some student councils is to assist new students who enter school later in the year. Reticence of council representatives The complaint that many student-council representatives are bashful and hesitate to give their opinions was avoided by one student council when it began holding its meetings as informally as possible, for example, in the library in round-table discussion. Regular attendance Good attendance at council meetings has been secured in many schools when the time of meeting was changed from after school to a period provided for it in the daily schedule. Many councils have adopted a rule that after three unexcused absences a member must resign or be dropped. Some constitutions provide each home-room representative to the council with an alternate who represents his room during the repre- sentative’s absence, and who takes his place in case of his resignation or disability. Integration of rural pupils For the most part this is accomplished through social contact—parties, mixers, and dances. One council makes it a point to put rural and town pupils to work on the same committees. In many schools this is a serious problem because one half or more of the ninth grade class may enroll from rural areas and will not be oriented to the school. The problem in such cases is likely to be so important that the faculty should take cog- nizance of it by developing an orientation or guidance program which specifically aims to integrate the rural pupil. The importance of social contacts, “big brothers” and “big sisters,” guide service, and counsellor service should not be overlooked. Recognition of outstanding citizens A few councils were at a loss to know how best to give recognition to the outstanding boy and girl citizen of the school. At Bagley High 1940 | How Prosiems Are Beinc Sotvep 115 School, Northeastern College, Tahlequah, Oklahoma, a joint committee of faculty and students selects four possible candidates every six weeks. The entire student body votes on these names on the basis of scholarship, citizenship, and leadership. A description of the method used at Ponca City, Oklahoma, may be found in the chapter on Projects. Inexperienced council members It is not always possible or advisable to have the council composed entirely of outstanding pupils. Other students besides those who usually occupy the limelight should have the experience of serving on the council. If the council’s business is well managed, inexperienced or weak pupils will not make the council ineffective. If care is used to put outstanding pupils on committees with weaker ones, the latter will gain the needed experience and the efficiency of the government will not be impaired. Conducting school dances The reply to those council secretaries who stated that their problem is to sponsor dances in the gymnasium in spite of the opposition of the principal and coaches, has already been given in the chapter, Projects. Those who find it burdensome to sponsor the school dances even with the full permission and coéperation of the administrators might be helped by the experience of a student council which had also found it difficult to perform this task. The social committee of the student council plans the number of dances to be held during the year and the approximate dates. Each dance is then put in charge of a different committee. The chairman of each committee is a member of the social committee, but the committee members are selected from the students at large. These committees vie with each other to make their dances popular by varying the programs, by adding original features, or by ingenious decoration. The executive board of the council appoints a different set of monitors to maintain order at each dance. These monitors are also selected from the student body, but are given the full authority of the regular monitor staff. In this way the council divides the responsibility for the dances, in addition to creating interest ameng the students to make the dances more successful than any that have been held previously. This same idea can be carried out in conducting the school parties and other social affairs. The competition between the committees will result in making the parties more attractive. The larger number of pupils involved in preparing for the events will arouse interest on the part of a greater portion of the student body, so that better attendance will naturally follow. The widespread return to popularity of the various square dances, quadrilles, reels, and circle dances has greatly increased the social value of high-school dances. The ball-room dancing in vogue for many years 116 Stupent-Councit Hanpsook | March tended to lose its sociability and become an aggregation of isolated pairs. As a means of helping Freshmen to become oriented or new students to become acquainted the folk dances, of which the Big Apple was the forerunner, are most effective. The formation in groups with frequent changes of partners, makes folk dances truly social; they are hilarious enough to provide good wholesome fun. These pioneer dances vary in difficulty from simple to complex figures so that in a very short time students have learned to do them well enough to gain enjoyment, yet interest holds as the intricacy of the patterns increases. Many physical directors give instruction in such dances as a part of the regular program. They are best suited for the purpose of a mixer. Time for calling committee meetings One problem for which no solution was offered was presented by several councils. They find it difficult to call committees without inter- fering with academic work. In nearly every instance there are rural students on some of the committees; this rules out meetings after the last period of the daily schedule. It would appear that each council must work this out for itself. If suggestions are reported they will appear later in Student Life. Student officers and their responsibilities Sponsors often find it difficult to impress the student officers, especially the student president, with their responsibilities. The only suggestion offered is that of holding conferences with the president and student officers in an effort to inculcate a consciousness of the importance of their offices and the seriousness of their duties. Lack of scholarship Student councils find that by setting standards of scholarship for participating in various activities and for membership in organizations, and by frequent check-ups by council representatives on scholarship re- ports, that the general scholarship of the school is improved. Others report that an advance in scholarship was noted immediately upon the establishment of a chapter of the National Honor Society. Lack of participation in activities A general complaint was entered that some students do not partici- pate in any activities. One council is trying to banish this problem by holding contests between classes to see which class participates in the most activities. Another means employed is that of requiring a certain number of points for graduation to be obtained through participation in extra-curriculum activities. This does not enjoy wide popularity be- cause it forces participation in activities in which pupils should engage spontaneously. 1940 | How Prostems Are Bene Sotvep Efficient representatives Getting representatives who are able to give good reports in the home room concerning council business is an acute problem in more than one school. The solution to this problem may lie in setting up in all home rooms uniform requirements for candidacy to hold office; but a more promising procedure is to send each home room a mimeographed set of secretary’s notes of each council meeting. These notes are an aid to faltering representatives and also a check on the interpretation of the council’s legislation given in the home room. Giving publicity to work done by council Many councils experience difficulty in making known council actions to the student body. Besides the reports of the representatives to the home rooms, classes, or other elective units, publicity is obtained by post- ing mimeographed copies of reports on all bulletin boards. Other councils issue a flyer on which is placed a full report of the council meeting immediately after it has taken place. This also tends to correct any wrong impressions which may have been brought to the home room by the representative. The timely appearance of the school newspaper is always taken advantage of in bringing before the student body news of what has taken place in the council meeting. Other recent studies indicate that reports of home-room representatives, duplicate notices, and reports in the school paper are the principal methods of informing the student body of council action.! Lack of uniformity in enforcing rules Lack of uniformity on the part of teachers in enforcing the rules of the school, especially those with which the officials of the student council are chiefly concerned, causes embarrassment and dissatisfaction in more than one school. The greatest help comes through the enlistment by the council of the codperation of the principal in carrying out a campaign to integrate the efforts of the faculty in the enforcement of rules. The principal may call meetings of the faculty for the purpose of studying the constitution of the student government organization and of defining more clearly its powers and duties. General rules and regulations may be drawn up in concrete form and definite instructions may be given for their observance. The officers of the student council may be present at these conferences and take part in the discussions. In addition to these special sessions, a general education program may be carried on through the regular faculty meeting and the school newspaper. 1Patrick, H. E., Pupil Participation in School Administration and Government in 80 Secondary Schools, Unpublished Master of Arts Paper, p. 39, Dept. of Educ., Univ. of Chicago, 1938. Drewry, opus cit., p. 153. Poole, opus cit., p. 62. 118 StupENT-Councit HanpBook | March Too much work for one sponsor Sponsors of junior high-school student councils find that the pupils are too young to carry on without a great deal of guidance. They are handicapped by a lack of sufficient time for one sponsor to work with so many on such a range of activities as the council initiates and to see each enterprise through as completely as is desirable. Some schools provide more teacher assistance for the sponsor; others make provision in the constitution of the student government for the election of as many sponsors as experience has proved that the council actually needs. Interschool relations Any question pertaining to the relationship of a school with other schools is best referred to an Interschool Relations Committee, usually composed of student-council members and at least one faculty member. A representative of this committee may meet with the representatives of other schools in Interschool Relations conferences. Such a committee may improve interscholastic athletic relationships in many schools. Parliamentary procedure One sponsor complained that the ignorance of students in parliamen- tary procedure has held up progress. Others said they were seriously . handicapped in their meetings by a lack of knowledge of parliamentary practice. One sponsor called the council members together for special instruction and practice in parliamentary procedure at times other than the regular business meetings. In another school the principal requires all English classes to devote a certain amount of time to the study of parliamentary law for the benefit of prospective and present student- council members. In one school a teacher of English has charge of the Presidents’ Club—all home-room presidents; another has the Secretaries’ Club. Each club has worked out a set of rules for the use of its officer members. These were labeled “Duties of a President” and “Duties of a Secretary,” and were printed on small cards by the printing class. Some time during the student-council meeting is given to the study of these cards. Many councils stated that they are guided by Robert’s Rules of Order. While this is the standard authority in matters of parliamentary procedure, itis too complicated for most junior and senior high-school students. It is invaluable for use in settling disputes or for specific reference, but such books as Jones: Parliamentary Procedure at a Glance; Leigh: Modern Rules of Parliamentary Procedure; Reeves: Parliamentary Procedure; ot Roberts: Primer of Parliamentary Law, are better for ordinary usage. Wearing of unearned pins and emblems This seems to be a widespread habit, and one that is often difficult 1940 | How Proscems Are Beinc Sotvep 119 to curb without resorting to drastic measures. Some student councils find that talks in roll rooms and assemblies against borrowing emblems are sufficiently effective. Others penalized the owner of the pin by taking him out of the organization or by recalling the pin. Attendance recording In small schools where the membership of the council is correspond- ingly limited, this presents no problem. However, some of the larger councils find that it is a problem, especially when the time for the meeting is so short that none of it can be spared for such detail work. Under the plan of having each member write his name and hand it in to be checked later against the membership list, it was found that frequently a member would also hand in the name of a friend who was absent. To forestall this trick, several clerks are appointed to take the attendance. Usually the members are seated alphabetically in rows. One clerk takes charge of an assigned number of rows, or of just one row. By sitting in front facing the members they are able to perform this necessary routine without consuming valuable time. Miscellaneous Such problems as the necessity for a longer lunch period, difficulties in sponsoring the annual, the selection of projects that provide citizen- ship training for many, enforcing the constitution and bylaws, respect for school property, lack of courtesy, smoking on school premises, par- tiality of the patrol group, keeping the recreation room running in a manner to attract students to it, trying to please outsiders who usually object to anything the student council does, and taking charge of lockers, bicycle traffic, reservation of seats for plays and the like, are very real problems but of a local nature. Most of them are best handled by special committees. Requests for adequate tennis courts, additional space, and alterations or repairs on buildings or grounds should be properly presented through the administrators to the board of education. If the board is unable to grant these requests, but con- cedes that they are reasonable and appropriate, then, and only then, is a student council justified in attempting, through other means, to secure these benefits. A few problems were presented for which no solution has been offered. In this category are found the difficulty of instituting a proper systeni of checks on the work of student representatives and committees appointed by the student president, lack of discussion before voting, too many disciplinary problems that are entrusted to the student council, the difficulty of arriving at a fair rating in citizenship, and the feeling of competition and antagonism that often exists between various groups —such as the music department and the athletic department. Stupent-Councit HanpBook | March Ideas for the solution of these problems and others not mentioned in this list may be obtained by keeping in touch with other student councils, and finding out about their problems and how they are attempt- ing to meet them. This may be done through the medium of round- table discussions and personal contacts at meetings of the local student- council association. Cuapter VIII STUDENT-COUNCIL ASSOCIATIONS AND CONVENTIONS The development of organizations As organized student participation in school government has become more general, local organizations of student councils have begun to spring up in many parts of the country. Most of these associations were not formed in accordance with any system except that of convenience and proximity. Many large cities have a league of the councils of their own high schools; others include those of suburban high schools as well. Sometimes the councils of one county form a unit; again, three or four counties are combined to form an association. Some areas of the United States are well organized; others have no associations whatever. Some of the states have effected state organizations and have readjusted district boundaries to conform with those of the teachers’ associations. In other cases a state association has been perfected without any district or sub- sidiary associations, or with only one or two isolated local organizations. One state has two state organizations, one having been organized, apparently, without knowledge of the existence of the other. Observation furnishes convincing evidence that the local association is most important to the individual council. Although hundreds of councils operate successfully without the support afforded by affiliation with other councils, there can be no doubt that the inspiration received from meeting with others having like interests, the interchange of ideas and devices in the mechanics of student government, and the discussion of mutual problems, infuses a zest and enthusiasm in the participating delegates of incalculable value, to the individuals and to their councils. Recognizing the importance of this influence, some schools send all the members of the council, instead of three or four delegates, to the con- vention of the local association. Ordinarily this can be managed without great difficulty or expense. Many principals who have sent delegates to local student-council association meetings give unqualified endorsement to local sessions where schools having the same sort of environment and conditions and much the same sort of problems may easily meet for the exchange of ideas and for mutual encouragement and inspiration. Are conventions desirable? Thefe is serious question in the minds of many thoughtful school administrators of the value of state and national conventions of student- council officers or student leaders. But such conventions, unfortunately, are here. Probably this is to be expected, because the council is a recent addition to the extra-curriculum family, not yet under the direction of the organized high-school principals. Just so the National Basketball 121 122 Srupent-CounciL HANbDBooK {| March Tournament was held in an earlier decade before high-school principals objected. At the present time many school administrators would be willing to abolish state basketball tournaments or state championships in football, where they exist, were it not that the state association often needs the proceeds of championship games to finance its activities. No such difficulty is involved in the abolition of state or national meetings of student-council officers. Consequently, it would be well for principals to organize local meetings for student-council members rather than let the larger organizations flourish. And it is advisable that the state officers of principals’ associa- tions and the officers of the National Association of Secondary-School Principals take cognizance of the growth of state and national move- ments for student-council officers. Too frequently state or national organizations for various extra-curriculum activities, except for athletic contests, are not controlled by the responsible school administrators. Even though the persons in charge are well meaning and often are competent, anyone cognizant with the haphazard conditions under which state and national conferences or contests in non-athletic extra-curriculum activities are conducted will heartily support their incorporation into the activities sponsored by the school administrators. That they are not now controlled by the professional group is an indication that other groups than the administrators have seen the educational possibilities of such contests or meetings. It is not, however, beyond the realm of possibility that aggres- sive persons have called meetings or arranged extra-curriculum contests on a state-wide or national basis to enhance personal prestige. It is hoped that the state and national organizations of principals will soon assume their duties in controlling all extra-curriculum activities as they now control athletics. In order to show how rapidly student-council organizations have grown, the authors have included descriptions of all that have come to their attention, in the hope that the magnitude of the growth will stimulate action. ORGANIZATIONS Student councils in Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Massachusetts, Minne- sota, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin are organized in local and state associations in addition to being affliated with regional associations. Illinois has a very systematic organization. The state is divided into six districts, each of which is thoroughly organ- ized and is part of the state association. Each district holds a convention timed with reference to the state meeting. In some of the districts where the number and proximity of the councils make it expedient, local groups have been formed as feeders to the district association. The 1940 | StuDENT-CounciL ASSOCIATIONS AND CONVENTIONS 123 officers of the Illinois Association of Student Councils have issued a directory that is complete, helpful, and informative. Some of the smaller states have just as complete organization, but do not find division into districts necessary for efficiency or convenience. Because of the short traveling distances, their state conventions are within reach of all councils. Delaware is one of these. New Jersey has both local and state associations, but no systematic district organization. Rhode Island has two state associations, one for the senior high-school student councils and one for the junior high-school student councils. Student councils in Arkansas, Florida, Idaho, Kansas, Michigan, North Carolina, Oregon, Texas, and Utah all have state associations. Some have district and local associations also, but these states as a whole are not so completely organized as those previously mentioned. Kansas has within the past few months completed a state organization. Oklahoma completed her state organization in 1937-38. In addition to four districts and the state association for the secondary-school student councils, Oklahoma has an Oklahoma College Federation of Student Councils. Michigan is just perfecting a state organization which is to be subdivided into eight regions following the divisions of the Michigan State Teachers’ Association. Heretofore, Michigan has been well organized in some areas while other sections offered no opportunity for local affiliations. Incidentally, Michigan scnools are among the highest in percentage of councils in relation to the number of schools of any state in the Union. The new system of district organizations will be especially beneficial if placed under the direction of the State Association of Secondary-School Principals. The Inter-High-School Student Council of Grand Rapids (which also includes those of Holland, Grand Haven, and Muskegon), the Detroit Metropolitan Area of Student Councils, and the Border Cities League of Southeastern Michigan have been giving service in the more populous districts. In Ohio city organizations take care of the metropolitan areas, but the state at large is unorganized. Ohio, too, has a high percentage of individual councils. In New York state only New York City enjoys the advantages of a local federation. In both of these states many individual councils have inquired about local organizations. These in- quiries the National ‘Association of Secondary-School Principals has been unable to answer. Arizona and California each have district associations, but no report has been received of a state association. Most of the councils in Con- necticut seem to be served by the Robert H. Earley Memorial League of Student Councils in the Housatonic Valley. 124 StupENT-Councit HanpBook | March The Northwest Federation of Student Councils Although Iowa does not have local student-council associations, many of the councils in the northern part of the state belong to the Northwest Federation of Student Councils, and those in the southwestern portion of the state are members of the Central States Federation of Student Councils. The Northwest Federation includes almost one hundred per cent of the Student Councils in Minnesota; those of North and South Dakota that are to any degree affiliated are in this Federation. The Central States Federation of Student Councils In 1928, led by Central High School, St. Joseph, Missouri, eleven high schools in Northwest Missouri originated the Central States Federa- tion of Student Councils. This federation has taken the place of a state association in Missouri. The Northwest District Association still persists, and is the only district organization functioning in Missouri. A great many councils in Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, and Oklahoma also belong to the Central States Federation. The membership in this organization is changeable and is determined largely by the location of the convention city. The Southern Association of Student Government The Southern Association of Student Government serves the student councils of the Southern states in much the same way that the Central States Federation and the Northwest Federation serve in their respective regions. Delegates from fourteen states attend the convention of the Southern Association. With the exception of Arkansas, Texas, North Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia, none of the states have organi- zations of their own. The authors, it may be repeated, are not in favor of such conventions. They feel that all the benefits can be derived from local, or at most, state meetings. Student Leaders’ Conference The state of Washington is without local associations, but some of the councils send delegates directly to the convention of the National Association, which is always held at the same time and place as that of the National Education Association. The University of Washington holds a Student Leaders’ Conference in connection with the Yakima Valley Student Conference at the university each fall. Practically every high school of any size in the state sends one or more representatives to this conference for the purpose of obtaining worth-while ideas and suggestions for improving school spirit and developing student enter- prises within the school. The Student Cooperative Association Virginia is another state with a complete and systematic organization. It is known as the Student Codperative Association, and is unique in 1940 | STUDENT-CouNcIL AssOcIATIONS AND CONVENTIONS 125 the fact that its existence was made possible through the codperation of the president of the Codperative Education Association with Chief Justice Taft of the United States Supreme Court, in securing the necessary funds from Elihu Root, then president of the Carnegie Foundation. The plan includes county or city, district, and state organizations. Permanent headquarters are maintained at Richmond. The Virginia Codperative Education Association, the Virginia Branch of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, has published a Guidebook for the Student Coéperative Association that deserves special mention. The New England Regional Association The Associated Body ,of Student Councils is the New England regional association. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut have strong associations of their own, but quite a number of the councils of the remaining New England States are rather loosely associated in this regional organization. The Territorial High-School Student Government Association In the faraway Hawaiian Islands the Territorial High-School Student Government Association operates quite the same as the regional associa- tions in the United States. No reports have been received to the effect that councils in the District of Columbia, Maine, Maryland, Montana, Nevada, and Wyoming have any affliations. CONVENTIONS Time If student-council conventions are to be of value, they must be held early in the fall. Local conventions are usually held early in October. State meetings, when they are held, are held later in October or in November. The three major regional associations, the Northwest Federation of Student Councils, the Federation of Student Councils of the Central States, and the Southern Association of Student Government, all hold their conventions in the autumn, usually in October. Councils which send delegates to these meetings plan their local conventions to avoid conflict with the regional meeting. The exact date for the convention of the Central States Federation is always set by the school with which the Federation is meeting. Because of this uncertainty of the exact date, the state meetings are scheduled very late in the season, generally about the middle of December. In Virginia the Student Codperative Association, both secondary- school and elementary-school branches, hold district meetings simul- taneously just previous to the state convention. The Illinois convention is planned especially to articulate with the [ March 126 SrupENT-CounciL HanpBook national convention which is always held the first week in July at the time and place that the National Education Association is meeting. The district and state meetings all occur in the spring, but are timed to avoid conflicts. Often the same speakers are desired for several of the district meetings, and when this is the case the dates are arranged accordingly. Place The meeting place of all student-council conventions, district, state, and regional, is changed from year to year so as to give a large number of schools opportunity to serve as host, and in order to furnish the stimulus to more. effective work that should follow such an experience. Delegates The most popular method of selecting delegates to conventions is selection by the council itself. The number of student councils which follow this procedure is almost equalled by those whose constitutions provide that the chief officers of the council shal! always be the official delegates. Others qualify the appointments still further by requiring that the delegates be Seniors or upperclass members. The only other method of selection is popular election by the entire student body. In some schools this method is used in selecting delegates to all conventions, and in others only for the state or regional convention. Other methods employed are: Appointment by the sponsor, by the president of the student organization, by the executive committee, by the president and sponsor in collaboration, by the school administration, by the principal and sponsor, and by the social science faculty. Often the delegates are volunteers who can defray their own expenses. More than half of the councils pay all expenses of delegates from student-council funds; less than seven tenths of one per cent of the delegates are obliged to pay their own way. Next to the student-council funds comes the general school-activity fund as the source of supply for council delegates. In a few schools the entire student body pays dues for the support of the student government. From this fund convention expenses of delegates are drawn. There are also several plans in use for the division of expenses, such as: the fee is paid by the council, personal expenses by the delegate; the council pays one half and the delegate one half; the council pays the traveling expenses, the delegate pays the rest; and, the council pays one half and the school administration the other half. If a school sends delegates, it should defray the necessary expenses. Suggestions for convention programs If the school is to sponsor a student-council convention or send delegates to one, the sponsor should see that the program is of maximum Wi car! Pro vent dents ( I I and C I I 1940 | STUDENT-CouNCcIL AssocIATIONS AND CONVENTIONS benefit. The suggestions on local council conferences listed below were received from schools in 1939. They are given, without comment, for such use as local conferences may wish to make of them in planning for study groups. A timely suggestion that might well be heeded by the newly-elected officers of the convention is this: Frequent meetings of those officers who are planning the convention should be held instead of relying upon correspondence. Planning the program Send a questionnaire to all councils in the region served to find out the type of program most needed. Try to prepare programs that are of interest to all schools, instead of just a few. If junior high-school councils send delegates to the conference, be sure that part of the program is planned to fit the needs of junior high schools. The program should be so arranged that all schools may take part in the dis- cussion if they so desire. Begin plans early—months before the convention date. Give ample notice of convention dates. And send programs to councils of your area not be- longing to the assceciation. Length of the conference Give more time to the convention: two days, or parts of two days; the convenuon attempts to accomplish too much in too little time; in order to allow time for dis- cussion after each presentation, and in order to grant a little time for the delegates to see what the host town is like, the convention should be held longer than one day. (This is probably true if the conference is held but once a year; if held more frequently less time is needed.) Housing the conference Keep the meetings confined to one building or within a small area; attendance will be better. Give attention to acoustics; if the acoustical qualities of the high-school auditor1um are poor, try to arrange for the larger meetings to be held elsewhere. If no public-address system is available, be careful to choose speakers with clear, carrying voices, so that the delegates can hear what is going on. Program details Don't crowd too many events into a day’s program. Let's let councils make their programs—too many adults are dominating con- ventions. Make the program fulfill the purpose of the association. Programs should be as natural as possible. Prepare a program which includes a few experienced adults, and in which stu- dents have the major part. Make the formal part of the programs short; allow time for student participation. Confine programs to real council needs. Intersperse program with human-interest talks. Emphasize various recreational programs for students, such as Youth Hostel, Boy and Girl Scouts, Girl Reserves, and Hi-Y. Have a specific program, well organized, and begin on time. Be sure to have students active in all programs. 128 StupENT-CounciL HanpBook | March Discussions Have discussions that will give to students the importance of right attitudes and the value of making early blue prints of their lives. Vary the discussion groups enough to keep them in small numbers. Give opportunity for small round-table discussion of pertinent questions. Have a discussion of school dances. (Should be determined by local conditions.) Have as many and as well-prepared programs of the open-forum type as possible. Discuss the topics more thoroughly; include in the discussion several topics of diversified interest so that an inclusiveness may be developed. One topic of discussion which should always be included: “How can the council get the student body as a whole to take a more active part in the school government?” Have new and different discussion problems; keep to the point in discussion groups; a large school should not enter into discussion against a small school; suggestions may solve problems of the small school but not of the large. The most helpful part of a convention proved to be the round-table discussion in which four students each led a fifteen-minute period on one topic assigned to him. Many student discussions are not clear on assignments and repeat the same things. Hold a discussion of the place of councils in a junior high school or intermediate school. Discuss more suitable ways for student discipline—various punishments. Discuss problems that are most common in high schools, such as hall and building rules, assembly conduct, point system, finances, and minor problems. Arrange a discussion on the question, “Just how much power should a student council have?” Discuss fundamental principles rather than incidental details. Discuss the topic—‘Codperation Between Schools and Home-Room Activities.” Discuss limitations in the program of the student council; definite limits should be set covering the subjects which they may consider. Permit delegates to ask questions at the end of each session. Demonstration meetings and assemblies Give a demonstration council meeting. An assembly given by members of the school at which the convention is held will give the delegates ideas for their own assemblies. Hold classes for delineation of student-council duties and those of student officers. Give as many demonstrations as possible to show how problems are handled in meetings. Portray actual student-council meetings, illustrating techniques; portray an election campaign; illustrate installation ceremonies. Practical Suggestions Provide practical suggestions and show how to adapt them to varying loca! conditions. The treasurer of the association should automatically be elected from the host school; a spring meeting of the association officers and the host school is invaluable. Keep in touch with the national headquarters; follow parliamentary procedure; study of speech is essential. Explanations of actual practices should be given. Act very slowly so that actions will not have to be rescinded. Give specific suggestions as to what student councils can do with profit to the NM hool. Present a wide variety of activities carried on by working councils which exemplify school service, motive, and action, 2 SIZE fror Spe one coun give schoc talks. out s 1940 | STuDENT-CouNcIL AssocIATIONS AND CONVENTIONS 129 Have less presentation of facts and accomplishment which actually are only wishful thinking; less theory and more presentation of practical, everyday, detailed problems and their solution. Try to secure the cooperation of all near-by student councils. Reports should be reasonably brief. Stress mainly the need of good student government that the future citizens of America will realize and be prepared for their duties, Briefer speeches by adults, Draw definite lines between the power of the principal or the office and the student council. Often more time is spent in arguing the points of parliamentary law than in solving the problems of the different councils. Give definite suggestions for student councils which only participate in student government. Delineate the functions of the student council; have talks on the promotion of school spirit and student codperation, student control of study halls, student financing of extra-curriculum activities, student participation in assembly programs, student traffic- control problems, and student participation in home-room activities. Have a box into which anyone can drop questions on problems various organiza- tions have; then devote one session to reading these questions to the assembly and asking how these problems have been solved in the schools; if they have not been solved, perhaps suggestions can be offered on how they might be solved. Strive for clearness on the subject of the legal responsibility of the school board, and its responsibility that cannot be delegated; make a distinction between advisory council and legal responsibility. Forget about self-government and stress pupil participation in government. Include a complete schedule of events; consider the subject of assemblies—what kind and when to hold them. Section meetings Be sure to provide plenty of sectional meetings where students may participate Have each council represented in a particular part of the convention. Programs should be carefully prepared for representatives of schools of different sizes—discussion groups for delegates from schools whose enrollments are up to 250; from 250 to 500; etc. (This suggestion was received from a number of schools.) There should be an organized meeting for sponsors. Speakers and leaders Use extra care in selecting speakers. Don't have too many adult speakers. Guard against leaders being at a loss of what to do. Have student participation—not faculty; limit adult speakers to not more than for each session. (This suggestion was repeated many times.) Provide good speakers who know more of the practical working out of student councils rather than the theoretical or book theory. ‘Leaders should secure comments from students. Discussion-group leaders should not dominate their groups, but they should only give direction to and aid to carry on discussions; eliminate over-participation by one school. Convention-program officers should have outstanding student speakers give general talks. Limit the time of each speaker in panel discussions, thus eliminating long drawn- out speeches; allow no interference whatsoever in panel discussions by faculty members. 130 StupENT-Counci, HanpsBook [March Consider size of schools Do not allow the larger schools to railroad things through meetings; give the smaller schools a chance. (The idea expressed in this suggestion was repeated more frequently than any other.) Registration and entertainment Registration should be well planned; a good meal is a necessity. The social and entertainment portion of the program should be curtailed or climinated. Have better entertainment for those who do not dance. See that all delegates of different schools get to know each other; see that the convention runs smoothly. At banquets and dinners have only one speech, and let that one be interesting and brief. The authors are among a considerable number of school people who feel that national conventions of student-council representatives are unnecessary and undesirable. But such meetings will continue, even though with small attendance, until such time as the organized school administrators take control of all extra-curriculum activities. They will then stop this practice as they stopped the National Basketball Tourna- ment for public high schools. So far as could be ascertained the organi- zations and conventions for student-council officers are not now under the control of state associations of high-school principals. It is to be hoped that the organized school masters will not neglect their duties to the non-athletic extra-curriculum activities, including the council. CuHaPTerR IX THE ORGAN FOR STUDENT COUNCILS AND STUDENT-COUNCIL INSIGNIA Student Life In the summer of 1937 the National Association of Secondary- School Principals, then known as the Department of Secondary-School Principals, took over the management of the magazine, Student Leader, the organ of student government organizations in the schools. Student Leader was then merged with a new magazine, Student Life, to serve as the joint organ of student councils and the National Honor Society. In addition to becoming the organ of these two important bodies, Student Life aimed, from the beginning, to serve all legitimate high-school organizations as well as the general student body. The student council and the chapter of the National Honor Society are not competitive organizations. As a matter of fact, quite the contrary is the case. In a great many high schools it is the student council which takes the initiative in securing the establishment of a chapter of the National Honor Society. The endeavors of the two organizations are so articulated that it is fitting that both should be served by the same periodical. Descriptions of activities and other material appearing in Student Life for the benefit of student councils are often just as useful for chapters of the National Honor Society, and vice versa. During the first year of its existence Student Life was composed of departments in charge of a board of editors, each of whom wrote the articles in his own particular field. Gradually the work of the editors was replaced by student-written contributions until now the magazine is almost entirely the work of pupils in secondary schools. It occupies a unique position in the field of magazines devoted to the service of high-school students; the encouragement accorded youthful contributors is proving to be very valuable. Not only does Student Life welcome well-written articles by student authors, but it is also anxious to receive clear-cut, glossy-finished photographs of student activities, thus providing an incentive to the amateur high-school photographer. One of the mafazine’s chief charms is its collection of interesting pictures in each issue. Student Life has been increased from a sixteen-page to a twenty- four page periodical, whose scope now includes all basic student activities in secondary schools. New departments have been added to include original student compositions—essays, editorials, short stories, poems, plays, sections devoted to art and music, book reviews, student council 131 132 StupENT-Councit HanpBook | March and Honor Society news, and selected items from secondary-school news- papers representing nation-wide coverage of extra-curriculum activities in the schools. In its capacity as organ for student councils, Student Life provides a means of securing new ideas and new methods, and an exchange of devices and plans in the mechanics of student government that is especially useful to those councils that are not affiliated in local associa- tions. The inspiration which may be missed by non-attendance at the student-council convention can be captured by perusal of the pages of Student Life. The material published from month to month during the school year also supplements that received from conferences. Reports of conventions printed in the magazine are aids to those whose duty it is to plan the next year’s programs. Student Life is the regular channel of communication between the National Council of the National Honor Society and the local chapter. It performs a like service for the chapters of the National Honor Society as for the student councils in providing space for an exchange of ideas, accounts of original induction exercises and chapter activities, and reports of meetings. The subscription price of Student Life is so low that it is within the reach of any high-school organization. Although a single subscription for any one not connected with the National Association of Secondary- School Principals, the National Honor Society, or the student council costs one dollar a year, members of the above organizations may secure a subscription for fifty cents. The magazine is issued eight times a year, from October to May inclusive, but subscriptions entered at any time will continue until eight numbers have been received. The Emblem Sixty-nine per cent of the student councils who responded to the May, 1939, questionnaire of the National Association of Secondary-School Principals gave no recognition of officers or members by means of emblems or insignia of any sort. Many principals and sponsors hold the opinion that it would be unwise to do so. They believe that even in the larger schools it would create antagonism. In some of the small schools having close fellowship among the students and an_ intimate relationship between members and non-members of all organizations, and between students and faculty, it was felt that emblems for student- council members would be out of place. Here, again, is another matter which cannot be decided for a school by an outsider. Local background and conditions must determine the course of action. On the other hand, several of the councils included in the sixty-nine 1940 | OrGAN FoR STUDENT CouNCILs AND INSIGNIA 133 per cent are contemplating the adoption of an emblem. They have come to the conclusion that the display of insignia would create respect for the student council. Of the remaining schools which awarded emblems or permitted the purchase of them, thirty-two per cent chose pins as the insignia; nineteen per cent gave badges; seventeen per cent furnished badges or arm bands for the traffic squads only; thirteen per cent provided buttons; twelve per cent, arm bands; five per cent awarded a gavel to the president; one per cent awarded pins with bars added for service; and one per cent gave keys. Various forms of insignia Some schools provide emblems for the use of all members of the student council while in service, and the emblems are returned to the school when the period of service is ended. Some provide emblems after a certain period of service has been given by the members. In the latter case it is usual for the emblems to be retained permanently by those qualifying for them. Other schools furnish emblems which may be purchased by the students if they wish to do so. These emblems may be designed for local use or they may be the pins made for the North- west Federation of Student Councils or the National Association. In some schools badges or school letters are worn by the council members the first week of school and on special occasions. The wearing of these may be limited to guides or hall patrols. Arm bands frequently carry the school letter and are furnished with service stripes to show whether the wearer is a Senior, Junior, Sophomore, or Freshman. It is customary in large schools for all council members, regardless of whether or not they wear emblems, to carry identification cards which must be tendered upon entering the council meeting. The office of the executive secretary of the National Association of Secondary-School Principals supplies a national student-council emblem. This emblem, the helmet of a knight, was selected as sym- bolic of the ideals and purposes of student government. In the days of chivalry the knight was the chief protector of society and represented such traits as self-control, leadership, courtesy, and service to others. In the school the position of the student-council member is somewhat comparable to that of the knight of chivalry. He works for the good of the school- cOmmunity and serves as its protector against undesirable influences. The emblem is a ten-karat gold-filled pin, and sells for one dollar. It may be purchased by any member of a student council anywhere in the United States or territories, providing that the sponsor of the council or the principal of the school vouches for the authenticity of the member- ship of: the purchaser. CHAPTER X ‘STUDENT-COUNCIL FINANCES Most secondary-school administrators have no direct contact with the financial problem of providing and allocating funds for the main- tenance of the regular courses of instruction in the secondary school. The management of these monetary affairs is properly the business of the board of education (or school committee) and the superintendent of schools. However, when it comes to providing money for the main- tenance of extra-curriculum activities, the principal usually carries the entire burden, although the sponsors, who are, almost without exception, members of the teaching staff, share the financial worries. Seldom does he receive direct appropriations for the operation of activities. Participation of the student council in the handling of all financial matters connected with the extra-curriculum activities of a school pro- vides actual business opportunities. By this means pupils gain experience in making budgets, keeping accounts, establishing and operating school banks,'! earning and disbursing money (and sometimes investing a surplus), auditing, making financial statements, printing and _ selling tickets, making change, checking gate receipts, rendering secretarial service, and finally, the balancing of receipts in the budgets. Governments are supported by taxation; in exceptional cases student governments have been known to feel that they are acting within their rights in levying a tax on each member of the student body. Size and selection of schools Nearly a quarter (24 per cent) of the schools which answered the questionnaire sent out in May replied that the council had responsibility for the extra-curriculum funds. Since this information alone was in- adequate, a supplementary one-page questionnaire was sent to the 361 schools which answered in May and to 139 other schools which have councils. Of the 500 questionnaires on finance, sent out in January, 1940, 376 usable replies, or 75 per cent of the total, were received in time to be included in the tabulation. Of the 376 which were tabulated, 221 had answered the questionnaire sent out in May. It should be noted that the information contained in this chapter is based on a somewhat different sampling of schools from those used in the rest of the Bulletin. It is not claimed that the information presented in this chapter is average practice, but that it represents the actual practice in the 376 schools whose replies were tabulated. That this sample is not representative of all high schools in the United States is attested by the median school size, 850. The enrollment of these schools ranges from 35 to 8,580. 1An account of how a school bank is operated is given by Mary Ann Allen of Champaign, I}linois, in Student Life, October, 1939. 134 1940 | StupENT-CounciL Finances TABLE XIX ScHooL ENROLLMENT OF 376 ScHoots WuHicH ANSWERED THE QUESTION- NAIRE ON STUDENT-CoOUNCIL FINANCES SIZE OF 99 100- 200- 500- 1000- . 5000 SCHOOL OR LESS 199 499 999 1999 OR MORE NO. OF : SCHOOLS 10 16 89 104 67 PERCENT- ' aa 3% 4% 2204 2% 18% 2% Range in size of schools, 35—8580 Median size of school, 850 Size of councils The number of members in the council ranged from less than ten to more than roo. In general the schools with large enrollments had the larger councils, especially when representation on the council was furnished by a member from each home room, but this was by no means universally true. For example, one school enrolling 2000 pupils has 9 council representatives; another enrolling 3400 has 14; one enrolling over 4300 has 24 council representatives. Certainly councils which contain less than 30 members are likely to be much more effective than large councils. However, it is difficult to see how the average pupil could feel that he was represented in a council which had less than one representative for 200 pupils. In large schools it is not an infrequent practice to have a council of over 100 members, one elected from each home room, and to choose an executive committee which makes recom- mendations to the larger body which then modifies, ratifies, or rejects the proposals. TABLE XX Size oF 349 CouncILs SIZE OF 9 10- 20- 30- 100 COUNCIL OR LESS 19 29 39 OR MORE NO. OF 9: Oo wa : on COUNCILS | 23 123 76 38 29 14 PERCENT- - axe r ‘ pas 7% 35% 22% 36 11% 8% 4% Median size of council, 24 Largest council, 160 Does the council control extra-curriculum funds? Of the 376 schools whose replies were tabulated, 283, or 75 per cent, 136 StupENT-Councit HaNnpBook [ March said that the student council collected some money for its purposes;* twenty-five per cent indicated that the council had collected no money, whatsoever. It is somewhat difficult to see how the councils having no financial responsibility could exert any significant influence on the life of the school. At least a council should have access to small sums with which to defray its legitimate expenses. On the other hand, 89, or 24 per cent of 371, schools which answered the question, “Does the counci! determine budget appropriations for each organization,” (in the school) indicated that the council had legislative contro! of all extra-curriculum funds. This does not mean that the pupils actually disbursed the funds nor did the routine accounting any more than does the federal congress or a state legis- lature. But they did control the appropriation of money, and were gaining experience in dealing with public funds, including proper financial accounting. In addition they are subjected to the pressure groups in the schools which desire more than the funds available will allow. Principals who have delegated legislative control of the extra-curriculum funds to the student council feel that the responsibility is an excellent experience for adolescents. They report that student councils, in many instances, resist pressure even better than adults, and that nothing increases respect for, and prestige of, the council as having the right to apportion funds to all organizations in the school. /f the council is to serve as the center of the extra-curriculum activities in the school, and the evidence in the earlier chapters shows that is its major function, then the council should have legislative control of all extra-curriculum funds. It is encouraging to note that approximately one fourth of the schools which answered this question have found the practice worthy and practicable. Comments on many of the questionnaires indicate that many more schools are contemplating such a step. Although there are no research data to warrant the statement, observation indicates that the practice of allowing the council to have legislative control of school funds has developed within the decade. That these funds were properly accounted for will be demonstrated later. A student-council budget Below is a budget prepared for the New Trier Township High School at Winnetka, Illinois, by a committee of the council. One differ- ence between the New Trier budget and a typical one is that the board of education subsidized, in part, the expenditures for activities. There is every reason why the board should do so; the fact remains that ordinarily the activities must make their own financial way without official assistance. council had at its disposal. This indicates that in administrators had differentiated between collecting money *However, 317 mentioned a sum which the answering the two questions, 34 school by the council and having money available for the council. ban gyn $560: hour StuDENT-CouncIL FINANCES New Trier Township High School, Winnetka, Illinois ACTIVITIES FUND BUDGET FOR 1939-40 Summary 1938-39 1939-40 Athletic Association $2500 $2500 Contingency Fund 200 100 Debating Activities 200 200 Dramatic Club 750 750 Girls’ Athletic Association 50 25 800 800 1800 150 Expenditures — Inklings New Trier News Reserve $6325 Income — Ticket Sales Tri-ship Board $5125* 400 7i9 800 $6300 $6325 Athletic Association ($2500) For the year 1939-40 this committee suggests that the same amount be allotted as for the year 1938-39. The Athletic Department asked for an increase over the 1938-39 allotment but this committee does not see how this increase can be granted due to the lack of sufficient funds. However, this committee feels that $2500 will be adequate since the athletic department receives about $400 from the gate receipts at the Evanston football game at Dyche Stadium as well as other gate receipts. Debating Activities ($200) The committee recommends giving the Debate Club $200, the same amount as last year. We fully realize that they could use more but we do not feel that an increase is justifiable as the majority of the students at New Trier take no part or interest in de- bating. When the Debate Club has expanded its program by perhaps giving debates in assembly or in the evening, this committee believes that an increase might be con- sidered. Dramatic Club ($750) This year the Dramatic Club spent more money on larger programs and reserved tickets in order to encourage better audiences. They also started the Actors’ Guild which enables more students to participate in plays. These all have been successful. However, at the same time they have created an added expense. Yet we feel that the present budget is adequate. If this allotment of $750 proves to be inadequate, we suggest that the tickets and programs be mimeographed to reduce expense Girls’*Athletic Association ($25) The Girls’ Athletic Association has, at the present time, a large balance in the bank. It has very few expenses in the buying of equipment for they use all of the gym department’s materials. The Finance Committee feels that with the dues which *The enrollment of the school is 2650 pupils. Actually 2278 tickets were sold at $2.50 each, or $5695.00. Pupils may earn the activity ticket by furnishing service in the school at 30 cents per hour. 138 Stupent-Counci, HanpsBook [March G.A.A. collects and an addition of $25 from the activity ticket, the balance should be able to assume normal proportions. When this normality is reached or if more money is needed, the G.A.A.’s allotment from the activities fund will be increased. Inklings ($800) According to Mr. Peterson, the expenditures of Inklings for the year 1938-39 have been $360 and $440 for the first and second issues respectively. Thus Inklings has kept within its present allotment, so we think that this same amount, namely $800, will be ample for the year 1939-40. New Trier News ($1800) In order to function properly and produce the type of News comparable to the past editions, the committee believes that the New Trier News is entitled to the same allotment as given previously, that of $1809. Contingency Fund ($100) The Contingency Fund meets the expenses of the Student Council. It was origi- nally adopted so that a reserve could be formed in the treasury. However, this has never been used as a reserve which is a very desirable item. Thus the Financial Com- mittee recommends forming a special reserve fund and at the same time cutting down on the Contingency Fund. Reserve Fund ($150) The reserve fund is a new iten on our budget this year. The committee feels that some security must be available in case of a bad year financially, in the future. Barring any such mishap, in the course of several years we should have a sufficient reserve and at that time we can cease adding to it. Income-Ticket Sales (2050 at $2.50 each is $5125) For the year 1938-39 the number of activities tickets sold was 2070. Although this slightly exceeded the estimated number and in spite of the fact that the number in the Freshman class will increase next year, we believe that the financial condition will prevent increased sales for 1939-40. We therefore estimate that 2050 tickets will be sold at the same price, $2.50. Tri-ship ($400) The Tri-ship Club has agreed to make up any deficit to the extent of $400. Board of Education ($800) The Board of Education contributed $800 to the activities fund this year and we anticipate the contribution of the same amount for next year. Additional Recommendations This committee also endorses the recommendations of last year’s committee which have not been enforced, namely that a separate system of bookkeeping be set up in the registrar's office for the sole purpose of handling the activities funds. In connection with this we ask that no payments whatsoever be made from the activities fund be- fore the proper forms have been completely filled out. (We recommend also a separate cashier and we feel that this method will facilitate the keeping of accounts.) This committee recommends that the present requirement, that every person par- ticipating in activities financed by this fund should hold an activities ticket, be con- tinued to be rigidly enforced. Moreover, we feel that the Finance Committee should spend more time in check- ing the expenditures of the various organizations throughout the year and seeing that StupENT-CounciL FINANCES 1940] the budgets outlined are followed as closely as possible. (Signed) Marg Walker, Treasurer Sandy Mac Leish Betty Rosenheim Marilyn Hagan Aimee Wolff Periodic report of funds In order that pupils may know the condition of funds, periodic sum- mary reports are prepared and duplicated for posting in some schools so that every pupil who wishes may know the exact condition of any fund at regular intervals. This duty is ordinarily the responsibility of the school treasurer who is usually an adult. By way of illustration a part of the financial statement of the East Lansing (Michigan) High School Financial Report for November 30, 1939, is reproduced in part. East Lansing High School, East Lansing, Michigan HIGH SCHOOL ACTIVITIES — FINANCIAL STATEMENT As of November 30, 1939 FOOTBALL Expended Balance $ 5.00 $ Budget League Fee $ 5.00 Equipment Repairs Officiating Transportation 267.40 15.00 45.00 187.50 85 13.50 266.55 1.50 45.00 187.50 91 (over draft) 5.44 Letters 21.50 22.41 4.56 80.00 22.66 60.00 10.00 80.00 25.00 60.00 Cleaning and Laundry Guarantees Medical Supplies Meals 2.34 Total Boys’ Athletics 1,406.00 778.55 (including basketball, golf, tennis, track, and baseball) GIRLS’ ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION Awards Ceniad and Miscellaneous ORCHESTRA AND BAND Repair of Equipment Equipment Transportation Awards Cleaning “Contest Expenses OPERETTA Royalty Rentals - Costumes Tickets Stage Properties and Miscellaneous $ 28.50 $ 5.00 15.00 60.00 50.00 30.00 20.00 7.00 60.00 40.00 7.50 15.00 5.00 StrupENT-Councit HanpBookK AUDITORIUM Christmas program Easter program ] 20.00 20.00 Senior Assembly ( Miscellaneous - Speakers ) DECLAMATIONS, EXTEMPORE, ORATORY Sub-District Contest-Judges and Transportation 10.00 10.00 District Contest 10.00 10.00 Judges (Local) 5.00 5.00 Awards 6.00 6.00 Membership Fee 2.50 1.50 1.00 DEBATE Michigan Forensic League 1.50 1.50 Judges 20.00 10.00 10.00 Judges’ ‘Transportation 5.00 3.00 2.00 Team’s Transportation 65.00 42.71 22.29 Awards 7.00 7.00 TROJAN TRUMPET Typing, Equipment, Supplies 75.00 25.00 50.00 PARTIES Three Senior High Parties 75.00 75.00 Three Junior High Parties 75.00 16.66 58.34 MISCELLANEOUS Activities Tickets 12.00 9.75 2.25 Advertising 15.00 7.75 25 Activities Book Contest Prices 7.50 7.50 4.00 4.00 Activities Ticket Refunds (over draft) 2,160.50 919.93 1,240.57 Total A ppropriating balances If the council has legislative control of funds, it has the right to ap- propriate unneeded balances for reallocation to other activities or to appro- priate a percentage of receipts, especially from the prosperous organiza- tions which enjoy their affluence from their affiliation with the program of the school, in order to subsidize less fortunate activities or worthy activities which do not attract gate receipts. Of 357 schools which answered this question, 146, or 41 per cent, indicated that they followed this practice. Other evidence in the questionnaire indicates that the council is much more likely to appropriate balances of prosperous organizations than to levy a flat sum against, or a percentage of, receipts of activities. Whether or no these practices are followed will depend on the philosophy of the school administration. Without evidence the authors hazard the opinion that the practices are more prevalent than they were a decade ago. Should the council levy a tax? Only 31, or 9 per cent of the 360 schools which answered the ques- 1940] StupENT-CounciL FINANcEs 141 tion, indicated that the council levied a tax on pupils of the school. About one seventh of the schools in which the council has legislative control of the funds employed this practice. Some leaders in the field of secondary- schoo! administration feel that the student council must have the right to levy a tax if it is really a government. School administrators in the field simply have not taken to the idea. In all probability this is due to their con- ception of the council as student participation rather than student gov- ernment. In addition, there is also the practical consideration whether or not any group has the legal right to collect a tax on any pupil who is attending a free secondary school. The activity ticket During recent years there has been a tendency to sponsor an activity ticket which entitles pupils to attend all, or participate in many of, the school’s activities. In some schools the activity ticket admits to all athletic contests, furnishes a subscription to the school newspaper and annual, ad- mits to school dramatic productions, furnishes funds for class parties, and subsidizes all the activities in the school. In other schools season tickets for athletics are available. The main benefits claimed for the activity ticket are that it interests large numbers of pupils in all activities, guarantees good attendance at all functions, subsidizes the activities which ordinarily have little support, enables each activity to know early in the year how much money it will have for operating, and obviates the necessity for several drives or campaigns to support the paper, yearbook, etc. Once the activity ticket has been sold there is no further cause for selling campaigns dur- ing the year. One hundred fifty-four, or forty-two per cent, of the 371 schools which answered this question indicated that the school employed the activity ticket; many indicated that the council sponsored the sale. This is certainly a concrete project which the council may sponsor—and part of the extra-curriculum program. It meets the specifications for a worthy student-council project. Seventy-six per cent of the schools in which the council had legislative control of extra-curriculum moneys indicated that the council sponsored an activity ticket. It is to be expected that the activity ticket would be used more extensively in those schools which had allowed the council legislative control of funds, because the council would feel its responsibility for finances and would logically turn to the activity ticket as a means of interesting a very large percentage of the student body in the active support of the program which the council sponsored. In 1935 the faculty of the Bloom Township High School, Chicago Heights, Illinois, investigated the activity ticket as a method of sub- sidizing extra-curriculum activities. Some pertinent findings from their study is included here for purposes of illustration.’ 1Unpublished data in duplicated form furnished by courtesy of the faculty of the Bloom Township High School, Chicago Heights, Illinois. 4 : Zz se S 2 rs 4 P n yoom Jad syuz> ¢7 pue juowAed uMmop s3ua9 9¢ SIANQIE SNOSUE]|9IsSTUI eseaas =pue sjJa2u0d qny> 2918 ~pue ‘pueq ‘enseyr1O yeded jooyss jo sonss] Cc] SoHAOU SAAEL Ol 9$a}U0) WI pe |[V SOMIANIE ZC JO [FOL jooyrs yStFy ory A2qqr] ‘op?|O.L sueow We Aq ‘sax SyPomM QI JO} yaem Jad sua ¢Z JO ‘yseD $1139U0D| dIsNyW ske[q sonaype [IV Jaded jooyss SI 4940199 910) -9q pied yt QQ'cg JO ‘sysom g¢ 10} yam sod syus> C] JOoyrs YsIPY sJOIUaS “‘Ziry ‘uosony Jenuuy [oops | saourqd ¢ Jaded jooyrs jo sanssy 9] somes jeqeyseg g soured jjeqiooy ¢ fesisny | qnjO MeweIqg Aq Aeig | ske]q sstjgQ 7 jooyrs YSIY [eNUaD “STA, ‘OSSOIDE'T woo awoy ut yoom Jad sjuz> OQ] pooy ARA 09"e$ saded j00y>s jenuuy ¢-—-tmous sawes = g—|[eqioyseg sowed g—|[eqI00.4 sox Joours YStEy sO1UaS “STAAL ‘NeSNE AY penunuoy oq TA [nyss209ng woaurkeg JO pomp asuodssy ud SSpapuUr a santAanry PLL son “Any SSauppY PUE jooIPS ‘sjooyrs ¢¢ By Jo UdazI1Y) Aq UaaId syNsaz ay) PrIst] ze MO[EPg “pepuodsas sfooyrs s2I2y3-AqyI,J “JooyrS Yysipy diysumoy woojg aya 3 xayTWIUWOD Aynoey & Aq UONEIDOsSsY [eUZD YUON] 2) JO suONdes [[B UI s[oOYyrs 0} INO JUIs JJaM SJ9NI2] INO}-AQjILy :210N LAMOLL SALLIALLOV LNAGALS dO NOLLVOLLSAANI AO SLTNSAY a 9 Z < g ic | o Zz 5 8 & Z | E na SYIOM Co JO} Yoo Jad sju99 Q] JO Yse> ¢7'¢¢) qwuow Jad sjus> ¢z pied ji S7'Z$ Joyseurss yea pred 71 ‘7H ‘OE “Wd9g Aq Yser Clg said Z yenuuy | sWsUWUIEWIDIUY SHAOW 02 Jaded jooyrs jo saidop 4] Qoow Surwuwims + sour yeIL Z soured [jeqayseq / soured |jeqNooy ¢ jooyrs YyStPY uNsny ‘uu ‘UQsny eatused ‘saduep ¢ ‘eByaJ2d0) qs20uU09 pueq ‘(‘Ig pur *i{) ‘skejd ssep> ‘ayjtaapnea ‘ajeq -op ‘sutzedeur ‘seded jooyps ‘qren ‘[eqeayseq ‘|jeqlooy oous YSIH{ sy[ey 1e2IH ‘wow; ‘s[je,y yesIH SYM (YF SJ JO} YIoAr Jod sua. Ol %06 Ud] [Ixy jenuue ydaoxs satance [Vy sweiZoid dIsnu [[V sansed jooyrs IV skeid TV $3S9JU0) NsuaI0} [|TV Saquissse pltd 8 Jaded jooyrs swaad Meape [[V "yaom jad ua? ij] JUSWI]eIsUT %06 pipuatds senrisdg 7 skid + *soded |JOoyss 03 UoORdIDsqns “14 | swu2A2 meIIPy OF SoA Jooyrs YSIE PuNEOsNW PMO] ‘sueosny jooys YS epoq 084 emo] ‘aspoq 1104 Taysso.9ng wuaurkeg JO pops asuodsoy mud sopnpuy wf sONANIV PLL on “AnD SIPPY PUE joo"IPS \ penunvod—LAXAOLL SALLIALLOV LNAGA.LS JO NOLLVOLLSHANI JO S.LTINSAY Pr S) ro} s a Zz = = ~~) z =) ° & B Zz ol a 5) B n pred jgun quow yowo JO AY IYI Ye syUDD (jc isvay_ 3B pue yuowAed uA\Op $qu3> OS IPI] ye 10 ysey Wa] ]}2 a | 00'rS SIUIAD JBAUIC] [|B JO} poory —Sulpssim pue yori] sowed |jeqoseg ()| sowed [jeqeyseg (| sowed jjeqiooy (| JEeyrIS ysipy Sururesy, penucyy ‘OJOD ‘I2AuEq “TE JO sus? YC JO syuoW -jeysut ul Aed Aew “| °2q a10joq 1Ie Ard 0) yeNUOD Joded jooyos ‘qns “34 | pue yooqivas jo Adod | osjy *sJUIAD (GC INOGe “Rd ‘sysa} -uod UONPIO *S9INQ39] “‘sayeq -ap ‘suoyonpoid jeoisnuy ‘shejd ‘syuaaa nape LV sluswed jenird Jo yseg pe Of) yseo JO syuowAed jeuseg pe »0f) SJUSWIUIEIQUS ayo ye uo SVUNOISIC] Jaded jooyss jenuuy EnIIadO sAvjd jooyrs 7 SWUIAD Way ||V Joours YSIE [eNUID PWIOYL/YO ‘esiny JOO—S YSIEZ wo OJOD ‘waAauIG] saljquiasse pieg weid0id ssny ssourMojiod yystu ‘shel sowed jjeqayseq woz, g si dYyILIy wo 2J-9UIOY oO) pied yon ke sud (| 0L°7$ sowed |jequooy awozy ¢ qewak | Jaded jooyrs YON jOoyrS YydPY ‘SUEY “EYAL Jaded jooy s sanss] /] sioquinu winadd7] 9 sawed |jeqyseg g soured [JeMmooy ¢ S ah JOourS YR jeu ‘OW ‘Neopseny adeg penunuo; [nyssa2ong yusudeg JO pompry asuodsay wud sSopnpUr W SMANdy PLL on “Andy AO SLTIASAY 1940} Strupent-CounciL Finances 145 Practices in schools which employ the activity ticket Just how such a ticket should be financed is a problem each individual school must settle for itself. Those who have tried the “ten cents a week” plan are enthusiastic about it. It must be emphasized, too, that a school may well use the activity ticket plan even though the council does not sponsor the ticket or have legislative control of extra-curriculum funds. The following account, furnished by G. N. Porter, principal of the Gar- field High School, Seattle, Washington, is illustrative. The activity ticket of Garfield High School Eight years ago I found that our school finances were in bad shape. It looked as though we should have a deficit of $750.00. I had just returned from the Superin- tendents’ and Principals’ meeting in Detroit and stopped in Omaha on my way home. I found a financial plan which I felt could be adapted to our needs in Garfield High School. In brief the plan is this: Each student who so desires at the beginning of the year signs a pledge card (a copy of which is enclosed) agreeing to pay ten cents a week for thirty-six weeks, for which he is to have admission to all athletic contests in which the school participates, freedom from class and club dues, he is to receive a copy of the school paper, which is now semi-weckly, he is to receive a copy of the school annual, which sells for a cash price of $1.50, he is to have admission also to all evening performances such as the Senior class production, the musical comedy, and the student revue. In fact, the $3.60 that he pays constitutes the cost of participation in the activities of the school for which money must be raised. We have just taken our pledges for 1939-40. Out of the student enrollment of 2139, 1900 students have signed this contract. The other 5% includes students who drop out of school or who for financial reasons must give up the plan. Each student who desires to take ad- vantage of the plan is given a folder (a copy of which is enclosed) on which he is to paste an activity stamp issued when he pays ten cents. This then makes a student ticket, which he presents at all functions for which student admission is charged. Last year our income from the stamp plan was $6931.00. We had a budget of $10,816. Our total income was $12,474. Our total expenditures were $11,518. We did not overrun our budget, but dipped into the general fund to make capital invest- ments of band instruments, stage equipment, and other necessities. The difference be- tween the money received from the sale of activity stamps and the total income was made up through the receipt of adult admissions to various student activities. The reason this plan sells itself is that every student in school may take advantage of the activities offered because of the low cost to him individually. Under our former plan of making a drive for each activity a thousand students at the most participated and it cost these thousand students as much as $8.00 apiece. Another appeal that the plan makes to parents is that no large sum of money is demanded for student activi- ties for the opening days of school. The student may pay ten cents for the first week and participate in any activity that takes place during that week. Instead of making a drive for season tickets for the football games, which cost each student $1.00, the student may attend the first football game by merely buying a stamp and putting it in the folder and presenting this folder at the gate. Another great advantage of the plan is that more students participate. There is greater interest on the part of students in school affairs. This interest is even reflected in the classroom. The school now becomes a community that must be kept up, and the general sentiment is that everything in the community must be well done. 146 Sruvent-Councit HanpBook [March I presume you may be interested in the administration of this plan. Each home room has two officers, a president and a secretary. There is a financial committee pre- sided over by the vice president of the student body. It is the business of this com- mittee to see that stamps are allocated to each room in the building, and it is the job of the home-room officer to see that these stamps are sold, and that a proper record is kept. There are forms for keeping this record, one of which is enclosed. The home-room officer delivers the stamps to the students in the home room, receives their money, and takes this directly to the finance committee in the financial office. These reports are then compiled by the finance committee, and the accounts must balance. If the home-room officer is short in his money he has to make it up himself, but we would not tolerate a home-room officer whose accounts were short more than twice. The administration of the plan is directed by the dean of boys. We have found that teachers do not have to be burdened with carrying out the details. They supervise the work in each home room, giving assistance when such assistance is needed. You will note that one of the advantages of this plan is the education of students in finance, and also the development of certain qualities of character—accuracy, responsibility, and promptness. We thus impress upon the whole body of students that once having signed a contract, they must carry it to the end unless it is economically impossible. Home-room teachers, the deans of boys and girls, and the principals all codperate to impress the student with his responsibility, once he has signed a contract. We have to advise with a few students personally each year in order to impress them with this responsibility, but, recalling the numbers who respond to the plan, you can see that it is successful. The forms to which Mr. Porter refers are illustrated below on this and the two following pages. The reverse side of the second card has space for twenty-seven stamps. GARFIELD HIGH SCHOOL, SEATTLE Student’s Stamp Plan Pledge Roll 6th Period Class I hereby agree to purchase 36 activities stamps at 10 cents each during the school year of . I understand that not less than 18 of these stamps are to be pur- chased during the first semester. I understand that the purchase of stamps at the rate of one or more each week shall entitle me to paid admission to (1) ALL FOOTBALL GAMES, (2) BASEBALL GAMES, (3) TRACK MEETS, (4) SENIOR NIGHT, (5) OPERA, (6) FUNFEST, (7) CLASS MEMBERSHIP, (8) BOYS’ AND GIRLS’ CLUB MEMBERSHIP, (9) SPECIAL INTEREST CLUBS: RADIO, SPEAKERS’, PHO- TOGRAPHY, SCIENCE, STAMP, LATIN, CHESS, (10) All issues of the MES- SENGER, and (11) one copy of the ARROW, and (12) ALL CLASS DANCES, PARTIES, and PLAYS. This stamp plan does not include paid admission to BASKET- BALL GAMES, BOYS’ PICNIC, BANQUETS, or JUNIOR RED CROSS. Signed Date ia ne) sta firs cou frie eac in « day plet StrupENT-CounciL FINANCES i al a aa GARFIELD HIGH SCHOOL 24th Avenue and E. Jefferson Street, Seattle, Washington SEASON TICKET TO STUDENT ACTIVITIES Not Transferable If Lost, Finder Please Return to ‘Student's Signature. _ Address _.. Not acceptable for admission to Basketball Games, Banquets, the Boys’ Picnic, or Junior Red Cross. Report lost Card and Stamps to Boys’ Club office immediately. A section of the office record is shown on the next page, both front and reverse. A similar record is kept in the roll (or home) room. The activity tucket at Hanover Center, Massachusetts The account of a project of the Hanover High School, Hanover Center, Massachusetts, is taken from the December, 1939, Student Life. The student council sponsors an activity ticket which may be purchased any time before the first of November for three dollars, or on the in- stallment plan of ten cents a week for thirty-three weeks, beginning the first week of school in September. This ticket, providing it is paid up to date, admits to all athletic contests and to three dances, supported by the council as invitation affairs, to which graduates of the school and their friends are admitted, as well as students. The ticket also admits to one play, all special assemblies, covers donations and class dues, and provides each holder with a copy of the school annual. Student ticket salesmen in each home room coéperate with the council in selling seals each Tues- day to those who are buying on the weekly payment plan. The past year about seventy per cent participation was claimed for the support of a com- pletely paid up student ticket. ouncIL HanpBooK ~ 4 SrupENT-C eS S) ~~ Qo 53 = ) — — a : w ) S) 3 A <= = = a v ya ~ 8 Oo Ss ~ S c ~ v & S Ad GaAISOgu HSVO GANYALAY SdWVLS GHXAIZOAA Sd WVLS Ad GaATaOaa HSVO GANUYALAY SdWVLS GaAIZOaU SdWVLS Ad GaAIBORN HSVO GANYOALAA SdWVLS GAAISZOaU SHWVLS Ad GaAIOaN HSVO GANYOLaAY SdWVLS GaAISZOaA SdNWVLS Ad daAIaOFd HSVO GANYALAA SdWVLS ‘GHAITOTA SdNVLS Ad GaAIOdd HSVO GANYALAY SdNVLS GaAIBOaN SdWVLS | | | | | | | T | | | | | | | | lI "Wo9g JO PUY | SIZE ITS ipl iel sduivig [RIOT eae } | | | + | €]Z|1 || ‘ON NOo@ || ANVN Swadrosdas || “ON | |_| | = i AdOTAANS HSVO NI daa QU093Y dWVIS AdO9 391330 JP dweis sayre2 Ou 1940 | StupENT-CounciL FINANCES The stamp plan at Schenectady, New York The stamp plan, originated in 1935 by the student council of Nott Terrace High School, Schenectady, New York, is a variation of the activity-ticket plan. Stamp boks are issued to all clubs and organizations that receive money from the budget. These stamp books are purchased by the individual members of each club. The stamps are used as currency for all the extra-curriculum activities of the school. For example, a sub- scription to the school newspaper, Terrace Tribune, costs four stamps, and admission to the night football games costs four stamps. The sponsor of each club is required to submit an up-to-date list of members to the stamp committee of the student council. Each home-room treasurer re- ceives the money for the stamp books and hands in a list of the paid-up members each week. Selling practices Often school organizations, under the auspices of the student council, sell tickets, banners, emblems, candy, popcorn, or operate concessions at school functions such as football games. Of the 368 schools which answered this question, 154, or 42 per cent, indicated that this was common practice. About one third of the schools in which the council had legislative con- trol of the funds observed this practice. The smaller percentage is probably due to the fact that a much larger number of the councils which had financial responsibility were able to carry out their program through the activity ticket without resorting to selling campaigns. There is always a temptation for the principal or other officers to take charge and decide what money may be allotted and how it shall be raised. But this treatment robs the pupils of the opportunity to deal with practical situations that may, under faculty guidance, provide a sound legislative and executive experience for the pupils involved. Many school administrators who have delegated to the council legislative control of funds report they have never been obliged to use the veto power. Miscellaneous practices For purposes of illustration a few financial activities of councils which do not have legislative control of extra-curriculum funds are in- cluded. In a few exceptional instances the following method of proceeding has been carried through: A special committee is appointed by the student council to make out a budget for the extra-curriculum needs of the next school year. This is done some time during the spring semester, and is based upon the amount required for the activities carried on during the current year. The entire student body then votes either to accept or reject the budget as prepared by the committee. When a budget has been agreed 150 StupenT-Councit HanpBook | March upon, the total of the anticipated expenditures is divided by the total en- rollment of the school to obtain the amount of tax per pupil. Comment has been made previously on the desirability of a tax per pupil in free sec- ondary schools. In some schools a flat assessment of five cents per student is made. The amount accruing from this assessment is usually sufficient to provide for the expenses of sending delegates to conventions and of supplying the tools for the operation of the government. It does not provide funds, however, for the use of clubs and organizations under the authority of the student council, nor for carrying on projects of a philanthropic nature such as many of those listed in a preceding chapter. These taxes are usually paid to the treasurer of each home room from whom they are collected by the treasurer of the student organization. FInaNcIAL Projects The various projects employed for the purpose of financing extra- curriculum activities are legion. Most of them are very simple and they, or others of a similar nature, are undertaken by a number of student or- ganizations. Foremost in this category are the selling projects, such as selling candy, peanuts, popcorn, pop, and hot dogs at ball games and other athletic events. Some have regular stands for this purpose at the athletic field and in the gymnasium. The sales committee may occupy a position near the main entrance to the auditorium and may be at hand to dispose of its wares when concerts, lectures, debates, and dramatic productions are being presented. The committee may also be ready to make sales during the parent-teacher meeting and on patrons’ night. In some schools this project is varied by the sale of pennants, school buttons and other emblems, football programs, and trinkets such as miniature pandas and lapel ornaments. Bake sales, too, are often held on special oc- casions. School dances School dances furnish another rich source of income. The price per couple or individual, while sufficiently low to exclude none from this popular form of recreation, is usually high enough to assure considerable profit to the sponsoring student organization. During the holidays or other vacation periods alumni dances are often held. These not only vary the year’s dance program, but they tap new sources of income and relieve the students who are called upon over and over again to do their share by participating in all money-making events. Paid assemblies Some student councils secure all their funds through paid assemblies, while others attempt something of a more elaborate nature in sponsoring 1940 | StupENnT-Councit Finances 151 lyceums and courses of artist numbers. In avoiding the high commissions usually demanded by professional artists, student councils often secure greater results by putting on amateur programs, home-talent plays, and the like. These may not possess the cultural value of the artists’ courses, but when small expenses have been deducted, the entire balance accrues to the student government. Movie benefits Along the same line are movie benefits, including the release of notable films of former years as well as those of foreign countries. This practice, however, is almost sure to bring a protest from the operators of commercial moving-picture houses, charging unfair competition. Usually the protest results in the elimination of paid movie programs in the school. School carnivals Students often enjoy codperating with the student council in getting ready a carnival; in some schools the carnival is an annual event. South High School, Grand Rapids, Michigan, holds a Kopper Karnival each year. Each club and organization in the school has a booth. One cent is charged for admission, and the price of each article for sale, each feature of entertainment, and for participation in games, contests, etc., is one cent. An auction sale of left-over articles is often conducted during the carni- val, and an auction sale of white elephants brought in by the students in general provides amusement and helps fill the treasury. This is sometimes held during a special assembly. Book Exchange and Lost and Found The chief source of revenue for the student council of Central High School, Saint Paul, Minnesota, is a combination Bookstore and Lost and Found. The main business of the Bookstore is to aid the students in the buying and selling of their textbooks. A commission of ten cents on books over fifty cents and five cents on books under fifty cents is retained by the store on each book sold. All lost articles turned in at the Bookstore are redeemed on payment of a ten-cent fine. This organization also handles the sale of paper, the English Handbook, and the Student-Council Hand- book. Lost and Found departments are often maintained independently. Although they exist primarily for the welfare of the school, they may still produce revenue through the sale of unclaimed articles at the end of each semester. This plan is followed by the student council of Hyde Park High School, Chicago. 152 Stupent-Councit HanpBook | March School stores The student council of the Buckhannon-Upshur High School, Buck- hannon, West Virginia, has found a school candy store to be a very suc- cessful way of making money. In addition the council assisted the Hi-Y Club in selling magazines. With the proceeds of these projects the council purchased an electric scoreboard and a moving-picture machine for the school during the past year. Autograph books and glossy prints The student council of East High School, Columbus, Ohio, conceived the idea of making and selling special autograph books. Four hundred fifty of these forty-eight-page books were sold at ten cents each the first day they were put on sale. The books are orange and black, East High colors, with a picture of Chessy, East’s mascot, on the cover, and a picture of the school on the first page. Another project of East High is that of selling glossy prints of graduation pictures at ten cents each. No prints are sold to anyone other than the owner. Magazine drives Funds are secured for the Government Organization of an eastern high school through an annual magazine drive. A representative of the Curtis Publishing Company visits the school and inaugurates the drive. The art department sponsors a contest to provide posters for the drive, the commercial department manages the finances, and the English department makes a study of manuscripts in connection with the Curtis publications. Last year the Curtis representative announced that this school has been the national leader in applying the educational feature of the plan, and that part of the Curtis Plan is written around developments instituted there. In addition to the Curtis magazines, students sell Red Book, Popular Mechanics, Photoplay, Boys’ Life, American Girl, Vogue, and others. Al- though magazine selling is remunerative, a number of school men have serious objections to using it. Incidentally, it is an inexpensive way for the publishers to increase their subscription lists, It is worthy of note that of all the lists of methods of financing that were received in response to the questionnaire issued by the National Asso- ciation of Secondary-School Principals, not one included gambling devices or other questionable means of raising money. This is all the more re- markable and commendable when one recalls how frequently questionable methods of raising funds have been used by the most reputable organi- zations in many communities. the Scho mone 1940 | StupENT-Councit FINANcEs Amount of money handled by the council The amount of money for which 317 schools that answered the ques- tion in January, 1940, ranged ranged from $30.00 to $75,000. The median for these 317 schools was $485.00. For the schools which had legislative control over the extra-curriculum funds, the median was much higher, $4300.00. The median enrollment of these schools, 940, was slightly larger than that of the total group, 850, but in general they may be classed as belonging to the same enrollment group. The median sum ($4300) for those schools which have legislative control of extra-curriculum finance amounts to slightly more than $4.50 per pupil in the median school (enroll- ment 940). This is a lower per capita cost than was reported by McKown’* in 1926. The average per median student in this study need not be con- sidered too seriously, since it is based on a small sample (89) of schools in which the council has legislative control of the extra-curriculum funds. It is presented here as current practice in the schools which answered. Suffice it to say that the total sums involved are often large. The distribu- tion is shown in Table XXI. TABLE XXI Sums oF Money ConTROLLED By 317 StupEeNt Covuncits* SUMS OF $99 $100-| $500-|$1000-| $5000- | $10,000- | $25,000-| $50,000 MONEY | OR LESS 499 999 | 4999 9999 24,999 | 49,999 | AND OVER Xo, oF | 67 94 | 23 | 84 |] 21 | 19 | 7 COUNCILS . | cee | 21% | 30% | 7% 20% | im | 0% 1% Range, $30.00 to $75,000.00 Median, $485.00 Even though some of the sums are small, they should be accounted for carefully. And some of the larger sums are so huge that they require con- siderable clerical assistance for proper accounting. The largest sum, $75,000, mentioned by two schools, is sufficient to operate a high school of 500 en- rollment at a per capita cost of $150 per pupil per year. Methods of accounting for student-council funds No matter how small the sum for which the council has responsibility, it is essential that it should be accounted for accurately and regularly. Many school administrators who began as high-school teachers in the IMcKown, H. C., Financial Administration of Extra-Curricular Activities, National Society for the Study of Education, Twenty-fifth Yearbook, Part 2, Extra-Curricular Activities, p. 116, Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois, 1926 *This does not necessarily conflict with the number, 283, who said the council collected money. The implication is that some councils have money which they do not collect. [March 154 SrupENT-CounciL HanpBook 1920’s, will recall that it was not uncommon practice for the athletic funds to be carried in the pockets of the coach. Frequently it was the policy for the editor of the school paper to pocket the balance, if there was one at the end of the year, as a personal reward for competent service. If there was a deficit he overlooked it, so that his successor entered office under the handicap of the previous year’s deficit. Bills for goods or services used during the preceding year, often by those who had graduated, had an irri- tating habit of turning up regularly each autumn. The school administrator then faced the unpleasant dilemma of alienating the good will of the tradesmen in the community, or of seriously handicapping the year’s activities by paying bills which should never have been incurred, because there were no funds with which to discharge the obligation. These prac- tices, unfortunately, persist in isolated instances. With the coming of the realization that the extra curriculum was a legitimate—yes, a vital—part of the school curriculum, and with the advent of professionally trained school administrators the accounting of extra-curriculum funds has been placed on a basis which is often comparable to the accounting of funds of the board of education. In general one can say that the accounting for funds for all activities in the 376 schools which answered the questionnaire in January, 1940, is well done; it is best done in those schools in which the council has legislative control of the extra-curriculum moneys.* Bonded treasurer Of 367 which answered the question, “Do you have a bonded treas- urer?” 135 or thirty-seven per cent said, “Yes.” One half of the treasurers were bonded in those schools in which the council was responsible for the funds. The sums for which treasurers were bonded ranged from $500 to $25,000. The median for 111 schools which answered the question was $3394. The person who handles the funds is usually an adult. For all of the schools which replied the person responsible was: Adult—179; Pupil— 66; Both Pupil and Adult—114; Neither—6; Secretary Board of Education —4. The adult treasurer was almost universal practice in the schools in which the council had legislative control of extra-curriculum funds. It is not infrequent practice to have an adult bonded treasurer, perhaps the principal’s secretary, who actually disburses the money, and to have pupil treasurers for each organization, who deposit money with the school treas- urer, learn to keep accounts, and reconcile their memorandum accounts with the school treasurer periodically. Certainly the practice of having a bonded adult treasurer for extra-curriculum moneys cannot be too highly recommended. The small sum required to bond the treasurer is a legitimate *However, except in isolated cases, the accounting procedure could not be called perfect. Ac- cordingly, a full resume of good practice, chosen from individual schools, is included. "or an excellent account of procedures in extra-curriculum accounting, see Englehardt, N. L., F and Grill, G. W., Internal Accounting for Extra-Curricular Activities in Public Schools, Teachers Col- lege Record XXV, pp. 753-764, May, 1925. Sour Trea: 1940 | StupenT-Councit FINANcEs 155 charge against the council or extra-curriculum fund. Almost two thirds of the schools which answered the question do not employ this method. Auditing accounts Another practice which is not employed so widely as it deserves is a periodic audit of funds. This should be done by a certified public account- ant at regular intervals. Again the cost involved may well be charged against the student council or extra-curriculum fund. Of the 368 schools which answered, 315, or eighty-five per cent, indicated that the funds were audited regularly. In addition 167 of 323, or fifty-one per cent of the total who answered, indicated that the council funds were audited at the same time as the accounts of the board of education. This implies, but does not necessarily prove, that in these schools the extra-curriculum fund is audited by a certified public accountant. About ninety per cent of the schools in which the council has legislative control of the extra-curriculum finances have periodic audits. Approximately one half have the audit made at the same time as that of the board of education funds, It cannot be emphasized too strongly that an audit should be performed by a certified public ac- countant. Receipts for money In addition the school treasurer should receive all money for all or- ganizations and issue receipts, so that each student treasurer has a record of his deposits. This will enable him to balance the fund. The treasurer’s receipt of the Evanston Township High School, Evanston, Illinois, is given for purposes of illustration. It should be issued in duplicate, for the organization treasurer and the school treasurer, although some schools issue it in triplicate. The second or third copies should be in different colors to facilitate the clerical work. EVANSTON TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL CENTRAL TREASURY Evanston, Illinois Deposit Slip Name of Organization Source of Deposit Treasurer’s Signature 156 Stupent-Councit HanpBook [March Purchasing by requisition Of the 366 schools which answered, 307, or 84 per cent, indicated that purchases were made only by requisition signed by the sponsor of the or- ganization and the school treasurer. It is important that no goods should be purchased except on requisition. Otherwise bills for which no funds are available will be presented for payment. If all tradesmen in the vicinity are instructed not to furnish goods or services without a requisition, signed by the school treasurer and the sponsor, this difficulty will be solved and one of the requisites for proper accounting will have been established. No requisition may be issued unless the organization has funds to its credit with the school treasurer. Requisitions may be issued in triplicate, one copy for the vendor, one copy for the school treasurer, and one for the organization. The example from the Fairfield Township High School, Hamilton, Ohio, is typical of many satisfactory ones. FAIRFIELD TOWNSHIP SCHOOL Hamilton, Ohio No... eee Date. ; |, M , : : . : Please furnish the following materials. To . Se ee Re a oe Quantity Articles Price I iicciccvtcsnnstianicns sciaiasecimscleiiaehsiasesindiabahentiaiales Charged to Fairfield Activities Assn. Approved by ...... Sponsor (School Treasurer) Payment of bills Bills should be paid only on the presentation of an invoice and the requisition to purchase. When these have been checked by the sponsor or the organization they may both be presented to the school treasurer with a request for payment. Of the 365 schools which answered this question, 333, or 91 per cent, indicated that this was their practice. The following form, used at Shaker High School, Shaker Heights, Ohio, or an adaptation of it, will serve equally well. well tion a ence } or 74 filed 1940} StupeNT-Councit FINANcEs 157 Voucher form used at Shaker High School, Shaker Heights, Ohio ~ Club Advisor Approved student council) (Name of organization) (Treas. (Payee of check) Paid by check No. VOUCHER FOR FUND WITHDRAWAL Club Treas. In Payment for the Following Items Received SHAKER HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT FUND Pay to the order of Out of the funds of Voucher No. The sum of Date paid SCHOOL. No. Voucher Issued To Withdrawal Voucher Q Z. : bh Z. se) Q P For the following items SHAKER HIGH Voucher Date Amount Forward $ of Voucher $ Bal. Amt. Balance $ Balance $ When the cancelled cheque has been returned from the bank, it may wellbe filed, numerically by the cheque number, together with the requisi- tion and invoice. It is a business-like procedure which provides ready refer- ence in case this is necessary. Of the 369 schools which answered, 356, or 96 per cent, indicated that bills were paid only by cheque. In addition 264, or 74 per cent, of the 355 schools which answered indicated that bills were filed numerically with invoice and requisition attached. “‘pepiaoid aq pjnom saquinu = anbay> ayy soy aseds & sjooyrs saIpO Uy ‘sanbay> [Je sensst oBer1yD jo Ayisisatus, 2 Jo J2]jONdWOD amp asnedeq pasajua ase ssoquinu anbey> ON :4.LON A $135.87 Appropriation 1939-40 C 450.00 b8°CIZ ZSE8ZT | OSs 02 QqQID SPIN —PMO]L,J 8,319q0 61-8 | 99°266'I bE 67 ZES9ZT =| OSS 0Z QMO S/s1D—AleaH] Be UOAT 61-8 t8°€ZZ ZS'E97T =| OF'E 02 qd .szID | —pPMoL sIpueuWION 7d 61-8 tO LEZ ZEO9Z'T =| 69°S S 40je[21I0—uOs|axy *Y bI-Z Ob AtH—ueuaney “5 17-2 | 99°266'T €CEIL eLZesz7l | seset | s JOUL[a1IOQ—Siug ss30y Le-L S98rs'l | Sell 00°8b OF A7H—I00W NATTA Le-L g9°968'T | BETZ os‘zs I ACMPIW—'OD “Brg JaryD S2-Z SI'6re'l | 88°SI “Zs 0z qo stp —Aipuney ssasuny 6I-Z siaysajAe[q—souseMy “d 8I-Z | 90°896'1 SV9ss'l | Ie SI 00°I JOIL[I1IOQ—UOs|axY “> ZI-Z SULZ88'I | I€ZI 00°8 Aempty—uossapues *f TI-Z cV's6s'l | 1€6 1€°6 siaysayhv[g—sousem *d TI-Z 66Lb 4J0j"[91I0—PuryoH “AM 8 -Z | OF bOGT | OS 79 $ 86Lb Aemptw—ia[®H “O | 6€-1 -Z | 96 1FS‘T | OS°8 PJEMIOF PID 9b EE8'I$ pesingsiq “ON SWALI aed adracy = sidia.0y [aol wdras24y ]BoL Balance Forward 37.20 $548.67 : a Zz < 0) | 3} Zz 5 tS) ms Z ra} Pp 7) q rg ‘IOOHOS HOIH ALISWAAINN ‘0b-6£61 UVAA TOOHOS ANNA SALLIALLOV LNACGALS TIOOHOS HOIH o8no1y7 fo Aitsszaiu py ‘pooyrg y81pq Aitss2aiup w yunozr2v Supjosuosy Balance 11-4-39 7-19 Munger's Ldry. 8-19 Lyon & Healy 10-4 M. Seel Sub-account for Girls’ Club, University High School 10-6 I. Porte’s 8-19 De Normandie Towel 8-19 Oberg’s Flower Shop 10-18 Lexington Ldry. 11-4 Watson’s Grocery 11-4 Geo. R. Hoke 1940 | StupENT-CounciL FINANCES 159 Many schools enter all funds in a single account, known as the con- trolling account. In addition, each activity, club, or organization has a sub- account in which its funds are accounted for. A sample of the controlling account, and of the sub-account for the Girls’ Club, at the University High School at the University of Chicago are shown on the preceding page for illustrative purposes. Unless accounts are kept in this fashion, it is almost impossible to make regular reports of the condition of all funds to the council, the student body, or the organizations; at least, not without serious difficulty. CuapTer XI HINTS FOR STUDENT LEADERS Who may become leaders It is not evidence of conceit or presumption on the part of young persons if they aspire to be leaders. It is the normal thing to do. It isn’t given to any one person to become a leader in all lines. The great leaders of all ages are men and women who have concentrated their efforts on some one line of endeavor—Aristotle was a leader in philosophy; Caesar, in military achievement; Bach, in the composition of sacred music; “Babe” Ruth in home runs, and so on ad infinitum. A study of the lives of great men reveals that they possessed gifts other than those for which they are remembered by posterity. Had each not selected one gift to be developed to its full capacity the chances are that these names would have been lost in oblivion. However, one does not need to possess many gifts or even one outstanding gift in order to become a leader. Native capacity of course will limit the extent and quality of the leadership, but everyone, thus limited, may become a leader along some line. Everyone has influence on some one else, and this influence grows with use. What is leadership? Merely the conscious, systematic direction of one’s influence toward a de- sired goal. Interest will point the way to the talent of greatest strength, the one to be selected for cultivation and development. Sometimes an unsuspected talent comes to light through an emergency. The owner him- self does not realize the extent of his power until it is called forth by some unexpected, drastic need. Leadership calls for the exertion of such power. Every student should discover his point of greatest strength and use his influence to the limit. Students who do not excel in scholarship, who have no talent for music, art, or dramatics may become vitally interested in some needed reform and may acquire leadership in the effort to achieve it. Student participation in government affords splendid opportunities for leadership along many lines formerly unknown in school activities. Physical fitness In spite of the fact that men and women who were not physically well and strong have risen to places of eminent leadership, it is an unquestion- able asset to possess sound health. The men and women who were physi- cally weak yet rose to positions of power, did so in spite of their infirmities through indomitable moral purpose and sustained determination. The radiance emanating from youth coupled with the vivacity and vitality of a perfect physique creates a personality which is the foundation stone for leadership. One who has an abundance of reserve energy has a tremendous 160 1940 | Hints For StupeNT LEADERS 161 advantage. The demands upon a leader in modern life are often great. They frequently involve sustained study and conference with long and irregular hours. The leader needs at all times the balanced judgment and self-confidence which come in large measure from physical power. Here are the minimum requirements for hygienic living which every student should observe if he would keep physically fit: Eat three substantial meals a day and, if desired, supplement with a lunch immediately after school hours and the required length of time before the evening meal. Be sure that each meal provides food of the three principal groups: proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, with plenty of fruits, vegetables, milk, and vitamin-bearing foods in addition. Get plenty of rest. Plan to keep regular hours. If not a member of a gymnasium class, athletic team, or sports group, have the physical director prescribe exercise suited to the individual needs. Abstain from alcoholic drinks and smoking. While, in moderation, neither is as detrimental to health as was once thought, neither contributes to physical well-being. Both detract from agreeable social relations and are still positively offensive to a great many people. Avoid drugs. Next in importance and closely akin to soundness of body is posture. If one aspires to leadership the body must also be trained to be dominant in attitude. An erect, confident bearing commands attention and respect, whereas a slovenly, careless posture has the opposite effect upon the ob- server. Whatever may be one’s opinion of having ROTC units in the public secondary schools, all must acknowledge the superiority of ROTC boys in respect to posture, cleanliness, and health habits. It would be well for physical directors of both boys and girls to emulate the example of the ROTC commanders in securing the fine bearing and appearance of those trained for military service. Let the student leader study his reflection in a full-length mirror and note how much more effective his presence becomes when he stands his full height, no matter how tall he may be, with shoul- ders back, chin up, hips level, and hands falling easily into position and forgotten. If bad habits already have been acquired, daily practice before the mirror is called for. Ability to speak For a leader the importance of a good speaking voice and fluency of expression cannot be over emphasized. Leadership can, of course, be achieved without the ability to speak well and effectively, but it is easier to become a leader if one has the ability to speak in public. A pupil who aspires to leadership may secure help from a competent teacher or from a friend. Fortunately most pupils can express themselves clearly when they have matters of importance to discuss. 162 StupeNt-Councit HanpBook [ March Parliamentary procedure If a presiding officer is at a loss how to proceed during the course of a meeting, if he hesitates and stumbles and flounders about in an effort to hit upon the right method of following through any situation which may arise when a subject is being debated, his leadership will suffer. To forestall such embarrassment it is essential that the leader be well versed in the simpler practices of parliamentary law. First of all, a leader should be thoroughly conversant with the provisions of the constitution and by- laws of his organization. Parliamentary law supplies the rules in matters not provided for in the constitution. A leader should seize every oppor- tunity to become familiar with parliamentary procedure. Many schools require this to be taught in connection with the regular English classes. This is a desirable practice, for if people are to work together, to keep order, to maintain fair discussion, and to reach decisions which express the considered judgment of the majority, all must understand parlia- mentary procedure. It is very important that this practice should be ex- perienced by all pupils rather than be restricted to those who are particu- larly interested in public speaking or dramatics. Student leaders should not only take courses of instruction, if offered, but they should attend meet- ings, whenever possible, where parliamentary procedure is followed. It is very convenient to possess a copy of Robert's Revised Rules of Order. Keep in advance of lay members In order to maintain leadership, the executive must possess information beyond that of the general membership of the organization. He should study the history and purpose of the organization in order to acquire a proper background for deciding his future actions. He should know in advance what matters are likely to be brought up in meetings and be pre- pared to deal with them. The confidence shown a leader by his election to 4 position of responsibility should inspire him to still greater effort to be worthy of the trust of his electors. He must not let down as soon as that goal has been reached. By reading biographies of noble men and women, the student leader will find that their achievements will spur him on to greater and more enlightened service to his fellow students. And by careful study of school problems, both with pupils and adults, he can make himself the master of these problems and a force for leadership in the school. The value of planning It does not require a very keen mind to discern the results of unpre- paredness. When a leader comes before his organization trusting to luck that his native wit will see him through any situation that may arise and 1940 | Hints For Stupent Leapers 163 without having mapped out either his own course of action or the goal toward which executive direction should be given, disintegration of his leadership and of the effectiveness of the student government soon follows. There are four definite steps to be taken in planning: Fix clearly in mind one’s purpose or goal. Note the things that must be done to achieve that goal. Discover and consider all available resources. Make a plan of action, taking into account every circumstance which is likely to arise. Such a plan shows what is to be done, by whom, when, and how. Not only should planning cover one immediate meeting, but there should be a general plan for the entire year’s program. This, of course, must be sub- ject to change and additions, but even if the whole structure must be de- stroyed eventually, the value of having had a plan is obvious. The more careful the planning, the less chance of having to make fundamental changes. Planning brings understanding and codperation. One thing at a time One of the pitfalls to be avoided by a conscientious leader is scattering his energies over too broad a field. By so doing he will lessen or even de- stroy his usefulness. The executive must learn to delegate responsibilities and work. His duty is to supervise and direct, and the better his executive ability the less routine work will he actually have to do. By careful plan- ning, he will see to it that only one major item needs to be cared for at a time. When one is disposed of, another may be undertaken, but it is much better to do one thing and do it well than to hurry a thing through in order to begin on something else. By avoiding distractions, by keeping one’s efforts well-focused, by studying every phase of the project, one may attain a quality of achievement not possible to those who scatter their efforts over many fields of activity. Neatness in appearance The importance of good posture for a student leader has already been emphasized. Not only does a dejected, slouchy attitude detract from the influence of a leader, but carelessness or lack of cleanliness in the attire will produce equally undesirable results. A smudge on the nose of a speaker has diverted attention from his discourse until all the force of his argument was lost. A crooked necktie, or a soiled collar will focus atten- tion in the same way. Appropriate dress and moderate, rather than lavish, use of cosmetics will enhance the appearance and effectiveness of girls who hold positions of leadership. [March 164 StupENT-CounciL HanpBook Begin meetings on time Punctual people are too often penalized for possessing a virtue which is highly extolled but seldom practiced. It is no wonder that these few individuals, rather than be forced to waste ten or fifteen minutes each time a meeting is called, finally follow the crowd in delaying their arrival for some minutes after the time set. Most people do not enjoy entering a meeting after it has begun, especially if they discover that interesting things have happened during their absence. The wise leader will see to it beforehand that all is in readiness and that the necessary officials and a quorum will be present so that the meeting may be opened exactly on time. Sometimes a president will begin at the set time if only the secretary is present to read the minutes. When the members learn that punctuality is the order of the day, they will soon form the habit of being on time Care in appointing committees Leaders should exercise great care that they are not influenced by personal friendship or a sense of obligation in appointing the chairmen or members of committees. This may be done almost unconsciously if the president is not watchful. The work to be done should be given careful consideration, after which the student who seems best fitted for the task should be selected to take charge of it. IV Vi APPENDIX Dutits oF OFFICERS The following is a simplified list of the duties pertaining to the prin- cipal offices of a student government organization. 1. President 1. Shall be the student chairman of the entire student bedy. 2. May preside at assembly meetings in charge of any student organization. 3. Shall preside at all meetings of the executive council and of the general stu- dent organization. Shall make such interpretations and decisions as necessary. Shall have power to call special meetings of the executive council, Shall be a member ex-officio of all boards and committees. Shall have authority to appoint all committees not otherwise provided for. Shall perform all duties usually devolving upon the presiding officer. Il. Vice President Shall preside at all meetings in the absence of the president. Shall perform the duties of the president during his absence, disability, dis- qualification, or upon the resignation of the president, until a successor has been duly elected and installed. In organizations typifying the Federal Government, the vice president is chairman of the Senate. . Secretary Shall keep the rolls of the council. Shall write the minutes (a journal of the proceedings). Shall read the minutes at each business meeting. Shall attend to the correspondence. IV. Treasurer 1. Shall be an immediate assistant of the faculty treasurer. 2. May collect and receive money from home-room and activity treasurers. 3. Shall keep a record of all dues, cash receipts, and contributions. 4. Shall remit all money to faculty treasurer together with complete reports (Unless moneys are paid directly to the faculty treasurer) 5. Shall present to faculty treasurer for payment such bills as are authorized by the organization. “6. Shall make financial reports to the organization. V. Sergeant-at-arms (if there is need of one) 1. Shall assist the president in maintaining order. 2. Shall be in attendance at the doors. 3. Shall perform errands. 165 166 StupENt-Councit HanpsBook [ March THe Finpinc Questionnaire oF Aprit, 1939 (In order that this office may have information for which there is constant need, prin- cipals are urgently requested to fill out the following questionnaire and return it to H. V. CHURCH, Executive Secretary, National Association of Secondary-Schoo] Prin- cipals, 5835 Kimbark Avenue, Chicago.) 1. Do you have a Student Council in your school? Yes——- No—— Name of school -——— —--—— ity State Name of secretary of council ——————— Is it affiliated with district or state Student Council Associations? Yes—— No——. Please give the name and address of the secretary of the Association to which your Nm council belongs. —--—— No——. 3. Does your high school publish a school newspaper? Yes 4. If the National Association of Secondary-School Principals is not already on your mailing list, will you please send one copy of each issue? QUESTIONNAIRE OF May, 1939 The National Association of Secondary-School Principals is preparing a hand- book that will be a clearinghouse for the student councils in the secondary schools of the United States. Will the secretary of the student council secure whatever aid is necessary in filling out this questionnaire and return it as promptly as possible to H. V. CHURCH, 5335 Kimbark Avenue, Chicago? Any additional suggestions, information, or material not covered by this questionnaire, but which you think might be suitable for this hand- book, will be welcomed. 1. Was your student council organized for any specific purpose? (a) If so, for what purpose? (b) Please state other purposes. ae aa 2. What person or organization prompted the installatien of a student council? 3. What type of organization did your student council adopt? (a) City government plan —————, (b) state government plan —————, (c) national government plan ————, (d) forum plan — , council of home-room presidents ————-, (e) modified form of ————— plan. 4. Give a brief outline of your plan of organization. 5. Are you satisfied with the operation of the type of organization chosen for your student council? 6. If based on state or national government plan, does council maintain house of representatives and senate and employ judicial, executive, and legislative powers? 7. Does your council have a written constitution? 1940 | APPENDIX QUESTIONNAIRE OF May, 1939—Continued 8. Do you have a faculty advisor? (a) Is the advisor appointed? ————— or elected? (b) By whom? 9. Do the activities of your student council provide sufficient work for all officers, committees, and members? 10. What are the chief duties and responsibilities that belong to the council alone? (a) Is the student council a clearinghouse for other service clubs? (b) What club organizations are directed by the student council? (c) What activities does the council sponsor? 11. Does your council handle the finances in connection with extra-curriculum ac- tivities ? 12. What difficult problems confront your council? 14. Do certain standards of scholarship have to be met before » student may hold membership in the council? 15. If your council is affiliated with district, state, or regional associations. how are expenses of delegates to conventions defrayed? — . What method is used in choosing delegates to conventions? . Can you provide the particular name of the association with which your council is affiliated ———————, the time and place of the next convention and a map indicating the region served by the association Srupent-Councit HanpBook | March QUESTIONNAIRE OF May, 1939—Continued 18. Have you any suggestions that would be helpful to the officers who prepare con- vention programs? 19. Are council members recognized by an emblem or insignia of any sort? 20). Please send a copy of your constitution and bylaws. Signed —_ Name of School City State —— QUESTIONNAIRE OF JANUARY, 1940 To the principal of the high school or the sponsor of the student council: This questionnaire is supplementary to that issued by the National Association of Secondary-School Principals in the spring, 1939. In order to furnish accurate data for the chapter, Finances, in the Handbook for Student Councils, will you please answer the following questions and return the blank as promptly as possible to H. V. CHURCH, 5835 Kimbark Avenue, Chicago? It is hoped this Handbook will be ready for the printer by February 1, 1940. Please hurry this, 1. Does the student council in your school collect money for any purpose whatsoever? Yes No How much money was handled by your student council last year? Do you have a bonded treasurer? Yes — For what sum? ———— No Is the treasurer a pupil or an adult? —-———- Do you have both? Yes No Does the council determine budget appropriations for each organization? Yes No Are organizations obliged to purchase only on requisition approved by the spon- sor and school treasurer? Yes No Are bills paid by cheque? Yes No Are bills paid only on presentation of an invoice and the requisition? Yes No Are bills filed numerically with invoice and the requisition attached? Yes No Is the extra-curriculum account audited regularly? Yes No - Does the council appropriate balances or a percentage of receipts of prosperous activities to subsidize less fortunate activities? Yes No Does the council sponsor an activity ticket which admits to all or nearly all school activities? Yes No Are the accounts audited at the same time as the board accounts? Yes No 1940 | APPENDIX QUESTIONNAIRE OF JANUARY, 1940—Continued Does the council levy an assessment or tax upon each pupil in the school? Yes = No ————— Only upon each member of the council? Yes No ————— Does the student council in its effort to raise money for any or all purposes levy a tax of any kind? Yes No Does your council collect an assessment from each activity? Yes ————— No Does your council levy an assessment upon the receipts of activities? Yes No Does council supply treasury by sponsoring sale of candy, popcorn, etc.? Yes - No What is the enrollment of your high school? Size of student council? Does the principal hold veto power? Yes No Has he fre- quently been forced to exercise it? Yes No If you have not already done so, will you please send a copy of the constitution and bylaws of your student council? Yes No Principal —-——— School City — State (Write additional information on other side) StupEeNT-Counci, HanpBook [March STUDENT-COUNCIL BIBLIOGRAPHY Abele, L. “Organization of Student-Governed Study Halls,” School Review, Vol. 34, pp. 777-81, December, 1926. Allen, R. D. “Work of the Class Counselor,” Junior-Senior High-School Clear- ing House, Vol. 8, pp. 12-18, September, 1933. Arnold, H. A. “These Students Go Calling,” School Activities, Vol. 7, pp. 8-10, May, 1936. Avery, H. P. “Student Court,” New York State Education, Vol. 21, pp. 595-96, May, 1934. Barker, D. W. “Project in Pupil Participation,” Midland Schools, Vol. 51, p. 315, May, 1937. Barthol’, Louise. “Student Council Projects,” School Activities, Vol. 10, pp. 335-6, April, 1939. Beatty, W. W. “For the Social Education of Children,” Progressive Education, Vol. 10, pp. 74-9, February, 1933. Bowden, A. O., Clarke, Ida Clyde. Tomorrow’s Americans, A Practical Study in Self-Government, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1930. The entire book is devoted to student participation in school government beginning with the development of the idea in the middle ages; it treats of various later methods including those of Froebel and Dalton; and gives concrete examples of how to establish student government opera- tion in colleges, normal schools, and universities. Brace, O. M. “Extra-Curricular Activities: Social Clubs,” Jndustrial Arts and Vocational Education, Vol. 25, pp. 173-6, June, 1936. Bricker, H. C. “General Organizations Bend the Twig,” High Points, Vol. 15, pp. 9-14, April, 1933. Brownson, H. G. “How to Vitalize the Teaching of Citizenship,” Nation’s Schools, Vol. 8, pp. 63-68, July, 1931. Brumbaugh, A. J. “Extra-Curricular Activities,” Review of Educational Re- search, Vol. 3, pp. 222-233, June, 1933. Bryan, R. C. “Should Pupils Take Part in Maintaining Good Discipline ?” School Review, Vol. 43, pp. 451-55, June, 1935. Campbell, H. G. “Pupil Participation in School Government,” Education, Vol. 52, pp. 505-9, May, 1932. Castell, Stanley. “A Study of Constitutions of Pupil Government Organiza- tions in High Schools,” Bulletin 24, National Association of Secondary- School Principals, pp. 153-55, January, 1929. A brief abstract of a thesis. Cella, Dorothy H. “Student Participation in School Government,” School Activities, Vol. 8, pp. 315-17, March, 1937. Clark, R. “Two successful Attempts in Rudimentary Society; Based Upon a Study of Honor Among Young Persons,” Journal of Educational Soci- ology, Vol. 8, pp. 44-9, September, 1934. Clayton, F. L. “Democracy in Education,” Educational Methods, Vol. 15, pp. 245-50, February, 1936. Coe, G. A. Educating for Citizenship, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1934, pp. 205. Counts, G. S. “Procedures in Evaluating Extra-Curricular Activities,’ School Review, Vol. 34, pp. 412-21, June, 1926. Courmyer, FE. A. “Self-Governing Student Body,” Journal of Education, Vol. 112, p. 503, December 15, 1930. Cox, P. W. L. Creative School Control, Chapter XI, J. B. Lippincott and Company, Philadelphia, 1927. Davis, T. S. “Socializing Discipline,” High-School Teachers, Vol. 9, pp. 175-6, May, 1933. 1940] APPENDIX 171 Decker, Clarence. “Student Participation in Schooi Government in Junior High Schools in New York State,” Bulletin 62, National Association of Secondary-School Principals, pp. 23-24, May, 1936. A brief abstract of a thesis. Diemer, G. W., Mullen, B. V. Pupil Citizenship, Chapters 3 and 4, World Book Company, New York, 1930. Donnelly, J. F. “Pupils as Administrative Aids,” Ohio Schools, Vol. 8, p. 243, June, 1930. Douglass, H. D. “Democracy in Student Government,” American School Board Journal, Vol. 77, p. 45, December, 1938. Drewry, R. C. Pupil Participation in High-School Control, Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1928. Dunkley, M. “Devices in Class Management,” School, (Elementary Edition) Vol. 24, pp. 57-58, September, 1935. Dustin, C. R. “An Investigation of the Scope, Working Practices, and Limi- tations of Pupil Participation in Government in Secondary Schools,” School Review, Vol. 34, pp. 431-42, June, 1926. Eberhart, P. M. “Pupil Participation in a Junior High School,” Ohio Schools, Vol. 8, pp. 325-6, October, 1930. Eikenberry, D. H. “Extra Curriculum Activities: Secondary Education,” Review of Educative Research, Vol. 6, pp. 208-211, April, 1936. Erickson, C. E. “Your Council,” School Activities, Vol. 8, p. 408, May, 1937. Feelhaver, C. T. “Student Court,” School Review, Vol. 40, pp. 357-63, May, Feingold, G. A. “Pupil Proctors in Study Halls,” School and Society, Vol. 35, pp. 159-61, January 30, 1932. Findlay, J. F. “Pupil Participation in School Control,” School Activities, Vol. 6, pp. 5-7, September, 1934. Flamson, H. “Student Government at Paso Robles,” California Quarterly of Secondary Education, Vol. 7, pp. 191-3, January, 1932. Foley, R. H. “Punil Participation,” Junior-Senior High-School Clearing House, Vol. 8, pp. 45-47, September, 1933. Fretwell, Elbert K. Extra-Curricular Activities, Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, Hough- ton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1931. The author gives purposes of pupil participation in government, types of councils in Junior and senior high schools, and examples of the councils at work. Fretwell, Elbert K. “Seven Purposes of Pupil Participation in Government,” Bulletin 35, National Association of Secondary-School Principals, pp. 108- 114, March, 1931. Gallagher, M. A. “Student Participation in School Government,’ Hducation, Vol. 52, pp. 169-74, November, 1931. Gephart, E. P. “Student Participation vs. Student Government,” Ohio Schools, Vol. 14, pp. 14-172, May, 1936. Gibson, C. S. “Project in Citizenship,” Junior-Senior High-School Clearing House, Vol. 7, pp. 351-53, February, 1933. Gilchrist, R. S. “Evaluation in Terms of Pupil Participation,” Junior-Senior High-School Clearing House, Vol. 7, pp. 351-53, February, 1933. Glessner, H. H. “Student Control of School,” Sierra Educational News, Vol. 26, pp. 42-3, November, 1936. Gogdkind, N. B. “Living Together at Fieldston; First and Second Forms,” School and Home, Vol. 17, pp. 31-35, April, 1936. Gruhn, C. V. “Aberdeen Has a Student Court,” Jowrnal of Education, Vol. 119, pp. 462-64, November 2, 1936. Hadsell, R. S. “Citizenship Begins at School,” Scholastic, Vol. 29, pp. 18-19, October 3, 1936. Hamrin, Shirley A., and Erickson, Clifford E. Guidance in the Secondary School, D. Appleton-Century Company, pp. 187-194, New York, 1939. 72 Stupent-Councit HanpBook [ March l= Hartshorn, C. B. “Study of Pupil Participation in Iowa High-School Govern- ment,” School and Society, Vol. 38, pp. 379-382, September 16, 1933. Hayes, A. G. “The Student Council,” Education, Vol. 56, pp. 101-103, October, 1935. Henderson, L. E. “The Student Council Federation of the Central States,” School Activities, Vol. 7, pp. 3-4, April, 1936. Hill, G. E. “Leadership in the Student Council,” School Activities, Vol. 9, pp. 107-8, November, 1937. Howard, E. “Student Government in the Fordson High School,” High School Teacher, Vol. 5, pp. 108-9, March, 1929. Huff, M. M. “Representative Student Council,” National Elementary Princi- pals, Vol. 14, pp. 414-46, July, 1935. Jarman, L. W. “Values in Student Government,” Virginia Teacher, vol. 15, pp. 69-72, April, 1934. Jarnie, L. L. “Students Take Part in Policy Making,” Clearing House, Vol. 13, pp. 223-5, December, 1938. Jeter, E. V. “What! No Student Council,” Junior-Senior High-School Clearing House, Vol. 9, pp. 118-21, October, 1934. John, D. T. “Student Government Without Adult Dictatorship,” Wisconsin Journal of Education, Vol. 64, pp. 19-20, September, 1931. Johnson, J. O. “Student Participation,” High-School Teacher, Vol. 9, pp. 210-12, June, 1933. Johnston, E. G. “Student Government in a University High School,’ Pro- gressive Education, Vol. 10, pp. 422-25, November, 1933. Jones, Galen. Extra Curricular Activities in Relation to the Curriculum, pp. vi and 99, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity, N. Y., 1935. Jordan, Riverda Harding. Extra-Classroom Activities in Elementary and Sec- ondary Schools, Chapter 7, pp. 95-115 and Appendix, Thomas Y, Crowell Company, New York, 1928. \ very worth-while discussion of the scope, organization, duties, and powers of student government. Presents values according to pupil testi- mony. Gives types of organizations in the appendix. Juergensmeyer, I. K. “Pupil Participation in School Management,” National Elementary Principals, Vol. 14, pp. 414-46, July, 1935, Juergensmeyer, I. K. “Students Run the School,” School Executive Magazine, Vol. 54, pp. 314-5, June, 1935. Karns, L. V. “Student Control Realization in the Six-Year High School,” High School Teacher, Vol. 9, pp. 55-59, 95-96, 131, 182-83, February, May, 1933. Kindred, L. W. “Home-Room Management,” Junior-Senior High-School Clear- ing House, Vol. 10, pp. 270-74, January, 1936. Kirkendall, L. A. “Duties of a Student Council Faculty Adviser,” Progressive Education, Vol. 3, pp. 201-8, November, 1934. Koch, M. A. “Upper School,” School and Home, Vol. 17, pp. 36-45, April. 1936. Kulp, C. L. “Student Practices in School Government,” New York State Edu- cation, Vol. 19, pp. 823-24, June, 1932. Lanks, H. C. “Jenkintown Junior-Senior High-School System of Student Par- ticipation in School Government,” School and Society, Vol. 36, pp. 406-9, September 24, 1932. Lepine, J., Wolf, R. O. “Advantages Afforded by Student Government,” «ew York State Education, Vol. 24, p. 588, May, 1937. Mayberry, B. A. “Study of High School Pupils to Determine the Effect of Student Council Participation on the Formation of Certain Habits of Citizenship,” Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 24, pp. 305-7, No- vember, 1931. 1940 | APPENDIX 173 McKown, Harry C. Pxtra-Curricular Activities, Chapter 4, Macmillan Com- pany, New York, 1937. Practical material relating to student-council organization and activity, participation in study halls, and projects of value in promoting citi- zenship. MeNulty, L., Bolton, E. B. “Student Government in the Junior and Senior High School,” High-School Quarterly, Vol. 24, pp. 165-70, April, 1936. Messer, Marie Rita. “Training for Civic Leadership,” School Activities, fol. 8, pp. 195-197; 243-5; 291-3; January, February, March, 1937. Meyer, Harold D. A Handbook of Eatra-Curricular Activities in the High School, Part III, pp. 105-143, A. S. Barnes and Company, New York, 1928. Meyer, Harold D. “Student Government and the New Deal,” School Activities, Vol. 4, pp. 3-4, October, 1933. Miller, J. H. “Liberal Arts College Functioning Through Student Activities,” School and Society, Vol. 40, pp. 328-31, September 8, 1934. Miller, U. “Student Government that Governs,” Educational Administration and Supervision, Vol. 17, pp. 677-82, December, 1931. Morgan, A. L. “Student Court,” Texas Outlook, Vol. 19, p. 64, October, 1935. Morgan, A. L. “Making Student Participation in School Government More Realistic and Purposeful,” Tevas Outlook, Vol. 20, pp. 31-2, July, 1936. Morgan, A. L. “Pupil Participation in School Control,” Peabody Journal of Education, Vol. 7, pp. 264-68, March, 1930. Myers, G. C. “Nobody Loves a Tattler,” Journal of Education, Vol. 117, pp. 562-63, Vol. 118, pp. 8-9, December 17, 1934, January 7, 1935. Myers, G. C. “Self-Government Has Limits,” Journal of Education, Vol. 120, pp. 230-31, May 3, 1937. Nesbit, Allegra. “A Better Citizenship Organization,” School Activities, Vol. 7, pp. 8-9, September, 1935. Nichols, R. T. “Character Education Through Pupil Participation in School Control,” California Quarterly of Secondary Education, Vol. 6, pp. 177-85, January, 1931. Olsen, O. H. “Student-Body Government,” Sierra Education News, Vol. 31, p. 24, April, 1935. Osborne, R. W. “Training for Character through Codperative Student Gov- ernment,” Chicago School Journal, Vol. 13, pp. 314-19, March, 1931. Parmenter, Ethel M. “Concentration Study Halls,’ Secondary Education, Vol. 4, pp. 174-5, May, 1935. Pierce, Anna Eloise, Deans and.Advisers of Women and Girls, Appendix K, pp. 523-27, Professional and Technical Press, 1929. The author gives a complete setup for a student council, including ob- jectives, plan for launching, and the different committees and their duties. Pique, B. “Student Government in Central High School, Memphis, Tennessee,” High-School Quarterly, Vol. 23, pp. 277-78, July, 1935. “Pupil Participation in School Control Joins the Curriculum,” Editorial, School Review, Vol. 44, pp. 483-86, September, 1936. tabehl, Floyd. “A Student Council on a State Government Plan,” School Activities, Vol. 7, pp. 10-11, January, 1936. Richardson, L., and others. “Student Participation in School Government,” Eastern States Association of Professional Schools for Teacher Proceed- ings, pp. 305-10, 1933. Rienow, B. “Building Character through Self-Government,” Wisconsin Jour- nal of Education, Vol. 64, pp. 425-7, May, 1932. Ringdahl, N. R. ‘“‘What Outcomes May Be Expected from Pupil Participa- tion?” School Activities, Vol. 7, pp. 3-5, January, 1936. [March 174 SrupENT-CouncIL HANDBOOK Roemer, Joseph, and Allen, Charles F. Extra-Curricular Activities in Junior and Senior High Schools, Chapter 6, Johnson Publishing Company, New York, 1929. Readings and experiments on student participation in school control giving the entire setup of a student council as to meaning, value of council, organization, dangers, guiding principles, activities, etc. Rugg, Earle U. “Student Participation in School Government,” pp. 127-140, The Twenty-Fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II, Bloomington, Illinois, 1926. Rugg, Earle U. Summary of Investigations Relating to Ewtra-Curricular Ac- tivities, Part III, pp. 55-90, Colorado State Teachers College, Greeley, 1930. A series of abstracts from the master of arts theses dealing with student participation in school government. Russell, R. D. “How Shall Our School Be Governed ?” Nation’s Schools, Vol. 6, pp. 41-6, August, 1930. Sangster, F. “Pupil Participation in Study Hall Supervision,” School Manage- ment, Vol. 4, p. 134, March, 1935. Sapin, R. “Can Children Discipline Themselves?” Parents Magazine, Vol. 6, pp. 18-19, July, 1931. Saunders, M. A. “Student Council in a Secondary School,” School, (Elemen- tary Edition and Secondary Edition), Vol. 24, pp. 558-61, March, 1936. Schnacke, M. A. “Self-Government for Grade Schools,” School Ewecutives Magazine, Vol. 52, p. 110, November, 1932. Schnacke, M. A. “Student Government at Cassville, Missouri, As Seen by the Students,” School and Community, Vol. 19, pp. 18-81, May, 1933. Shapiro, P. “City of Crane,” Illinois Teacher, Vol. 22, pp.143-4, January, 1934. Sheldon, J. A. “Pupil Participation in School Control in the High Schools of Iowa,” School Review, Vol. 43, pp. 189-197, March, 1935. Shuster, Lillian. “Need a Student Council Worry Over Power?” School Activi- ties, Vol. 7, pp. 6-8, November, 1935. Sisk, J. L. “Pupil Government at Work,” School Activities, Vol. 9, pp. 11-14, September, 1937. Slavson, 8. R. “Liberty Has Limits,” Progressive Education, Vol. 8, pp. 685-8, December, 1931. Smith, W. R. “Participation of Students in School Control,” School Manage- ment, Vol. 3, p. 10, May, 1934. Smith, W. R. “Educational Bases for Student Participation in School Con- trol,” School Activities, Vol. 5, pp. 3-7, February, 1934. Spear, J. S. “Student Court at the Abraham Lincoln High School,” High Points, Vol. 17, pp. 31-9, January, 1935. Stowe, Lyman Beecher. “How Our Schools May Train for Citizenship,” Char- acter and Citizenship, Vol. 5, pp. 38-42, November, 1938. Taylor, R. E. “The Integrated Student Council and Activity Program,” School Activities, Vol. 8, pp. 3-5, September, 1936. Terry, Paul W. Supervising Katra-Curricular Activities in the American Sec- ondary School, Part II, Chapters 6, 7, 8, 9, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inec., New York, 1930. The author discusses types of student government from simple to complex, officers and elections, activities, constitutions, reasons for failure, and different units of student government as the home room, the grade, and the assembly. Thomasson, A. L. “Pupil Government of Champaign Junior High School,” Clearing House, Vol. 11, pp. 221-4, December, 1936. Tozier, I. M. “Not Student Government but—,” American Journal of Nursing, Vol. 33, pp. 803-4, August, 1933. 1940] APPENDIX 175 Vineyard, Jerry J., Poole, Charles F. Student Participation in School Govern- ment, Entire book. A. S. Barnes and Company, New York, 1930. This is a complete study of the philosophy underlying student partici- pation. It contains suggestions about organizing student government and about parliamentary procedure. It presents some practices in student government and various problems. It gives suggestions for sponsors. This is a very complete handbook. Vredevoogd, L. E. “Providing Means for Student Participation through the Curriculum,” Bulletin 73, National Association of Secondary-School Prin- cipals, pp. 103-110, March, 1938. Watson, Beula. “A Working School Council,” School Activities, Vol. 10, pp. 355-356, April, 1939. Whittaker, M. L. “Realities in Instruction in Citizenship,” Social Studies, Vol. 25, pp. 173-77, April, 1934. Williams, Ellis A. “Youth and Authority,” Spectator, Vol. 152, p. 373, March 9, 1934. Wood, H. B. “Analysis of the Place and Function of Student Councils,” Teach- ers College Student Journal, Vol. 1, p. 4, February, 1937. Wyman, L. K. Character and Citizenship through Student Government. The John C. Winston Company, Philadelphia, 1935. Wyman. L. K. “Meeting the Challenge of the Times,” School Activities, Vol. 9, pp. 395-96, May, 1938. Wynne, G. B. “Student Government in the Small High School,” Virginia Journal of Education, Vol. 25, p. 277, March, 1932. “Student Self-Government,” Bibliography of Research Studies in Education, Library Division in United States Office of Education, p. 262, 1932-33. 176 Stupent-Councit HanpBook [March SCHOOLS PARTICIPATING IN SURVEYS OF MAY, 1939, AND JANUARY, 1940 ALABAMA Bay Minette—Baldwin County High School. Birmingham—Phillips High School. Birmingham—Woodlawn High School. Huntsville—Huntsville High School. Mobile—Murphy High School. Northport—Tuscaloosa County High School. Ozark—Dale County High School. ARIZONA Buckeye -— Buckeye Union High School. Globe—Globe High School. Miami—Miami High School. Peoria—Peoria High School. Tempe—Tempe Union High School. Tucson—Tueson Senior High School. ARKANSAS Batesville—Batesville High School. El Dorado—El! Dorado High School. Fort Smith—Fort Smith Senior High School. Horatio—Horatio High School. Little Rock—Senior High School. CALIFORNIA Encinitas—San Dieguito Union High School. Los Angeles—Fairfax High Scool. Los Angeles—Fullerton High School. Los Angeles—Gartield High School. Los Angeles— Alexander Hamilton High School. Los Angeles— David Starr Jordan High School. Los Angeles—Abraham Lincoln High School. Los Angeles— Manual Arts High School. Los Angeles— Metropolitan High School. Los Angeles—Frank Wiggins Trade High School. Marysville—Marysville Union High School. Redlands — Redlands Junior High School. Salida—-Salida High School. San Jacinto—San Jacinto Union High School. Woodland—Woodland High School. COLORADO Boulder—Boulder High School. Denver—East High School. Denver — Manual Training High School. Eaton—Eaton High School. Fairplay—Fairplay High School. Fort Morgan — Junior-Senior High School. Lakewood—Lakewood High School. Lamar—Lamar High School. Pueblo—Centennial High School. Rocky Ford — Rocky Ford High School. Salida—Salida High School. Sterling—Sterling High School. Walsenburg—Huerfano County High School. CONNECTICUT Bristol—Bristol High School. East Haven—East Haven High School. Hartford—Bulkeley High School. Hartford — Hartford Public High School. Lakeville—Salisbury High School. Meriden—Meriden High School. New Britain—Nathan Hale Junior High School. Portland—Portland High School. DELAWARE New Castle—William Penn High School. Wilmington—Pierre S. du Pont High School. APPENDIX DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Washington—Roosevelt High School. FLORIDA Coral Gables—Ponce de Leon High School. Daytona Beach — Seabreeze High School. Leesburg — Junior-Senior High School, Miami—Miami Edison Senior High School. Miami—Miami Senior High School. GEORGIA Atlanta—Commercial High School. HAWAII Honolulu—Kamehameha School for Girls. Honolulu—McKinley High School. IDAHO Boise—Boise High School. Montpelier—Montpelier High School. Lewiston — Lewiston Senior High School. ILLINOIS Alton—Community High School. Alton—Roosevelt Junior High School. Anna—Anna-Jonesboro High School. Antioch — Antioch Township High School. Armstrong—Armstrong High School. Athens—Community High School. Atlanta—Community High School. Atwood — Atwood Township High School. Auburn—Auburn Consolidated High School. Aurora—East High School. Aurora—West High School. Barrington—Barrington High School. Batavia—Batavia High School. Biggsville—Biggsville Township High School. Bloomington — Bloomington High School. Blue Mound — Community . High School. Buckley—Community High School. Buda—Buda High School. Carbondale—University High School. Champaign—Champaign Senior High School. Chester—Chester High School. Chicago—Bowen High School. Chicago—Calumet High School. Chicago—Faulkner School for Girls. Chigago—Fenger High School. Chicago — Flower Technical High School. Chicago—Kelwyn Park High School. Chicago—Lake View High School. Chicago — Lane Technical High School. Chicago—Lindblom High School. Chicago—Manley High School. Chicago—Phillips High School. Chicago—St. Rita High School. Chicago—Steinmetz High School. Chicago—Sullivan High School. Chicago—Tilden High School. Chicago — University High School, University of Chicago. Chicago—Von Steuben High School. Chillicothe — Chillicothe Township High School. Cicero—J. Sterling Morton High School. Colusa—Colusa High School. Crystal Lake — Community High School. Decatur — Decatur High School. DeKalb — DeKalb Township High School. Delavan—Community High School. De Pue—De Pue High School. Des Plaines—Maine Township High School. Downers Grove—Downers Grove High School. Dundee—Community High School. Dupo—Community High School. East Moline — East Moline High School. East Peoria — East Peoria High School. East St. Louis—Lincoln High School. Elgin—Elgin High School. Evanston—Evanston Township High School. Fairview—Community High School. Galesburg—Galesburg Senior High School. Granite City — Community High School. Senior 178 Havana—Community High School. Highland Park—Highland Park High School. Kankakee—Kankakee High School. Kewanee—Kewanee High School. LaGrange— Lyons Township High School. LaSalle — LaSalle-Peru Township High School. Lincoln—Community High School. Lostant—Community High School. Macomb—Western Academy. Marengo—Marengo High School. Marion — Marion Township High School. Mason City — Mason City High School. Mattoon — Mattoon Senior High School. Maywood—Proviso Township High School. Milford — Milford Township High School. Mount Morris—Mount Morris School. High StupENT-CounciIL HANDBOOK ILLINOIS—Continued [March Township High Palatine—Palatine School. Pekin—Community High School. Peoria — Manual Training High School. Peoria—Woodruff High School. Pinckneyville — Community High School. Potomac—Potomac Township High School. Prophetstown — Prophetstown High School. Quincy—Quincy Junior High School. Robinson—Robinson High School. Rochelle—Rochelle Township High School. Rockford — Lincoln Junior High School. Rock Island—Rock Island Senior High School, Rockton—Hononegah High School. Stockton—Stockton High School. Walnut—Community High School. Wheaton—Community High School. Winnetka—New Trier Township High Oblong — Oblong Township High School. School. Wood River—East Alton-Wood River Olney—Olney High School. Community High School. INDIANA Bloomington — University High School. East Chicago— Roosevelt High School. East Chicago — Washington High School. Evansville—Central High School. Gary—Horace Mann High School. Hammond—George Rogers Clark High School. Hammond—Hammond High School. Indianapolis— Broad Ripple High Schooh. Indianapolis — George Washington High School. Logansport—Logansport High School. Michigan City—Isaac C. Elston Sen- ior High School. Muncie—Central Senior High School. New Castle—New Castle Senior High Huntington — Huntington High School. School. Terre Haute—Wiley High School. IOWA Cedar Rapids — Woodrow Wilson Eldora—Consolidated High School. High School. Chariton—Chariton High School. Clarinda—Clarinda High School. Elkader—Elkader High School. Muscatine—Muscatine High School. Perry—Junior-Senior High School. Council Bluffs—Thomas Jefferson aan Sudlow Intermediate yo eatlncoes ee Pp D- g, Grove High Sioux City—East High School. School. Waverly—Waverly High School. KANSAS Chanute—Chanute High School. Clay Center—Clay County Commu- nity High School. Colby — Colby School. Community High Council Grove—Council Grove High School. Dodge City—Dodge City Senior High School. Eureka—Eureka High School. 1940] APPENDIX KANSAS—Continued Goodland—Sherman Community High School. Harper—Harper High School. Hutchinson—Hutchinson Senior High School. Kansas City—Argentine High School. Lawrence—Liberty Memorial High School. Lawrence — Oread Training School, University of Kansas. McPherson—McPherson High School. Merriam — Shawnee Mission Rural High School. Pratt—Pratt High School. Russell—Russell High School. Smith Center—Smith Center High School. Wichita — Wichita High School North. KENTUCKY Ashland—Ashland High School. Covington—John G. Carlisle School. Covington — Holmes Senior Sehool. High High Danville—Danville High School. Louisville—Atherton High School. Louisville — Louisville Girls’ High School. MAINE Bath—Morse High School. Blue Hill—Blue Hill-George Stevens Academy. Dover-Foxcroft—Foxcroft Academy. Dresden Mills—Bridge Academy. Houlton—Ricker Classical Institute. Kingfield—Kingfield High School. Kittery—R. W. Traip Academy. Mars Hill—Aroostook Central Insti- tute. Medway—Medway High School. Mexico—Mexico High School. Northeast Harbor — Gilman High School. Unity—Unity High School. MARYLAND Anacostia—Oxen Hill High School. Baltimore—Forest Park High School. Baltimore—Junior High School No. 70. Bladensburg — Bladensburg High School. Cumberland—Fort Hill High School. MASSACHUSETTS Arlington — Arlington Junior High North oe Quincy High Schoo! School West. Fairhaven—Fairhaven High School. Kingston—Kingston High School. Medford—Medford High School. New Bedford—New Bedford High School. Newtonville—Newton High School anda High School. Provincetown — Provincetown High School. Salem—Salem High School. Webster—Bartlett High School. MICHIGAN Albion—Washington Gardner High School. Alma—Alma Senior High School. Ann Arbor—Slawson Junior High School. Battle Creek—Southwestern Junior High School. Battle Creek—W. K. Kellogg Junior High School. Bay City—St. Mary’s High School. Bay City—T. L. Handy Junior High School. Bay City—Central High School. Bellevue—Bellevue High School. Benton Harbor—Benton Harbor High School. Big Rapids—Big Rapids High School. Birmingham—Baldwin High School. Birmingham — Birmingham High School. Chesaning—Chesaning Union High School. Corunna—Corunna High School. Detroit—Chadsey High School. Detroit — Cleveland Intermediate School. Detroit—Cooley High School. Detroit—Neinas Intermediate School. Detroit—Nolan Intermediate School. Detroit—Northern High School. Detroit—Northwestern High School. 180 StrupENT-CounciL HanpBook Detroit—St. Theresa High School. Detroit — Tappan _ Intermediate School. Durand—Durand High School. East Lansing—East Lansing High School. Flint — Longfellow Junior School. Flint — McKinley Elementary Junior High School. Grand Blanc—Grand Blane Town- ship High School. Grand Rapids—Central High School. Grand Rapids — Mount Mercy Academy. Grand Rapids—South High School. Holland—Junior-Senior High School. Houghton—Houghton High School. Iron Mountain—Junior-Senior High School. Kalamazoo—Woodward High School. Lansing—Eastern High School. Manistee—Manistee High School. Midland — Midland Senior High School. High and Austin—Austin High School. Braham—Braham High School. Cannon Falls — Cannon Falls High School. Chaska—Chaska High School. Chatfield—Chatfield High School. Faribault—Faribault High School. Granite Falls—Granite Falls High School. Hibbing—Hibbing High School. Minneapolis — Bryant Junior High School. Minneapolis—Central High School. Minneapolis—Edison High School. Minneapolis — Folwell Junior High School. Minneapolis—Jefferson Junior High School. Minneapolis—Marshall High School. Minneapolis — Nokomis Junior High School. Minneapolis—Phillips Junior High School. Minneapolis—Ramsey Junior High School. Minneapolis — Theodore Roosevelt High School. Jackson—Bailey Junior High School. Perkinston—Harrison, Stone & Jack- son Junior College. MICHIGAN—Continued MINNESOTA MISSISSIPPI [March Muskegon — Central Junior High School. Muskegon—-Vanderlaan Junior High School. Muskegon Heights — Muskegon Heights High School. North Muskegon — North Muskegon High School. Port Huron — Port Huron High School. Rouge—River High School, Rockford—Rockford High School. Ro . - ‘ine Oak Senior High ool. Rouge Saginaw — Saginaw Junior High School. Saginaw — Webber Junior High School. St. Clair—St. Clair High School. Sault Ste. Marie—Sault Ste. Marie High School. Traverse City—Traverse City Junior High School. Traverse City—Traverse City Senior High School. Minneapolis—South High School. Minneapolis—Washburn High School. Minneapolis—West High School. Mora—Mora High School. North St. Paul—North St. Paul High School. Red Wing—Red Wing High School. Robbinsdale — Robbinsdale High School. Rochester—Rochester High School. St. Cloud—Central Junior High School. St. Paul—Central High School. St. Paul—Cleveland Junior High School. St. Paul—Harding High School. St. Paul—Johnson High School. St. Paul—Marshall High School. St. Paul — Sanford Junior High School. St. Paul—Washington High School. Shakopee—Shakopee High School. Staples—Staples High School. Stillwater—Stillwater Senior High School. White Bear Lake—White Bear High School. Central High Vicksburg — Carr School. 1940 | APPENDIX MISSOURI Cape Girardeau — Central High School. Excelsior Springs—Excelsior Springs High School. Herculaneum — Herculaneum School. Joplin—Joplin High School. Kansas City—Center High School. Kirkwood—Kirkwood High School. Liberty—Junior-Senior High School. Maryville—Washington High School. Higa Nevada—Nevada Senior High School. North Kansas City—North Kansas City High School. Odessa—Odessa High School. St. Joseph—Benton High School. St. Joseph—Central High School. St. Joseph—Lafayette High School. Webster Groves— Webster Groves High School. Wellston—Wellston High School. MONTANA Bozeman — Gallatin County High School. Great Falls — Great Falls High School, Havre—Havre High School. NEBRASKA Fremont—Fremont High School. Holdredge—Holdredge High School. MeCook—McCook Senior High School Omaha—South High School. Red Cloud—Red Cloud Senior High School. NEW HAMPSHIRE Hanover—Ilanover High School. NEW JERSEY Caldwell— Grover Cleveland High School. Camden—Camden High School. Cranford—Cranford High School. Dumont—Dumont High School. Dunellen—Dunellen High School. Flemington — Flemington High School. Franklin—Franklin High School. Glen Ridge—Glen Ridge High School. Hackensack — Hackensack High School. Highland Park—Highland Park High School. Kearny—Kearny High School. Metuchen—Metuchen High School. Mt. Holly—Mt. Holly High School. Newark — Cleveland Junior High School. New Brunswick — New Brunswick Senior High School. North Plainfield—North High School. Palmyra—Palmyra High School. Pemberton—Pemberton High School. Princeton—Princeton High School. Red Bank—Red Bank High School. Ridgefield Park — Ridgefield Park High School. Ridgewood—Ridgewood High School. Roselle—Abraham Clark High School. Scotch Plains—Scotch Plains High School. South Orange-Maplewood—Columbia High School. Trenton—Junior High School No, 4. Plainfield NEW MEXICO Portales — Portales School. Senior High NEW YORK A¢bany—Milne High School. Brooklyn—Bay Ridge High School. Brooklyn—Girls’ High School. Brooklyn—Alexander Hamilton High School. Brooklyn—Thomas School. Brooklyn—Abraham School. Jefferson High Lincoln High Brooklyn — James Madison High School. Brooklyn—New Utrecht High School. Brooklyn—Samuel J. Tilden High School. Bufialo—McKinley School. Faleoner—Falconer High School. (ireat Neck—Great Neck High School. Vocational High 182 Stupent-Councit HaNnDBook [March NEW YORK—Continued Hamburg—Hamburg High School. Holland Patent — Central High School. Lowville—Lowville Academy. New York City—Bryant High School. New York City—De Witt Clinton High School. New York City—Hunter College High School. New York City— Newtown High School. New York City—Julia Richman High School. New York City—Straubenmuller Tex- tile High School. New York City — Stuyvesant High School. New York City—Walton High School. North Syracuse — North Syracuse High School. Rochester—Edison Technical High School. Schuylerville — Schuylerville High School. Snyder — Amherst Central High School. Staten Island — Tottenville High School. Syracuse—Eastwood High School. NORTH CAROLINA Kannapolis—Cannon High School. Winston-Salem—R. J. Reynolds High School. NORTH DAKOTA Fargo—Central Senior High School. OHIO Ada—Ada High School. Akron—Buchtel High School. Akron—East High School. Akron—North High School. Ashland—Ashland High School. Ashtabula—Ashtabula High School. Bedford—Bedford High School. Castalia—Margaretta High School. Chagrin Falls — Auburn Township High School. Cleveland—John Adams High School. Cleveland — East Technical High School. Cleveland—Fairview High School. Cleveland—-Lincoln High School. Cleveland—James Ford Rhodes High School. Cleveland—South High School. Cleveland—West High School. Cleveland Heights — Heights High School. Columbus—East High School. Columbus — Upper Arlington High School. Columbus—West High School. Crooksville—Crooksville High School. Frankfort—Frankfort High School. Garfield Heights— Garfield Heights High School. Hamilton—Fairfield Township High School. Hamilton— Hamilton Senior High School. Kent — Theodore Roosevelt High School. Leavittsburg— Warren Township High School. Mansfield—Mansfield Senior High School. Napoleon—Napoleon High School. Painesville—Harvey High School. Parma—Parma-Schaaf High School. Rocky River—Fairview High School. Shaker Heights—Shaker High School. Stow—Stow High School. Springfield—Springfield High School. Sylvania — Burnham Junior-Senior High School. Toledo—Clay High School. Van Wert—Van Wert High School. Wadsworth — Wadsworth Central High School. Wapakoneta—Blume High School. Wellsville—Wellsville High School. OKLAHOMA Ardmore—Ardmore High School. Duncan—Duncan High School. Drumright—Drumright High School. El] Reno—E] Reno High School. Enid—Enid High School. Idabel—Idabel Junior-Senior High School. McAlester—McAlester High School. Oklahoma City — Harding Junior High School. Ponca City—Ponca City Senior High School. Shawnee—Shawnee High School. Tahlequah — Bagley High School, Northeastern State Teachers Col- lege. —_ 1940] APPENDIX 183 OREGON Astoria—Astoria High School. Cottage Grove—Cottage Grove High School, La Grande—La Grande High School. Pendleton—Pendleton High School. Tillanook—Tillanook High School. PENNSYLVANIA Aliquippa—Aliquippa High School. Altoona—Altoona High School. Ambridge— Ambridge Senior High Berwyn — Tedryffrin-Easttown High School. Chester—Chester High School. Coaldale—Coaldale High School. Collingdale—Collingdale High School. Doylestown — Doylestown Borough High School. Harrisburg — John High School. Hatboro — Hatboro High School. Lansdale—Lansdale High School. Philadelphia — Gratz Senior High School. Philadelphia—High School for Girls. Philadelphia — Kensington High School. Harris Junior - Senior Philadelphia—Olney High School. Philadelphia — Overbrook High School. Philadelphia—Thomas Junior High School. Philadelphia — West High School. Philadelphia — William Penn High School. Pittsburgh—Gladstone Junior High School Pittsburgh—Perry High School. Reading — Northwest Junior High School. Reading — Reading Senior High School. Springdale—Springdale High School. Springfield—Springfield High School. Philadelphia RHODE ISLAND Little Compton—Josephine F. Wilde High School. Westerly—iWesterly High School. Woonsocket — Woonsocket Junior High School. SOUTH DAKOTA Aberdeen—Central High School. Lemmon—Lemmon High School. TENNESSEE Memphis—Memphis Technical High School. TEXAS Houston—Reagan Senior High School. Lufkin—Lufkin High School. Longview — Longview Senior High School. UTAH Salt Lake City—West High School. Tooele—Tooele High School. VERMONT St. Johnsbury — St. Academy. Johnsbury VIRGINIA Charlottesville—Lane High School. Lynchburg—E. C. Glass High School. Newport News—Newport News High School. Roanoke—Jefferson High School. 184 SrupENT-CouNcIL HANDBOOK [March WASHINGTON Aberdeen—Weatherwax Senior High School. High Anacortes—Anacortes Senior School. Arlington—Arlington High School. Bothell—Bothell Senior High School. Burlington—Burlington High School. Prosser—Prosser Senior High School. Seattle—Ballard High School. Seattle—Broadway High School. Seattle—Garfield High School. WEST VIRGINIA Dunbar—Dunbar High School. Fairmont — Fairmont Senior High School. Harrisville—Harrisville High School. Kingston—Kingston High School. Kingwood—Kingwood High School. Morgantown—University Demonstra- tion High School. South Charleston—South High School. Terra Alta—Terra Alta High School. Charleston Masontown — Masontown High Williamstown — Williamstown High School. School. WISCONSIN Milwaukee—Riverside High School. Spooner—Spooner High School. Milwaukee—Shorewood High School. Stevens Point—P. J. Jacobs High Neenah—Neenah High School. School. Oshkosh—Oshkosh High School. Stevens Point—Stevens Point High Port Washington—Port Washington School. High School. Wausau — Wausau Senior High Racine — Washington Park High School. School. Wauwatosa — Wauwatosa High Sheboygan—Central High School. School. Sheboygan—North High School. West Allis—West Allis High School. WYOMING Buffalo — Johnson County High Laramie — University High School, School. University of Wyoming. Kemmerer—Kemmerer High School. A few of the schools replying to the questionnaire were omitted because they neglected to put their names and addresses on the questionnaires. TENTATIVE PROGRAM Summer Convention National Association of Secondary-School Principals Monday July 1 2:15 P. M. (Room to be assigned) Tuesday July 2 2:15 P. M. Shorewood High School Auditorium Milwaukee, Wisconsin July 1, 2—1940 THEME: GuIDANCcE IN SECONDARY EpUCATION. Presiding: Herbert Helble, Principal, Appleton High School, State Coérdinator, National Association of Secondary-School Principals. Address: “Present-day Challenges to Guidance in Secondary Education’"’"—Dr. Francis C. Rosecrance, Professor of Edu- cation, Northwestern University. Address: (Speaker to be selected). Joint session of Secondary-School Principals and National Association of Teachers of Speech. THEME: MeeriIne THE YOUTH PROBLEM. Presiding: Oscar Granger, President, National Association of Secondary-School Principals. Address: In a Recreation Area, “Leisure Time Activities’— Miss Dorothy C. Enderis, Assistant Supt. in charge of De- partment of Municipal Recreation and Adult Education. Address: In a Subject Area, “What the Secondary-School Ad- ministrator May Expect of the Speech Teacher”"—Dr. Rex- ford Smith, President, LaCrosse State Teachers College. Address and Demonstration: “Speech Throughout the High School”—Jeanette Ross, Shorewood High School. Demon- stration with high-school students. Shorewood Auditorium Dining Room. Presiding: Oscar Granger, President, National Association of Secondary-School Principals. Address: (Speaker to be selected). 185 Guides for the Discussion and Study of “That All May Learn” By B. L. Dopps For use in faculty meetings, discussion groups, and education classes Each of these three discussion guides is centered upon an important aspect of the problem of adapting instruction to present high school student bodies. The “do you agree” questions appearing below are intended for use in helping discover the extent of agreement in a faculty, class, or dis- cussion group on some of the basic ideas in Dr. Dodd’s book, That All May Learn.’ If there is general agreement on each question in the list, it may be wise to proceed at once with the “applications” to your school which follow. If there is disagreement with or misunderstanding of any of the questions, a discussion based upon material in the book may be called for. The ap- pended quotations are by representative writers and may throw further illumination upon the various questions. I. Wuat 1s THE GREATEST ProBL—EM CONFRONTING SECONDARY Epv- cators To-pay? (Based on That All May Learn, Chapters 1 and 2) GENERAL PLAN FOR THESE DISCUSSION GUIDES: Statement of Problem: Deep underlying changes in our Ameri- can culture, many born of the depression, have presented the American secondary school with new and critical problems in providing adequate, appropriate, and profitable education for an increasingly large proportion of all youth of high school age. Do you agree— 1, that since a democratic society needs the optimum contribution of each individual and since individuals may vary widely in abilities, it is the responsibility of the school to adapt the curricu- lum content and methods of instruction to each individual’s capaci- ties, needs, and potentialities? 2. that the most reliable way to justify continued support of education by the public is to give to every boy and girl an opportunity for an adequate, appropriate, and profitable education? 3, that the conventional subject pattern, still the main core of the typical secondary-school program, is poorly adapted to a large proportion of the high-school population? 4. that the ability of an abstract and verbal type which is prerequisite Dodds, B. L. That All May Learn. Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary-School Principals, Volume 23, Number 85, November, 1930. 186 Guiness For Discussion AND STUDY 187 to success in the conventional academic curriculum is lacking in a large proportion of the present high-school population? that if the present trend continues and a still larger percentage of all youth of high school age is in high school, the group of “edu- cationally neglected” students (those for whom the conventional curriculum is poorly adjusted) will be increased? How does this problem apply to your school? 1. II. What is the evidence in your community to support or oppose the problem stated above? How does the practice in your community agree with the theory that secondary education should serve the needs of all normal youth? (Recall Issue I of the Orientation Committee’s report, Bulletin No. 59, Issues of Secondary Education, Department of Secondary-School Principals.) In your community what students of high-school age are not in high school and why? For what students in high school is the curriculum maladjusted? What evidence is there that the gradu- ates of your school are contributing toward effective social living in the community? Into what sort of work and into what standards of living will your graduates most likely go? What of practical value does the present curriculum offer them? What is your policy in regard to standards? What differentiation of flexibility does the program have to adapt to the varying degrees of ability found in the students? Is your school sincerely attempting to adjust to the needs of youth or is it attempting to force youth to adjust to a system of values based upon a given type of academic aptitude? Evidence? How successful do you feel the attempts have been? What are the Next steps? Wuat ArE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE “EDUCATIONALLY NEG- LECTED” as A LEARNER? (Based on Chapters 3 and 5) Statement of Problem: Since the “educationally neglected” differ from the bright primarily in ability to transfer the learning of school situ- ations to the practical situations of life, the basic problem in their education is to secure a learning situation sufficiently resembling life situations to make practical applications possible and probable. Do you agree— 1, that as a rule dull students are neither accelerated in physical de- velopment nor gifted with superior manual ability? that antisocial behavior is an outgrowth of maladjustment rather than an inherent trait tendency to be associated with dullness? “Tuat Att May Learn” | March that the assumption that dull students possess shorter spans of at- tention and have less powers of self-evaluation is of limited validity since attention and self-evaluation are not so much related to dull- ness as to interest in the activity under way? that the ability to translate the experience of one situation into other situations having similarity in varying degrees is one of the chief differences between the bright and the dull? that the basic factor in learning is the active participation of the learner motivated by a genuine interest which comes from seeing the learning in relation to his own present or not too far distant needs? that successful teaching of the “educationally neglected” must start where the student is and proceed? that contact with reality can be achieved effectively by setting up units of instruction around persistent problems and needs of youth? that certain skills, attitudes, and facts are necessary for successful social living but that specific or extensive knowledge of certain fields is not to be attempted by all? that the problem is one of selection of materials in terms of the needs of the students? that in view of their slower learning rate the logical procedure with the “educationally neglected” is to reduce the amount of material required and to increase the time and the amount of en- richment material? that the more limited background and imagination of the “educa- tionally neglected” probably make necessary more guidance from the teacher? that while there is no objective evidence to prove that the learning process of either bright or dull students is characterized by any unique or peculiar method of learning, the implication that identi- cal methods of instruction should be used does not follow. How does this problem apply to your school? What, if any, basis of classification of pupils is used in your school? To what extent does the scheme of classification consider the many qualities that help to form the total make-up of the individual? What is the attitude of the teachers in your school toward the “educationally neglected”? To what extent is there an intelligent understanding of their characteristics and needs? What can the school do to help teachers, academically minded by training and nature, to approach the problems of the “educationally neglected” as problems of normal individuals? To what extent would teachers choose to teach a “slow section”? Guiwes For Discussion AND. STUDY 189 What effort is your school making to lessen the handicap of limited ability in language skills from which the slow learner suffers? What concept of learning underlies your curricular program and your method of instruction? How much memorization is really required? What evidence is there of those changes in behavior by which we judge real learning to have taken place? To what extent are your students handling similar materials? How much have your courses been “watered” in recent years to adjust to the influx of students of low ability? How many activities take the school out of its four walls? How successful do you feel you have been in using visual and auditory aids to give more reality to instruction? What attempts have been made or can be made in your school to organize instruction with the definite purpose of securing transfer of learning to out-of-school activities? III. Wat Are tHE Neeps oF THE “EpucaTIONALLY NEGLECTED”? (Based on Chapters 4 and 6) Statement of Problem: The secondary school is only one of the agencies contributing to the education of youth, but because it offers the last formal education of the “educationally neglected” group, it has a major responsibility to meet their needs in the basic functional areas of vocational training, leisure time, democratic citizenship, family life, and health. Do you agree— 1. that the school curricula must be built upon a recognition of the relationship between the needs of society and those felt by the in- dividual ? that the real problem is not so much discovering the needs but finding ways by which the school program can meet the needs and interests of the students? that the school is justified in setting up standards of accomplish- ment only if there is a reasonable expectation that the student can reach the goal? that certain social and character traits so essential for vocational competence can be powerfully conditioned by the school? that the school program should help the individual to discover those interests and skills which in after-school life will provide the basis for satisfactory and worth-while leisure-time activities? that if a school is to train for democratic living in the future it must practice those principles which it seeks to develop? 190 that the “educationally neglected” group will be more immediately student? 10. How does this problem apply to your school? 1. 6. “I “THat Att May Learn” | March concerned with the problems of family life than will the college preparatory group? that any comprehensive program of education must be concerned with the physical as well as the mental development of the that certain objectives and plans of organization will be common to all schools but that each school should make its own local adaptation growing out of the situation at hand? that no curriculum organization can be successful unless there are on the part of the teachers, administrators, and patrons commonly accepted beliefs and principles to serve as guides as well as ade- quate skill and willingness to carry the organization to completion? What efforts have you made or could you make to enable the stu- dents to comprehend and appreciate the purposes and goals for which your school is striving? To what extent do you think your school has been successful in setting up goals which are within the reach of the student? How closely is your vocational guidance program adjusted to the occupational needs of your community and to the possibilities of development in the individual? How effective have your records of information about students been in helping to place them suitably in work? To what extent has your school accepted as its responsibility the training for satisfying use of leisure time? Is your school autocratic or democratic in its atmosphere and gen- eral operations? Evidence? What training is your school giving for participation in family life? How adequate is it? What recognition is made of the health needs of the students? How comprehensive is the health program? To what extent has your school drawn upon the experience and in- novations of other schools in meeting the needs of youth? What procedures did you or could you adopt or modify for your use? What are your school’s most pressing problems in connection with the “educationally neglected”? How are you planning to meet them? To what extent could your plans be of benefit to other high schools? ~~ a -... Guipes For Discussion AND StTupy PERTINENT ViEWs OF OTHER AUTHORS ON THIS PROBLEM Needed Basic Education “What these boys and girls now need is a broad, general education which will give to all alike at least the same minimum essential tools ot intercommunication and thinking, the same minimum up-to-date scientific acquaintance with the world in which we live, both natural and social, an appreciation of the culture and standards of our civilization, the beginning of the ability to work well with others, a common understanding and belief in the democratic process and the desire to preserve and defend self-govern- ment. In addition to this, boys and girls need, as individuals, some under- standing of their own bodies and minds and the opportunity under proper guidance and stimulation to develop their individual capacities, interests, and possibilities for growth. The first need is common to all; its fulfillment is essential to society. The second is different with each, but its satisfaction is likewise necessary to the growth and enrichment not only of the indi- vidual, but also of society.” ; See: The Regent’s Inquiry, Education for American Life, The McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1938, p. 12. No Dump Heap of Ejected Failures “The new curriculum will be appropriate to all students. As in any profitable industry, the school will seek to work up all its raw material so that each type will attain its highest value. There will be no dump heap of ejected failures. After the preliminary processes, the education essential to all in a democracy at whatever cost of time and money, there will be in- creasing differentiation according to needs and capacities and every type of education that promises dividends on the social investment will for that reason be respectable and respected. Abstract academic education will be respectable for those whose abilities can assimilate it for social good, how- ever remote; and concrete vocational education will be respectable for others differently gifted. See: Briggs, Thomas H. The Great Investment, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1930, p. 100. How the “Dull” Differ from the “Bright” The dull and dull-normal adolescent shows his inferior ability chiefly along purely intellectual lines. He learns slowly, he has great difficulty with abstractions, he has little if any interest in books. He is typically a nonverbal, nonacademic individual. Quite often, his inferiority does not [March 192 “Tuat Att May Learn” become noticeable until the years of the junior high school or even later. The definite, factual material presented in elementary school he can learn —perhaps a little more slowly than other pupils. It is not until the subject becomes (a) too extrinsic and (b) too theoretical that his defects stand out clearly. Socially and emotionally dull adolescents are no different from anyone else, provided their environment has not made too heavy demands upon them. They can usually make and keep friends of their own or even supe- rior ability. They can fit into the social milieu from which they come. In- deed, these dull children often get along rather better in nonacademic pur- suits than brighter children, they are willing to be led, they are delighted with any attention shown them, and they are devoted to their friends. There is no reason to suppose that social incompetence is inherent in dull and low normal individuals. .. . Each Should Have an Appropriate Education If morons and high-grade imbeciles can be trained so that the majority of them make good social and vocational adjustments in the community, it would seem inexcusable for the high school to fail as completely as it often does in preparing the dull and dull-normal pupil for successful work after he leaves school. To be sure this group is a relatively new component of the high-school population. Below-average children did not appear in secondary schools in any considerable number before 1910. At the present many children with I.Q.’s as low as eighty attend high school. . . Few people seem to realize how little academic learning is necessary for the sort of work open to individuals of dull mentality. . . . Dull pupils need to be taught comparatively few academic skills. If a dull adolescent can read a newspaper and a few magazines, can write acceptable personal and business letters, can keep a cash account, can apply simple arithmetic to practical problems, and can make some sort of budget, he has an adequate scholastic equipment for any kind of work he is likely to do. He needs neither algebra nor Latin in order to become a good plumber. A girl needs neither chemistry nor French in order to give finger waves in a beauty parlor or to file letters correctly in a lawyer’s office. There seems no good reason why the junior high or high-school teachers should exhause them- selves in trying to develop in dull boys and girls skills that will never be required. The time saved from subjects that are utterly useless to inferior students can be used in training these boys and girls in good personal habits, satisfactory emotional responses, and adequate social adjustment. These matters are desirable in every individual, but to the dull they are absolutely essential. See: Cole, Luella. Psychology of Adolescence, Farrar and Rhinehart, New York, 1936. pp. 343-7. int sur nifi 1940 | Guipes For Discussion AND Stupy One Program Won't Fit All His (the slow child) language development is slower than that of the normal. He forms fewer associations and forms them more slowly. Word meanings and vocabulary development come more slowly and only through actual experience. . . . He does not so readily discriminate differences or recognize similarities as does the normal child. His abilities to do these things are developed by repeatedly directing him to observe and to make comparisons. His ability to form judgments, to generalize, and to under- stand abstractions is limited. He is led to generalize only through being helped to appreciate the application of general principles to a large num- ber of specific instances. He is limited in the powers of independence, initiative, and resourcefulness, and requires more direction and more fre- quent opportunity than does the normal child to plan and to carry out activities within his ability. . . . Our schools are planned for children with a capacity for academic achievement. The intelligence tests that we commonly use as a basis for planning individual school programs have been rightly accused of testing only academic aptitude. They give a prognosis of how the child will suc- ceed in academic work. But there is need for recognizing aptitudes other than academic—mechanical aptitude, art aptitude, and others—if the edu- cational program is to help the child attain his fullest possible development. The fact is especially applicable to the slow group, whose greatest poten- tialities will not be along academic lines. See: Ingram, Christine P. Education of the Slow-Learning Child, World Book Company, Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York, 1935, pp. 392-3. Methods Must Differ Too On the basis of these observations that, although foresight, sustained attention, sound judgment, and good memory are important evidence of effective intelligence, they are but aspects of a general and fundamental pattern which characterizes mental life as a whole, we seem to have satis- factory grounds for concluding that the basic factor is the ability of the individual to respond with present meanings when they are represented in a later situation only by partial aspects of their former contexts in the form of symbols or other surrogates. Therein, in addition to the ability of the individual to respond with many meanings—to bring to bear upon new Situations a rich and significant experience—we have the basic crite- rion of intelligence. . . . To the degree that we deal with persons of limited intelligence we must rely upon a method which offers the greatest as- surance that objectives now perceived will have direct and obvious sig- nificance for future situations. See: Featherstone, William. The Curriculum of the Special Class, Bureau of Publications, T. C., Columbia Uni- versity, N.Y.C., 1932, pp. 56-57.