BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SECON DARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Issued Five Times a Year January, Morch, April, May and October MARCH, 1932 Entered as second-class matter, December 29, 1925, at the postoffice at Berwyn, Illinois, under the Act of August 24, ‘1912. Acceptance for mail- ing at special rate of postage, provided for in Séction 412, Act of February 28, 1925, authorized March 30, 1927. BULLETIN NUMBER 40 Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Meeting of the Department of Secondary-School Principals of the National Education Association WASHINGTON, D. C. February 22, 23, and 24, 1932 Published by THE DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION H. V. CHURCH, Secretary 3129 Wenonah Avenue, BERWYN, ILLINOIS J. Sterling Morton High School CICERO, ILLINOIS Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Meeting of the Department of Secondary-School Principals of the National Education Association at - WASHINGTON, D. C. on February 22, 23 and 24, 1932 Edited by H. V. CHURCH Secretary of the Association Published by the Department, 1932 CONTENTS Officers of The Department .... Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Meeting GENERAL SESSION “A Program for Secondary Education,” Thomas H. Briggs, Teachers College, Columbia University. “Major Aspects of the National Survey of Secondary Edu- cation,” Leonand V. Koos, Professor of Secondary Education, The University of Chicago, and Associate Director of Survey “Educational Interpretation for the Secondary School,” Dr. Belmont Farley, Assistant Director of Division of Publications, National Education Association DISCUSSION GROUPS “Aims and Activities of Supervisors,” Dr. Roy O. Billett, Specialist in School Administration, United States Office of Education “A Plan for Cooperative Supervision,” Mr. Arthur M. Sey- bold, Headmaster, Oak Lane Country Day School of Temple University, Oak Lane, Philadelphia, Pa “Guidance Programs in Secondary Schools,” W. C. Reavis, Professor of Education, University of Chicago “An Organized Guidance Program in Secondary Schools,” — Richard D. Allen, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R. I vi CONTENTS “Tests for a Club Sponsor,” Edgar G. Johnston, Professor of Secondary Education, and Principal of University High School, University of Michigan “Recent Trends in the Secondary School Curriculum. Pro- gress Report, National Survey of Education,” Dr. Arthur K. Loomis, Principal University High School, University of Chicago, and Head Specialist in the Curriculum, National Survey of Education Prepared in Collaboration with Dr. E. S. Lide, Full-Time Spec- ialist in Curriculum for the National Survey of Secondary Education “The Study Habits of Excellent and Deficient Pupils,” Francis L. Bacon, Principal Evanston Township High “Obstacles to Pupil Adjustment in the Secondary Schools,” Charles W. Boardman, Professor of Education, and Director of Student Teaching, College of Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota “Class Size,” S. N. Ewan, Principal of High School, Landsdowne, Pennsylvania “The Adequacy of the Maximum Salary for Secondary School Teachers in a City System,” William D. Ew- ing, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, California “What the High Schools Are Doing for the Individual,” Second Progress Report, National Survey of Second- ary Education, Dr. Roy O. Billett, Specialist in School Administration, United States Office of Education.... “Practices and Problems in Improving the Articulation of High School and College,” P. Roy Brammell, U. 8S. Office of Education; and Assistant Specialist in School Administration, Staff of National Survey of Secondary Education Page 83 CONTENTS “The Requirements of Mental Hygiene in the Secondary School,” Frank N. Freeman, University of Chicago, Professor of Educational Psychology “Is the Junior High School Organization Superior to the Conventional Organization? A Report on Nation- Wide Practice,” Dr. F. T. Spaulding, Associate Pro- fessor of Education, Harvard University Discussion, H. A. Glass, Superintendent of Schools, Bonham, Texas .... “Relative Merits of the 6-4-4 Organization,” George F. Zook, President of Akron University, Akron, Ohio.... “Relative Merits of the Six-Three-Three-Two Plan of Or- ganization,” Walter Crosby Eells, Stanford Univer- sity “The Place of Technical and Vocational Education in Secondary Schools,” Lewis A. Wilson, Assistant Com- missioner for Vocational and Extension Education for the State of New York “Some Issues Involved in the Organization of Specialized vii Page 197 231 244 Secondary Schools,” Grayson N. Kefauver, Associate Professor of Education, Teachers’ College, Columbia University, and Principal Specialist in School Organ- ization, National Survey of Secondary Education LUNCHEON SESSION Report of Treasurer Report of Auditor National Council, Meeting of National Council of the Na- tional Honor Society at Washington, D. C., February 276 .. 278 285 viii CONTENTS Page - 286 288 Department Matters Publications .... . Constitution of the Department of Secondary School Principals 299 APPENDIX Summary of Address Delivered by William A. Wetzel, Meeting of Department of Superintendence “How to Improve Supervision in Secondary Schools,” W. C. Reavis, Professor of Education, University of Chicago “How Can the High School Stimulate the Intellectual In- terests of American Youth?” Jesse H. Newlon, Pro- fessor of Education and Director of Lincoln School of Teachers’ College, Columbia University Consumers’ Research Report of Committee on Standard Forms THE OFFICERS OF THE DEPARTMENT President: W. W. Haggard Superintendent Joliet Township High School and Junior | College, Joliet, Illinois. First Vice-President: Robert B. Clem Principal Shawnee High School, Louisville, Kentucky. Second Vice-President: E. E. Church Supervising Principal Junior-Senior High School, Parkersburg, West Virginia. Secretary-Treasurer: H. V. Church Superintendent Morton Secondary School, Cicero, Illinois. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Harrison C. Lyseth State Supervisor of Secondary Education, Maine Augusta, Maine. M. C. Jones Principal High School, Huntington Beach, California. SIXTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING of the Department of Secondary-School Principals The sixteenth annual meeting of the Department of Sec- ondary-School Principals convened in Washington, D. C. The sessions were held on Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday, Feb- ruary 22, 23, and 24, 1932. THE GENERAL SESSION The first session of the sixteenth annual convention of the Department of Secondary-Principals was called to order by the President, C. H. Threlkeld, Principal of Columbia High School, South Orange, New Jersey, at 2:05 P. M., in the Gold Room of the Wardman Park Hotel of Washington, D. C. The Eastern High-School orchestra rendered two num- bers: “My Maryland........ Romberg; “Habanera,” from Nat- oma........ Victor Herbert. The President, after a few explanatory remarks, intro- duced Dr. Thomas H. Briggs, Professor of Education of Teach- ers College, Columbia University, who read his paper, A Pro- gram for Secondary Education. A PROGRAM FOR SECONDARY EDUCATION Thomas H. Briggs Teachers College, Columbia University If one perspicaciously reads the history of secondary edu- cation, in other countries as well as in our own, he can not help being impressed with the recurrent attempts to set up and to use directive principles. But in every case these principles aft- er a time are forgotten or become verbal slogans that palliate 1 2 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS unjustifiable practices. The record reveals one instance after another of a secondary or advanced education plan originally based on an intellectual, social, political, or religious need grad- ually tending to become an abstraction, an end itself. Those in charge became obsessed with the values of the subject-matter, which naturally grew in amount and increasingly was organ- ized in terms of teaching convenience rather than of the orig- inal needs. Needs always change more rapidly than curricula or methods, and the result is a distinct social lag, even a social obstruction, on the part of education. The developed subject- matter becomes a hurdle, over which only the best students are able to pass; and because good minds, whatever their train- ing, can be successful in new and different challenges, a pres- tige associates itself with secondary education, however remote it may have become from the demands of society. This pattern one finds illustrated over and over in every nation and almost in every age. Our early Colonial grammar schools were established “that learning might not be buried in the graves of our fathers,” but specifically to train youth for service to church and state, which in Massachusetts were iden- tical. The curriculum was supposed to prepare future theolo- gians to read in the original the scriptures and the writings of the church fathers. In that early society the minister was po- tent, and consequently youth who had an expectation or desire to enter the service of the church enrolled in the grammar schools. But very soon the curriculum became an end in itself, a fetish divorced from actual needs, that was sought in pride by many who had no intention to enter the clergy. It is true, as Benjamin Rush said, that “Men are generally most proud of those things that do not contribute to the happiness of them- selves or others. Useful knowledge generally humbles the mind, but learning, like fine clothes, feeds pride, and thereby hardens the human heart.” Even when the divorce of church and state was complete, the prestige of the school was high. Its curriculum persisted long for many pupils when they had no real need for it. Finally came Benjamin Franklin in 1749 with his revolu- tionary proposal for a new type of secondary school, a school a. = fF = © .oO @® © A 1] = DD = HD & O05 ee OPK RO Oe DOOR eR OKs OUD na cf fo of & — +%Mm fF im ~~ 8 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS to minister to the needs of society as it had developed. A sound- er set of principles than those that he presented would be diffi- cult to devise. Its failure, which is one of the major tragedies in the history of our education, was the inevitable result of a failure to plan the details. The general proposals were sound, but it was too much to expect that teachers trained in the old curriculum would have the independence and find the time in the interstices of their regular duties to invent and organize courses of study that were radical and at the same time effec- tive. They did not. “There is in mankind,” Franklin observed truly, “an unaccountable prejudice in favor of ancient customs and habitudes, which inclines to a continuance of them after the circumstances, which formerly made them useful, cease to exist.” The public expected something new, but it was too much wedded to tradition to be satisfied with the sporadic, in- complete, and ineffective attempts of those teachers who did keep their eyes on Franklin’s original plan. Though some pro- gress was made, there was a gradual recession to much of the old, which had already to independent judgment, as we now so clearly see, proved unsuited to the needs of the time. The acad- emy, to Franklin’s disgust, became traditionally minded. Though two or three generations later it entered upon an orgy of experimentation, without sound philosophic direction, with new courses of almost every conceivable kind, it continued to carry high the banner of tradition, and finally almost disap- peared in competition with the high school, which in turn had declared a new set of ideals. The same story is found in the countries of modern Eu- rope, some, like England, moving slowly, and some, like Prus- sia, moving relatively fast when measured by the tedious clock of history. The program of Fichte and his co-workers was sound and long-sighted, but time after time corrective meas- ures were necessary tg bring about adjustments to the life of the people, which moved forward without waiting for educa- tion, in some respects aided by it and in others retarded. The great superiority of the German schools in the nineteenth cen- tury was due to the fact that at every step of reform there was a reason or a series of reasons, which gave a direction and a 4 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS genuine significance to reform. Whether we approve or not, we must respect the intelligent program which before the World War sought the “God-fearing, country-loving, self-sup- porting subject of Imperial Germany” or the one now forming under the most severe handicaps for achieving Deutschtum. Russia has thrown tradition to the winds and is struggling to create new schools to promote the ideals that it has adopted. If it succeeds, the schools will probably settle down to a tradi- tional form which in a generation or two will seriously lag be- hind the advance that society has by that time made. At what point in the cycle are we in the United States to- day? Many are traditionally minded and easily satisfied with the marvelous increase in the number of schools and of pupils. But I am addressing the leaders of our profession, the mem- bers of the most representative and potentially the most au- thoritative organization in secondary education. However proud we are of accomplishments, our eyes must be fixed for- ward; our judgments must be critical; and our intellects con- structive. Everyone recognizes that we have been living and perhaps still are in one of the periodic golden ages of mankind. Civilization has changed in a generation with a speed and an intensity that have never before been known. Ten minutes with a pencil and paper will enable anyone to list an astounding though far from complete number of radical advances in every field of life. Not only has pure science been remade and vastly extended, but applied science has enriched every level of life. Politics and goverrfment are vastly different. But as important as these changes are, I doubt if they are as significant to the new program of secondary education as the revolution that has occurred in the fields of social and of religious life. Without attempting to enumerate even the major fields in which signi- ficant change has occurred, to say nothing of the details, one can safely assert that despite the many more or less sporadic attempts at adjustment, education now shows an alarming lag. I assert this commonplace not with any idea of being pes- simistic or of spreading gloom. Only those who shut their eyes to a challenge or shrink from an opportunity can feel downcast and fearful. I call the fact before us that we may consider to- DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 5 gether what to do. Shall we muddle along, each one doing what he can, and that discouragingly little, to accomplish some small adjustments in his relatively small area of work, or shall we unitedly seek some principles on which we can agree, principles that will give direction to the new program that is assuredly coming? The individual rightly feels that alone he is too ig- norant to plan and that alone he is too weak to accomplish. It is only by realizing and by making others realize the revolution in our modern world which has left the schools far behind that we can hope to unite our professional forces and muster the organization that must be set to the task. The obvious lag of our secondary schools calls loudly for a clearly formulated set of principles that will direct the inevitable new program. We are at a point when we are challenged to start a new cycle. Probably in no other field in the world as in education does there exist such a blind hope that if we go on “doing the best we can,” which may mean nothing significant, some fine morn- ing we shall wake up and find that an “expert” has produced a curative talisman. The expert may discover a new planet, or vitamin, he may invent a new machine, and he may contribute a new principle. But we may as well get it clearly in our minds once and for all; no single expert is going to surprise us any fine morning with a complete program for what we should do in the details of education. Its mere beginning needs the com- bined labors for a long time of the best men and women who can be enlisted in service. We should get clearly in mind, too. that in the beginning we must have the outlines of a program, the details of which must be worked out by years of painstak- ing labor and carefully controlled experimentation. Those who hope for talismans still belong to a primitive society. They have no part in the challenge that confronts us in this complex new world. This time is especially appropriate for the initiating of a far-sighted fundamental program, not merely because great changes in life have brought manifest new needs, but also be- cause the National Survey of Secondary Education is just com- ing to a close. Before many months have passed it will have brought to us a wealth of factual information such as no peo- 6 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ple have ever had about their schools before. These facts will be of inestimable value, but without the setting up of a pro- gram they will merely be interesting when tabulated, charted, and graphed in the learned treatises that will be subsequently written. It will be a tragedy if those high in the profession of secondary education do not create the machinery to use what so extensive and so carefully planned a study will reveal. As I have argued before, what we primarily and funda- mentally need is philosophy of secondary education, a philoso- phy which first of all is soundly based on and contributory to the philosophy of the democratic order. Unfortunately that basic philosophy has not been formulated with sufficient defi- niteness to afford a foundation on which to build. Our philoso- phy must take into consideration the pertinent facts of life and also of education, as they have been discovered or may be re- vealed by planned investigations. It must be clear, as so many are not. It is certain that everything of great importance in the program of education can be stated so simply that the most immature teacher can understand it. The abstruse is suspect. If an idea is not understood, how can it be effective? And, fi- nally, our philosphy must be pragmatic, at every point of need positively directive to some kind of effective action. Although generally professing pragmatism, educators give much evi- dence of lacking total conversion. No people in the world seem so content to publish and give lip service to principles, which thereafter manifest no effect whatever on practice. By our works we are known and not by our professions of faith. The needed pragmatic philosophy has got to define numerous com- mon terms—such as democracy and culture—with a definite- ness that is lacking in much of the professional as well as in the public mind. Such a needed philosophy will have to be tentatively formulated under powerful auspices, such as those of this asso- ciation, by a group of our ablest men and women who, freed from other obligations, can give their entire time for a long period to uninterrupted work. They must be enabled to call upon others, outside as well as in education, to contribute necessary ideas and data. The program that they prepare will == at ae ao lCUM,lcetKtlU lc hlC KDlC ell islUmelCe,lUrelClUreltCO 7 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS of necessity be tentative, to be modified as the many faceted eye of the profession scrutinizes it in detail. It must then be popularized with equal care and skill. When and only when and where it is made convincing, detailed plans for achieving one or more of its objectives will be prepared and experiment- ally tested. It will readily be seen that this is a tremendous challenge and a tremendous task. As a matter of fact it is in- terminable. By the time any program is completed it will need revision. By the time any unit of work proves effective, changed conditions and new knowledge will make it inadequate. When we realize the need and the importance of such a pro- gram, then and only then are we ready to undertake it. By comparjson everything else seems relatively of little value. In terms of its provision everything will find meaning. Pending the initiation of a program for developing a phil- osophy of secondary education, I am venturing to propose a small and incomplete contribution to it. Already I have pub- lished in the Seventh Yearbook of the Department of Superin- tendence what I conceive to be the special functions of secon- dary education, and others, both individuals and committees, have made similar contributions. I refer specifically to the re- port of the Committee on the Objectives of Secondary Educa- tion in the Sixth Yearbook of the Department of Superinten- dence, the formulations of a recent committee of high-school principals in New York, the statement by the New Jersey Council of Education, and two theses published by the State Department of Education in California. These are all of ne- cessity highly condensed and general in nature. But they are all attempts to state fundamental principles by which the work of our secondary schools may be evaluated and by which direc- tion may be found for such modifications as all agree should be made. These definitions so far have had very little effect. Why? Primarily because every competent individual feels himself too much obligated with assigned and immediate responsibilities to find the time and strength for formulating and introducing such radical changes as would be necessary. Those of lesser competence know nothing of these fundamental proposals, and 8 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS neither their professional superiors nor the public make them so uncomfortable in their present practices that they are dis- turbed to learn of them. All of us in varying degrees are still obsessed by the hope that somehow or other a talisman will be magically provided. Nothing less than a plan perfected in all of its details seems worth bothering about. And so we con- tinue to muddle, critical rather than hospitable of what is pro- posed. A careful consideration of the basic definitions mentioned will reveal not only different conception of what is fundamen- tal, but also some contradictions and omissions of ideas that are highly important. But the publication and reprinting here and there of these definitions and statements of functions evi- dence the recognition by at least some leaders of principles as criteria for evaluating practices and new proposals and also as guides for further reform. Though valuable and not to be dis- couraged, the revision of courses of study by empiricism and by “impression” to make them more teachable can make only a minor contribution to need. ; The following principles are incomplete in their compre- hensiveness, but at the same time they are presented as funda- mental. Can the members of this Association accept them so whole-heartedly as to feel the compelling necessity of inventing means to cause the revision of general practices? If they can be accepted as pragmatically fundamental, we shall have made a beginning that may lead far. First, public education is a long-term investment by so- ciety to perpetuate itself and to promote its own interests. This thesis with its more important implications I have elaborated in the Inglis Lecture for 1930.* It is so sound that I have no doubt that it is irrefutable. It is so contradictory of many current practices wastefully supported by public funds that long and far-seeing effort will be necessary to make even par- tial application. It is so important that it can not be neglected by those who take seriously their professional obligations. The *The Great Investment. Harvard University Press. 9 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS very difficulty of its application should emphasize the chal- lenge, especially to such an organization as this association. Second, to accomplish the preservation and the promotion of the kind of organized society that we approve, an appropri- ate education should be provided for all youth. This principle, reflecting a growing sentiment, was, with a limitation to the age of eighteen, proposed by the Commission on the Reorgani- zation of Secondary Education. It received general verbal ac- ceptance by both the profession and the public. But verbal ac- ceptance is not sufficient. Our practice falls far short in two respects. In the first place, secondary education is still selec- tive—to no such extent as in previous generations, but still so far that approximately a half of the adolescent population is not in school. This means that society does not and can not make them as competent as is possible by increasing their pow- ers to the making of their communities better places in which to live and in which to make a living. It is, moreover, a denial of the principle of democracy. How can we justify the expendi- ture of taxes collected from all for the education of only that fraction who have inherited or by the discriminating program of the schools have acquired only one of several types of abil- ity? The principle, which is anchored in democracy and on the successful application of which democracy is dependent, main- tains that an appropriate education shall be provided for all youth. The word “all” is impressively and challengely inclu- sive. In still another respect our practice falls short of our pro- fession. The secondary education that is offered, especially in the smaller schools, is far from being appropriate to the abil- ity, capacity, aptitudes, interests, and probable needs of a ma- jority of youth, perhaps of even a majority of those who per- sist because of the popular fetish that all youth should attend secondary schools. No other country, with the possible excep- tion of Russia, makes any profession of ideal to provide a sec- ondary education, appropriate or not, for all youth. The sec- ondary schools of all other countries than ours cater only to what they call the intellectual elite. But democracy has a dif- ferent ideal. It sees, perhaps dimly, and holds with an unshak- 10 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS able faith that democracy can not continue, certainly can not be successful, unless every constituent unit of its citizenry has the cpoprtunity to develop maximally such powers as he has, at the same time being indoctrinated with the ideals of the so- ciety that we accept. Even if one inclined to take the European point of view, the question is made wholly academic for us by the fact that industry decreasingly needs or will use youth. Our success in invention and industry has brought about a phenomenon of a country that can produce more of practically every kind of commodity than it can consume or sell, and the ultimate solu- tion of our economic difficulty must be an equitable distribu- tion of labor for the necessary number of hours a week to those who need to work. Every youth who takes a job now displaces an adult, thus aggravating a condition admittedly bad. Be- cause of this situation pressure will in the future be increased to keep youth in school. There is nothing else to do with him. Consequently, then, an appropriate form of education must be provided. This will of necessity include far larger emphasis than that to which we are accustomed on preparation for the satisfactory use of leisure. Not only youth but adults as well are sure in the new era to have more spare time on their hands than mankind in general has ever had in a civilized world. Whether they can use it profitably for themselves and for so- ciety depends largely on the willingness of secondary schools to break with a narrow tradition and to prepare a program commensurate with the need and the possible opportunities for a wholesome enjoyment of leisure. Third, inasmuch as no program can expect to hold all youth to formal schooling until they reach adulthood, secon- dary education must, so far as possible, be maximally good to the extent to which it is pursued. There is as yet no means of knowing with anything like accuracy which pupils after the law ceases to hold them will appear at school on any morning. At present the ones who drop out with a smattering of this and that in a subject or even with sound preparation for future work which they never take represent by any rational book- keeping an alarming waste. Cultivation that does not fructify ot DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 11 is a poor investment. It is a relatively simple matter to ar- range so that they are good to the extent to which they are pur- sued all of our courses of study except those in advanced math- ematics and foreign languages, and in them the ideal can be approximated. This principle must be accepted and applied or else students must justify their ability to profit by courses meager in immediate but rich in deferred values, perhaps, as in England, “give an undertaking”—that is, post a bond—to continue the studies until there is a reasonable opportunity for successful fruition. In other words, our schools must become intelligently and economically selective. Any other policy, in- cluding that of laissez faire under which we now work, will assuredly result in a waste of public money and of individual effort that no one can justify. In all probability if the courses revealed convincing values as they progressed a larger number of students would wish to pursue them further. There are, of course, other principles that need to be es- tablished, and the three presented must be greatly elaborated, as they can not be in this brief paper, before their importance is recognized and the wide nature of their effects can be real- ized. But these are sufficient to illustrate the sort of philoso- phy that we need as criteria for evaluating our practices and as directive principles for developing a new program. What would it not mean for secondary education and for the society that it serves if every member of this association should begin by earnestly attempting to make over his school on these or on similar principles! What would it not mean if the association threw the weight of its great potential authority to the formu- lation of some definite detailed program consistent with such principles! Out of such a beginning the inevitable larger move- ment would assuredly be born. More and more I am convinced that the beginning of a solution of the problems that confront us in secondary educa- tion must be found in the ideal junior high school. Although rapidly settling into a tradition which, though an improvement over old practices, is far from what we hoped, it still offers more freedom for reform than the more advanced grades. Moreover, only as it succeeds will the senior high school find it 12 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS possible effectively to reorganize its program. We need an in- termediate school which after the elementary grades will by exploring the interests, aptitudes, and capacities of each indi- vidual ascertain the kind of advanced education for which he is fit, a school which at the same time will reveal to him the varied opportunities and the richness in the varied fields that lie beyond him. Then by using all personnel data and instru- ments of measurement, guidance can be made effective. Then the school, persona ret publicae, the parents, and the youth working together can intelligently decide on what in the light of all evidence and information seems to be the most promising path of procedure for each individual. Thus tentatively sorted, youth will proceed until evidence accumulates that a mistaken plan must be rectified. The high school can proceed with stu- dents who have manifested their right to attempt its several opportunities in presenting courses of old and new culture; un- hampered by the incompetent and the unwilling it can make advance with a rapidity and with a thoroughness we have en- vied in foreign countries. At the same time it will by means of new curricula provide for developing the youth with other tal- ents and other possibilities of competence. Stated thus briefly the program seems ideal, but many ob- stacles to its achievement arise in every mind. If there were no obstacles, there would be no challenge. If there were no challenge, there would be no need of leaders, such as the mem- bers of this association profess to be. Although there is to-day a necessary spirit of economy everywhere, we must face the facts and convince the public of the need to spend far more than it has done in the past to make the project of secondary education for all, a project to which it is whole-heartedly com- mitteed, effective for the individual and for the social good. The alternative is the European philosophy of selectivity, which American democracy will never approve. With us every youth must have his chance, and we must make that chance the best possible for him and for society. = TH ~~ Qo = f- 2 ©f6 =&=§ aw J DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 13 Dr. Leonard V. Koos, Professor of Secondary Education, University of Chicago, and Associate Director of the National Survey of Secondary Education, read his report, Major As- pects of the National Survey of Secondary Education. MAJOR ASPECTS OF THE NATIONAL SURVEY OF SECONDARY EDUCATION LEONARD V. Koos Professor of Secondary Education, The University of Chicago, and Associate Director of the Survey. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE SURVEY Three National surveys are now in progress under the auspices of the Federal Office of Education, dealing, in the order of authorization by Congress, with secondary education, teacher education, and school finance. We are here concerned with the first of these surveys, authorized and begun in 1929. This survey, for which an appropriation of $225,000 was made, is now in its third and final year. The group before me is also entitled to some statement of progress of this survey. This statement will, however, refrain from summarizing from the evidence at hand. It is still too early, while first drafts of reports on the projects are being considered, to undertake such a summary. It is desirable to mention briefly certain of the administra- tive arrangements for carrying on the work. The survey is well provided with groups whose function it is to advise. There are three such groups: (1) The first is a group of nine con- sultants, who are professional educators representative of va- rious interested groups, among them this Department. This group of consultants has met to consider the scope and outline of ‘the survey. (2) A second and larger group, a professional advisory committee, is more widely representative of the coun- try and various aspects of the secondary field. Besides supple- menting the advice of the group of consultants, this advisory committee has aided in encouraging the cooperation of school 14 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS authorities with the survey and will aid in securing attention for the reports. (8) The third group is composed of about fifty prominent laymen who were invited to criticize the out- line and who will aid in interpreting the report to the public. The Commissioner of Education is designated as director of the survey. The professional staff has included 30 different persons. Of these, 5 are regular members of the Office of Edu- cation staff assigned for a part or all their time to the work of the survey falling within their specialties. Eight are full-time specialists stationed in Washington and appointed for the pe- riod of the survey or for the period required to complete the work on their projects. This group is composed niostly of younger men who were recruited from seven different gradu- ate schools of the country. The remaining 17 professional workers are part-time members of the staff most of whom are in charge of projects of the survey. The part-time directing specialists are recognized leaders in their respective fields. At times the clerical force at work on the survey has almost equalled the professional staff in number. Thus, the largest total number of workers on the staff at any one time has been about 60. The outline of the survey has been given so much pub- licity that it would be out of place to repeat it here. It will suffice to name merely the four main fields included. These are: (1) The organization of schools and districts; (2) The sec- ondary-school population; (3) Certain administrative and su- pervisory problems, and (4) The curriculum and the extra-cur- riculum (including athletic and other contests). In carrying forward the work of investigation the outline has been broken into twenty-four separate projects: Secondary School Re- organization; Horizontal Organization and Secondary-School Population; School District Organization for the Administra- tion and Supervision of Secondary Education; Special Problems in Reorganization; Characteristics of Small High Schools; Study of Selected Secondary Schools in Smaller Communities and Rural Areas; Guidance; Administrative and Supervisory Staff; Practices in the Selection and Appointment of Teachers; Provisions for Individual Differences, Marks, and Marking . Pm teed ted eet CURUlC( bt xs. rh An mite ._3> — oh mt bt 495 oe ~~ OU klU UC rh lOO Moet, heli eee CCP ted in- the ess om ro- er- jos PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 63 problem of the supervision of the classroom teachers who look to them for leadership. This problem is solved in many ways. In fact, the means which are employed are so diversi- fied that executives do not have to look far for fruitful ideas. Rating plans old and new are reprinted and checked with infinite pains. Personal equipment, teaching ability, routine and physical conditions, discipline, professional growth, and social efficiency—these terms are studied, weighed, and judged dispassionately with true professional candor. Organization of external supervision, mechanized set-up of internal supervision, programs of visits to classrooms, teach- ers’ meetings, supervisory bulletins, and demonstration lessons —these are revised and brought once more to a thousand yawn- ing faculties. The fact that these topics are worthy of the cogitation of many groups of teachers is not to be dismissed with jest or dia- tribe. They should be studied and discussed as long as children are taught and as long as the heritage of the race is passed from one generation to another. The vexatious predicament, however, in which many executives find themselves is not at- tributed to the content: of their plans so much as it is to the method in which they feel constrained to submit their wares. Teachers have always studied these problems. Teachers should continue to study these problems in spite of the fact that they are not accepted with sincere enthusiasm. Why should principals or supervisors be disturbed because the older teachers seem to be bored with the ever-recurring problems of discipline or classroom management? This ennui is to be expected. One must just accept some things. This has been going on for years. Why should they disturb the even tenor of traditional custom? There is no reason in the world why they should. Thus they reason and pass out their plans once more for the good of the cause. There are many executives, however, who are sincerely attempting to overcome the faculty ennui, the evident feel- ing of weariness and the visible lack of interest which so often meets the introduction of their most carefully prepared plans. 64 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS These men and women have discovered that a paper program of supervision is not effective. They have found that the diffi- culty of obtaining faculty interest is not to be charged to the problem studied so much as it is to the method in which the problem is introduced and then pushed to a satisfactory con- summation. These executives know that schoolmen have been too much concerned with the mechanism of their schemes and too little considerate of the need of humanizing their plans. These men have earnestly attempted to touch their supervis- ory schemes into life and to give color to processes long grown drab with much use. The cooperative supervisory project has grown out of this need. This device has found expression in many forms. The revisions of courses of study in almost every city and county of our nation, in most instances, have been instituted as sup- ervisory devices. These plans have been successful because supervisors, principals, teachers, research departments, sub- ject-matter experts, and often students have been enabled to work together upon a common problem. The barriers of the supervisor versus the supervised, the superior versus the inferior have been overcome and all types of workers have cast their efforts into an undertaking desired by all and shaped by all into a common entity. When the project is completed each participant may survey the finished product and observe his own thought in many integral parts of the completed struc- ture. This brings to the interested worker a satisfaction that must not be disregarded by the promoter of programs. In addition to these satisfactions the cooperative super- visory project brings many concomitant learnings. Objectives are surveyed, subject-matter is read, the philosophy of the subject is carefully considered, and the psychology of its pre- sentation is not forgotten; these are but a few of the avenues over which the minds of committees must pass before any sat- isfactory course of study may be evolved. The whole pro- gram should result in raising the mass to a higher plane of en- deavor. There are so many approaches which have provided ave- nues of access to the supervisory problems that one wonders ‘fi- he he yn- en nd ns. ng ‘is PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 65 why we have waited so long to realize their worth. One of the most used devices of the present time is the study of the use of visual aids. A supervisor may be ostensibly interested in discovering how an opaque projection lantern may vitalize the teaching of the social studies in his school system. He will en- ter classroom after classroom with an enthusiasm for his de- vice which will inspire the acceptance of its use in many reci- tation rooms, recitations which had been so lifeless before his genius touched the dull clay found there. Lantern slides, strip ° films, motion pictures, models, charts, and mounted specimens flow into the program as easily as timber upon a spring freshet, once the flood of interest has been aroused. The sup- ervisor, all the while, has a concrete subject upon which his discussion may center. Teacher and principal are discovering new ways of making lantern slides for the school, but in the selection of the pictures needed, in the presentation of the pho- tographed illustrations, in class situations, and in the study of the best psychological use of these accessories, the participants are brought together upon an active cooperative basis. Teach- ing ability, routine, and physical conditions of the classroom, discipline, and all of the diversified subjects mentioned at the beginning of this discussion are not forgotten entirely. They now have meaning because discipline, class management, and ideal physical condition in the classroom must prevail so that the visual aids will have an opportunity for effective use. Visual aids might well be given the center of cooperative use and discussion for a semester. Could this not be followed with the use of the field trip? Every faculty has a number of teachers who have been taking student excursions into the in- dustries of the community. Let the story of these trips be pre- sented at teachers’ meetings and let the results of the expedi- tions be dramatized in demonstration lessons. Again this com- mon problem will bring to all of its participants benefits com- parable to those mentioned in the project described above. Follow this with the study of the unit presentation of sub- ject-matter. The ramifications of this topic might employ much of the creative energies of an able faculty for a whole year. Books will be read and their contents will find dynamic use in 66 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS classroom experimentation. Teachers will pass with supervis- ors from room to room surveying different angles of the new experiments in which all are interested. Intervisitation? Sure- ly, intervisitation with a real purpose. There is little thought here of inspectional supervision, conflict of personalities, and all of the chimeras of our old pedagogical fears. We are now caught with the need of making our new cooperative project an efficient instrument in our teaching program. : The radio is another avenue the reach of which we are just beginning to understand. Mass lessons in arithmetic, les- sons taught by experts to large groups of children and observed by assisting teachers who will meet at the close of the school day and discuss the worth of the processes employed, have brought to us a most effective instrument of supervision. There is no universality of opinion as to the worth of this device and experimentation with its use may be beneficial to any faculty which employs the idea with a modicum of common sense. Ra- dio committee reports of classroom work, radio class plays, and program lessons broadcasted to groups of students intereested in the same work bring to the ingenious supervisor a unique field of inquiry. Lesson plans? Try to prepare a radio lesson without them. Teachers working in this field have found that infinite pains must be given to the preparation of every detail of a good radio lesson. Let a whole faculty observe a radio les- son and profitable discussion will ensue; there is no doubt about this. Let the supervisor sponsor the project, help teachers de- velop the lessons, and then let him join with his teacher com- mittee in the defense of the demonstration. He will not come out of that meeting feeling that he is a super-supervisor. Study the project and the problem, experiment with the use of music in appreciation lessons, attempt the reproduction of whole lessons by mimeographed reports or by actual sound recording, using these lessons as case studies, print and dis- tribute exemplary recitations, study interest leads in large and in small classes measuring the results of the teaching in these classes, discover, if possible, the best interest leads for chil- dren of different intelligence abilities—these are but a few of rvis- new ure- ight and 10W ject are es- red re PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 67 the many problems which might enlist the united efforts of a faculty or a group of teachers in a subject-matter field for a period of years. Let a teaching group be subjected to such a barrage and not only will most of the dross be discarded but each teacher . will have retained what was applicable to his individual needs. This has been done in many schools with but little of the stigma of ennui occasioned by the old approach, and with a high de- gree of faculty interest that has been a source of joy to the su- pervisors who have become most ardent devotees of the plan. GROUP II In the absence of Mr. H. L. Harrington, President C. H. Threlkeld presided over Group two in the East Lobby of Ward- man Park Hotel. Dr. W. C. Reavis, Professor of Education of the University of Chicago, and Principal Specialist in Guid- ance of the staff of the National Survey of Secondary Educa- tion, read his paper on Guidance Programs in Secondary Schools. GUIDANCE PROGRAMS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS Mr. W.-C. Reavis Professor of Education The University of Chciago Data!’ collected in 1927 from a sample group of 522 second- ary schools in 41 states ranging in enrollment from four pupils to 6,500 show that, according to the judgment of the principals, educational guidance was provided in 87 per cent of the schools, personal guidance in 83 per cent of the schools, and vocational guidance in 74 per cent of the schools. The findings indicate that the activities involved in the three general types of guid- ance are carried on in the large majority of secondary schools. iReavis, W. C., and Woellner, R. C. Office Practices in Secondary Schools, Pp. 190-97. Laidlaw Bros., 1930. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Other data‘ collected the same year from 336 secondary schools in 44 states ranging in enrolment from 47 to 4,072 re- garding specific phases of guidance show that a median of 24.9 activities of guidance with a range of 54 (9 to 59) were thought by the principals to be carried on in their schools. Among the leading activities through which guidance oppor- tunities were provided were (1) discipline, 72.2 per cent of the schools; (2) oversight of conduct, 74.6 per cent; (3) guidance concerning quality of work, 63.5 per cent; (4) curriculum guidance, 60.8 per cent; (5) vocational guidance, 37.7 per cent ; (6) placement, 20.4 per cent; and (7) follow-up service, 13.5 per cent of the schools. The foregoing facts have been presented to show that guidance in some form or other is a well-established function in most secondary schools. The term guidance as shown by the data, however, is seen to have a very broad meaning. As used by some writers the term is synonomous with education; as used by other writers its meaning is restricted to types of ac- tivities, such as vocational advice, occupational information, educational adjustment, assistance in the selection of a college, counsel with respect to social conduct, and the like. Even the restricted terms in general usage, such as “educational guid- ance,” “vocational guidance,” “social guidance,” “moral guid- ance,” “ethical guidance,” and “personal guidance” do not pos- sess precise meanings. The use of these terms renders impos- sible the collection of comparable data from different schools. Accordingly the practice is followed in this discussion of “Guidance Programs in Secondary Schools” of avoiding as far as possible the general terms and of using phrases which de- scribe the activities carried on in secondary schools in the dis- charge of the guidance function, such as helping pupils to choose curriculums or elective courses, imparting information about occupations, counseling with the pupil in regard to the choice of a vocation, assisting the pupil in overcoming a de- ficiency, etc. ‘Koos, L, V., and Kefauver, G. N. Guidance in Secondary Schools, Chapter XV. Macmillan Co., (In Press). - © OT -_ Ye CD PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 69 Special activities of the sort enumerated are carried on to a greater or lesser degree in most secondary schools. In some schools the activities are carried on only informally or inci- dentally ; in other schools they are carried on formally and sys- tematically under the directions of persons definitely charged with the responsibility of serving the pupils through the activi- ties specified. The administrative organization established for rendering guidance services to pupils in secondary schools is as yet very flexible and subject to great variation in different school sys- tems, schools, and individual schools within systems. Principles formulated by the National Vocational Guidance Association’ in 1921 and revised in 1924, 1930, and 1931 urge the develop- ment of a special bureau or separate department responsible directly to the superintendent of schools for carrying on voca- tional guidance service. While recognizing the fact that local conditions render impossible the prescription of the exact form of the bureau or department, the activities to be performed are specified and the recommendation made that the activities be performed only by persons possessing the necessary personal qualifications, experience, and training. Obviously, the plan was intended for use in schools and school systems of consider- able size. Data? collected from 522 secondary schools show that the officer found responsible most frequently for the assumption of the guidance function is the school principal, the percentage of frequency being 77 per cent in the case of boys, and 56 per cent in the case of girls. Assistant principals are charged with the responsibility of providing guidance for boys in 32 per cent of the schools and for girls in 26 per cent of the schools. Coun- selors for boys are employed as guidance officers in 21 per cent of the schools, and deans of girls in 50 per cent of the schools. The guidance function is delegated to other school officers whose titles were not specified in approximately one-sixth of the schools. 1See Basic Units for an Introductory Course in Vocational Guidance, Pp. 181-94. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1931. 1Reavis, W. C., and Woellner, R. C., op. cit., pp. 191-97. 70 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The guidance functionaries reported by the principals in the 336 secondary schools studied by Koos and Kefauver’ are the principals themselves, deans of girls, deans of boys, home- room advisers, counselors, guidance committees, teachers, and visiting teachers. In the schools with enrolments under 200 the percentage providing guidance through the different function- aries are (1) principal, 64.9 per cent; (2) dean of girls, 29.7 per cent; (3) home-room advisers, 21.6 per cent; (4) teachers, 21.6 per cent; (5) dean of boys, 13.5 per cent; (6) visiting teacher, 5.4 per cent; (7) counselor, 2.7 per cent; and (8) guidance committee, 2.7 per cent. In the large schools with en- rolments in excess of 1,000 a very different utilization of the guidance functionaries is discovered, the order and percentage of frequency being: (1) home-room adviser, 88.2 per cent; (2) dean of girls, 73.1 per cent; (3) dean of boys, 46.2 per cent; (4) principal, 29.0 per cent; (5) counselors, 28.0 per cent; (6) guidance committee, 20.4 per cent; (7) visiting teacher, 19.4 per cent; and (8) teachers, 7.5 per cent. The data show that guidance activities are performed in the large majority of both small and large schools by administrative officers, the principal being the chief guidance officer in the small schools and the home-room adviser, dean of girls, and dean of boys in the large schools. However, a noticeable gain in the use of the specialist in counseling, namely, the counselor, is observed in the large schools when compared with the small schools (28 per cent to 2.7 per cent). The findings of the sampling data show that guidance ac- tivities are performed by a number of different persons in the secondary schools. Some of these individuals may have re- ceived training designed specifically to fit them for the skilful performance of certain guidance activities. The training of others may have been general in character while the guidance functions which the individuals are called upon to perform are specific. In some of the schools training in service is provided as a means of improving the ability of those required to per- form specific guidance activities. 10p. cit., Chapter XV. pe! pk cal the art the an scl otl the qu we PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 71 The programs of guidance in the schools studied for the National Survey of Secondary Education vary in the extent to which special training is required for individuals who perform guidance activities. In the systems with central bureaus only persons with special training and experience are usually em- ployed. These individuals carry on research, visit schools on call, engage in counseling activities in the central office, or they may act as counselors in certain schools part of the time. In the schools in which the guidance programs are developed around the individual schools as units, the regular members of the school staffs are generally utilized in carrying on the guid- ance activities. In some cases special training and experience may be available in staff members, which are considered by the school heads in the assignment of individuals to duties; in other cases the assignment to activities is apparently based on the assumption that special training and experience are not re- quired. It is not the purpose of this report to evaluate the guid- ance practices found in the schools studied, but rather to de- scribe the types of organizations and to indicate the extent and character of guidance activities carried on in school systems and in individual schools considered to have developed success- ful guidance programs. Five types of programs will be con- sidered briefly in turn. (1) Programs carried on through reg- ular administrative officers in individual schools. (2) Pro- grams carried on in individual schools by home-room advisers. (3) Programs carried on by special counselors in individual schools. (4) Programs carried on in school systems and indi- vidual schools under the direction and supervision of guidance bureaus or departments. (5) Composite programs. 1. PROGRAMS CARRIED ON THROUGH REGULAR ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS IN INDIVIDUAL SCHOOLS. The data already presented show that for secondary schools with enrollments under 200 and for secondary schools in general the principal is largely responsible for guidance ac- tivities. His relation to the guidance program in schools enrol- 72 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ing less than 200 pupils is revealed by the following findings of Koos and Kefauver.' (1) Personally carries on the guid- ance work in approximately two-thirds of the schools (64.9%) ; (2) Recommends pupils to college in nearly half of the schools (46.0% ) ; (3) Serves as adviser for boys in about one-third of the schools (29.7%) ; (4) Develops home-room programs and makes studied to improve the basis of guidance in one-tenth of the schools (10.8%) ; (5) Heads the guidance work in a gen- eral way and serves as a member of a group of advisers in ap- proximately one-twelfth of the schools (8.1%); (6) Acts as chairman of guidance committee in 5.4 per cent of the schools. In the schools with enrolments in excess of 1,000 the rela- tions of the principal to the guidance program vary from the practices found in the smaller schools chiefly in the following respects: (1) In only 29.0 per cent of the schools does the prin- cipal personally carry on guidance activities; (2) In approxi- mately two-thirds of the schools (68.8%) he heads the work in a general way; (3) In about one-sixth (17.2%) of the schools he serves as adviser of boys and is responsible for developing the home-room program. Analysis of the guidance activities of principals and their assistants in general made by French? as a part of the Com- monwealth Study of Teacher Training resulted in a master list of 180 specific activities which were considered to relate to guidance in secondary schools. An evaluation of these activi- ties by counselors and by experts in education provides classi- fied lists arranged in order of frequency of performance and in order of importance. The correlations between frequency of performance of activities and their relative importance as de- termined by counselors reveal certain strength and weakness in the guidance activities carried on by the principal and his assistants in the secondary schools. In activities which involved advising with parents, counseling with individual pupils, and advising with pupils in groups the correlations 10p. cit., Chapter IX 2French, Fannie. An Analysis of Activities Involved in Pupil Guid- ance, Pp. 30-41. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Department of Education, University of Chicago, 1926. co — mw 65 + 2" 89 DO © Thr —~_ gs id- Is PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 13 are high, being .767, .742, and .728, respectively. In activities pertaining to cooperation with community agencies and with teachers the correlations are medium (.404 and .316), but in activities involving the collecting and recording of data, and as- sisting in extra-curriculum activities the correlations are low (.265 and .113). In the schools which develop their guidance programs around general administrative officers guidance activities are often subordinated to administrative duties. Furthermore, in dealing both with individuals and with groups the administra- tive officer is sometimes inhibited in the performance of a guid- ance activity by the necessity of first performing an adminis- trative activity. As a matter of fact administration may inter- fere with guidance and guidance may interfere with adminis- tration. This relation often renders guidance difficult by offi- cers whose primary responsibility is administration. 2. PROGRAMS CARRIED ON IN INDIVIDUAL SCHOOLS BY HOME-ROOM ADVISERS. In many schools the home-room is utilized as the unit of the guidance program. This is especially true of the larger sec- ondary schools in which the home-room may have previously existed as a unit for carrying on certain routine administrative activities. Approximately seven-eighths of the schools studied by Koos and Kefauver with enrolments in excess of 1,000 em- ployed the home-room organization in the development of guid- ance programs. Since the same investigators found that home- rooms were utilized in only one-fifth of the schools enrolling less than 200 pupils, the conclusion is warranted that the home- room organization is characteristic of the large secondary schools. The home-room, according to Fretwell’, is the school home of a group of pupils whether the group be small or large. Us- ually the home-room is required to care for from 30 to 40 pu- 1Fretwell, E. K. Extra-Curricular Activities in Secondary Schools. P, 21. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1931. 74 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS pils, although in some school systems large assembly rooms make possible the organization of the school into “houses” or home-rooms with from 200 to 400 members. The home-room plan of organization makes possible the segregation of pupils in groups under the leadership of a regu- lar teacher whose responsibility for the home-room group is sponsorship rather than instruction. The plan enables the sponsor and pupils to establish cooperative relations as a means of realizing the purposes for which the type of organiz- ation exists. Whether the home-room group remains with the adviser for a semester, term, or during the membership of the group in the school does not matter greatly, providing that the purposes of the organization are clearly conceived. Broadly speaking, the chief purpose of the home-room is guidance and the specific activities carried on therein should come largely under that category. To this end the home-room should be organized as a guidance laboratory and not as an- other classroom. The atmosphere of the room should be demo- cratic and should be conducive to self-discovery and self-revela- tion. To serve the members of the home-room group the adviser must know them both as individuals and as members of a pri- mary group. The mere organization of a school for guidance purposes into home-room groups does not guarantee that guidance ac- tivities will be better performed by home-room advisers than by administrative officers. Unless home-room advisers are trained for guidance work their activities will likely resemble the activities of the teacher or the minor administrative officer. It is difficult to indicate to what extent training has been pro- vided for home-room advisers in schools that have adopted the home-room plan as a guidance program. Data from the samp- ling of 336 schools’ show that different guidance activities in the home-rooms have received different degrees of emphasis. In seventy-five per cent of the schools the advisers provide guid- ance through the direction of special home-room activities; in 1Koos and Kefauver, op. cit., Chapter XVII. oms >S \e oo Ss SOOO J Ay t eo” PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 75 69 per cent, through discipline; in 66 per cent, through over- sight of social conduct; in 62 per cent, through conferences re- garding the quality of work; in 62 per cent, through curricu- lum advice; and in 29 per cent through advice regarding voca- tions. The findings do not indicate the breadth of guidance service to be desired, although the guidance activities carried on compare favorably with those of administrative officers in schools in which the home-room organization is not employed. Certain schools have introduced class directors, class guides, class supervisors, and class principals to organize and direct the work of the home-room advisers and to unify the guidance activities for the different class groups. These direc- tors supply a type of special service to the home-room work which widens the scope and gives balance to the guidance activ- ities. 3. PROGRAMS CARRIED ON BY SPECIAL COUN-' SELORS IN INDIVIDUAL GROUPS. Whether the emphasis is placed on the vocational, educa- tional or personal aspects of guidance, certain schools have con- ceived of the activities of counseling and guidance as involving knowledge and technical skill beyond that possessed by the teacher and general administrative officer. Such schools re- gard guidance as an act of skill, which requires for its success- ful execution training of a technical character. Accordingly in these schools guidance becomes the responsibility of the spe- cialist, who may be developed from the staff through special training or be added to the staff for the specific purpose. To develop a satisfactory program of guidance through special counselors in a school requires that the counselors be- come members of the school’s staff and that the duties to be per- formed be defined and relations to staff members clearly es- tablished. The use of the specialist in guidance does not render unnecessary the assumption of certain guidance responsibili- ties by teachers and administrative officers. It merely requires a differentiation of duties with the specialist and the general- ist accepting responsibility for the activities each can most suc- 76 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS cessfully perform. If the time of the specialist is used in the performance of duties that properly belong to the generalist or the generalist undertakes to perform the duties requiring spe- cial training and skill the guidance program will fail because of maladministration. The development of the guidance program around the counselor in the local school makes possible a type of guidance often slighted in schools which depend chiefly on the adminis trative officers plus the services of outside specialists available only on call. However, the success of the plan will depend on the limitations imposed. If the counselor is overloaded with pu- pils or is expected to divert energy to administrative work, the results accomplished may vary only slightly from those ob. tained through other plans. Objective data’ for schools which emphasize the home- room adviser and the special counselor plans show that the ad- visers perform administrative duties related to guidance, such as discipline, oversight of social conduct, and counseling con- cerning the quality of work to a greater extent than the coun- selors. On the contrary the counselors exceed the advisers in the frequency of performance of the more specialized types of guidance, such as curriculum guidance, vocational guidance, placement advisement, and follow-up service. While the differ- ences in the distribution of time to the different types of duties indicated are not large, they are, nevertheless, significant. As a result it can be concluded that the adoption of the special counselor plan increases the performance of the specialized guidance activities by counselors and decreases those that are partly administrative in character. 4, PROGRAMS CARRIED ON BY BUREAUS OR DE- PARTMENTS OF GUIDANCE. The guidance bureau or department is a development of the large city school system and of the large secondary school. Certain guidance activities, such as occupational research, fol- low-up studies, and vocational guidance in connection with 1Koos and Kefauver, op. cit., Chapter XVIII. —_— <<< PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 77 placement can be carried on.in a central office apart from the schools. A staff of trained workers can be maintained who no: only perform the office duties incident to guidance but who also visit schools on call and engage in group instruction, group counseling, and individual counseling. They may also give ad- vice to teachers and administrative officers regarding guidance activities of an unspecialized sort that can be carried on in the schools by persons not specifically trained for guidance work. The director of the guidance bureau is usually responsible to an assistant superintendent of schools or to the superinten- dent himself. The director is expected to formulate the guid- ance policy of the school system subject to the approval of his superior officers; to organize the bureau or department as a clearing house for problems of guidance, placement, and follow- up; and to provide assistants who can render expert counseling service to schools desiring such aid. The activities which can be carried on in the schools b~ the guidance assistants are group interviewing of pupils in er tering classes, individual interviewing of members of the grad- uating class, individual interviewing of pupils as needs arise. instructing classes in occupations, assisting graduates or pupils required to leave school to secure employment, keeping records of pupils interviewed, visiting employers to enlist their inter- ests and to secure knowledge of the conditions under which er-- ployed pupils work, conducting community surveys to ascer- tain environmental conditions and opportunities for employ- ment, and carrying on follow-up studies of withdrawals and graduates. As a rule the guidance bureau is not expected to provide all the guidance service in an individual school. The princip~ through his teachers and administrative assistants should aid pupils in the choice of courses or subjects, in the selection of extra-curriculum activities, in the development of intellectual interests, in social adjustments, in overcoming difficulties in classroom work, and the like. The guidance bureau should pro- vide the specialized service and should aid the principal in the 78 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS organization of the school’s guidance program and in the in- tegration of its various guidance activities. In large cities the staff of the guidance bureau is usually inadequate to provide all the service needed in all of the schools. Some schools will be satisfied with nominal service while other* will desire all the service possible for the bureau to render. As a result the guidance programs in individual schools often vary greatly in effectiveness. This condition should be charged largely to the administrators of the schools rather than to the central bureau. In individual secondary schools in which a guidance department is a structural part of the administrative organization, functional responsibility may be delegated to the director for organizing and supervising the general guidance duties of the members of the school staff as well as for carry- ing on the specialized guidance activities. Although number of guidance duties may restrict the activities of the guidance de- partment in the individual school as compared with the activi- ties of a guidance bureau for a system of schools, the possibil- ity of coordinating the guidance activities in the individual school through a school program is increased. The development of the central bureau of guidance in city schools and in large schools makes possible occupational re- search and the utilization of the findings in vocational guidance and placement to an extent scarcely possible under the other types of programs. However, the guidance activities that be- long in the individual schools are likely to be neglected unless complementary guidance programs are developed by the prin- cipals of the schools or are projected by the guidance bureau. The weakness of the guidance program under the control of the central bureau is not inherent, but rather the result of failure to overcome administrative difficulties to its complete func- tioning in the individual schools. 5. COMPOSITE PROGRAMS Some schools combine the features of the programs pre- viously considered into a unified guidance program. This re- quires that the administrative officers, director of guidance, Te ae Sa a a a ee as ts at ah, PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 79 special counselors, home-room advisers, and teachers take a part in carrying on the guidance function. The projection of the composite program requires a careful analysis of guidance activities and the differentiation of duties to be performed in accordance with the functions of the officers to whom duties are assigned. The administrative officers consisting of principal, vice- principal, deans, director of extra-curriculum activities, and department heads should accept executive responsibility. They must provide the program of studies, materials of instruction, the record system; admit pupils to school; classify the pupils; prepare the school schedule; arrange the program of pupil ac- tivities; deal with cases of discipline; interview parents; ad- minister attendance; record and evaluate credits; organize, di- rect, and supervise the functioning of the different members of the school staff. Many of the activities of the administrative officers affect guidance only indirectly, yet unless the relation of administrative activities to guidance is clearly conceived the guidance activities of other workers may be hampered and per- haps completely inhibited. The director of guidance should project the guidance pro- gram subject to the approval of the school head. He should out- line the guidance activities to be performed by the counselors, home-room advisers, and teachers, and should provide the training needed to carry on the guidance program. He should interpret the guidance program to the school and community, carry on research basic to guidance, and perform guidance ac- tivities which require types of skill not possessed by the other members of the staff. The counselors should teach the courses in occupations, aid the pupils in the selection of courses, give group guidance to all the pupils, and counsel with individual pupils in need of adjust- ment. They may also serve as regular teachers part of the time. The home-room advisers should be responsible for the ori- entation of their pupils, the maintenance of pupil morale, and the development of a wholesome attitude toward the school as 80 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS a civic enterprise. The advisers should keep the records of the pupils, give advice with respect to extra-curriculum and other social activities, and act as the intermediary for the pupils with administrative and guidance officers and parents. The teacher as a guidance officer must necessarily play a large part in a guidance program. His interest in the welfare of the pupil is indispensible, if guidance is to bear fruit. He should sense the symptoms of maladjustment in a pupil in the incipient stages, bring the guidance organization to bear on the case, contribute to the diagnosis of the causes of maladjust- ment, and assist in the application of the corrective or reme- dial measures advised. Furthermore, the teacher may give spe- cific guidance to pupils in the pursuit of intellectual interests, in the development of proper habits of study, and in the de- velopment of the proper conception of the processes of educa- tion and the opportunities for education provided through the school. The foregoing analysis of the activities of guidance which can be provided through a composite program indicates the comprehensive character of guidance as a school function. The neglect of any of the phases of guidance, either through failure to give them proper emphasis or through failure to assign them to the proper guidance officer for performance may contribute to maladjustment and failure on the part of pupils. The de- velopment of a balanced program of guidance should therefore be encouraged in preference to the development of any single feature. In the Report on Guidance to be submitted to the Director of the National Survey on Secondary Education case studies of outstanding school systems and outstanding individual schools which have developed guidance programs of the types described will be made setting forth the features of the pro- grams and the various guidance activities carried on. It is hoped that these reports will provide concrete material for the use of administrative officers in the evaluation and develop- ment of their guidance programs, PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 81 In the discussion that followed Dr. Reavis’ paper Mr. John H. Bosshart, Supervising Principal of the South Orange-Maple- wood Schools, made the remarks that follow: To the aims and functions of education outlined by Dr. Koos the South Orange-Maplewood Schools add the function of helping pupils to attain the aims of education through the other functions. This added function is called educational guidance. It deals with the health, personality, social, vocational, and achievement growth of the pupil into a well-rounded person- ality. Vocational guidance is a part of the larger work of edu- cational guidance. Of this work the home room teacher is the center. But ex- perience shows that the home room teacher needs the assist- ance and direction of expert guides. Other experts useful in the staff are doctors, psychiatrists, and psychologists. Educational guidance improves the work of pupils in school and later in higher institutions and business. Aided by the adjustment of subject matter and method to the individual, it has done more than any other innovation of recent years to improve the quality of school work. It is helpful and inspiring to teachers in solving the problems of universal education. It is the most constructive pubilicity agency of the schools. It evokes the sympathetic interest of parents to the profit of their children. Dr. Richard D. Allen, Assistant Superintendent of Schools of Providence, Rhode Island followed. AN ORGANIZED GUIDANCE PROGRAM IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS RICHARD D. ALLEN Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R. I. An effective guidance program in the secondary schools must be organized to serve all pupils, not merely those who are problems of discipline or failure. In order to do this work ef- fectively every member of the faculty must have his share in 82 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS the program. But, everybody’s business is nobody’s business. Each must have his definite part in the scheme. The principal of even a school of moderate size must delegate everything that is not an administrative or supervisory responsibility. The subject teacher must arouse interests related to the subject, ‘stress the occupational implications of the subject, arrange try-out projects, and meet individual difficulties and needs. The home room teacher must take a friendly interest in each pupil and make the school a home rather than a factory. But neither the home room teacher nor the subject teacher can be expected to do work which requires a special type of person- ality, special training, and continuous contacts with the same pupils over several years. These functions belong to the class counselor who should have the continuous responsibility for an entire group of pupils throughout their life in the school. The following duties can be performed effectively only by the class counselor: 1. The keeping of adequate personnel records and the carrying on of research in problems of individual dif- ferences and adjustments. 2. Individual counseling, both educational and vocational. 3. Orientation instruction in educational, vocational, and social problems. This should be a continuous course at least twice a week through the entire three years in the junior high school and at least once a week in the senior high school, conducted by the same counselor with the same group of pupils. 4. The follow-up of all pupils after they leave the school: in the senior high school at the end of one, three, and five years, and in the junior high school at the end of one, two, and three years. 5. Utilization of and cooperation with special services such as health service, attendance, home visitors, psy- chological testing service, etc. It is useless to talk about making individual adjustments in the secondary schools if the school program is divided into sev lect apr anc suc sta pu} in’ pin of vid for fict tiv the ing pil: Fel Pr day PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 83 several specialized curricula one of which each pupil must se- lect. Without a counseling program such a procedure may appear to be necessary, but with a properly organized guid- ance department in a secondary school, there is no excuse for such a clumsy administrative scheme. Each subject should stand upon its own feet and be elective under guidance. No pupil should be expected to study a subject that does not fit in with his needs, his abilities, and his prospects. The scrap- ping of specialized curricula and the substitution of a program of individual electives under guidance is a first step in indi- vidualizing education. In the Providence schools this program has been in effect for more than five years during which time no insuperable dif- ficulties have appeared. In fact, it has simplified administra- tive problems, decreased the cost of instruction, decreased the percentage of failures, and resulted in a constantly evolv- ing curriculum based upon the interests and needs of the pu- pils. Richard D. Allen. February 17, 1932. GROUP III Mr. L. N. Morrisett, Principal of Classen High School of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, presided over Group three in the Theatre of Wardman Park Hotel. In the absence of Dr. Elbert K. Fretwell, Mr. Edgar G. Johnston, Professor of Secondary Education, and Principal of University High School, Univers- ity of Michigan presented his paper. - TESTS FOR A CLUB SPONSOR EDGAR G. JOHNSTON, Professor of Secondary Education, and Principal of University High School, University of Michigan It is probably a rare high school in the United States to- day which does not have at least one active club with a group 84 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS of enthusiastic pupils and a program which represents an ap- peal to vital interests. The high school is probably equally rare, however, which does not support several: “paper clubs” which exist in name only and have no constructive accomplish- ment to justify their existence. A study of the rise and decline of clubs in the history of any school will reveal some abortive club ventures which never really got under way and other or- ganizations which were once vital influences in the life of the school but which have faded into insignificance. Clubs, like any other phase of school organization, are to be judged by their contribution to valid educational aims. The only possible educational results from the existence of inactive clubs would seem to be negative—the encouragement of a facile tendency on the part of pupils to “belong”, without a corres- ponding development of responsibility, initiative, and social- mindedness. While a variety of circumstances accounts for the variable histories of high-school clubs, an analysis of the rea- sons for failure of those club programs which were not suc- cessful would indicate that in most cases the decisive factor is to be found in the effectiveness of the club sponsor. In teaching a course in the Administration of Extra-Cur- riculum Activities, it has been the practice of the writer to ask students to recall instances of clubs which failed to function effectively and to indicate as accurately as they could what seemed to be the essential reasons for the failure. The follow- ing list contributed by the members of a class in the summer session of 1931 at the University of Michigan is typical. After eliminating duplications, thirty-one different causes for failure appeared. There is undoubtedly some over-lapping but each of the reasons suggested seems to contribute something to the total picture. SOME REASONS FoR CLUB FAILURES 1. The practice of requiring students to become club members. 2. The failure to provide school time for meeting. 3. Overloading of the sponsor with other duties. 4. Allowing a pupil to belong to too many clubs at one time. 5. A lack of adn abil lack tate the the ties ter¢ the stu the of © gra sch on spo cia not an me ex] of | res ma lar of clu otk is « ist the see ali so! on up PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 85 administrative encouragement. 6. Lack by the sponsor of the ability to arouse pupil interest in the work of the club. 7. The lack of a definite program. 8. Tendency of sponsors to dic- tate to the club. 9. Tendency of sponsors to abdicate their functions. 10. Tendency of sponsors to overemphasize the importance of the club in proportion to that of other activi- ties, resulting in a desire for special privileges and lack of in- terest when such privileges are refused. 11. Lack of appeal of the club program to the interest of students. 12. Insufficient student participation. 13. Lack of preparation on the part of the sponsor. 14. Appeal based on the attractive personality of the sponsor rather than upon the merits of the club pro- gram. 15. Failure to adapt the program to the needs of the school, the pupils, and the community. 16. A lack of interest on the part of the sponsor. 17. Inability on the part of the sponsor to meet pupils on their own level. 18. Lack of appre- ciation of the value of clubs on the part of the sponsor; he is not “sold” on the idea of clubs. 19. The making of clubs “just another class.” 20. An undemocratic basis of selection for membership. 21. Careless selection of members. 22. Too great expense involved. 23. A too pretentious beginning. 24. Lack of coordination with other activities in school and community, resulting in a conflict of schedules and interests. 25. Too many (or too few) meetings. 26. Allowing pupils to be mere- ly nominal members; they belong but do not work. 27. Too large a membership. 28. The presence of cliques. 29. Origin of the club in a fad which soon passes. 30. The fact that the club has outlived its usefulness. 31. Opposition by parents or others in the community. Of these thirty-one reasons suggested for club failure, it is obvious that the first five are a responsibility of the admin- istration of the school and are largely outside the control of the individual club sponsor. Of the other twenty-six, fourteen seemed very definitely dependent upon the sponsor’s person- ality and interest. In the cases for which the other twelve rea- sons are given, the club may have failed because of a failure on the part of the sponsor. Certainly the situations are ones upon which he could have exerted a considerable amount of in- 86 ‘ DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS fluence. It seems fair to state that in an overwhelming ma- jority of the cases a club has failed because the sponsor has not lived up to his opportunities. In a recent issue of the Junior-Senior Clearing House, Professor Fretwell presented “Ten Tests for a School Club.” The last—and certainly not the least—of these tests had to do with the club sponsor. The place of this adviser is so signifi- cant in the work of the club that it seems worth while to ex- pand the consideration of his function. A number of tentative “Tests for a Club Sponsor” are presented below. While it is hoped that the list may be of interest to all those bearing a functional relationship to the extra-curriculum activities of the school, the tests are addressed primarily to the teacher who is actively sponsoring a club or who contemplates assuming such responsibility. On the assumption that he is eager to make the club a success and in particular to insure his own maximum contribution to pupil growth, these tests are presented as a means of “checking up on himself.” 1. Does he really like to associate with boys and girls of high school age? A sympathetic interest in boys and girls ought to be expected of every teacher. It is ab- solutely indispensable to success in the informal rela- tionships of club work. 2. Does he enlist the confidence of boys and girls? A teacher may sincerely like boys and girls and yet be so out of touch with the points of view, the interests, and the prejudices of modern youth as to make im- possible the free, natural, and unconstrained relation- ship which is essential to club success. Fortunately this is pretty well within the power of the sponsor to develop. Youth is usually quite responsive to sincere interest in its problems and an attempt to see its point of view. 3. Is he keenly interested in the world around him? The “satiable curiosity” which drove the elephant child through numerous difficulties to ultimate success is a quality essential to the make-up of any successful -“ — == BRO WwW RO PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 87 teacher. If the club is to develop a constructive pro- gram of expanding interest and increasingly educa- tional activities, the sponsor must be keenly alive to the significant events happening around him every day. Has he contagious enthusiasm? Enthusiasm is likely to be a corollary of intelligent curiosity. The sponsor who is not the least bit “excited” about the things the club is doing is not likely to prove a stimulating com- panion and leader to the group. Enthusiasm is a flame which kindles from contact with a glowing interest. A word of warning seems necessary. Flames must al- ways be kept under control. An unbalanced and un- intelligent enthusiasm may do a great deal of damage. Does he seek to become expert in some of the fields of activity in which the club is engaged? Obviously a sponsor with keen interest and enthusiasm and a de- sire to render service to boys and girls can offer much to them as he learns with the group. At the same time, a fund of knowledge and sound experience com- mands the respect of members and constitutes a dis- tinct asset to the club sponsor. Is he able to give constructive suggestions for activi- ties of the club? Of a certain camp counsellor, it was said by one of the boys, “He seems to radiate ideas.” The difference between a lukewarm attitude and an enthusiastic interest on the part of club members may be simply the difference of a club sponsor who thinks of “something new” when interest flags or who can suggest a constructive outlet for super-abundant en- ergy. Is he able to quide without dictation? This is a corol- lary of the previous test. A sponsor who has many good ideas but is too insistent upon seeing them car- ried out in his way may hinder rather than encourage 88 10. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS pupil growth. The sponsor must be able to keep hands off to the extent that pupils may learn by organizing, planning, and executing. If the sponsor isn’t able with perfect good humor to see his suggestions modified or disregarded, he had better not make them. Has he the ability to plan systematically? ‘Organiza- tion is important if learning is to be assured in class- room situations. It is much more important for the adviser in the informal club group. He will, of course, not deprive officers and committees of the growth and experience which come from planning for the work of the club. As guide and adviser he must see the need of planning and understand how to do it if he is to be of help to officers and committees in this important function of theirs. If a club is to be successful, it is necessary that many members be working with enthu- siasm and initiative; it is quite as necessary that their various efforts be coordinated and directed toward some common goal if the club’s program is to be con- structive and not to be frittered away in a variety of unrelated or conflicting activities. Is he willing to give time and thought to making the club work a success? A sponsor cannot make a suc- cess of club work if his attitude is one of “punching the time clock.” A club hike may crowd out an after- noon of golf, or an evening meeting with club leaders may replace a trip to the movies. If the club sponsor does not feel that the time invested with his club is paying rich dividends, he is not likely to make a suc- cess of his sponsorship. Is he democratic in spirit? Is he as keenly interested in the inconspicuous pupil or the one from a poor fam- ily as he is in the school leader or the socially promi- nent? One of the rare opportunities which the spon- sorship presents is that of developing the powers lear: sary to p thos douk exer prov place why the r per s PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 89 which lie latent in every individual. The club should afford every pupil an opportunity for growth. 11. Has hea sense of humor? No single characteristic will be a greater asset to the club sponsor than the ability to see a joke even when it is on himself. He must be able to endure the exuberance of youth and its occas- ional silliness without becoming annoyed. With a group of lively adolescents, there are times when both - the furniture and the sponsor’s nerves must be of the solid oak variety, built to stand wear and tear. 12. Is he able to find his chief satisfaction in pupil growth and not in expressed appreciation of his efforts? There will be many occasions when pupils and parents may recognize with sincere gratitude the development club activity has fostered, but the real reward of club work will come in seeing the retiring pupil develop confi- dence; the awkward, cleverness; and the individualist, cooperation. Mrs. Lucy L. W. Wilson, Principal of South Philadelphia High School for Girls led the discussion. Preceding the discussion of education through freedom in learning vs. through indoctrination, it is imperatively neces- sary, not merely to discuss education trhough experience, but to provide worth-while experiences galore to all groups from those in nursery schools to adult learners. At the high-school level the most important experiences, doubtless, are those that provide opportunities to develop and exercise the civic virtues. Those who educated us in school, at least failed utterly to provide such experiences. That they were formerly in some places more or less a part of home life, perhaps partly explains why Canada has had no bank failures, no racketeering. In our large over-crowded municipal high schools, with the majority of the teachers still believing that subject matter per se will save souls, it is necessary that extra-curriculum ac- DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 30 tivities shall have for their guiding principle what Fretwell calls “student participation.” Of the nine usual manifestations of extra-curriculum ac- tivities, home room, class organization, student association, councils, assembly, clubs, athletics, newspaper, and other pub- lications, and commencement—no single one is more important than the home room. Also it is the most difficult efficiently to organize, to keep functioning and growing. It demands under- standing, initiative, courage, and enthusiasm from at .least seven-eighths of the faculty. After struggling along for fifteen years, more or less in- effectively, finally with the aid of our social engineers, a group of our honor students, we in South Philadelphia, have at least reached a bed-rock on which we hope eventually to erect a worth-while structure—not a great Babylon which we have built alone, but a Babylon builded for us across the years, with cooperation for the keystone. Briefly, this means a home room that is a ‘political and social unit. We begin by submitting to the electorate the con- tribution, modified naturally, of the Lincoln School, asking each to rate some of her fellows privately, in regard to the qualities there listed. Later, from the highest on these lists, nomina- tions are made for each of the numerous officers later to be elected. In addition to this and other business transacted in the home room, guide sheets have been compiled by a few of the abler, more social minded members of the faculty, including a department head, as well as a junior appointee. These guide sheets help the children and even the teachers to conduct yearly some fifteen discussion groups, across the years, on manners, thrift, health, avocations, vocations and personality. Mr. Eli C. Foster, Principal of Central High School, Tulsa, Oklahoma followed: What I shall say may sound too idealistic, but I believe there are hopeful signs of a movement in the direction which this paper suggests. I wish to raise two questions and then om 8 ce 4 85 =~ ae ist PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 91 discuss each briefly: (1) Should extra-curriculum activities be used as a hammer to drive students to achieve in subject mat- ter studies? (2) Can the academic teacher develop methods and materials of instruction which will cause students to achieve in their work without the outside stimuli now used? In discussing the first question, should extra-curriculum activities be used as a hammer,—I want to say that I hope the time will come when this will not be necessary as a first aid to academic work. In a majority of our high schools a high per- centage of our students are barred from extra-curriculum ac- tivities participation because of academic requirements. Clubs and home rooms are in most cases open to all, but even here the officers must qualify academically. If we accept the principle that in training for citizenship it is our duty to provide a favorable opportunity for boys and girls to practice these duties, then how can we justify a pro- gram which makes it impossible for a large percentage of our student body to take advantage of such opportunities? Are not these academic regulations more suited to the high-school enrollment of a quarter of a century ago, before the large in- crease in enrollment brought a much higher percentage from the lower mental levels? Do we not now need to revise our requirements for student participation to fit our present stu- dent population ? We argue that E. C. A. offer a means of training for citi- zenship. Most of us believe that they do. Then why eliminate these opportunities for many by academic requirements? I hold that extra-curriculum activities have values in themselves far more important than their contribution— through requirements—to academic achievement. I recognize that you may receive the impression that I am arguing for lowering academic standards. That is farthest from my mind. I should raise the standard but I should place the responsibility on the academic teacher where it belongs. Did this kind of a case ever occur in your school? DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Sponsor: We must elect another president for organiza- tion. Principal: Why? Sponsor: He has failed in an academic subject. Principal: Is he a good president? Sponsor: Oh, yes! One of the best we ever had. But because he has a failing grade he cannot serve and do the one thing perhaps which he can do well. Why not take stu- dents out of academic classes because they fail in extra-curricu- lum activity responsibilities? This may sound revolutionary but it seems to me that it is as fair to use academic work as a hammer for extra-curriculum activities participation as it is to revise the order as we are now doing. There must of course be close cooperation between the extra-curriculum activity teacher and the subject matter teach- er. But why require the extra-curriculum activities teacher to do all of the co-operating. It is like the husband who said he and his wife never had any arguments because he always agreed with her. What right do we have to hold a student out of dramatics or musical production, an athletic event, or an organization be- cause he has failed in a subject matter field? The second question: Can the subject matter teacher de- velop methods and materials of instruction which will of and by themselves cause pupils to achieve? There are some evi- dences that this is possible. We have some master teachers even now who are able to sell their subject to the extent that it stands upon its own feet without the aid of the crutch of outside stimuli—such as marks, credit, and qualifying require- ments for organizations, and curriculum requirements. One of the curses of secondary education, all education, to-day, is the emphasis placed upon marks and credit. Some day, per- haps, we shall know enough about teaching and the selection of subject matter to suit the needs of the individual, to abolish marks and credits. When teachers learn enough about how to PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 93 teach and we have as, Dr. Briggs suggests, provided appropri- ate subject matter material there will be less and less need for marks and credits to stimulate work. I am not suggesting here a separation of extra-curriculum activities from the subject matter field. I am urging quite the contrary. I hope to see the day when the distinguishing terms will be eliminated and all things worth giving time to in school will be so thoroughly integrated that the term extra-curricu- lum will pass from use and the term activities will be common to all educational procedure. This integration will not come until we have learned that we cannot teach character; that we cannot teach citizenship; that we cannot teach worthy use of leisure; that we cannot teach worthy home membership; that we cannot teach inter- national good will; that we cannot teach good health. We musi learn that all of these are “outcomes” of the whole of the edu- cational experiences of the individual. We are far behind our theory and philosophy with our practices. We have been working at generalizing too long. We need to get down to specifics. We have delayed of course be- cause that is more difficult. The 1932 year book of the Department of Superintendents on Character Education is filled with the philosophy of inte- gration. Quoting from a statement of this commission, “The goal of character education is the discovery or creation of a way of living which conserves and produces as many values as possible for as many people as possible for as long a time as possible.” This statement may be applied to any of the other seven cardinal principles. If extra-curriculum activities have values they must be made to function. If subect-matter has values they must be made to function. Each contributing to the usefulness of the other and each defensable as a worthy activity clearly con- tributing to useful and successful living. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS GROUP IV. In the West Lobby of the Wardman Park Hotel Mr. Charles F. Allen, Supervisor of Secondary Education of Little Rock, Arkansas, presided over Group four. Dr. Arthur K. Loomis, Principal of University High School of the University of Chicago, and Head Specialist in Curriculum of the Staff of the National Survey of Secondary Education, read his paper, Recent Trends in Secondary-School Curriculums. RECENT TRENDS IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM PROGRESS REPORT, NATIONAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION Dr. Arthur K. Loomis Principal, University High School, University of Chicago, and Head Specialist in the Curriculum, National Survey of Education Prepared in Collaboration With Dr. E. 8. Lide, Full-Time Specialist in Curriculum for the National Survey of Secondary Education.” The Purpose of the Survey. The study of the curriculum of the secondary school has been directed to the goal of locat- ing and describing the work done in outstanding schools. No attempt has been made to describe the status of work in the typical school. Innovating practices in schools which are break- ing away from old paths have been located through a nation- wide search. The Commissioner of Education in 1930 addressed a pre- liminary inquiry to 5,000 schools and systems and to the forty- eight State Departments of Education in the attempt to find the secondary schools in which a general revision of the cur- riculum had been completed since 1925 and those in which a general revision was then in progress. Plans for Curriculum Revision. This inquiry located 192 cities in which a general revision had been completed since 1925 and 275 cities in which a general revision was in progress AY . PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 95 in 1930. In response to a request addressed to all these cities, 95 cities in the first group and 112 in the second group fur- nished information about their plans for curriculum revision. The replies from 162 cities were fairly complete and have been tabulated. Similar studies have been made for several counties and for twelve states which have recently completed or are now carrying on programs of curriculum revision. The find- ings of this part of the survey can not be presented in this brief report of progress. Changes in Programs of Studies. Several special studies dealing with the programs of studies, general curriculum prac- tices, and percentage distribution of work completed by high- school graduates have been made. These studies can only be de- scribed briefly here with no attempt to give the findings. (1) The junior high-school programs of studies of 60 ci- ties for the period 1915-20 have been compared with the pro- grams from the same cities for the period 1929-31. (2) Curriculum practices in 1930-31 in junior high schools in the fourteen cities included in the investigation by Glass in 1923 are being compared with practices in the same schools as he reported them.* (3) Bradley in an unpublished study described and ana- lyzed the four-year programs of studies in 152 cities with a population range from 2,500 to 20,000 for the period 1924-25. He secured comparable data from 54 of these cities for the pe- riod 1914-15. From all but three of the 152 cities data have been secured giving the programs of studies for the period 1930-31. It thus is possible to compare for 54 cities the pro- grams in operation in 1914-15, 1924-25, and 1930-31. For 95 cities comparisons are being made between the programs in use in 1924-25 and 1930-31. (4) Using data reported by Stout? for 35 cities for the periods 1906-11 and 1915-18, Van Dyke has compared pro- 1Glass, James M. Curriculum Practices in the Junior High School and Grades V and VI. University of Chicago Press, 1924. 2Stout, John E. The Development of High-School Curricula in the North Central States, 1860-1918. University of Chicago Press, 1921. 96 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS grams of studies in these cities for 1930-31 with the earlier programs.’ (5) Curriculum practices in 1930-31 in senior high schools in fourteen of the fifteen cities included in the investi- gation by Counts in 1924 are being compared with practices in the same schools as he reported them.? (6) The four-year high-school programs of studies for 30 private schools which have completed a general revision since 1925 will be compared with the programs from the same schools which were in use before the revision. (7) The programs of studies for 25 reorganized schools including grades 7-8-and 9 in a junior high school will be com- pared with the programs of studies for these grades in 25 schools which have not been reorganized as junior high schools. (8) For 50 cities in which new programs of studies for junior and senior high schools are now in use the programs which were in use immediately before the revision have been secured and comparisons have been made. In these cities the junior-senior high school organization was in use prior to the recent revision of the programs of studies. (9) For 50 cities the programs of studies in use before reorganization into junior-senior high schools have been com- pared with the programs of studies now in use. (10) The percentage distributions of work completed in grades 9-12 by a sampling of the 1930 graduates in Providence, Long Beach, and Denver have been compared with the per- centage distributions for graduates in the same cities in 1890, 1900, 1910, and 1920. (11) The percentage distributions of work completed by a sampling of the 1930 graduates in the college of liberal arts in Vassar, Princeton, George Washington, Chicago, Denver, 1Van Dyke, George E. Trends in the Development of the High- School Offering in School Review 39: 657-664; 737-747, Nov. and Dec. 1931, 2Counts, George S. The Senior High-School Curriculum. University of Chicago Press, 1926. ag Sal thi sci in the spe thi iss fre ne’ ex] the ier gh sti- 2eS on ne Is n- 25 xh PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 97 Wyoming, and Stanford have been compared with the percent- age distributions of work completed in grades 9-12 by these same students. Findings of the Subject Specialists. It is my purpose in this report to present some of the tentative findings reported by the subject specialists in English, social studies, and science.! These reports are now being revised for publication in a series of brief monographs which will give the results of the survey of the secondary-school curriculum. These three specialists and the other specialists who have participated in this survey” have had access to more than 500 courses of study issued since 1925. They have also visited outstanding schools from coast to coast. On the basis of the critical analysis of the new courses of study and through direct contact with schools in which changes are being made which are not as yet reported in courses of study, the trends in the various fields have been determined. In this report it is necessary to select a few of the findings for brief summary. Aims of Composition Teaching. In the English report one table presents in order of frequency of mention the general aims of composition teaching from 53 junior high school and 67 senior and four-year high school courses. The four aims mentioned most frequently were (1) To promote skill in or- ganizing the materials of thought, experience, and reading; (2) To give pupils a mastery of fundamentals of grammar and mechanical accuracy; (3) To promote among pupils ability to express their thoughts clearly and fluently; (4) To increase the pupils’ vocabulary and power of discrimination in the use of words. 1Specialist in English, Dr. Dora V. Smith, University of Minnesota; Specialist in Social Studies, W. G. Kimmel, Secretary of the Commission on the Social Studies; Specialist in Science, Dr. W. L. Beauchamp, Uni- versity of Chicago. 2Specialist in Foreign Languages, Dr. Helen M. Eddy, University of Iowa; Specialist in Mathematics, Dr. E. S. Lide, of the Survey Staff; Specialist in Music, Anne E. Pierce, University of Iowa; Specialist in Art, Robert S. Hilpert, University of Minnesota. Industrial Arts, Home Economics, Commerce, and Physical Education are included in other sec- tions of the survey. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS These aims all place the emphasis upon the mastery of the fundamentals of expression. The sixth aim in order of frequency deals with style; the ninth with the forms of dis- course; and the twelfth with the rhetorical principles of unity and coherence. The relatively low place accorded to elements of style, to forms of discourse, and to technical study of rhe- torical principles reveals a tendency to look upon English “not as an artistic outlet or form of aesthetic or spiritual self-rea- lization,” so far as the majority of students are concerned, but as a “tool of thought and of expression for use in public and private life.” Grammar. There is definite evidence of the passing of certain traditional phases of grammar content. Mood is men- tioned by less than half of the courses. So also are distinctions between shall and will. Once stressed classifications of adjec- tives into pronomial, interrogative, limiting, possessive, and relative appear in less than one-fourth of the courses. Demon- strative adjectives still persist as a category. Classes of ad- verbs such as adverbs of cause, manner, and degree are dis- appearing, with the exception of the conjunctive adverb. The vocative case is entirely absent, and the dative is mentioned only three times in 22 courses. Pronouns grouped as intensive, identifying, reflexive, reciprocal, and indefinite persist in one- fourth of the courses or more. There is a notable absence of the adjunct accusative, the absolute with the participle, the re- tained object with the passive, and the subject of the infinitive. English grammar, while it is still logically organized and taught with technical emphasis, is at least breaking with cer- tain Latinized forms and classifications and fitting its content to its own language. The word parsing occurs in only one course and the word analysis in exactly one-half the courses. Diagramming is recommended in nine out of twenty-two syl- labi, another evidence of a logical approach to the subject. Literature. Two policies appear in the courses of study examined. One is to reduce the time alloted to the so-called literary classics; to read them naturally and enjoyably as one does a book from his library table, no longer reserving them for minute and detailed analysis; to compare them with one an- of of is- PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 99 other, with recent writings on the same theme, with life expe- riences as it is lived today. Where such a policy is followed, grade placement of materials demands adjustment, for simpler content will be necessary for many pupils under changed con- ditions of reading. In the time thus saved, students read two or three or six times as much as they have been in the habit of doing. Extensive reading programs of this sort are backed by scientific evidence that general knowledge and appreciation of selections so read are at least as great as under analytical methods of teaching. The other policy is to individualize reading, permitting each pupil to read within a given theme or type, or possibly without associative conection with his fellows, the kind of ma- terial suited to his interests and to his needs. For one, it might be “Moby Dick” with its literary flavor and minute psychologi- cal analysis; for another, “Out of Gloucester”, a vivid, factual account of winter experiences of the deep sea fisherman of the coast; for a third, “Two Years Before the Mast”, or “Captains Courageous”, with their simple, vigorous narrative of life at sea. Miss Smith describes a typical classroom in Libby Junior High School in Spokane, where such a method was employed. No recitation was in progress. In a laboratory of books, pic- tures, magazines and reference materials, the pupils busied themselves in reading and organizing selections based upon themes of interest. A boy was studying aviation. On his desk was Holland’s “Historic Airships” ; in an open booklet, his own description of why he liked “‘Lone Scout of the Sky”, and copied on the fly-leaf favorite lines from “Daedalus Green” and the “Ballad of Lucky Lindbergh”. Next him a girl bent over “Twice Told Tales” and traced down stories of New England life. Another enjoyed particularly stories of knights and ladies of the middle ages. She was reading Eric Kelly’s “Trumpeter of Krakow”, and on her desk was a letter to a friend urging her to read “Ivanhoe”. Posters about the room advertised other favorite titles which the pupils explained they were read- ing during this month’s “unit” of “free reading”. The only requirement was that each pupil should read within the month 100 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS at least four complete books and twelve poems, and write four letters or other compositions suggested by what he read. Two days of every week were given over to discussion, dramatiza- tion, and general sharing of books read, and the others were devoted to laboratory work in classroom and library. There is no uniformity in the list of classics required of all pupils. In one section of the country, it is the “Odyssey” that is required of every ninth grade pupil in the schools. In another, it is the “Lady of the Lake”. In still another, one may find large groups of English teachers who are unfamiliar with both, but know the “Courtship of Miles Standish” by heart. Evidence from this study proves the fallacy of a minimum con- tent notion for classes in literature. In-one hundred and fifty- six courses of study, the title read most frequently was “Silas Marner”’—required in a total of fifty-seven schools. Only eight of the classics listed are common to as many as one-fifth of the courses submitted. There are 309 titles in all, and only 27 of them are read in ten schools or more throughout the country. In view of these facts, who shall say which classic is necessary to the soul’s salvation? The wider program of extensive read- ing in various sections of the country suggests that pupils in the future will have more time for reading good literature rather than less; and that instead of studying “fifty ideas from one classic’’, they may be expected to have “one idea from each of fifty classics.” American History. In the report on the social studies Kimmel notes that in American history in the junior high school little space in courses of study seems to be devoted to cross-sectional views of the life of the people at different pe- riods in American history. Three courses of study include a major topic or unit on “Colonial Life’, but in general social history does not find a place in the courses in American history at the junior high school level. He finds a similar situation in American history in the senior high school. With few excep- tions, economic, social, and cultural phases are treated as sub- ordinate to political history. The tariff, money and banking, the labor movement, trusts and trust legislation, public lands, and the conservation movement are minor elements or receive Pe oe ae oe ee 7O An f 9 PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 101 only incidental consideration in most courses. With few ex- ceptions, social and cultural history do not receive even minor consideration. There seems to be a need for the study of American his- tory in its proper perspective as a phase of world history. The proposals made from time to time, such as that by Hill for a two-year sequence in World history, elicit much favorable com- ment from discerning teachers, but the introduction of such courses is blocked in many instances by statutory requirements which necessitate courses in American history. With the in- creasing number of courses in social studies other than history, courses in history seem in many cities to be limited to World history and American history. If the pupils in World history, as is generally contended by competent teachers, do not gain an adequate world background for the study of American his- tory, a two-year sequence in World history, with the possibility of more pupils being able to enroll in both courses, would seem to be an alternative worth serious consideration. The present diversity of practices found in courses of study may be illustrated by noting that the arbitrary division between the two semesters in nineteen one-year courses of study in American history in the junior high school ranges from the beginning of the Revolutionary War to the close of the Reconstruction Period. Two of the nineteen courses agree in making the dividing point the completion of a survey of the development of the “Middle West”; in two courses the content for the first semester is concluded with events immediately pre- ceding the Civil War. No two of the remaining fifteen courses agree in setting the arbitrary division. A similar variety of arbitrary divisions is found in the twenty-five one-year courses in American history in the senior high school. Seven courses conclude the materials of the first semester with the beginning of the Civil War; in six courses the close of the “Jackson Era” is used; in five, the close of the Civil War; the beginning of the “Jackson Era” and the end of political reconstruction following the Civil War are used in two courses of study, while the beginning of the War of 1812 and 102 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS the close of the Spanish-American War are each used as the dividing point between in one course. Part of this variation in practice is doubtless due to the fact that content in civics is in- cluded in six of the courses. The Objectives of Science Teaching. Beauchamp analyzed the objectives in 51 courses of study for general science, 32 courses for biology, 19 courses for chemistry, and 20 courses for physics. As he’ points out little importance should be at- tached to the frequency of mention of objectives as a measure of their relative significance. But as an indication of the lack of agreement concerning the objectives of science it is inter- esting to note that only 73 of the 122 recent courses agree in seeking to acquire knowledge which will produce a better un- derstanding of the environment; 67 courses seek to develop the ability to think scientifically ; 35 courses aim to develop the power of observation; 35 courses attempt to develop a scienti- fic attitude ; and 34 courses set up the goal of developing an at- titude of appreciation of the contributions of science to man- kind. In terms of the familiar analysis of objectives which was proposed in the bulletin on the cardinal principles of secondary education, 50 courses seek the objective of health, 37 the objec- tive of citizenship, 31 the objective of worthy home member- ship, 24 the objective of worthy use of leisure time, 20 the ob- jective of vocation, 12 the objective of ethical character, and 1 the objective of command of fundamental processes. Twenty-six teachers were asked the question, How do you train pupils to do scientific thinking? The answers were of five types: (1) the study of science results automatically in this ability because of the nature of the subject matter of science; (2) it is not possible to train a pupil to think; (3) we had a lesson on that last week, or we will have a lesson on that next week; (4) we take that up in the introduction to the course; (5) the pupils learn the method by watching the procedure of the teacher. None of the answers were definite to the extent that the investigator could get a clear idea of what was being done in this direction. This does not necessarily mean that no trai meé give pup cide (3) icall ing shot taug sub; ing abil: also sciel fore tion stud book peal ing | pect of cc sona a 8 envi each imp Che! nific bear sam is, [ scri] fron his \ PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 103 training in reflective thinking is being carried on but it does mean that it is not done in a systematic fashion. The answers given above raise severa! questions: (1) Is it possible to train pupils to think scientifically? (2) Should this training be in- cidental or should it be placed in the direct focus of attention? (3) Does the study of the subject matter in science automat- ically result in training in scientific method? (4) Should train- ing in scientific method be covered as a unit in the course or should it be an essential part of procedure in every class hour taught? (5) Is training in scientific method the result of the subject matter included in the course or the method of teach- ing employed? (6) What techniques result in training in the ability to do scientific thinking? A similar set of questions may also be raised concerning the objective, “the inculcation of the scientific attitude of mind”. The Unit Plan. Since none of the courses appearing be- fore 1926 were divided into units, it is probably a safe assump- tion that the term “unit” owes its introduction into courses of study to Professor H. C. Morrison. Professor Morrison’s book, “The Practice of Teaching in Secondary Schools”, ap- peared in that year. According to Professor Morrison, a learn- ing unit may be defined as “a comprehensive and significant as- pect of the environment, of an organized science, of an art, or of conduct, which being learned results in an adaptation in per- sonality”. The problem of organization in General Science is “a search for the comprehensive and significant aspects of the environment in the field being studied—‘comprehensive’ in that each aspect explains a great deal, and ‘significant’ in that it is important and essential”. In the organized sciences, Physics, Chemistry, and Biology, the unit is “a comprehensive and sig- nificant principle or complex of principles and the meaning and bearing of the terms ‘comprehensive’ and ‘significant’ are the same as before. The critical test of any unit in the science type is, Does it tend to contribute understanding rather than a de- scriptive account?” The foregoing statements have been quoted from Professor Morrison in order to show that it one accepts his viewpoint (and presumably those courses divided into units 104 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS do) he also accepts certain fundamental principles of organi- zation. An analysis of the courses divided into units indicates that the term “unit” has been taken over as a convenient term to replace the word “topic”, rather than as a principle of organi- zation. For example, the following “units” are found in Gen- eral Science courses: Astronomy, Air, Looking through a Tele- scope, Bread, Oxygen, Nature of Chemical Change, The Tele- phone, Buried Treasure, Animals, The Grasshopper, Chemis- try Flowers, Machines, Water, Obtaining a Food Supply, Car- bon Dioxide, and How Living Things Grow. Applying the difi- nition of a unit to these titles it is evident that many of those listed are not units while others are. Many of the courses con- sist of units mixed with topics. If we apply the analysis of a unit still further it is evi- dent that certain elements enter into the understanding which is implied by the unit. Direct learning of the unit requires mastery of the elements out of which the understanding grows, but it does not require mastery of all of the principles or as- sociated elements which do not contribute to the understand- ing. While it is true that different individuals might differ to some degree as to the elements which should be included within a unit, a fairly high uniformity of opinion should result. An analysis of the “unit”, “Air”, which was included in fifteen of the courses studied was made to determine the content in- cluded. The outline for this “unit” included the following prin- ciples: phenomena and devices; matter and its properties; weight, pressure, compressibility, composition, structure, elas- ticity and inertia of air; effect of heat upon air; oxidation; phot6synthesis; weather, including winds, humidity, evapora- tion, condensation, forms of precipitation, lightning, thunder, and forecasting; devices such as suction pumps, siphon, baro- meters, thermometers, windmills, compressed air devices, vacuum cleaners, airplanes, refrigerators; chemical changes including elements, mistrues and compounds; physical changes; conduction; radiation; convection; structure of the ear; musical instruments; nitrogen cycle, carbon cycle; hy- giene of breathing; nature of sound; weathering; boiling poi bul sto ter sio! the to : jec’ me uni the hav tak Wo! ver in 1 san exa ing al § of ° sch littl plat der of 7 hav Scie rap rhe quil diff ing PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 105 point ; freezing point; distillation ; friction; radio, treatment of burns; fire prevention; balloons; respiration; ventilation; stoves and furnaces; composition of water; water supply; bac- teria, yeasts and molds; vaccination; and life history of flies and mosquitoes. The examples given above seem to point to several conclu- sions: (1) the idea of what a unit is, is not clearly defined; (2) the title of the unit does not indicate the nature of the content to any high degree; (3) the emphasis is placed upon the sub- ject matter or assimilative materials rather than upon the ele- ments through which the intelligent attitude implied by the unit is attained. The Changing Curriculum. To the superficial observer the curriculum of the American secondary school may seem to have been so completely standardized that little change can take place. To be sure the quantitative measure of high school work in terms of the Carnegie unit of 120 clock hours is uni- versally used in grades nine to twelve, and the subjects offered in these grades in various schools almost invariably carry the same names from the Atlantic to the Pacific. But the careful examination of courses of study and the visiting in outstand- ing schools by the subject specialists on the staff of the Nation- al Survey of Secondary Education reveals conclusive evidence of wide variations both in the junior and the senior high schools. This is not surprising in the junior high school since little standardization has taken place in time allotments, grade placement, or subject titles. But in the senior high school un- der the apparent uniformity it is significant that a great deal of variation is found. Examples of the changes taking place have been in this report from English, American History, and Science. English. The functional centers of English expression are rapidly replacing the forms of discourse and the principles of rhetoric in the courses in English composition. Uniform re- quirements in literature have entirely disappeared as between different schools. Extensive reading of many books is replac- ing the intensive study of a few. 106 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS American History. In the field of the social studies no subject has been hedged about with so many restrictions as has American History. And yet change has become so character- istic in this subject that even the arbitrary dividing point be- tween the two semesters of a one-year course ranges from the beginning of the Revolutionary War to the close of the Spanish- American War. Science. General science, biology, physics, and chemistry have practically dominated the science program of the sec- ondary school for some time. But not a single objective is ac- cepted by all the recent courses which have been analyzed in any of these subjects. Only two objectives are common to half or more than half of the courses in general science; not a sin- gle objective is common to as many as half of the biology or chemistry courses; and only one objective is common to as many as half of the physics courses. Lack of Uniformity. Is this rather chaotic lack of uni- formity to be regarded as wholly undesirable? On the contrary it may be that the most encouraging thing that can be said about the present curriculum in that it is in flux, that change is characteristic. Freedom for Experimentation. At one of the sessions of the Commission on Unit Courses and Curricula of the North Central Association held last March Principal H. H. Ryan of the Wisconsin High School proposed an experiment in college preparatory work for chosen experimental groups. This pro- posal aroused much enthusiasm. A committee of the Progressive Education Association in- cluding official representatives of the Department of Secondary School Principals is now engaged in a series of regional con- ferences with college representatives with a view to securing approval of forty or fifty of the leading colleges and universi- ties for several experimental reorganizations of the secondary school curriculum to be tried out in selected secondary schools. At the first one of these conferences held in Chicago recently the college representatives were very favorably inclined. cI folUNSSlCUCOO no as e- he h- OSES USS t PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 107 In view of the present unrest in secondary schools the next few years may see the present tendencies to change in- creased tremendously as freedom to experiment is gradually extended to more and more schools. When one reads the chap- ter in the Thirty-First Yearbook, Part II, of the National So- ciety for the Study of Education which describes “One Hun- dred Twenty-Eight Outstanding Changes and Experiments in Liberal Arts Colleges”, it is easy to imagine a similar catalog for secondary schools within ten years. Mr. Will French, Associate Superintendent of Schools of Tulsa, Oklahoma, and Mr. Oscar D. Lindquist, Director of Uni- versity Schools, Ohio State University, led in the discussion. AFTERNOON DISCUSSION GROUPS GROUP I Dr. Charles H. Judd, Dean of the School of Education of ‘the University of Chicago, and Founder of the Judd Club, pre- sided over the Research Section, Group one, in the Gold Room of the Wardman Park Hotel. Mr. Francis L. Bacon, Principal of Township High School, Evanston, Illinois read his paper, The Study Habits of Excel- lent and Deficient Pupils. THE STUDY HABITS OF EXCELLENT AND DEFICIENT PUPILS FRANCIS L. BACON, ° Principal Evanston Township High School A number of the high-school principals of the Chicago and suburban area became interested in the question of the habits of study of good and poor pupils. As these principals were members of the Judd Club, the study was made a project of the group. Direction of the study and compilation of the returns were achieved through the aid of Professor W. C. Reavis of The University of Chicago. Each of the thirty-two principals involved in the project selected two pupils from his senior class—one who was failing 108 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS obviously because of poor study habits, and one who was highly successful because of superior study habits—and made case studies of these pupils. Two forms were worked out so that procedure would be reasonably identical and in order that returns might be tabu- lated and compared. Form I was designed as the basis for an interview which the principal was to have with each pupil. In the interview the principal, as interrogator, was to search out all of the data called for by the form. Items 4-8 in Form I were supplied without interrogation. Before the principal began the interview he, first, asked the pupil to write out an answer to the following question: How do you know when you have learned your lesson? Also, before the interview took place the plan called for the principal to visit the classes in which the pupils were en- rolled, observe them at work, collect all the information possi- ble about their habits of study, and then write out a full case report of each pupil giving a diagnosis of the causes of failure and success. The thought was that the interviews following this procedure would give a better opportunity to check cer- tain doubtful points and furnish a background which would make for more intelligent follow-up in the interviews. It may prove interesting to point out the results of cer- tain tabulations, although space will limit the inclusion to only those items which seem to have larger significance. In the following returns there were 25 pupils in each group: 1. The superior pupils, as a group, were approximately one year younger in chronological age. This group also had an average intelligence quotient of 119+. The highest quotient was 182 and the lowest was 98. The failure group had an av- erage intelligence quotient of 97+. The highest in this group was 123 and the lowest 74. ' 2. In a reading test for comprehension the excellent group produced an average score of 43-+- with the highest at 68 and the lowest at 12. The deficient pupils had an average read- ing comprehension of but 29+ with the highest at 62 and the lowest at 9. In reading-rate the superior group scored an av- @ ot i PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 109 erage rate of 123+ with a high score of 189 and a low one of 30. The inferior group scored an average of 110+ with a high score of 174 and a low one of 77. The low returns of the in- ferior group in reading gives additional evidence to the much- emphasized need of greater attention to the problem of read- ing, especially in regard to pupils who are failing. 3. The better group had no failures in the elementary grades while of the poorer group 9 had failed one grade each. The superior group had 14 pupils who skipped a total of 21 grades. Two skipped 3 grades each and three skipped 2 grades each. In the inferior group 6 skipped 6 grades, and in no case was more than one grade skipped by one pupil. 4, When it came to regular employment outside of school the two groups were equal. 5. In reading habits 25 of the successful pupils reported regular reading for recreation, while but 20 of the failing pu- pils followed reading as a recreation. The higher group read a total of 72 books per month and the lower group but 51. The first group read a total of 67 magazines and the second group a total of 54. All of the first group read the daily papers and but 19 of the second group. 6. The superior group gave about 134 hours daily to home study, while the other group gave approximately one hour to home study. Help received at home was negligible in both instances. Eleven of the strong pupils had no regular time to study each lesson, while 14 used a regular time. 14 of the weak pupils did not study at a regular time, while 10 did. 7. Of the superior pupils, 20 chose to do a hard piece of work before doing an easy assignment. 18 of the poor group chose to do the hard work first. 8. 22 of the better pupils read their lessons over rapidly more than once, while 20 of the poorer pupils followed this practice. 19 of the better group read their lessons slowly more than once and 12 of the poorer group followed this practice. 9. Of the superior pupils 24 read their lessons rapidly to get the general idea and then reread slowly, while but 10 of 110 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS the deficient pupils used this practice. This particular item is outstanding in the sharpness of the difference between the two groups. The results as demonstrated by the standing of the two groups would indicate that the usual emphasis upon this type of study has been well justified. 10. 20 of the superior group took notes on paper as they read and 16 of the poorer group used this method. It is, per- haps, surprising to learn that but 12 of the good pupils under- score words or lines to be used for ready reference in review. 14 of the poor pupils use underscorings. Of recent years the tendency has been to discourage underscoring, chiefly, be- cause of the damage done to books owned by the school. Where private ownership of books was more common, this practice was quite universal. It is interesting to note that, apparently, the poor pupils did not conform as well to regulations against underscoring. 11. There were 13 of the excellent pupils who used the practice of closing the’ book after reading and then trying to recite to themselves. There were 12 poor pupils who used this method. 14 of the better pupils made up questions about their lessons, while 11 of the poor pupils followed this method. Only two for each group recited their lessons to some other than themselves during study. 12. For the superior pupils 19 review the previous les- son assignment before beginning the study of the new lesson. 15 of the inferior pupils follow this practice. 13. The better pupils report 18 favorable responses to the question, “Has anyone ever tried to tell you how you should go about studying other than to tell you to do it?” Surprisingly, . 20 of the poorer pupils respond favorably to this same ques- tion. Perhaps teachers have made a more conscious effort to teach failing pupils how to study. That would be a logical re- sult. However, it is somewhat reassuring to know that the pu- pils themselves have been so largely conscious of the effort made. The superior pupils may not have felt the need of giving attention to material offered on ways of studying. The ten- “a we CO Rm PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 111 dency for self-reliance should be a part of the evidence, no doubt. History is the favored subject for some reason. 10 of the superior pupils report instruction in how to study in history classes. 7 report English. Other subjects are negligible. 12 of the poor pupils report instruction in history classes and 7 report English. Economics is mentioned by 3 and 2 each re- port civics, shorthand, and geometry. 14. The better pupils had a total of 60 study periods daily outside of regular class periods. The poorer pupils had a to- tal of 56. 15. For the superior group 16 pupils reported a practice of following a program of study for their study periods. 15 of the inferior group reported a similar practice. The interpretations or conclusions which may be drawn from the tabulations have already been indicated in conection with items which seem to point special significance. The simi- larity of the two groups in the type of response is, perhaps, the outstanding feature. As would be expected, the superior pu- pils show the greater conformity to practices which would be considered as desirable and which have been more or less em- phasized in the school process. The superiority of the better group, however, is not as marked as the principals expected. The answer of the pupils of both groups would apparently indicate that they were fairly conscious of the desirable prac- tices. It is not clear whether this indication had been obtained as a result of direct teaching or had been acquired through the method of trial and error. The slightly less favorable re- sponses of the inferior pupils might point to a deduction that in cases of pronounced failure either the lack of confirmed study habits or the presence of such is not, in itself, a domin- ant cause of failure. It was ascertained later that in practically all of the schools represented some attention had been given to the problem of how to study. The ways of emphasis, the methods of presentation, the content used, the supervisory follow-up 112 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS differed to large degree. It is perfectly clear that there is no indication of an accepted or standardized procedure on the question of teaching how to study. It is also amply demon- strated that schools are particularly deficient in attempts to measure the results of whatever efforts have been made. The material offered by this paper is but a slight oa in that direction. The replies of the pupils to the question: How do you know when you have learned your lesson, offer some rather definite suggestions on how-to-study methods and the efficacy thereof. The superior pupils reply: 1. Because assignments are clear, definite, when a certain understanding of the lesson content has been gained by careful thought. 2. When the facts of the lesson are fixed in my mind. 3. When I can go over the lesson and can answer what I think are the most im- portant things clearly, I know that I have learned my lesson. 4. When I am absolutely sure that I can’t get anything else out of it, I close my books. 5. When I have learned my lesson I experience a peculiar feeling of confidence that I can speak or write, correctly and without difficulty, about anything which may be asked concerning the subject I have been study- ing. 6. When I am able to summarize the chapter or assign- ment in my mind and pick out the important parts or topics in the chapter or assignment. 7. When I can go through the chapter, read the topic heads and have that bring to mind the contents of each topic. 8. When, some time after I have fin- ished studying, I can review the lesson in my mind and know the things I didn’t know as I studied the lesson the first time. 9. I know I have my lesson because of self-confidence when I enter the classroom. 10. If there is any doubt in my minc concerning the lesson, then I consult either another book or the teacher. 11. If the lesson is a written one, I write it out completely, study, and revise it if necessary. I study espe- cially difficult parts until I can say them over in my mind. If the lesson is oral, I write it out as I should like to say it, then read it over and over until I have the general content firmly fixed in my mind. I then say it aloud in the words that come most easily to me. If it is memory work, such as learning COR AD = © 6® - a PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 113 words or phrases, or public speaking, I write it down, read and reread it carefully. I then say it aloud as nearly correct as I can. The parts I miss I give special atention to when I go over it again. (This 11. statement is by the pupil with the highest I. Q.) 12. I am sure I have learned a lesson when I can reconstruct for myself the ideas which I have read. 13. When I am able to summarize in the morning what I have studied the night before. I like to ask myself possible test questions. The following replies were given to the same general ques- tion by the poor pupils: 1. When I can see clearly within my mind the high-lights or the outstanding events of the lesson. Also when I can answer all the questions that are put at the end of the chapter or lesson. When I am to give an oral report, I think I know the report, only when I have read the topic three or four times, and when I can give the report by using one-word notes, by this I mean each paragraph will be de- scribed by one word on my notes, by looking at this word I can relate the rest of the paragraph. 2. I know it when I have read it over twice. The first time I read it with a hurried sort of motion, then the last time I go over the points that are new tome. Sometimes I write out the important facts and in this way I can get it. 3. When I have made an outline of the lesson, picking out the most important points. 4. No matter how much I read the lesson, I can’t seem to get all of its points. 5. When I feel sure I can answer any questions about the lesson. 6. I do the hardest subject first. I first read over the lesson to see what parts need most study, then I leave the easiest part until the last. 7. When the assignment is so many pages it never seems so very important. If the teacher is especially strict I make it my business to outline the mater- ial and almost memorize it. If the assignment is like that every day I just read the material and when I get to class find out the important points. To tell the truth I hardly know when I’ve studied my lesson unless it is something to be memorized or written. 8. To know your lesson you must spend plenty of time reading and getting yourself accustomed to the book and what’s in it. Then if you can pass the test at 114 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS the end of the unit with a grade above passing I think you should know your lesson. 9. I can feel that I knowit. 10. I consider it learned when it ceases to pop up during the day and worry me. Some additional indication of the working habits of the pupils studied may be obtained from their case histories. Case 25A has the lowest I. Q. among the superior pupils. She also has the lowest comprehension and reading rates. These handi- caps are overcome by long hours of hard work. She wastes little time. Home work is done regularly. She sticks with a subject and while she may be guilty of some memorization, she rationalizes quite well. Her habits of study are not of the best, but she makes up for them by her persistence and her effort. She places duty above social and all other matters. 26A has an I. Q. of 119. Her grades are the highest ever given in her school. The record is made possible by hard work, absolute integrity, a very definite plan of study, regular at- tendance, and a determination never to go into class without having the lesson as nearly perfect as possible. Her family is entirely without means. 27A possesses the highest I. Q. and made the highest comprehension score. Her statement on study is number 11. She is even in temperament, has good health, enjoys physical recreational activities, a student leader in activities, trust- worthy, has wholesome personal habits, open minded, no con- duct difficulties, her friends are strong students, enjoys read- ing, plays tennis, swims, writes strong constructive editorials for the school paper. The above cases are typical of all of those in the superior group. Definite study habits and ability to concentrate are strongly in evidence. These pupils not only know what to do but they are able to do it. The case reports of the failing pupils are quite the con- trary. They differ in many more respects. There are many conditions which qualify the failure to study. Absence, lack of ambition, home difficulties, immaturity, illness, habituated care indi hor cur! supe foll som pro} the | lutic teac basi awa proy the cedu fess Uni' Edu Chai Pr educ and | ings achit the f 115 PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING carelessness, lack of home understanding, mischievous spirit, indifference, undernourishment, irresponsibility, disorganized home life and training, outside work, low intelligence, wrong curriculum, no home privacy, habituated bluffing, habituated superficial fiction reading, lack of sufficient interest or care to follow habits they know to be good, and weak moral fibre are some of the factors involved. ‘ In a few of these cases ready answers were given as to the proper methods of study. A few knew what to do but had not the strength of will to achieve successful application. In the failing cases it appears rather obvious that the so- lution of the difficulties does not primarily depend upon the teaching of how to study. Certain other conditions, more basic in their operation and influence, must first be cleared away or improved, before successful habits of study can be properly set up and acquired. It is reasonable to expect that the teaching of how to study should be a part of the pro- cedure. The second paper, that of Dr. Charles W. Boardman, Pro- fessor of Education and Director of Student Teaching of the University of Minneapolis, was in his absence, read by Mr. J. G. Umstatld, assistant professor of education, oe of Education, University of Minnesota. OBSTACLES TO PUPIL ADJUSTMENT IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS Charles W. Boardman, Professor of Education, and Director of Student Teaching, College of Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Probably the greatest contribution of the past generation of educators has been the discovery and recognition of the facts and the implications of individual differences among human be- ings. The development of objective tests of intelligence, or achievement, of special abilities, and of personality have made the facts so obvious that they cannot longer be ignored. More- 116 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS over, they have greatly strengthened the arguments of those who have demanded, not only education for all, but an educa- tion for each child that is suited to his individual needs. As a result of the appreciation of the problems involved in educating individuals of widely varying abilities, there have been many assaults upon the established curriculum of the secondary schools. As a rule, these assaults have been directed toward the so-called “college subjects” which seem to serve the needs of relatively small groups of pupils,—such as Greek, ge- ometry, algebra, physics, chemistry, Latin, etc.,—until one aft- er another has been eliminated as a requirement for all pupils. The underlying purpose of such attacks upon the curriculum has been to permit differentiation, first in content, and later in rate and methods of instruction to meet the needs, abilities, and objectives of different groups of pupils. That the results of these attacks have begun to be felt, is evidenced by the increas- ing recognition of the importance of curriculum revision in the secondary schools. This revision provides opportunity for the restatement of aims and objectives in the light of modern edu- cational theories. In such restatements formal discipline as an objective seems doomed to disappear, and specific, practical ob- jectives to increase in importance. We must not, however, be- come lost in curriculum research to the extent that we forget that its fundamental purpose is pupil adjustment and service to the individual. The best curriculum may fail of this purpose through faul- ty administration. The educational values of a subject are not intrinsic or absolute, but relative. Moreover, they are relative in regard to many factors, the chief of which are the person, the time, and the place. We must know not only the aims and objectives of the subject, but whether these are reasonable and important for each individual, at the present time, and under the existing conditions. The arguments that each subject has a general] disciplinary value which applies to all pupils alike is no longer accepted. Even so-called cultural values are no long- er unquestioningly accepted. Recently, in the Pennsylvania study by the Carnegie Foundation, a comparision between stu- dents who had taken engineering studies and those who had elect that grou com! ent | prok neec of f othe kno’ inte greé tere bec: care tim and som the eacl inte ind “In O mig que por In | the to 1 tha whi ins PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 117 elected the general or so-called “cultural” subjects indicated that the difference between the cultural medians of the two groups was so slight as to be practically negligible. We are be- coming much more critical of general objectives and are insist- ent upon more specific objectives which can be measured. Exactly why should a pupil elect any certain subject? It probably should depend upon his own present and immediate needs, the other available alternative choices, the possibilities of postponement of one or both until later, and upon many other special conditions. Concerning the individual, we should know something of his educational prospects, his abilities, his interests, and the other possible choices which might have greater values for him. John Blake may be able to master Latin, and may be in- terested in Latin, and it may seem wise for him to elect Latin, because as a choir boy, he has become interested in a church career, but if he must aid in the support of his family, if his time for schooling is definitely limited, or if he wishes to marry and provide for a family of his own, it is entirely possible that some other subject may be of more practical value for him at the time. In the selection of electives, the prospects and plans of each individual should be checked, as well as his abilities and interests. This cannot be done as a group matter; it must be an individual matter and should be checked by a skilled counselor ‘in an individual interview. At such a time a choice which might seem wise without a knowledge of these facts appears of questionable value. The element of place has not usually received as much im- portance as it should in the selection of educational electives. In some schools Mary Smith should study French, but under the circumstances, in view of the fact that she has an antipathy to the French teacher, or because French is poorly taught in that school, or because her home is located in an Italian district where she intends to teach, it may be highly desirable that Mary, in this particular place, should study German or Italian instead of French. We are familiar with the advice that is oft- 118 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS en given to students in college, that they should select teachers rather than subjects. Why not carry this same advice into the secondary schools when there is any question involving a choice of subjects. The time element is possibly the most important element and the one most frequently overlooked. The ground may well be taken that everyone should study Latin and Greek and French and mathematics. In fact, perhaps they should be re- quired subjects for everyone provided that proper time could be determined when it might be most advisable that each indi- vidual should pursue each subject. The most obvious difficulty in the past has been that we have regarded education as a kind of juvenile occupation. Consequently we have required pupils to take these subjects at a time in their lives when they had too many competing interests. Athletics, school activities, social interests, all seem far more vital to young people at the time than many of these school subjects. If James is preparing to be a priest, or if he intends to go to Amherst College, he must study Latin in the ninth grade. But if he intends to be a busi- ness man, or an engineer, he might well postpone the study of Latin until other competing interests have been satisfied and he can study it as recreation, possibly at the age of seventy when more active pursuits must be laid aside! Cato had the right idea when he undertook the study of Greek at the age of eighty, and possibly when James has mastered that, Hebrew and Sanskrit will be of absorbing interest! For Mary or Bill, however, at the age of fifteen, a class in dancing would make them less self-conscious and better mixers, or classes in draw- ing, music, commercial subjects, or vocational shop try-outs may be of more immediate importance as a basis for self-dis- covery. For the student who is not intending to enter college, algebra and geometry are of little practical value. Most of the thinking that he will have to do is not mathematical but social, and his further pursuit of mathematics beyond the vocational and social essentials might well be postponed to the age of six- ty, when mathematical puzzles and problems might possibly tend to keep the mind active as the body decreases in vital ac- tivity! Until we are prepared to answer whether John Doe is the } in v stud part time be a: are |} left. indir vidu: in hi route him, sires take: grea cum: by ot In tion. cipal have them time pupil the c be pl ties { be m curri obvic do it the 7 facts actu poset pupil °s e a — ef a a ee Oe 119 PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING the particular person whose interests, abilities, and prospects, in view of other choices, make it wise for him to choose to study a particular subject in this particular school, under this particular teacher, in this community, and at this particular time, we are not prepared to answer the questions that should be answered before such decisions are made. Obviously these are problems in the solution of which individuals should not bé left alone and unguided. There should be an opportunity for individual planning at the very outset, in order that each indi- vidual may understand where he is going and take an interest in his own progress toward his own goal. If he is following a route mapped out by someone else, for reasons unknown to him, toward a destination that he neither knows about nor de- sires to arrive at, it should not be a matter of wonder that he takes little interest in his own educational achievement. The greater wonder is that pupils do as well as they do under cir- cumstances in which most of their work is prescribed for them by others. In the rapid growth of secondary schools not enough atten- tion and time have been given to individual planning. The prin- cipals and practices of educational and vocational guidance have been little understood. Principals had not been trained in them and if they had been trained, there was not sufficient time for the principal to provide individual planning for all pupils; neither had the value of such work been appreciated by the community sufficiently, so that reasonable assistance could be provided for the principal who wished to secure such facili- ties for his pupils. The only method by which a program could be made was that of grouping certain subjects into specialized curricula in which pupils could be placed so as to avoid the most obvious maladjustments. It is easy to make such a curriculum. Any principal can do it in his office, but the proposed curriculum is not always the real one. In the proposed curriculum educators list the facts and skills which pupils are swpposed to learn. What they actually do learn may be an entirely different matter. The pro- posed objectives may be appreciation of poetry, but what the pupil actually learns may be such a distaste for poetry that he 120 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS will never again read it except under compulsion. What the child learns is the real curriculum, and this can be discovered only as the result of measurement and of conferences in order to discover pupil attitudes. Under the existing methods of choice, educators have found much to worry about in regard to lockstep, progress of bright and slow pupils; soldiering on the part of bright pupils; and overwork, failure, and elimination on the part of slow pupils. Most of the curricula, even in pro- gressive schools, are full of dead wood, padding, overlapping, and unnecessary reviews, and the knowledge of educational methods and objectives has not yet seriously affected actual teaching practice. The chief difficulty, however, is not in the curriculum it- self, but in our administration of the curriculum. As soon as a subject is made a required subject, no thought is required on the part of either the pupil or the teacher about the problems which have been mentioned. The pupil no longer questions, at least audibly, whether the subject has any value for him, and the teacher no longer is concerned with the problem of whether any particular pupil in the class has a reasonable chance of achieving the general objectives for which the subject was in- troduced into the curriculum. It has been said that we think only when we are confronted with a problem. If there is no problem of choosing a subject, if the pupil is required to study it, then obviously neither the pupil, the teacher, the principal, nor the adviser will give the matter any thought. Consequently many pupils are studying subjects for no better reason than that they will produce a certain number of points toward grad- uation. On the other hand, if each subject is made elective, the pupil, teacher, adviser, and principal are forced to consider the problem of individual differences and the specific services which the pupil may expect as a result of subject instruction. There may be subjects that must be required for certain ob- jectives, but let them not be required unnecessarily. Bad, however, as required subjects may be, they exist in their worst form in the grouping of required subjects in spe- cialized high schools or in specialized curricula within a high school. From the point of view of guidance, there are decided obje all ¢ prob to el pupi coun is lit pupi coun spec: pupi pare loyal whic dieri age ¢ edge bette study out a of su ineffe best in or in the ment out k but f vidua view ing f schoo 1g, ial lal —= we 6 _ PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 121 objections to such an administrative procedure: (1) Because all decisions are made apart from any consideration of the problem of individual differences, or of the individuals who are to elect the courses; (2) Because no option is provided for the pupil, and little or no thought is required of parent, teacher, or counselor. In fact, when we have specialized curricula there is little or nothing that the counselor can do except to fit the pupils into the curriculum as he finds it, and often there is no counselor and no consciousness of a problem; (3) Because with specialized curricula no vehicie is provided for protests by the pupils or suggestions on the part of teachers, counselors, or parents. Adjustments can be made only at the cost of broken loyalties and associations. The result is a static condition, which is sure to bring with it all of the evils of lockstep, sol- diering, failure, elimination, and waste in education. A solution to these problems requires boldness and cour- age on the part of the educational administrator. If the knowl- edge of individual differences is to be applied in order to insure better pupil adjustment, the following steps appear necessary : (1) Every secondary school be equipped with a child study department, for the study of individual differences, with- out a knowledge of which any differentiation through choices of subjects, or methods and rates of instruction, must prove ineffective. (2) Provision must be made in each school to insure the best possible articulation, continuity, and individual planning in order that individual aims and purposes may be recognized in the educational program of secondary schools. (3) The service of the child study or guidance depart- ment should be, not alone for the problem children who stand out because of failures, dicipline, or other mal-adjustments, but for each and every child in the entire school. Such indi- vidual attention should require at least one individual inter- view each term with a skilled counselor. When we are spend- ing from $125 to $200 per pupil per year in the secondary schools, and when so much of our effort may be wasted for the lack of definite objectives and adjustment, good business should 122 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS require at least that much thought concerning the aims and ad- justment of each individual. (4) The program of each school be built upon a study of individual needs, interests, abilities, and prospects, and that the subjects offered and the units of the curriculum in these subjects be based upon the study of individual differences and needs. (5) There should be no choices of subjects in the curricu- lum without: (a) Adequate preparation through group guid- ance in order that each individual may understand the values that he may or may not expect to receive from such a study. Such preparation should be under the guidance of the class counselor rather than the subject teacher as a safeguard against the over-enthusiasm and extravagant claims frequent- ly made by specialists, and; (b) An individual check-up of each choice by a trained counselor in an individual interview in order to make sure of the wisdom of the investment in time and money. (6) All specialized curricula should be abolished and each subject should stand upon its own feet. For this purpose every subject should be separately elective under adequate guidance. Such a program would not prevent the adoption of certain poli- cies by the class counselors and the administration, or the grouping of subjects for certain general objectives, but the ap- plication of such policies would in every case be considered in connection with needs, interests, abilities, and prospects of the individual child—at that time and in that particular school. (7) The work of the counselors should be organized in such a way as to provide a continuous self-survey which would prevent mistakes from being repeated. In the past obvious errors in judgment and in choices have been repeated term aft- er term, and there has been no administrative research for the purpose of ascertaining the facts and correcting the mistakes. Such methods would not be tolerated in any business conducted for private profit and must not be tolerated in the public serv- ice. wl res of the an wa gel the dif as ea vid an to ° saf ble bili of mil qué the con vid but it n req anc ma ad- nat ase nd u- id- es ly. ss rd t- of 1e PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 128 A critic of such a drastic reorganization might well ask what results may be expected from such a plan. The following results may be reasonably expected : (1) A considerable improvement in the effort and morale of pupils. They would not have to be driven along a road that they themselves have chosen. Instead of being forced to study and being driven by fear of failure, pupils should press on- ward under their own steam as a result of the desire to master a field of knowledge or of skills that will be useful in their general program of training and development. (2) When each subject is made elective under guidance, there are sure to come rapid changes in the enrollment for the different subjects. Much of the dead wood in the curriculum, as well as in the teaching staff, will be eliminated. (3) Education will become less a training, imposed upon each individual, and will become more and more a service pro- vided to assist each individual to make the most of his abilities and interests to prepare for his needs in the immediate future, to work toward his own goal, intelligently chosen under proper safeguards. (4) By such an administrative scheme, it should be possi- ble to avoid factory methods and: mass education, to secure greater continuity in education, and to insure greater responsi- bility on the part of pupils and teachers. Unnecessary changes of subjects and teachers will be avoided. Obviously these ad- ministrative changes cannot be accomplished without an ade- quate conception of the importance of individual differences, the need of adequate child study and guidance, and the need of continuously adapting the schools to serve the needs of indi- viduals. Under such a plan the schools will not be for teachers but for children. No subject is of itself an obstacle to pupil adjustment, but it may be, and probably will become an obstacle as soon as it is required. We should not remove Latin from the requirements and replace it with physical training as a requirement. There may be some who do not need it. The only valid reason for re- 124 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS quiring any study applies to those subjects the chief purpose of which is orientation or socialization. To paraphrase Brutus, The fault is not in our curriculum, but in our administration of it, that we are weak. Let us abandon mass diagnosis and mass prescription and adopt individual diagnosis, planning, and service. Mr. S. N. Ewan, Jr., Principal of Lansdowne High School, Lansdowne, Pensylvania, presented his material on the topic, Class Size. CLASS SIZE S. N. Ewan Principal of High School, Lansdowne, Pennsylvania Object—The object of this study is to determine what ef- fect class size has upon pupil achievement. For comparative purposes the progress of pupils in classes under fifteen in num- ber has been measured against that of pupils in classes over thirty. Pupil achievement has been measured by standardized tests. Method—The method can best be explained by showing the procedure used in one subject. Two classes in English satisfying the size requirements were selected. Both classes were under the same instructor, receiving the same kind and amount of instruction. Affer a definite period of instruction, such as a semester, a standardized test was given each class section. Pupils in the small class were then paired with pupils of equal I. Q. in the large class. After such pairing the aver- age score of the pupils selected from the small class was com- pared to that of the pupils matched with them in the large class. Thus the chief factor accounting for any difference in progress of the two groups would seem to be that of class size. Fearing that other factors might possibly affect the valid- ity of the study, a thorough background analysis was made of each pupil under observation. to! se 8, mn B PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 125 In all eighteen such paired classes have been studied. These classes have been in English, Latin, mathematics, his- tory, science, and typewriting. RAW SCORE SHEET TEST RESULTS FOR LARGE AND SMALL CLASSES , ee English II— (Soph.) (School) (Subject) Large Class Small Class Average I. Q. (44) (10) Average Standardized Test 100 105 13.5 14 A English II—(Soph.) (School) (Subject) (20) PAIRED PUPILS FROM ABOVE CLASS Small Class Large Class Pupil I. Q. Test Pupil 1.Q. Test A 94 12 A 94 13 Cele 120 22 B 118 16.5 C 97 12 C 97 15 D 98 10.5 D 97 10.5 E 113 23 E F 114 20.5 F G 101 13 G H H I I J J 126 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PUPIL BACKGROUND STUDY A (School) Subject: American History Length of Period: 45 min. Time of Day: 9:15—10:00 Test dates: January 23, 1931 February 2, 1931 March 10,1931 Number in Class: 14 Days per week: a Case: B Paired with: Bl Test Scores: (75) (60) (79) Scholastic work in school Age: 16 I. Q. 100 Previous high school (grades 9-12) training in subject Civics, Ancient, Medieval and European. Average grade earned in this subject: 73 Reason for taking this subject: required. Other subjects carried: Commercial Law, Shorthand, Type- writing, English, Business English. Extra curricular activities carried: none Amount of study in school on this subject: activity period— 20 min. Condition for study at home: History at home—20 min. room with radio and family Work after school: none Other Information: Father a professional man Teacher Comments in Study: Technique used with paired cases (group conference, group testing). Other condi- tions which make the study of these paired cases valid or not valid. (Required subject only reason for this person taking this course. No interest shown. been —— Algel Algel Civies Engli Engli Engli Geom Histo: Histo: Histo. Histo: Histo Histo: Latin Physi Physi Type’ Type PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 127 In the following tables showing results all averages have been obtained after pairing of pupils has occurred. TABLE I RESULTS SHOWN By CLASSES - CLASS Size of Class | Avera Test Sere ' Algebra II (Soph.) toustms |. sane = Algebra II (Junior) | pete is) = Py Civics (Freshmen) | fon 79) | one 168 English II (Sophomore) | tae (38) | 107.8 | ais English II (Sophomore) fone | me |. we English IV (Senior) | es (3B) | 103.9 86 Geometry, Solid, (Senior) | lates (17) | 110 79 History, World, (Sophomore) | pac tas} | ioe 23 History, Modern, (Sophomore) j pes on 1012 aS History, Modern, (Sophomore) pence at} 26 ai bi History, American, (Junior) | pone (303 boy 1274 History, American, (Junior) ee (03 Hae 808 History, American, (Junior) pe (393 bp sp Latin II (Sophomore) pen (38) or 2 Physics (Senior) ene (373 ian Ke Physics (Senior) , = (as a as Typewriting I (Junior) pean er} ne 3s Typewriting I (Junior) i 18} be ae DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS TABLE II CLASSHS GROUPED ACCORDING TO SUBJECTS SUBJECT |. arr Test Beare ~ aes Ute =a (i English Large (38) 105.3 71.1 — Small (14) 124.6 44 os Large (28) 123.6 37 *s Small (13) | 108.2 80.9 Mathematics Large (27) | 108.5 80.2 t Small (11) | 102.4 17 ay Large (32) | 1025 75.9 ' Small (11) 105 77.3 Science Large 13} | 104 76.2 Pe Small (6) | 108 66.6 Typewrtting Large {03} | 4075 66.3 TABLE III ALL CLASSES GROUPED TOGETHER CLASSES | Aeaciee | Aregee | Agerage All Small (13) 105.5 72.2 Large (31) | 105.3 72.5 From the background studies a number of interesting facts came to light. These are not advanced as truths but are mere- ly noted in passing. The I. Q. can not always be trusted as a guide to results. One pupil with an I. Q of 180 is doing a low grade of work and at the same time is in a small class. Another pupil with the next to the lowest I. Q. is doing excellent work. He is in the large class. In twelve of eighteen paired cases studied in a sopho- more history class, grades obtained correspond with averages received for history in junior high school. Election of a subject would seem to be no definite indi- cation of results. Of eighteen pupils in one class, seven elect- otk do cla cla Sc] the Cit TE vet PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 129 ed the subject and the remainder were required to take it. Of the seven, only two are doing good work. Of the eleven others, three are doing excellent work. Pupils with no previous experience in a similar subject do as well as experienced pupils. Pupils carrying extra-curricular activities do as well and better than those not so engaged. Equal results were obtained in classes meeting the first and last periods of the day. CONCLUSION The study has been in operation a year and a half and will be continued until it becomes a three year study. The results at present seem to indicate that pupils in large classes achieve as well as those in a small class. Larger classes will materially reduce the cost of instruction. Mr. William F. Ewing, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, California, read his paper, The Adequacy of the Maximum salary for the Secondary School Teachers in A City School System. OAKLAND PUBLIC SCHOOLS Office of the Assistant Superintendent THE ADEQUACY OF THE MAXIMUM SALARY FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN A CITY SYSTEM William F. Ewing Assistant Superintendent of Schools Oakland, California The San Francisco Bay Region of the Committee on In- vestigations in Secondary Education was organized about four years ago. Since the beginning of the organization, members 130 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS have been meeting regularly three or four times a year. Sev- eral research studies have been undertaken and a few reports have been made. Early last Fall, members of the group, in- terested in salary studies, determined to study “The Adequacy of the Maximum Salary for Secondary School Teachers in a City System.” Chiefly through the efforts of the Director of Research’, and the cooperation of the Heller Committee for Research in Social Economics? (University of California), the Superin- tendent of Schools’, and the teaching corps in the Oakland Public Secondary Schools, we are able to give this report: In order to obtain evidence concerning living arrange- ments and teachers’ contributions to the support of dependents, “Cost of Living Inquiry Blanks—Teachers” were printed and distributed to every secondary-school teacher in the system. Since teachers were told in advance that the data on the cards would be treated as confidential, no signatures were required. On the same day, in each school, teachers without discussion filled out the blanks, and a member of the faculty collected the blanks, placed them in a sealed package and delivered the par- cel to the office of the superintendent of schools. These blanks were subsequently segregated and tabulated by the Bureau of Research. OAKLAND PUBLIC SCHOOLS ~ Sample of Cost of Living Inquiry Blanks—Teachers i Dr. R. E. Rutledge. 2 Felix Flugel, Charles A. Gulick, Jr., Emily H. Huntington, Albert H. Mowbray, Carl C. Plehn, Jessica B. Peixotto, Chairman; Mory Gor- ringe Luck, Statistician. 3 Mr. Willard E. Givens. (pied sty} Jo youq ay} uo ‘Aue ft ‘syueuIWOD [eloeds 103,uq) l | | | ! | | | (Ajroedg) s8a880'T J2UUIMpBeig Juaut 038 sseu | yuapuadap 127310 Terousuly | Jo yyweq |-Aojdweun) PIO | -IIT | Buyworeq | seo¢ ase; woyynqy2qu00 ee | ee ee ee eee jo puly 10 Junowy nos uo 04 (3pey49) yUepuedep Burwi0seq 103 uosBey “ae baked hed ba | | NO uO yuapuadap Alperaeg Qsr]T) SSuusreg imoxX uo juspuedag Ajjenseg 10 AyjoyM Ssuosisg syucswuAed Ayyjyuouw ¢ | feackl | | | | | | | | (42249) | (19949) j1esanoé UsIP[IY PUB aJIM UBY? S1ay3C 0} a[qQuoITddy Iva] poeuMO :oUI0OY UMO asnods JO NOA J] ESUISpO[ pus’ prvo0g seij sAtedeI (3) yquou tad yunowre ‘os jy (ajqtssod jr “yso0o AjyJUOW a4BUIT}S® puv Ul¥[dx9) 1eYyIO “WT ----+-+--- gums poxy Aed (Z) Yyquoul Jed 4sod eSvIOAB ‘4UBING}SeL UI S[Ba --- +--+ - gsasuedxe o1vys (T) noAé 0g yjuow ded 4s00 * wool pazyusy “q - SOAI}BIAI Tayo ,Aueu moy yyM f-*--~-- ~~ peaeys syuered yjuoul ted quer ¢ yey Jo yuouyredy ‘O @jIM IO puBgsny :4uyIM yjuow ied 4s00 ¢ asnoy Zulpieog ‘g ‘oul0y IV “VW (uorzenzIs Juesead AnoA 0} a[qQ¥vat[dde—q 10 ‘q ‘OD ‘g ‘y—ouo oy} JooIeS) SyUsWIeZUBLIY ZUIATY 918d [VIIPIUL 18430 10 [eqyIdsoy 4styuep 1030p :JO syjuOU ZT ysed oy} Sutanp ouo[e Jjasanod 10F sod ayy ‘arqissod jr ‘ayew4sq zsavoh ¢§ 4S¥B[ oY} Sulinp peAojdwe useq (eys) (ey) sey syzUOW AUeWE MOTT Z2eTIqowoyne uv UMO NOA Og °* i peAojdwie Al[njure3 ajtm 10 pueqsny dnod sy ° T&6T oz Areleg ~--—pezyeredeg peo10atq PeMmoplM peieyy V[SUIG :SsNzeyS [VPIVyY aIBVW 2xeg SYSHOVAL ANV1E AYMINONI ONIATT AO LSOD STOOHDS DI1ENd GNVTIVO suayova T—syunjg hambuyl BurarTy fo 3809 fo ajdwung S =} & a = >) A Zz =) & o a a 7] n < == te a & a ° n <) a 132 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS In this study, the following items will be discussed—mar- ital status, number of dependents, causes of dependency, living arrangements, home ownership, automobile ownership, and typical teachers. Marital Status—Out of a total of 873 teachers employed in the Oakland Secondary Schools, 858 (98%) replied. On the basis of sex, 232 (27.1%) are men teachers. Of this group, 202 (23.6%) are married men. Only 30 (3.5%) of the 858 teach- ers are single men. Of the 202 married men who filled out the inquiry blanks, 107 (approximately 53%) reported that wives during the last three years had not been gainfully employed outside the home. 26 (12.8%) reported that wives were employed at the time the report was made, but only 17 (8.4%) of these have had contin- uous employment for the last three years. The typical man teacher in Oakland is a married man whose wife is not employed. 626 (72.9%) of the 858 teachers who replied are women. 134 (21.4%) of them are married. Of these, 62, or less than one-half of them, reported that their husbands had been con- tinuously employed during the past three years. Quite a large number reported that their husbands were in poor health and were employed as insurance salesman, etc. The typical Oakland secondary-school teacher is a single woman. Number of Dependents and Causes of Dependency—The entire corps of teachers reporting have been divided into two groups, viz., one-income group, and two-income group. In the one-income group, there were 174 married men whose wives were not gainfully employed outside the home. These men were supporting either wholly or partially 518 dependents. The sin- gle men were supporting either wholly or partially 50 depend- ents. 38 married women whose husbands were not employed were supporting 92 dependents. 457 single women were sup- ar- ing ind Lin the 02 sh- cS, st le. he in PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 133 porting 654 dependents. The 699 teachers reported in the sin- gle income group were supporting wholly or partially 1314 de- pendents. 172 married men reported that 398 total dependents living at home were solely dependent upon their incomes. 12 reported that they wholly supported 17 dependents elsewhere. 172 men reported 410 total dependents. 18 supported 21 partial depend- ents living with them. 56 reported 84 dependents living else- where. In the two-income group, 25 men teachers whose wives were employed and 92 women teachers whose husbands were employed were supporting 236 dependents. The most frequent causes of dependency were old age, un- employment, death of breadwinner, and financial reverses. Prior to 1929, on account of old age there were 102 partial de- pendents. Since 1929, 39 more persons have become partially dependent. On account of unemployment, there were 35 before 1929 and 116 since 1929. On account of financial losses, only 19 were reported prior to 1929, 26 dependents have been added since that date. The total dependents included 174 wives, 295 children, and 46 other persons. The annual amount spent for dependents varied from $25.00 to $1980.00. Living Arrangements—All of the married men except one reported that they lived at home. Of the 30 single men, 13 were living with parents, 2 lived with other relatives, 2 at boarding houses, 6 resided at apartments, 3 had rented rooms, and 4 gave no data. Of the married women who were the only wage earners in the home (one-income group) 36 lived with their husbands, and in the two-income group (husband and wife both wage earners) 92 lived with their husbands, and 2 gave no data. Of the single women, 21 owned their own homes and were living alone, 187 were living at home with their parents, who were 134 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS in most cases wholly or partially dependent upon the salaries of their daughters, 51 were living with other relatives, 2 with friends, 39 in boarding houses, 109 were living alone in apart- ment houses or flats, 81 shared apartments, 37 were living in rented rooms, and 15 gave no data. The cost of board and lodging for unmarried teachers va- ried according to types of living arrangements. In one group the monthly expenditures for room and board varied from $40.00 to $70.00. In another group, consisting mostly of those living in hotels, apartments, or flats, the cost of board and lodging was about $100.00 a month. Home Ownership—Of the 202 married men, 107 are. pay- ing on home mortgages, the median payment being approxi- mately $50.00 per month. 26 own their homes unencumbered, and 66 rent living quarters. Of the single men, most of whom are living with parents, only 4 are buying homes. Of the 134 married women, 62 are making payments on home mortgages—the great majority of the group paying from $40.00 to $80.00 a month. 11 own their homes without encum- brance. 60 of the married women reported that they did not own their homes. Of the single women, 75 are paying for their homes, 61 own their homes without encumbrance, 356 do not own their homes. Automobile Ownership—184 of the 202 married men own their automobiles clear, 5 are making payments on cars. Of the single men, 20 own cars clear, 103 of the 134 married women own their cars clear, 4 are making payments. 262 single women own their automobiles clear. Only 1 is making payments. 206 do not own automobiles and 23 did not answer the question. For the single women in the Oakland Public Secondary Schools, the median showed the equivalent of one dependent. For the married man with one income, the median was three total dependents. Therefore we may say that the typical Oak- land secondary teachers are two: 1. The single woman teacher with one dependent at home, probably a mother. PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 135 2. The married man with a wife and two children prob- ably a girl in senior high school and the other a boy in junior high school. Cooperating in this study, the Heller Committee for Re- search in Social Economics has recently completed a “Quantity and Cost Estimate Showing the Standard of Living That Can Be Maintained On a Salary of $2820 a Year By 1. A Married Male Teacher’s Family of Four 2. A Single Woman Teacher With One Dependent at Home.” The Heller Committee study shows in detail the quantity and cost estimates of the two typical Oakland secondary-school teachers. Quoting from the preface, “This quantity and cost estimate attempts to present a picture of the amount and kind of commodities which may be purchased for the present maxi- mum salary in Oakland secondary schools, $2820 a year. It does not pretend to fix an ‘ideal standard,’ but rather to re- flect the habitual spending ways of the group. It is a quantity and cost estimate, not a record of the actual expenditures of Oakland teachers. That is to say, it is an attempt to evaluate the goods that will probably be purchased in order to main- tain the consumption standards common in this professional group. “Several previous studies have been used as a basis for determining the standard of living which prevails among teachers and the amount and kinds of commodities implied by such a standard. In 1926 Royal Meeker published a study of costs and standards of living of Minneapolis teachers. In 1930 Mrs. Beatrice B. Smyth made a study of the cost of living of single business and professional women in the San Francisco Bay district. This study is as yet unpublished. The Heller Committee on Research in Social Economics publishes an- nual quantity and cost estimates for three income levels. Cer- tain specific data concerning the average number and kind of dependents, ownership of a home and of an automobile, and other items, were gathered by a questionnaire circulated by 136 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS the Research Department of the Oakland Public Schools among the secondary school teachers receiving this salary. “Two complete quantity and cost estimates have been com- piled, one for a single woman with a dependent mother, and one for a man, his wife and two children in their ’teens. The results of the Oakland questionnaire showed that the average woman had one total dependent living at home, or the equiva- lent in partial dependents away from home, and that the aver- age man was supporting the equivalent of three total depend- ents upon his salary, since in the majority of cases his wife was not gainfully employed. “It is obvious that the average unmarried woman teacher, with only one dependent, can maintain a different standard of living on this salary than can a man with a family. The woman may be described as living at a comfort-and-savings standard. The man with a family cannot hope to provide more than a minimum of health and comfort, and that only by exercising the utmost care in purchasing and in planning expenditures, and by the practice of numberless petty economies. Both the man and the woman teacher must meet certain habitual stand- ards of their social group as regards automobile ownership, home ownership for the family, and study for professional ad- vancement. Investigation among Oakland teachers showed that the majority include these items in their budgets. The av- erage single woman can afford to set aside an automobile de- preciation fund each year, dress well, spend $115 for a vaca- tion, make a comfortable allowance for amusements and pocket-money, and still have a surplus to provide an annuity for her old age and a small savings account for illness, emerg- encies, or travel. The average man’s family must economize severly on clothing, can buy a new car only by practicing econ- omy in every other department of expenditure, must count visits to the theatre a rare treat, and cannot make any pro- vision for old age, severe illness, emergencies, or travel, nor pay for assistance in the heavy housework and laundry.” The summaries of the Heller study are significant and fol- low here: Ba vic I. SUMMARY PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING Quantity and Cost Estimate for a Male Teacher’s Family ITEMS— Annual Cost Expenditures I oscneinndcahrsdcecsinesnemcitiertiocientnimanentnpiitn -$ 645.30 NE as iiainscrgovsinenicheenctectailaniaagsaatniiteies 395.34 | LS oer ere $ 95.32 DD Sintckcstinsnsncdincnerntbtionsiting 111.36 Ah gRERREAE Aaecn e 124.40 I BP sick te tgcinstcicsinn 64.26 LEG 5 a EN TL CS 780.20 House operation ...............-....--.::ss-e0+000++ 149.79 Furniture and furnishings .................... 80.81 Care of the person .............---.---..--..---+++ 58.28 I IIE cise decsipsacicrtnpcnninecittinicni 142.90 DI, xiii ieen sirenerinccnscstesciienitntaipintun 273.45 CID nn isttinsenicsntorninninsinnentnciennenti 20.00 I sista entices ces ctennelceastenglanseenalatiille 104.75 ITI nists ssesnsnnsssssccescrismisatatiinies 20.00 II, Bist iivcniniie tees ccnsninhinneeniiianosnniit 64.50 I Sei csiiiesSanthcescnsnctdnnanieminbinie 15.00 I iin cthecsnsnisetittchincoanhcascnset 5.00 Total expenditures ...........-............- $2755.32 Balance available for investments to pro- vide for old age or death of the bread- winner 64.68 acenih SebuiaecnsielilansenimeeDaiabed $2820.00 Percent of total salary 22.9 14.0 3.4 3.9 4.4 2.3 27.6 5.3 2.9 2.1 5.1 9.7 0.7 3.7 0.7 2.3 0.5 0.2 0.2 2.3 138 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS I. SUMMARY Quantity and Cost Estimate for a Single Woman Teacher ITEMS— Annual Cost Percent of : : total salary Al Expenditures sas LEAS RO ESR GaSe Ue SNe RP IEE $ 477.20. 16.9 SII sisteniucieladivicenseginninicepioniniaihioniilitimmtants 476.14 16.9 Ne Woman teacher .............. $ 363.59 12.9 - o Ws Dependent mother ........ 112.55 4.0 IES» CO Fe Rene eae PT 540.00 19.1 Fs House operation ..................2--.:----ee+--000+ 129.30 4.6 Furniture and furnishings .................. 66.60 2.4 Care of the person ..................-----------++- 41.70 1.5 Leisure time .....................eicccooeeseveeesessee 190.00 6.7 P| | eee 393.55 13.9 REESE ea ae ee SR Te 26.84 1.0 REL NLS Oe aon a ee 104.75 3.7 ae Pr 17.00 6 ET Sane 50.00 1.8 qu: i ae, 20.00 0.7 = Incidentals .... sai vis . 80.00 1.1 all Total expenditures ....................---- $2563.08 ov we Balance available for investments to inc provide for old age or death of the , breadwinner .............-.--------s0-----0++- 256.92 9.1 , ra o,f ETE $2820.00 100.0 ab hu no vis PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING GROUP II In the Theatre of Wardman Park Hotel, Mr. Charles F. Allen, supervisor of Secondary Education, Little Rock, Arkan- sas, presided. Dr. Roy O. Billett, special in school administration of the National Survey of Secondary School Education, presented his paper, What the High Schools are Doing for the Indivi- dual. “WHAT THE HIGH SCHOOLS ARE DOING FOR THE INDIVIDUAL” Second Progress Report, National Survey of Secondary Education Dr. Roy O. BILLETT Specialist in School Administration United States Office of Education. 1. AN OVER-VIEW Purpose of the preliminary inquiry. A preliminary in- quiry concerning provisions for individual differences was ad- dressed to all public secondary schools on the mailing lists of the United States Office of Education, about 22,000 schools in all. By means of this inquiry material was secured to give an over-view of provisions for individual differences, and schools were located to be studied intensively through long, follow-up inquiries, visits and interviews. Thorough provision for individual differences the exception rather than the rule. At the time the tabulations were started about 11,000 replies had been received. Eight thousand five hundred ninety-four were selected for tabulation. Probably no argument is necessary to demonstrate that the status of pro- visions for individual differences in the schools whose replies 140 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS were tabulated is considerably better than the status for all secondary schools of the country. Even so the tabulated results show that each provision for individual differences is used by a comparatively small percentage of the schools re- porting, and is used with estimated unusual success in an amazingly small number of schools. In other words, the facts and theories concerning individual differences, which have filled library shelves to overflowing during the quarter of a century now elapsed since Binet’s early experiments indicated that mental ability could be measured, are still reposing on library shelves, or echoing through the lecture halls of schools ‘of education, much more generally than they are incorporated in the practice of secondary schools. No fact has been. estab- lished more thoroughly by this study than the fact that com- paratively few schools are making thorough provisions for in- dividual differences. Three core elements in a typically successful program to provide for individual differences. On the preliminary inquiry form twenty-eight items, derived from an analysis of educa- tional literature were listed as provisions for individual dif- ferences. Subsequent study has shown that twenty of these items may be reduced to three categories, namely homogeneous grouping, special classes, and the unit assignment. These three constitute the core elements of a typically successful pro- gram to provide for individual differences. Tabulated responses to the preliminary inquiry show that only one in each three schools are making any use at all of homogeneous grouping. And of those using it only one in four estimates its application of the plan to be meeting with unusual success. In other words, from a total of 8,594 there were just 721 schools whose responsible heads were willing to express a considerable measure of confidence in the success of their use of homogeneous grouping. All of these 721 schools were maintaining some special classes and all were experimenting with some form of the unit assignment. Moreover, in the opinion of the principals, unusual success was being obtained by nearly half of these schools with spe- cial classes for slow or failing students; by nearly a tenth, an dul for har har nee nes qui: ten abil PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 141 with special classes for the very capable or gifted; and by nearly nine-tenths, with some form of the unit assignment. Schools using homogeneous grouping.—The schools using homogeneous grouping are distributed through all the states of the Union. The data show a regular increase in its use with increase in the total enrollment. Of schools with enrollments of fifty or less, only one school in twelve is using homogene- ous grouping, as compared with three schools in four with en- rollments over one thousand. Some practical aspects of homogeneous grouping. The practical schoolman who is successfully employing homogene- ous grouping is pursuing no will-o-the-wisp. To him homogene- ous grouping is not a process of organizing classes each of which contains individuals who are all alike even in any one respect. It is a procedure forced upon him by the necessities of a highly democratic system of secondary education. He per- ceives that somehow he must reduce the appalling ranges ex- isting in the abilities, needs, and objectives of the students who are streaming into the classrooms of the secondary schools. He refines his methods of classification. He reduces the hopeless heterogeneity which would obtain if class sections were formed by chance. He frequently finds that hetero- geneity is sufficiently reduced, especially in students’ needs and objectives, by means of differentiated courses and cur- ricula. Special classes. In many schools homogeneous grouping and special classes seem to be phases of a common proce- dure. However, the term special is usually applied to classes for students who deviate extremely from the normal. They may deviate in capacities or in needs or in both. On the one hand they are the very slow or the very capable, on the other hand they are students of any capacity who for the time being need special help in overcoming handicaps due perhaps to ill- ness, absence, lack of industry, or deficiencies in the prere- quisites of certain courses. Assignment to special classes tends to be permanent if the extreme deviation involves native ability, and temporary in other cases. Special classes, as the 142 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS term is used in this report, refer to those provisions for in- dividual differences mentioned in the educational literature as: special classes for slow pupils; special classes for failures; opportunity rooms for slow pupils; adjustment classes; rem- edial classes; restoration classes; special classes to accelerate capable pupils; and oportunity classes for gifted pupils. The first six are provisions primarily for slow pupils, the last two are primarily for the very capable or bright. The total fre- quency with which classes for the very capable or gifted are reported is 865 as compared with a total frequency of 8,513 for special classes primarily for the less capable or slow- learning. Corresponding frequencies of estimated unusual success are 183 and 1,472. These facts show that special classes are provided about nine times as often for slow pupils as for the very bright. Plans characterized by the unit assignment. Of all plans to provide for individual differences the unit assignment is most widely distributed and most widely used. It is a prom- inent characteristic of at least eleven plans, methods, or tech- niques which have been allotted expanded space in educational publications and which considered collectively are being widely practiced. These methods of procedure in the order of their frequency of occurrence in the secondary schools are: the problem method, differentiated assignments, the laboratory plan, long-unit assignments, the contrast plan, the project method, individual instruction, the Morrison plan, the modi- fied Dalton plan, the Dalton plan, and the Winnetka technique. These eleven may be reduced to ten since investigation has shown that differentiated assignments do not constitute an in- dependent plan but rather a technique which frequently ac- companies each of the other ten plans. Of these ten the contract plan is reported most frequently in use with estimated unusual success, although several of the others are reported more frequently in use. Yet estimated un- usual success with the contract plan is reported by only 465 schools. At the other extreme is the Dalton plan which is re- ported in use with unusual success by only fifteen schools. The combined frequencies of estimated unusual success for the tl ti sic the ho cel tw ual the is | ber the of i est in 1 phy PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 143 Morrison plan, the Winnetka technique, the Dalton plan, and the Modified.Dalton plan are only 256 or six per cent of the to- tal frequency for all procedures characterized prominently, by the unit assignment. 2. MORE DETAILED STUDY OF EIGHT OTHER PROVISIONS Eight other provisions for individual differences The statement was made at the outset of this report that twenty- eight provisions for individual differences were listed on the preliminary inquiry form with which the present study was initiated. Twenty of these items have been classified under three categories, namely, homogeneous grouping, special class- es, and the unit assignment. The other eight items are: ad- visory programs for pupil guidance; educational guidance through exploratory courses; vocational guidance through ex- ploratory courses; credit for projects or studies carried out- side of school hours; variation in number of subjects a pupil may carry; promotions more frequently than each semester; the scientific study of problem cases; and psychological stu- dies. The first three of these may be eliminated at once from further mention in this report since they fall in the field of guidance—another project of the National Survey. Each of the others will be discussed briefly. Credit for projects or studies carried outside of school hours was reported in use by 3,451 schools, or about forty per cent of those schools whose responses were tabulated. About twelve per cent of those schools using the plan estimated unus- ual success with it. A follow-up inquiry addressed to 120 of these schools revealed that no unusual or even extensive work is being done with out-of-school projects or studies. A num- ber of the schools reported the usual Smith-Hughes projects. Omitting the Smith-Hughes work from consideration, by far the most frequent out-of-school project or study is some phase of instrumental music. Arranged from the highest to the low- est in the order of the number of pupils enrolled, other fields in which out-of-school projects or studies are carried on are: physical training; vocal music; cooking; sewing; animal hus- 144 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS bandry; bible study; field crops; various phases of industrial arts; privately tutored subjects to make up failures; drafts- manship; correspondence study; and garden crops. A com- posite of all schools reporting shows that students who are en- ‘rolled in these various types of out-of-school projects or studies are only a fraction of one per cent of the total enrollment. Variation in number of subjects a pupil may carry was re- ported in use by 5,928, or seventy-five per cent of all schools whose replies were tabulated. Twelve per cent of those schools using the plan estimated unusual success with it. A follow-up inquiry to 400 schools estimating unusual success with the plan was responded to by 141 schools. These returns indicate that some schools are making considerable variation in pupil load. The composite for all schools reporting, when expressed in terms of North Central units, shows that fifty per cent of the full-time pupils in these schools are carrying four units of work; fifteen per cent are carrying more than four and less than five and one-half units; seven per cent are carrying less than four and more than two and one-half units. These figures show that of each 100 pupils, twenty-two are being accelerated and twenty-seven are being retarded if four units per year is regarded as the normal load. If four to four and one-half units be regarded as a normal load then only eighteen in each 100 are being accelerated. Twenty-one different sources of data are consulted in these schools in determining the load to be assigned each pu- pil. Those sources occupying the first six ranks are: average scholarship marks in all subjects combined; health, in case of seniors, number of units needed for graduation; age; industry, application, or effort ; and extent to which the pupil has duties outside of school hours making demands upon his time and en- ergy. A major obstacle to any extensive use of the plan seems to be the standards established for pupil loads by State depart- ments and other accrediting agencies. Promotions more frequently than each semester were re- ported by only 686 schools or about eight per cent of those wh usi inc wa the fre pre an tin str ee ea | PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 145 whose replies were tabulated. Fifteen per cent of those schools using the plan estimated unusual success with it. A follow-up inquiry to 100 schools estimating unusual success with the plan was responded to by forty-three schools. Only twenty-one of these returns actually represented plans for promotion more frequently than each semester. Five of the twenty-one schools promote their pupils each twelve weeks; one each nine weeks; and fifteen promote the pupils continuously. Plans for con- tinuous promotion are component parts of some plan of in- struction characterized by the unit assignment. The scientific study of problem cases was reported in use by 1,348 schools, or sixteen per cent of all schools whose replies were tabulated. Eleven per cent of those using the plan esti- mated unusual success with it. A follow-up inquiry form was addressed to each school estimating unusual success with the plan. Only twenty-nine schools returned the forms. Eleven of these were eliminated as too unsystematic to be classed as methods of scientific study. Much interesting information has been supplied by the remaining eighteen schools, partly through inquiry forms and supplementary materials, and part- ly through interviews arranged with the staff member of the National Survey. Seven of the eighteen schools had enroll- ments under 750 and eleven had enrollments over seven hun- dred fifty. Only one observation will be made here concerning the rather considerable amount of data available from these schools, namely, that sixty-seven per cent of all recommenda- tions for the study of pupils as problem cases originate simply because the pupil is retarded due to low general ability, low ability is specific fields, lack of interest, or physical handicap. Psychological studies were reported by 1,077 schools whose replies were tabulated. Only seventy, or six per cent of the schools revorting this item estimated unusual success with it. Because of the wide variety of things which might be done under the name of psychological studies the principal of each school was asked to write a letter descriptive of what was be- ing done under this term. Twenty-four interesting reports were 146 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS received. The studies described as psychological studies are usually individual or group testing projects, the data of which are used in connection with such provisions for individual dif- ferences as the study of problem cases, homogeneous grouping, the differentiation of unit-assignments, or assignment to spe- cial classes. 3. METHOD OF THE INVESTIGATION SUMMARIZED Three phases of the study. The preceding rather frag- mentary remarks perhaps have suggested the method of study which has been employed. First, an over-view of practices throughout the entire country has been obtained by means of a brief preliminary form; second, comparatively small groups of schools having some confidence in the success of their pro- visions for individual differences have been studied by means of long follow-up inquiry forms. The best replies on a given follow-up form have furnished a basis for a study of the cor- responding provision in a highly selected group of schools. Fi- nally, a sampling of schools from each highly selected group has been visited and practices have been studied at first hand through observation and interview. While no references can be made in this brief report to the detailed findings resulting from visits to a large number of secondary schools in all parts of the country, nevertheless such facts as are here reported are quite in harmony with all facts acquired through such visits. 4. TWENTY-EIGHT PROVISIONS CLASSIFIED Practical provisions for individual differences classed un- der seven heads. Perhaps the preceding pages have suggested also that the entire group of twenty-eight provisions for indi- vidual differences which have been discussed may very well be reduced to seven, namely, homogeneous grouping; plans char- acterized by the unit assignment; special ‘classes; scientific study of problem cases; variation in pupil load; out-of-school projects; and advisory or guidance programs. mrss ft we me O are hich dif- ing, 3pe- 147 PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING Of these seven the first three, homogeneous grouping, spe- cial classes, and the unit assignment, form a kind of trinity, a sort of three-in-one answer, of the nation’s outstanding schools to the problem of providing for individual differences. There is no evidence that intrinsically these plans are alterna- tive rather than complementary procedures. Each has its own peculiar function to perform. Facts concerning these three procedures, derived from studies of highly selected groups of schools, will be presented in the remainder of this report. 5. HOMOGENEOUS GROUPING IN HIGHLY SELECTED SCHOOLS Number of schools included. For a study of outstanding practices in homogeneous grouping 289 schools were selected on the basis of replies to a long inquiry form supplemented by visits to a sampling of the schools. Unquestionably the thoroughness with which this group of schools is practicing homogeneous grouping is unmatched by any other equal num- ber of schools anywhere. Therefore the following facts are challenging. Extent of grouping in various subjects and subject-matter fields. Only 46 per cent of the total offerings of these 289 schools are being presented to students segregated into homo- geneous groups. The comparable per cent for academic offer- ings is 59; for commercial offerings, 39; for other non-aca- demic offerings, 31. Among the individual subject-matter fields English ranks first, mathematics second, and social studies third. When 41 individual subjects are considered it is discov- ered that the first fifteen ranks are taken by academic subjects. The four subjects ranking highest are general mathematics, English composition and grammar, general science, and Eng- lish literature. In general, if a subject ranks high in the ex- tent to which it is presented to homogeneous groups, one or more of the following statements are true. The subject is re- quired in all or in many curricula; the subject is offered only or largely in the lower grades of the secondary school ; the sub- 148 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ject is offered to pupils who are highly heterogeneous in abili- ties or needs or objectives. Grade placement of subject-matter. The effect of grade placement is marked. From the lower to the higher grades of the secondary school the per cent of offerings presented to stu- dents in homogeneous groups decreases in a regular manner. For Grades 7, 9 and 12 the ratio of decreases is as 3/2:1:. Do these facts indicate that the upper grades are being neglected? Effect of grade-placement of subject-matter compared with other lines of evidence. The writer believes that facts like these should provoke reflective thinking which would re- main unstimulated in the absence of the data. To illustrate, the preceding facts suggest three other lines of evidence. In the first place, because of selective factors at work in the secondary schools, the average intelligence quotient, of the pupils remaining in school, increases regularly from the lower to the higher grades. For instance, in the typical ninth grade less than one-third of the pupils have intelligence quo- tients below ninety-five. In the typical tenth grade few pupils with intelligence quotients below 100 remain. Pupils with in- telligence quotients below 100 rarely finish the twelfth grade. In the second place, the data of several controlled experi- ments in homogeneous grouping tend very much to suggest that the advantages of homogeneous grouping decreases as the intelligence quotient increases,—that grouping is of no measurable advantage when the pupils involved possess intelli- gence quotients of 95 or above. In the third place, the most generally accepted theory of the nature of intelligence, that set forth by Binet, recognizes three elements in intelligence, namely, the power of sustained drive toward a chosen goal, the power to make adaptions neces- sary to attain the desired goal, and the power of self-criticism. From this concept of the nature of intelligence it seems reasonable to conclude that any adaptation of the educative en- vironment will affect most those pupils who are least able to make adaptations for themselves. That homogeneous group- PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 149 ing is an adaptation of the educative environment is no violent assumption. Hence, theoretical considerations suggest that homogeneous grouping will be most effective with pupils of low intelligence. i Moreover the theory tallies with the measurable results of controlled experiments. If it he tentatively accepted that pupils of intelligence quotients 95 or below are the ones who profit by homogeneous grouping, and if few such pupils are to be found above the tenth grade, then the hitherto unavail- able facts given above from the Survey data concerning the amount of grouping actually practiced in Grades 10, 11 and 12 are open to a favorable interpretation. These grades are not being neglected. Instead of too little grouping there is possibly more grouping than a full consideration of all the lines of evi- dence would justify. It is quite possible that in many schools such efforts as are made at homogeneous grouping in academic subject-matter fields may be concentrated on Grades 7, 8, and 9. Beyond Grade 9 in many schools, the increase in average intelligence of the pupils and the increasing number of difler- entiated courses and curricula probably make further refine- ment of classification unnecessary. The bases of grouping. Perhaps no aspect of the group- ing problem is so important as the basis of grouping, or the criterion which determines the pupil’s place in the refined or- der of classification. All told, 16 different bases of grouping are being used either alone or in various combinations by the 289 schools being studied intensively. Since 66,529 combina- tions of 16 items are possible the oportunity for the exercise of choice is not limited. No two schools are proceeding along identical lines. Unfortunately inadequate continuous records are being kept of this vast amount of practical experimenta- tion. The basis of grouping most frequently used is the intelli- gence quotient from the group mental test. When used in com- bination with other bases it typically receives the heaviest weight. Average scholarship marks in all subjects combined 150 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS rank second and ratings of industry, application, or effort rank third. Changeable and unchangeable qualities as bases of group- ing. The first of these three bases, namely intelligence quo- tient, is a measure of a relatively unchangeable quality. The second and third, namely average marks and ratings of indus- try, are measures of relatively changeable qualities. A logical argument may be advanced, with the support of considerable experimental data, that grouping on the basis of relatively changeable traits either tends to perpetuate the status quo with respect to these traits, which is undesirable because one of the objectives of education should be to make desirable changes in them, or it results in a homogeneity so relatively fleeting as to be unworthy the effort required to secure it. Efforts at homogeneous grouping are concentrated on the academic fields. That the intelligence quotient is highly pre- dictive of native ability to succeed with the academic subjects is generally conceded. At present the bases of grouping which are being used most extensively are unquestionably better adapted to prognosing abilities in academic rather than non- academic fields. In fact all efforts are being concentrated on the academic fields with the result that the practice of homo- geneous grouping in the non-academic fields, with a few in- teresting exceptions, is desultory if not accidental. The prob- lems which have forced attention to grouping in the academic subjects apparently have never become so urgent in the non- academic fields. This seems to be true mainly because the non- academic subjects usually are elective and generally are pre- sented on an individualized basis. An example of successful homogeneous grouping is a non- academic subject. That homogeneous grouping may be prac- ticed in the non-academic flelds with highly desirable results may be illustrated by a brief description of the work being done in the boys’ physical education classes of Montclair Senior High School, Montclair, New Jersey. Grouping in these classes takes place within the class section and is based upon the num- ber of points made by the boy on a physical capacity test de- vise: of t each indie foot! fort; cent twer ball dent latec seve! and betw taug prov is m: own and ' The ; the t of ev Whe! total ( now | select speci: in thi or fai capak PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 151 vised by the instructor, Mr. Clarence Woodman. A composite of the following seven events forms the basis of grouping: each event receives a percentage weight in the total score, as indicated: dash, 170 yards on indoor track, thirty per cent; - football throw, five throws at 4’ / 6’ target from a distance of forty feet, three per cent; shot put, eight-pound shot, ten per cent; standing broad jump, four per cent; running high jump, twenty-five per cent; pull-up, twenty-five per cent; and basket- ball throw, five throws from the foul line, three per cent. An objective method has been devised whereby the stu- dents actual performances in the several events may be trans- lated into the total score which forms the basis of grouping. A class of forty-two students is divided into six squads of seven students each. In games, Squads 1 and 2, Squads 3 and 4, and Squads 5 and 6, play together thus insuring competition between those of nearly equal ability. When skills are being taught one or two squads are taken at a time. Boys in Squads 4, 5 and 6 are marked on the basis of im- provement which they make after the first test. A class chart is maintained on the wall so that boys may check upon their own improvement. The test is repeated every marking period and takes three periods of forty-three minutes, each, to give. The squad leaders record the students’ actual performances on the test on a 5”/8” card which carries across the top the names of events and at the left the names of the squad members. When all events are completed the squad leader computes the total score and records it on the class chart. 6. SPECIAL CLASSES IN HIGHLY SELECTED SCHOOLS Grades and subject-matter fields. Brief reference will now be made to the intensive study of a small group of schools selected for unusually successful practices in connection with special classes. One hundred seventy-eight schools are included in this group. One hundred forty-nine conduct classes for slow or failing pupils and twenty-nine conduct classes for the very capable or bright. The subject-matter fields in which help is 152 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS most frequently given are English and mathematics. In prac- tice special classes, as well as both homogeneous grouping and the unit assignment, are principally dedicated to the academic ' subjects. There is a tendency to make the facilities of these special classes more often available to the lower grades of the secondary school than to the upper grades, 90 per cent of Grades 7, 8, and 9 being served by special classes as compared with 72 per cent of Grades 10, 11, and 12. Content and methods. The regular course of study is the basis of the work done in these classes. For students who are permanently handicapped by inferior native ability the various courses are greatly simplified. In most instances this modifi- cation is purely empirical. For students whose difficulties are of a temporary nature the chief modification is in teaching procedure. In both cases the short unit assignment figures prominently. Where classes for the very capable or bright are provided the emphasis is always upon tangential problems aris- ing from the regular course of study permitting creative ex- pression or the wide exploration of fields of intrinsic interest. Closely allied to these classes for the gifted and apparently just as effective without involving formal, elaborate, and ex- pensive segregation are the honors courses which are being conducted in the University of Wisconsin High School and in the South Philadelphia High School for Girls. In these schools a small but significant percentage of the pupils, under wise direction, but with great freedom, pursue by methods of inde- pendent investigation, work of a creative nature. Except where behavior problems are involved students in special classes are rarely segregated for all their school work. Individual schools. In Clifton Park Junior High School of Baltimore one period a week for each academic subject-matter field is set aside at the end of the school day. All teachers co- operate in coaching pupils who are in danger of failing. In South Philadelphia High School for Girls an extension class is maintained especially for those girls who in the judg- ment of their teachers and of the school’s clinical psychologist could not possibly complete a regular high school course. The adj Ohi Phil are fied cial this sent dep: who to s the duri duri teac larg vidi that and sign four tion thir plar the thot plar riso are volv rac- and mic hese the t of red the are ious lifi- are ing ires are ris- est. itly ing | in ols rise de- }in | of ter co- ion lg- ist ‘he PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 153 adjustment classes of Collinwood High School in Cleveland, Ohio, render a similar service to both boys and girls. In South Philadelphia and Collinwood these special classes constitute a regular department of the school and exceptionally well modi- fied courses in academic and non-academic fields are offered. In Arsenal Technical High School in Indianapolis the spe- cial classes are organized into a reclassification department. In this department English and certain other subjects are pre- sented on a lesson-sheet or individualized instruction basis. The department aids the slow, the truant, the late entries, and those who have been ill. The primary object of this department is to supply such special coaching as may be needed to enable the pupils to return to their normal schedule. The enrollment during the first marking period consists of pupils who failed during the preceding semester. To compensate for the extra teacher-time given to this work regular classes are made larger. Reference to the work of other outstanding schools in pro- viding special classes must be foregone jn this paper in order that further attention may be given to the unit assignment and its relationship to the curriculum. 7. THE UNIT ASSIGNMENT IN HIGHLY SELECTED SCHOOLS A comparative study of plans characterized by the unit as- signment. Four hundred sixty schools, representing forty- four States, have been selected for intensive study in connec- tion with the use of unit assignment. This number includes thirty-three schools which style their practices the Dalton plan, though only one of these estimates unusual success with the plan; eleven which prefer the term Winnetka technique, though only one of these estimates unusual success with the plan, and fifty-four which designate their practices the Mor- rison plan. A careful study is being made of just what these schools are doing under these various terminologies. This study in- volves a point-for-point comparison, of what the schools are 154 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS actually doing, with the fundamental features of the respective plans as set forth by the originators of the plan. So far the survey staff has found no secondary schools excepting of course the two parent schools in Winnetka and New York, where either the Winnetka technique or the Dalton plan is being suf- ficiently closely approximated to justify the use of either term in describing the work being done. Each of the other plans characterized by the unit assign- ment spring from such diverse sources that comparisons, simi- lar to those just mentioned for the Dalton, Winnetka, and Mor- rison plans, are impossible. Therefore, a systematic inter- comparison has been made of the practices of schools classified according to their preferences for certain of the following terms: long-unit assignments; individualized instruction ; con- tract plan; laboratory plan; problem method; project method ; and any combination of two or more of these terms. The in- quiry forms for these various plans and procedures were so constructed that regardless of terminology preferred by the schools the respondents were given opportunity to react to a large number of identical items. Reference will be made here to the comparative situation for seventy of these items deal- ing with important matters such as planning the unit assign- ments; securing correlation; classroom procedures used; methods of testing results; significant changes in the organiza- tion of the school; changes in the length of the school day, or of class periods; free budgeting of time; and amount of home study required. Only a casual study of the data pertaining to these seventy items is needed to show that practices in these schools are es- sentially the same regardless of the name under which the work is proceeding. However, in support of the rather sweep- ing statement that the plans mentioned above in practice are essentially the same, the standard error of the difference of each pair of compared percentages was calculated and from this error the critical ratio was derived. Since there are seven- ty items and twenty-one possible paired comparisons on each item, a total of 1,470 critical ratios were computed. Of these 1,470 ratios just forty-three, or less than three per cent, were ra et aft a it, — a a ee = A ret es A A MH ctive r the yur'se here suf- sign- imi- Mor- iter- ified ving con- 10d ; in- 2 SO the oa ere eal- gn- ed; iza- or me nty es- the ap- ire se re PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 155 statistically real in the sense that they equalled or exceeded three. Twenty-seven more were between 2.5 and 2.9. If these are included there are still less than five per cent of the dif- ferences which are statistically real. Even in the small num- ber of cases where the differences are statistically real the significance of the difference from a practical, common-sense standpoint is not apparent. Practices typical of one plan are typical of all. Practices tabooed in one plan are tabooed in all. These plans characterized by the unit assignment have filled volumes of educational literature. They have exerted a dominating influence upon the theory and practice of educa- tion. The resources of the National Survey have made possible, for the first time, a systematic, detailed, comparative study showing how these plans work out in practice. Probably both educators and educationists will be interested in a statement of the findings which will appear in the complete report indi. cating the elements which are common to all these plans as they are actually practiced in the secondary schools and com- paring these common elements with the fundamental theories which have been set forth by the originators of certain of the plans. Schools using the unit assignment. The unit assignment is a very recent development in the schools selected for inten- sive study. Fifty-four per cent of the schools report the plan to have been in use two years or less. Only three per cent have been using the plan ten years or more. Over half of the schools in this group have total enrollments under two hundred fifty. One-third have enrollments between 101 and two hundred fifty. Ten per cent have enrollments over one thousand. Extent to which the unit assignment is used in each sub- ject-matter field. These schools by no means have succeeded in organizing and presenting their courses in all subject-mat- ter fields on the basis of the unit assignment. One principal feelingly states that before his school gets entirely over to any one plan he hopes his board of education will provide retire- ment benefits and his superintendent will see that he retires. Be that as it may, the facts for this group of schools are that 156 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS seventy-nine per cent of all courses in social studies are or- ganized and presented on the basis of the unit assignment. Comparable per cents for other academic subject-matter fields are: Science, seventy-two; English, sixty-seven; mathematics, fifty-seven; foreign language, twenty-seven. The per cent for all commercial courses combined is forty- one and for the other non-academic courses from twenty-four to twenty-eight. Value of the unit assignment. If the unit assignment did no more than place the emphasis upon the activity of the pupil instead of the activity of the teacher it would justify its ex- istence. There is evidence that pupils prefer the unit assign- ment to the traditional classroom work which is important if the pupil’s emotional set toward his tasks be regarded as sig- nificant. The unit assignment is the basis of remedial work and of work with slow pupils. It affords interesting challenges to bright pupils. It is the key to differentiated content and teaching procedure whether classes are homogeneous or hetero- geneous. Differentiation of unit assignments. However, not all schools using the unit assignment provide differentiation of content for different needs, or objectives, or levels of ability. From one-half to three-fourths of the schools in each of the eleven groups classified under the unit assignment for inten- sive comparative study provide differentiation of content. Schools operating under the term “contract plan” are doing most differentiation. Those operating under the term “project method” are doing least. Since the most thoroughly modified courses in schools practicing homogeneous grouping are worked out on the unit assignment plan it may be worth while to state that in these schools there are three times as many modified courses in Grades 7, 8, and 9 as in Grades 10, 11, and 12. In each grade more differentiation has been done in English than in any other subject-matter field. Mathematics ranks second, social studies third, and science fourth. Only scattering attempts have been made in these schools to differentiate courses in foreign lan- =~ © déecoa 08 fm 6A nme "Oo oa _— b- o mG 00 Oo’ Ss r- il PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 157 guage, art, commercial subjects, industrial arts, and household arts. Mechanical devices facilitating work with the unit assign- ment. The part played by certain mechanical devices in ef- fective work with the unit assignment must not be minimized. Adequate equipment for duplicating guide-sheets seems an es- sential to best results with the unit assignment. Further me- chanical requirements are effective devices for filing guide- sheets, tests, and the completed work of students. To make the guide-sheet less bulky and formidable some schools have cleverly devised a card-file carrying 4” x 6” or 5” x 8” cards on which the electives are outlined. The guide sheet still lists the electives and is the master sheet. However, the cards, which may be used over and over again, as any library index cards may be used, carry the details essential to proper di- rection of the work of the students on the electives. Building good units not a spare-time activity. The task of building good units is a huge one. This is true even when the existing subject-matter is assumed to have been validated and its proper grade-placement determined. The English depart- ment of Thomas Jefferson Intermediate School in Detroit has been working intelligently and intensively for three years or- ganizing the course of study for Grades 7, 8, and 9 on the unit plan. Each unit is being planned to occupy the normal student for about two weeks. In three years fourteen such units have been constructed, three or four of which, according to the prin- cipal, “actually work.” Building good units even on the basis of the traditional subject-matter is no spare-time activity for teachers on a full-time teaching schedule. An effective organization for building unit assignments. Among outstanding examples which have come to the attention of the Survey Staff where school systems, accepting the tradi- tional subject-matter as a starting point, have developed ad- mirable organizations for the effective building of unit assign- ments and for the constant cooperative testing and revision of these units are the schools of Albemarle County, Virginia, in- cluding the City of Charlottesville. 158 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS In the organization for this work one general supervisor, Mr. E. E. Windes, is employed jointly by the county and the University of Virginia. Special supervisors are employed by the university. Three high-school principals are jointly em- ployed by the county and the university and serve as critic teachers. The units are frankly found through the analysis of the established subject-matter. Suggestions for differentiation and teaching procedure are found through the analysis of psycho- logical studies which have been made and are now being made of the differences in native capacities and aptitudes, and in the methods by which various types of students learn. The procedure in developing units may be only briefly out- lined. First, a conference of teachers in a certain field is held with the general supervisor and the supervisor of the specific subject-matter field. Each teacher chooses a unit to develop or to revise. The completed or revised unit is later submitted to the supervisor for study and criticism. The supervisor may submit the unit to other teachers and consensus of opinion may determine its tentative form. The unit is then mimeographed by the county office for all county schools. The teachers using the unit keep a log of their experiences and of the pupil’s ex- periences with it. These records become a basis for the re- vision of the unit. A further check upon results obtained by the use of the unit is made by means of centrally prepared ob- jective tests. These tests are given solely for purposes of an- alysis of the effectiveness of the unit and need not be consid- ered by the teachers when awarding marks. The importance of such a thoroughly organized venture should be recognized. It is lack of a similar effective organiza- tion in most schools of the country which renders a vast amount of energy now being expended in building unit assign- ments unlikely to be productive of any permanent improve- ment. Those concerned with this cooperative venture in Albe- marle County are convinced that the development of a good unit assignment runs the gamut of educational theory and Se ee ee ee eee aq ew ~*~ ee OS lhlUCUc Krell or, the m- tic he nd O- le in t- ic ee + ae PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 159 practice. General objectives of the unit-must be stated. Spe- cific objectives for each of three ability levels must be formu- lated in terms of abilities, attitudes, adaptations, and knowl- edges to be acquired. References and aids to study must be prepared, materials must be assembled and tests for mastery must be built. A fundamental, unsolved problem. This paper should not be concluded without saying that back of this admirable un- dertaking now under way in Albemarle County and back of all attempts at building unit assignments there lies a funda- mental unsolved problem, namely, the validation and grade- placement of the subject-matter of which these units should be composed. The best equipped research departments of our largest cities are only beginning to attack this problem in any adequate way. In solving this problem the following related questions must be answered better than they have so far been answered anywhere: 1. What do the subject-matter specialists regard as the real contributions which study of their subject-matter may make to the growth of the individual? How may these contributions be classified under the headings of knowledges, skills, concepts, attitudes, or apprecia- tions? 2. How are these knowledges, skills, concepts, attitudes, or appreciations, ranked by capable adults who are not subject-matter specialists, from the standpoint of : their importance; their range of use; the difficulty of acquiring them; the desirability of acquiring them in certain subject-matter fields rather than others or even entirely outside the school? 8. To what extent may principals of differentiation and adaptation of subject-matter be obtained from the analysis and interpretation: of psychological studies reported in educational literature; of studies of chil- dren’s present needs and immediate interests to be 160 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS made through interviews with the children themselves and through observation of their present normal ac- tivities ; and of studies of probable adult needs. 4. Do these studies suggest a certain organization and sequence of subject-matter which will be most consist- ent with the pupil’s normal processes of growth? 5. What minimum essentials should be required of ali students and to what extent is it necessary to retard the progress of the slower students in order that thorough mastery may be assured? 6. What should be the content and method: of honors courses in each grade for the very capable or gifted ; of courses for the superior but not gifted; of courses for the normal student? 7. How can tests be developed the passing of which will constitute entirely adequate grounds for excusing pu- pils from certain phases of a course or even from cer- tain courses? 8. How can the work of all subject-matter fields be cor- related and integrated? 9. How can the products of learning be adequately and economically measured? Public school people are prepared to cooperate. These questions call for the expenditures of a vast amount of labor and thought before acceptable answers can be framed. In many places great progress is being made and partial solutions are. being reached. In every State, teachers, supervisors, and ad- ministrators, facing the necessities of practical situations, are organizing homogeneous groups, are forming special classes, are building unit assignments or are trying in other ways to adapt their schools to individual needs, abilities, or objectives. They are confronting immediate emergencies in a manner to excite the admiration of all who have been privileged recently to observe their work and in a manner to establish the con- viction that there never was a time when public school people — —- —_ Riot rfw 2 |] ™—= S&S A PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 161 in general were better prepared to cooperate intelligently in the exacting labors which are the price to be paid for more acceptable validation of subject-matter and teaching proced- ures. 8. CONCLUSION Many findings omitted from this report. In conclusion, one need hardly remind you that two years have been spent on this study of provisions for individual differences. In a report limited to forty-five minutes much must be omitted or passed over superficially. Many findings, as important as any pre- sented here, necessarily have been passed by. Some of the find- ings are of such a nature that they can be presented only with the aid of the printed page by the use of graphs and charts. The writer can only hope that a few of the high points of the study have been made clear. Mr. John H. Tyson, Principal of the Senior High School of Upper Darby, Pennsylvania, opened the discussion. s There is an implication in the topic that American high schools are not giving sufficient attention to the individual, even after a quarter-century of time has elapsed since edu- cators began to consider this problem seriously. The recogni- tion of individual differences in needs, capacities, abilities, _skills, aims, and objectives has been responsible, in large meas- ure, for our so-called progress in the secondary field of educa- tion. It has so modified our philosophies in education that a great social phenomenon has taken place. The American high school has become a great democratic institution known as the “School of the People,” suported quite liberally by public taxation, endowed with the finest buildings and surroundings that the community can boast, equipped in a way that shames many of our best colleges, and manned by a small army of well-trained and well-paid personnel. This new institution has done its work so well in the past generation that society in- sists that every boy and girl shall have full opportunity to en- joy all the benefits that it has to offer. Business, industry, and 162 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS the professions have moved rapidly toward a position in which they recognize the high-school diploma as a starting point for selection and further specialized training in particular fields. In other words the high-school diploma is as common to-day as it was uncommon at the beginning of the present century. The recognition of individual differences has been back of this tremendous development. It was responsible for the introduction of new curricula with elective subjects; it mod- ernized the content of instruction and related it to the prob- lems and experiences of life; it brought enrichment into school life through the addition of so-called special subjects; it brought an extra-curriculum program that has virtually trans- formed the school into a nine-ring circus; it brought special schools and special classes for all kinds of people, grouping pupils homogeneously and adapting instruction to the needs and abilities of these special groups; it brought individualized methods of instruction designed to permit individuals within a homogeneous group to advance at dfferent rates, to vary both in the quantity of material covered and the quality of work done; it is responsible for a rather complex and comprehensive guidance program with a liberal staff to administer the pro- gram; it brought into existence the junior high school with its exploratory activities that reach out and touch life at many points; it is responsible for interscholastic and intra-mural athletics, and for the grounds and equipment needed to con- duct them; it has produced vocational schools, vocational courses, commercial departments, shops and trade training of many types. In short, the modern high school has become a veritable workshop throbbing with life and activity, offering boundless oportunities in many directions. In most cases life in the high school will represent a rather accurate cross-sec- tion of life in the community which it represents, with an added emphasis upon those elements that will transform the community into what its educational leaders would like it to be. Now it ought not to be inferred that all of these develop- | ments have been brought about without many compensating disadvantages and difficulties. The presence in our secondary sch eou sou ser (1 (2 (3 — SS + a ' we Ff -_— ee OS) PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 163 schools of a great army of six or eight millions of heterogen- eous personalities has called forth the full strength and re- sources of the teaching profession, and there are some critics who believe that we have not done our work well. The most serious criticisms directed against the high school are these: (1) (2) (3) The high school has almost ceased to be a selective in- stitution because the holding power of the school has been increased many times. Quality of mind is therefore so badly intermingled with quantity that standards of achievement have been threatened—possibly lowered. At any rate there is a very strong feeling that much better work could be done if segregation of the good and the poor could be accomplished. (I understand quite well that these are relative terms and even though we had some kinds of segregation they would not remain satisfactory or go far enough for some of our teachers.) In attempting to maintain these standards the major concern of our teachers and administrators has been with the lower, weaker group of pupils that were formerly eliminated in the early years of high school. The strong- er pupils have to a large degree been neglected and have not been forced to attain standards commensurate with their ability. The result is that our school pro- gram has lacked aim and direction except insofar as it ministers to the weak and the failures. Democracy is thereby endangered because the high school fails to se- lect and train its leaders. The third criticism has been brought by the deluge of students entering college and higher schools to prepare for the professions and highly-specialized vocations. Too many people have been educated to seek “white-collar jobs”, to aspire to positions for which they are unfitted by natural endowment. Although we have had guidance programs and vocational experts we have frequently erred because we thought that what was good for the few was also good for the many. Our guidance programs have been woefully weak because we know virtually DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS nothing about the subject. We can provide information concerning the various professions, vocations, college re- quirements, etc., but when it is necessary to advise a fif- teen-year-old boy as to the career for which he is best fitted we are still almost helpless. A great deal of work should be done in this field in the next decade. (4) A fourth criticism might be raised to-day because of the mounting costs of education, the recurring demands for additional building facilities in almost every ham- let and town in America and the constantly. growing needs of the schools in administering a progressive program. The American public has been very patient and generous. We have reached a point to-day where we must seriously attempt to reestablish their faith and prove that money invested in educational facilities is a wise investment. I believe that high-school people are willing to accept these as honest criticisms and to admit that they are true in a vary- ing degree. I do not believe, however, that conditions which justify these criticisms can not be greatly improved by good administration and better teaching. We must recognize the fact that these conditions developed rapidly and that the teaching profession has been somewhat slow to respond to the problem. We still have teachers and schools that require everyone to study Latin; we have parents who want their children to follow in their footsteps, irrespective of fitness and aptitudes; we still have colleges that insist on time-worn traditions—on requirements that have continually prevented the secondary schools from doing a better job; we have much poor teaching that is directed not at the individual, but at the group—a colorless way of meeting classes and holding reci- tations—an atmosphere that we thought had been relegated to the schools of the past century. But on the other side of the picture we have much that we can point to with pride—much that has developed as a result of our desire to provide for the individual. I want to enumerate several of these: ‘ion re- fif- est ork re PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 165 (1) We have established standards of achievement that (2) challenge the abilities of pupils on different ability levels. Our critics say that we have lowered the bars to permit the weak to get through. They have not proved that the lowering of the bars has meant a lowered standard for all. As a matter of fact it is almost universally true that our classroom teachers in grading pupils are think- ing, not about a minimum standard of performance, but upon the pupil’s actual performance as related to what he should have done. Teachers with one standard of achievement are actually very few in number—even in subjects that can be measured somewhat objectively. There is abundant evidence to show that good schools and good teachers do challenge the abilities and skills of individuals in the classrooms. Examine the exhib- its, the projects, the papers of any good high-school pu- pil to-day and you must marvel at the amazing accom- plishments of this generation of students. The work of selected pupils in high school a generation ago can- not be compared with that of our superior group to-day. This has been accomplished by homogeneous grouping, by individualized instruction methods, by relatively small classes, and by enriched content. We have so enriched the high-school program that the great mass of pupils enjoy school life to-day. This has been done by relating the problems of the classroom to the experiences and problems of life. We have aband- oned, pretty generally, the study of content for itself alone. The history of the ancient world has many events of great interest and importance and when related to life to-day it develops a new meaning and significance. The science club in school is handling a number of school projects: photographic work for the school newspaper, broadcasting the football game, giving a liquid air dem- onstration in assembly, or building a radio transmis- sion set. These practical projects do much to motivate and enrich the classroom work. Music groups present programs before large audiences. It may be an ex- DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS change program with a neighboring school or a sacred cantatta before the people of the community. These public performances make classroom rehearsals, not only tolerable, but distinctly pleasant. In athletics we have done a splendid job in developing greater participation by students. Most large high schools now have a dozen or more major sports with first and second teams playing schedules with other schools. In addition to these we find in most schools an intra-mural program designed for the great mass of individuals. School buildings and grounds in many cases are thrown open for use on Saturday in order that this intra-mural program may be carried on. Color contests for each season of the year will offer opportunities to many students to be the center of attention before the student body for at least a few minutes. In most high schools classes close at 2:30 or 3:00 o’clock. Where, however, can you find a school that clears the building and locks the doors before 5:00 or 5:30—or that does not again open them for several evening performances, rehearsals, etc.? Take a trip about many high-school buildings and grounds at 4:00 or 4:30 o’clock in the afternoon. You will find that a very large proportion of the students have remained for curriculum and extra-curriculum activities, virtually all of which are designed for the individual. These are the activities that have so enriched school life that we close our doors in June with almost as many pupils as we had in September, with an atendance record of 95 to 98 per- cent for the year, and with some misgivings that it is not possible to keep the schools open the tntire year. There are a few comments that should be made con- cerning the extra-curriculum program: (a) It offers training in leadership. (b) If participation is voluntary, it offers oportunities for advanced specialized training in a situation that may be highly competitive. red 1ese nly ave ‘ion zen ing ned ind lay he he ast (3) PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 167 (c) It is partly responsible for improved classroom methods of teaching. (d) It provides for many people the leaven that makes school life tolerable and an education possible. (e) It gives a great variety of training experiences that function later in the life of individuals. These experiences are frequently more meaningful than classroom experiences. The modern high school is better equipped to make changes and adjustments to fit individual needs. If we feel that a certain boy will be a hopeless failure in Latin, we have other subjects to offer, subjects that will probab- ly have more immediate interest and value to him. If we find that a pupil is failing because he has been im- properly placed in a superior group, it is possible to schedule him in a slower section. If we find that a certain section in Latin cannot complete the ninety les- sons usually required, we permit it to “travel” at a normal rate, with provision to complete the year’s work in summer school or begin at that point next Sep- tember. In our individualized instruction methods we provide for three levels of achievement with adequate material to encourage and challenge the best pupils. The factors that have to do with materielle are also important. Better libraries with larger annual ap- propriations; well-equipped laboratories with individual apparatus in many instances; more spacious athletic fields, gymnasiums, and athletic equipment; smaller classes and fewer classes per week for teachers; an in- creasing proportion of men on our high-school faculties. All of these have contributed something to the individual. But most important of all has been the teacher himself. He is much more adaptable than formerly. He realizes that he must be alert, must be growing professionally, and must sell himself and his educational product to the classroom. It is no longer possible for him to excuse him- 168 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS self for poor teaching. Business, industry, and medicine have taught him that to be educationally efficient, he must not lose a large percentage of students—either through failure or withdrawal from school. The result is that Dr. McAndrew finds us just as efficient to-day as the medical profession, with hopes of even surpassing it. In conclusion I believe that it is not the purpose of secondary education to make people as different as pos- sible. When you specifically analyze the qualities, char- acteristics, ideals, and habits of people it is remarkable. to what extent they are alike. The whole world admires certain qualities in Mr. and Mrs. Charles Lindbergh. As early as Aristotle’s day society believed that “hon- esty is always the best policy”. Men over the whole world respect the golden rule and like to be given a square deal. Our social order depends upon a common acceptance of the philosophy behind it. As society be- comes more highly organized and complex, governmental regulation and control increase. This is based upon a common treatment for all people and necessarily makes little provision for individual differences. We are faced to-day with a lack of respect for constituted authority and for laws of all kinds. The school has an integrating responsibility to bring about conformance to those cus- toms, standards, and ideals that society has found to be beneficial and desirable. Provision for the individual does not mean that he has the “right of way” in pref- erence to the group. This paper has been an appeal to schoolmen to bend their lines in such a way that the in- dividual may not be lost sight of, that our programs be so enriched and comprehensive that he may be given a chance to share the limelight even though he is not outstanding in his talents, that our policy be flexible enough to permit the school to share in the adjustment necessary to make school life constructive and benefi- cial. EE a ee llr hl PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 169 Mr. John C. Mitchell, Principal of Lakewood High School, Lakewood, Ohio, followed: Mr. J. C. Mitchell, Principal of Lakewood High School, Ohio, spoke as follows in discussing Dr. Billett’s paper: Lake- wood High School (Ohio) ten years ago handled problem cases from a limited viewpoint and with inadequate facilities for solving problems. This school now has teachers and grade counselors with an understanding of mental hygiene, who in- terview pupils, study pupil adjustment, and frequently discover serious mental-hygiene problems. Two visiting teachers, using case-work methods, study behavior problems in our secondary schools. Difficult cases are referred to mental-hygiene clinics. Other factors in mental hygiene in our school are a pro- gram of testing and grouping, curriculum study from kinder- garten through senior high school, introduction of mental hy- giene into courses, varied and suitable electives, comprehensive programs of health, of athletics and other extra-class-room activities, and a morning social hour. Some cities outstanding for mental hygiene in high schools are La Salle, Illinois; New York City; Newark; Minneapolis; Cleveland; Evansville, Indiana; Providence; Baltimore; De- troit; Los Angeles; Schenectady; Bronxville, and Rochester, New York. In 1919 only two teacher- training institutions had courses on mental hygiene and emphasis was on abnormal phases. By 1930 marked progress had been made. Fifty-two institutions had regular mental-hygiene courses. The outlook, therefore, for the future is bright. When teachers can see beyond their textbooks the boys and girls with their emotional problems waiting for attention, and when all educators have the mental-hygiene viewpoint, we shall in reality have progressive schools. 170 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS GROUP III Mr. Louis E. Plummer, Principal of Fullerton Union High School and Junior College, Fullerton, California, led Group three. Dr. P. Roy Brammell, assistant specialist in School Ad- ministration of the National Survey in Secondary Education read his paper, Practices and Problems in Improving the Ar- ticulation Between High School and College. PRACTICES AND PROBLEMS IN IMPROVING THE AR- TICULATION OF HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE P. Roy BRAMMELL U. S. Office of Education; and Assistant Specialist in School Administration, Staff of National Survey of Secondary Education I. Introduction A. Scope of the investigation. The data contained in the present report are taken from the findings of the National Survey of Secondary Education. Only one project of the Sur- vey deals specifically with the problem of articulation of secon- dary schools and higher institutions. Previous issues of the Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence contain re- ports of studies carried on in the general field of admission requirements, from the standpoint of the secondary schools. In recognition of these studies, the special inquiry form devised for this project was addressed only to the higher institutions. However, for this paper, data have been drawn from various other inquiry forms addressed by other specialists of the Sur- vey staff to public and private secondary schools. The present discussion, therefore, does not deal solely with information supplied by the higher institutions, but contains some data sup- plied by the secondary schools. It is impossible to include in this paper.a complete report of this project of the Survey; however, it is the purpose here en. a. ae ee oo et = Ss oss ct Os tt CO ve h6US > il en | PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D.'C. MEETING 171 to discuss several definite phases of articulation. In the first place, attention will be given to the methods of admission used by higher institutions, and the trends in college entrance re- quirements. Special notice will be taken of innovating plans re- ported by the higher institutions. Second, the important topic which presents the difficulties standing in the way of improved articulation will be considered. Third, attention will be given to plans in operation for the improvement of articulation, as reported by both higher institutions and secondary schools. Finally, a brief summary will be made, and attention called to a few pertinent problems. In the complete report of this project, the above phases of articulation will be treated in detail. Furthermore, the re- port will not be limited to a mere study of admission require- ments, but will deal also with the means by which higher insti- tutions adapt their students to the college situation after they have been admitted, how newly-admitted students are ap- praised, to what extent higher institutions revise their own programs to suit the needs of freshmen, the extent of fresh- man failure and the means employed by higher institutions to reduce failure, and other topics which bear directly upon the general problem of articulation. Another project of the Survey, under the supervision of Dr. Francis T. Spaulding of Harvard University, assisted by O. I. Frederick of the Survey staff, is investigating the prob- lem of the articulation within schools and school systems of the provisions for secondary education. B. Sources of information. The main source of informa- tion for this report has already been indicated, namely, the spe- cial inquiry form sent to higher institutions. The data con- tained in several different inquiry forms sent to public and pri- vate secondary schools were also drawn upon. Considerable supplementary correspondence was carried on in order that certain information supplied in the forms might be fully de- scribed and clearly understood. Finally, personal visits to sev- eral institutions made it possible for the investigator to secure first-hand information, and to observe certain practices in act- ual operation. 172 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS C. Preliminary data. The special inquiry form devised for the study of articulation was addressed to 918 higher insti- tutions. The institutions listed in the Educational Directory for 1930, issued by the United States Office of Education, com- prised the mailing list. Junior colleges were not included. Five hundred seventeen, or 56 percent of the 918 institutions re- turned usable forms. The 517 institutions are subdivided into three main classi- fications, namely, size of enrollment, geographical region, and type of institution. Six enrollment groups were decided upon as follows: 300 and fewer, 301-500, 501-1000, 1001-2000, 2001-3500, 3501- and over. The five geographical regions are New England, Middle Atlantic, South, Middle West, and West. Two main types of institutions are designated, namely, public and private. Each of these types is further subdivided into colleges and universities and teachers colleges and normal schools. In 86 per cent of the cases, either the registrar, an officer comparable to the registrar, or the administrative head of the instiution supplied the information in the inquiry forms. In the remaining cases the information was supplied by either the director of admissions, the director of personnel, the busi- ness executive officer, the statistical secretary, a professor of education, or a teacher of social science. It appears, therefore, that the data have been supplied by authoritative and compe- tent persons. ~~ ee ree II Report of the Study A. Methods of admission to college, and trends in college entrance requirements. The phases of articulation to be dis- cussed were indicated in a previous paragraph. The first of these had to do with the methods of admission to college and trends in college entrance requirements. These are indicated in several ways, one of which is the methods of admission used by the institutions. 1. Methods of admission. The methods of admission re- ported by the 517 institutions included in this study cover a a, -™~ we me mm CU "re FF © = OO PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 173 wide range. It was recognized in the beginning that methods differ for regular and special students, and also that in some institutions certain methods are used singly, whereas in other institutions they are used in combination with other methods. Consequently, care was taken in the inquiry form to secure data that would be exact and meaningful. Twenty-one different methods were reported by the insti- tutions, conformity with any one of which, in so far as they were employed by individual institutions, would grant regular students the privilege of pursuing advanced educational train- ing. The complete list of 25 methods used singly for either reg- ular or special students is as follows: high-school diploma, high-school transcript of credits, College Entrance Board ex- aminations, examinations devised and administered by the lo- cal institutions, other examinations (e. g., Regents), high- school subject certificates, rank in high-school graduating class, results on an intelligence test, recommendation of high-school principal, other recommendations, personal interviews, age limitations, results on‘ college aptitude test, character rating, recommended units, health certificates, evidence of ability to pursue college work, permission of the president or other col- lege official, business experience, specific unit requirements, honorable dismissal from previous school, college work require- ment, four years residence, teachers certificate or experience, and no special requirement at all. As single methods of admis- sion for regular students, six in the above list are outstanding, namely, transcript of credits, College Entrance Board exami- nation, examinations devised and administered by the local in- stitution, high-school diploma, high-school subject certificate, and rank in high-school graduating class. The percentages of institutions in the various classifications which use the above methods singly vary a great deal. For example, whereas 12 per cent of the institutions in the New England region use the high-school diploma as a single method of admission for regu- lar students, 33 per cent of the institutions in the South use this method. Again, 80 per cent of the institutions in the West use the high-school transcript of credits as a single method for regular students, whereas, only 20 per cent of the institutions 174 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS in New England use this method. Many other differences which cannot be included here will be pointed out in the complete re- port of this project. In addition to the 25 methods of admission used singly for regular and special students, eleven others were reported as be- ing used in various combinations of entrance criteria. That is to say, 36 different criteria are reported by the 517 institutions as being used either singly or in combination in the admission of students. Whereas the methods used most frequently as sin- gle methods of admission for regular students are transcript of high-school credits, College Entrance Board examinations, examinations devised and administered by the local institu- tion, high-school diploma, high-school subject certificate, and rank in high-school graduating class, the seven methods used most frequently in combination are transcript of high-school credits, recommendation of principal, personal interviews with applicants, rank in high-school graduating class, recommenda- tions by persons other than the principal, high-school diploma, and character rating. When the year of adoption or abandonment of certain methods is studied, a few facts are noteworthy. In the first place, six methods are outstanding in the extent to which they have been adopted since 1924. These, in order, are college apti- tude test, personal interview, rank in high-school graduating class, recommendations by persons other than the principal, intelligence test, and character rating. The higher institutions, in admitting students, are making quite as frequent use of per- sonal data as data gleaned from so-called intelligence and apti- tude tests. It is no doubt fairer to the entering students if these personal data have been assembled by their high schools over a period of years, than if they must supply the informa- tion themselves. Very few entrance criteria are reported to have been dropped since 1924. The two most frequently mentioned are examinations devised and administered by the local institution and high-school diploma. This seems to indicate that in re- vising their admission standards the higher institutions do not oa, == &— = et 05 fete Q >a ss Ss &@ of§ OD = &@ fo se rt RnR &K@ A SM eo pe —- adage Oananauanuodctienrnrsn2n @ PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 175 in general discard an existing criterion when another one is adopted ; rather, the new criteria are merely added to those al- ready in use. The failure to drop existing criteria may be due to the traditional hold which they have upon the institutions or to the fact that the institutions have greater faith in a combi- nation of criteria than in a single criterion as a means of pre- dicting success in college. In an effort to discover unusual plans of admission, space was provided in the inquiry form in which the respondents were urged to describe any innovating plans which were being used in their institutions. Ninety-six respondents wrote in de- scriptions of plans. Most of these do not represent innova- tions at all. They were no doubt reported because they were new and untried in the institutions reporting them, but in the general field of admission methods they are not new. However, when these reported innovations are reviewed, a few facts are notable. In the first place, in several institutions all, or nearly all, specific subject requirements have been eliminated. Among these institutions, if any subject requirement is maintained at all, it usually is in English. It is interesting to note that in most of the institutions which have no specific subject require- ments a group of subjects is nevertheless recommended. In some institutions certain types of high-school courses are speci- fically discriminated against, whereas in others no such dis- crimination is made. Vigorous steps have been taken in many institutions to raise the scholarship standard. This, of course, is not an innovating plan, but was referred to as such by sev- eral respondents. This standard includes the rank in the high- school graduating class and the number of subjects which must be represented by certain marks. In a few institutions scholar- ship and personality have been assigned definite values in eval- uating an applicant’s record. Many other respondents, without specifying definite proportionate values, indicate that exten- sive use is made of such requirements as recommendations, character, and personal ratings, and personal interviews. These too, are not innovations. Fewer institutions report the use of intelligence or aptitude tests in the selection of students. Various degrees of emphasis are being placed upon the princi- 176 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS pal’s recommendation as an entrance criterion. Some institu- tions state that in the revision of their standards they are not interested in retaining this criterion, while others are enthu- siastic concerning its use. Two institutions reported that they give special attention to candidates who have been interviewed and recommended by the alumni of those institutions. Although not many of the plans mentioned above rep- resent innovations in the general fields of college admission, nevertheless, considerable change from certain methods of ad- mission to others is in evidence. More noticeable than the amount of change, however, is the extent to which additional criteria are being added to already-existing ones. In most cases, the innovations reported are innovations only to the in- situtions reporting them. When the entire 96 plans are ex- amined, one feels that in general, the changes which have taken place in the methods of admission have been favorable to the entering student. That is to say, some institutions which form- erly had only one method whereby students might gain admis- sion have multiplied the methods to take care of students with various abilities and backgrounds. Furthermore, to an increas- ing extent, higher institutions, in selecting their students, are making use of a number of criteria rather than using only the evidence secured from a single source. 2. Subjects required for admission. In the complete re- port of this investigation considerable space will be devoted to the discussion of the present requirements in five subject fields, what the requirements prior to the present standards were, and when the change to the present requirements was made. This will be done for all the classifications of institu- tions in the study and for certain departments within the institutions. However, only a portion of the summary data can be presented here. Two tables will indicate some of the findings. 1; [FP eae a we FF _—_- SS or PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 177 TABLE NO. I Average Number of Entrance Units Required at Present in Five Subject Fields, as Reported by the Departments in Institutions of Vari- ous Sizes, Regions, and types. oo PRESENT REQUIREMENTS and Group ish Mathe- Histry & Natural Foreign Average Englis matics Social Sci. Science Language qotal e eo o eo ov s 2 3 8 3 %3 Units i 2 i gz £ a2 3 gg 3 &g Required cS PFPeorsetePFrtsts Ff Enrollment: To 300__--177 3.06 160 2.12 155 1.87 121 1.08 124 2.25 9.88 301-500 _.220 3.15 213 2.04 197 1.87 145 1.18 146 2.28 10.02 501-1000 _178 3.1 176 2.18 184 1.84 111 1.09 117 2.44 10.1 1001-2000 289 3.04 214 2.15 185 13 154 1.03 110 2.4 9.92 2001-3500 115 2.94 106 2.27 92 1.31 79 1. 71 #185 9.37 3501—up _204 2.84 196 2.02 112 1.1 118 1.08 1386 212 9.16 Region: New nae 81 3.1 68 2.48 74 1.05 46 1.04 49 3.25 10.87 iddle Atlantic 234 3.15 228 2.26 193 1.2 151 1.21 202 2.62 10.44 ine ...282 3.12 263 2.42 233 1.53 149 1.02 167 2.25 10.34 Middle West _.394 2.84 3887 1.85 289 1.27 298 1. 239 1.78 8.74 West __.-142 2.84 119 1.78 86 1.32 84 1.83 47 187 9.14 Type (Public) Colleges and Univer- sities _.397 2.92 364 2.06 281 1.21 261 1. 189 2.07 9.26 Teachers Colleges and Normal Schools 107 3.23 97 1.68 88 1.7 GO. 12% 2k cue FR (Private) Colleges and Univer- sities - 605 3.07 592 2.28 495 13 387 1.13 485 2.36 10.09 All de- part- ments Com- bined 1133 3.02 1065 2111 875 1.81 728 1.08 704 224 9.76 *Scarcely any teachers colleges and normal schools report foreign language requirements. 178 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS In Table I the average number of units required in five subject fields in various groups of institutions is indicated. It should be clearly understood that in each inquiry form these data were called for by departments or colleges within the institutions. Hence the frequencies in Table I represent numbers of departments or colleges and not number of insti- tutions. In view of the fact, however, that the majority of the returns were for colleges of liberal arts and sciences, the findings may be said to represent institutional situations. A great many comparisons are possible in Table I. For example, studying the columns vertically, one is able to dis- cern the differences in requirements occasioned by size of en- rollment, geographical region, and type of institution, for each subject field and for all subject fields combined. In this regard, pronounced differences in the mathematics and for- eign language requirements are discernible among the re- gions. This, of course, has been pointed out repeatedly in other studies. The total number of subjects required is low- est in the larger institutions (over 2000), in the Middle West and West regions, and in the public institutions. The total re- quirement in the Middle West is a full two units less than that in New England. Other comparisons could be pointed out at length. The second summary table has to do with the trends in the requirements in the five subject fields, as revealed by the date of increase or decrease. Almost without exception, all the changes for which dates were indicated were made sub- sequent to 1899. The extent to which all changes since 1899 have been made since 1924 is shown in Table II. five ited. orm thin sent sti- ' of the ‘or lis- en- for his or- in We st e- at at e ll PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 179 TABLE NO. II Trends in Entrance Requirements in Five Subject Fields, as Re- vealed by the Date of Increase or Decrease. SUBJECT ae : Fate ee 2 INCREASE OR DECREASE 4 $2 8a ag ms 5 a 48, 4% $F . &§ a2 "3 2a *§ Total number of increases since 1899__74 65 62 53 28 Number of above increases made since FN ga a a Ra eB 40 39 35 30 21 Percent of total increases made since 1924 54 60 56 57 75 Total number of decreases since 1899 __33 122 62 83 112 Number of above decreases made since pT eee Fit Ree ae 21 75 27 36 50 Percent of above decreases made since |” panel acaeaer peta aaa Ic 64 61 44 43 45 The total number of increases since 1899 exceeds the to- tal decreases since the same date in only one subject field, namely, English. In history and social science the frequencies are the same. In the other subject fields the decreases since 1899 exceed the increases. This is especially notable for for- eign language and mathematics. When consideration is given to the number of increases and decreases since 1924, the in- creases are given in excess of the decreases in the fields of English and history and social science. In mathematics, nat- ural science, and foreign language the number of decreases is in excess to the number of increases. This is especially true for mathematics and foreign language. A detailed study of the trends indicates that without doubt further general reductions in mathematics and foreign language may be ex- pected. The institutions in the Middle West and West regions have already made drastic reductions. It may be that the in- stitutions in other regions will follow suit in relieving the secondary schools of a serious burden as regards the entrance requirements in these subjects. On the basis of the data con- tained in Table II, it seems correct to say that, since 1924, the unit requirements in English and history and social science 180 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS have tended to rise, more perceptibly in the former than in the latter ; the requirements in natural science have remained practically unchanged; and a definite downward trend is dis- cernible in the requirements in mathematics and foreign lang- uage. 3. The junior high school and college entrance require- ments. It is of some concern here to know the extent to which the higher institutions recognize the junior-high-school reor- ganization in formulating their entrance criteria. Specifically, the respondents were asked to specify whether or not their in- stitutions, in recognition of the junior-high-school, admitted students to full freshman standing on the basis of eleven or twelve acceptable units earned in the 10th, 11th, and 12th grades; or, in the case of States having seven-year elementary school systems, in the 9th, 10th, and 11th grades. Approximate- ly a third of the 517 institutions state that, in recognition of the junior high school, adjustments are made in the number and nature of units which students may submit for entrance credit. Neither the size nor type of institution exerts much in- fluence in determining whether or not recognition will be given. However, the region in which the institutions are situ- ated plays a much greater part. The Middle West and West are clearly ahead in the extent to which they recognize the junior high-school reorganization. About a third of the insti- tutions which recognize the junior high-school make a careful check to determine whether or not the eleven or twelve units required for admission actually represent work done in ad- vance of the junior high-school level. The 62 institutions which indicated that certain 9th grade subjects are discriminated against if recognition is given, named 19 subjects which are thus declared unacceptable. They are first year English, be- ginning mathematics, general science, general history, “lang- uages,” Latin, spelling, ancient history, community civics, phy- siology, botany, political geography, physical education, man- ual arts, civics, geography, industrial geography, business arithmetic, and bookkeeping. The recency with which the junior high-school reorganiza- tion has been recognized by the higher institutions in the re- PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 181 vision of their entrance standards is apparent in the fact that out of 105 institutions reporting dates, 98 specify that the date of such recognition was subsequent to 1925. B. Difficulties encountered by the higher institutions in their efforts to improve articulation. In studying methods to improve articulation it is not inappropriate to determine what the difficulties are which stand in the way of such improve- ment. The removal of a difficulty which thwarts improved articulation is quite as helpful as the institution of a new plan to improve it. An original list of nine difficulties was suggest- ed in the inquiry form. This list was totally inadequate to ex- press the woes of the higher institutions, and was increased by the respondents to include 35 different difficulties. Data for the nine difficulties listed in the form are presented in Table III. nnllU —= ee » 4 5. ih e” S6Bn@ “pF "SFA28, Boe > Se ~“ @ Y Sir, ZH Ov Bese Sn > od oaoVS5 ar SEELSESSSRESEESRESSEEESEL2 Fest kegs es CEGRGESESASLESRSRSESESERSEES soE~PS S62 = al | Lig SI€ PIT OL 69 O8T BIT 60T IS 68 Gz gL 60T Ss ll --— dnoi3 youa / Ur suoyjnyWsUuI Jo sequINU [8}0], % 2 Lt 98 oe tg 9 ST 8I gr og of 9% Of at o,,., Jomyserlf 94} SZutjon1ysur pus . Bulzequert0 Ajredoad ut SOIzISI9AtuN UB SeZa][09 ul SSOUSATJIOO JO you] ee 2 «St «68s lag & €& SI PI at 4 t 0 03 S& cS €% gt SelfIsiaatun pue saZaijoo Ur yom ht souBpIns peztueZi0-[jam Jo yore] z ce 18 #OF OF 2. ae 6€ ZE O02 gz. oF S$ 2&8 $8 Ug ---------------+ Uol}JENpBIs JozJe ry ‘SOIPIATZOV ayelmdoidde ojJur stidnd ; z JO SoUBpINS [ooyos-Arepuodas Jo yory Fy ty vS 88 «€©Th 6 6Se 6 6ze ogg:ogp %¢ 8 Fh Ih 8h 9g gp -- e8a][0 19jUa 0} SZuruueld sid “nd 10} sjooyss Arepuosas oy} ur 3 souBpIns-jsfqns d1jz1Ieds JO yowy = st Of St 6T Lt gt 9T OL FT gt gg AS) Sn 2 Oe souvijUe Surystxe Apeale Do Ss 94} JO UOEN[eAs aatydelqo Jo yoy] 2 OT 6 1t 1 Ot @ a eg i 8 v tT 868 8 SE Wopeeliy eztu ray 3 “IUIW 0} Zurpus, ‘sarouese SBUIzZIpie < ~pusys Aq 1¥2qQ0} 743n01q eouentyJuy z2 met st 4 6 6 et at or 9 Of 8% ot 6 TE OE Tenet r nn nennnea sea anene Aynaey 5 eZa]09 ey} ut uoTuIdo poyouerquq a = ol FT é«TT LZ rd vt hO6USEC CU SECC 7 Pe &l 9f PL OL --------------=--- s[cCoyas Arepuo . 99S 94} Woiz uclyetedoos Jo yor] _—s ££ © @- € « 2 8 oa ae ee oe Reiter ieses uolz¥oNpe jg jUoWzIedep 5 So es a 97838 94} WOIZ UOI}eIed00 Jo youey = ‘ane g 3 28 : a 3 3 din 908 0002 000 009 o0¢ B Rr zo («ke 7 Se 8 ¥ Sea, “1002 -T00T -109 -10g ox ALINOMaIa a s= ee HLVAIYd Ol'lIgna GdAL NOIDaY LNGIWTIOUNT NOILVOIdISSWI9 UOIZBNIIWIW saordwu SONINIHIG ureziag Burj10d 182 I 0} S$}ONq teyy ur pei1ezunoouq 894 ‘paytsse[o Ajsnorie, ‘SuorqnyIysUy] JeysiH JO Szusd10g Vig -¢ «<8 VsVW PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 183 A great many interesting facts could be pointed out con- cerning the data in Table III. Only a few, however, can be mentioned here. For example, although the percentage is small, it deserves to be mentioned that 10 per cent of the 517 institutions report that standardizing agencies bring an influ- ence to bear upon them which minimizes their freedom in pro- moting articulation. Furthermore, the percentages of institu- tions indicating this difficulty are higher in the two regions where such agencies -are especially strong than in the other three regions. Again, among the public and private colleges and universities, it appears that the public institutions are less concerned than the private about specific subject guidance in the secondary schools, and are more concerned that second- ary-school graduates will receive some sound advice as to what sort of activity they should engage in after the completion of the high-school work. Perhaps it is to be expected, since only persons connected with higher institutions answered this in- quiry, that twice as many institutions place the responsibility for unimproved articulation at the door of the high school as place it at the door of the college. However that may be, one fact of great significance seems to be indicated by the data. That is, the four difficulties which are named by the largest percentages of all the institutions have to do with guidance. In other words, in the minds of the respondents for the 517 in- stitutions the greatest hindrance to improved articulation at present is the lack of effective guidance programs either in the secondary schools or in the colleges and universities. Data from some of the inquiry forms returned by secon- dary schools seem to justify the higher institutions in subject- ing high-school guidance work to criticism. Sixty per cent of 761 private secondary schools fail to give definite guidance to their pupils regarding continued education following the completion of high school. Only 26 per cent of 2,196 public sec- ondary schools keep any record concerning the success in col- lege of their graduates. It seems clear that such records are necessary as a basis for guidance work among pupils who will graduate later, and as a means of correcting any weaknesses in the program of the school which are thus brought to light. 184 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Without claiming that effective guidance programs will : solve all the articulation problems, it is nevertheless safe to say that articulation can be greatly improved if such pro- grams are built up in both the secondary schools and the col- leges. Furthermore, such programs would be doubly effective if they represented the coordinated activity of the higher in- stitutions and the secondary schools constituent to them. C. Plans in operation for the improvement of articulation. It is not enough to enumerate the difliculties which render ar- ticulation ineffective, and to hope that they will in.some way be removed. It is necessary that constructive steps be taken to overcome them. This section of the present report, there- fore, is especially significant because it is concerned with the plans which the higher institutions and the secondary schools have in operation in their efforts to improve articulation. Consideration will be given first to the plans fostered by the higher institution. Nine plans were listed in the inquiry form. Following these, a separate section of the form was set aside for the description of plans other than those included in the list which had been tried out and proved unusually successful. Table IV presents the data for the nine plans suggested in the form. Special attention will be given later to the other plans described by the respondents. Percents of Higher Institutions, Variously Classified, Reporting Various Plans In Operation For the Improvement of Articulation LIG SIS PIT 8L 60T 8&f Sct” eae: Yous UL SUOI}NFIYSUI JO Jequinu [v0], se (OS c& 48SS 6% 8B SlOoyos YSIy UrIez100 WoAZ syuepNys JO Spi0deL aZe][0o oy} JO uoyenjeaq g 8T LT 66 a TE “~~~ *09@ ‘sqst] Aaeaqi ‘aotape ut -piing puv win[ndtiind Zurpraocid Aq sjooyos Alepuodes YIM Uo0T}e1ad009 Ir ge ’ th 8b oP SUOI}BIDOSSe [BUOT}VONP| [BUOT}BN 10 038}g 9Y} 10 SuOIzEID -OSS@ SUI}IPSIIVe YIM UOT}e1ed00D OF «FG 9% 8b ZF uol}Zonpo jo yUeW “yledop 2381S 94} YUM UoI;ZBIedo0D 6I &I 82 02 LI It SOI}PIIOYINE [ooyds-Arvpucses pue eZea[joo JoJ sucizueauod [e1edg Il ot OL OL 6 9 AjNoeZ aBaTjoo 94, jo sirsquiou 4q sjooyss Aiepuoses jo vooodsuy GZ. ST v6 8% 9T S[ooyos ALEpuodeS 9Y} S}dBzZU0D OYA [BID “IjJO ,,U9dM4OqG-03,, B Jo sduBUszUIVL OL SOAI}2YUIS -a1dei eZa]joo pue [ooyds-Arepuo -d98 JO pesoduiod seazzIuIWI0D 4UIOr OL “"""BlIe}LID sdUBIZUS UIezLIG0 932 “N[VA® 0} PIUSIsap Yd1veser dyTWUEIDG i=) ret v9) La re YY sesayion & cas an eu ee ety ea org ny «GEM 0088 ©0002 ~—:000T Mw “MHS ‘VW A'N -rocg -1002 -1001 -10¢ SITPIRIAAINNA SdTPISI@ATU() 3 saBajop oO rs = a = Oo a) Zz & oO z x n < = a) = = fue r) n oO = a a 3) S$ & Ay Jooyss [wuUION 9 SaBalJoD s1zsyovay, Os = - =) =) a NOIOAY LNUIWTIOUNA NOILVOIdISSVI1IO UdTIeNIYAY JO JUSsWIAAOICW] 84} JOq uolywiedQ uy SURI SNOLIVA SBuUTjIOdsy ‘peytsse[D A[SsNoleA ‘suOTINzIYSsSU] JsYySIP{ JO SzusdI0g : ® oo, D Dm Esc hosspeas vill to ro- ol- ive < ' ia SS re in- ray en ols 1 ® °o ] , 7 186 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The data in Table IV are self-explanatory. A summary examination of the data creates several general impressions. Only two will be mentioned. In the first place, the four plans used most frequently by the higher institutions may be said to represent about the minimum of direct coperation with the _ secondary schols. Indeed, all four of these plans might be used as means to bring pressure to bear upon the secondary schools, if the higher institutions were so disposed. Of course, accred- iting associations and State departments of education are re- sponsible for the maintenance of certain standards and do not care to have individual institutions violate these standards, but neither of these agencies is opposed to direct cooperation be- tween the colleges and secondary schools to bring about a more thorough-going understanding and acceptance of the existing standards, and even to subject them to careful tests which may in the end lead to their revision. The plan in Table IV which ca'ls for the greatest amount of equalized cooperation is parti- cipated in less by the higher institutions than any of the other eight plans listed. Specifically, nine per cent of the institutions are attempting to improve articulation through joint commit- tees composed of secondary-school and college representatives. The second observation is even more outstanding. It was pointed out in the previous section that the four difficulties most frequently mentioned as hinderances to articulation had to do with the lack of guidance either in the secondary schools or the higher institutions. When the plans listed in Table IV are considered, plans that involve coordinated guidance activi- ties are not to be found. It may be that at present many of the so-called plans of articulation are too remote to influence the educational and social lives of students, who are, after all, the persons for whom the plans of articulation should function effectively. Limitations of space make it impossible to discuss all the plans in addition to those in Table IV which were reported by the institutions as having been tried out and proved unusually successful. Such a discussion will appear in the detailed report of this study. Throughout the descriptions of unusually suc- cessful plans, however, the prevalence of devices which pene- a a. ol ete © = &@ FS 1 TH wt heh =~ CO ary ons. lans said the | ised ols, “ed- not but be- ore ing 1ay ich rti- ner ns \it- es. 7as ies ad ols IV vi- of ce Il, on PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 187 trate directly to the pupils in the secondary schools and to those who have immediate supervision over them is noticeable. In other words, the old method of passing resolutions and setting up standards in conferences of authorities from higher institu- tions, to be reacted to later in similar conferences of secondary school representatives, seems to have been adjudged too slow, indirect, and ineffective. On the other hand, the method of working out devices and setting up standards in cooperation, rather than independently, seems to be proving more effective, reliable, and acceptable. One of the general inquiry forms of the National Survey was sent to principals of individual secondary schools. In this form the respondents were asked to describe any noteworthy practices which had been developed for the articulation of their schools with higher institutions. Only 33 of the 2,196 public secondary schools responding made any reply to this inquiry. Of the 33, only 22, or 1 per cent of all the responses describe what are really plans of articulation. Others are mere state- ments of routine fact such as, “Accredited by the University of—”; “Any State college or university accepts our graduates to the freshman class” ; “We follow the rules of the University of—so as to maintain our accreditment”; and similar state- ments. Not all of the 22 plans referred to represent noteworthy or unusual practices in the field of articulation; however, they indicate the nature of the plans for articulation with colleges which have been developed by the secondary schools. Two facts are outstanding when the plans are studied. In the first place, the most common arrangement is one whereby high-school pu- pils may register for a limited amount of work in an adjacent college while they are completing their work in high school. This work is sometimes done by correspondence if the institu- tions are not in close enough proximity to the high school. The second notable fact in connection with the plans is the occas- ional mention of an arrangement whereby secondary-school and college personnel directors cooperate actively in studying student problems and in setting up devices for the improve- ment of articulation. The fact that the guidance programs in 188 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS high schools and college have in general been separate and dis- tinct, renders this plan rare in occurrence. It is encouraging, however, that a few secondary schools have taken the initia- tive in bringing about such coordination of effort. Only a few specific examples of plans of articulation de- veloped by the secondary schools can be cited here. One princi- pal in West Virginia reports that “Our seniors may enroll in— College with only 10 hours recitation work per week in the high school.” Another principal in South Carolina reports that “After earning 1514 units from the high school, the Uni- versity of—will matriculate a student and let him begin his college work while he is finishing his course with us.” In a high school in Michigan, pupils within one semester of graduation are permitted by two local colleges to enroll for a subject or two. A principal in Delaware says, “At times the high school cooperates with the University of—in offering post graduate work to failing freshmen.” One Principal in California re- ports cooperation with the offices of Deans in a University in that State. A principal in Texas states that advisory discus- sions by representatives of the University of—are held in the senior high school. One principal in Ohio reports the use of the radio in improving articulation, particularly in French. A broadcast is received from the State University to aid in bridg- ing the gap between high-school French and its continuation in college. The use of this device in improving articulation in general has many possibilities. In fairness to the secondary schools, it should be pointed out that if they are to give proper attention to the standing of their graduates they cannot disregard the standards of higher institutions and accrediting associations, in launching new ar- ticulation plans or carrying on experimentation. If a school wishes to effect extensive changes in its organization and pro- cedures it is first necessary to receive the consent and guidance of the accrediting associations. Necessarily these schools are few in number, but they do exist. In view of the fact, how- ever, that the colleges at present are unable correctly to ap- praise the finished product of the secondary schools, an in- creased amount of far-reaching, carefully-supervised experi- Ee Oe a a a ee a a ra, a, tas PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 189 mentation in secondary schools would seem to be justified and desirable. It should be pointed out, finally, that certain agencies are at work in this field. For example, the Carnegie Foundation ‘ for the Advancement of Teaching has in progress a long-time study of the relation of secondary to higher education in Penn- sylvania. Also the Progressive Education Association has re- cently set up a Committee on the Relation of School to College. This association proposes to carry on an experiment wherein several higher institutions will grant special freedom to cer- tain secondary schools as regards curriculums and school pro- cedures. Present requirements in these fields will then be eval- uated in terms of pupil success in college. Several State de- partments of education or State universities for example, The Ohio State University and the University of Minnesota, have also set up comprehensive programs intended to improve artic- ulation. Interest in this problem on the part of agencies such as these will no doubt result in many improved practices. III Summary and Problems On the basis of returns from 517 institutions, it has been seen that as regards the methods of admission, the changes which have taken place have in general been advantageous to the entering student. Some institutions that formerly had only one method of admission have increased the number to take care of students with various abilities and backgrounds. To an increasing extent, higher institutions are making use of a number of entrance criteria rather than attempting to appraise a student’s academic ability through the evidence gained from a single source. Subject requirements have in general been re- duced, more outstandingly in certain groups of institutions than in others. The general reduction has been due mainly to pronounced reductions in mathematics and foreign language. The number of units required in English, history and social science, and natural science has remained about constant or has increased. Increase in the present over the previous re- quirement is most pronounced in the field of English. About 190 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS one third of the 517 institutions recognize the junior high- school reorganization to the extent that they make adjustments in the number and nature of units which students may submit for entrance credit. The institutions located in the Middle West and West grant such recognition more frequently than the institutions in the other regions. The hindrances to articu- lation pointed out by the higher institutions have to do pri- marily with the lack of effective guidance work in either the secondary schools or the colleges. The plans in operation for the improvement of articulation reported by the college re- quire in general a minimum of direct cooperation with the sec- ondary schools. Plans involving coordinated guidance activi- ties are extremely rare, although the lack of such guidance is recognized as an outstanding hindrance to articulation. Plans of articulation with the colleges fostered by the secondary schools are predominantly schemes by which high-school pupils may register for a limited amount of work in an adjacent col- lege while they are completing their work in the high school. A few secondary schools have fostered comprehensive guid- ance programs in cooperation with adjacent higher institu- tions. Several educational agencies are at present active in promoting improved articulation. If a general statement concerning this investigation may be indulged in, there seems to be a feeling, if the data are not misjudged, among both the colleges and secondary schools, that if the problem of articulation is to be solved at all it will have to be solved at its source. That is to say, the task is rec- ognized as one of developing cooperative programs which will touch directly and intimately the present work and future plans of the secondary-school and college population. h- its lit lle PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 191 The discussion of Dr. Brammell’s paper, Practices and Problems in Improving the Articulation Between High School and College, was opened by Harold A. Ferguson, Principal of the High School, Montclair, New Jersey. In attempting to stimulate discussion of this subject, a point of view will be emphasized which is not commonly held by high-school principals who may be giving consideration to the problem. It is not unusual, at the present time, to encoun- ter among high-school principals and those on the staff of schools of education, the attitude that college entrance require- ments are the great obstacle in the path of educational progress. Usually a number of the eastern colleges are regard- ed not only as the most rigid in their demands, but also as gen- erally unreasonable. My own experience as a high school prin- cipal, of course, influences my thinking, and it fortunately in- cludes, not only eight years in New Jersey in schools from which the graduates have entered as many as seventy different colleges in one year, including the institutions of the East which are regarded as the most selective, but also four years in Ohio. I can recall that my attitude when I was in Ohio was that the public high school had a greater responsibility than merely to attempt to train pupils for college and, particularly, eastern college requirements; I believed with others that the high school should train pupils for life and citizenship. After eight years in the East, I have found that a high school which is qualified through its teaching staff to do a good piece of work can train for life and citizenship, and, in addition, can also train pupils to meet the requirements of any college in the country without endangering the opportunity of attaining the svlendid objectives which are claimed for the secondary school. The difference in attitude is due largely to the realization, which has come as a result of experience, that colleges also are trying to solve this problem. Almost without exception I have found that they are willing to make exceptions and allowances for the school which is doing a good job; furthermore, they have multiplied the methods of gaining entrance to college dur- ing the last eight or ten years, which fact alone has greatly im- proved the whole situation. After all, does the solution lie in 192 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS changing college requirements which may possibly prevent the high school from realizing its greatest usefulness, or in secur- ing outstanding teachers who are able to provide college prep- aration as a by-product of good teaching? A recent investigation with which I have been associated conducted among the high-school principals of New Jersey, in- dicates too often that high schools, in attempting to meet col- lege requirements, are assuming difficulties which actually do not exist. There seem to be at least three reasons for this mis- understanding: a. Too many high-school principals are not well enough ac- quainted with actual college requirements and the allow- ances and exceptions which colleges are willing to make for the promising candidate. To prove this point, may I read from a number of criticisms of particular colleges received from New Jersey high-school principals. I shall also read along with these, replies received from the col- leges in answer to the questions raised. The second basis for misunderstanding is the fact that very few high-school principals either seize the oppor- tunity or are encouraged by their boards of education to make the necessary contacts with the colleges and their directors of admission. Out of 130 principals questioned, only ten indicated that visits to colleges are encouraged to the extent of having expenses paid, and eight more replied that visiting is permitted but no expenses are paid. Furthermore, only about thirty were furnished with expenses to the meetings of the National Education Association or the Association of the Colleges and Sec- ondary Schools of the Middle States where high-school principals might very well make some of the contacts with college representatives which would lead to better understanding. Thirdly, despite all that has been spoken and written about guidance, few high schools have yet recognized their responsibility and have organized their staffs in order that pupils may be furnished with the necessary PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 193 information at the right time. Colleges, like individuals, fortunately differ. Williams and Bryn Mawr, e. g., re- quire four years of Latin, and, if my information is cor- rect, these are the only two prominent colleges which make this specific requirement. Instead of criticising these institutions for such a requirement, let us be sure that those who are planning to enter them are properly equipped. Pupils and parents will change their objec- tives if they are informed and reminded from time to time either by the principal, or the staff members whose duty it is to do such work, if the pupil’s achievement is not consistent with his objective. People object to receiv- ing unpleasant news at the last minute; if they have the information at the outset they usually are willing to make choices themselves within the boundaries of th possibilities which develop. In order to simplify the problems of guidance, some principals would make all college requirements uniform; they would eliminate for- eign language, for example. Possibly, in an occasional ‘ college, the waiving of the foreign language requirement might be wise, but colleges must not become similar any more than individuals should be cast in the same mould. In addition to the foregoing suggestions, the question of what high schools can do to improve articulation between the high schools and the colleges can be very well summarized by a composite statement of four New Jersey principals. Among these principals, representing such suburban communities as East Orange, South Orange, Ridgewood, and Montclair, which send large numbers of graduates each year to colleges all over the country, there is agreement that there should be brought about: a. An acquaintance with the actual requirements of each college. b. A personal acquaintance with college representatives and the institutions they represent. c. A respect for the work which a high school is able to do, this respect to be based upon the achievement of stu- 194 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS dents in college, as well as a knowledge of the work which is done in the high school. d. A wise use of the privilege of certification. e. An encouragement of the comprehensive type of ex- amination for the good student who may be required to take the College Entrance Board Examination. f. The use of the College Entrance Board Examination for certain colleges as a validating examination if the pupil’s record is “spotty.” g. A plan of following up the work of pupils after they enter college. h. A willingness and an ability on the part of high schools to furnish information about pupils in order that colleges may have a better knowledge of pupils as per- sons. i. A plan of guidance which will make accurate informa- tion available and which will assist more intelligently in the direction of pupils toward colleges for which they are prepared. Up to this point, consideration has been given to the ques- tion of what the high school can do to bring about better artic- ulation with the colleges. Now it will be well to ask what the colleges can do to assist the high school in improving the situa- tion. Four suggestions to the colleges for bringing about better articulation can be stated. Granted that colleges have the right to be different, and that their requirements by varying as much as they do may well be distinctive, is it necessary to emphasize this fact in the form which is used for the candidate’s application for admis- sion? If colleges could come to some agreement on the subject of such forms, high-school principals, many of whom are in- adequately supplied with clerical assistance, might be able to supply more significant information about pupils. When col- spi col wh lem the sen tim PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 195 leges first accept candidates from a school, or grant the certi- ficate privilege, could they not satisfy themselves as to the type of work done and the courses offered, and eliminate from the blanks for individuals questions as to books used and content of courses? Among the good colleges, at the present time, the growth of personnel work among the students is significant. Colleges in general might well follow the example of such colleges as Dartmouth, Harvard, Yale, Smith, and Wellesley in their at- tempts to adjust the college work to the particular needs of the individual. A good example of adjustment to fit individual needs may be found in the tendency among colleges to. chal- lenge the abler students, either by excusing them from required freshmen courses, or by giving them advanced work in fields where they have shown special proficiency. Finally, it is suggested that all colleges should notify schools in September or October of the names of graduates who have actually enrolled. Added to the present growing tendency to report to high schools the achievement of their graduates not only at the end of the first semester, but also at the end of the freshman year, such a practice would prove helpful to the high school. High-school principals have even suggested the desirability of a report of the college activities of their grad- uates. Colleges might well realize that the greater the amount of information furnished to a school about its graduates, the more probable it is that the school will tend to look beyond the point of mere college entrance to the student’s ultimate success in college. In conclusion, it would seem that better articulation, de- spite some gaps and rough spots, is possible of achievement. All colleges are eager for the graduates of the public high schools who are capable of profiting from college training. The prob- lem is one of mutual concern and, may it be said, is receiving the sympathetic consideration of a growing number of repre- sentatives of high-school and college groups at the present time. In order to stimulate the efforts of the high-school prin- 196 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS cipals, it may not be amiss to suggest that the situation pre- sents the greater challenge to the secondary schools. Then Principal A. J. Burton, East High School, Des Moines, Iowa, spoke as follows: The aims and procedures sug- gested by the Sub-Committee on Principles of the Committee on Relations of Secondary Schools and Colleges are excellent. These suggestions are along the line that has been in practice by the best teachers of the past. If they can be incorporated in the curricula in such a way that all teachers will use the plan a wonderful improvement will be the result. The attitude toward scientific education is correct as sci- ence is a search for the real truth and that is exactly what we need to make progress in education. Science and industry have made rapid changes during the past few decades and there is no evidence that the goal has been reached. During the next three or four decades the same speed may continue. A large majority of the people of the present age have not developed mentally to the place where they are properly integrated with their environment. Formely most human beings spent their whole life with connections covering an area of only a few square miles but to-day the environment of the children reach- es out over the world which makes it necessary to have a broad view of life in order to be happy and to assist the next genera- tion in enjoying its environment. This condition places a great responsibility on the educational systems as the results of learning are now far reaching. The secondary schools should be given an opportunity for experimental studies on curricula, organization, guidance, etc., to make sure that the students have an opportunity for an edu- cation which will best fit them to enjoy life and improve hu- manity. Each student should be given training which will closely correlate with his life after school days are over. This will require careful organization of the student body, improved guidance, cooperation between parents, pupils and teachers and changes in the curriculum to improve the pupil’s oppor- tunity to progress in the line of their desires and abilities. Jul Lol ogy gie TI SS or RM WM OD PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 197 GROUP IV Mr. W. W. Haggard, superintendent of Township and Junior College of Joliet, Illinois led Group four in the West Lobby, Wardman Park Hotel. Dr. Frank N. Freeman, Professor of Educational Psychol- ogy of the University of Chicago, read his paper, Mental Hy- giene. THE REQUIREMENTS OF MENTAL HYGIENE IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL FRANK N. FREBMAN, University of Chicago, Professor of Educational Psychology In my introductory discussion I shall deal with what I conceive to be the more general conditions which are neces- sary in order to preserve and promote mental hygiene in the secondary school. I shall leave to my colleagues, who have had more intimate experience with the detailed procedures in a program of mental hygiene, to deal with these detailed pro- cedures. I shall confine myself more largely to the general or- ganization of the school and to those activities which may be carired on by the regular teacher, and shall not deal specifically with the practices of individual counseling or with the special treatment of problem children. These matters are essential to a program of mental hygiene, and I am sure they will be dis- cussed adequately during the course of the meeting. The first feature of our educational procedure, which has a bearing on the child’s mental health and which is one of the important elements in the school’s program or the improve- ment of mental health, consists in the standards and demands which are made upon the child. The first requirement we should lay down concerning the standards and demands we set before the child, is that they should mean something to him. It is obvious that he cannot grasp their full meaning, since this presupposes that he has 198 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS had the later experience in which their meaning will be re- vealed to him, but it is certainly desirable that they should mean as much to him as is possible. Meaningless, routine drill is not of any value in itself. Drill is necessary, but the child should see as much of the purpose of the drill as his experience enables him to see. The child should be given as clear an in- sight into the whole process of his education as it is possible to give him. He should see education, in general; as one of the functions of society and should understand the part. which he is playing in the whole mechanism of society when he goes to school. He should see the process of education both as general preparation for taking his share in the general undertakings of citizens and in performing his part by becoming a worker in one of the specialized vocations of the world. By thus see- ing himself, and by seeing the process of education in its larger setting, he will see the meaning of the particular tasks which he performs in the school. The second requirement concerning the standards and de- mands which we place upon the child is that they shall be prop- erly adjusted to the ability of children at the various levels and stages of advancement, and that they shall be adapted to the abilities of individual] children. Improperly adjusted stan- dards interfere with mental health in two ways. Standards which are too easy fail to awaken the child to vigorous activity and may even cause him to underestimate his powers. Stan- dards which are too difficult, on the other hand, cause the child to fail and set up one of the most serious obstacles to mental health—a feeling of inadequacy and inferiority. This feeling is not confined to the task which first produces it but may per- vade the individual’s entire mental life. In adjusting demands to the individual, account must be taken not only of the indi- vidual’s general ability but also of his ability in special lines of endeavor. Particular care must be taken to observe any spe- cial disabilities which the child may have and to give him such education in overcoming these special disabilities that he may have a continuous sense of power and mastery. A second set of factors which have an important bearing upon the mental health of the pupil comes under the general re- uld rill 1ild nce in- ble the to ral Zs cer 2e- er ch Is PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 199 head of methods of teaching, either general methods or special methods. A method which is very widely used and which forms an integral part of much of our education, but which is prob- ably responsible for a good deal of anxiety and ill health, is competition. Competition may, perhaps, be said to be the suc- cessor to punishment as a method of motivating school work. It may be argued that competition is present in all adult life and that the child should, therefore, be prepared to meet com- petition by working under competitive conditions in the school. But the argument may be turned the other way. If a non-com- petitive regime, or one in which competition is less emphasized than at present, is found to be more conducive to mental health and more satisfactory all around in the school, may the school not lead society in the direction of less emphasis on competition and more on co-operation. Many critics of modern social life believe that excessive competition is re- sponsible for much of our distress and even some of our eco- nomic disorganization. It seems that the school should not merely follow society in matters of this sort which touch the fundamental principles of behavior, but should freely expe- riment and lead the way to improved forms of social organiza- tion. Undue stress on competition undoubtedly leads to anxi- ety and to deep-seated feelings of inadequacy on the part of individuals who habitually fall behind in the race. While, therefore, it may not be necessary or desirable to exclude com- petition altogether, it does seem desirable to substitute, so far as may be feasible, a sense of the intrinsic value of an accom- plishment in place of the mere desire to beat somebody else. The recognition of the intrinsic value of an accomplish- ment is also opposed to another type of motive which is not always distinguished from it. This motive may be described as interest in the subject itself. Interest is one of those concepts which may cover a variety of notions, each of which may shade almost imperceptably into the other. The two types of interest which I should like to distinguish may be called objective inter- est and subjective interest. In a sense, of course, all interest is subjective in that it is an attitude of the individual toward an object or an activity, but the source of this attitude may be 200 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS widely different. In one case the individual may be interested in an activity because he believes it to have value apart from his own personal concerns. In other words, he conceives it as having objective value—value for itself or value for mankind and not only for himself as an individual. This type of inter- est gives dignity to an enterprise and lifts it out of the realm of individual whim or caprice. The other type of interest is that in which the individual wishes to perform an activity be- cause he has a momentary impulse to do so or because he sees it to be connected with his private well-being. It may be thought that the subjective type of interest, while it is socially less desirable than the objective type of in- terest, is more favorable to the integration of the individual’s impulses and, therefore, to mental health. However, I believe that quite the contrary is the case. The individual whose in- terests are bound up with his own concerns is much more like- ly to develop a general feeling of the futility of his enterprises than is the person who feels that they have an importance inde- pendent of his own personal desires. If this is the case, it means that interest should be built up, not primarily upon purely subjective evaluation, but rather upon our more objec- tive sense of the importance of one’s undertakings. Children, youth, and adults all like to feel that the things they are doing are serious and that they contribute something to the general well-being. The sense of importance which such a feeling gives is a potent factor in the integration of one’s impulses. The teacher has a very large share in helping the child properly to evaluate the enterprises which he undertakes. On the one hand, the teacher, from his broader background, helps the child to grasp intellectually the significance of the courses of study which he is pursuing. In the second place, the teacher communicates to the child his enthusiasm by a sort of con- tagion. This means that the teacher must both have a grasp of the meaning of what he teaches and must be enthusiastic about it. No teacher who does not have intelligence or this enthusi- asm is qualified to teach. We cannot expect the understanding or the enthusiasm to develop in the child by spontaneous gen- a = + wt Tm fly Us PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 201 eration. The child must contribute his part but the teacher must exercise the leadership. When it comes to the details of execution, as contrasted with the leading ideas, the teacher should also serve as a guide to the child; but there is a danger that the teacher will attempt unduly to dominate the details of the child’s activity. This not only interferes with progress in learning but also endangers the child’s mental organization. Teachers are, as a class, rather inclined to control too minutely the exact procedure which the child shall follow in learning. The guidance of learning is a very delicate procedure, as the experiments in supervised study have shown. On paper it appears to be an easy thing to guide the child’s thinking step by step until he arrives at the goal of a certain procedure. This has been found, however, to be a very difficult thing to do in practice. This difficulty has been attributed to our lack of knowledge of the steps in learning and it has been thought that we could overcome the difficulty by a better understanding of these steps. Undoubtedly a better un- derstanding of learning will enable us to guide the child’s learning more intelligently, but it is questionable whether we should ever set up as the goal a mechanical, detailed guidance of the child through every step. The difficulty with the attempt to guide the child through detailed steps is that we interfere with the organization of his activities in fairly large units. The best examples of the way not to guide the child’s activities is found in a certain type of physical training. The type of training I refer to is the one in which the group stands at attention and goes through a series of movements, each one in response to a separate and sudden command. This military type of training is not, in my judg- ment, suitable even in physical education. The mechanical regi- mentation of the individual to group action, which is repre- sented by this form of training, is not the kind of group activ- ity which prepares the individual for co-operative undertak- ings. It prepares him only for a mechanical type of obedience. This type of training does not produce the sort of organization of his activities which the child will find necessary in our pres- ent-day civilization. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS One fact which we should keep in mind in our attempt to guide the child is that there are variations in tempo from indi- vidual to individual. Some modification may be made in this tempo by training and by general environmental conditions, and the average difference in tempo between city dwellers and country dwellers is an evidence of the influence of the environ- ment. Nevertheless, individual variations exist and must be respected. A teacher with a very rapid tempo is in danger of disorganizing a child of relatively slow tempo by his impatient attempts unduly to hurry the child up. Aside from this there is a certain continuity in the indi- vidual’s performance which represents the following out of a course of action which he conceives in his own mind. There may be no real advantage in following out a succession of ac- tions in one order rather than in another. But if the individual has projected his activities in one order it may disturb him con- siderably for another individual arbitrarily to break into this order and to attempt to modify his program. All this does not mean, of course, that the teacher should not help the child to learn to follow a more advantageous as distinguished from a less advantageous procedure. It means, however, that such help can be given better when the activity is being planned and the general program is being laid out than when the activity is being executed. It may be necessary at times to help the pupil in the midst of the execution of an activ- ity in order to point out to him the exact point at which he is making a mistake, but this should be the exception rather than the rule. The child should be given the opportunity and en- couraged to organize his activity in larger and larger units. The chief fault in the training of the individual by military methods is that when he is left to go on his own he is not cap- able of managing his own affairs. He, therefore, fails to meet many of the demands made upon him, and his whole behavior falls into a disorganized state. The only way a person can learn to organize his affairs is by being given opportunity and help in organizing his behavior in progressively larger units. to li- ‘is PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 203 The measures which I have been discussing thus far have to do with setting the general conditions which favor the pro- per organization of the child’s behavior. In addition to setting these general conditions, much particularized attention must be given to individual children. ‘This attention is partly for the purpose of preventing the development of undesirable attitudes and habits and partly for the purpose of remedying undesirable attitudes or habits which have already been formed. This in- dividual handling of the child is what we ordinarily designate by management. The teacher has a very large measure of re- sponsibility for promoting the mental health of the student through intelligent management. The purpose of such man- agement is commonly conceived to be simply the establishment of good order and the attainment of externally acceptable be- havior. Good order and acceptable behavior are, of course, im- portant. But if we fix our attention only on external behavior, we shall overlook important conditions which have a large bearing upon the child’s mental health. From the point of view of mental health, we may, per- haps, summarize the aims of management as being the devel- opment of a sense of responsibility, on the one hand, and of a sense of personal adequacy, on the other hand. If the child lacks the due sense of responsibility, he develops an attitude of ego-centricity. He overvalues his own concerns and his own desires in contrast to those of others. This is the attitude of the spoiled child, and unfortunately it is not confined to child- hood. One who has not developed the proper sense or the due sense of his own adequacy, on the other hand, is dominated by fear and anxiety. He feels himself incapable of meeting the demands which are laid upon him. This attitude is frequently due to the fact that the child has been held under too strict domination by authority, perhaps the authority of a parent or of a teacher, or that the demands have been made upon which he was not able to meet. The unwillingness or inability to meet the responsibilities which are laid upon the individual frequently result in evasions and in rationalization. The skillful teacher will be able to help the child in many cases to recognize his evasion and rationali- 204 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS zation and to face reality more fearlessly. This is accomplished partly, of course, by suiting the demands to the ability of the child—a procedure which has already been discussed. It is frequently necessary, however, to re-educate the individual, to develop in him a different attitude, and to build up through gradual stages the ability to face his tasks'and perform them without evasion. As a preparation for this type of guidance, it is desirable that the teacher should acquire some facility in detecting his own evasions and rationalizations. He may, perhaps, make a start by learning to detect the rationalizations which are made by other persons. It is always easier to see the other person’s rationalizations than one’s own. After a little practice in de- tecting others’ evasions, one may learn to detect his own. This will enable him better to deal sympathetically with the evasions of the pupils. I may illustrate rationalizations from examples given by Dr. Goodwin Watson in the White House Report of the Sub-committee cn Mental Hygiene in the Schools. Among some of the common evasions are: 1. Pretending or develop- ing illness to avoid something unpelasan.t 2. Outbursts of misbehavior to attract attention or relieve monotony. 3. Dis- paraging remarks about other pupils in the hope of raising his own status. 4. Bossiness, loud voice, domination to conceal inner trepitude. 5. Pretending not to want something which is desired but is not at once attainable. (The sour grapes at- titude). 6. Bullying younger children as compensation for in- adequacy with own group. I recommend that the teacher study the entire list given in the original report. There are certain methods of management often used by teachers which are obviously contrary to the principles of mental hygiene. Such, for example, are the use of fear and punishment as a strong motive, the indulgence in sarcasm or nagging, the expressions of liking or aversion for individual pupils of the class, the holding up of a pupil to ridicule as, for example, calling him a dumbbell. It is surprising how often we will find otherwise skillful teachers using these discredited methods. They undercut the very root of effort by the child through destroying his confidence in himself. I am afraid that RR me mm ot as. «2 of SoS Ocstmmhmhner joj 1ed the dle Lis a i we. we io PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 205 they are sometimes compensations by the teacher for the feel- ing of his own inferiority. I have attempted to sum up some of the important general conditions which seem to be necessary for the promotion of the mental health of the students. The speakers who follow will add to these general remarks further general considera- tions and will add advice concerning specific practices which they have found in their abundant practical experience to pro- mote the mental health of the students. Mr. O. Granger, Principal of Haverford Township Senior High School of Upper Darby, Pennsylvania, led in the discus- sion. In the discussion after Professor Freeman’s paper, Mr. O. Granger, principal of the Haverford Township Senior High School, Delaware County, Upper Darby, Pennsylvania, offered the following: The principal must develop the point of view of the mental hygienist and attempt to organize the school around the individual. He should attempt to organize the school so that the institution serves the needs of the largest number of individual students. He should have the point of view that the school is administered to teach pupils rather than to teach subject-matter. In a program of organizing the school to apply the princi- ples of mental hygiene, he should start with adjusting the school to one pupil, then another, and so on until the school is serving the needs of every student. He should not reorganize the school to be consistent with a general theory, or scheme, handed from the universities; and he should not attempt to re- organize the school after a scheme that works well in some other community. He should, day by day, try to make the school serve the needs of the individual students in the school at the time. He should attempt to proceed scientifically in education somewhat along the line that the medical profession follows, making our teachers’ meetings clinics. He should develop a vocabulary that enables him to talk about a student problem 206 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS with some degree of analysis. He must have other terms to explain what we now call laziness and carelessness, etc. He must have some other way of dealing with students in place of failing them. He should develop a classification of symptoms of mal-adjustment, and then a procedure in diagnosis and a technique in remedial work, as weil as in case histories. He must decide who will do the work, whether he is to employ a specialist or whether each teacher is to handle his own cases. He should develop the point of view that it is nec- essary for the classroom teacher to do the work, and. that the specialist, or the principal as a specialist, should provide the leadership, that the matter of pupil adjustment is one of ad- justment between the teacher and the pupil. He must build up a body of case history as a guide in the treatment of cases. These should be the record kept on the cases which he works on. I suggest that it would be well for the principal’s department to have a “clearing house” where case history might be accumulated and then distributed so that we can all profit by the experiences of other workers. Mr. Edward H. Stullken, Principal of the Montefiore Special School of Chicago followed. Mr. Edward H. Stullken, Principal, Montefiore School, Chicago, Illinois, went on with the discussion: Every school system has many individual pupils who because of their be- havior test the patience and ingenuity of teachers, principals, and other school authorities. The school is more important in the lives of such children than in that of ordinary children be- cause it is not only an educative force, but also often the only agency giving them an opportunity to adjust to the world in which they live. The education of the past, which has frequently been con- cerned with a narrow, intellectual development, has failed to take into account that problem children need adjustments,— such as developing their personalities, securing emotional sta- bility, developing a sense of security,—more than mere intel- lectual development. The mental hygiene movement has done a great deal toward giving the school this broader viewpoint of scl go for cal ha’ of pri the ties to 1 cle: the pet asi lem tha ten tal, cati the this reg ven hyg asi sr ow 6 eC NOON PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 207 education. It has resulted in deflecting the emphasis of the teachers’ work from the routine of intellectual discipline and drill to the more important task of training the child to meet the real problems of life. One of the psychiatric contributions to education has been the creation in the schools of a mental hygiene viewpoint on the part of teachers, principals, and others rather than in keeping psychiatry. as an external and clumsy corrective to all that is unpsychiatric in the school’s activities. The need for a psychiatric point of view in the special school for problem children is self-evident. Behavior, either good or bad, has usually a purposive value for the individual, and behavior that appears pathological or abnormal may be found to be quite logical and normal when the sequence of causes is known and when the entire history of the child’s be- havior has been studied. Work with problem boys in the Montefiore Special School of Chicago indicates that the application of mental hygiene principles will assist materially in readjusting and reeducating these boys so that they may become assets rather than liabili- ties to society. By the application of mental hygiene principles to classroom problems the teacher can go a long way toward clearing up all behavior difficulties that may interfere with the individual child’s development. Truancy, misbehavior, and petty delinquencies must be viewed as symptoms of something wrong in the life of the child in relation to society rather than as abnormalities of his nature. The truant and behavior prob- lem child must be considered as a case for special study rather than as an object for punishment. Small classes, individual at- tention, additional equipment, special services of medical, den- tal, psychological, psychiatric, and social workers make reedu- cation and readjustment possible in nearly all cases. Most of the conditions, methods, materials and viewpoints that make this reeducation of the problem child possible are applicable to regular school procedures and if properly applied would pre- vent many problem cases now found in regular schools. Mental hygiene, therefore, has as great a place in the regular school as in special schools. 208 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 24, 1932 DISCUSSION GROUPS GROUP I Junior High School Section The Junior High-School Section met Wednesday morning February 24, in the East Lobby of the Wardman Park Hotel. Mr. C. H. Threlkeld, President of the Department called the group to order at 10 A. M. Dr. Francis T. Spaulding, Associate Professor of Educa- tion, Harvard University, and Head Specialist in School Or- ganization of the Staff of the National Survey of Secondary Education read his paper entitled, Js the Junior High School Organization Superior to the Conventional Organization? A Report on Nation-wide Practice. IS THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL ORGANIZATION SUPE- RIOR TO THE CONVENTIONAL ORGANIZATION? A REPORT ON NATION-WIDE PRACTICE Dr. F. T. SPAULDING Associate Professor of Education Harvard University The National Survey of Secondary Education has included among its projects a study of the organization of secondary schools. This particular study has concerned itself simply with organization, and not at all with details of subject matter or methods of teaching. It can therefore, throw only partial light on the question of whether any one type of secondary school is superior to any other. The study does not, as a matter of fact, attempt to “prove” in any conclusive way either superiority or inferiority ; it does, however, seek to supply comparable data which may have bearing on such matters. The data which the study has gathered have not yet been completely analyzed. Hence not all the conclusions which the 209 PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING study will eventually make possible can as yet be definitely stated ; the conclusions which touch on certain details of organ- ization in various types of schools are, in particular, still in doubt. But the analysis to which the data have already been subjected has been carried far enough to justify a tentative re- port on certain of the study’s findings. Information gathered in the study bears upon a number of significant questions concerning the movement for secon- dary-school reorganization. The study has given chief at- tention to organizations of special promise. It has sought, in particular, to discover what forms of existing secondary-school organization offer greatest likelihood of providing thoroughly comprehensive and flexible adjustments to pupils’ needs. The study may be able at length to offer certain definite conclusigns with respect to this question. Within the scope of the present paper only the results of certain subordinate investigations can be set forth. These investigations have centered about two ma- jor questions: first, what sort of school organization has the junior high school movement actually produced? and second, how does the organization of the typical junior high school compare with that of the corresponding grades in convention- ally organized systems? Before dealing with these questions in turn it will be well to define with some exactness what is meant by “organization” as that subject has been treated in the study, and to describe the methods which have been used for obtaining descriptions of the organization of various types of schools. A clear under- standing of both these matters is of fundamental importance in any just evaluation of the study’s conclusions. The study has not conceived school organization as a mat- ter merely of the admission and classification of pupils, nor of the scheduling of classes, nor of provisions for individual diff- erences. It has assumed that organization consists in the ar- rangement of all these matters at once, in conjunction with all the other internal and external “workings” of the school, so that the school may operate smoothly and effectively in every part. It has assumed, further, that organization is not a 210 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS subject to be studied piecemeal, one phase of it in one school and another phase in another school; it must be studied in all its major ramifications at the same time and in the same schools if any sound estimate of it is to result. The study has, however, avoided a definition of organiza- tion in terms of the subject matter or the process or the results of teaching. It has assumed that within the framework of a thoroughly “good” organization—however “good” is defined— the subject matter and the methods of teaching may be corres- pondingly good, or they may be only average, or they may be definitely poor. A school’s organization is understood to be all those arrangements which provide opportunity for effective education; the organization does not in and of itself offer a guarantee of effective education. Put in briefer if somewhat more academic terms, the study has considered the organization of a school to imply all the provisions made in that school for the effective and har- monious functioning of the school’s major activities in due relation to each other. The task of studying school organization, with “organiza- tion” thus defined, has of necessity involved the securing of a large amount of information about each of many individual schools. That information has been obtained for some hun- dreds of schoo!s through the use of an extensive check-list, so designed as to call forth from the principal of any given school an accurate and comprehensive description of his school’s in- ternal and external workings. The check-list was arranged to provide for at least a sampling of each school’s activities under nine major features of organization, as follows: (1) the admission and promotion of pupils; (2) the arrangement of instruction, in terms of departmentalization, the size of classes, the length of school sessions, the use of standardized tests, and the adoption of special schemes which make possible direct attention to individual differences; (3) the scope and arrangement (but not the detailed content) of the program of studies; (4) provisions for the articulation of the school with other school units; (5) the composition of the teaching staff ; ool all me Za- Its fa 28- be all PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 211 (6) the scope and arrangement (but not the detailed content) of the school’s extra-curricular program; (7) the school’s pro- visions for the educational and vocational guidance of its pupils; (8) arrangements for the supervision of instruction ; and (9) the school’s housing and equipment. Under each of these heads school principals were asked to indicate the pro- visions which their schools were actively making to afford an appropriate framework for effective instruction. Whether the reports which were received through these check-lists were entirely accurate in every case can of course not be definitely established. Efforts were made both to secure careful attention to the check-lists by those principals who received them, and to gauge the accuracy of a selected group of check-list returns as an indication of the accuracy of the reports as a whole. The reports from some thirty schools which were inspected at first hand after their check-lists had been returned proved to have depicted the organization of those schools with remarkable exactness. Specific items were occasionally misunderstood, but no extensive errors in report- ing were anywhere apparent; and the honesty with which individual principals had testified to weaknesses in their school organizations was a matter of particular notice. Concerning the reports as a whole it may probably be fairly assumed that they represent as accurate a return of the information for which they ask as could be gained by any method short of ex- tended first-hand study of each individual school. As to whether the schools described in the check-list re- turns represent a fair sampling of the groups of schools to which they belong, that too is a matter which cannot be defin- itely established. The task of securing representative schools of the conventional type proved an especially difficult one; the nature of the sampling provided in that group of schools will be indicated later. Reorganized schools were selected in the first place according to a plan which provided a random sampl- ing on a statistical basis. Principals responded to requests ' for cooperation, however, in such different proportions for different types of schools, that the original representation was in certain respects very largely destroyed. The five hundred 212 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS reorganized schools finally included in the study were drawn from all the more prominent types of reorganization, from a half-dozen distinguishable sizes of schools, from each of five major-size groups of communities, and from all sections of the country. Their average size is, nevertheless, somewhat greater than the average size of all schools of the types to which they belong; and there is reason to believe that because of other factors than size they represent the better schools of their types in larger proportions than the average or poorer schools. Both these defects no doubt influence the apparent character- istics of the typical reorganized school as these characteristics are portrayed by the data of the study. The data probably give a somewhat unduly favorable description, rather than a notably unfavorable one, of current practice. All these limitations need to be kept clearly in mind in interpreting the results of the study’s attempt to describe the typical reorganized school. The limitations may well be re- peated for the sake of emphasis. The study’s descriptions and comparisons are in terms of organization alone, and not in terms of detailed subject-matter offerings, methods of teach- ing, or results of instruction. The data for the comparisons here presented were obtained through the use of an extensive check-list, and are subject to whatever defects may necessarily attach to data gathered by such a method. The schools which supplied the data are probably not entirely representative of their types; their averages seem in general to be somewhat above the true averages for the country as a whole. What sort of school organization, then, has the junior high school movement actually produced? The typical junior high school, as it is revealed in the 367 check-list replies from schools including junior high school grades, is a three-year school comprising grades seven, eight, and nine, and enrolling slightly under four hundred pupils. It has been in existence since 1926; before that year the school system of which it is now a part was organized on the eight- four basis. The junior high school is housed in a building erected specifically for its use. Senior high school grades are Q PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 218 sometimes housed in the same building, but the junior and senior high school grades are under separate administrations. In the opinion of the junior high school principal, the school equipment as a whole is reasonably adequate for junior high school purposes. The principal finds that the provisions for health and physical education are not entirely satisfactory, however, and usually certain other features of the plant have, in his judgment, not been well cared for. The typical junior high school admits to its seventh grade pupils promoted from the sixth grade of the elementary school, on the understanding that these pupils have satisfactorily com- pleted all their sixth-grade work. In exceptional cases the junior high school grants admission to over-age pupils who are recommended by elementary-school teachers as capable of profiting by junior high school work, even though such pupils may not have completed the required courses of the elementary grades. The junior high school makes no system- atic use either of standardized achievement tests or of intelli- gence tests as a basis for admission. Promotion in the junior high school is annual. The typical school employs some form of promotion by subject, but there is no agreement as to whether promotion by subject shall apply to all subjects, to “major” subjects only, to “minor” sub- jects only, or merely to such subjects as the schedule of classes may allow in individual cases. Promotion is ordinarily con- tingent upon a passing mark in the subject in which advance- ment is sought, together with the teacher’s judgment that the pupil who is to be promoted possesses the ability to do the work of the succeeding grade. Industry and application are occasionally taken into account in individual cases, and a pupil’s chronological age is sometimes a deciding factor. As in the case of admission, achievement tests and tests of intelli- gence are not employed. The typical school provides a schedule of classes under which each pupil works with six different teachers in the seventh grade, with six in the eighth grade, and with five in the ninth grade—the reverse of a gradual introduction of de- 214 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOUL PRINCIPALS partmentalization. Each junior high school teacher is respon- sible, usually, for only a single subject, though the average teacher must present that subject in all three grades. Classes in the typical school enroll ordinarily about thirty pupils. The smallest class enrolls fourteen, and the largest (a class in a non-academic subject) enrolls forty-nine. Seven class periods, each approximately forty-five minutes in length, make up the usual school day. Tests both of achievement and of intelligence are used for sectioning pupils in certain classes, and occasionally for the diagnosis of difficulties in learning. The school does not employ such tests for assigning pupils to specialized subjects or curricula, for prognosis or guidance, or for research. The typical school employs individual instruction techni- ques in some of its classes. In some of its classes, likewise, it pays special attention to so-called “socialized” methods of teaching. It has adopted some form of ability-grouping in a con- siderable number of classes. Provisions for individual coaching of slow pupils in certain subjects represent its only additional arrangement (so far as its general organization is concerned) for meeting individual needs. Bright pupils receive no special attention, except as they are provided for in ability-groups; no make-up or opportunity classes are offered for slow pupils or for pupils who have failed; and no credit is given for out- of-school projects or studies. The typical school’s program of studies is of either the constants-and-variables type or the multiple-curriculum type— more commonly the latter. Except for an elective in music, all seventh-grade subjects are required; the list of subject-fields includes English, social studies, mathematics, science, art, re- quired as well as elective work in music, home economics for the girls and industrial arts for the boys, and physical train- ing. Foreign language is added as an elective in the eighth grade, and art is offered in this grade for a half-year only; the other eighth-grade subjects are continuations of those offered in the seventh grade. In the ninth grade English, social studies, mathematics, science, and physical training are re- dil scl ter ter col is | scl PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 215 | quired; foreign language continues as an elective; art disap- pears from the program; music, home economics, and indus- trial arts are placed entirely on an elective basis. The ‘ist of separate subjects which are elective thus consists of one sub- ject in the seventh grade, two in the eighth grade, and four in the ninth grade. Agriculture is not offered, either as a required subject or as an elective; nor is business training, though when the program of studies is of the multiple-curricu- lum type a commercial curriculum appears among the basic curricula, as well as college-preparatory, general, industrial arts, and home economics curricula. The break between the seventh grade of the typical junior high school and the sixth grade of the elementary school is not a sharp one so far as concerns the number of different subjects which appear in each pupil’s program or the opportunity for election of subjects. Promotion by subject, however, is sud- denly introduced; and the difference in the extent to which teaching is departmentalized in the two grades is a notable one. The junior high school sometimes modifies the subject matter offered in its seventh-grade classes to meet the special needs of pupils admitted from the elementary school. Its gen- eral supervisors and certain of its subject supervisors give occasional attention to the integration of subject matter and methods of teaching between the sixth and seventh grades. Otherwise, the junior high school pays no direct attention to articulation with the elementary school in the matter of its formal curriculum. No conferences are held between the teach- ers of the two school units, nor is the curriculum in either unit a product of committee deliberation in which teachers of the other unit have had a share. Articulation with the senior high school is somewhat more directly cared for. The number of subjects in each pupil’s schedule, the opportunity for promotion by subject, and the ex- tent of departmentalization, are approximately the same in the tenth grade as in the ninth. The opportunity for election of courses is considerably greater in the tenth grade. Provision is frequently made by which pupils promoted to the senior high school may take certain junior high school subjects to meet 216 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS their special needs, though junior high school pupils cannot anticipate senior high school work. The articulation of subject matter and teaching methods is presumably advanced by the fact that certain teachers are engaged in teaching in both the junior high school and the senior high school, that senior high school teachers are appointed as members of committees on the subject matter of junior high school courses, that confer- ences are held between the teachers of the two school units, and that the junior and senior high school grades have in com- mon both general supervisors and subject supervisors who give at least occasional attention to the integration of subject matter and methods. It is to be noted, however, that articula- tion between the schools seems ordinarily to take place from the top down; senior high school teachers have a voice in the formulation of junior high school courses, but junior high school teachers have no corresponding influence upon senior high school work. The greater influence of the senior high school teachers is perhaps in part explained by the composition of the junior high school teaching staff. No junior high school teacher in the typical school is paid a salary as high as that of the best- paid senior high school teacher in the same system, and the lowest junior high school salary is lower than the salary of the most poorly paid senior high school teacher in the system. The difference between junior and senior high school standards is reflected within the junior high school itself, in that teach- ers appointed to ninth-grade positions must hold college de- grees, whereas seventh-and eighth-grade teachers need not be college graduates. Prior teaching experience is not insisted on in the case of junior high school appointments; but all teachers must have had at least fifteen semester-hours of professional training. Asa result of these requirements (some of them only recently put into effect), only one out of five of the junior high school teachers fails to hold a college degree, only one in seven- teen has had no professional training, and only one in seven- teen again has had no previous teaching experience. Five teachers out of six have previously taught in this same school. One-third of the teaching staff are men. Siv ors tiv lies gor sch Pu; req unc dev sigi not nor hou ricu ties are the tick the | poin sepa as-ci ior | tary that offer and s extra that | ticula ior hi teach schoo 7 includ PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 217 The typical school’s extra-curricular program is an exten- sive one. Practically all the pupils are enrolled in home-room organization ; a considerable number of them engage in club ac- tivities, extra-curricular athletics, and pupil-conducted assemb- lies; and at least some pupils are active in a general school government, in musical organizations, school publications, and school social affairs, and in school exhibitions and graduations. Pupil activity is encouraged by the fact that pupils are either required to take part in some form of activity or are given to understand that if they do not choose to participate they must devote their extra-curricular periods to study or to other as- signed tasks. Participation in extra-curricular activities does not, however, carry credit toward promotion or graduation, nor is it required for promotion or graduation. Three half- hour periods per week are regularly set aside for extra-cur- ricular activities, of which one is devoted to home-room activi- ties, one to clubs, and one to pupil assemblies. Other activities are conducted outside of school hours. Financial support for the extra-curricular program is obtained from dues, sales of tickets to entertainments, subscriptions to school publications, the sale of advertising, and the like. From the financial stand- point, both the extra-curricular program as a whole and the separate activities of which it is composed lead a largely catch- as-catch-can existence. Between the extra-curricular program of the typical jun- ior high school and extra-curricular activities in the elemen- tary school there is no apparent connection whatever, except that some of the activities offered in the junior high school are offered also in the elementary school. The gap between junior and senior high schools is, by contrast, not a marked one. The extra-curricular program of the tenth grade closely parrallels that of the ninth. But the only definite provisions made to ar- ticulate the extra-curricular programs of the junior and sen- ior high schools consists in an arrangement by which certain teachers act as sponsors of extra-curricular activities in both schools. The guidance program of the typical junior high school includes a slight attention—but only slight attention—to the 218 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS guidance of elementary-school pupils before they enter the jun- ior high school. Sixth-grade pupils have the work of the jun- ior high school explained to them by their elementary-school principal or teachers, and occasionally such pupils are given assistance in choosing specific subjects which will be open to them when they enter the junior high school. Elementary- school pupils do not visit the junior high school prior to their admission to the school, and no measures are taken to ac- quaint any considerable number of their parents with the na- ture of the junior high school program. Once enrolled in the junior high school, pupils are given group guidance by their home-room teachers both during the first two or three weeks of school and more or less continuously thereafter throughout the junior high school period. They re- reive no systematic individual guidance when they first enter the school; nor, indeed, can the majortiy of pupils count on re- ceiving individual guidance during the junior high school pe- riod. When such guidance is given, it comes, as in the case of group guidance, from the home-room teachers. Major emphasis in guidance is placed on the choice of specific subjects of study, but some attention is devoted also to participation in extra- curricular activities, to vocational choices, to ethical conduct and etiquette or “manners”, to health, to methods of study, and to use of leisure time. Though the parents of practically all the pupils are kept informed concerning their children’s special problems, the use of printed reports furnishes the chief means of communication with the home; parents are not reached in any large number of cases either through individual interviews or through group meetings. The guidance of junior high school pupils with respect to their future activities in the senior high school is less ex- tensive than their guidance in strictly junior high school mat- ters. Ninth-grade pupils have the work of the senior high school explained to them by their junior high school princi- pal or teachers; occasionally they visit the senior high school. Their introduction to senior high school problems consists al- most exclusively of assistance in the choice of the specific sub- jects or curricula which they are to pursue in the tenth grade. Sl a a a ae ee ee - 959 99 TH cok cot co = — © cr jun- jun- 1001 ven 1 to ry- .eir ac- na- yen the sly ter re- e- sis ly, ict nd he ial ns NS ct X- t- rh i- il. l- PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 219 Their parents receive printed or mimeographed materials de- scribing the senior high school requirements and program of studies. Except in these ways, the junior high school does not directly concern itself with its pupils’ senior high school plans. The provision of a comprehensive program of guidance is no doubt handicapped, in the typical junior high school, by the fact that the school has no special guidance staff; what- ever guidance is offered must be provided by the principal and the regular classroom teachers, with no outside assistance. The school keeps detailed cumulative records concerning individual pupils, on which appear (in certain cases, at least) scores from standardized tests of achievement and ability, reports of phy- sical examinations, and teachers’ ratings of pupils’ achieve- ment and general scholastic ability. Conferences are occasion- ally held with individual pupils and their parents; the confer- ences are supplemented with formal notices and reports and occasional personal letters to parents. Group guidance is of- fered through home-room periods, assembly talks by the prin- cipal or members of the faculty and by laymen, excursions to observe workers in specific vocations, and the school’s extra- curricular program. The school offers no systematic guidance classes or classes in occupations; it makes no direct use of ex- ploratory or try-out courses in its guidance program; it main- tains no contact with parents through visits to pupils’ homes; it has no arrangements for following up pupils who have left the school. The junior high school makes no provision whatever for the articulation of its guidance program with the program of the elementary school. A degree of continuity is achieved be- tween the programs of the junior and senior high schools in that certain of the teachers who take part in the junior high school program take part in the senior high school program as well, and occasional conferences are held between junior and senior high school teachers concerning the guidance of individual pupils in the senior high school grades. Otherwise the junior high school guidance program is formulated with- out direct reference to its integration with that of the senior high school. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Finally, the general supervision of the work of the typi- cal junior high school is carried on by the superintendent of schools, the junior high school principal, and certain special- subject supervisors. There is no assistant principal. The principal is the only supervisory officer who devotes his at- tention primarily to the junior high school; the superintend- ent of schools has obviously a diversified responsibility, and the special-subject supervisors are ordinarily as much con- cerned with either the elementary school or the senior high school as with the junior high school. All of the supervisory officers engage in classroom visitation and in conferences with individual teachers. Both general faculty meetings and de- partmental meetings play a part in the school’s supervisory program. Curriculum revision, the systematic examination of new textbooks, and the use of school “visiting days” are commonly emp!oyed as means for the improvement of teach- ing during the school year; summer study is emphasized as a further means of increasing efficiency. This, then, is the organization of the typical junior high school, in so far as the schools included in the study may be considered typical. Of course no single school actually exists which is exactly like the school that has just been described. The data gathered in the study offer abundant evidence that one of the most notable characteristics of present junior high schoo!s is the extreme variety of their internal organiza- tions—a variety which makes it virtually impossible for any existing school to be singled out as a fair example of what is to be found in junior high schools in general. The description here given is a description merely of the prevailing features of organization in the junior high schools of the study. Were a boy or girl to be entered at random in one of these schools, these are the arrangements that he would be most likely to find waiting for him. It is apparent that the arrangements are not all that might be desired. The junior high school affords opportunity for a surprising variety of extra-curricular activities, it is true; classes in curricular subjects are on the whole not un- duly large; slow pupils and over-age pupils are provided for in PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 221 a measure through certain schemes for the adjustment of teaching to their individual needs; the program of studies al- lows some degree of differentiation ; the teaching-staff has for the most part been professionally trained. But the curriculum as a whole still retains a predominantly academic cast; the ex- tra-curricular program seems to be maintained quite as much by administrative mandate as by its own inherent appeal to pupils’ interests; provisions for individual differences largely neglect the brighter pupils; the school makes small use of po- tentially valuable instruments of measurement and diagnosis ; arrangements for articulation with the elementary school be- low and the senior high school above are in almost no particu- lars highly developed, and in important phases of the school’s work are entirely lacking; and provision for the guidance of pupils—a major function of the junior high school—has gone little beyond a rudimentary stage. All this is true, it must be remembered, of the organization typical of a group of junior high schools which are presumably somewhat better organized than the average. In the light of that fact, more impressive evidence than this could hardly be found in support of the the- sis that no mere formal adoption of a junior high school pat- tern will produce reorganization worthy of the name. Perhaps it would be appropriate to take further stock at this point of whatever general implications there may be in this description of the typical junior high school. Facts as to the organization of the typical school are fully significant, however, only when they are interpreted in relation to corres- ponding facts as to the organization of so-called unreorganized schools. Hence it will be well to consider immediately the sec- ond of the major questions with which this discussion is con- cerned ; How does the organization of the typical junior high school compare with that of the corresponding grades in con- ventionally organized systems? The original plans for the study called for check-list re- ports from a group of eight-year elementary schools and four- year high schools which could fairly be compared with reports from the junior high schools. Returns were secured from more than fifty four-year high schools, but only thirty elementary 222 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS schools supplied descriptions of the organization of their sev- enth and eight grades, and of these thirty, thirteen were in systems which contained reorganized as well as conventional schools. So far as concerns the organization of the ninth grade, the check-list returns from the four-year high schools are prob- ably fairly comparable with the reports from the junior high schools represented in the study. Because of the nature of the elementary-school group, however, comparison of the conven- tional schools and the reorganized schools in minute detail will probably serve no very useful purpose. Even so, a statement of the major respects in which the two types of schools differ may be of some interest. The most striking difference between the junior high school and the conventional school as the two are here repre- sented, appears in connection with articulation. Meager though the provisions for articulation appear to be between the ninth .and tenth grades in the reorganized system, they are notably more extensive than the provisions for articulation between the eighth and ninth grades of the conventional system. Ar- rangements for integrating subject matter and teaching meth- ods in the conventional school consist only in the appointment of general supervisors, or special-subject supervisors, for the elementary school and high school in common. There is an abrupt break in the number of subjects included in pupils’ schedules, in the opportunity for promotion by subject, and frequently in the extent of departmentalization—matters in which the junior high school provides a gradual transition at this point. There is a similar break in the organization of the extra-curricular program in the conventional school. Pupils devote considerably more time to extra-curricular activities, and are given notably greater freedom in their choice of extra- curricular activities, in the ninth grade than in the eighth, and the only tie between lower-and upper-chool programs consists (as with the reorganized school) in the fact that certain teach- ers occasionally serve as sponsors in both schools. The integra- tion of the guidance program alone seems to be no more poorly provided for in the conventional school than in the reorgan- ized school; but the fact that the two schools are on a par in cle th gr en PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 223 this respect is not so much a matter of the merits of either type of organization as of the defects of both. Articulation is somewhat better provided for, however, between the sixth and seventh grades of the conventional school than between the ‘sixth and seventh grades in the reor- ganized system. The differences here consist chiefly in the fact that the elementary schools report frequent conferences on subject matter and teaching method between teachers in the two grades, in addition to the contacts maintained through sup- ervision, and that certain elementary-school teachers act as sponsors for extra-curricular activities in both grades. So far as articulation directly affects the pupils’ programs, the transi- tion in the curricular program at this point seems to be of the same general nature in both schools; the transition in the ex- tra-curricular program appears to involve a less sudden break in the conventional school than in the reorganized school. Ar- rangements for the articulation of the guidance programs are lacking in both schools. To balance the gain in articulation which the junior high school has apparently brought about at the top, against the loss in articulation which it seems to have produced at the bottom, is a task that must be undertaken with caution. In so far as the ‘data here presented give a reliable indication of present condi- tions, they would suggest a net gain rather than a loss. It must be granted that the junior high school has, in a sense, produced two gaps where only one existed before. It must be granted also that arrangements for articulation do not in themselves produce effective integration. Even with these reservations, however, there is some reason for believing that the arrange- ments which the typical junior high school provides promise on the whole a more effective integration of school work than that which exists under the conventional school organization. Aside from the matter of articulation, there are certain clearly evident differences between the junior high school and the conventional school in the general organization of the ninth grade. For reasons suggested earlier, the ninth-grade differ- ences deserve to be analyzed by themselves. 224 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The conventional ninth grade differs most notably from the reorganized ninth grade in its arrangements for a pro- gram of guidance. Guidance of conventional-school ninth- grade pupils is carried on not by home-room teachers, as in the junior high school, but by the high-school principal with the occasional assistance of class advisers. Guidance classes or classes in occupations are lacking, as they are in the junior high school also. In addition, no systematic provision is made in the conventional school for home-room periods, the prob- lems dealt with as subjects for guidance are fewer in number than in the junior high school, and cumulative records play no part in the guidance program. The absence of home-room periods in the conventional, ninth grade is encountered again in connection with the extra- curricular program. The activities-schedule for the conven- tional school, moreover, frequently includes no more than two periods each week. The activity-periods are twenty-five min- utes in length, as compared with approximately thirty minutes in the junior high school. The variety of extra-curricular ac- tivities open to the pupils is, however, practically as great as in the junior high school. One special handicap under which the conventional ninth grade must work is of interest; the school principal reports a building in which the shop equipment is seriously inadequate. In contrast with these shortcomings, ninth-grade organi- zation in the conventional school offers certain presumable ad- vantages over that of the junior high school. Ninth-grade c'asses in the conventional school tend to enroll approximately twenty-five pupils, as compared with thirty in the junior high school; and the largest conventional-school classes approxi- mate an enrollment of only thirty-four pupils, as compared with the junior high school’s forty-nine. The ninth-grade pro- gram of studies in the conventional school offers greater op- portunity for election of courses than does the program for the ninth grade of the junior high school, though the subject fields represented are identical for the two schools. Of the ninth- grade teaching staff in the conventional school, nine teachers NE SEE a a ee eT ee en er hae PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 225 in every ten hold college degrees, as compared with only four teachers out of five in the junior high school as a whole. Fi- nally, the conventional-school principal, unlike the principal of the junior high school, ordinarily reports no serious inade- quacy in his school’s equipment for health and physical educa- tion. Except in the matters of articulation and guidance, the balance between ninth-grade organization in the junior hig’ school on the one hand and the conventional school on the other would thus seem on the whole to be surprisingly even. The balance between the two types of seventh-and eighth- grade organization is also surprisingly even. Perhaps because of the nature of the elementary schools used for comparison, the differences in these grades affect major features of or- ganization in a less whclesale fashion than is the case with guidance, for example, in the ninth grade; the differences tend to be found in small items of practice, and frequently offset each other directly. The conventional school, for example, is perhaps at a dis- advantage in that it offers promotion in the seventh and eighth grades by grade only, instead of by subject; but it tends to atone for this disadvantage by allowing semi-annual promo- tions, and by using achievement tests (which the junior high school does not employ for this purpose) as a partial basis for promotions. The conventional school is presumably favored by the fact that it introduces departmentalization somewhat less abruptly than does the junior high school; its classes, how- ever, ordinarily enroll an average of approximately thirty-five pupils rather than thirty, and it provides a daily schedule of seven periods which are only forty minutes in length instead of forty-five minutes. The conventional school provides more fre- quently than does the junior high school for individual inter- views with parents in connection with its guidance program, and for visits to the homes of its pupils; but it compares un- favorably with the junior high school in that it does not make systematic use of home-room periods in its guidance program. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Certain further advantages and disadvantages are less easily checked off against each other. On the side of the ledger presumably to the credit of the conventional school are the facts that this school makes systematic use of achievement tests in admitting pupils to the seventh grade, and that it uses stan- dardized tests of both achievement and intelligence in its guid- ance program. On the unfavorable side of its ledger are the facts that the conventional school ordinarily provides no elec- tives whatever in its seventh-and eighth-grade program of studies; that it allows for no organized pupil-participation in school government; that it offers only two twenty-five minute activity-periods each week, as contrasted with three thirty- minute periods in the junior high school ; that only one-seventh of its teachers are men, and that fewer than one-fifth of the teachers hold college degrees; that its staff is not engaged in any systematic revision of the curriculum; and that its shop equipment is reported to be seriously inadequate. How are all these varying elements to be interpreted? He would be a rash critic indeed who would assert, on the basis of these data, that the typical junior high school organization is measurably superior to that of the conventional school. He would be no less rash a critic who would maintain that reor- ganization has brought about no changes in organization which are of value. The truth seems to be that reorganization has been accompanied by certain changes in emphasis which do not in themselves stand out altogether clearly, and which must be matched against different points of emphasis in supposedly un- reorganized schools. Perhaps the following conclusions may be reasonably jus- tified. They are advanced with full recognition of the limita- tions of the present study, and with allowance for the nature of the groups of schools which the study has used in its com- parisons. If they seem to be less clear-cut than might be de- sirable, it is because the data of the study have not led to wholly definite and exact generalizations. First: the typical junior high school offers only a limited number of the varied adjustments to pupils’ needs which have beer has of tl ture hens ity ¢ for to hi prot corr The defir the « mort cal j is ms grad tion wort reor} the c requ: had | venti schoc schor the d tion : the s unrec made ganiz is, to venti PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 227 been urged by active proponents of such schools. Emphasis has apparently been more directly placed on the development of the extra-curricular program than on any other major fea- ture of the school’s organization; the adoption of a compre- hensive guidance program, the use of reliable measures of abil- ity and achievement, and provision in the school organization for the special needs of the brighter pupils, seem in particular to have received less than their due share of attention. Second: the organization of the typical junior high school probably compares favorably, nevertheless, with that of the corresponding grades in representative unreorganized schools. There is reason to believe that reorganization has produced a definite development of arrangements for articulation between the elementary-and secondary-school units. In all probability, moreover, the guidance program in the ninth grade of the typi- cal junior high school, meager though that program now is, is more comprehensive than the guidance program in the ninth grade of the conventional four-year high school. The organiza- tion of the junior high school program of studies is likewise worthy of note; the introduction of elective offerings in the reorganized seventh and eighth grades contrasts strongly with the conventional elementary school’s adherence to a completely required program. Third: the movement for reorganization has presumably had a not inconsiderable effect upon the organization of con- ventional schools as well as upon that of the reorganized schools. Though the extent of its effect upon conventional schools cannot be exactly determined, it has probably lessened the differences between the supposedly “traditional” organiza- tion and the newer types of organization. In special aspects of the school’s work, it may possibly have stimulated individual unreorganized schools to greater changes than the changes made in numerous schools which have professedly been reor- ganized. To know what sort of school the typical reorganized school is, to know how the reorganized school compares with the con- ventional school—these are matters of interest to nearly ev- 228 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS eryone who is actively engaged in secondary education. They are likely to be matters of fundamental importance, however, only as they suggest the direction which reorganization should take from now on. The direction which reorganization ought to take cannot be determined in the light of present conditions alone. If any “best” form of organization is at length to be hit: upon, it will in all probability have to be defined in terms of educational goals which lie beyond present achievement, and of educational methods and machinery which are as yet unheard of.’ Nor can any study of organization itself, narrowly con- ceived, set a standard by which progress should be judged. School organization is obviously no more than a means to the school’s achievement of effective instruction; and organization can be soundly evaluated, in the last analysis, only through in- tensive study of the relation which it bears to both the goals, and the methods and materials, of effective instruction. The information which the present study supplies needs to be interpreted with due regard for all these matters. Thus interpreted, it must almost inevitably suggest certain funda- mental questions with respect to the junior high school move- ment as a whole. What are the obstacles which have prevented, thus far, a greater fulfillment of the generally accepted goals of reorganization? Does the fact that junior high schools in general have not introduced certain supposedly desirable changes imply a serious shortcoming in our educational sys- tem, or does it imply simply that changes desirable in theory have not in all cases been found desirable in practice? What can be learned from practice in the many schools which have done much more than the typical school to provide a com- prehensive and flexible framework for their instruction? And what can be learned, by contrast, from those other schools which have been unable to provide even as comprehensive an organization as the average? Data concerning typical practice can obviously afford no immediate answer to such questions as these. The most fruitful suggestions as to ways of improving school organiza- sch sch and pro pro ticv eau of - sch of | trai tior out. be © dev org adn den sira “hey ver, ould not any will nal nal on- ed. he on in- ls, PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING tion are likely to be found not in typical practice, but in the procedures adopted in outstanding schools. The present study has devoted its chief attention to such schools, and can prom- ise, as has been said, certain outcomes which indicate more or less definitely what types of organization are likely to be effective and what types are not. Meanwhile, data on typi- cal practice may, perhaps, make possible a clearer and more direct understanding of the problems of reorganization which lie ahead. IS THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL ORGANIZATION SU- PERIOR TO THE CONVENTIONAL ORGANIZATION? A REPORT ON NATION-WIDE PRACTICES (Discussion) H. A. GLASS Superintendent Schools, Bonham, Texas Dr. Spaulding’s report indicates that typical junior high school organization is probably superior to the conventional school organization in the following respects: (1) an extensive and effective extra-curriculum program, (2) a more definite program for guidance, (3) considerable differentiation in the program of studies, (4) promotion by subject, (5) better ar- ticulation with lower and higher schools, (6) buildings and equipment that are more adequate for the education of pupils of this age. The report also discloses that the conventional school is stronger than the junior high school in the aspects of organization listed below: (1) teachers are more highly trained academically, (2) classes are smaller, (3) articula- tion with the elementary school is more satisfactorily worked out. Disregarding all other considerations, among which must be that of the probable influence which junior high school development has had in producing similar changes within the organization of the conventional school, it seems that one must admit a superior type for the junior high school or else con- demn the foregoing aspects of its strength as being unde- sirable. 229 Se a ca oe DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS. Progressive development of this type of school demands leadership with a vision as to its ultimate possibilities; a keen appreciation on the part of principals and teachers with re- gard to the accepted functions of the school; a definite and continuous program for the education of teachers concerning the aims, purposes and functions of junior high schools; and a plan for the retention of teachers in a given situation until they have thoroughly mastered the underlying principles and fundamental techniques applicable to junior high school teach- ing. The past discloses for junior high school organization an unparalleled development. The time has been short, the obstacles many, and yet development of this particular type of school has been the marvel of the educational world. The present finds a school that is probably more adequate in its provision of opportunity for effective education than dc- any other particular segment of our public educational or- ganization. Not only does it more nearly approach the stan- dards set for it than does any other type of school found in our present-day educational set-up, but it has, without any serious doubt, been influential in bringing about many of those desirable changes that have been worked into the fabric of organization in other schools. The future of the junior high school seems bright. It is a young institution, unhampered by tradition, and manned by a personnel that in many respects out-ranks teachers in the older types of schools in zeal for their work, in appreciation of the problems of adolescent childhood, and in willingness to try out new methods and techniques. Out of the slowly evolving junior high school organization will in all probability come the solution of many of our most perplexing educational problems. Upon this point the future alone will speak. Let us hope that this New School will direct us to better days for education. ‘ ~— i=) tt eet es UN PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING GROUP II Senior High School Section The Senior High-School Section met in the Theatre of Wardman Park Hotel at 10:25 A. M., Wednesday, February 24, 1932. Mr. L. N. Morrisett, Principal of Classen High School, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, was in charge of this group. Dr. Ben D. Wood, Professor of Collegiate Research, Columbia University presented his material without manu- script. GROUP III Junion College Section The Junior-College section met in the Florentine Room of Wardman Park at 10:30 A. M., Wednesday, February 24, 1932. Mr. Louis E. Plummer, Principal of Union High School and Junior College, Fullerton, California, was in charge of the group. Dr. George F. Zook, President of the University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, read his paper entitled, Relative Merits of the 6-4-4 Plan of Organization. RELATIVE MERITS OF THE 6-4-4 ORGANIZA- TION GEORGE F’. ZooK President of Akron University, Akron, Ohio. When I accepted a place on this program, I did not fully realize that I might be made the party of the first part to a lively debate as to the relative merits of two forms of educa- tional organization. As soon as the true situation began to dawn upon me ‘horoughly I think I lost a little interest in the 232 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS whole matter; first, because of a sudden realization of my in- competency to say anything authoritative on the subject; and, secondly, because of a suspicion which increases with the years, that we are always inclined to magnify too much the importance of educational machinery. One can not possibly imagine a time in the past or in the future when nation-wide uniformity as to educational units has been or will be desirable. Economic and population condi- tions in different regions of the country, within each state, even within a county of a state, are so diverse as to make one educational set-up practicable in one place and entirely im- practicable a few miles away. Furthermore, the growing tre- mendous emphasis upon the study of students as individuals leads us all to realize that we are dealing with young people who are developing at different paces and to whom all units of educational organization are arbitrary. I am therefore personally inclined to feel that there should be a considerable variety in educational units suited to various conditions and circumstances. Not only would I admit imme- diately that there is a place for 6-3-3-2 organization as well as for 6-4-4 but I would go further and encourage any other com- bination which for any reason may chance to gain favor. Each of them has its strong points. We are now in the throes of a vigorous discussion concerning educational reorganization which in itself is a very hopeful sign. It is only through ex- perimentation that we shall gain anything in the way of uni- form practice by common consent. In this discussion I shall not attempt anything in the way of a complete analysis of the situation. I intend merely to re- view a limited number of the more important factors which seem to me to argue for a junior college of greater length than two years—a situation which requires at least the reorganiza- tion of the senior high school in combination with the junior college. Whether this will ultimately result in 6-4-4 I am not quite certain. I have always believed that through a complete reorganization of the secondary grades, including the junior college, we can accomplish about the same objectives in twelve PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 233 or thirteen years that are now obtained in fourteen. The expe- rience of Kansas City, Mo. seems to point in this direction. In any case the unit including the junior college will, I believe, be longer than two years. I do not need to tell you that our present educational units are traditional. Having once served in the capacity of teacher of history I have great respect for tradition. I believe that it © generally accumulated experience and wisdom. I believe that the old educational units including eight and nine grade ele- mentary schools served well an older form of American society. I know also that American society is constantly undergoing tremendous changes the significance of which we at the mo- ment probably do not realize. Usually in a belated way we edu- cators attempt to adjust our educational system to the changed conditions. This situation accounts for the large amount of discussion which has been going on in this country for several decades as to what is the field of secondary education. First we spent a number of years convincing ourselves that the field of secon- dary education properly included the seventh and eighth grades. The junior high school was born and after a large amount of promotion was established in a considerable propor- - tion of our urban communities. Unfortunately those who were interested in secondary ed- ucation did not take an equal interest in the possibility of ex- tending the secondary unit upward. The result is that in gen- eral they hurried to get a realignment of educational units in secondary. education including the seventh and eighth grades without first giving adequate consideration to the upper level of secondary education. Even to-day they are neglecting the task sadly, partly perhaps because having been so vociferous in announcing the virtues of 6-3-3 they naturally hesitate to advocate so speedily a reconsideration of the whole program, and partly because not having had junior college education within their control and having criticized the colleges so un- mercifully for mismanaging the affair they hesitate at last to assert that they are really more capable of managing this unit 234 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS of education than those who are identified with the field of higher education. As a result, a large part of all of the discus- sion relative to junior colleges has proceeded from those who are identified with higher institutions and who, therefore, have no direct responsibility for the conduct of the present high school program. Until junior-college education can become at least equally the concern and responsibility of secondary school administrators as well as of professors of education and col- lege presidents, the consideration of it is bound to be a bit aca- demic and action problematical. I am no worshiper of the figure four. I do not know any- thing about the possible virtues of the first “four” in 6-4-4 and not much concerning the second one. I think also that as the junior college movement grows on the one hand and master’s degree work on the other, the present four-year college will tend to become more and more a two-year, three-year and, five- year institution as well as a four-year college. This seems to me to be a situation devoutly to be hoped for. Neither do I think that there are no virtues in 6-3-3-2. Particularly do I feel that there are many smaller communities which can not support public education beyond the present high school. From these communities eventually will come a rather large proportion of the students who are enrolled in the junior colleges. Others who are resident in the community where a junior college is found will follow the traditional course of going away from home to college upon the completion of high-school work. Thus whether the junior college unit is a two-year unit or a longer one, there is bound to be considerable shifting in student personnel from the earlier to the later grades. This means that any educational unit which attempts thorough integration of work through a longer unit will en- counter difficulties of this kind. Furthermore, it must be admitted that especially where a two-year unit is adequately supported in either general or semi- professional education, it has been able to demonstrate a rather remarkable degree of strength and effectiveness. It will sur- vive because it is both useful and traditional. PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 235 The fundamental difficulty with the junior college at the present time is that it is being claimed by the four-year college on the one hand and by secondary education on the other. The colleges refuse, perhaps wisely for the present, to give it up altogether. The secondary schools have not much precedent and not as much interest as they should have in making it an integral part of the secondary-school system. Consequently we let it grow up as a lusty orphan which is sought after by two families. One insists that it belongs to the family of higher education ; the other to secondary education. Personally, I sus- pect that, under certain conditions, it will feel at home in both families. Also in some instances it may feel that it can take care of itself rather well without family connections. In other words, for the problem which has been raised in this discus- sion, I can not imagine—as I have already said—that any uni- form solution is either possible or desirable. There are, however, certain considerations which I believe merit attention in the direction of closer integration of junior- college work with the field of education, either above or below it. I believe that where the enrolment is large enough this can be done in the regular four-year undergraduate college be- cause it has been and is being done. The present four-year col- lege could not possibly have attained its present strength and effectiveness without having inherent virtues, some of which will perhaps be lost in any reorganization. I believe, therefore, that wherever feasible it is desirable to have the junior col- lege closely integrated with the four-year college on the one hand or with the secondary-school system on the other. Most of the proponents of junior colleges believe that the field of their interest may properly be included in secondary education. I believe that to be true. What then is secondary education? To me it is that period of education which is de- voted to a general broadening of one’s knowledge and concep- tions of the physical and social world, which prepares young people with the tools of knowledge necessary for advanced study and which offers a completion education to those who are interested in and fitted for the vocations and semi-professions. It is well known that the first two of these objectives comprise 236 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS the main work of the first two years of college as well as the work of the high school. So far as content is concerned, there is no great difference between high-school chemistry, foreign language, rhetoric, biology, elementary mathematics, and his- tory, and the corresponding courses in college. Not only do they duplicate one another but in the transfer of students from high school to college there is an inevitable overlapping of sub- ject matter which is impressive in amount and which, to say the least, is not wholly defensible. I believe that the practical identity or similarity of subject matter in the high school and junior college and the great likelihood of wasteful overlapping where a student passes from one independent educational jur- isdiction to another amply justify the belief that a close inte- gration of junior-college work with the high-school program may ultimately prove to be more effective than either the inde- pendent junior college or the first two years of the four-year college. Let us turn to the student himself for a moment for guid- ance in this matter. I know very little relative to the psycho- logical argument involved in the situation. I think most of us are convinced, however, that the individual student goes through a rather gradual development. Owing to differences in ages of students and to the different times at which these changes take place in individuals, it is obviously difficult to se- lect any particular period when there should be a sharp break in educational units. Rather, this situation seems clearly to in- dicate that the student should be subjected to the smallest pos- sible number of such experiences. This situation is one of the chief reasons why I have always felt that a short unit as, for example, two years, is usually neither desirable at the junior college or any other educational level. The psychological argu- ment, therefore, seems to me to point clearly to the smallest number of units, hence somewhat long in duration, which are consistent with the major psychological changes in individuals. Let us take the student’s choice of a future occupation as a problem. Sometime prior to his junior year in college he must make up his mind whether he will branch off into some form of vocational education, whether he will perhaps remain —e ~~ 85 a ee ee ee ee ea ee a oe ee ee 237 PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING a little longer and prepare himself for one of the growing number of semi-professions, whether he will follow engineer- ing, commerce, or veterinary science, whether he will prepare himself for the professions of law, medicine, or dentistry or whether as a liberal arts student he will major in certain fields of work with some possibility later of teaching these subjects in high school. In other words, the secondary school including the junior college is the great period of occupational selection for a student. In this process of selection he needs constant guidance and help. He needs to be studied as an individual over a series of years for trends and tendencies in his interests until with this help he has made an occupational adjustment for himself. To the student the matter is a continuous problem un- til it is settled. I believe that where an educational organiza- tion is set up to handle this kind of thing with unified records and personnel as, for example, at Pasadena and the La Salle- Peru-Oglesby Junior College and high school, it can be handled more effectively than in two separate units. As against this fine situation, witness ‘the difficulties which the colleges every- where experience in securing more than the bare official record relative to entering students. I realize that as yet we have not had a great many demonstrations of the possibilities of this close integration of work between the high school and the jun- ior college but I have personally been considerably impressed by what I have seen along this line at John Tarleton Junior College in Texas, Kansas City, Missouri, and Stephens College in Missouri and by what I have read and heard about the 6-4-4 plan in Pasadena, California, and Hillsboro, Texas, and the curriculum study now going forward in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Let us look at some of the practical situations arising out of the lack of integration. In our attempts to elevate and pre- serve the standards of college work we have, in the North Cen- tral Association, for example, insisted that college and high- school students be placed in separate classes whereas as soon as they are admitted to college they have considerable latitude to roam either below or above their class levels. We tell a jun- ior college and high school that the two units must be separate- ly organized and administered so that if a high school and 238 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS junior college such as Tulsa, Oklahoma wishes to unify its ad- ministration and curricula it must ask the special consent of the Association. I remember also officially informing the high school and junior college at Little Rock, Arkansas that they must separate the faculty of the junior college from the high school, no matter how desirable it might seem to be to have the college teachers of history devote themselves exclusively to their subject by teaching in the high school. Better teach a course in college physics instead. We have never felt quite like insisting on entirely separate buildings for junior-college and high-school subjects respectively but we have suggested that it was desirable. At least a wing of the building or certain floors should be set off for the use of recitations in the junior college. Separate libraries and separate laboratories are not considered absolute necessities but they are highly desirable. If the gym- nasium or the auditorium is available there is no objection to their being used by the junior college. What I wish you to notice in this whole procedure is that those who are dealing with these situations naturally tend to unify the administration, integrate the courses, mix the stu- dents, use the same buildings, and equipment and employ the same faculty in the high school and junior college. In the name of good standards for the four-year college we have arbitrarily ordered and enforced this separatism until it now has the sacredness of tradition behind it, strongly supplemented by the fact that in large part the two fields of work are controlled by two independent educational jurisdictions who have never in the past proved and possibly never in the future will be able to prove that they can co-operate with one another effectively and economically. I believe that if the accrediting agencies, the state departments of education, the state universities, and all of those who have conscientiously labored to elevate college standards through the divorce of high school and junior college will take the heavy hand of authority off this situation and seek quality of performance in other ways, the high school and junior college will naturally seek closer relations with one another. Ultimately I believe there will be a marriage, in some instances a remarriage, of two fields of effort that have a nat- * = et lle htlUhlCUrf ~~ Oo 0 co t of igh hey igh the to ha ike ind t it ors ge. red m- at to u- he ne ly 1e le y — OS —_ we we We ty PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 239 ural affinity for one another and which, I believe, would live peacefully and happily under the same roof. Next I am impressed with the implications of financial economy in some such plan as the 6-4-4. In these days we must needs take all of these possibilities very seriously. Ex- perience and reason both tell us, I beleve, that in a two-year junior college we are more likely to have a smaller total en- rollment than when the unit includes a longer program. Small units in education we know to be expensive. The little one- roomed school house is going because it is both ineffective and expensive. Professor S. P. Nanninga, after studying the “Costs and Offerings of California High Schools in Relation to Size” states that “the curve representing the distribution of cost per pupil for total current expenses .... and size of high school, reveals that there is a steady decrease in cost up to a school of approximately 500 in enrolment.” Dr. Phil- lips showed us some years ago that the smaller teacher train- ing institutions were more expensive and I feel sure less ef- fective than the larger ones. Professor Floyd W. Reeves, a few years ago, produced data for the North Central Associa- tion which seemed to show clearly that a small college of 300 students should cost approximately 50 per cent. more per stu- dent than one of 750 students or more. I need not multiply illustrations because I believe that the general point is evi- dent and commonly accepted. In this conection may I remind you that of the 455 junior colleges listed by Dr. D. S. Campbell in his latest directory of the junior colleges 423 or 93 per cent. have an enrolment of less than 500. As long as junior colleges continue to be oper- ated as two-year institutions, it seems to me that if they are widely extended a large proportion of them will continue to be small and therefore ineffective or expensive. It follows, therefore, that if they are large enough to be economically organized they must be merged into an educational unit of longer duration than two years. I believe that as time goes on and people insist on the utmost economy in expenditures for education, as even now they are doing, this situation will have greater and greater weight. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Considerable light on this subject is shed by the study of Mr. Lee Martin Chamverlain recently published by the Univer- sity of Kentucky. Mr. Chamberlain made a study of thirty public junior colleges of the Middle West with special reference to the use of buildings and equipment as related to associated administrative problems in junior colleges. In this study Mr. Chamberlain found the following comparisons in the use of rooms. Rooms used jointly by high Rooms reserved for junior school and junior college college use only Academic classes................ 55.4% 48.4% Chemistry Lab................... 40.0% 17.5% Physics Lab.......................-- 38.8 % 10.0% Biology Lab . 47.5% 42.5% Science Lecture.................. 39.4% 27.5% Drawing Rooms.................. 60.0% 37.5% Mr. Chamberlain naturally concludes'that “special res- ervation of rooms for junior college use commonly results in unecessary and expensive duplication of facilities.” The whole situation is complicated by the difference in length of class periods commonly found in high schools and junior colleges respectively. The class period in high school is ordinarily 40 minutes in length; in college, from 50-55 min- utes in length. So far as I know, there is little scientific knowledge to support either of these two class lengths. At any rate, an experiment now proceeding at the Iowa State Teachers College calls into question the standard used by the colleges and universities. But unless one or the other of the two units yields on its traditional practise there is prac- tically no opportunity even to consider the joint use of room space and equipment. As a result, the high school and the junior college, ignoring the factor of possible economy in pub- lic expenditures, urge that they respectively be guaranteed their own individual empires in which they can each be lord and master of all they survey. The other alternative is what amounts to subordination of the interests of one, usually the junior college, to the other. Mr. Chamberlain describes an extreme case as follows: “At the stre we! tair the of 1 ope the ren util be - ficu eff pos lege tior but wol Do see uni use nor thi: ior to the arc clo: equ col. of | the stit r of 7er- rty nce ted Mr. nior 3. — a — eo wae a. PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 241 the time of the survey, the dean of the junior college had, by strenuous efforts, succeeded in fitting in his schedule fairly we!l with the rather inflexible high-school program and had ob- tained for himself and his faculty rather limited facilities in the way of offices and consultation rooms. Following the lead of the principal, the director of athletics had refused to co- operate with the dean of the college, and, as a consequence, the athletic and physical education program of the college was rendered almost wholly ineffective. A splendid gymnasium, a swimming pool, and an elaborate athletic field were being utilized by the college at only such odd times as they might be free from high-school use. To make the matter more dif- ficult, the director of athletics seemed to be making a studied effort to insure that the ‘open’ periods were as limited as possible. Under such conditions the work of the junior col- lege was seriously handicapped, and there was constant fric- tion in the administration of the two programs.” It may be an evidence of a college president’s autocracy but somehow I wonder, other things being equal, whether you wouldn’t like to join with me in shaking up that situation! Doubtless the case is a bit extreme but it is symptomatic. I see no real solution for these difficulties except a thoroughly unified administration, having at its disposal the oportunity to use room space, laboratories and equipment in the most eco- nomical and effective manner possible. The only exception to this statement is a situation where both high school and jun- ior college are sufficiently large so that such economies tend to disappear. Under these circumstances it seems to me that in spite of the edicts of accrediting agencies and other arbitrary stand- ards to the contrary, there is a persistent tendency toward closer integration of the administration, use of rooms and equipment, faculty and students of the high school and junior college. Proof of this tendency is supplied by the recent study of Grayson N. Kefauver and Catherine Bullard of practices in 104 public and private junior colleges. “In forty per cent. of the situations the same person is at the head of both in- stitutions.” In 19 per cent. of the other cases the principal 242 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS of the high school is responsible to the head of the junior college or vice versa; total 59 per cent. “In 72.7 per cent. of the junior colleges some of the junior college teachers also teach classes in the high school.” In 45 per cent. of the cases, junior college students are permitted to enroll in high school classes, usually in order to make up high school deficiencies. In 11.5 per cent. of the cases, the junior college is on the same site with a high school but in separate buildings; in the same building but in a separate section, 28.8 per cent; in the same building but with junior-college headquarters, 18.3 per cent; in the same building with no separation, 20.2 per cent; total with some conection in the use of buildings, equip- ment and grounds, 78.8 per cent.* Finally may I allude to the reactions of a considerable number of junior-college administrators with whom I have come in contact. They have told me, particularly those con- nected with private junior colleges, that the two-year period is too short a period for them to secure satisfactory results. They do not have the students long enough to do so. Students come and go almost before one is aware of it. Furthermore, the large turnover in students at the end of each year leaves these institutions with considerable un- certainty as to whether their enrolment will contniue to be substantially the same or whether it will be much smaller or larger. The very life of the institution seems in constant jeo- pardy because of such great changes or possibility of change in its enrolment. For these reasons I have found an ardent desire among junior-college executives to extend themselves in one direction or the other. The privately controlled junior college often looks back with regret to the palmy days before accredit- ing agencies eliminated the preparatory departments especial- ly the latter years. Others, both public and private, aspire *Teachers College Record, December, 1931, pp. 251-261. ior che 1. ” re 243 PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING to raising themselves to the status of a regular four-year col- lege where occasionally other circumstances do not justify the action. In other words, I think there is plenty of evidence to show that a very large proportion of those interested in the junior college are convinced from personal experience that the two-year unit is not the best arrangement either from the point of view of economy, permanence, or educational soundness. Those of you who have never attempted it please put yourselves in imagination in their places and answer the question for yourselves as to whether you would like to ex- change your situation for an independent two-year unit. I do not by any means wish to contend that this opinion so frequently found among junior college people is either un- animous or conclusive but I do think that it is significant and impressive and that it amply justifies the growing number of attempts which are being made in the direction of estab- lishing a junior college unit of longer duration than two years. By way of summary may I say that there seems to me to be a growing conviction among educators both secondary and higher that the subject matter of the junior college curriculum is of the same general character as one finds in the high- school curriculum; and that the arbitrary separation of high school from junior college leads inevitably to a considerable amount of unnecessary and wasteful duplication which could be avoided by a closer integration of the two programs of work. I believe further that the arbitrary separation of jun- ior-college students from the upper level of high-school stu- dents is not defensible from a psychological point of view and that it makes far more difficult than needs be the program of vocational guidance which ought to be one of the great ac- complishments of secondary education. I believe that the di- vorce of high school and junior college leads to uneconomical use of classrooms, laboratories, and equipment; unco-opera- tive, or even unharmonious administration between the two units; uneconomical use of faculty; all leading, except per- haps in the largest junior colleges, to greater expense than the results probably justify. Finally, it seems to me that there is what amounts to an ardent desire on the part of most of DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 244 those interested, and participating in the junior college move- ment, to get away from these conditions and to merge the ad- ministration, the students, and faculty of these two units, in- tegrate the curricula, and develop the greatest economy in ef- fort and money consistent with high standards of work. Per- sonally I am convinced that although progress has so far been somewhat slow, these objectives can be attained through the establishment of not more than three administrative ‘units in education up to and including the junior college. The second paper of this section was on the Relative Merits of the 6-3-3-2 Plan of Organization. Dr. Walter C. Eells, Professor of Stanford University, read his paper. RELATIVE MERITS OF THE SIX-THREE-THREE-TWO PLAN OF ORGANIZATION WALTER CROSBY EELLS Stanford University Any one who reviews, even superficially, the literature dealing with the six-four-four plan of organization cannot but be impressed with the unusually large number of articles that have been written and speeches that have been made in favor of this proposed form of educational reorganization. He will be equally impressed with the scarcity of the literature deal- ing with the prevailing type of junior college organization, which is either of the six-three-three-two or six-four-two type, or some similar plan in which the junior college unit is two years in length. Yet there is a distinct need for a full and fair presentation of the advantages as well as the disadvan- tages of both systems. In this discussion, I shall not try to con- sider the whole field of elementary and secondary education, as suggested by the full phrasing of the topic, but shall con- fine myself in this junior-college section of this association to the junior-college aspects of the subject. There is danger that the busy, practical school adminis- trator, without time to examine critically the question in all of its basic aspects, hearing so much of the advantages of the PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 245 progressive six-four-four plan, will come to believe, on ac- count of the mere frequent repetition of the same statements, that there is only one side to the question and that he is dis- tinctly unprogressive if he does not work toward it as rapidly as possible. There is no difficulty in finding numerous pre- sentations of the advantages claimed for the four-year junior college. Outstanding ones have been made by Harbeson and Sex- son, of Pasadena, by Wood of Stephens, by Koos of Chicago, by Eby of Texas only last week at Richmond, by Commissioner Cooper in a recent article in the School Review, and by Presi- dent Zook of Akron on previous occasions as well as to-day. Search as one may, however, he will not find a single sys- tematic presentation of the other side of the question prior to the paper which I presented at the meeting of the junior- college association at Berkeley a year ago. It seemed to me then, and still seems that such a systematic presentation should be made so that the thoughtful student of junior college prob- lems as well as the busy administrator may have the advan- tages and disadvantages of both systems clearly set forth and then have the oportunity to weigh the arguments, both pro and con, and draw his own conclusions. The statement which I made a year ago in this address was considerably amplified in three chapters of my book The Junior College which apeared last summer. In the brief time alloted to me this morning, it would be useless for me to at- tempt to reproduce the hundred and more pages which I de- voted to a discussion of this topic, nor is it called for in the phrasing of the topic upon which I have been asked to speak— “The Advantages of the Six-Three-Three-Two Type of Or- ganization.” In my book one chapter was devoted to tracing the development of the six-four-four plan and to a statement of the eleven chief reasons which had been urged in its favor by its most substantial advocates. The next chapter was de- voted to answers to those eleven reasons. There is nothing that Dr. Zook has said this morning, I think, which cannot be classified under those same eleven headings. I wish I had time to answer them here, but it is not 246 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS possible. I can only refer you to my answers in the chapter in my book which deals with them. In the time which has passed since I wrote my discussion of those eleven outstand- ing arguments I have seen no reason to change the statements and arguments there presented in rebuttal, while some addi- tional developments have strengthened my conviction of the es- sential soundness of them. In that chapter I also pointed out a half dozen disadvantages of the six-four-four plan, some rather temporary, incidental to transformation to a new sys- tem, but of vital importance to the administrator ; others more fundamental and permanent. These also I must pass by with only this incidental reference. ADVANTAGES OF THE TWO-YEAR TYPE Another chapter states eight positive advantages of the two-year type of junior college and considers evidence gained from actual experience with the four-year unit as compared with the two-year one. Allow me to quote, in somewhat con- densed and modified form, from certain portions of this chap- ter, in presenting to you as briefly as possible what seem to me to be outstanding advantages in the two-year junior college which merit your thoughtful consideration. 1. The ease of adjustment to existing administrative practice. If the six-four-four plan could be adopted in toto in all parts of the country by administrative decree there would be no difficulty of adjustment to existing administrative types. This would be possible in a strongly centralized government with education under the control of a single cabinet officer, as in France for example, but it is impossible in a nation such as the United States, so strongly committed throughout its whole existence to local independence, ‘initiative, and self- determination in educational matters. In the words of a former chief executive, “It is a condition and not a theory which faces us.” The condition is that there is not any one system of secondary-school organization in the United States, but no less than 43 such systems or variations of systems ac- cording to the classification of the Federal Office of Educa- tion. [— —_—ree LY PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 247 The two-year type of junior college, however, articulates with all but three of the main types, the six-four-four with scarcely any of them. There are some eighteen thousand units of other types with any of which the two-year junior college articulates without bisection and disruption of the secondary-school unit below it, as is necessitated by the six- four plan. In spite of all that has been said and done toward reorganization on the junior high-school basis in this century, the four-year high ‘school is still the prevailing type, there be- ing over twelve thousand such institutions in the country. Are students in all these institutions to be denied the oportunity of the junior college, unless and until such time as the four- year high schools which they are attending are willing to cut themselves in two squarely in the middle in order to achieve the six-four-four type of organization? With transfer of students, mobility of population, neces- sity for articulation with the high-school units as actually found—it is quite evident as a practical matter that the two- year institution is the only one that will fit the great variety of educational conditions actually existing in the country. The flexibility of the two-year institution, its possibility of convenient adjustment: to all prevailing types of secondary- school organization with a minimum of administrative fric- tion and realignment, forms one of the strongest practical ar- guments in favor of the two-year institution. 2. Advantages of new contacts. The advantages of new contacts on the part of the student are worth considering. There is a-general feeling in Europe that students gain con- siderably by attending a variety of institutions. In America there has been more of a tendency for a student to remain in the same institution for a long period of time. There are some advantages in this, from the standpoint of friendships, interests, and loyalties. On the other hand there is a tendency toward restricted viewpoints and continuation in a rut. There is value in change, even in the same city, as well as in con- tinuity. There has been a marked increase in student migration and flexibility in the United States in the last few years. 248 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS One of the smaller California junior colleges (Santa Monica) last year enrolled students whose high-school work had been taken in no less than 58 high schools in 20 different states. It also had transfer students from 28 different institutions of higher education. In one of the larger California junior col- leges (Sacramento) this year the student enrollment repre- sented 235 different high schools, 87 of them from outside of California. The student undoubtedly gains much in educational out- look and breadth of vision, from contact with a variety of in- structors and with a different student body. The wealth of new and stimulating contacts in another institution are very valu- able experience for the average student. To have three such experiences, instead of one or two in the entire range of his “secondary educational” experience is likely to be highly profit- able and stimulating. 3. Development of leadership. Development of leader- ship is an exceedingly important function of college educa- tion. It is a truism that the college men and women of to-day are to be the country’s leaders of to-morrow. One of the most important agencies for development of leadership is that of student activities. It is quite obvious, however, that mere membership in student clubs, societies, teams, or other organ- izations does not in itself develop leadership to any marked extent. Vicarious training for leadership is not likely to be highly successful. It is the holding of responsible offices that is most potent. One learns to do by doing. It is the president, the manager, the captain, the committee chairman who develops real leader- ship in his group. It is perfectly natural and inevitable in the four-year institution that the majority of such positions should go to the upper classmen. The high-school graduate must wait three or four years before he has an oportunity for col- legiate leadership. With the high school and junior college as separate units, however, the same student has two oportuni- ties for such training in leadership. In the two-year junior college he waits but one year, instead of three, for election to es l- it f l= - _ a A oe ee ee ie 249 PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING the most responsible offices in student organizations. He may not hold as prominent an office, but the potentialities of it for training in leadership do not depend upon the size of the office but on the way in which the individual fills it when given the oportunity and responsibility. Opportunity comes far more quickly in the two-year institution. 4. Transitional advantages. Much was written and said in the earlier years of the century regarding the “classic gap” between the elementary school and the high school. The trans- ition was too sudden and abrupt from one institution to the ° other. Asa result the junior high school was developed, which, among other valuable contributions, acted as a transitional institution and has succeeded very largely in closing the dis- astrous gap formerly so noticeable. Similarly there has been an equally bad gap, in many cases, between high school and university. The tragic fresh- man portality in many universities has been pointed out by many writers, amounting in some cases to fifty per cent or more. The junior college, like the junior high school, has operated to close this unfortunate gap and make the transi- tion easier from high-school limitations to university independ- ence. The development of these two institutions has broken up what was formerly two hazardous and often disastrous steps of unnecessary difficulty, into four much shorter and easier ones. The steps of the educational stairway have been shortened and the upward progress of the student made “safer and saner.” Experience has shown that the jumps from the grade school to the four-year high school and again from the four- year high school to the four-year college were too long for safety and happiness in many cases. Have we any reason to suppose that transitions from one unit to the other of the six- four-four plan will not be equally difficult and unhappy? The length of the units has not been changed; they have merely been shifted two years. Is it not likely also that transition from the upper four-year unit to upper division university freedom may still be fraught with difficulty and peril? 250 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The tendency of a quarter-century of American edu- cation has been toward breaking up educational progress into a large number of easier steps with shorter transitions. This transitional function, at the college level, is actually accom- plished in a multiplicity of ways. It is found in increased free- dom and responsibility, in modification of classroom methods and requirements, in greater independence in the use of the library, in freedom from study hall requirements, ‘and other necessary high-school restrictions, and in more mature dis- ciplinary methods. The two-year junior college is exactly in line with this apparently desirable educational tendency and is a part of it. The six-four-four plan is not. 5. Vocational preparation. A full university course is increasingly a prerequisite for entrance to most of the so- called professions. High-school preparation is sufficient for most of the so-called trades. Between these two levels is a great group of occupations which are coming to be known as semi-professions, for which both experience and expert opin- ion are coming to agree that two years of college training is both necessary and sufficient. These are found in the field of engineering, of commerce, of agriculture, of home making, of nursing, of librarianship, of newspaper work, and in many other fields. One study of 28 such semi-professions showed 200,000 young peonle entering them annually in the United States, but in most cases with no specific junior-college train- ing for them. The junior college has had a striking growth in the past few years—the attendance increasing from 50,000 to 100,000 in only four years. The danger in this phenomenal increase, which is likely to continue for some time, is not that too many of our young people will go to college, but that too many of them will want to go from the junior college on to full univer- sity courses and prepare for professional life. It would be unwise and unfortunate for a majority of junior-college stu- dents to plan to enter professions already for the most part overcrowded, and for which their talents and abilities do not fit them. The ambition for college training above the high- — 2 2 Ba Oh jG pe Os me kc te o = ae CC tv ve cu no PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 251 school level needs, not repression and frustration, but guid- ance and direction. It is much better that such semi-professional courses be offered in a two-year unit, than in a four-year one. Perman- ence of vocational choice is unstable, especially when made in the earlier years. Occupational intentions at the middle of the high-school period are often not formed, or if formed are far from stable. The previous speaker himself, Dr. Zook, said not long ago, in a discussion of vocational education and the junior college, “Progress has been discouragingly slow, chief- ly, it seems to me, because many if not most boys and girls of high-school age do not begin to think vocationally until about the time they graduate from high school.” (School and Soicety, 23:603). It follows that it is much better to concen- trate vocational preparation in a more intensive two-year course following the high-school period of indecision. It is noteworthy that most of the private schools of business, com- merce, and engineering which have in part filled this need in the past have had courses whose duration is two years or less. Perhaps the most outstanding semi-professional work in the country is being developed under the direction of Dr. W. H. Snyder in the two-year junior college at Los Angeles, where some eighteen carefully planned and semi-professional courses have been organized and fully three thousand young people enrolled in them this year. The possibility of relatively short intensive training of two-year duration in various semi-professions at the most ad- vantageous period, immediately preceding entrance to the oc- cupation, is one of the strongest arguments for the two-year junior college for the very large group of students who should not go further in their collegiate education. 6. Advantage of homogeneity of age. Much stress has been placed by the advocates of the six-four-four plan on the advantage of the four-year institution from the point of view of adjustments to ages of psychological maturity. With the establishment of the gradual as distinguished from the older 252 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS saltatory theory of development, however, as supported by numerous studies reported in such a book as Brooks’ recent Psychology of Adolescence, this argument loses much of its force. When to this fact is added the striking variation both in age and psychological maturity found in any school sys- tem, it becomes of still less importance. Not only theory but experience supports the view that the four-year group of students in the last two years of high school and first two of college do not form a homogeneous group. Edinburg, Texas, enthusiastically adopted the six- four-four plan, and abandoned it after two years trial, pri- marily, according to its administrator, because “senior high and college students do not mix well.”” Menlo Junior College, California, has been widely known as a junior college for men experimenting on the “double-four” basis. Statistical evi- dence so far gathered point to the conclusion that twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth grades are relatively homogene- ous. In that institution, when the eleventh grade students were separated from the junior college and handled with the high school group it was noteworthy that most of the per- plexing disciplinary problems vanished. The president of an- other strong two-year junior college, formerly on the four- year basis, told me last year that most of his disciplinary problems disappeared when the two high school years were eliminated. Almost the same identical statement was made to me by another experienced administrator only last week. Here it is chiefly desired, however, to point out an entirely non-controversial feature that the age-group and its accom- panying physical, social, educational, and psychological char- acteristics whatever they may be, is certainly much more nearly homogeneous in each of these respects in the two-year institution than it can posibly be in the much wider spread necessarily found in the four-year institution. Even if as many as 90 per cent of the students in the upper four-year unit were physiologically mature, as we are sometimes told, 100 per cent of those in the two-year period would be, with what- ever psychological advantage may come from this greater homogeneity. sol ula the dy nt th S- PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 7. Distinctive collegiate atmosphere. College atmosphere is elusive and intangible when a definition is attempted, but it is very real and important to achieve, and not difficult to rec- ognize. It probably can be maintained in either a four-year or a two-year junior college, but the effort is less likely to be successful in the former case. It is doubtful whether calling high school juniors and seniors “college” students is going to make them real college students in the eyes of high school graduates, upper division students, their parents, or the pub- lic. The great danger is that the four-year junior college, in which normally a considerably preponderance of the students should be found in the two high-school years, will tend to be more “high-schoolish” in atmosphere than collegiate. When the student has graduated from high school—a well-established student landmark in parent and student consciousness—and then goes to college, even if only to “junior college,” he feels the distinct break in atmosphere, spirit, and traditions. He is much less likely to have this feeling in an institution which begins at the middle of the high school period. 8. Psychology of the American People. For generations it has been the deepest desire of thousands of American par- ents to give their sons and daughters the benefits of a “college” education. Going to college has been the great American am- bition and is rapidly becoming the great American habit. America may not know exactly what the college stands for, it may not recognize the technical distinctions between “second- ary” and higher education, but it is very sure that college means something distinctive and worth while. In the popu- lar mind colege means an institution following high school graduation, not merely a glorified and amplified high school. It is difficult enough to get the concept into the public con- sciousness that the two-year junior college is real college; it will be far more difficult for it to feel that “college” is a cen- taur-like hybrid—half high school and half college. Of course the six-four-four advocates have a quite simple solution to the situation. Just drop “junior” from the vocab- ulary entirely. Call the lower four-year unit “high school” and the upper one “college.” Then America can go to college, only 253 © DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 254 beginning two years earlier. There are already a bewildering array of institutions that call themselves “colleges” from bar- ber colleges on up. Surely it would do no harm to drop the “junior” and have still another variety of college. It should be remembered however, that there are some hundreds of standard four-year colleges in the country, almost all of them definitely built upon a foundation of a four-year high school course, and that these are not going to perish over-night, nor for a long time to come. OBJECTIONS TO THE TWO-YEAR UNIT. There is only time to consider two objections that have been raised to the two-year unit and that have not been suffi- ciently considered in other conections already. 1. Development of traditions and college spirit. Vari- ous writers have expressed the belief that two years is two short a time to instill the tradition, sense of atmosphere, ideals, habits, attitudes, or whatever else may be essential to the for- mation of “college spirit.” As President Wood of Stephens College has so aptly expressed it, “The minority is contin- ually striving to absorb the majority.” Superintendent Sex- son of Pasedena would leave no room for doubt in his cata- gorical statement: “It is impossible to develop a very dynamic school spirit in a two-year institution.” Can a two-year institution develop a dynamic school spir- it? One essential for school spirit is a feeling of freedom and independence on the part of the students, and a feeling of unity in a common purpose. This is more likely to be found in a two-year institution with a separate plant and school consciousness, than in one where lower division students with separate clubs, diverse study hall regulations, and other nec- essary disciplinary restrictions tend to break up the unity of feeling and experience. Fortunately, however, it is not neces- sary to depend upon theory, for the experience of many two- year junior colleges is available for study. Several California junior colleges have an interesting four-class system, where there is a mid-year class of consider- — Th me a5 "test On ga emo II Y- 1e ld of ol EEE iS SD UU.CO PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 255 able size graduating from high school as seems to be increas- ingly the situation, especially in the larger centers. The in- stitution is divided into four classes instead of two—high and low freshman, and high and low sophomores, with semi-annual class elections. In some institutions a classical flavor is pre- served by designating these the Alphas, Betas, Gammas, and Deltas. The advantages of the four-class college system are preserved only in accelerated form—the tempo is a little faster to coincide with other aspects of American life! The four- class system is not at all necessary, however. From visits to over thirty California junior colleges and from conversation with students, faculty, and graduates I cannot see but that there is as fine an institutional loyalty, college spirit, and dis- inctive atmosphere at comparable two-year junior colleges as is to be observed at Pasadena. Even Principal Harbeson of Pasedena frankly recognizes the situation with reference to these two-year colleges as contrasted with a priori theory, when he says: “They have developed a school spirit of greater dynamic quality then, a priori, would have seemed possible in a two-year organization.” In these two-year colleges the min- ority seems to have been quite successful in its efforts to ab- sorb the majority. Brief mention may also be made of Stephens College, widely known four-year junior college for women. As far as can be judged by all evidence available it would yield to none in credit for splendid college spirit and institutional loy- alty on the part of the six hundred or more young women an- nually enrolled in this progressively experimental junior col- lege. Am I confused in my argument? Is not Stephens Col- lege the best known example in the private field of a four-year junior college? It should be noted that Stephens College, ac- cording to its current catalog, has only 25 students in the lower two years, or less than four per cent of the entire stu- dent body. It is 96 per cent a two-year junior college! At Stephens however, the minority seems to be singularly suc- cessful in its efforts to absorb the majority and instill in them the “Stephens spirit.” I visited an outstanding four- year junior college in Texas last week. Where a few years 256 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ago over half of the student body were enrolled in the lower division, now less than ten percent of them are found there. 2. Ambition to become four-year, degree-granting col- leges. There is some danger here, but to recognize it is to guard against it. This has been done by law in many states where extension upward is forbidden. Unquestionably such development is justified in some cases, however, as in the de- velopment of the College of the City of Detroit in America’s fourth city from the former Detroit Junior College. But is it necessary, in order to prevent such development, to- weight down every two-year institution with an additional two years below because a few institutions, whether justifiably or not, may develop ambitions to add two years above? Unwarranted ambition may be as dangerous for the junior college as for Caesar. Shall the innocent majority, however, be penalized and encumbered for the possible future sins of the minority? How great is the real extent of this danger? Dr. Camp- bell, secretary of the American Association of Junior Col- leges tried two years ago to trace the fate of all junior col- leges in the country which have died, merged with other schools, or expanded into four-year senior colleges. He was able to discover exactly eleven, since the beginning of the move- ment, which have become four-year senior colleges, an average of much less than one year. In the same period several times this number of four-year senior colleges have decapitated them- selves to become junior colleges. While my own stu- dies have indicated that some institutions should be includ- ed which are not in Dr. Campbell’s list, nevertheless, the bal- ance is decidedly on the credit side of the junior college ledger! Many of the objections urged against the two-year jun- ior college turn out upon examination to be what the at- torney designates “irrelevent and immaterial.” Many are based upon a priori grounds, and vanish when submitted to the acid test of experience. yt, yl- y]- er as ge es u- d- i]- r! n- it- re he PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING CONCLUSION The junior high-school movement has been sweeping the country during the last decade, but even it is far from uni- versally accepted. There are over two thousand three-year junior high schools in the country, with a philosophy and ex- perience of their own, as they are successfully occupying a unique and valuable transitional region between elementary and high school. Does it not seem a bit unfortunate, to say the least, when the junior high school idea is just getting into the consciousness of the educators and the taxpayers of the country, to turn now and say, “After all, the six-three-three plan which we have been promoting so confidently and enthu- siastically, is all wrong. Don’t adopt it. Or, if you have adopted it, junk it. It is the six-four-four plan that repre- sents the ultimate, the swnmum bonum of educational reor- ganization.” When the six-four-four plan was presented at Harvard University in 1922 it was Professor Inglish who urged that it should not be seriously proposed in the East, since they were only begininng to adjust themselves to the underlying philosophy and practical application of the six- three-three-two plan, and that it would confuse and not clarify the situation to propose the six-four-four plan at the same - time. Similar sentiments have been expressed more recently by other eastern educators. Ray Lyman Wilbur says that we are about ready to stop the “fetish worship” of the numeral four in American educa- tion. In contrast with this tendency, the six-four-four plan proposes to intensify and perpetuate it. It is fortunate that we do not all agree on education’ policies. Educational progress results from difference of opin- ion, from clash of points of view. It would be a drab, monot- onous, uninteresting world if we all saw alike. There seems to be no immediate danger that the junior college world will be drab, monotonous, uninteresting! Educational progress results from difference of opinion—if that difference of opin- ion is followed by constructive experimentation and scien- tific evaluation. If the six-four-four plan is best, it will win out. It will demonstrate its worth in spite of all arguments 258 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS of university professors to the contrary. It is well, however, for us to examine all aspects of the question before entering upon such a far-reaching plan of educational reorganization. It is quite probable that we shall continue to have a wide variety of types of educational organization, both public and private, in different parts of the country. It is the glory of a democracy that our schools are not all poured in the same mold—and that they should not be. Exactly two centuries ago, occurred the birth of that great American leader which we commemorate here this week in the beautiful city which bears his name. Following a his- toric declaration of independence from unjust outside domina- tion, he led the struggle to make that declaration a reality; and in his final words as a public official he warned his fellow citizens to avoid “entangling alliances” with other peoples. In my judgment the junior college is not to be merely an appendix to the high school—and not merely a prefix to the university. It can and should have a personality, an indi- viduality, a mission of its own. Commissioner Cooper re- cently traced the junior college in California through the per- iods which he designated infancy and youth to vigorous young manhood. Is it not time for this vigorous movement to make an educational declaration of independence from unjustifiable outside domination? It should be given certain rights of edu- cational self-determination. It should, of course, work should- er to shoulder with other units of the school system in achiev- ing the democratic American ideal of full and adequate edu- cational opportunity for all, but it also should be cognizant of the dangers of “entangling alliances” which, it is to be heared, may result from complete administrative amalgama- tion with the upper two high school years. In my judgment, in its ultimate form, it is destined to occupy a unique position in the American educational ladder—unmistakably higher than a glorified high school; distinctly lower than the scholarly spe- cialization of the University—an ally of both, but avoiding “entangling alliances” with either. er, ing on. ide nd me at ek is- 1a- OW an he di- re- ng le PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING GROUP IV Technical and Vocational School Section The Technical Section met at 10:20 a. m. Wednesday, February 24, 1932, in the West Lobby of Wardman Park Hotel. Mr. Albert L. Colston, Principal of Brooklyn Technical High School, Brooklyn, New York, presided. Dr. Lewis A. Wilson, Assistant Commissioner for Voca- tional and Extension Education for the State of New York, read his paper on The Place of Technical and Vocational Edu- cation in Secondary Schools. THE PLACE OF TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDU- CATION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS LEWIS A. WILSON Assistant Commissioner for Vocational and Extension Edu- cation for the State of New York. Industrial and technical education in the public schools after nearly twenty-five years of experimentation, accompan- ied by the usual handicaps and mistakes of any new movement, is gradually emerging as a vital part of the secondary-school programs of many states. In the early days most of the edu- cators and industrialists were skeptical of the value of the industrial and technical training provided by the public schools. Only a few saw in the movement the possibilities of a much needed and efficient type of training for large numbers of young people. As a result those largely responsible for its development were faced with the double responsibility of demonstrating its value to the educator and industrialist as well as overcoming the prejudice of parents because of the general belief prevalent at that time that industrial education was developed primarily for the mentally inferior. The early development of industrial and technical train- ing in the public schools was surrounded by both favorable and unfavorable conditions. The need for it and other forms 260 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS of vocational education was recognized in principal. Many states enacted vocational education laws and provided special state aid to districts maintaining approved schools. By 1917 Congress had passed the Federal Vocational Education Act and shortly after made federal funds available to the States for the purpose of developing the work. Few educational move- ments have had better legal provision for their development or greater financial support afforded them by the state and federal governments. The conditions usually surrounding the development of the early industrial and technical schools, however, were un- favorable and often detrimental. The schools were usually housed in old, (often abandoned) elementary or secondary school buildings, poorly adapted to the work and usually not located to serve best the needs of the community. In many cases the industrial and technical courses offered were copied from those in distant cities and had little value in training for local needs. Many schools were handicapped by lack of equip- ment and supplies and often the work carried on in the school had more of the characteristics of manual training schools than industrial or technical schools. One of the greatest handicaps in the early development of industrial and technical training was the attitude of the teach- ers and principals of the elementary and secondary schools. They felt it was an inferior kind of education developed for the boy or girl who was incapable of doing the work of ele- mentary or general high school. As a result usually only boys and girls who were mentally retarded or slow or who were in- corrigible were sent to the industrial schools. Normal chil- dren who were interested in industrial or technical training were urged to take general academic or college preparatory courses. As a result many of these schools organized and equipped to provide industrial and technical training requir- ing a high degree of skill and technical information were filled with students incapable of profiting by the training. From these early beginnings there have developed some very distinctive programs of industrial and technical training PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 261 which have demonstrated their value and won the unqualified support of many educators and leaders in industry. Many of these schools have splendid buildings and equipment, excell- ent corps of teachers, carefully selected student bodies, well prepared courses of study, and an intimate relationship with industry that insures the practical character of the work and also makes possible under normal business conditions the place- ment of the graduates in desirable prositions in industry. The experience of these better schools has resulted in a more com- plete understanding of the services these schools can render boys and girls and the groups to be served. The combined ex- periences of these schools is sufficient to indicate the place of technical and industrial education in our secondary schools. May I take two or three minutes to point out certain trends in industrial occupations that have a bearing on the subject under discussion. The opportunities in industrial occupations, under normal business conditions, for young peo- ple of varying abilities and aptitudes are greater than ever before. Many uninformed persons believe that the high de- gree of specialization in industry has greatly decreased the opportunities for trained workers. With the development of the electrical, automotive, aeronautical communications and chemical industries, a wide range of industrial occupations, that were practically unknown thirty years ago, are now open to our young people. These industries as well as the older industries require large numbers of skilled workers and work- ers with technical training. In many of these manufacturing industries are produced products that require large numbers of trained workers to keep them in repair. The automobile repairman, for example, must not only possess many skills of hand but he must have an understanding of electricity and its application to starting, lighting, ignition, and a knowledge of the principles of an internal combustion engine to be a thor- oughly competent worker. The total number of skilled and technically-trained workers in industry is probably greater to-day than ever before. Industry is not static. It is con- stantly changing and the workers are frequently required to 262 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS become familiar with new material, new machines, and new processes. The two great changes in industrial employment during the past thirty years have been the rapid increase in number of workers with technical training and the rapid decrease in the numbers of manual laborers. There is every reason to be- lieve that the number of technically-trained workers will con- tinue to increase with the development of new industries and new services and the modernization of old industries. On the other hand, the number who perform heavy manual labor will continue to decrease. The utilization of power has lifted the burden of heavy manual toil from the backs of millions of in- dustrial workers. To-day the machine operator has replaced the manual worker. The working day and week are shorter, the working conditions are better and the range of employment opportunities greater than ever before. Many writers decry the era of the machine age and point out the unemployment brought about by the technological de- velopment. They overlook the fact that technological devel- opment is largely responsible for the employment of millions of persons in gainful occupations. They also forget that if we were dependent upon the simple industries of one hundred years ago equally large numbers of peopele would be out of work. If we abolish the machine and require human labor to perform the tasks now performed by steam, electrical and gasoline power we should need, as Dr. Wickenden, has recently pointed out, at least 5,000 millions of human slaves in America, more than double the total population of the world, to perform the work which has been lifted from the backs of men because of research and invention. During the recent years the high schools, faced with the responsibility of providing an education, adapted to meet the needs of an ever-increasing number of boys and girls, have made an effort to develop industrial and technical courses for young men and women who desire to prepare themselves for industrial employment. Large numbers of young people are not primarily interested in the usual general or college pre- Thr tem _ = — 9 me ey me me h—_ s] FF eee ey + PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 263 paratory courses. They are much more concerned about an educational program that will furnish them with the essentials of a good high-school education and at the same time provide a very definite and broad basic training for some field of indus- trial employment. In some communities the industrial and technical training are a part of the educational offerings of a general high school. In the larger cities separate technical and industrial high schools have been provided for the work. In both types of schools the shop and laboratory equipment is of such a character that the students are assured of a training in the fundamental tools, machines and technical work of the occupation they wish to enter. The industrial high schools maintained by the cities, open to boys and girls who have completed the work of the eighth grade, usually offer two-year industrial courses, although some schools offer three and four-year courses. The schools are in session six clock hours daily. The student spends three hours each day in the particular industrial shop which will pre- pare him for entrance into the industrial occupation in which he is interested. The other three hourse are devoted to Eng- lish, history, civics, general and applied mathematics, science, and drafting. The longer school day with eight forty-five minute periods daily enables the student to secure a training in both the social and economic responsibilities of good citizen- ship. The nineteen industrial high schools and departments in New York State have an enrollment this year of approximately seventeen thousand boys and girls. The facilities provided for this work are inadequate to meet the demand. Thousands of boys and girls are refused admission due to the limited accom- modations. The schools offer 49 different industrial courses for boys and eight for girls. Each course has been planned to meet the local needs for young workers in carefully selected industries. The co-operative relationships between the school, the employer and employees virtually insure every boy being placed in the occupation for which he has received special training. These schools do not turn out a completely trained industrial worker. They do, however, give the student a care- 92 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS fully planned training in the basic skills of an industry, a thorough understanding of the materials used, and excellent training in the mathematics, science and technical theory of the occupation. These schools also enable students to de- termine, under the guidance of carefully selected skilled indus- trial workers who have been specially trained to teach in these schools and in well equipped shop and laboratories, whether or not they like the work. If they do not it is possible for them to transfer to another department. If they have found the work they like the training is an invaluable aid in the preparation for a vocation. The technical high schools or departments provide a spec- ial training for the young men and women who wish to pre- pare for junior technical occupations. They are open to those who have completed the work of the junior high school or the first year of the four-year senior high school. These schools are in service six clock-hours daily. The courses are three years in length and the students carry the usual high-school work in English, history, civics, and more than the average high-school work in mathematics and science. In addition, the pupils major in some particular technical subject, i. e. machine design, industrial chemistry, chemistry of textiles and dyes, building construction, estimating, structural drafting. Only students who have ability in mathematics and science are qual- ified to take these courses as these subjects are essential in the training for technical occupations. No attempt is made to develop hand skills. The special training is in the technical subjects necessary for the preparation of a student for an industrial position requiring a technical training. The teach- ers of technical subjects are graduates of schools of engineer- ing or architecture who have had at least three years of prac- tical engineering experience in the work they teach. The graduates of these schools receive a State Regents Diploma in technical subjects. Several engineering colleges admit, without condition, the graduates who desire to continue their education. The majority who do not go on to college are placed, under normal business conditions, in positions affording excellent opportunities for further training, experience, and tio Sp Ini PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 265 promotion. For the high-school boy who is interested in en- tering industry these technical courses of secondary grade offer a range and quality of training not known in our second- ary schools ten years ago. Last year about 9,000 students were enrolled in the tech- nical high schools and many sought admission who could not be accommodated. The Buffalo Technical High School, the Brooklyn Technical High School, the Textile High School of New York City, and the Technical Department of the Utica Free Academy are nationally known for the quality of their work. The facilities which these institutions have for second- ary technical instruction are unequalled. Other technical high schools and departments in New York State while not so widely known are of high character and meet local needs. The work of the industrial and technical schools have demonstrated its value as a part of our secondary school pro- gram of education. It provides for large numbers of high- school boys and girls a type of training adapted to their abili- ties and needs. It has awakened a new interest in many boys and girls to continue their education. In one high school last year over 50 per cent of the entering boys voluntarily elected an eight period program of industrial and technical work in place of the four or five period programs in the other high- school departments. Both technical and industrial education have for their primary purpose the training of the individual. Unfortunately many people think of it as training for industry. While it is true, that it is intimately related to industry—its primary purpose is to train the individual for one of his major responsibilities of life—that of economic citizenship. Dr. Grayson N. Kefauver, Associate Professor of Educa- tion of Teachers College, Columbia University, and Principal Specialist in School Organization of the Staff of the National Survey of Secondary Education read his paper, Some Issues Involved in the Organization of Specialized Secondary Schools. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS SOME ISSUES INVOLVED IN THE ORGANIZATION OF SPECIALIZED SECONDARY SCHOOLS GRAYSON N. KEFAUVER Associate Professor of Education Teachers’ College, Columbia University and Principal Specialist in School Organiza- tion, National Survey of Secondary Education. Changes in function and changes in the number, charac- teristics, and needs of the students have brought about changes in the organization of secondary education. The four-year high school has given way in many communities to the junior and senior high schools, and in some communities, the form of organization has been affected by the addition of the junior college. These changes have been made because of a recogni- tion of the inadequacy of the earlier forms of organization and a belief that the newer arrangements would better serve the educational needs of the youth of the community. The horizontal organization of the secondary school has varied with the community and there has been sharp conflict of judgment as to whether the objectives of secondary educa- tion can be achieved better by comprehensive or by specialized high schools. The case for the comprehensive high school was well stated by the Commission on the Reorganization of Sec- ondary Education. “The comprehensive (sometimes called composite, or cosmopolitan) high school, embracing all cur- riculums in one unified organization, should remain the stand- ard type of secondary school in the United States .... the well-organized comprehensive school can make differentiated education of greater value than can the special-type school, because it aids in a wise choice of curriculum, assists in read- justments when such are desirable, and provides for wider contacts essential to true success in every vocation.” Spe- cialists in vocational education have been less enthusiasitc about attempts to provide vocational education in compre- 1Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, pp. 24-25. Bulletin No. 35 of the Bureau of Education, Department of Interior, 1918, \F ia PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 267 hensive schools. *Snedden has presented a vigorous challenge of the possibility of providing such training in the high school. “From consideration earlier adduced, it should be evident that one of the most preposterous, and if it were not for the tragic consequences, ridiculous illusions which American educators have vaguely cherished is that of integrating profitable forms of vocational education in our high schools.” He argues for a large number of specialized vocational schools. The extent of use of specialized schools in the cities of the country cannot be easily determined. The title of an institu- tion frequently gives little indication of its program. Many so-called technical schools were first organized as strictly technical schools and they retain their original title even though the present program may be comprehensive in char- acter. One of the best known comprehensive high schools of the country, labelled comprehensive by its former principal in a description of it, carries the title of technical school. In some cities, one notes a tendency toward decentralization and in others one finds a movement toward centralization. An attempt will be made here to define some of the issues involved in deciding upon the form of horizontal organization. A few data will be drawn from the findings of the National Survey of Secondary Education and the scope of the investiga- tion made on this problem in the Survey will be described briefly. Specialized secondary schools are proposed and adopted in some cities because it is believed they make possible a more ef- fective program of vocational education. Whether special- ized schools are required, will depend in large measure upon the degree of specialization needed to make the training of value to students in their later vocational work. If a high degree of specialization is required and if it is desirable to have very extended training in that narrow specialty, with a possible requirement of elaborate equipment, there is strong 1David Snedden. The Vocational Education Movement: A Critical In- ventry of Policies. In Objectives and Problems of Vocational Edu- — (Edited by Edwin A. Lee), p. 415. McGraw-Hill Book Company, 268 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS argument for the specialized institution to achieve the voca- tional objective of secondary education. The extent of spe- cialization believed by some to be desirable is shown by the following recommendation for an efficient plan of vocational education by ‘Prosser: “The teaching content applies so direct- ly and specifically to the occupation that it has functioning value for this occupation only.” The variation of activities within an occupation, the extent of change in work in different occupations, and the proportion of students who fail to enter the particular occupation for which they train have caused some to wonder whether such extreme specialization is neces- sary or desirable. It has been suggested that the recent devel- opments in occupational life present need for a broader basic training and less restriction to the activities in a narrow line of work. Decision on the degree of specificness of training needed will affect the validity of the claim for specialized secondary schools. A second issue in the horizontal organization of secondary education lies in the extent to which it is considered desirable for the vocational objective to dominate the total secondary- school life of students. The program of some _ specialized schools place great emphasis on the vocational and give only incidental attention to the other objectives of education. One not infrequently hears the comment that a student ought not to remain in school because he lacks the ability to enter a vo- cation on the skilled level, inferring that the only reason of importance for students to attend secondary schools is to qual- ify themselves for an occupation of a higher level. While this objective must be conceded to have large significance, many will challenge this narrow conception of the function of the secondary school. The larger the emphasis to be given to the vocational objective, the more valid the claim that students shoud be segregated for purposes of vocational training. A third issue involved in the horizontal organization of secondary education is the effect of segregation of students 1Charles A. Prosser. A forcast and Prophecy. In Objectives and Problems of Vocational Education (edited by Edwin A. Lee), p. 488 Mc- Graw-Hill Book Company. 1928. , ee _ — eS ST lUC rll CU | PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 269 in specialized schools upon the attitudes between different so- cial groups. Some have feared that the vocational schools would become “class” schools and that the influence would be toward increasing class consciousness and divisions between such social groups. Others have contended that such divisions exist in the comprehensive high schools and that the close as- sociations of students from different social and economic levels in the same school make students more conscious of the differ- ences than when they are segregated. The specialists in voca- tional education have attached less significance to this issue than have those concerned with the entire program of second- ary education. In so far as segregation makes secondary educa- tion less “democratic” by increasing class divisions, it handi- caps definitely the achievement of the social objective of the school. A fourth issue concerns the possibility of providing a suf- ficiently effective program of guidance which will cause the students to make the most effective use of the available facili- ties. The organization of specialized schools sets up certain barriers which must be overcome by a program of guidance if such schools are to function properly. The guidance pro- gram should be adequate to cause students to resist the ten- dency to attend the school located nearest to their home and to go to the school in the city which provides the training they desire. The guidance program should be adequate, also, to cause students to resist the tendency for students to go to the school which enrolls their friends and to seek out the school in the city which offers the desired vocational training even though only a few of their friends are enrolled there. It should be adequate to cause students to resist the tendency to attend the school of higher social standing and seek out the school preparing for their chosen occupation. It should pro- vide preliminary exploration and guidance so that students will have become sufficiently certain of their vocational ob- jective that they will be likely to continue in the school which they choose. If students should drop their vocational objec- tive and shift to some other objective, the guidance program should be adequate to cause students to resist the tendency to 270 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS remain in the school in order to stay with friends and to con- tinue in the school activities with which they have become as- sociated, and to shift to the school which provides training for the new objective. Anyone with experience with high-school students will recognize the afore-mentioned responsibilities as being difficult of attainment. The claims for the greater voca- tional-training efficiency of specialized schools assumes that guidance can be made sufficiently effective to provide the serv- ice called for. To admit that the obstacles to providing such service are unsurmountable is to admit a serious defect of a plan of specialized schools. This issue concerns the possibility of developing a program of guidance sufficiently effective actu- ally to do the things which are assumed. A fifth issue concerns the staff of the secondary school. Specialists in vocational education claim that the needs of voca- tional education are not given due recognition in comprehen- sive high schools because the principal and staff are academic- ally minded, attaching large importance to the academic sub- jects and small importance to the so-called vocational subjects. This charge may sometimes be explained by the extreme enthu- siasm of the vocational teacher for his subject and lack of ap- preciation of other parts of the program of the school, but in some cases this complaint is probably justified. Other issues might be mentioned, but it is believed that the more important have been described. The cost of the train- ing may be mentioned as a possible issue, depending partly up- on the form of vocational training which is finally considered to be desirable or necessary. The size of the community affects the plan of organization. The large city with a number of Sec- ondary schools presents opportunity for the uses of specialized schools whereas the small community has only one high school. Many communities follow a plan of compromise between the specialized and the comprehensive plan of organization of secondary education. The comprehensive schools offer only the curricula for which there is adequate demand. If a small num- ber of students should desire courses offered only in some other school in the city, they are required to go to another section of on- as- for 001 “a- iat PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 271 the city. Many of the specialized high schools offer other than the vocational courses for the students living in the immediate district. This plan is followed especially by the technical high schools. The judgments of members of the staffs of different types of schools were obtained for some of the issues connected with the horizontal organization of secondary education. Nearly two thousand teachers in eleven cities cooperated. The com- parisons disclose less difference in judgment than has generally been assumed. Academic and vocational teachers do not differ greatly and teachers in different types of schools do not differ greatly, although certain significant contracts are noted. Voca- tional education is considered to be of large importance by all groups. On the average, academic teachers in academic schools give it a lower rating than the academic teachers in other types of schools. However, the academic teachers in the comprehen- sive high schools gave a rating of slightly higher importance than the academic teachers in the vocational school. The indus- trial teachers in the comprehensive also gave a higher rating of importance than the industrial teachers in the vocational schools. These findings, at least, challenge the assumption that the staffs of comprehensive high schools are not sympathetic with the need for vocational training. It should not be inferred, however, that the teachers in the different schools believe in the same form of vocational education. The judgments of teachers concerning vocational educa- tion were also obtained on the amount of time that should be given to vocational course by students who plan to go directly to work after leaving school. On the average, the academic teachers in the vocational schools would have such students carry more vocational work than the academic teacher in any other type of school. Academic teachers in the comprehensive school would have them carry less, and those in the academic schools would have them take still less. The industrial teach- ers in the vocational school would have such students spend a larger fraction of their time in vocational courses, than the in- dustrial teachers in the other type of schools. In all types of schools, the industrial teachers would recommend that students 272 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS who go to work after completing high school should take more work than is recommended by the academic teachers in the same schools. The belief that segregation has some influence on the at- titudes of students has already been mentioned. Teachers be- lieve that such segregation has had some effect in creating and fostering feelings of social differences between the vocational and the academic groups. The teachers in the academic schools believe the effect to be larger than the teachers in the compre- hensive high schools, and they, in turn, believe it to be larger than do teachers in the vocational schools. The industrial teachers in the vocational schools believe that it has very little effect. It is significant that all groups are in agreement in thinking that separation of students fosters feelings of social differences. The group spirit and morale of vocational students is be- lieved to be better when they are segregated in specialized schools. The commercial teachers in the vocational schools is the only group believing the morale of vocational students to be somewhat weaker when segregated. The academic teachers in the vocational schools judge the advantage to be larger than do the academic teachers of the academic and the comprehen- sive schools. The staffs of the different types of schools do not think this influence on the morale of the vocational students is large, but on the average, they concede some advantage and teachers in the vocational schools judge it to be larger than do teachers in the other types of schools. The work attitude of vo- cational students is thought to be improved by association with academic students, although the influence is judged to be very slight. The teachers of different types of schools were also asked to give their judgment on the program of vocational training. The teachers in the vocational schools believe that the voca- tional training offered in the comprehensive high schools is somewhat too general in its nature and content to give infor- mation and skills specific enough to be of definite value on a job after leaving school. Those working in the comprehensive ore the e- nd al Is er al le in al 273 PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING high schools indicate much greater satisfaction with the pres- ent form of their offering. The industrial teachers in the vo- cational school believe that the most effective vocational train- ing can be given in strictly vocational high schools and give second choice to cooperative part-time courses. The industrial teachers of general and comprehensive high schools give first preference to. the comprehensive high school and approve co- operative-part-time training and the vocational school to an equal degree. The commercial teachers of the commercial and vocational schools give first preference to the cooperative part- time training and second preference to the vocational school. The commercial teachers of the comprehensive school favor the comprehensive school and give second preference to the co- operative part-time courses. There is a definite tendency for teachers to believe that the form of organization in which they are working represents the best form of organization. This tendency was noted also for the administrative heads of the dif- ferent schools, although a systematic summary was not made of their judgments. This tendency for workers to consider de- sirable the program in which they participate is interesting and stimulating to one trying to summarize the thinking on the issues involved in the organization of secondary education. However, one soon becomes convinced of the undesirability, and even impossibility, of accepting the judgments of those working in vocational education because of the conflicting opinion. In so important a phase of education, objective evalu- ative data ought to be obtained. The investigations of the National Survey of Secondary Education will provide some information which will bear upon certain of the issues previously considered. A general canvass has been made of the program of vocational education in a thousand high schools of all types, all sizes, and located in all sections of the country. This analysis includes industrial, com- mercial, home economics, and other forms of vocational educa- tion. A very intensive study has been made of a selected group of cities. These cities were chosen because of the excel- lence of the work in vocational education and because they rep- resent different forms of organization. In these cities are city 274 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS trade schools, state trade schools, technical high schools, com- mercial high schools, comprehensive high schools, general high schools, and academic high schools. A careful canvass has been made of the vocational courses in these different types of schools. The extent to which the different types of schools rec- ognize the social, health, and recreational objectives of secon- dary education will also be canvassed. The characteristics of the students enrolled in the different vocational courses in dif- ferent types of schools have been summarized for schools in ten cities. Data were obtained for about eighteen thousand stu- dents. This canvass represents an attempt to determine who is being served by different types of schools and courses and the effect of organization upon the selection of students in differ- ent courses. The effect of segregation of students in specialized schools upon the attitudes of the different groups toward each other is being measured by a special test which has been constructed for this purpose. The measures for students in comprehensive high schools will be compared with similar measures for stu- dents in specialized schools. The most effective measures of vocational education are the extent and use of the training received, and the adequacy of the training for meeting the requirements of the job. Data have been obtained on the vocational activities since leaving school for about seven thousand students who have gone through different types of schools. What proportion of them enter the occupation for which they trained? What proportion of the time since leaving school have they spent in occupations trained for? How many years were they out of school before they had opportunity to engage in the occupation trained for? What salary did they earn? How does that salary compare with salaries of other workers who entered the occupation without preliminary training? These questions will serve to il- lustrate some of the analysis made of the data on former stu- dents. It is believed that the different types of data obtained in this investigation will throw some light on the issues raised earlier in this paper. aS The -_ 1 tT Pe aS —_—— oe a oe eo PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 275 LUNCHEON SESSION At 12:30 P. M. Wednesday, February 24, 1932, about two hundred members sat down for luncheon in the Gold Room of Wardman Park Hotel. Mr. C. H. Threlkeld, President of the Department pre- sided. Mr. H. V. Kepner, Principal of West Side High School, Denver, Colorado, and member of the National Council of the National Honor Society made an announcement that Mr. Ed- ward Rynearson, President of the National Council desires copies of rituals of induction, accounts of chapter practices and activities, and any other items of interest to member chapters sent in to him at once. Ballots of the ticket for election of three members to the National Council were then distributed: THE NATIONAL COUNCIL of the NATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY Vote for Three CJ L. W. BROOKS Witchita, Kansas [] P. C. BUNN Loraine, Ohio [] FRED MITCHELL Lynn, Mass. CJ W. L. NEWTON Rome, New York C] H. C. SIEBER Red Bank, New Jersey M. CHANNING WAGNER Wilmington, Delaware The following were elected: L. W. Brooks, M. Channing Wagner, and H. C. Sieber. 276 REPORT OF TREASURER DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS of the NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION: DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Mr. W. W. Haggard, Principal of Township High School and Junior College, Joliet, Illinois, and Member of the Fi- nance Department made a digest of the report of the Treas- urer. The report is given below. The report was adopted. January 1, 1931 to December 31, 1931 RECEIPTS Balance in Bank __------------.-------- 235.24 Annual dues from members _-_---------- $ 5,460.40 Sale of Bulletins _.._.___-______---_----- 771.44 NO BO IE, Sie cccencciaceceenseceu= 444,00 Honor Society receipts _,-.----.-------- 9,729.38 Interest on bonds __-_------------------ 787.29 Life Insurance Premiums --_---~-------- 6,905.51 Automobile Insurance Premiums __------ 635.82 EE. cL coneuntnatntraaucenmeh sites 63.77 PON ND nie re cumbcekn eee 10.00 24,807.61 25,042.85 DISBURSEMENTS Secretary’s Office eee eae ee 770.92 PPI cirnitnicikdecraenmmminnn cutee 383.33 Refund of dues to members __----_----- 52.00 Clerical services -...-...---.----------- 3,056.75 NINN: itcccsay cstn ns Se caivie was Weeecasen a alee a 364.88 PRNNOIR ...ccscicacenos wemammeminece 309.57 Drayage of bulletins ____.__.--------_-- 19.25 Security bond, Secretary ---.----------- 2.50 Audit of treasurer’s accounts -__------- 35.00 Insurance of bulletins _..--..---------- 12.40 Bank charges, exchange __....--------- 1.20 Cheques being collected __-------------- 81.10 |, ee Pe 63.77 Refunded on bulletins ___-.------------ 7.15 Teller’s difference __..-.--_------------ 2.00 Balance in bank, bank closed __-----~--- Pri Po: Pri Po: Pri Po: 01 ‘j- Honor Societies Engrossing charters, and supplies _____- 560.03 Refund of charter fees __-_.--_-_--_---- 15.00 Bulletin No. 33, (October, 1930) PUGS oni ksi poce wadececuseuc. 765.33 Bulletin No. 34, (January, 1931) fa SEER MI Oe Eee ee Aen 619.81 ONGME eee eee Send nseeecacascencays 20.20 Bulletin No. 35, (March, 1931) EI ee a het, aes 1,543.80 Postage ---_------ ES. 50.31 Bulletin No. 36, (April, 1931) Prinfin® ..(:-~......<,.u2- ae eae 412.15 py ail ESS oe eaters 19.61 Bulletin No. 37, (May, 1931) DOMEOR ais coke che etinanandersaan 480.12 PRNNEO SScansacrepanscase eee eae 20.37 Bulletin No. 38, (October, 1931) Postage (1st mailing) --..-..-._--_--- 25.40 Conventions in Detroit & Los Angeles Hotel expenses of Pres. & Sec. (Detroit) 89.80 Office expenses of President (Detroit) -_- 17.12 Office expenses of President (Los Ang.) 8.88 Expenses of speakers (Detroit) ..------ 25.00 Expenses of Secretary (Detroit) -.---- 44.37 Convention in Washington, 1932 Expenses of President ~-.-------------- 26.45 Consultative Committee Expenses, Chicago meeting -----.------- 16.85 Life Insurance PROWIIUINGE DEI enc n nes nnnuas-s 6,467.22 Premiums refunded __------------------ 453.13 Automobile Insurance Premiums paid -----. ra is miethelreataies 613.42 Premiums refunded -~----------------- 8.00 Bonds 5 First Mortgage Bonds*_.__.._._-.---- 6,000.00 Accured Interest ~..--.-.------------ 80.00 PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 575.03 766.33 640.01 1,594.11 431.76 25.40 185.17 26.45 16.85 6,920.35 621.42 6,080.00 23,547.66 Balance in bank, December 31, 1931__----.._...--------------- $1,495.19 *There are now in the safety deposit vault box of the Department $35,000 in bonds. One year ago the Department owned $27,000 in bonds. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS February 15, 1932. 278 The Finance Committee, Department of Secondary-School Principals of the National Educational Association, Berwyn, Illinois. Gentlemen: We have audited the accounts of the Treasurer of the DE- PARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS of the NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION for the year ended December 31, 1931, and now submit our report together with the attached statements of Receipts and Disbursements for the year and Investments at December 31, 1931. The following is a classified summary of the Receipts and Disbursements for the year ended December 31, 1931, details of which are submitted in Exhibit A: RECEIPTS: Revenue: Dues and Fees........................-------- $15,121.93 Sales of Bulletins, ete................... 1,217.69 TUITE. vssctitasdbbcinicissigileicinaniiatiieies 707.29 $17,046.91 Insurance Premiums.......................--- ———_ 7,541.33 Miscellaneous ....................-..-...--------- 63.77 $24,652.01 Disbursements: Expenses: EERE SEIS Perea Ren ee er oc 3,988.75 Conventions and Committees........ 228.47 Honor Societies......................-......- 560.03 Administrative ..........................---- 5,009.27 $ 9,786.52 Insurance Premiums..................--..---- —_——_— 7,510.19 Miscellaneous ..............---------------------- 63.77 Investments Purchased.................... 6,000.00 $23,360.48 Receipts in Excess of Disbursements.. “$ 1,291.58 a A 424 Fm ee Fe hw! —_— Oo © A = a) re he ar er ts id Is wi Cion es oe PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 279 It will be noted from the above summary that the total revenue receipts for the year, $17,046.91, exceeded the total expenses of $9,786.52, by $7,260.39. This balance and net re- ceipts of $31.14 from other sources, a total of $7,291.53, has been accounted for by the purchase of additional investments, $6,000.00, and an increase of $1,291.53 in the cash balances which amounted to $1,565.96 at December 31, 1931, compared with $274.43 at the beginning of the year. Real estate mortgage notes and bonds of the par value of $33,000.00 were produced for our inspection and are listed in detail in the attached Exhibit B. Interest on these securities of the par value of $25,500.00 was in default at December 31, 1931. Cash on deposit at the First National Bank of Chicago on December 31, 1931, amounting to $1,387.96 was reconciled with the bank statement furnished by the depositary. The balance of the cash funds, $178.00, we are informed represents cash in Treasury at Washington. Payment for printing Bulletin No. 38 has been deferred pending settlement of the amount of the claim. In the course of our audit we made comprehensive tests of the transactions recorded on the books, but our examination was not extended to confirm the receipts by correspondence with the members, etc. We wish to acknowledge the courtesies extended to our representative in the course of his work. Yours respectfully, EDWARD GORE & CO. EXHIBIT A DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS Year ended December 31, 1931 RECEIPTS REVENUE: Dues and Fees: Members Annual Dues.................. Honor Societies Fees..................... Less—Refund of Fees.................. Sales: Bulletins NE eds She Less—Refunds ....................-.-------- Miscellaneous ..................------------------ Interest on Investments, ete............. Less—Accrued on Investments Purchased ........ OTHER RECEIPTS: Insurance Premiums: Life ..... Automobile ...... $ 5,454.55 9,729.38 15,183.93 62.00 7.75 $15,121.93 $ 1,207.69 10.00 707.29 6,905.51 635.82 7,541.33 63.77 $17,046.91 7,605.10 $24,652.01 EXPENSES: Bulletins: Printing Bulletins: Number 38—October 1930 Number 34—January 1931 Number 35—March 1931 Number 36—April 1931 Number 37—May 1981................. Postage and Insurance Drayage .. PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING DISBURSEMENTS Onwen® $ 765.33 619.81 1,543.80 412.15 $ 3,821.21 148.29 Conventions and Committees: Detroit Convention: Hotel Expenses Office Expenses Speakers Los Angeles Convention Washington Convention—1932........ Consultative Committee Honor Societies: Engrossing Charters, etc............... Administrative: Clerical Services Postage Printing Supplies and Equipment.................. Accounting Returned Checks. Surety Bond—Secretary.........:........ Miscellaneous..... 19.25 3,988.75 $ ©: 89.80 61.49 25.00 8.88 26.45 16.85 3,044.45 783.32 383.33 679.35 35.00 75.25 2.50 6.07 228.47 560.03 5,009.27 $ 9,786.52 282 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS OTHER DISBURSEMENTS: Insurance Premiums and Refunds......$ 7,510.19 LET Re EOE. TOE er ED Nee 63.77 Investments Purchased......................-- 6,000.00 13,573.96 Total Disbursements.....................- $23,360.48 Total Receipts in Excess of Total Disbursements....................-.------------ $ 1,291.53 SUMMARY OF CASH ACCOUNT Year ended December 31, 1931 CASH BALANCES—January 1, 1931... $ 274.43 YEAR 1981: Total Receipts.........................--.---..---..-- $24,652.01 Less—Total Disbursements................ 23,360.48 1,291.53 CASH BALANCES—December 31, 1931 ; $ 1.565.96 o Zz - & Bs = o) A Zz & o 5 x mn < = a x E fe S mn © 5 : . 00°000°EE$ #00°000°¢ +00°00S 00°00S 00°000‘T «00°000‘T #00°000 #00°000°Z 00°000°S 00°000°S #00°000°ET$ enjeA Ivd 9861 ‘ST ‘Bny ceel ‘I “3ny Zeer ‘T Ae 9g6r ‘I ABN S86I ‘I “48g QE6I ‘GT “ure Gg6I ‘T “AON GE6I ‘I “AON ZEGl ‘OT “3ny VE6T ‘FZ ‘sny Aqainzey TS6L ‘TE Aequieseg 48 A[NBjep Ul SBM Spuog esey} UO 4Sar0zUT, o8U3110W IST %Y Sulpiing yreg-uysny eSes LOW Isat %F9 SuIpling evi JnoveSpq HZ6 PUL aBesWOW IIT % 1 Aueduiog Ajddng stout] uzsyzAION Svs AW aly % FO Auedwog Aireg ovIWely BBUSPAOW IST %Y OSUSPIOW IST %Y ““Bulpling yaeg [e1jyUeD-u0js[q SOUBPOY SvozVI}S]W pue souvpoy jsn+ o8es}10W IST %9~ OBUS IO 4ST 9}ON POD 23¥S}10W ST SION PIO 93VS}IOJ 3ST NOLLdIdOsSad TS6T ‘TE tequisveq syueujiedy PD preuog uAMIOg JO YOANYH uBLIs}Aqseig sy], SIUNWAN Bieqieg pus StunUIEN yoruTWIOG OTP ourneg pue yoreyy “gy sourer GAVN SANOd CNV SALON AOVOLYON—SLINAWLSAANI @ LIGIHXa DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Mr. Louis E. Plummer, Principal of Union High School and Junior College of Fullerton, California, presented the fol- lowing resolution : That the executive committee of this Department of Sec- ondary School Principals take under consideration the apoint- ment of a Commission to study and to restate the Principles and Objectives of Secondary Education. Dr. Briggs has again challenged this organization to more serious thinking and to action. “Cardinal Principles of Secon- dary Education” of 1918 has been more positive influence in the reorganization of secondary education than any bulletin ever published. Much has happened since 1918. With the com- pletion of the Nation-wide Survey the problems can be ap- proached in a more scientific manner than before. I believe this is the logical time to begin a reconsideration of these objectives in the light of recent progress. I hereby present the above mo- tion. Jesse B. Davis Boston University. Mr. Milo H. Stuart, Assistant Superintendent of Schools in charge of Secondary Education of Indianapolis made a brief report for C. O. Davis’ Committee on the Tercentenary cele- bration of the founding of secondary schools in the United States. The celebration will take place at the 1935 meeting. Mr. Francis L. Bacon, Principal of Township High School, Evanston, Illinois, made the report for the nominating com- mittee as follows: OFFICERS FOR 1932-1933 President—W. W. Haggard Educational Position Superintendent, Joliet Township High School and Junior College. Mailing address, Joliet, Illinois. First Vice president—Robert B. Clem Educational Position, Principal Shawnee High School. Mailing address, Louisville, Kentucky. ip PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 285 Second Vice president—E. E. Church Educational Position, Supervising Principal, Junior-Sen- ior High School. Mailing address, Parkersburg, West Virginia. Secretary-Treasurer—H. V. Church. Educational Position, Superintendent, Morton Secondary Schools. Mailing address, Cicero, Illinois. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE— Name—Harrison C. Lyseth Educational Position, State Supervisor of Secondary Edu- cation, Maine. Mailing address, Augusta, Maine. Name—M. C. Jones Educational Position, Principal, High School. Mailing address, Huntington Beach, California. On motion the report was adopted. The session closed with the masterful address of Tom Skeyhill, George Washington, a Human Study. NATIONAL COUNCIL MEETING OF NATIONAL COUNCIL AT WASHINGTON, D. C. Meeting of the National Council of the National Honor Society at Wardman Park Hotel, February 21, 1932. The National Council met at 1:30 P. M. Present: Mem- bers—Allen, Baker, Brooks, Kepner, Seybold, and Church. Ab- sent: Members—McDaniel, Murdock, Plummer, and Rynear- son. The term of the following members expire: Brooks, Mur- dock, and Seybold. The following were nominated: L. W. Brooks of Wichita, Kansas; P. C. Bunn of Lorain, Ohio; Fred C. Mitchell of Lynn, Massachusetts; Harry C. Sieber of Red Bank, New Jersey; Walter L. Newton of Rome, New York; and M. Channing Wagner of Wilmington, Delaware. 286 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS On motion of member Allen it was decided that all prin- cipals in whose schools are chapters shall be members of the Department; and further, that no new constitutions be ap- proved until the principal of the school applying for a charter shall become a member of the Department. Seconded by mem- ber Brooks, and carried. On motion of member Kepner, Edward Rynearson was elected President of the National Council. Seconded by mem- ber Seybold, and carried. Adjournment on motion of member Baker. DEPARTMENT MATTERS National Honor Society Over ten years ago the Department of Secondary-School Principals (then the National Association of Secondary-School Principals) organized the National Honor Society with the end in view of stimulating scholarship in the secondary schools of the United States. To-day there are over one thousand chapters and these are in the best high schools in the country. The four objectives of the society are: to create an enthusiasm for scholarship, to stimulate a desire to render service to pro- mote worthy leadership, and to encourage the development of character. Every high-school principal who has a chapter is enthusiastic over the productive results of this organization in his school. Direct all requests for literature to H. V. Church, 3129 Wenonah Avenue, Berwyn, Illinois. WARNING The National Honor Society has met with such great suc- cess that imitations are springing up in different parts of the country. These pseudo honor societies seem to have largely a commercial objective, and plan to exploit scholarship for finan- cial ends. Members of our department are warned to beware oct= fS we ao PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 287 of any plan to sell pins or emblems to pupils under the guise of scholarship, and are urged not to lend their aid or influence to such organizations. The Department of Secondary-School Principals recom- mends only the National Honor Society and the National Jun- ior Honor Society. THE NATIONAL JUNIOR HONOR SOCIETY The National Junior Honor Society is patterned very closely after the Senior Honor Society. The Junior Society is designed for ninth and tenth grades in four year high schools, and for eighth, ninth, and tenth grades in junior high schools. This organization is now a going concern, and already there are a number of chapters, both in senior high schools and jun- ior high schools. The national constitution, the model consti- tution, and booklet of information as well as the application blank will be sent on request. Direct all applications to: H. V. CHURCH, Executive Secretary 3129 Wenonah Avenue, Berwyn, Illinois. SEALS AND MEMBERSHIP CARDS Membership Cards—Since the organization of the Na- tional Honor Society there has been a growing demand for membership cards in the organization. Cards of membership both for members of the National Honor Society and for the members of the National Junior Honor Society are now on sale. The cards (214”x334”) are engrossed on a fine quality of cardboard, have the emblem of the Society embossed upon them, and require only the insertion of the name of the mem- ber. The price of the cards is five cents apiece. Seals—The Seal (114”x114”) is a gilt embossed sticker to be affixed on the diplomas of members of chapters. A replica of the emblem is embossed on the seal. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The price of the seals is five cents apiece. Plaques—A bronze wall plaque has been designed and manufactured. Schools that have chapters of the National Honor Society will now have the opportunity of having this plaque. It consists of a solid bronze casting mounted on a wal- nut back. The size is thirteen by sixteen inches and the weight is ten pounds. A chain is furnished. All lettering, ‘as well as the name of the school chapter and the emblem, is raised and polished above the bronze background. The price is $30.00, which includes transportation and packing. Order only from: H. V. Church 3129 Wenonah Avenue, Berwyn, Illinois. NATIONAL HONOR MEMBERSHIP CERTIFICATES In response to repeated demands, the Department of Sec- ondary-School Principals has prepared membership certifi- cates 814x11 for members of the National Honor Society. These certificates are lithographed on artificial parchment with the die of a facsimile of the emblem stamped in gold. They sell for ten cents apiece postpaid. PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The publications below are sent postpaid. In lots of ten or more of the same issue a reduction of ten per cent is grant- ed, and the shipment is by express collect. PUBLICATIONS First Yearbook, 1917, Kansas City. Papers on Student Government, Cardinal Principles, Sup- ervised Student Activities, Supervised Study, Measurement PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 289 Tests, Credit for Quality, and Relations between High Schools and Colleges. (87 pp.).-....... $2.00 Second Yearbook, 1918 Atlantic City. Papers on The All-Year Schools, Administration, Physi- cal Education, Military Training, Social Life, Junior High- School Curriculum, and the Place of the Junior College CR isk caeccinnvisiaiansis vin cdi nicteenslanndihapibaelahaiessseutsibesaulgaaaapee $2.00 Third Yearbook, 1919, Chicago. Papers on Student Government, Cardinal Principles, Democracy and High School, Social Science, Curriculums, Homogeneous Groupings, and the Social Recitation (87 pp.) Ss a ACOA PAE Sele BER AS GARG ...-§2.00 Fourth Yearbook, 1920, Cleveland. Papers on Training for Leadership, Technique in Teach- ing, Program of Small High School, Continuation Schools, So- cial Studies, High School Principals, Homogeneous Grouping, and Co-operative Courses. (114 pp.) -................22..22e-s-eeeee $2.00 Fifth Yearbook, 1921, Atlantic City. Papers on Pupils with Less Than Average Ability, Moral Education, Character Education, the Principals’ Duties and In- telligence Tests, (69 pp.) .................-.scc-esceceeeeeceneccesesceeenseeees $2.00 Sixth Yearbook,—(out of print)— Seventh Yearbook, 1923, Cleveland. Papers on Guidance, Rating of Pupils, Moral Training, Sex-Social Training, Finances (2) *, Curricula (4), Social Life, Platoon Plan, Student Activities, Cardinal Objectives, Physi- cal Education, Deans of Girls (4), Compulsory Education, and SN, | CD IID vcecescasesh tatrcterecnrntsttetctontinsnesnncnniannein $2.00 *Figures show number of papers, 290 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Eighth Yearbook, 1924, Chicago. Papers on Retention, Student Activities, Adjustment of Curriculum to Pupils, Faculty Meetings, the Small High School, Teacher Development, Finances (3), Social Science (4), and Deans of Girls (5). Junior High School: Curriculum (4) and Guidance, Junior College: in California, Co-ordination of High School, and Place of. (221 pp.) $2.00 Ninth Yearbook, 1925, Cincinnati. Papers Guidance (4), International Relations (3), Rural High Schools, Administration, College Relations, Curricu- lum (2), Physical Education, High-School Principals, Scholar- ship, Junior High School (3), Ability Grouping, and Teacher I, CE I cess ciectisceinisisdsncnntesecnertiieansiionaes .-..62.00 Bulletin No. 10, January, 1926. Abstract of Books and of Magazine articles on Adminis- tration and Supervision. (32 pp.)....-.......... $.25 Bulletin No. 11, Tenth Yearbook, 1926, Washington. Papers on Social studies (2), International Relations (2), Record Forms, Fraternities, Scholarship, Administration (5), Curriculum (3), Personnel Charts, Guidance, Marks (2), Principals, Student Activities (2), National Honor Society (5) CE CII.. SE DB vccecceceseninnerninscctteciaretnenitaiinmoninmeaiid $2.00 Bulletin No. 12, May, 1926. Abstracts of Books and Magazine articles on Administra- tion and Supervision. List of, and Rituals of Induction to Chapters of the National Honor Society. (46 pp.)............ $.25 Bulletin No. 13, October, 1926. Abstracts of Books and of Magazine articles on Adminis- tration and Supervision. (20 pp.).... $.25 Bulletin No. 14, January, 1927. Abstracts of Books and of Magazine articles on Adminis- tration and Supervision. (28 pp.) ........-.--.-ccc-esccceecceseeeeeeeeee $.25 y= CO Tf es a a Bulletin No. 15, Proceedings of the St. Louis (1927) Meeting. Papers on Modern Youth, Curriculum (4), School Achievement, Physical Training, Size of Class, Junior High School Curriculum (2), Six-Year High School, Chaos in Sec- ondary Education, High-School Publications, Place of the Ju- nior College, Improving Teachers in Service, Pupils of limited Ability and Tests. (251 pp.) -.... $2.00 Bulletin No. 16, April, 1927. Directory of Members. (106 pp.) -..u..00...0..2ee eee $.25 Bulletin No. 17, May, 1927. Abstracts of Books and of Magazine articles on Adminis- tration and Supervision. (29 pp.)...............-....-------- $.25 Bulletin No. 18, October, 1927. Abstracts of Books and of Magazine articles on Adminis- tration and Supervision. (26 pp.) .........-.........0c0.cs-00--eeseeeeeeees $.25 Bulletin No. 19, January, 1928. Report of the Committee on Guidance in Secondary Schools. (94 pp.)............. siinsitininheibacotusheciacdapasMaaieiaal $.60 Bulletin No. 20, Proceedings of the Boston (1928) Meeting. Papers on Education in Russia, In India, Internationalism (3), Small High Schools, Character Training, Specialist in Secondary Education, the Visiting Teacher, Rating of Teach- ers, Curriculum (2), Business and High Schools, Supervision (4), and Guidance (2). (206 pp.)....................... .-§2.00 a ee Bulletin No. 21, April, 1928. Abstracts of Books and of Magazine Articles on Adminis- tration and Supervision. (31 pp.) -.............2--....--scs-esseeeeeeeees $.25 Bulletin No. 22, May, 1928. Abstracts of Books and of Magazine Articles on Adminis- tration and Supervision. (24 pp.) ....--........--.....ssceseeeeeeeoee= $.25 PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 291 a A AS hd 292 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Bulletin No. 23, October, 1928. Abstracts of Books and of Magazine Articles on Adminis- tration and Supervision. (16 pp.) $.25 Bulletin No. 24, January, 1929. Abstracts of Unpublished Masters’ Theses in the Field of Secondary-School Administration, University of Chicago. Al- so a Directory of Members. (202 pp.)..... $1.00 Bulletin No. 25, Proceedings of the Cleveland (1929) Meeting. Papers on Supervision (7), Curriculum, Articulation, Training Pupils to Study (2), Selection, Guidance, Use of the plant, Commercial Education, and Surplusage of Teachers. Junior High School: Schools of Ohio, Schedule Planning, Char- acter Training, Teacher Training, Individual Differences, Elec- tives, Short Unit Courses, Vocational Training, and Obliga- tions of Junior to Senior High School. Junior College: Func- tion of, Criteria for, Relation to University, Present Status, Service to Community, Orientation Program, Duplication of Courses, and Future of Junior Colleges (pp. 389) ............ $2.00 Bulletin No. 26, April, 1929. Abstracts of Books and of Magazine Articles on Adminis- tration and Supervision. Constitution of National Junior Honor Society. (pp. 35) ....................22-.sceesssssceeseesscecceseeneeceeees $.25 Bulletin No. 27, May, 1929. Rituals of Induction for the National Honor Society (pp. IN citi iciedidininicsshbaiahientlaeda sihiadsnileneastaichesiaseseaiialdaddudsuabiamatsinkiahiaane $.25 Bulletin No. 28, October, 1929. Abstracts of Books and of Magazine Articles on Adminis- tration and Supervision. (pp. 28) $.25 Bulletin No. 29, January, 1930. Reports on Studies in Class Size and on Failures. Biblio- is- 25 of \l- 0 ws re OCUt PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 293 graphy on Relative Efficiency of Classes of Different Sizes. (pp. 44) $.25 Bulletin No. 30, Proceedings of the Atlantic City (1930) Meet- ing. Papers on Curriculum, Guidance, Technical Courses, Graduation, Finances (4), Standards and Future of High Schools. Junior High School: Finances, Reading and Articula- tion. (4). Junior College: A State Institution (2), Standards, Articulation, Terminal Courses, Four-Year Junior College, in California, Curriculum, and Teacher load. Reports of Depart- ment Committee on Investigation of Secondary Education. I Tins stahontiiressehssttaviiaianatiicssenssichiceimbacedeiiamiaiaituaiamemaiamenall $2.00 Bulletin No. 31, April, 1930. History and Organization of the National Honor Society, OU ii eal ‘ $.25 Bulletin No. 32, May, 1930. Diploma Practices in Secondary Schools. (pp. 31)......$.25 Bulletin No. 33, October, 1930. Abstracts of Books and of Magazine Articles on Adminis- tration and Supervision. Also a Directory of Members. (pp. Dicctiiite aba tas csi aeilacen : ..$.50 Bulletin No. 34, January, 1931. Abstracts of Unpublished Masters’ Theses in the Field of Secondary-School Administration, University of Southern Cal- ifornia. (116 pp.) ....................-..2:c--ecee-eeee2 o e $.50 Bulletin No. 35, Proceedings of the Detroit (1931) Meeting. ALAR ate agi: RAD a $2.00 Papers on Philosophy of Education (1), of Secondary Education (2); Guidance (2); Extra-Curriculum Activities (2) ; Teaching Methods (1) ; Curriculum (1) ; Dramatics (1) ; Teaching load (1); Department Heads (1); and Libraries 294 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS (1). Junior High School: The Principal (1), Function of (1), Guidance in (1), Home room Program of (1), and Parent- Teacher Activities of (1). Junior College: Finances of (1), Defense of (3), Curriculum of (1). Bulletin No. 36, April, 1931. Abstracts of Unpublished Masters’ Theses in the Field of Secondary-School Administration, University of Southern California, concluded. (pp. 68) -............000........cc00-.--+- $.50 Bulletin No. 37, May, 1931. A Study of the Influence of Departmental Specialization on the Professional Attitudes of High-School Teachers To- ward Certain Administrative Problems. (pp. 70).............. $.50 Bulletin No. 38, October, 1931. Secondary-School Administration Abstracts, and Di- GC i hvisnsianecsccincictncithccssiiaciiiielinlitlcticia ates $.50 Bulletin No. 39, January, 1932. Abstracts of Unpublished Masters’ Theses in the Field of Secondary School Administration, Ohio State University $1.00 GE .cientcncissisvitsasdiciaiaigsianasanhinacddininiihcebiasinDieaemmenaaaneaenal $2.00 UNIFORM CERTIFICATES The Department of Secondary-School Principals has been distributing uniform certificates of recommendation for over ten years. At first they were sent out free to the members of the Department, but the demand for the certificates became so great that the printing and mailing charges became a burden to the treasury. Therefore was a change made. The blanks are used in transferring pupils from one sec- ondary school to another and particularly from high school to PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 295 college. The certificates are sent postpaid at the following prices: Mailing from Chicago 100 200 300 400 500 1000 ist zone__-.-.-__._ $ .80 $1.50 $2.20 $2.80 $3.40 $6.00 : Pk eS .80 1.50 2.20 2.80 3.45 6.10 Ba ee aes 85 1.55 2.25 2.85 3.50 6.20 BED Ri moccatentel ae 1.60 2.30 3.00 3.75 6.45 TORN Ns te eos .90 1.65 2.40 3.05 3.90 6.60 Chay Sees e 90 1.70 2.45 3.15 4.00 6.80 Se eee ~ 95 1.75 2.55 3.25 4.15 7.00 We sce, 1.00 1.80 2.60 3.35 4.25 7.20 The blanks will be mailed on receipt of price, or C. O. D. Direct orders to: H. V. Church, 3129 Wenonah Avenue, Berwyn, Illinois. THE STANDARD HIGH-SCHOOL PERSONAL RECORD CARDS The standard record forms (5x8) which were approved by the Department of Secondary-School Principals at the meeting at Boston are now printed on cardboard suitable for vertical filing systems, This card is especially designed for small and medium size high schools. . Space is provided on these blanks for scholarship records for five years. An extra year is included for pupils of four-year high schools who may desire to do graduate work. It is recom- mended that six year junior-senior schools use separate cards for the records of the junior and of the senior schools. When the guidance information called for in the lower right hand corner seems to be of a changeable nature, as would often be true of such items as “Vocational Preference,” it is suggested that it be written in pencil so that it can be erased and changed when necessary. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The schedule of prices, postpaid, follows: Zones 100 200 500 1000 1 and 2 $1.35 $2.65 $4.85 $ 8.85 3 1.38 2.70 4.95 9.00 4 1.40 2.75 5.05 9.15 5 1.42 2.80 5.15 9.35 6 1.45 2.85 5.30 9.55 7 1.48 2.90 5.40 9.75 8 1.50 2.95 5.50 10.00 The cards will be shipped on receipt of price, or C. 0. D. Direct orders to, H. V. Church, 8129 Wenonah Avenue, Berwyn, Illinois. GROUP LIFE INSURANCE The Department offers to its members life insurance in its most inexpensive form. The salient features of the plan are: 1. Low premium. The premium is ten dollars a year a thousand for those insured for $3,000. See table below for rates for those over forty-five years of age. No medical examination (with exceptions). Total and permanent disability benefits. If an insured member becomes totally and permanently disabled, his insurance will be paid in monthly installments. Conversion privilege. When an insured member leaves the profession to enter another professional or eco- nomic group, he may convert his group policy into any of the policies (except term insurance) customarily is- sued by the insurance company for the same amount at the current rates of the attained age. Age Limit is sixty-five years. Individual policies. These show rights of insured amount, and beneficiary. Current protection. There are no savings, accumula- tion, or paid-up features. Insurance is for one year at a time, and is renewable each year, at the option of the insured member. PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 9. Amounts offered: $3,000 for all ages from 21 to 45 (nearest birthday) inclusive. Annual rates for those under 45 years are $10 a year per $1000. $1,500 for all ages from 46 to 65 (nearest birthday) inclusive. Annual Rates per $1,000 for those 45 or older: Age Premium Age Premium Age Premium Ce $11.10 Seer $16.90 CI nica sso pce $28.15 MOI ic sicins cas section 11.65 |<: een 18.15 SEER ere 30.40 | eS 12.30 pee cee 19.50 | Saeco eee 32.90 7 Eee 13.05 BGs its Ie 20.90 i eee os 35.50 0 ae 13.90 |, Sane a 22.50 eA 38.40 — EEE 14.80 | ee 24.25 SEER 41.50 a 15.80 GR coweaaac 26.10 CBs ccna 44.90 “Send for application blanks to H. V. Church, Executive Secretary, 3129 Wenonah Avenue, Berwyn, Illinois. AUTOMOBILE INSURANCE The Department of Secondary-School Principals is now prepared to offer to its members reduced rates for automobile insurance. If you are interested in protection for your car at a lower premium than you are now paying, fill out the blank on page 46, and send it to H. V. Church, 3129 Wenonah Ave- nue, Berwyn, Illinois. Be sure to state clearly what coverage you now have, and particularly what you are now paying for this insurance. If you will fill the application blank and send it to the Ex- ecutive Secretary, the insurance company will quote their spe- cial rate to members. You will receive this quotation, and you can then decide if you can save money by accepting this special rate. 298 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS APPLICATION BLANK—AUTOMOBILE INSURANCE TT I sai. ites bciininstnseikcticseenchesaacicei UN i a a a a) 3 ea (City) (State) Date of expiration of policy you now hold ’ (Policy expires on this date) Annual premium you now pay. $.......2.........----:c-000--0000-- RRL ETIEO LOO ALA LISTE yr (Husband’s occupation if married woman) Description of car: Make......................-.---cc-:sccseeeeesseeeees acs Type of body................-......--------- Year built...... Factory number Engine numbevr........................ CE EEN CATER ET Actual cost New or second hand. Is car fully paid for?................-.............. (Cross out one) Mortgage clause t0..............2...-.---sssc---00000---- sii inbassotiaase cies The car is for business or pleasure? (Cross out one) Car kept in public or private garage? (Cross out one) Address (Where car is kept) Coverage you carry (Place cross in proper square) STII siacinsssn saps istinonscbisiventibleipcaiot OProperty: 0500 01,000 01,500 (Amount) OO ie a ea 0 Liability: 05-10,000 0 10-20,000 O Extra equipment........_.............. 0 20-30,000 CPD anni aes oCollision: o Full 0 $25 deduction O Plate glass 0 $50 deduction Mail this application blank to H. v. ‘ak: J. Sterling Morton High School, Cicero, Illinois. oOo} oO ts & 7 CO Ft OL rh bs) “oo PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING CONSTITUTION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ARTICLE I—NAME The name of this Department shall be the Department of Secondary-School Principals of the National Education Asso- ciation. ARTICLE II—AIM The aim of this Department is to promote the interests of secondary education in America by giving a special considera- tion to the problems that arise in connection with the adminis- tration of secondary schools. ARTICLE III—MEMBERSHIP SECTION 1—Membership in the Department of Secondary- School Principals shall consist of Active and Associate. SECTION 2—All Principals of Secondary Schools, namely Junior High Schools, Senior High Schools, and Junior Colleges, their administrative and executive assistants, Heads of Schools of Education in Normal Schools, Colleges, and Universities, to- gether with Professors teaching Secondary Education therein and Secondary-School Representatives of State Education De- partments, who are also members of the N. E. A., shall be eligi- ble to Active Membership upon payment to the Secretary of the annual fee of $2.00. Active members shall have the privilege of voting. SECTION 3—Members of State Organizations of Second- ary-School Principals shall be eligible to Associate Membership of the Department of Secondary-School Principals, as a group, by the payment to the Secretary of the annual fee of $1.00.* SECTION 4—All others engaged in Secondary Education, who are members of the National Education Association, shall *Note: This clause shall became inoperative as soon as the respec- tive state organizations can work out provisions for enlisting their mem-, bership as active members of this department. 300 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS be eligible to Associate Membership upon payment to the Sec- retary, of the annual fee of $1.00. SECTION 5—All members both Active and Associate shall receive all publications of the Department. ARTICLE IV—OFFICERS SECTION 1—Officers of this Department shall be a Presi- dent, First Vice-President, Second Vice-President, and Execu- tive Secretary, who shall be the executive officer of the Execu- tive Committee. SECTION 2—The Executive Committee shall consist of these officers, the retiring President, and two members of the Department. The Executive Committee shall be representative of Junior High Schools, Senior High Schools and Junior Col- leges. ARTICLE V SECTION 1—The president shall, in advance of the annual meeting, ask each of the state associations of the Department of Secondary-School Principals to name a representative who shall then be appointed by the president as a member of the nominating committee. SECTION 2—The nominating committee so constituted shall meet at the annual meeting, elect a chairman, and prepare a list of candidates for the several offices. SECTION 3—Eighteen members shall constitute a quorum with not less than three from each of the following regional as- sociations of colleges and secondary schools: New England As- sociation of Colleges and Secondary Schools, the Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Middle States and Mary- land, the Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Southern States, the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, the Northwest Association of Secondary and Higher Schools, and the Western Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. Any lack in the representation herein provided shall be filled by nomination from the floor. [cw wo PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 301 SECTION 4—The executive secretary shall be appointed by the executive committee. SECTION 5—The president shall appoint, subject to the ap- proval of the executive committee, two members who shall with the executive secretary constitute a board of finance who shall act in the capacity of trustees, have custody of the funds of the Department, have same properly audited, and submit annually a report to the Department. ARTICLE VI—MEETINGS SECTION 1—The Department of Secondary-School Princi- pals shall hold two meetings yearly. The regular annual meet- ing to be held at the time and place of the meetings of the De- partment of Superintendence of the National Education Asso- ciation, unless arranged for otherwise by the Executive Com- mittee of the National Education Association. SECTION 2—The second meeting of the Department shall be held at the time and place of the annual summer meeting of the National Education Association. ARTICLE VII—AMENDMENTS The Constitution may be amended by a majority vote of those present and voting at the annual mid-winter meeting. A proposed amendment must be submitted in writing at the pre- ceding annual meeting, or must be submitted in printed form to all members of the Department thirty days before the an- nual meeting. In case the latter method is used, such amend- ment must receive the approval of the Executive Committee before it can be printed and sent to the members of the Depart- ment. APPENDIX On Wednesday, February 24, 1932, the Department of Superintendence put on a program. Group V. Salient Prob- lems in Secondary Education, in the Hall of Nations of Hotel Washington. Some of papers which were there presented will 802 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS be of interest to secondary-school principals, therefore they are here printed. SUMMARY OF ADDRESS DELIVERED BY WILLIAM A. WETZEL, MEETING OF DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE Group V. Salient Problems in Secondary Education. TOPIC :—How to maintain a program of individual instruction in the face of shrinking school budgets. Garfield described a university as consisting of Mark Hop- kins the teacher on one end of a log and Garfield the student on the other end. But the picture of the old woman who lived in a shoe more nearly portrays the situation in the public sec- ondary school. Tutorial instruction does not fit into the practical condi- tions of school life. The public secondary school must recon- cile mass instruction with individual education. Probably because men considered the tutorial system the proper ideal, various accrediting agencies, believing that a de- viation from individual instruction was objectionable, estab- lished “standards” for class size. These “standards” in no way grew out of the task at hand or appropriate technique to ac- complish the task. How can we take care of the growing overload without lowering school efficiency? The writer suggests the follow- ing steps:— 1. Job analysis and determination of a proper technique. It is still common for English teachers to give com- posite rating which include work in spelling and voca- bulary building, composition, oral and written, and literature. Scientific organization must rest on scientific thinking. An analysis of English into its component parts, and a consideration of appropriate technique to PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 303 teach each of the parts will begin to reveal situations in which classes larger than “standard” can be taught. If the senior school will accept the proposition that vocabulary building is part of the work of every teacher, and that the spelling activities of the Eng- lish department shall be confined to the 3000 most common words in the English language the work of the English teachers in spelling can be confined to a test- ing program. The pupils will master these words outside of class. It is possible to arrange teaching materials for presentation to larger than “normal” groups in grammar, capitalization, punctuation, sen- tence structure, paragraph writing, the correct form of a letter, etc., etc. Every school should have a graded collection of hundreds of such exercises. The ma- terial may be presented in one of several ways. The old principle of false syntax may frequently be ap- plied. The work may be presented in incorrect form and the pupil will set it in its correct form. It may be dictated by the teacher, to be reproduced by the pupil. It may be presented on cards, charts, or pro- jection material for class use. In any case the correct form is always available and the pupil immediately corrects his own work. Periodic objective tests to de- termine the progress of the pupil to the next unit will help to sustain the pupil’s interest. Exercise in precis writing may be presented in text book or mimeograph form. The pupils may make their summaries, after which a model summary may be placed before them, on a chart, on the screen, or in any other convenient form. Again the pupils will at once criticise their own production. Exercises in outlining may be given to groups of considerable size. The teacher may read an essay well adapted to the purpose, the pupil building up his out- line as the teacher reads. Again a model outline will be placed before the pupil by which he shall judge the product. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS All this material will lend itself to treatment on in- dividual cards, or class charts, or lantern slides, or opaque projection cards. Questions like the following also may be treated in larger than normal groups: What is a drama, (illus- trate by reading or dramatics); Why should anyone want to write a drama; to read a drama; how does the essay differ from the drama; what are the ear- marks of a good novel; why do men write novels; why cultivate a taste for novel reading? Dramatic readings by the teacher, (every teach- er of literature should be a good reader) or by the best pupil readers; interpretative reading of good es- says; class presentation of dramatic scenes; demon- stration of poetic rhythms; interpretations of poems through music and pictures; singing of old songs in connection with courses in poetry; all these have a place in instruction of groups larger than are now considered normal. Provided graded material is plentifully arranged on cards and provided suitable testing material is al- ways at hand, it has been demonstrated that a teacher can instruct a class of fifty pupils on an individual basis in intermediate algebra. With instruction sheets previously prepared, a teacher can take two groups of normal size to the so- cial studies library, provided there is a sufficient num- ber reference books in the library. . Testing. The purpose of a testing program should be pri- marily to determine what should be retaught. The vi- cious thing about testing for ratings is that it results too frequently in passing pupils on 60% mastery of 100% of the course instead of complete mastery of possibly only 60% of the course. PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 305 The objective testing method should come into more general use. . Use pupils in the upper ability levels to help backward pupils and at times to check papers. This will be just as beneficial to the good pupils as to the backward pu- pils, and will be much better than marking time while the slower ones are coming on. The speaker is not here arguing for a-uniform program for all pupils. Drafting the abler pupils to help the weak pu- pils does not vitiate the principle of a differentiated program. The purpose of this paper has been not to set up a philoso- phical thesis, but rather to find a practical answer to the ques- tion, “How can we take care of the growing overload, without lowering school efficiency.” HOW TO IMPROVE SUPERVISION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS W. C. REAVIS Professor of Education University of Chicago The improvement of supervision in secondary schools has been impeded by four inherent difficulties. First. The special character of the program of studies in the secondary school has rendered supervision not only difficult for the general super- visor but has also tended to create distrust on the part of the supervised in the ability of a general supervisor to provide other than administrative assistance. Second. Many teachers in secondary schools because of inferior professional training have lacked the background essential to the adequate consider- ation of the problems of improvement proposed by general supervisors. Third. The principal as a general supervisor be- cause of lack of training in supervision has lacked the ability to supervise constructively the work of his departmental spe- cialists. Fourth. The traditions of the secondary school have tended to create an unfavorable mental set on the part of teach- ers toward supervision, 306 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The inherent difficulties specified offer formidable resist- ance to supervision in the secondary school, but they are by no means insuperable. When they are recognized by those re- sponsible for the character of secondary education in any school system, the first step toward their elimination has been made. Other steps can then be taken with greater promise of success- ful results . The superintendent in filling vacancies in secondary schools can avoid the employment of teachers who would re- quire extended education in overcoming the inherent difficul- ties mentioned. Individuals in service must also be made keen- ly conscious of the changes in attitude desired, and must be induced to undertake systematic training programs in the i im- provement of instruction. In the case of principals, the superintendent should see: First, that the rules and regulations of the Board of Education do not place undue emphasis on routine administration and clerical activities, thereby minimizing in importance the pro- fessional responsibility of the principal for supervison as has been frequently done.’ Second, the superintendent should pro- vide sufficient administrative and clerical assistance for the principal to enable him to budget an adequate portion of his time to the performance of supervisory activities. Third, the superintendent should provide the principal with departmental consultants either from the central administrative office or in the persons of department chairmen or heads to give advice regarding the needs for improvement in the department fields. Fourth, the superintendent should provide a budget item which will make possible the purchase of test materials for the carry- ing on of a supervisory program in the several departments of his secondary schools. With respect to the new teachers assigned to secondary schools, the superintendent should see that their qualifications are the best that his salary schedule can provide, and that the 1Analysis of the rules of 200 Boards of Education pertaining to prin- cipals show that 65.2 per cent of the rules prescribe administrative du- ties, 15.8 per cent clerical, and only 12.7 supervisory. ist- re- We) de. $s- 307 PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING principal have a voice in stating the requirements of the posi- tions to be filled in his school and his reasons for desiring cer- tain individuals from the list eligible to appointment. Unless the superintendent considers the views of the principal in mak- ing teacher appointments it is difficult to see how he can hold the principal fully responsible for the work of the teacher as- signed to the principal’s school. The foregoing methods employed by the superintendent toward the improvement of supervision in secondary schools are essential but not in themselves adequate. They must be supplemented by direct efforts on the part of the heads of the secondary schools. In this respect the superintendent can be of great assistance to the principals by requiring them to plan and carry out supervisory programs for their schools and to evaluate the results in periodic reports. In the planning of supervisory programs the superintendent and his staff mem- bers may offer assistance as consultants to the principals, or the principals may be advised to utilize their department chair- men and teachers in the development of programs. In either case, when a program has been planned by a principal it should be submitted to the superintende:.t both for the objective in- formation it will provide for him as the responsible leader of the school system, and the subjective effect of the act on the principal himself. Needless to say the superintendent should follow up the progress of the principal from time to time both by inviting informal conferences and by requesting formal reports. ; In the planning of a supervisory program the principal should by no means neglect the desires of his staff for super- visory assistance. Despite the inherent difficulties of inade- quate professional training and department consciousness, teachers in general are becoming aware of their professional needs. Data collected from 963 teachers of 8 departments in 33 schools show that the teachers desire, in the main, types of supervisory activities from principals not to be secured from the kind of general supervision often employed. Twenty-two per cent of the teachers desired to cbserve the work of super- ior teachers, 19 per cent wanted assistance in the diagnosis 308 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS of deficiencies in teaching and suggestions with respect to rem- edies, 14 per cent desired frequent personal conferences re- garding their work, 10 per cent were anxious to receive factual data regarding scientific experiments carried on in their re- spective fields of work, 10 per cent wanted commendation for work considered better than average, 8 per cent considered - frequent demonstration teaching desirable, 6 per cent needed assistance in the management of problem pupils, 6 per cent de- sired aid in the construction of tests, 4 per cent desired assist- ance in the preparation of lesson plans, and 3 per cent thought they ought to have tested formulas for meeting every kind of teaching difficulty. Sixty-six per cent of this group of teachers indicated that the supervision received by them was helpful, 23 per cent unhelpful, and 11 per cent did not specify whether it was helpful or unhelpful. Analysis of the respects in which the supervision was helpful and unhelpful shows that principals still have much progress to make in supervision. For example, on the positive side 31 per cent of the principals merely con- firmed the judgment of teachers regarding teaching which was considered good, 23 per cent aided the eachers in acquiring better teaching procedures, 14 per cent rendered assistance of a general nature which resulted in increased teaching efficien- cy, 12 per cent aided the teachers in the diagnosis of the learn- ing difficulties of the pupils, 8 per cent helped the teachers to plan remedial measures for the learning difficulties encount- ered by pupils, 5 per cent furnished aid to the teachers in acquiring better classroom control of the pupils, 4 per cent disapproved practices of the teachers that were formerly con- sidered satisfactory, and 2 per cent demonstrated the class- room practices which they expected the teachers to use. Of the principals who performed supervisory acts consid- ered unhelpful by the teachers, 27 per cent failed to reveal an appreciation or interest in the efforts of the teacher to make professional improvement, 23 per cent offered suggestions re- garded as invalid, 17 per cent condemned practices which the teachers formerly believed and continued to believe to be good, 15 per cent gave approval to practices which the teachers con- a a es he ao = © = ©} FF cor > —e -| ee 895 Bt TO ot Me _~ f& PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 809 sidered unsatisfactory, 11 per cent interrupted the program of work too frequently, and 7 per cent criticized teaching and offered no constructive measures for improving it. The foregoing analysis by teachers of the kinds of super- vision they would like to receive and the kinds actually re- ceived points the way to a constructive program of improve- ment in supervision to be encouraged on the part of the prin- cipals. First, the principal should seek to discover through sys- tematic visitation the individual needs of his teachers; sec- ond, he should develop criteria for use in supervision and see that the teachers understand and duly appreciate the criteria; third, he should provide for systematic conferences with his teachers both individually and in departmental groups as a means of specific training; fourth, he should seek to provide incentives that will enlist the interest of the teachers in the professional improvement sought through supervision. The accomplishment of the first task in supervision, name- ly, the discovery of the professional needs of his teachers through classroom visitation is difficult for many principals because they have established themselves in their schools as office managers instead of educational directors. If they rely on casual supervision to accomplish the first task the chances are it will not be satisfactorily done. The principal must therefore prepare a time budget for his day that will en- able him to visit classroom work systematically. He can go to science for a method, namely, the sampling method, which will enable him to gather limited data quickly through short visits as a basis for tentative conclusions. By sampling systematically the work of his teachers for short periods of time early in the school term, the principal will be able to make general appraisals of individual needs as a basis for the formulation of his supervisory program for the semes- ter or year. The use of this method makes possible the prompt identification of classroom problems requiring emergency treatment, and also enables the principal to give temporary assurance to individuals who require encouragement and ap- preciation to accomplish their best work. On the basis of the 310 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS findings of sampling surveys the principal can keep himself informed not only of the needs of individual teachers but also regarding the general conditions of his school. If used with- in its logical limitations and scientifically applied, the method makes possible for the principal through systematic observa- tion a wealth of information not securable in any other way, especially in large schools. The use of the sampling method by a principal necessi- tates the development of its complement, the case method. Mere discovery of need on the part of an individual is not sufficient. The need may require diagnostic study which will call for ex- tended visitation of classroom work, detailed personnel knowl- edge, and quantitative measurement. Again the principal goes to science for the required technique, namely, that of the case method. All available data regarding an individual must be collected, analyzed, and interpreted to the end that training may be provided, remedial assistance given, and professional improvement secured. The case method is needed for the successful teacher just as much as for the problem teacher. Complete understanding of successful teachers is essential if supervision in such cases is to be constructive. Successful teachers do not require diagnostic study and remedial assistance, but they often re- quire both professional recognition and challenge. Further- more, they may be stimulated to make professional improve- ment through the ways they are utilized by the principal in the solution of school problems. They may be utilized for depart- - mental leadership, in stabilizing teachers new to the system in directing the work of substitute teachers, in sponsoring pw pil activities, in demonstration teaching, and in heading com- mittees appointed for the study of professional problems. Supervision frequently comes to an impasse in a school because the criteria used in supervision are not mutually un- derstood by principal and teachers. For example, if the prin- cipal’s conception of a good assignment is a problem clearly understood by the pupils and properly motivated, and the teacher’s conception is that of an imposed task, obviously a 2 = Sl; ee PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 311 criticism by the principal of the teacher’s customary assign- ment given in the last 15 seconds of the class period, “Take the next five pages for tomorrow” will not be understood and will no doubt be resented. The basis for successful supervision must be established through the development of satisfactory criteria for use in the evaluation of classroom work. Irrespective of the specific criteria which may be set up for the evaluation of classroom work in local schools, at least five general criteria should be mutually understood by both teachers and principals: (1) The pupils should be made keenly conscious of the nature of the learning products which the teacher desires them to acquire. Without the operation of this criterion both learning and teaching tend to become aim- less processes. (2) The teacher is responsible for arousing in her pupils the motives and incentives to possess the learning preduct. Without the operation of this criterion, learning is artificial and teaching is little more than a routine act. (3) The teacher much utilize class-period time for directing and supervising the acquisition of the learning products by the pupils. This criterion fixes responsibility on the teacher for developing proper methods of study as well as determining how well pupils have studied. (4) The understanding or mas- tery of the learning product rather than mere power of ver- bal memory must be reliably determined. This criterion re- quires the use of objective tests and such other methods of measurement as will eliminate possibilities of guessing with re- spect to learning and teaching. (5) The teacher must strive to create on the part of pupils a favorable attitude or reaction toward the learning products acquired. The use of this criter- ion intensifies learning and tends to make the learning prod- ucts acquired valued possessions of the pupils. Through the use of general criteria, such as those enum- erated, vagueness in supervision is averted and mutual under- standing on the part of teachers and principal of the phases of classroom teaching is secured. Reliability in the evaluation of teaching by the principal may thereby be increased and self- appraisal by the teachers made possible. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The plan generally used by the principal for acquainting teachers with his views regarding the improvement of teach- ing and the results of observations of classroom work is the general faculty meeting. In recent years this plan has been criticized by teachers and in some schools allowed by princi- pals to atrophy from disuse. Other principals have continued to use the faculty meeting as a means of making professional contacts with their teachers. An evaluation of faculty meet- ings by 913 secondary-school teachers shows that principals cannot depend solely on general meetings for follow-up con- tacts with teachers in supervision. Thirty-eight per cent of the teachers indicated that the only beneficial result secured from such meetings was understanding of administrative regu- lations and requirements. Twenty-four per cent of the teach- ers thought that they received moderate stimulation and some practical suggestions; 18 per cent, specific help in dealing with the current professional problems of the school; 9 per cent, much professional stimulation and. some practical sugges- tions; 8 per cent, slight stimulation and few, if any, sugges- tions; and 3 per cent, discouragement and waste of time. The general faculty meeting must be supplemented by con- ferences with departmental groups and with individual teach- ers. The conference may be called by the principal or sought by a department chairman or individual teacher. In a sampling study’ of 522 schools, 58 per cent of the principals summoned teachers reegularly for professional conferences and 35 per cent issued a general invitation to the teachers to come to the principal’s office for conference when they desired. As a means of encouraging individual teachers to take the initiative with respect to conferences, 21 per cent of the principals provided office hours for teachers. The follow-up conference as a phase of supervision should neither be left to chance nor should its technique be vague and uncertain. The purpose of the conference should be mutually understood by teacher and principal. As a rule both principal and teacher should have factual material pertaining to the im- 1Reavis, W. C., and Woellner, R. C. Office Practices in Secondary Schools,.p. 207. Laidlaw Brothers, 1930. PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 313 provement of the work of the pupils to consider. This pre- caution, if observed, will make for cooperation and prevent the development of antagonism, which often results when the conference is concerned chiefly with personal criticisms of the teacher. If the principal is unskilled in the technique of the con- ference, he should analyze his deficiences and undertake to overcome them, for his success as a supervisor in the last analy- sis will depend on his ability to utilize the conference period effectively in the training of his teachers. He must establish himself in his school as a constructive critic of learning and teaching if his supervision is to function above the level of perfunctory inspection. The realization of this objective de- pends on his ability to conduct a successful conference with individuals and with groups. The development of a program of teacher improvement by the principal through supervision involves the wise use of incentives to professional growth. Professional improvement cannot be imposed by administrative decree. It must be de- veloped through the operation of incentives to professional growth. Incentives as factors in professional improvement are not wholly self-generating; they must be supplied in part by the head of the school through his supervisory program. Superior teachers may usually be improved through the incentive of professional recognition. By professional recog- nition is meant confidence in professional ability, not merely commendation. Through consultation regarding professional problems, through the delegation of duties requiring profes- sional knowledge and insight the teacher is stimulated to prove herself worthy of the confidence bestowed by the principal and equal to the responsibility imposed. The superior teacher can also be stimulated through the incentive of rendering a unique professional service to the school. The preparation of text material for a department, the development of tests, representing the school at an im- portant conference, preparing a demonstration lesson, con- ducting an experiment, carrying on a research investigation, 314 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS or the like may act as a powerful incentive to encourage pro- fessional development. The incentives of professional advancement and salary in- crease as rewards for professional improvement are strong factors in furthering professional growth among teachers of all efficiency levels, if wisely used and justly administered. However, without a supervisory program these incentives may prove to be trouble makers for the principal rather than means to a desired end. The superintendent of a school sys- tem can make possible the improvement of supervision on the part of his principals by placing on them the responsibility for wisely using professional promotion and salary advancement with their teachers as incentives to professional growth. Even the poorest teachers of the staff may be stimulated by a challenging school environment. Good physical equip- ment, proper materials of instruction, excellent pupil and teacher morale, efficient administration, and scientific super- vision act as incentives to professional endeavor. On the con- trary poor equipment, obsolete materials of instruction, low morale of the student body and faculty, inefficient administra- tion, and unscientific supervision may destroy professional am- bition and arrest the growth of a corps of teachers. The improvement of supervision in a secondary school is the direct responsibility of the principal, but the superintend- ent must decide whether he wants a supervising principal or a building manager. If he chooses the former he must create the conditions which make efficient supervision possible. How- ever, the creation of satisfactory conditions for the principal will not necessarily generate supervision spontaneously. The superintendent ‘must challenge the principal to develop a per- sonal program of supervision designed to stimulate and im- prove learning and teaching in his school, and must follow up systematically from time to time the progress made by the principal toward the realization of this important goal. Ps ae Cede ar sn PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING HOW CAN THE HIGH SCHOOL STIMULATE THE INTELLECTUAL INTERESTS OF AMERICAN YOUTH? JESSE H. NEWLON Professor of Education and Director of the Lincoln School of Teachers College, Columbia University. The profession of education must face squarely the funda- mental question of whether the American people would look with favor on a high school that would stimulate intellectual curiosity in all areas of experience. It may be that they desire only a high school that will condition youth to think in certain socially approved ways or to think not at all in certain areas of life. If the high school is to play a vigorous and construc- tive role it must stimulate youth to think constructively, inde- pendently, and courageously on the crucial problems of con- temporary society. The high school must contribute to mak- ing American minds critical of American life. This process in- volves a freedom of teaching that does not now exist, or at least is not now widely exercised. Let me make clear that I do not consider that a critical mind necessarily is a destructive mind. The two are by no means synonymous. Indeed, the non-critical mind will in the long run be the destructive mind, for it will be unable to ad- just to new conditions. The mind truly critical is appreciative of the riches of our social heritage while recognizing the de- fects of our social machinery. Perhaps the great task of sec- ondary education is that of cultivating minds that criticize, but criticize understandingly, with deep appreciation and lov- ing kindness, and constructively. What are some of the obstacles to the cultivation of in- tellectual interests in the American high school? The first has to do with methods of teaching, broadly conceived. Tradition- ally, American schools have operated on the theory, implicit at least, that the objective of teaching is the imparting of factual knowledge. Accompanied by elaborate testing programs, such teaching operates to prevent thinking rather than to encourage it. Where the textbook is the student’s main source of infor- 316 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS mation, where the old recitation method holds sway, with the student learning his lesson primarily for the purpose of repeat- ing it to the teacher, thinking has precious little encourage- ment. Knowledge is of scant value unless it can be intelligently used. Western civilization has acquired an amazing amount of knowledge in the last two centuries in almost every field of human activity. What is needed is the ability to interpret knowledge, to formulate judgments and carry out policies. The school has not been sensitive to this need. Due recognition should of course be given to the changes in methodology in the last generation. Slowly we are realizing the futility, so far as thinking is concerned, of a method in which the learner assumes a passive attitude, attempting mere- ly to absorb and retain as best he can the body of conventional factual knowledge that makes up the ordinary curriculum. Gradually we are shifting our method, placing more responsi- bility upon the student for active participation in the learning process. That psychology which holds that teaching is really impossible, that only learning can take place, is gaining ground. According to this school of thought, reflective thinking occurs only when the individual is confronted with a problem inter- esting to him or which in terms of his own life and his own motives demands solution. All that has been acquired in past experience is brought to bear in analyzing the new problem, de- fining its elements, evolving tentative hypotheses, testing them, and reaching conclusions. Thus learning is effective, for knowledge opens the doors to new knowledge. Obviously this is a very sketchy and inadequate statement of a psychology of thinking which many have accepted and are endeavoring to app!y in the schools. But such a psychology can be effectively applied only in a school} which is closely articulated with the society of which it is a part, which endeavors to make school situations natural and meaningful in terms of life. The ad- vocates of this new theory regard the school as a social institu- tion whose processes are social and whose function is not only to develop the innate capacities of each individual, (and that is of vital importance), but to provide that type of experience, =~ ar ~ - ee . PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 317 that allround thoroughgoing education that will best equip him to take his place as an effective member of society. The operation of this new theory of the school and of learning may be discerned in current educational practice in the recent appearance and popularity of such terms as “the socialized recitation”, the “problem method”, the “project method”, the “unit of work”, the “activity curriculum”. In harmony with the contention that learning is primarily a pro- cess of experiencing, the schools are now more richly supplied with equipment and materials. The library has come to be re- garded as a necessity in the school that views learning as an active mental process. Something of the method of the grad- uate seminar has come into many classrooms. Students are becoming active seekers after truth. Recognition of the edu- cational values in the life of the school outside the classroom has given great impetus to the extra-curriculum movement. If the procedures just described had gained wide-spread usage, the outlook for the stimulation of intellectual curiosity would be somewhat more encouraging. But the battle is not so nearly won. The picture I have sketched is still too much the exception, too little the rule. Some teachers and schools have moved a long way in the direction of these more vital methods; a great many have been more or less affected by them, the rank and file but little influenced. The textbook still holds sway. Few teachers have any clear-cut notion of the nature and the place of subject matter. Whatever lip service may be given to the newer doctrines, most of us are still operating upon the assumption that the learning of subject matter is the end of education. It we may judge by practice, the condi- tioned reflex theory of learning dominates the American school. The school (unconsciously, of course) is an instrument to condition the individual to think in certain approved ways. Always a powerful instrument for social control, the school un- critically enforces the ideals and standards of our acquisitive society. It places a premium on the acceptance of these stan- dards. The question is not one of the desirability of the school as an instrument of social control, but rather of the type of mind that the school shall seek to produce. Do we desire to 318 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS stimulate intellectual curiosity? If so, we shall move in one di- rection. Do we wish to determine thinking in advance, to guar- antee specific responses to certain cues, such as “America first” or “the sacred right of property”, “the Constitution a God- given and sacred document”, “Avoid entangling alliances”? If so, we shall proceed in a different way, in fact, very much as now. Whatever our professed intentions may be, we could scarcely point to our high schools as centers of intellectual curiosity in the realm of the social. If we seek an explanation of this state of affairs, it will be found in the conditions of American life. The American peo- ple are not afraid of experimentation, of radical thinking in the sciences, the applied arts, and in commerce. We are per- fectly willing to scrap a machine, no matter how expensive, if a more efficient one can be invented. The Waldorf Astoria that might have stood for a thousand years is torn down to make place for the Empire State Building. Gigantic industrial and commercial enterprises testify to our creativeness in busi- ness. But in politics, in government, in social affairs we have been sterile for more than a century. To discover great think- ers and inventive geniuses in this field we must go back to the Fathers of the Republic. The American Revolution was a great social upheaval. But since that great period we have produced practically no new ideas and, with few exceptions, no great leadership in social and political questions. Ideas have not been looked upon with much favor in these fields. It is not necessary to elaborate before this eitiietan the causes for this censorship of thinking in the social sciences. First of all, we have been tremendously absorbed in conquer- . ing a continent, in exploiting our natural resources, in build- ing a mighty industrial civilization. National success has made us complacent. Vested interests demand that the status quo be maintained. The school has been too much an instrument for the indoctrination of American youth in favor of the status quo. The teacher, too, has reflected the American temper. He has been little interested in social problems; has lived largely apart from political affairs. He, too, has cherished a hope, how- ever forlorn, that through some happy venture he might some EE a ee PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 319 day make a lucky strike and acquire a competence. But we have evolved a code which demands that the teacher should be neu- tral in politics. He may vote his sentiments under the pro- tective anonymity of the ballot, but he must refrain from pub- lic expression of them. This has gone so far that in one of our greatest cities in 1928 the superintendent of schools promul- gated an order that the issues of the presidential campaign should not be discussed in any school of that city. So long as this censorship on ideas operates, even though it be self-imposed by a teacher steeped in the mores and ideas of the culture of which he is a part, the American high school will do little to stimulate intellectual curiosity. Youth are in- tensely interested in the problems of the day. Why should not these problems be brought into the school? We need fewer sacred cows in education. The experimental spirit, the spirit of criticism, must be carried into social realms. Ours is a period of serious economic and social dislocation. The boasted American system has proved inadequate to the needs of the day. Seven million are unemployed; the farmers are unable to market their crops; hunger and suffering are found on every hand. In many of our great cities government is almost bangqrupt. The problems of the next generation de- mand the highest possible level of social intelligence.. Here the school finds its most difficult task, its gravest responsibility. We have heard much of fostering the creative spirit in education, but many advocates of creative education limit it too much to the arts. The student who can write a beautiful poem, paint a lovely picture, contrive something original in the plastic arts, or construct something new out of the materials of the laboratory or shop, is regarded as creative. This student is honored. The emphasis in creative education has been too much on the aesthetic side. It is true that the new school em- phasizes the importance of reflective thinking, but its efforts in this direction have been largely futile. To carry the creative idea into the social sciences implies nothing less than that American youth should make a realistic and critical study of the basic institutions and processes of American life, of our 820 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS business structure, of the family, of government and morals. Reference was made a moment ago to the intellectual giants of the days of the American Revolution. I can give point to the thought that I have tried to develop by asking whether you think men like Benjamin Franklin or Thomas Jefferson or a Tom Paine would be regarded as safe teachers for American youth in the high schools of 1932? It is quite possible that the time is close at hand (say with- in this century) when we shall have to choose between the stimulation of vigorous intellectual curiosity and creative thinking in these social areas, and disaster to our social struc- ture. As he surveys American life, the thoughful person can only be impressed with our futility in the face of difficult so- cial problems. We seem unable to think, to formulate policies. On every hand we hear the cry for leadership. Why is it that leadership in America has fallen so far short of the needs of the day? My belief is that the American people have no body of ideas in the social, political, and economic realms with which to work. Their working capital is the body of social ideas of the old agrarian order that ended with the industrial revolu- tion and the rise of cities in the last century. New conditions demand new ideas, but creative thinking in these realms has been frowned upon. Terrific pressure is brought on the school to enforce conformity. The high school can stimulate intellectual curiosity only if it is free to examine fearlessly the problems of American life and only if we as teachers have the courage commensurate with the task. I am not sure what the final outcome will be. I hope the forces of education will assert themselves vigor- ously. They may be able to turn the scales of public opinion in favor of freedom of teaching. If the school can be free, it can sét up activities that will not only arouse the intellectual in- terests of youth but will meet individual needs and provide for the innate potentialities of everyone. If I may close with a personal note, I will say that the ‘ events of recent months have encouraged me. I believe teach- ers and school executives, students of education, are alive to oe mre — as OCOD RrHt nO nwzwsS oe, my mM PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 821 their responsibilities to-day as never before. If we who occupy positions of leadership in this transition period rise to our re- sponsibilities, we can make education the constructive force that it should be. It is at this point that you and I face the greatest challenge in the history of American education. It is our business to make the high school a vitally constructive social force. It may be a dangerous business, but we will not measure up to our civic responsibilities unless we have the courage to meet this challenge, to take whatever risk individually it may involve. If I may judge by my own experience, we are altogether more timid than the occasion warrants. Whatever may be the de- sires or the indifference of the unawakened majority, there is a strong minority of intelligent, socially minded Americans of all parties and in every community that will join forces in making the schools socially constructive. These liberal for- ward-looking Americans will defend with might and main a school that dares to stimulate the intellectual curiosity of its pupils in every department of life. Special Club Rates for Consumers Research The Department of Secondary-School Principals can now offer to its members a special club rate for subscription to Con- sumers’ Research (one year) and to membership in the De- partment (one year) for three dollars. Following are excerpts from a leaflet issued by Con- sumers’ Research: DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS CONSUMERS’ RESEARCH Incorporated under the laws of the State of New York as a membership corporation 340 WEST 23rp STREET New York City Organized, to provide unbiased information and counsel on goods bought by the ultimate consumer; not a business enterprise, not operated fon profit. What widely advertised hair remover, sold by leading depart- ment stores throughout the country, has poisoned a number of users? What make of vacuum cleaner, out of seven tested, removed the highest percentage of dirt? What kind of gasoline injures the valves of many cars? What shaving soaps will reduce your shaving soap expenditure to three cents a year? Which of the cheapest brands of raspberry preserves is supe- rior to the heavily advertised kinds costing three times as much? Is Absorbine, Jr., to be recommended for athlete’s foot, Lister- ine for dandruff, or Vapex for a cold? What well-known toothpastes are harmful to the enamel of your teeth? Consumers’ Research Was Organized to Give You the Answers to These and Hundreds of Similar Questions. The answers are given as confidential information to sub- scribers only and come from impartial technical experts, not from manufacturerers, merchants, agents, or advertisers. Such information cannot be obtained by individual consumers from government bureaus or any other sources. All available data are supplied to Consumers’ Research’s subscribers in an annual PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 323 Handbook of Buying listing by name recommended and not- recommended brands of hundreds of different commodities, and in periodic Bulletins which supplement the Handbook and bring it up to date. The Confidential Service costs $2 a year (Canadian, $2.50; Foreign, $3). Consumers’ Research Tests and Compares Many of the Things You Buy. CONSUMERS’ RESEARCH is organized, supported and man- aged entirely by consumers and devoted to their service. It is designed especially for those who cannot afford to spend un- wisely either one dollar or one thousand dollars in a blind se- lection from dozens of competing articles, each asserted to be best. It is intended to fill the gap resulting from the failure of government adequately to protect the consumer against the ad- vertising and selling of completely worthless or even dangerous commodities. With full allowance for the efforts of the Federal Trade Commission and the Food and Drug Administration, the government affords practically no protection against fraudu- lent and misleading advertising and selling. Consumers’ Re- search is the only organization in the world which takes the risks of controversy with business interests involved in dis- cussing inferior products in terms which anyone can under- stand and apply in the selection and purchase of goods in the retail market. John Dewey, author and educator, Presi- dent, League for Independent Political Action, Professor Emeritus of Philos- COMMITTEE OF SPONSORS OF CONSUMERS’ RESEARCH Who vouch for its integrity, and esteem it to be competently administered: Grace Abbott, Chief of the Children’s Bu- reau, U. S. Dept. of Labor, Washington, D. C. Mary Arnold, Head of the Consumers’ Co- operative Services, New York City. Edith Ayres, Assistant Professor of Eco- nomics, Washington Square College, New York University. Harry Elmer Barnes, historian and socio- ont New York City. on ae, consulting engineer, Wash- wll ag H. Browshe “International President, In- ae Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, Washington, D. C. Frederic : Clark, consulting engineer, Boston, Mass. J. M. Clark, Professor of Economics, Columbia University, New York City. Agnes De ma, author and educator, Palo Alto, "Gant, ophy, Columbia University, N. Y. City. Paul H. Douglas, Professor of Industrial Relations, University of Chicago, Chi- cago, Carl Dreher, Fellow, Institute of Radio Engineers; director of sound, RKO Studios, Los Angeles, Calif. Morris Ernst, attorney-at-law, N. Y. City. Fred R. Fairchild, Professor of Economics, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Clinton S. m, Vice-President, Amer- ican Fund for Public Service, dirt farmer, Solebury, Penna. Henry Harap, author of The Education of the Consumer; Associate Professor of Education, Western Reserve University, Cievetne Hi. Research Director of the Teterantionnt Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, Washington, D. C. Melville Herskovits, Associate Professor of Anthropology, Northwestern Univer- sity, Evanston, Ill. 824 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOUL PRINCIPALS William Hodson, Director, Welfare Coun- cil of New York City. Edward V. Huntington, mathematician ; Professor of Mechanics, Harvard Uni- versity, Cambridge, Mass. Joseph Jastrow, psychologist, N. Y. City. Dexter M. Keezer, economist, editorial staff, the Baltimore Evening Sun, Balti- more, Arthur Kellogg, Managing Editor, The Survey, New York City. Dorothy Kenyon, attorney-at-law, New York City. Frank H. Knight, Professor of Economics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Il. Harry W. Laidler, Executive Director, League for Industrial Democracy; Presi- dent, National Bureau of Economic Re- search, New York City. ' Abraham Lefkowitz, Vice-President of the 3 American Federation of Teachers, New York City. Eduard C. Lindeman, Professor of Social Philosophy, New York School of Social Work, New York City. Robert Littell, author and critic, New York City. Isador Lubin, Institute of Economics of Brookings Institution, Washington, D. C. George S. Luckett, State Director of Public Health of New Mexico, Santa Fe, N. M. C. J. McGlogan, International Vice-Presi- dent, Brotherhood of Electrical Work- ers, St. Paul, Minn. McIver, Professor of Political Science, Columbia University, New York City. Julian W. Mack, Judge, Circuit Court, New York City. James Dysart Magee, Professor of Eco- the Holy Trinity, Brooklyn, N. Y. Fred J. Miller, Past President, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York City. Wesley Mitchell, Professor of Economics, Columbia University, New York City. A Muste, Vice-President, American Federation of Teachers; Chairman 0: Faculty, Brookwood Labor College, Katonah, = Harlow S. Person, Managing Director, Taylor Society, New York City. Sumner H. Slichter, Professor of Eco- nomics, Harvard University, Cambridge, ass. Norman Thomas, Executive Director, League for Industrial Democracy, New York City. Richard C. Tolman, Professor of Physical Chemistry and Mathematical Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Calif. R. G. Tugwell, Professor of Economics, Columbia University, New York City. Oswald Garrison Villard, Editor, The Nation, New York City. Colston E. Warne, Professor of Economics, Amherst College, Amherst, Mass. W. F. Willcox, Professor ‘of Economics and Statistics, Cornell University, Ithaca, and the following, who are also members of the Corporation: Morris L. Cooke, consulting engineer and member, New York State Power Author- ity, Philadelphia, Penna. — Hamilton, Professor of Economic Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Sonnet Y. Landis, Associate Secretary, Federal ‘Council of Churches of Christ in America, New York City. nomics, New York University, N. Y. City. J. B. Matthews, Executive Secretary, John Howard Melish, Rector, Church « Fellowship of Reconciliation, N. Y. City. Nature and Extent of Benefits to Subscribers. Those most familiar with the work of Consumers’ Research be- lieve that if its subscribers follow the advice it furnishes, they will be enabled, with few exceptions, to make their incomes go farther, and their purchases serve them better and longer and with less risk to life, health, and comfort than they possibly could without its assistance. The Cost of the Confidential Service. The Confidential Service is supplied for $2 a year (Canadian $2.50, Foreign $3). Subscription is open to any individual con- sumer who in good faith signs the application blank agreeing to keep the information confidential and remits the proper amount. Is le; PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING APPLICATION BLANK DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION I inclose $2.00, for one year’s subscription for membership, whereby I shall be furnished with all the publications and granted all the privi- leges of the Department of Secondary-School Principals, to begin RE Me NASP eT EE SSE LTR OER 5 ORL month Ee ona eats in enim eli cote tee ogi ate Ub ake aietee eee eee family first DRO nn a oo se aaegeaen unl, aati ete bachelor’s year master’s, year doctor’s, year POOR fo wi oss ose ce cule eet Soe ce eee first year here title name of institution BS Ra Se aay Oe a eee eae ss nm see snr soen ne att alaang eee CLUB RATES WITH CONSUMERS’ RESEARCH, INC. I inclose $3.00 for full subscription to the Department of Secondary- School Principals and to Consumers’ Research, Inc., to begin-_-------- REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON STANDARD FORMS Standardizing the Personal Rating Card During the past year this committee has sponsored an in- vestigation which was prompted by the increase in the number of requests for information of a personal nature about gradu- ates and former students of our secondary schools. More and more are colleges and prospective employers asking us for in- formation about character and personality traits, work habits, social attitudes, and the physical conditions of our former stu- dents. The variety of forms in which these inquiries have come have impressed us with the fact that we need to standardize the kinds of personal information which we gather and record so that our records will contain the data which is needed to an- swer such inquiries. Furthermore, we hope that the existence 326 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS of certain standard information in our records will tend to standardize the forms of the inquiries. In order to find out what the high schools, colleges, and in- dustrial concerns desire in the way of personal information, the committee sent out a request for material to 137 high schools, 147 colleges and universities, and 100 industrial and commercial concerns. The high schools were asked to send the forms used in collecting and filing information concerning the character and personal qualities of their pupils. Fifty-five high schools responded by sending forms. The colleges and uni- versities were asked to send the forms that they send to high schools when requesting information concerning the personal qualities of high school pupils who are seeking admission. Eighty-six colleges and universities responded by sending such forms. The industrial concerns were asked to send sam- ples of all the forms that they send to high schools when in- quiring about pupils who have applied for positions. Twelve of the 100 industrial concerns responded. In addition to the reports which were received, a number of the large business and industrial firms in and around Chicago were interviewed and information concerning the personal qualities of their junior workers, was collected. Some valuable information was secured from the rating scales and forms that were used by these firms. The data secured from this sampling were compared with other studies in an attempt to discover points of similarity or difference. An analysis of the forms showed a large variety of terms used, many of which were either synonymous or over-lapped considerably in their meanings. After consolidating these terms wherever there seemed to be over-lapping in their signi- ficance, it was found that they could all be included under eigh- teen general titles. Table No. I gives a summary of the fre- quency of occurrence of the terms in the eighteen groups of persona] traits found in the forms of the high schools, colleges, and industrial concerns. Lea Inte Fro Coo Ind Hez Soe: Hor Apr Cou Self Jud; Ent! Pro! Cou Ada the PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 327 An analysis of this table reveals the fact that the items of information desired by high schools and colleges and those de- sired by industry do not receive the same emphasis. Some of the items are high in all three lists while others that rank high in one list are comparatively low in another. There is greater agreement between the high school and college list than be- tween either of these and the industrial list. However, the list is small enough so that the same form can be used in collecting and submitting information to both colleges and industries. If it were desirable to shorten the list some of those having a low frequency could be dropped or combined with others. In pre- paring a rating blank, it has been thought best to omit four of the traits which have a rather low frequency in all three lists. TABLE I FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF EIGHTEEN GROUPS OF PERSONAL TRAITS FOUND IN THE FORMS OF EIGHTY-SIX COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES, FIFTY-FIVE HIGH SCHOOLS, AND A SAM- PLING OF INDUSTRIAL CONCERNS TRAIT— High School College Industry Total Leadership, initiative-..__________ 69 140 22 231 Intelligence ~-.-------------__-_- 52 138 18 208 Denne 62 sede a3 6 105 2 113 Cooperation ....<......-........ 56 39 13 108 ON or ka as al ats 36 57 11 104 Health (Physical vigor)---------- 27 69 7 103 Dependability ~-..-------------- 28 29 8 65 SOMIGERUEG Sonne wa swenanawncea 22 32 9 63 EIN cla nun cet ke 31 9 19 59 Appearance -.-~.--------------- 24 12 » 19 55 Exactness, accuracy__----------- 13 4 23 50 Courtesy, tact...._..........-.=- 22 8 15 45 Self-Possession, poise, self-control 11 10 14 35 Judgment, common sense----_---- 12 14 2 28 pS EERE 9 5 7 21 Promptness, punctuality_-------- 1 5 14 20 COONAN oo a eat wane Sk q 7 5 19 Adaptebility. ..-.........-.-—.- 3 7 1 11 There seems to be considerable evidence to support the contention that the existence of a personality trait depends entirely upon the nature and extent of the stimulus which may 328 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS produce such a reaction. It has been demonstrated that an in- dividual may exhibit certain traits under certain conditions and not under other conditions. Knowing how an individual acts in one situation will not be of service in predicting his ac- tion in another situation in which there are different condi- tions. In other words, traits are predictable to the extent that identities in stimulus reactions are predictable because traits are responses conditioned upon specific stimuli. However, the members of this committee felt that if an individual has ex- hibited certain reactions under a sufficient number of condi- tions to make them frequently noticeable to teachers and others associated with him, that they are worthy of record. It seems reasonable that the larger the number of situations in which a reaction is evident, the more the individual can be said to pos- sess that trait. A trait is really a habit of conduct or a mode of adjustment to a given type of situation. Therefore, only those traits or characteristics should be included in this list, which can be definitely recognized and roughly measured in compar- ing school children with one another in school situations. In preparing a rating blank, it must be kept in mind that the rating given a certain pupil by a certain teacher must be somewhat subjective and that the existence of the trait can only be measured by comparing its existence in different chil- dren and to the degree that it is evidenced in the presence of the person making the rating. This means that while one teach- er may rate an individual above the average in a certain trait, another may rate him below the average in that trait depend- ing on the general average of the pupils who have been ob- served by each of the observers and the extent to which that trait has been exhibited in the presence of each observer by the pupil rated. It is not the purpose of this committee to attempt to de- termine the validity of rating scales or rating methods, but rather to set up a record form which can be used for recording the judgments of teachers regarding the existence of certain personal characteristics in order to answer the inquiries of colleges and industrial concerns. With this idea in mind and with the results of the investigation as shown in Table No. I, PROCEEDINGS OF THE WASHINGTON, D. C. MEETING 329 the committee wishes to submit the attached form for the con- sideration of the department. The items included in this form are listed in the order of the frequency with which they have appeared in the consolidated lists in Table No. I, omitting those that it seems impractical to attempt to measure. It is recom- mended that high schools desiring to use a smaller number of items omit those at the bottom of the list as being the ones called for least frequently. It is suggested that copies of this form be used in securing reports from individual teachers at the time the pupil graduates or withdraws from school and that these reports be consolidated on one card to be kept in the per- manent office file. The committee wishes to recognize the work done by Mr. Herman O. Duncan, a graduate student in the School of Educa- tion of The University of Chicago, who, under the supervision of Prof. W. C. Reavis, analyzed the forms secured from schools and business concerns, and prepared the lists of items which have been used in this report. He also did considerable work in checking with other studies of a similar nature. Respectfully submitted, R. R. Cook, Chairman W. C. Reavis F. J. DuFrain H. V. Church 330 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS RATING SCALE OF PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS INSTRUCTIONS: In each trait or characteristic, compare the subject to be rated with the average pupil of the same age, then make a small cross somewhere on the line for each trait. Note that the middle of the line represents the average ‘while the ends represent the opposite extremes. Below Average Average Above Average 1, LEADERSHIP: The ability to enlist followers or to influence others. | i ‘ | 1 ' 2. INTELLIGENCE: The ability to learn. | ! ! | | ! ‘ 1 | | i PROPRIETY: Regard for moral and social standards. | i] | ! | 1 ' i | | COOPERATION: Ability to work or play well with others. ' ' | : | | i | INDUSTRY: The habit of carrying tasks to completion. | ! ! | 1 ' | | ' PHYSICAL VIGOR: Enegry, 'iamatinds ! ! ! | | ' 1 i ' DEPENDABILITY: Regard for duty, habit of keeping agreements or carrying out responsibilities, | | } | | | SOCIABILITY: Ability to mix well and make friends easily. ! ! | ! ! ' ' ' i i} HONESTY: Integrity, truthfulness, sincerity, trustworthiness. ! ! | ! i i | ' PERSONAL APPEARANCE: Neatness, good taste, personal at- tractiveness. | | | | | EXACTNESS: Accuracy and thoroughness in performing tasks. ) | ] | | | ' i | 1 COURTESY: Consideration for others, tactfulness. | | | SELF-POSSESSION: Poise, nace self-confidence. 1! | | | | ! ! | | | ' 1 i 1 PROMPTNESS: The habit of punctuality in meeting appointments. |