R E P O R T eS &€eeekt ss ED 020 413 VT 005 256 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA. YEARBOOK, 1958-59. BY- SWANSON, GORDON I. ‘ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSN.;, WASHINGTON, C.C. PUB CATE 59 ECRS PRICE MF-$1.50 HC NOT AVAILABLE FROM EDRS. 355P. DESCRIFTORS- RURAL AREAS, *VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, *RURAL EDUCATION; ECUCATIONAL HISTORY, EDUCATIONAL FINANCE, PROGRAM ADMINISTRATION, AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION,- BUSINESS EDUCATION, DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION, HOMEMAKING ECUCATION, TRADE ANC INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, INDUSTRIAL ARTS, OCCUPATIONAL GUICANCE, ECUCATIONAL FROBLEMS, *REFERENCE 6. 4S, A YEARBOOK ADVISORY COMMITTEE, APPOINTED BY NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION'S CEFARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION AND AMERICAN: VOCATIONAL ASSOCIATION MEMBERS, APPROVED THE OUTLINE, ASSISTED IN SELECTING AUTHORS, ANC REVIEWEC MANUSCRIPTS FOR THIS YEARBOOK ON VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AREAS. THE DISCUSSION IS IN TERMS OF THE UNIFYING THEME THAT CESCRIBES THE FROBLEMS OF RURAL EDUCATION--THE MALCISTRIBUTION OF HUMAN, ECONOMIC, AND ECUCATIONAL RESOURCES. FART I, WHICH TREATS THE ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IS OFFERED IN AMERICAN SOCIETY, COVERS ITS HISTORY, AFFECTING FORCES, PROBLEMS OF ACCOMMOLATION;, INSTRUCTIONAL LEVELS, FINANCE, ACMINISTRATION, AND ITS ~ FUTURE. PART iI FRESENTS THE CONTRIBUTIONS AND OFPORTUNITIES IN (1) AGRICULTURAL, BUSINESS, CISTRIBUTIVE, HOMEMAKING, TRACES ANC INCUSTRIAL ECUCATION, ‘2) INDUSTRIAL ARTS; AND (3) VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE. THE FINAL CHAPTER EXAMINES THE CRITICAL ISSUES IN VOCATIONAL ECUCATION. OFFICIAL RECORDS AND LISTS OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS OF THE CEFARTMENT OF KURAL EDUCATION ARE LISTED. THIS COCUMENT IS AVAILABLE FOR $4.66 FROM CEFARTMENT ‘OF RURAL EDUCATION, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, 1261 SIXTEENTH STREET, N.W.s WASHINGTON, C.C. 26006. (JM) ‘\ é ae FOpQ 204 PROCESS WITH MICROFICHE AND PUBLISHER’S PRICES. MICRO- FICHE REPRODUCTICN ONLY. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA th LOANED ho PQQ QS EE AAS OE aia Ned marmite pa eR ae Om It a ae ee Ee l PROCESS WITH MICRO FICHE PUBLISHER'S PRICES. MICRO. | FICHE REPRODUCTION ONLY. Vocational cation for Rural America Edited by GORDON I. SWANSON ° U.S. DEPARTMENY OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION Xf) a © THIS DOCUMENT SAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS Ts] STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION 0 eer POSITION OR POLICY. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL ERE. TIAN National Evweatinn Asenolation of the United Slates VAN) Binteenith Biyeet, Northweat, Weahington 6 P.O Y | Parnilestan (6 tapredies His eepyiiahiad Waik Hae Haah Hid 16 he Rdveational Reaeuieea liteiiation Canta RIC) and te the erganisaiion aperating under eantiaet with the Offies te Edueation 16 repredues deeumenta ih eluded in the ERIC syatem by means of mieratiche analy, but thie rlaht (8 Het eanferred te any veere af the Miers fiehe reesived from the FRIC Deeuinent Repradvetion Services, FuHNer rapredvelleh oF WHY BUH PeqUINeR par WiSRIBH BE INE BBBYETAHE BWHE} Copyricut 1959 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNrrep STATES DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION Library of Congress Catalogue Number:—59-14673 Published hb ity Department of Rural Bavoation of the Nation VORTION ASSOOIRRION 85 |B a ro Ss mompers, AggHHONA) oo ti may De ordered fiom Mh Nap weagion fiso it i P Safes Wiad Me } ee LPR Roe ebdet apa Ht cP 4 Copies At + ; Bers aH o tH i of more Suble ON pareent 6 ny toe bit bi Shed kbatiiled i fAdale Pirpgded A Hh hin Aniininht (4 | ‘if ladd Hiiet We dnooeiomnted y Finda 1h payitient Carats oharied Will be made wh atl welled Het ae eonnparited ty finde tn payinent, Addemae conned eations and make chwee payalle to the National Hilieatnn Aaenedaton, 1000 Ssteonth Hives, NW, Washington 8, DO, FOREWORD Rural education is not so much a field of specialization per se as it is the application of many fields of specialization to situations which have certain unique problems and characteristics. Its primary concern is that the educational programs provided for rural children and communities shall not be limited or less adequate just because of circumstances affecting life outside larger urban centers. It is difficult, almost impossible, to delimit rural education, since nearly all problems which arise from efforts to provide adequate educational opportunities in smaller communities impinge on and merge with the concerns of others. In a very real sense, any of the existing inadequacies of educational programs in rural areas can be resolved only as the problems which face education as a whole are recognized and attacked through cooperation and mutual reenforce- ment. This Yearbook is a product of cooperative efforts. It brings to- gether the knowledge, experience, perceptions, and concerns of leaders in many phases of education. It is an assemblage of facts and ideas clustered around the general theme of Vocational Education for Rural America. Its title hints at the problems that are squarely confronted in its chapters. The bounds of knowledge and requirements in vocational skills have expanded to such an extent and the demand for specialization has pressed so compellingly that it is extremely difficult for anyone today to get an integrated and meaningful grasp of the world of work around him. The vast array of available vocations requires more than ordinary poise and perspective in order te make an intelligent initial choice. Providing instruction that prepares each individual for competent and rewarding performance in a chosen vocation requires the best that any educational system can offer. But educational opportunity seems always to be offered with certain restrictions. There are restrictions in boundaries of school organization, in financial resources, and in the availability of teach- ers. These are restrictions that result from the inability of the iii Sang magico teh earl Pe Tae Be educational enterprise to prevent a lag as it adjusts itself to change and developing technology. Many of these restrictions are found in rural areas, and, indeed, in many rural schools the lack of voca- tional education is the most severe educational shortcoming. In the pages of this Yearbook, one will find discussed some of the hazards and annoyances of vocational education along with its contributions, opportunities, and durable satisfactions. A discerning reader may well discover differing points of view, since each author has undertaken to write imaginatively and creatively. The result has been continuity without cumulativeness. The authors of this volume are not eager to squander a cultural heritage that has obtained much of its direction from pride in community and pride in workmanship. They are interested in a balanced, growing educational program—one that does not require “crash programming” or “five-year plans” for any aspect of educa- tion. Each of the aspects of vocational education is examined and viewed in its role of preparing individuals for the future. It becomes a privilege for anyone in a position of leadership to consider these towering possibilities. M. D. MosLey Howarp A. Dawson Executive Secretary Executive Secretary American Vocational Department of Rural Education, NEA Association e CONTENTS Page ra ee eer er rr ore rere re errr iii Yearbook Committee ............ cece ccccccccccccccccecs vi Development of the Yearbook .................:eeeeeeeeee vii TOI oa. 5 v5 in dna cnn ce sic caudenwedescisnnci x Part | Chapter 1. Vocational Education in the Past and Present Culture.... 3 2. Forces Affecting Vocational Education in Rural America.. 19 3. Problems of Accommodating Vocational Education...... 37 4. Vocational Aspects of Elementary Education............ 51 5. Vocational Education for Rural Adults.................. 63 6. Financing Vocational Education..................0006. 79 7. Administering Vocational Education..................4. 117 8. The Expanding Horizon in Vocational Education........ 139 Part Il 9. Vocational Education in Rural Community Areas........ 155 10. Agricultural Education—Its Contributions and SU 6 nha nk Kae sc tG decd neveded das sden annuus 171 11. Business Education—Its Contributions and Opportunities . 193 12. Distributive Education—Its Contributions and Opportu- | Ey ee Cae e ee yee L S oe e eer TT ETE Sere eee Tee 211 13. Homemaking—Its Contributions and Opportunities....... 237 14. Trade and Industrial Education—Its Contributions and co nr errr e rere tS y aie pie 253 15. Industrial Arts—Its Contributions and Opportunities. ..... 269 16. Vocational Guidance—Its Contributions and Opportunities . 281 17. Critical issues in Vocational Education.................. 299 Official Records, Department of Rural Education............. 309 MEE Gy OI so is odie ka cas nsenaedsaabiawssacs 317 | RPA Yr yer oP Se TY Pee Te eee Eee REE E ESE CLO ee ETT 347 Vv YEARBOOK ADVISORY COMMITTEE Gorpon I. Swanson, Chairman Associate Professor, College of Education, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota Lowe. A. Burkett, Assistant Executive Secretary, American Vocation- al Association, Washington, D. C. H. O. Cartton, Director, North Georgia Trade and Vocational School, Clarkesville, Georgia Lois M. Crark, Assistant Secretary, Department of Rural Education, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. Howarp A. Dawson, Executive Secretary, Department of Rural Educa- tion, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. CATHERINE Dennis, Supervisor of Home Economics, State Department of Public Instruction, Raleigh, North Carolina RoserT M. Isenserc, Assistant Secretary, Department of Rural Educa- tion, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. WituraM B. Locan, Head, Teacher Training, Distributive Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio M. D. Mos ey, Executive Secretary, American Vocational Association, Washington, D. C. L. J. Purpps, Assistant Agriculture Teacher Trainer, University of Illi- nois, Urbana H. O. Tuomas, Supervisor, Industrial Arts, State Department of Educa- tion, Baton Rouge, Louisiana | ARTHUR L. WALKER, Vice President, American Vocational Association, State Department of Education, Richmond, Virginia DEVELOPMENT OF THE YEARBOOK Interest in vocational education has increased substantially in recent years. This fact may be related to the development of concepts regarding vocational education’s role in our developing society and the extent to which this same society demands excellence in every aspect of educational endeavor. Whatever the reasons, it is evident that we are approaching a period in which teachers and school administrators will find it necessary to depend more heavily upon a knowledge of vocational education than they ever have before. Similarly, rural education as a field of study has increased its significance to all educational specialties. It has focused its attention on the problems of size and structure in educational programming. It has examined the problems of population sparsity, migration, school reorganization, suburban development, and the provision of specialized instruction and educational services through cooperative or shared programs. In short, rural education as a field of study consistently has taken its character from the nature of the problems with which it has dealt—specific problems related to a maldistribu- tion of human, economic, and educational resources. This Yearbook begins with a glimpse of the environment in which vocational education is offered in American society. Later chapters present the opportunities which this environment offers. All of this discussion can be couched in the unifying theme that describes the problems of rural education—the maldistribution of human, eco- nomic, and educational resources. Some parts of the Yearbook are purely descriptive, some are coldly analytical, and some may be controversial. Ideally, perhaps, a yearbook should be all of these, thus providing a reservoir of information to the reader and at the same time gently urging him to choose among ideas and alternative solutions to problems. The development of a yearbook which would consider Vocational Education for Rural America grew from desires of the membership of the Department of Rural Education, as expressed through its Commit- tee on Publications and Constructive Studies. The possibilities of such vii a volume were applauded by the American Vocational Association, as expressed by its Executive Board. Each organization joined in the appointment of a Yearbook Advisory Committee. This committee reviewed and approved the basic outline which guided the develop- ment of this Yearbook, it assisted in the selection of authors, and it reviewed the edited manuscripts. Without the cooperative and enthusiastic effort of each committee member, this volume could not have been developed. It is entirely fitting that the Department of Rural Education and the American Vocational Association should join together in this undertaking. As rural educational leaders work to expand and improve the educational opportunities available for rural children and communities, their inost difficult problems center around finding ways in which broad programs of vocational education can be offered. Leaders in each of the specialized vocational areas working to expand training opportunities in their field similarly find that their most difficult problems center around expansion in rural areas. The problems and obstacles these separate special-interest groups en- counter are the same. This Yearbook represents the jojnt efforts of these rural and vocational educators. In its pages their mutual concerns are identified and described; solutions which they have The completion of any yearbook depends upon many people who remain unidentified, and it is not possible here to name all who have assisted in this effort. Special mention, however, should be given to Howard A. Dawson, executive secretary of the Department of Rural Education, National Education Association, and M. D. Mobley, executive secretary of the American Vocational Associa- tion. Special mention should also be given to Lois Clark, assistant secretary of the Department of Rural Education, and Lowell Burkett, assistant secretary of the American Vocational Association. Their encouragement and guidance is most appreciated. Most unheralded and most appreciated have been the contribu- tions of Robert M. Isenberg, who once again has contributed his superb abilities and tremendous energies to putting a Department of Rural Education Yearbook into presentable form by unifying its style and eliminating much of the duplication in its content. viii errr _ minanis Finally, it should be said that the content of this volume is a notable integration of several important fields of scholarly inquiry. The teacher, administrator, or lay citizen who accepts its challenge will work with more understanding and more purpose, He will view an increasingly complex society as it interacts with many of the problems that prompt its complexity, He will realize that pro- viding effective experiences in education constitutes one of the most difficult yet fascinating problems confronting teachers—and this is of interest to everyone. Gorpon I, SwANsON Editor . 2S aa IPI Om as en ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Department of Rural Education is indebted and wishes to express its sincere appreciation to all those who have contributed to the planning, preparation, and publishing of this 1958-59 Year- book, We are especially appreciative of the efforts of Gonnon I, Swanson who, in a dual capacity as chairman of the Yearbook Committee and editor of the Yearbook, contributed most generously of his time, his energy, and, even more importantly, his unusual perception and understanding of both vocational and rural educa- tion. We wish also to recognize the following agencies and individuals for their special contributions to the Yearbook’s development and production: American Vocational Association—For their encouragement, sup- port, and enthusiastic cooperation in every phase of the Yearbook process. We are most appreciative of the special AVA Committee appointed to work with the Department of Rural Education in this Yearbook effort, Not only did that advisory group become a part of the Yearbook Committee and in such capacity help in planning the outline and content of this volume, but, as individuals, many accepted responsibility for preparing specific chapters, We espe- cially wish to acknowledge the contributions of AVA’s executive secretary, M, D, Mon.ity, and assistant executive secretary, Lowe.t A, Bunxerr, for their help as advisors, members of the Yearbook Committee, writers, and reviewers of the entire manu. script, Their ready willingness to assist has been a most valuable resource, NEA Diwision of Rural Service—For coordinating the numerous details which the preparation and development of a publication of this type involves. We wish to express special appreciation to Mrs. Esre.te Lamkin for making all of the copy ready for printing and to Mary M. Connon and Mary L. Morexanp for revising the Roster of Members. NEA Division of Publications—For editorial services, art services, and other technical assistance and guidance throughout the produc- tion of this Yeerbook. By giving careful attention to style and phras- ing, Exizanern Nevson and ANN Marie McGovern have contributed much to improving the quality of each section of this publication. For design of the cover and title page we are indebted to James L. Wa.xen, Our sincere thanks are extended to each. Universal Lithographers, Inc.—For printing services which have been under the direction and general supervision of G, Wiiu1AM KInSCHENHOFER, Photographic Illustrations~We wish to acknowledge the following sources for the photographs used in this volume: Chapter 1—Ameri- can Vocational Association; Chapter 2—American Vocational Associ- ation; Chapter 3—American Vocational Association; Chapter 4—Uni- versity of Minnesota; Chapter 5—American Vocational Association; Chapter 6—American Vocational Association; Chapter 7—American Vocational Association; Chapter 8—Carl Purcell, National Education Association; Chapter 9—American Vocational Association; Chapter 10—American Vocational Association; Chapter 11—United Business Education Association; Chapter 12—American Vocational Associa- tion; Chapter 13—American Vocational Association; Chapter 14— American Vocational Association; Chapter 15—American Vocational Association; Chapter 16—Carl Purcell, National Education Associa- tion; Chapter 17—American Vocational Association, PART I CHAPTER | Vocational Education in the Past and Present Culture Powaias opportunities for vocational education to those living in smaller communities and rural areas is increas- ingly important as our country moves steadily toward becoming more specialized, more diversified, and more interdependent. In- dustrialization and mechanization now influence even the most remote and isolated places. Our need to extend and expand voca- tional education to rural America stems from present and develop- ing social and economic circumstances. The social history of vocational education is a fascinating feld of study largely neglected, As yet, no historieal studies of this Held have beer attetipted, perhaps beeaiee ite initiediate eeonotiie and doelal pores Had Hee ab eyideHt that HOHE, BH Are dlaHee seeHied Heeeadaty, Nee ban eHeH He ablenipled here, Bul hlabarinal dapeeld cannAl he ignared, fay vaeational edvealian ia founded HpAH @ pattern af ideas that pelleete auy developing eulbate, Ouv civiligation’s tendeney toward ineveased geeupational ape cialization has eveated need for a similay specialization in education, At all levels the seope of both oceupational responsibilities and their preparatory flelds of study have been narrowed and intensified so that the extremely complex and often subtle subject matter of each may be mastered, This narrowing tendency might be called “vocational specialization,” However, at the same time each field hecomes more specialized than before, there is a concomitant de velopment, a need for the broadening of each fleld, apparently re lated ta the demands ef democratic pba ay diversified consumption, and the general diffusion of knowledge, In shart, as more and mare people specialive, there ie a greater need than ever Gorton 1 Bwanken, asenetate prafessan Department of Agroultiral Beeation, University of Minnesota, 8) Paul prepared the original draft af Ohapter |, i) 4 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA that they have a general knowledge of all other areas affecting their vocations and their lives. When these educational tendencies are realized in the proper proportions in an individual, the result is the “educated” man. There is danger in using the words “broadening” and “narrowing.” They can add fuel to the long-standing argument between pro- ponents of general and liberal education as opposed to the voca- tional or utilitarian. Worse, such words suggest that education can be easily divided and sorted into categories that have a genuine taxonomic relationship rather than serving as mere convenience groupings. (Algebra, for example, is supposed to be closely related to physics. This relationship is not real, basic, or natural. It is merely useful.) The words “broadening” and “narrowing” are used here only for convenience and because they are useful in describing a trend; they are not intended to suggest a compart- mentalization of areas of knowledge. Such compartmentalization may lead to confusion, particularly if efforts are made to define and evaluate each of the areas. At first glance, certain specific vocations or professions appear to be more difficult than others, at least in the sense that fewer persons: undertake and discharge them. We assume, for example, that only mature, well-selected, and well-educated persons can be physicians, lawyers, teachers, airline pilots, and rocket engineers. The differ- ence between well-rewarded and poorly rewarded vocations, how- ever, is actually only a reflection of the social value of the service rendered. Intrinsically, it is probably no harder to fly a plane, heal the sick, or operate a typewriter than to teach the young or to operate a farm. But the standards of service exacted by society differ greatly. Acceptability in certain fields is dependent upon unusual native ability and elaborate training. In others, persons with a minimum of training may render acceptable service. At various times during the course of history the services offered by scientists, farmers, physicians, and poets have been depreciated, despised, and relegated to the untrained. At other times and under different conditions these services have been well rewarded and reserved for those who could achieve the highest standards of serv- ice. The value society places on productive services is constantly changing. These changes provide a glimpse of the relationship between education and its surrounding culture. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION—PAST AND PRESENT 5 Vocational Education and Ancient Culture Many aspects of modern society may be traced to the culture of Classical Greece and Rome. Sources for most of the current argu- ments about liberal education can be found in that setting. The Athenian philosophers of the fourth and fifth centuries, B. C., sought “universal ideas.” And although these thinkers seldom overlooked the empirical basis or the ethical and social consequences of their teachings, they were more concerned with speculative than prag- matic issues. It is paradoxical, indeed, that many of the principles of democracy as well as the earliest concepts of liberal education were originated in a slave-owning society. Athens in all its magnificance was di- vided into freemen and slaves, rulers and subjects. The slaves carried on the specialized occupations involving manual work; the freemen were concerned with the rights and duties of citizenship, the occupation of leisure without manual work, and the pursuit of their best definition of the good life. The burdens of the numerically larger slave population were without dignity. The privileges of a liberal education as well as democracy itself were carefully rationed to the minority liberated from manual toil. The prominence accorded “universal ideas” by the philosophers and the structure of Athenian society were reflected in education. The training of Greek youths of the leisure class was “exclusively in the liberal arts, without any utilitarian tinge” and designed to lead to “the reflective pursuit of the good life.”"’ They were taught how to fight, philosophize, and be good citizens. On the other hand, apprenticeship became the process for preparing other young men for skilled trades; this was particularly the case for the slaves whose training was entirely vocational. (Apprenticeships proved to be one of the most enduring of educational methods; even during the blackout of learning during the Dark Ages, the apprenticeship was one of the few learning processes that continued to survive and Ow. ) * obese to Greek culture is not intended to suggest that any direct line of influence may be traced from classical culture to present-day vocational education. It is significant that the demo- cratic ideal in Greek culture did extend the concept of “noble” man 2 Committee on the Objectives of a General Education in a Free Society. General Education in a Free Society. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945. p. 52. 6 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION EOR RURAL AMERICA to include those who, although not of royal descent, possessed the proper qualities—learning, valor, civic responsibility, and virtue. The concept of “noble” was broadened. In fact, Greek education set out to create “noble” men. But one barrier remained. The “noble” man was also a man of leisure. The term “noble” did not apply to those who acquired competence in science, technology, or manual skills. This concept under the term of “gentleman” continued into and through the period of the Renaissance in Europe. That only the leisured man could be a gentleman is illustrated by Sir Thomas Smith's statement in De Republica Anglorum: “Whosoever studieth the laws of the realm, who studieth in the universities, who pro- fesseth liberal sciences, and to be short, who can live idly and with- out manual labour and will bear the port charge and countenance of a gentleman, he . . . shall be called a gentleman.” Actually, the influence of Greek and Roman culture on vocational education may have been more adverse than positive. To the extent that education has experienced cultural lag and insofar as all education is measured against Plato's ideal of perfection, the contribution of the early Greek thinkers may have had a genuinely negative effect on vocational education. This conclusion was empha- sized by Alfred North Whitehead in his address on “Technical Education and its Relation to Science and Literature.” He con- cluded that Plato’s type of culture is the peculiar inspiration of the liberal aristocrat. “For certain people it is a very good education. It suits their type of mind and the circumstances amid which their life is passed. But more has been claimed for it than this. All educa- tion has been judged adequate or defective according to its approxi- mation to this sole type.” Whitehead goes on to say: “... the peculiar merit of a scientific education should be that it bases thought upon first-hand observation; and the corresponding merit of a technical education is that it follows our deep natural instinct to translate thought into manual skill and manual activity into thought. ... A technical education is not to be conceived as a maimed alternative to the perfect Platonic culture; namely as a defective training unfortunately made necessary by the cramped conditions of life.” ? Barker, Ernest. Traditions of Civility. London: Cambridge Unriivérsity Press, 1948. p. 130. * Whitehead, Alfred North. The Aims of Education. New York: Macmillan Co., 1929. p. 71, 80, 84. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION—PAST AND PRESENT 7 But too much can be made of either the positive or negative in- fluence of ancient culture on the development of vocational educa- tion. It is undoubtedly true that Plato’s theory of education has made an incalculable contribution. It fostered the spirit of in- tellectual curiosity and gave impetus to freedom of thought. Thus, it fostered an atmosphere or philosophical climate in which voca- tional and technical education could eventually make progress. The narrowness of technical and specialized training in its beginnings was but an interpretation of the narrowness of the lives of workers in the mills, factories and on farms. The standards of service expected by society were low. Widespread expansion of the concept had to await the Industrial Revolution. Early American Culture The educational patterns of Colonial America were closely re- lated to those of European culture. The class and economic differ- ences separating people in Europe separated them also in the colonies. These differences were reflected in education. But per- haps the most influential forces helping te shape educational pro- grams in early America were those stemming from the Reformation. According to Protestant doctrine, every individual needed per- sonal knowledge of the Bible if he were to be saved, for the Bible was the ultimate religious authority. It was considered necessary that each person be able to read. Moreover, the Reformers were convinced that society must be made to conform to religious pre- cepts. To achieve this, religious education was needed. The unify- ing purpose of education was that of training for Christian citizen- ship. Since all men were not only eligible but were, in fact, desperately in need of such training, education of the masses be- came a matter of serious concern. “Nor was there doubt how this training was to be accomplished. The student's logical powers were to be formed by mathematics, his taste by the Greek and Latin classics, his speech by rhetoric, and his ideals by Christian ethics.”* This training, common in the Latin grammar school of the seven- teenth and early eighteenth centuries, represented a curious mixture of traditions that had evolved from both the classical Renaissance * Committee on the Objectives of a General Education in a Free Society, op. cit., p. 43. 8 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA and the Reformation. It included an introduction to the intellectual forces that gave shape to the Western culture, and at the same time it included those elements of Western heritage that were specifically Christian. Except for apprentice training, little attention was given in Colonial America to vocational education until private secular schools began to add “useful” subjects to their curricula and until the popularity of similarly organized academies began to re- place the grammar school. The last part of the eighteenth century and the entire nineteenth century were filled with changing con- cepts of education that reflected the social ferment of the era. The Harvard Committee found the distinction between Jeffersonian and Jacksonian forces as applicable during this period to education as to politics—the former giving emphasis to discovering and offering opportunity to the gifted student and the latter assuming respon- sibility for raising the level of the average student.’ These two forces since have struggled against each other in education under a variety of labels. Recent post-Sputnik concerns have given renewed emphasis to these conflicts—a contemporary struggle which could influence the developing concepts in vocational education greatly. The structure of rural education began to take shape before the beginning of the nineteenth century. In 1785 the Continental Congress provided for the survey of all public land into town- ships and sections. One section in each township was marked off for the support of public education. In later legislation Congress again commended education and provided more public land for its support. These legislative measures were designed primarily to attract settlers and provide an easy means for determining land holdings. Their success was limited, however, until passage of the Homestead Act in 1862 provided that settlers could pre-empt land on the condition that it be occupied for a minimum period of five years. These several federal provisions—for land survey, the designation of land in each township for the support of schools, and land ownership based on occupancy—were not intended to affect the structure of education. But their combined effects were im- measurable. They provided a basis for the rapid growth of the common school and later the high school. They assisted in creating an open-country culture in the United States that was entirely 5 Ibid., p. 27. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION—PAST AND PRESENT 9 different from the village culture that predominated the home- lands of immigrants. They established a pattern of comprehensive schools rather than separate schools. Most of all, they set up the conditions favorable to the establishment of what in more recent years has been considered an excessive number of small schools with all their attendant problems to rural education. During the Reconstruction Period that followed the war between. the states, almost all remaining marks of European education were obliterated. The planter aristocracy of the South was forced to make adjustments; there was heavy immigration from southern Europe bringing numerous trade skills learned in apprenticeship; land- grant universities were being established with new responsibilities in the practical arts; and the Industrial Revolution was establishing its grip on the nation’s culture and scheme of education. It appeared that the Republic was coming of age and that the emerging pat- terns of vocational education would endure. There is doubt, how- ever, that either the Industrial Revolution itself or its effect on education is as yet completely assessable. The process is still under way.® Vocational Education in Modern Society In his Educational History of the American People, Adolph Meyer states: . . . the high school’s steady and accelerating pursuit of practical and vocational ends is a phase, undoubtedly, of the national pragmatism. Even so, it has caused some critical comments, not many more bold, it is true, but critical nevertheless. The complaints are, for the most part, the old timers, the vanishing gentry of scholars who seek to train the intellect and to safeguard the cultural legacy. Perhaps in practical America, the older view is doomed to become an oddity, and any strong support of it, hence, may become somewhat indecorous and even suspect.’ This view is not without opponents. There are educators who chal- lenge the desirability of this educational expression of pragmatism. In fact, an expression of democratic idealism through diversity of educational offerings is similarly challenged. But diversity of cur- riculum offerings is the predominating pattern. It can be observed * See Chapter 2, p. 19. 7 Meyer, Adolph. An Educational History of the American People. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1957. p. 412. 10 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA in almost every secondary school. All the previous offerings are still to be found, in greater numbers and involving more students than ever before. But, in addition, one can observe dramatics, television production, automobile driving, and a variety of similar learning experiences in an array of laboratories, classrooms, and special facilities. There are also programs of study in the great occupations of the human race including agriculture, industry, business, the distributive occupations, and homemaking. In spite of the increased general offerings and the addition of opportunities for vocational preparation, there remains an odious distinction in many schools between so-called academic and voca- tional courses. This was described very aptly by the Harvard Committee: . there is need for a more complete democracy . . . not only between student and student but between subject and subject and teacher and teacher. . . . The wish to get ahead, parents’ desires that their children shall have what they lacked, the vague optimistic belief of many young people that they may go to college and hence might need the preparatory subjects, teachers’ better preparation in these subjects, and their naturally greater interest in brighter pupils: all this and simple snobbishness tend to give luster to the academic course and higher status to its teachers. For the same reason, the academic course tends to be crowded with students who do not belong in it, and hence is often diluted. But this is not our main point here; rather it is the strange state of affairs in an in- dustrial democracy when those very subjects are held in disrepute which are at the heart of the national economy and those students by implication condemned who will become its operators.® It is doubted that such distinctions can continue to persist with any real or serious importance. Even though vocational education arrived initially in schools as an intruder, its development paralleled and, indeed, rested upon that of the society in which it grew. Its beginnings were evident in Colonial days when private schools decided to teach whatever their supporters were willing to pay for. Vocational education was present in the first high schools. Today it is a specialty in its own right—in response to the pressure of surrounding culture. Its courses have depth and breadth and a background of research. * Committee on the Objectives of a General Education in a Free Society, op. cit., p. 27. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION—PAST AND PRESENT 1l Comprehensive High Schools Versus Separate Vocational Schools In its early development vocational education was a private responsibility, both individually and institutionally. With the in- creasing complexity of industrial society, it was transferred to the public-school system even though the public schools did not seek | the added task. It resulted from pressures outside the schools and | from the developing pattern of small schools. If an adequate school system under public control seemed necessary to preserve and strengthen democracy, then it appeared necessary to include voca- tional education in the public trust. The President’s Committee on Vocational Education emphasized the need for public control with the following statement: “The fact that general and voca- tional education should not and cannot be separated in an effective program for the individual child inevitably means that the agency responsible for conducting the one must also conduct the other phase of the educational service.”® Though this idea was slow in its development, it became generally accepted and has been under- girded by the provisions of all federal legislation directly supporting vocational education. Vocational education has become largely a public responsibility. A further issue remained—the issue of whether vocational schools should exist separate from or should be included within the other aspects of the high school. The issue was of great concern in the early years of the twentieth century and was once actually debated in the Illinois legislature.’ It is still troublesome. There frequently are no easy alternatives. Unquestionably vocational education should be an aspect of the organization of comprehensive high schools, and one might fairly ask how any school could be considered comprehensive if vocational education were not among its offerings. Any separation of the voca- tional from the nonvocational would necessarily have to be arbitrary. Learning is an individual process, and what may be nonvocational for one student may be highly vocational for another. The efforts * Russell, John Dale. Vocational Education. President’s Advisory Committee on Education. Staff Study No. 8. Washington, D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1938. p. 176. 2° Mays, Arthur Beverly. Principles and Practice of Vocational Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1948. p. 48. 12 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA to achieve educational democracy are as real as the efforts to achieve political democracy and, even though man’s reach may again exceed his grasp, his efforts must be to extend educational opportunity. Most American communities are committed tc the support of comprehensive schools open to a normal distribution of both in- terests and abilities. Such schools are considered educationally and socially sound. There is no evidence that they jeopardize the gifted, superior, or talented students, whatever their interests or special aptitudes. It is necessary to be reminded, however, that rural schools are small and frequently without a unit of organization that can afford staff, space, and equipment for their share of a normal distribution of vocational interests. In such cases, many students with vocational interests are deprived of an opportunity for specific training for an occupation. Many rural youths seem never able to overcome their lack of vocational preparation, and their entrance into the labor market is at its lowest levels. Others, undoubtedly as yet a much smaller number, are more fortunate. Even though their small schools cannot provide the type of vocational instruction they desire, they have access to and can attend an area vocational school operated directly by the state or perhaps created and operated on a somewhat more local basis as part of an expanded intermediate unit program of services." In a sense these area vocational schools may be considered separate schools, though not because they separate vocational from non- vocational, general, or liberal education. On the contrary, such division of content is neither desired nor intended. Such schools, instead, represent an effort to be more comprehensive by extending the range of educational opportunity not feasible in small school units. General and Special Education Reference was made at the opening of this chapter to “broadening” and “narrowing” influences. These terms are frequently used to characterize general and special education, although the present appropriateness of such distinctions may be questionable. Narrow- ness is often associated with specialism or vocationalism; broaden- ing in similar fashion is frequently associated solely with the traditional liberal education. ™ Various types of administrative organization for area vocational schools are described in Chapter 7. See p. 125-32. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION—PAST AND PRESENT 13 The literature of vocational education contains frequent refer- ences to the educational values associated with both general and special education. The inseparability of general and special educa- tion is usually agreed upon, with reservations, dependent upon an acceptable interpretation. It is worthwhile to offer here a brief description of general and special education as commonly viewed in these discussions. General education is regarded as those areas of study which prepare for responsibility and citizenship. It provides a background for comprehending the commanding ideas that have given direction to the democratic heritage. It provides also the intellectual skills necessary in understanding a complex society and in recognizing competence in all fields of endeavor. At present it does not en- compass the feature for which liberal. education formerly drew criticism: It is not associated with a leisure class and it is not regarded as the exclusive prerogative of nonlaborers. Contemporary society does not regard labor as disgraceful. On the contrary, leisure tends to be regarded as less desirable than work. This chang- ing attitude toward general education is widespread, and it appears that the process is continuing. The nature of this shift was summed up by Bertrand Russell on receiving the Kalinger Prize for the popularization of science: “In my own country, and to a lesser degree in other countries of the West, ‘Culture’ is viewed mainly, by an unfortunate impoverishment of the Renaissance tradition, as something concerned primarily with literature, history, and art.” Special education is more difficult to describe or define. Unlike general education, it is difficult to view objectively, as if from out- side. It must be viewed from the inside, from the point of view of a specialist, even though his specialty be general education. Society rewards specialism highly, and it exacts higher and higher stand- ards of performances in each of its areas. Specialism has become the means of advancement within the social structure. It points the way for probable success in career planning. It has, in fact, affected every area of work and scholarly study, and it characterizes the entire elementary, secondary, and higher educational pattern. Special interests have pervaded the schools through varying degrees of pressure and from all sides. William G. Carr, NEA executive 8 Russell, Bertrand. “The Role of Science in Education.” School and Society 86: 282; June 1958. 14 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA secretary, summarized this trend at the 1957 convention of the American Association of School Administrators: . school boards and school administrators can look with equanimity upon the many hundreds of groups—organized, unorganized, and dis- organized—who press on their attention so great and bewildering a variety of viewpoints about education. All through the alphabet from the American Legion and the Better Business Bureau to the Youth Council and the Zoological Society, these groups speak their varied opinions about what the schools should teach. Sometimes they speak temperately, sometimes indignantly, but always persistently. They sponsor pamphlets, books, and films; essays and oratorical contests; drives and collections; free materials, inexpensive materials, and expensive materials. They demand that the public schools give more attention to little league baseball, first aid, mental hygiene, speech correction, Spanish in the first grade, military preparedness, international goodwill, modern music, world history, American history and local history, geography ditto, homemaking, Canada, Latin America, the Far East, the Near East, and the Middle East, NATO, how to detect counterfeit currency, safe driving, the United Nations, Christopher Columbus and Leif Ericson, Robert E. Lee and Woodrow Wilson, fire prevention, nutrition, care of the teeth, free enterprise, labor relations, cancer prevention, human rights, atomic energy, the use of firearms, the protection of wild life, the Constitution, tobacco, temperance, kindness to animals, Esperanto, the 3 R’s, the 3 C’s, and 4 F's, use of the typewriter, legible penmanship, moral values, physical fitness, civil defense, conservation, ethical concepts, the air age, religious literacy, thrift, law observance, consumer education, mathematics, dramatics, narcotics, physics, ceramics, and (that latest of all education discoveries) phonics. Each of these groups is anxious to avoid overloading the curriculum. All they ask is that the nonessentials be dropped in order to get their material in. Few of them want a special course; they just want their idea to permeate the entire school program. If that seems impractical, they are ready to organize special days or weeks to fill in the long hours of idle boredom from which, it must be assumed, they think the school teachers and their pupils suffer. I have made all this sound as bad as I can in order to add that it is not as bad as it may seem. For we can, if we will, perceive in these apparently chaotic pressures a great popular vote of confidence in the power of education. The American people thus provide us with daily proof that they believe they can adapt their system of education to new circum- stances.'% * Carr, William G. “How Right You Are.” Schools on the Threshold of a New Era. Official Report. Washington, D. C.: American Association of School Adminis- trators, a department of the National Education Association, 1957. p. 32-33. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION—PAST AND PRESENT 15 There can be little doubt that we live in an era of specialization and that there continuously is demand for special training or pres- sures from special interests. To the extent that schools exist as workshops for democracy, they must react to the demands and must expect the pressures. The increasing diversity of educational offer- ings appears to be in response to the diverse aspects of our culture. Although specialization is broader in scope than vocational educa- tion, responses to pressures for increased opportunities for specializa- tion in rural areas are limited by many restrictions. Small schools cannot provide adequately for a normal distribution of both ability and interest without encountering almost insurmountable problems. Accordingly, special education and vocational education, with the usual exceptions of agriculture and homemaking, are frequently not among the offerings of schools in rural and smaller communities. The Contributions of Vocational Education For more than 40 years various organizations and agencies of education have formulated and published objectives of elementary and secondary education. The objective of vocational competence, particularly for the secondary school, has usually been included. A challenge to accept this objective of providing training for vocational competence arises from the bewildering array of vocational spe- cialities emerging in our present culture. The challenge has been accepted, but professional vocational educators have had to exer- cise selection in the vocational areas for which instruction is pro- vided. Selection has been necessary for two reasons. First, the number of occupational specialities has increased so rapidly that neither space, equipment, nor instructors have been accessible for educational programs at the secondary level. Second, the standards of performance or service required in the occupational specialities have become so high that the high-school offerings in many cases have been sufficient to provide only a foothold in the occupational speciality, with greater degrees of competence to be acquired in post-high-school education, in occupational practice, or both. The selective process has been an expedient developed in order to pro- vide at least initial vocational preparation for those who wish to compete in the usual occupational market place. The increase in the number of occupational specialities has left some market 16 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA places without competitors and some with insufficient competition to meet the standards of service required. But the challenge has been accepted, and the educative process in vocations is enlarging to meet the challenge. Vocational education is endeavoring to make a further and more general contribution to both elementary and secondary education, a contribution that extends the offerings of vocational education to those who actually have little desire to achieve specific vocational competence. It seeks to provide an opportunity for students to become competent and discerning consumers of both the products and services of vocational specialities. This is a role of accepted responsibility wherein vocational educators seek to develop an awareness of vocations as social institutions. Organized society is, indeed, a complex of vocational and occupational groups. Class distinctions tend largely to be occupational distinctions, with a pattern of ascribed roles given to the various occupations. Legis- lative and economic competition among occupational groups and clusters of groups is another form of vocational influences in social process. Within this pattern of occupational grouping, vocational educators are endeavoring to provide opportunities for students to appreciate the complexity of industrial society—on an understanding level as well as a vocational skill level. This responsibility for developing vocational understanding and appreciation is large and until re- cently has been untended. Failure to provide instructional emphasis in this‘area may result in the tendency to regard the Industrial Revolution as a historical fact rather than a still-continuing process, the current phase having an impact on both occupational structure and cultural pattern. Vocational education also has made a contribution to the area of instructional methods. Increased school population, resulting from compulsory attendance laws, drew upon new sources of students. These additional students exposed a range of interests and aptitudes for which earlier schools felt little responsibility. Everything went comparatively well in the earlier schools as long as “educational opportunity” was acceptable with predetermined limits—as long as those who couldn’t, wouldn’t, or shouldn’t meet the one arbitrary standard dropped out and kept still. The development of a compre- hensive, single-ladder school and the influx of students changed all VOCATIONAL EDUCATION—PAST AND PRESENT 17 this. Vocational educators have made substantial contributions in drawing upon students’ background and experiences, adjusting to the influences of circumstance, developing and maintaining in- terest, appealing to hopes and aspirations, and in discovering both capacity and ability. Contributions in this area have been large and, with each recurring national crisis, they appear more clearly and identifiably. The need for particular efforts in this area was first expressed to vocational educators in 1918 by John Dewey: Probably the greatest social waste which exists at present is our failure to detect tastes, capacity, and ability, and find for them channels in which they can operate with advantage to their possessors and with usefulness to others. We either put all individuals through an undifferentiated train- ing, a required uniform training, in the pious hope that it will catch some of them, unspecified, at some point—also unspecified; or else, under the name of an elective system, we permit individuals to drift along according to their own untrained and unenlightened wishes from moment to moment. We have as yet, I think, absolutely no conception of the pos- sibilities of an education, its possibilities both with respect to personal happiness and social usefulness, which should engage youths in activities sufficiently varied and sufficiently productive to detect their capacity, needs and powers; and then, after that has been done, to concentrate our specialized resources upon a full training of these selected capacities.1* This kind of orientation to method has occupied the attention of vocational educators in all occupational areas. Although all educators agree that the education of every in- dividual is important and that people differ in every respect and have a right to do so, the job of creating a school environment to take care of these differences is a big problem not by any means solved. In rural areas the problem usually is more serious and more difficult to solve than elsewhere. It is to this and the numerous other problems stemming from it that the following chapters are addressed. “ Dewey, John. Vocational Education in the Light of the World War. Vocational Association of the Middle West. Bulletin No. 4. 1918. p. 6. CHAPTER 2 Forces Affecting Vocational Education in Rural America Wi er forces are at work to shape the trends of the future—in our country and throughout the world? What is the setting in which vocational education in rural America will operate 5, 10, or 20 years hence? What kinds of problems will be encountered with respect to curriculum, finance, student selection, and community support? These are the kinds of questions which prompted this yearbook. This chapter sets the stage. Later authors provide the details. The statements on the next few pages were prepared in much the same manner as a candid camera fan pursues his hobby—quick snatches of here and there in the hope of catching the sense of things. You will find an array of facts, assumptions, and implications. The intent was to present a variety of information that might prove helpful to anyone interested in peering into the mists of the future. If you prefer only finished portraits, skip rapidly ahead to the chapters which follow. We start from where we are—the here and now. Things are happening in our own back yard, across the alley, and around the world. Let's look quickly at some of them, starting with the faraway. Forces at Work in the World In almost every part of the world and on every continent forces are at work which will influence the future of America’s rural areas and the vocational opportunities of our people. William J. Micheels, professor and chairman of the Department of Industrial Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, prepared the original draft of Chapter 2. 19 20 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA The Scientific Revolution The mixtures being brewed in the world’s laboratories are creat- ing pressures, possibilities, and problems which are difficult for the best informed layman to assimilate. If you do not believe this, com- pare the scientific articles in this morning’s paper with those you would have read a generation ago. As further proof of this—your everyday vocabulary now contains such terms as automation, atomic fission, electronics, guided missiles, satellites, solar energy, sound barrier—peculiar terms at the start of World War II. The jet is taking over from the piston engine. Exploration into space is off to a whirling start. New materials, new methods, new products, new inventions are coming along with such rapidity that even as we point with pride to new accomplishments, they may be going out of date. Despite repeated warnings, Americans tend to look at these developments in terms of jet airliners, automatic home appliances, color television, and other material gadgets. It is easy to lapse into a tranquilizing mood. More difficult is the task of preparing for the fracturing changes which will occur in every facet of our living. Education of the highest order will be a must. Science is on a rampage throughout the world. The consequences will bring much good, but there is bound to be some bad. Of one thing we can be sure—complacency will not solve the inevitable problems. Education holds the key to the manner in which we meet the challenge. The Population Explosion As you read this, the population of the world is increasing at the rate of 16 people per second. This means that approximately 130,000 new people must find room for themselves every 24 hours. If this fantastic rate of growth continues, the human race will double itself in 42 years! The United Nations estimates that world popula- tion is now growing at the rate of approximately 44 million people a year, and the rate of increase is still accelerating. It is said that if sanitation and medical reforms were pushed in India and her death rate reduced to that of the United States today, India alone could fill more than five earths as large as ours in a mere 100 years! This year about 90 million babies will be born in the FORCES AFFECTING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 21 world. More than half of them will have to grow up undernourished. Experts tell us that at least 1.5 billion people will be hungry when they go to bed tonight. The Fight for Freedom A third potent force is the fired-up equalitarian movement—the desire of people everywhere to be free. A generation ago only a very few nations monopolized the lime- light of world affairs. Today, the person who would keep informed of significant happenings has to cope with fast-breaking events in more than 50 nations. Governments and cultures which had been dormant for generations have suddenly raised their heads to make demands. They want free determination of their own destiny. Un- rest runs rampant. We find ourselves in a paradoxical predicament—a world which is getting smaller and larger at the same time. Science has given us the means to get everywhere much faster, but now many more nations than ever before have a voice in saying what happens after we get there. This raises inevitable problems—problems of diplomacy, problems of education, problems of individual understanding. How are we to think and act, individually and collectively, as others attempt to do what we accomplished over a century and a half ago? The times are much different. The intents are similar. Forces at Work in America The several forces operating throughout the world are naturally having an impact on our own environment. We turn now, with a bit more detail, to some of the developments that are setting the stage for the America of the future. The Research Industry Americans are now spending more than $7 billion each year for research and development projects. This is more than double the amount that was spent in 1950, or more in 1 year than the total for all the years from 1776 to 1933. Research has become a magical word in America. It also is the name for one of our big industries. Those persons of a generation 22 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA ago who scoffed at and ridiculed the “egghead” in the laboratory now look at him with respect. The search for truth is receiving much badly needed support—at least in the realm of the physical sciences. Many of the phenomena and developments which are outlined below are direct results of the work done earlier in our research and development laboratories. We are presently reaping the results of past research even as we plant many new seeds for a fantastic future. Population Growth What is happening in the world is happening in America. We too have an explosion of population. A generation ago, in the 1930's, when our population was less than 130 million, we read many predictions that the figure would never be more than 150 million people. We were pictured as an aging nation, past its period of growth, with a predominant problem of finding ways to divide up the products of a rather stagnant industrial system. Now, a quarter of a century later, the United States has 173 million people and is growing at the rate of 3 million each year. We will probably pass the 200 million mark within 10 years, and experts estimate that by 1975 there may well be as many as 230 million people in this country. Our poulation increases at the rate of 7500 each day. Each year, for the foreseeable future, we can expect at least 3 millon additional people to feed, house, clothe, and educate. The Forces of Migration As a people, we are on the move. A broad shift in population is under way. Many more of our people are moving to the West and South. Air conditioning, good highways, better communications, and industrialization are transforming the South and desert states. Paralleling this broad shift of population is the markedly increased movement of city dwellers into the suburbs. Whereas the first half of this century found farm people coming into the city, now we see them going back—at least part way. The growth in suburban popv- lation is six times as great as the growth in cities. As this happens, business and industry follow the population into the outskirts. In many communities it is becoming difficult to know where rural America starts and stops. FORCES AFFECTING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 23 The Revolution in Agriculture One of the significant revolutions of modern times is that which has occurred in agriculture. Writers will keep pointing this out on later pages, but it seems appropriate here to set forth several salient facts. Since 1940 the output of the American farmer has gone up 100 percent. One farmer, on the average, produces in 1 hour today what it took 2 hours to produce in 1940. This is three times greater than what he was able to do in 1910. Today’s farmer produces food and fiber for himself and 20 others. Soon he will have to provide for himself and 25 others because, as we have seen, our population grows at the rate of 7500 persons per day while the population on our farms is decreasing. In 1940 we had roughly 30 million persons on farms and about 100 million nonfarm people. In 1957 it was estimated that there were about 20 million persons on farms and more than 150 million off the farms. In crude figures this means that 10 million fewer farmers were taking care of the needs of 50 million more people. These same 20 million, less than 1 percent of the world’s popula- tion, produce between two-fifths and one-half of the world’s supply of eggs, red meat, and milk. New chemicals, new machinery, better fertilizers, better training, improved management techniques are some of the reasons these impressive accomplishments are possible. Distribution of Income The average wage earner in America has become a capitalist. He owns his home, a car, some insurance, perhaps some stock and is regularly putting aside money to care for himself during old age. The effects of this phenomenon are only beginning to be realized. One writer has stated that ours is a country in which there are few who are very rich and few who are very poor. This significant dis- tribution of income has created a mammoth new middle class market just at a time when our technological advances are bringing forth a vast array of new products and material goods. Changes in the Labor Force Although the total number in our labor force increased 47 percent from 1910 to 1950, the number of workers engaged in agriculture 24 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA declined 46 percent. During this time, the number engaged in non- agricultural pursuits increased 89 percent. In this same period the laboring group, generally considered as the unskilled, declined in all classifications. The greatest increase was in the professional and semiprofessional classification. Likewise, significant advances were made in the number engaged in service work, clerical, sales, and similar occupations. We can generalize by saying that there was a distinct growth in occupations dealing with services; professional, semiprofessional, technical occupations; trans- portation; and distributive work. The Department of Labor makes the following predictions:' For every 100 professional and technical workers we had in 1955, we will need 137 in 1965. For every 100 managers, officials, and proprietors we had in 1955, we will need 122 in 1965. For every 100 clerical and sales workers, we will need 127. For every 100 skilled craftsmen, we will need 124. While the demand for workers in occupations which require high levels of training and education will increase, demand for unskilled workers will decline. For every 100 unskilled workers we had in 1955, we will need only 97 in 1965. The number of farm workers will also decline, though those remaining will require higher tech- nical competence. For every 100 farm workers we had in 1955, we will need only 85 in 1965. In 1956 there were 22 million women workers in our country— almost one-third of the nation’s work force. Women constituted one- fifth of all labor union members. The Department of Labor predicts an increase of 5 million in the number of women workers by 1965. It would be hard to name an occupation from which fully qualified women are now barred. Over the next decade we can expect that: Nearly half of the increase in the labor force . . . will be the boys and girls who today are in the elementary grades and early years of high school. By providing the best possible guidance, education and training for these youngsters in the immediate years ahead, we can assure their entrance into the labor force as well adjusted, qualified and competent workers. . . . The fact that women will constitute better than half of the anticipated increase demands that we provide more opportunities for 1. S. Department of Labor. Our Manpower Future—1955-65. Washington, D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1957. p. 28-29. FORCES AFFECTING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 25 them to acquire skill and plan to utilize more of them in the many occupations in which relatively few are employed today.? Changes in the Workweek In 1900 the average person worked 60 hours each week. By 1925 this figure had been reduced to 50 hours, and in the 1940's to 40 hours. Many are now predicting that within the next 10 years the standard workweek will be reduced to 32 hours, with perhaps 4 workdays of 8 hours each. Record Keeping and Accounting Business and accounting practices have been revolutionized by the development of the business machine with its many variations. The handling of “paper work” has undergone a radical transformation in the last 25 years. We can keep track of things more efficiently, we can get facts faster, and we can expedite the keeping of records of all kinds. This revolution extends its influence into all segments of our economic and social structure. Business machines are at the heart of our progress. Highway Development In the immediate years ahead, $50 billion will be spent on a vast network of superhighways crisscrossing our nation. The full impact and implications of this development are difficult to comprehend by those of us who compare it with the first strip of “concrete” that came into our community not too many years ago. “Strip cities” will begin to grow throughout rural America. In- dustrial, commercial, and residential areas will line our highways for miles on end. This is true already in some parts of the East and West. Distribution of Goods Accompanying and growing out of our technological develop- ments, the agricultural revolution, or shift in population, improve- ments in business procedures, and other revolutionary developments is a significant change in how we distribute our goods. There is a distinct trend toward larger and larger shopping centers built on the outskirts of communities with room to park the customers’ cars. ‘Ibid., p. W. 96 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Self-service is becoming more and more predominant. Improve- ments in product packaging have helped bring this about. Merchan- dising is in a period of rapid change. Efficiency and economy are bywords in the process. Better trained personnel is the means to achievement. The Automated Factory Automatic processing is making possible the “human use of human beings.” More and more routine, repetitive operations are being per- formed by machines instead of human hands. Unskilled labor is decreasing in numbers because of the advent of the automated factory. But jobs are increasing, as are the skills needed to fill those jobs. The “oiler” of a generation ago, who needed to know only the loca- tion of the oil cups around the machine, must now perform as a lubrication engineer. If his “know-how” is inadequate, the entire production process breaks down. Automation is no longer a scare-word. The process, as well as the concept, has been emerging for a long time. In a word, it simply means that modern production requires workers with more skill, more “know-how’—more education. Power and Conveniences A basic factor in our technological advance is the development of more and better sources of power. Electric power, carried long distances at relatively low cost, has been a significant factor in the transformation of rural America. We have only begun to tap the potential that lies waiting. The use of atomic fuel for power production is already here. Whether it can compete successfully with coal and water power in producing electricity is yet to be decided. We do know that atomic energy will be the means to produce power in many parts of the world where water and coal are not readily available. We are hear- ing now that practical means will soon be available for extracting crude oil from shale at a price that can compete with crude oil from wells. This opens up a whole new area of development to supple- ment the gas and coal which America already has in abundance. Ty Peter, . eee ae a NI tsar een cerenantreetnssncrcns serena ntact - aaiaiennenenmenienmae _enmeemeend FORCES AFFECTING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 27 In 1956, 94 percent of all farm families had electricity in their homes. Sixteen years earlier (1940) only a third of all farm-opera- tor residences had this convenience. A recent study by the U. S. Department of Agriculture indicates that the higher the educational group of the farm operator, the more likely is the farm family to possess telephones, automobiles, television sets, running water, and flush toilets. In this same vein, studies show that the extent to which farms are mechanized has a close relationship to the level of living attained by farm operators. New Materials and Processes Our laboratories are producing a multiplicity of new materials, along with new uses for those already available. For example, de- vices which were used to detect submarines in World War II have now been adapted to aid in discovering new sources of metals in all parts of the world. Metallurgists, working with related scientists, are developing new alloys at a rapid pace. We will be adding such terms as “cermets” to our vocabulary—the combinations of metals and ceramics which will maintain strength under heat. In a matter of time, metals, even for everyday uses, may be 5 or 10 times stronger than they are today. The plastics industry is growing by leaps and bounds. Chemistry is helping to transform wood and wood products in countless ways. New abrasives, new adhesives, new preservatives are coming along with increasing rapidity. We can cut, glue, and preserve in ways that would have seemed impossible a generation ago. Transportation Mention has already been made of the $50 billion we will soon be spending on an elaborate system of highways. Before many years have passed, the driver of a truck or passenger vehicle will be able to cross the nation without stopping for a traffic light. Pipelines now go to nearly all parts of our country. They assist in the distribution of almost as much freight as do our trucks. The St. Lawrence Waterway has recently opened up, with ocean-going vessels coming into the heart of America. Some revolutionary changes will occur in railroading. The aviation industry is going “straight up.” Aircraft and missiles will fly higher, faster, hotter. 28 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA We will be transporting many more things, in many new ways, and much faster. National Defense An atomic-powered navy is in the works. Missile-carrying sub- marines are already a reality. Rapid growth of satellite production, including intercontinental missiles, will call for the lavish expendi- ture of money, materials, and men. The satellite industry of 1970 may well rival the automotive industry of today. Communications The science of electronics is opening vistas that would not have seemed possible 10 years ago. Television is as yet in its infancy. Telephones are being developed in many ways and used for many new purposes. The development of the transistor is but one example of the many inventions and discoveries that are bringing fast change in the field of communications. We are learning how to see, hear, talk, and detect in fantastic ways. And we will soon be able to translate with the speed of electrons. Some Educational Facts, Assumptions, and Implications This brief chapter cannot detail the portent of the preceding state- ments. A few generalizations will have to suffice. We might start with some extremely broad catchwords: more education, better education, more content, better teaching. Vocational education in rural America will have to provide all of these. This will require our best efforts. Intelligent thought and direction will be required if the heritage of our past is to be the seed that brings forth the fruits of the future. What are some of the factors to be considered? 1. As we plan ahead, it will help to keep in mind that not one but four educational systems have arisen in this country: a. The traditional system of schools and colleges b. An elaborate educational program under the military c. Education by private industry for its employees (The number of learners involved here is equal to the total enrollment of all colleges and universities. ) SSS Rees res FORCES AFFECTING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 29 d. Adult education programs (1 of every 3 adults is en- rolled ). . In 1956-57, 1 of every 4 persons in the United States was enrolled in school or college. Enrollment was at an all-time high—41.5 million. Nearly all children aged 6 to 13 were attending school. Illiteracy was at an all-time low—3 percent among men, 2 percent among women in 1952. . The American philosophy assumes that the individual is more important than the state or society. In this context education aims at the fullest development of the individual without favoritism, privileged classes, or intolerance. . Education must assume a major role in helping people learn to live with confidence in our ever-changing future Any educational philosophy designed for our future must allow for diversity and change and must grow from the convictions of the people, their mores, and their ethical beliefs. . Direct firsthand experiences in working with tools, materials, and ideas will continue in the educational offerings of our schools, both as a part of general education experiences and for vocational purposes. Schools in rural communities will have to provide as many applied and liberal courses as out institutions in urban communities. . The pressure for both general and specialized education will continue. On the one hand, social and economic complex- ities will call for a breadth of education and, on the other and depth. hand, employment conditions will demand specialization . The trend will continue for vocational programs to be offered on a post-high-school basis. This will call for a stronger pro- gram of the practical arts (agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, business) in the secondary schools to help meet the needs of those who will be going to college and those who will not. . Vocational teachers will be required to have a broad and liberal education, along with specialized training, so that they will be able to use their subject matter specialty as an opening wedge in “freeing” the minds of those students who are not motivated in the typical setting of a liberal arts course. 10. 11. 12. 13. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Education at all levels will be asked to produce graduates who are adaptable to the changing conditions which are foreseeable. This will require the stressing of logical and critical thinking. Problem solving involving simple research will be emphasized. The sheer force of numbers will require that more and more responsibility be placed upon the in- dividual for his own development and behavior. The subject matter of vocational education represents, in large part, an application of science, mathematics, history, language arts, and other disciplines to everyday problems involving tools and materials. These relationships will re- ceive much more attention and emphasis than in the past. The rise of the technician, of whom we read so much, has implications for all branches of vocational education. (Humorously, it might be said that the farm wife with her new automatic kitchen and laundry will have to discharge the hired girl of the past and replace her with a hired mechanic to care for the home of the future. ) As a result of the numerous forces mentioned earlier, the general public will become acutely aware of the nation’s manpower need. Accompanying this awareness will be pressing problems of local, state, national, and international consequence. The schools will have unprecedented de- mands placed upon them. As this is being written we see the pattern already emerging in the areas of science and mathematics. A growing international-mindedness will require an educa- tional program which encourages the study of other societies with emphasis on an appreciation of world cul- tures, religions, international affairs, and understanding of world problems. We can expect that working relationships between the United States and foreign schools will in- crease. Vocational education, especially as it concerns nonagricul- tural occupations, will experience a phenomenal growth in the rural schools of the future. This will be caused by the shifting population of our country and the growth of com- munities along the superhighways that now go through rural America. an i a a FORCES AFFECTING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 31 14. Programs of adult education will continue to increase, with added emphasis on education of the aging, occupational retraining, and citizenship training in a shrinking world. Education from the “cradle to the grave” seems about to become a reality. Adult education both for general and - vocational purposes will probably expand faster than full- 15. 16. 17. 18. time school and college programs. Vocational educators in rural America will have a significant part to play in providing adult education concerned with vocational retraining and upgrading. This is a challenge which must be accepted immediately. More and more rural communities will be establishing work-experience programs as a part of their vocational training curriculum. We have only begun to tap the potential inherent in this concept. In keeping with the 7. increasing number of em- ployed women, rural schools will be called upon to pro- vide more and more vocational experiences planned to meet the needs of this group. We can expect to see some radical departures in the training of our teachers of the future. Most teachers are still being prepared for the self-contained classrooms of 1940 or 1950 rather than for education in the future. With the advent of such developments as television for instructional purposes and more effective use of community resources, we soon will probably see many teachers serving as team members. They will be guiding and directing in the context of a well- coordinated program aimed at the fullest development of each learner. Many varied steps will be taken to alleviate the growing shortage of teachers; unfortunately, not all will be desirable. Among the steps which might be taken are: a. Continuing employment of competent older teachers b. Expansion and strengthening of graduate programs c. Developing ways of teaching larger numbers of students without loss of quality d. Making teaching more attractive by improving status and salaries wor VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA e. Growing use of competent persons in industry and other fields for part-time teaching f. Special training programs for recent graduates of 4-year colleges who have aptitude for teaching but lack formal professional training g. Provision of special scholarships for professional prepara- tion of potential teachers h. Granting of temporary teaching certificates to those who do not meet standard qualifications i. Using audio-visual aids to supplement classroom teach- ing and to extend the services of master teachers j. Using teacher's aides or assistants for routine clerical duties k. TV instruction to be provided for all teachers in training l. Increasing class size in keeping with the objectives of the course m. Simplification of the curriculum by reducing the variety of course offerings in a single institution in an effort to improve the quality of the remainder. 19. More efficient use will be made of available facilities includ- ing additional evening classes, year-round scheduling, and longer school terms. ation between institutions will be increased by means of sharing libraries, business ma- chines, laboratory equipment, athletic fields, and perhaps even faculty. Most of the highly specialized services avail- able in all but the very large school systems will be pro- vided through a centralized pool on a cooperative and shared basis. The advent of improved business machines will allow school administrators to standardize business methods to a greater extent. 20. We can expect to see more imaginative experimentation 21. and an increasing emphasis on educational research. While this presages the introduction of many changes in conven- tional educational practices, it is unlikely that standard patterns will emerge (this in spite of the fact that some are now calling for national standards in education). Rapidly increasing enrollments in higher education will cause the establishment of many new junior or community colleges. This will provide rural America with many addi- FORCES AFFECTING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 33 tional opportunities for higher education in institutions much closer to home. Vocational-terminal programs will become an important core of educational experiences in such institutions. 22. Area vocational schools will increase in many. parts of our land. They will be expanding and improving their post- high-school offerings. Standard patterns of operation and administration are not likely. Cooperative planning will be required in those areas which have both an area voca- tional school and a community college. 23. State and federal aid to schools will increase. Tax structures supporting the schools by local and state funds make federal financing almost inevitable even though radical tax changes are made. Either a larger proportion of the nation’s income must be devoted to our schools and colleges or a choice will have to be made between a poorer quality of education and sharply restricted enrollments. 24. Business and industrial firms will continue to expand their educational and research programs. This will have an effect in the breadth-specialization controversy as it bears on vocational requirements. It also will call for closer co- operation between educational institutions and industry. 25. The subject-matter content of vocationa] education will be influenced by a tremendous array of new machines, plastics, ceramics, lubricants, alloys, and various chemical sub- stances that as yet have no names. New gadgets, new materials, and new processes will be popping up with such frequency that it will be difficult to separate the useful from the trivial. 26. There will be a growing need for the vocational departments of rural schools to offer what might be termed—for want of a better name—“vocational-technical orientation,” or “ap- plied technology.” In such courses the vocational teachers will be working closely with the teachers of mathematics, science, and other subjects to provide applied experiences related to the various disciplines. 27. We can expect that the several branches of vocational edu- cation will work more closely together in providing training for what might be termed “cross-over occupations” in which 3 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA a person acquires competency in several of the established fields. For example, the growing complexity of agriculture makes it easy to visualize a training program in which staff members from agricultural education, business and dis- tributive education, trade and industrial education, and home economics education are working closely together to develop and carry out a program for the transformation in occupations that will emerge. These, then, are a few of the candid camera miniatures that pro- vide a fleeting glimpse of where we are and where we are going. The pace is increasing. It is obvious that the “blinders” must be re- moved. Vocational education in rural America requires big men and women, big thoughts and actions. There will be continuing questions related to “why” and “for what.” > ee ee : CHAPTER 3 Problems of Accommodating Vocational Education Tax FoRCES of technical development and re- sultant social change have shattered a whole way of life. Rural America has entered a period when substantial readjustments are necessary. The years immediately ahead call for personal adjust- ments by rural residents that will be painful . . . that will require the help of the community and the community school. Some of the needed adjustments involve vocations. Many impli- cate schools and educational programs. In the area of educational preparation for vocations there are and likely will continue to be many specific, complex, and sometimes even conflicting problems. They relate to the purposes of vocational education. They arise from certain economic factors. They involve attitudes. They stem : from particular characteristics of smaller communities. A few are unique to vocational education, and most of the others, while not completely exclusive, become most troublesome when the vocational segment of educational programming is considered. They are difficult to deal with because the obvious solutions to some run counter to others—aggravating and intensifying them. Special Problem Areas The special problems which rural communities must meet in accommodating vocational education are, just as social and economic forces, an important aspect of the setting within which p are expected to be developed. Their brief identification and high- lighting here may give perspective to the more detailed discussions of major vocational concerns which follow. jan Wilcox, supervising pal, Lansing Central School, South Lansing, New ak quail At ane dak @ Caer 37 38 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Resistance to Change The school as an agency of the community—controlled by the community and financed largely by the community—is seldom sufficiently flexible to meet the changing needs of the people it serves. To ask the school to anticipate the future needs of the children it serves today and to develop an educational program which will substantially prepare them for this future is to ask an institution to meet its true purposes. At the same time, it is to ask an institution to defy the social pressures of the framework within which it must work. Vidich and Bensman identify a few of the various kinds of pressures which bear upon the school program in their examination of a rural farm community: Although farmers represent only one-third of the population, a heavy emphasis in the school curriculum is placed on home economics and agricultural training. Between 1945 and 1951, 21 out of a total of 57 male graduates took the agricultural course, yet only 4 of the 21 were engaged in farming in 1951. The major opportunities for the school’s graduates lie in industry, business, and college. The business course, a relatively recent addition taught by one person, consists of ‘usiness accounting and secretarial training; its inclusion in the curriculum represents a concession to business men. The industrial arts program con- sists of a mechanics course which is geared to tractor and automobile repairs. No provision is made for industrial training to qualify students for employment in industry, where the large majority seek jobs. As a consequence, most graduates take unskilled jobs since regional industries do not hire them as apprentices. The college preparatory course, the other major offering, meets minimum state requirements and on the whole qualifies students for admission to state teachers colleges where three or four go each year. Agricultural training is overemphasized and per- petuates a tradition of what has largely become useless training.! No purpose can be served from a generalization based on such a description of one community. Neither would it be fair to appraise the validity of the arguments since the above quotation is only a fragment of a report. It is descriptive, however, from the relatively unemotional observations of trained sociologists, of a situation not unfamiliar to many small communities. *Vidich, Arthur J., and Bensman, Joseph. Small Town in Mass Society: Class, Power, and Religion in a Rural Community. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1958. p. 179. PROBLEMS OF 1sCCOMMODATING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 9 The pressures brought to bear on curriculum come from many places but, almost without exception, they encounter a resistance to change. Curricular additions are discouraged by shortages of space, staff, equipment, and resources. But additions are easier far than curricular eliminations, which are opposed by those presently in- volved in the particular program, those formerly involved in any way, and those who feel even the slightest possibility that they might become involved at some future time. To every proposal for action there is an opposite reaction. Seldom is any rational justifica- tion between appropriateness or reality and point of view required. Increased farm production from fewer farms—larger in size, mechanized, and electrically equipped—is a reality of many rural areas. The development of nearby certers of industrial employment is an increasing reality to others. These forces of change are re- sponsible for much of the increased productivity of each farm worker . .. for the sparse to less-sparse migrations . . . for the increasing number of the formerly “rural farm” population who are now among the “rural nonfarm.” In addition, there continues to be a tendency for people in farming to reproduce at a rate which exceeds replace- ment. For every 100 farm males who will die or reach retirement age in the period 1950-60, about 168 will reach the age of 20 to replace them—a surplus of about 40 percent. Whether or not it can be assumed that the trend toward a reduction in the number of farm units will continue, there is an increasing obligation for rural communities to provide schools and school programs which will help those youths who must migrate or find nonfarm employment. Absence either of a recognition of the handicaps imposed upon rural youth by limited educational opportunities (including ade- quate guidance) or of a desire to make the kinds of changes which will help eliminate them is a persistent problem to the development of vocational education programs in rural areas. Small-Community Differences and Limitations The influences of the urbanization movement differ greatly from community to community. They make it difficult to distinguish where many suburban communities begin or where their central cities end. Such differences make it almost impossible to generalize about rural or small communities. One community of 2500 people 40 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA may be completely agriculturally oriented and primarily a farm service center. Ancther with identical population might well be little more-than a living center and service area for people who work in a nearby industrial center. Identification with agriculture in the iatter community is often almost negligible. Yet both types of communities, and small communities of all lege between, share similar educational problems: @ The population density of the geographic area may not be suffi- cient to provide enough pupils to make a comprehensive educa- tional program economically possible. © Local resources may be inadequate to make possible the level of financial support necessary for an educational program of ac- ceptable quality. @ Absence of industrial, utility, or other commercial valuation unaccompanied by children to be educated may result in a real property tax base too narrow to support a comprehensive educa- tional program. @ Rapid advances in the labor productivity of local industries may actually be negating any need for an expansion of facilities or of the labor force, thus restricting the vocational opportunity of youth within the immediately surrounding area. The differences among smaller communities with regard to their occupational orientation and vocational opportunities imply a more varied effort in vocational education than is generally provided. If programs should reflect the resources and opportunities of the locality, national or state “movements” for a particular type or variety of vocational program are far off target. Greater flexibility or variability instead should be encouraged. This would enable the programs provided to relate as closely as possible to the varied interests and abilities of students as well as to the actual vocational opportunities they are likely to have open to them. However desirable or ideal this kind of program might seem, such thinking is largely conjecture. Immediately it runs headlong into the realities of small community limitations. Specific preparation for the range of occupational opportunities available to those who remain in the small community and those who will migrate in all directions to find useful employment requires a broader program than most communities can possibly afford to provide. It requires a PROBLEMS OF ACCOMMODATING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 41 broader program than could be efficiently administered by most local school districts as they are presently organized even if financing such a program were not a factor.” The Cost of Vocational Education Without entering into an academic discussion of how extensive or intensive vocational education should be, it is possible to generalize that instruction of this type is costly. The capital invest- ment alone prevents many boards of education from giving much serious consideration to providing diversified opportunities for vocational education. While every aspect of the teaching program requires building space, textbooks and other teaching materials, and instructional personnel, there is an additional need in most vocational areas for tools, machines, and other types of relatively expensive equipment. In recent years school systems have been helped greatly in offsetting these high costs by having machines, tools, and other equipment turned over to them or made available at extremely small cost from the NYA, various war training programs, and the distribu- tion of surplus government property. Most schools now offering vocational instruction have benefited substantially. Their programs have been expanded and encouraged by the availability of this equipment. The most severe limitation of these distribution and disposal programs has been that only those schools already engaged in vocational instruction and those able to use the equipment be- : cause they were prepared to undertake a vocational program have °3 been able to benefit. Little of what has been available has found its way into rural areas. Contributing also to the somewhat higher cost of vocational education is the fact that the activities of vocational instruction dictate a pupil-teacher ratio that precludes any possibility of economy through crowded vocational classrooms. Effective in- struction and attention to the safety of pupils necessitates smaller class groups than can generally be accommodated in most other curriculum areas. The result is a higher per-pupil cost for vocational instruction. ~*For a more detailed discussion of the inadequacies of local school districts for providing programs of vocational education, see Chapter 7, p. 120-22. 42 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Problems of Scheduling Less important when considered with some of the philosophical considerations which surround the provision of vocational oppor- tunities are a number of practical problems which arise within any comprehensive school with regard to relationships between the vocational and the academic and general courses. One of these troublesome areas is scheduling. Whether the pupils’ activity will be concerned with the repair of some mechanism in an automobile engine, making an analysis of a sample of soil, checking the internal wiring of a radio or television set, or getting production experience on a milling machine, there is a necessity for laying out the work, securing the necessary tools, doing the particular job, and then (seldom with the job completed ) cleaning up and putting away for another day. The clean-up often involves a change of clothing, sometimes a shower, and always a washing up. These activities require more time than the short periods generally acceptable in other curriculum areas. The most common solution to the time problem is scheduling two or more consecutive periods for vocational classes. While these “double periods” are still frustratingly brief for vocational teachers and students, they do help greatly. At the same time, however, the “double period” for vocational classes creates numerous scheduling problems for the other courses which those enrolled in a particular vocational course need and want; also for other students (and their teachers) who are enrolled in other vocational classes taught by the same vocational teacher. This is particularly difficult in smaller schools where only one section of certain (if not all) of the courses in the academic areas can be offered. It becomes necessary to schedule all other classes and teachers around the double periods of the vocational courses, the vocational teachers’ daily schedules, and the remaining available time of pupils enrolled in vocational classes. Part of the scheduling problem also must take into account the necessity for teachers in certain vocational areas to supervise and coordinate “out-of-school” aspects of students’ programs—on the farm, in the home, and in the shop or office—wherever their project or work experience may be. Scheduling becomes a tightrope experience for the principal, or a chess game in which some of the pieces always seem to be missing. PROBLEMS OF ACCOMMODATING VOCATIONAL EDUCATICN 43 The Preparation and Certification of Vocational Teachers Because there has been a consistent demand for large numbers of teachers, special /iZparation programs have been developed over the years in many of our colleges and universities. Separate insti- tutions having teacher education as their primary or sole function have also been established. Steadily increasing qualifications of teachers has accompanied similarly increasing requirements for certification. Generally today, adequate teacher preparation pre- supposes at least college graduation with an emphasis in both professional education and a particular field of teaching specializa- tion. As a concomitant advance in the vocational field, special programs have been developed for the preparation of teachers of vocational agriculture, homemaking, and business and the distributive occu- pations. Teacher preparation programs have also been developed in the more general field of industrial arts. As a consequence, the level of preparation and the certification requirements for teachers in all of these areas are as high or higher than those which apply in most nonvocational areas. A special problem in the preparation and certification area exists, however, in most of the specialized fields of trades and industrial occupations. The skilled craftsman in the machine tool area, in printing, in automobile mechanics, in electricity, in plumbing, in the various construction trades, and in most other trade and industrial areas is seldom college trained. Through apprenticeship and ex- perience he develops his proficiency. Generally speaking, those thoroughly trained and experienced in most of these fields have considerably less formal education than most certification require- ments demand. Sciisols seeking teachers in these areas are faced with an extre”«e shortage of competent trade people who also meet required stanu.>rcs of certification. Within any of the trades there are, of course, individuals having more than sufficient college prepa- ration for teaching certification along with a high leve! of technical skill. But seldom are they available for employment as teachers. Their value within the trade is usually recognized by industry; they become teachers only when this is a matter of first choice. The schools, on the other hand, are anxious to employ only those having skill, experience, and a thorough knowledge of working conditions 44 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA in the trade—“able to make a good living in the trade if he were not teaching,” as one superintendent put it. Frequently the school must decide in favor of the individual long on formal education and short on trade experience or long on experience and short on meeting certification requirements. If the latter choice is made, accreditation may be jeapordized. Guidance and Vocational Education Some of the problems which arise with regard to vocational educa- tion programs emphasize the need for more and better guidance programs. One of the chronic problems, for example, has been the tendency to regard vocational education as something for second- class citizens. “The vocational program is a catch all—a dumping ground.” “Try the science course; if you can’t make it, then we'll let you take shop.” “What do you want to do that for? Have you no ambition? Don’t you want to be somebody?” “He's getting through the easy way—wasting his time in voca- tional courses.” The reader can add his own stock of quotes and anecdotes to these. As college graduates and “white-collar” professionals, teachers should take special care not to degrade the dignity of the “blue- collar” worker or the laborer. Our complex economy exists as a result of an intricate and delicate balance of workers and consumers. Who is to stand in judgment of the worth of any individual in the total scheme of things? Countering this “dumping ground” attitude to some extent are the influences of vocational education on motivation as reflected in pupil tenure in the school program. Careful statistical studies are needed in this area. It should be noted that emphasis is placed here on the tenure aspects of pupil attendance rather than on drop outs because most drop-out studies assume high-school graduation as a goal and fail to consider the importance of what influences the potential drop out to stay around as long as he does. An examinution of the holding power of many schools will reveal that about 75 percent of girls are staying through graduation while only about 40 to 50 percent of the boys are earning their diplomas. A rural principal expressed the problem this way: PROBLEMS OF ACCOMMODATING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 45 I have just come from a thou pete iets See his fandy. nape ge tly xt first three years of high school—not a good student, but a good citizen. This year he has been a continual problem to himself and everyone else. I wonder if the fact that he has completed all of our industrial arts offerings has anything to do with it. He’s taking all academic courses this year—says the only reason for staying around is to get his diploma. Numerous illustrations of how an opportunity for vocational instruction has influenced the entire educational experience for individual students could be cited. Underlying reasons and circum- stances are often widely different; yet it is the vocational program that becomes the motivating force for these particular students. Take the case of Otto, for example: Otto was a son of first generation immigrants. The language barrier in his home and the patriarchal home environment contributed to make his school experience a tenuous one. It was the vocational program that convinced Otto's parents that he should remain in school. And it was the vocational program that provided enough satisfaction and feeling of accomplishment to keep Otto working. His story is a happy one for he not only completed high school but worked his way through two years of technical training. It is possible that there might be many times when vocational training should be viewed as a means to an end rather than an end in itself. To be effecti+. a program in vocational education must he ac- companied by pupil guidance. Pupil interests and aptitudes are keys to vocational success. For some students the vocational program may actually be an avenue to more intensive technical education. Guidance programs can continuously study the ability and progress of each student, assist them in taking advantage of the opportunif‘cs for which they are best suited, and otherwise assist them in maxing the kinds of choices which will maximize their vocational potential. Vocational programs without suitable guidance efforts are certain to encounter difficulties which may seriously damage an individual's educational and vocational preparation. Suffrage in Vocational Education The old cliché that “a woman’s place is in the home” still has a powerful influence in most rural and small communities. Even in most of those communities which can offer broad vocational pro- grams, homemaking and business are the only vocational education opportunities open for girls. 46 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA While in most families the major responsibility for the family income still rests with the male, increasing numbers of family units have more than one person in gainful employment. Rather than decrying this state of affairs, acceptance of things as they are would ize the women of our country as an important part of the labor force.* If the trend continues as projected, there must be a re-examination of vocational education opportunities for girls. Most schools as yet are inept in providing adequately for them. Defining Scope and Purposes Thus far in this recapitulation of problems, vocational education has been regarded somewhat as a neat and well-defined cluster of activities. Little attention has been given to “for whom” and “for what.” There are many who feel sincerely that all vocational education should be postponed to the post-high-school period—for older youths and adults. The arguments of this group are a challenge to the proponents of vocational education at the secondary level. Unless met with sound rebuttal they may well become a platform for the traditionally tax-conscious segment of our rural population. A clearer definition of “for whom” than presently understvod is needed. Enthusiasm for area vocational schools as an instrument of larger intermediate units of school organization grows steadily. This approach is advanced because of its promise as a means for making available a broad vocational education program in sparsely settled areas. But more research and experience is needed before generali- zations can be accepted. On the face of it, it appears that this solution would actually be more practical in areas of dense popula- tion than in areas where travel demands result in an inefficient use of pupil time. Rapid growth of the “community college” idea in recent years brings another dimension to the concept of vocational education although there appears to be some confusion as to the purposes of these post-secondary programs. In some instances they are perform- ing the functions of area vocational schools by providing instruction at a level of skills-proficiency; in others they perform the role of a * For a brief discussion of the importance of women in our labor force, see Chapter 2, p. 24. CRP LID BLIEM PY LAI ID PROBLEMS OF ACCOMMODATING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 47 junior college by preparing students for further training. It may well ke that there is need for both of these functions—within the same institution. The curious intertwining of purposes now some- times present, however, indicates a need for a more detailed examination of program and a more conscious idntification of what it is that should be done. Some programs in the vocational education curriculum appear to be geared to preparing high-school pupils for specific job operations that exist in nearby manufacturing plants. This approach may be defensible in the case of courses for pupils having limited mental ability but perhaps only if the school can also accept responsibility for retraining these people if or when their immediate task is made obsolete by technological developments and automation. Courses of study need to be examined closely to make certain that pupils are prepared to adapt to the changes inevitable in an ever-changing industrial world. Another area in which there is oftei: some confusion of purposes relates to courses of study which are considered prevocational. The “exploratory” programs usually offered in the junior high-school years should be examined to make certain they are not developing in students a false sense of competence which might actually defeat their motivational aspects for a more thorough vocational program. There is also a strong temptation to limit considerations of voca- tional education to those of compulsory school age. Yet it is not safe to do this. The school is an institution with great potential for helping solve community problems and assisting individuals to do that which they cannot do unassisted. The school’s facilities for vocational education challenge educational leadership to employ them to help all the people of the community rather than just a select few of school age. Much is said from time to time about industry's waste of voca- tional-technical personnel by the use of highly trained engineers to perform tasks which could be accomplished by people of technician grade. Without engaging in the controversy that arises over such reports, since it is difficult to separate fact from emotion, they do indicate that American colleges and universities provide a unique mixture of the academic and the vocational. It would be both im- possible and undesirable to try to separate vocationalism from any of the professional schools—medicine, law, teacher education. The 48 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA university student who studies journalism, chemistry, nutrition, entomology, or plant pathology, or who is engaged in research or learning research methods is contributing to his vocational compe- tence. Vocational aspects of college and university education are inescapable since they relate directly to the conservation of our nation’s great personnel resources. The problem, or series of problems, implied here is that at all levels of education—for those of compulsory school age, for older youth and adults, and for those in colleges and universities—there are vocational aspects seldom given proper recognition. Vocational education cannot be regarded as a limited and well-defined group of activities or specific programs. The tendency to do this confuses the objectives of vocational education efforts. Too little attention is given to a definition of the scope and purposes of vocational pro- grams. Additional Problems There are many additional problems which need to be solved. Some of these are of a somewhat specialized nature with more widespread implications for rural areas than for urban communities. There is, to illustrate, a certain uniqueness in the vocational edu- cation needs of each of the following groups: ® Children of migratory workers. Nor should the alternate voca- tional potential of adult migrants which could be developed by education be ignored. ®@ Children in bilingual communities. @ Children of ethnic groups having strong codes affecting voca- tional conduct. There is little to be gained from an effort to explore vocational education problems exhaustively. The point which this chapter has attempted to make and illustrate is that community interest in establishing a vocational education program and readiness to move forward must be accompanied by cognizance of the problems and issues which will need to be faced squarely. It is not easy to ac- commodate a comprehensive vocational education program in the school. Interest and readiness are not enough. Yet they are the starting point. For without community interest and readiness, vocational education programs cannot be developed. 2 EP Vocational Aspects of Elementary Education O.: WESTERN educational enterprise has de- veloped as a combination and balance of vocational and humanistic emphases. It is not a matter of balancing number of courses or time devoted to each emphasis but of seeing to it that in each course taught and at all levels of education there is something of both. The formal education of most children begins in the elementary school. Even though the instruction they receive seldom has a conscious vocational orientation, possibilities for emphasis of the dual themes are ever present. The elementary school can make significant contributions to vocational competence through the op- portunities and experiences it provides for younger children. When it fails this emphasis, vocational competence suffers. Preparing Children for Vocational Life There have been numerous attempts to postulate general educa- tional objectives or goals. Although the number set forth and their specific phrasing has varied, all have been similar in scope and meaning. Probably most widely recognized are the development of Self-Realization, Human Relationships, Economic Efficiency, and Civic Responsibility.* Objectives purpose educational efforts, and traditionally they have considered formal education as a process through which the child D. L. Beran, associate professor of education, College of Education, Drake Uni- versity, Des Moines, Iowa, prepared the original draft of Chapter 4. * National Education Association and American Association of School Adminis- trators, Educational Policies Commission. The Purpose of Education in American Democracy. Washington, D.C.: the Commission, 1938. 157 p. 51 eee FQ VOCATIONAL EDUGATION FOR RURAL AMERICA is prepared for life. There has not always been agreement as to how this should be accomplished, but the prevailing philosophy, evolved from studies of learning and motivation, holds that the best prepara- tion is that which is real, meaningful, and significant to the child in the here and now. Concepts and skills are developed through activities and experiences at the child level. To a very large extent each child’s future is determined by the kinds of experiences he has in the elementary school. He learns how to work with others, to solve problems, and to accept responsibility. The understandings and attitudes and skills he develops remain with him into adult life. Many of them relate directly to his vocational future. Developing Vocational Understandings The rural child, like others, must have an opportunity to develop a broad background of knowledge of many things. Among them, he must acquire understanding of activities in the workaday world. Surrounded by many forces which regard education only as a means to economic ends, he needs help in finding real ‘meaning for life. While it is important that he develop regard for work as honorable and rewarding, he should also come to understand that its most important end product is improvement of the quality of living. Unless both as child and adult he interprets work in terms of such ends, his life can be barren and empty. There are many activities in the elementary-school program that have possibilities for the development of vocational understandings. Among areas of reading interest, for example, some have a direct relationship to vocational orientation—nature and science, industry and invention, biography, citizenship, and many others. Teachers can stimulate in children a desire to explore what for them will be new and exciting reading areas. Teachers can guide each child's selection of materials to those which will broaden his concepts and sharpen his perceptions. Teachers can provide opportunities in which such activity relates directly to regular units of work, where children can discus: and share their new-found understandings, and which enable children to discover how these ideas have meaning in their own community. As elementary classes work with clay and paint, simulate the ex- periences of the early settlers or children in other lands, visit the VOCATIONAL ASPECTS OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 53 farm or flour mill on their field trips, organize and operate their school store or savings bank, or follow the applications of mathe- matics and science in the probes into outer space, valuable and long- lasting concepts essential to vocational understanding can be de- veloped. Teachers must be alert, however, to the emphasis of activi- ties undertaken for maximum benefit to result. An illustration might help convey this point. In a certain school system the curriculum guide included the following as an objective of social studies for one of the elementary grades: Teach about workers who provide us with food, clothing, and shelter so that children may be helped to understand and appreciate workers who help us through protecting, providing, communicating, transporting, etc. Because construction of an addition to the school building was under way, the class, teacher and pupils planning together, decided they would like to learn more about the construction of buildings. They were especially interested in “bricks,” for this was not a common building material in that community. As the unit evolved, it was indeed a unit on “Bricks.” Considerable attention was given to the different kinds of bricks, where the clay came from, why straw was used, details of the kiln, and the various uses of bricks. Since the children pursued their numerous tasks enthusiastically and the understandings developed were valuable, the unit could well be considered a success. But its emphasis was on the inanimate bricks. Hardly any mention was made of the human beings who did the producing and consuming of the bricks. The problems of the man who makes or distributes bricks, what his life is like, how he uses his leisure time, the preparation necessary to become a brick- layer, the income potential, and other occupational and vocational opportunities were areas overlooked by the teacher. Mud and administrative decree even prevented the class as a group from observing the bricklaying process. Nor was there opportunity in class for the children to share the “discoveries” of their informal interviews with workmen which took place during the lunch hour— “secrets these children were bursting to tell and discuss. Often, as this experience with bricks illustrates, more emphasis is placed upon the products of labor than upon the people who do the work. A better balance is needed. The opportunities and con- hacen rms me =O oa pean en OR SP RE Ri eg penenemianien: 54 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA tributions of elementary schools in the development of vocational understandings might then be magnified many times. Developing Vocational Attitudes A background of knowledge and understanding is essential for every individual. Its usefulness, however, depends in large measure upon the way it is applied. Application implies processes, techniques, and skills (which will be discussed iater). It also implies attitudes. In this area the elementary school is in a key position to promote the development of a wholesome outlook, for attitudes begin early and are somewhat resistive to later modifi- cation. Because both an understanding and appreciation of fundamental vocational skills are necessary in the American way of life, one of the attitudes important to vocational education is that of respect for honest labor, for work with the hands. Our social and economic structure, at least as ideally conceived, emphasizes the dignity of labor and the worth of every individual. This characteristic in our society recognizes that when an educated man works with his own hands, he learns to apply reflective thinking to improve the quality of what he does and the techniques he uses. It is an emphasis which does not prevail in many parts of the world. Education is available only to privileged minorities in many places, and one is soon impressed in these social systems with how little even the educated man knows about the simplest of gadgets which surround him in modern living. Where the uneducated are the workers and the educated scorn anything remotely connected with hand-dirtying work, there are none who can look at manual tasks with an in- quiring mind, none who are seriously concerned about whether there might be an easier and better way. The separation of those with “know-how” from the tasks to be performed causes inventiveness, creativeness, and progress to wither for want of opportunity to find expression. Development of an appreciation for various kinds of workers, an attitude of vocational awareness, is a common experience for most elementary-school children in America. Units of study on such topics as “Workers and Their Work,” “Making a Living,” and “Com- munity Helpers” are almost always found at some level in the ele- mentary-school program. It would be unfair to credit all schools HELIA POM ERM LENE INT AE $9 gmat ABE eS 6 2 MENA E ECS RIN BE BS REDE POA SS VOCATIONAL ASPECTS OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 55 with doing an effective job in providing vocational orientation through this means, however. Drummond, among others, poiats this out rather clearly, if at times caustically: Units of study on home, school, neighborhood, and community workers abound throughout our country. Unfortunately some of what has been taught is inaccurate. Primary teachers frequently seem to assume that all homes have a mother and a father—both of whom love their children and each other. All homes which are “studied” are middle-class homes, with middle-class values. All workers are employed. All workers like the work they are doing. Little is done with workers who don't fit into the police- man, fireman, postman, pilot variety. As far as young children are con- cerned, it is not likely that school is helping them find out that garbage has to be collected, that some people dig ditches, scrub floors, wash windows, run lathes, work as secretaries, carpenters, brick layers, etc. There is little evidence in most primary classrooms that some workers are bored, dissatisfied, disgruntled, disheartened. All jobs are glamorous and fascinating. All jobs pay good money. Skillful elementary teachers do better in their efforts to develop an attitude of vocational awareness than described above, however. Most who continuously relate “school” to “community” and “com- munity” to “school,” i.e., who utilize the realities and resources of the community in instruction, usually begin with the vocations of the children’s parents. These are real occupations of real people. They are occupations which children already know something about . . about which they can find out a great deal more. They are viewed as important, having dignity. When possible, parents are invited to school to describe their work and to react to the avalanche of questions an eager group of children put to them. Many parents actually find in this experience an increased regard for their own job, whatever it is. Such study of “local” occupations provides a base for branching out to others. It provides a meaningful setting for increasing understanding and appreciation. As already pointed out, the elementary school can contribute much to the development of wholesome attitudes toward work. Probably its greatest potential lies within the normal or ordinary activities of any elementary-school program. Pride of workmanship or respect for excellence that is characteristic of the cabinetmaker, the graphic artist, and the research engineer is only a mature ex- pression of the same motivations and satisfactions the child feels *Drummond, Harold D. “Projects and Activities in the Primary Grades.” Social ° Education 21:59-64; February 1957. TAN RI tence pure terete 56 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA when his penmanship paper is the one selected for the exhibit or when he receives that important “Well done” from a thoughtful teacher. The thoroughness of the child’s search for information for his paper on “Kites” or “Wild Life on Our Farm” or “Eskimos” is not unlike the lawyer developing his brief, the clergyman his sermon, or the salesman knowledge of his product. Business and industry plagued with worker absenteeism would give much for the regularity of attendance of most elementary-school children. Desire to get along with others, to accept responsibility, and to be among those who can be “counted on” are important vocational attitudes developed through individual and group work in elementary-school classrooms. Industry, dependability, trust, willingness to “own up” to mistakes, respect for knowledge, optimism, faith in others—the whole gamut of attitudes essential to vocational competence begin early when children are small. Home, school, and community all have a role in their development. Development of Vocational Skills For many it is difficult to think of vocational skills without some visualizing of tools, machines, and industrial processes. And to some extent, the elementary schools can and do contribute to certain specific vocational skills. In earlier years it was not at all uncommon to find agriculture a regular part of the elementary-school cur- riculum. Manual training courses for boys and cooking and sewing for girls were also frequent experiences ior many elementary-school children. More recently the scope of children’s experiences has been broadened through industrial arts, homemaking, and handicraft programs. From such activities children learn something of the use and care of hand tools, simple machines, and various types of ma- terials. Many learn how to repair a frayed electric cord, build a simple piece of furniture, prepare a lunch, replace a blown fuse, clean a house, and keep a bicycle in repair. For many children this elementary-school experience may well be their only formal educational contact with such activities.* Other educational activities at the elementary-school level (al- though not always within the school) also contribute to the de- *For a brief but perceptive discussion of the role of industrial arts at all school . levels, see Schmitt, Marshall L. “Why—The Industrial Arts.” American School Board Journal 137:27-29; December 1958. rn eeumeaal a ne era a ee —_— VOCATIONAL ASPECTS OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 57 velopment of vocational skills. These include programs of the Boy Scouts, 4-H Clubs, recreation and camping opportunities, and a variety of similar child-oriented activities. Martin and Stendler place considerable value on these informal education and suggest that elementary schools have much to gain from them.‘ They further suggest that educators might seriously study these informal programs of education to discover the reasons for their success even though the leadership is largely volunteer and without training in formal education. Most rural children have the additional advantage of numerous home opportunities for developing skill in the use of tools although the changing pattern of rural life and the shift from rural to urban leave many with a void once filled by home chores. The greatest contribution of our elementary schools in developing vocational skills undoubtedly will be found in areas which are much more general in nature, however. Competence and skill in reading, speaking, writing, and computing, for example, are as basic to most vocations as they are’ in the elementary school’s instructional pro- gram. As elementary-school children develop their ability to com- municate ideas, make sound judgments, analyze relationships be- tween separate elements, and predict the consequences of specific actions, they are preparing themselves directly for vocational competency. In most vocations such abilities are far more valuable than specific manipulative skills. Elementary schools also develop abilities in problem solving. Children need many opportunities for solving problems, and schools are challenged to offer experience in working on problems and projects that are meaningful and significant to them. Teachers able to relate the realities of local community life to classroom activities have greatest success in this area. Relating community to school is not always easy, since most of the instructional materials available are generalized to a point where children frequently have difficulty seeing how the textbook “situa- tion” or particular problem-solving process is tied to the real activities of community living which they know. In the field of arithmetic, Dreier’s study of elementary textbooks illustrates this * Martin, William E., and Stendler, Celia Burns. Child Development: The Process of Growing Up in Society. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1953. p. 457-81. DiGi ae ant 8 commen — om — (eecee ene ate 58 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA point most emphatically.’ Recognizing that approximately half of all elementary-school children at the time of his study had a rural background, he found less than 3 percent of the materials in arithmetic textbooks published over a four-year period with a “rural flavor.” Interestingly enough, not more than 25 percent of the problems could be classed as “urban.” Thus, from 75 to 97 percent of the problems in these commonly used textbooks contained little that related itself to life as it actually exists, either rural or urban. He concluded that if problem solving in arithmetic was to be meaningful and useful and a process through which children find real tools and skills for the activities of their daily life, major responsibility must be assumed by the teacher. Skill in human relations is another area where elementary schools can make a substantial contribution to vocational competence. It has often been demonstrated that more people fail in their jobs because of inability to get along with other people than for lack of ability to perform the specific tasks assigned to them. Under- standing and skill in working with other individuals and in dealing with groups are developed through the variety of classroom activities in which children gain experience in working together. From earliest childhood, this ability develops. Experience is cumulative. Teachers accomplish most when they are aware of the importance of such experiences and consciously plan those for which individual children have greatest need. The Contribution Vocational Education Can Make Providing elementary-school children with opportunities for instruction in vocationally oriented activities has been mentioned, and generally such experiences are highly desirable. Learning to use tools and machines and to work with various kinds of materials are important understandings for growing children. Safety habits, respect for tools, ability to plan and think ahead, consciousness of waste, and many other outcomes including the development of elemental manual skills result. In such activities there is oppor- tunity for children to learn that the machines which have helped make possible a standard of living and leisure heretofore unheard ° Dreier, William H. “Rural Background Found in Six Third-Grade Arithmetic Texts Published between 1942 and 1946.” Journal of Educational Research 42: 299-306; December 1948. VOCATIONAL ASPECTS OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 59 of have neither a conscience nor the power to think for themselves. These qualities must be possessed by those who operate them. These are concepts which take on real meaning for some children only in a vocational context. Having access to the opportunity to develop such understandings and skills is especially significant for those who terminate their formal schooling at the end of or soon after completion of the elementary school. The major contributions which vocational educators can make to the elementary-school program, however, will be found in activities more intangible than providing direct prevocational experiences for children. They depend upon the ability, interest, and willingness of both the vocational and elementary teachers to see common objectives in their separate programs and to work together coopera- tively at a professional level in a way which will cause the efforts of both groups to be mutually reinforced. One type of coordinated action that would be helpful to both elementary and vocational teachers would be cooperative review of educational objectives—especially those of the elementary school. Lacking a more specific point of beginning which evolves within the local school situation, the early statement of the Educational Policies Commission could serve as a vehicle.® If only the area of “economic efficiency” were considered, for example, the potential is great: The Objectives of Economic Efficiency Work— The educated producer knows the satisfaction of good workmanship. Occupational Information— The educated producer understands the requirements and opportunities for various jobs. Occupational Choice— The educated ~roducer has selected his occupation. Occupational Efficiency— The educated producer succeeds in his chosen vocation. Occupational Adjustment— The educated producer maintains and improves his efficiency. * National Education Association and American Association of School Adminis- trators, Educational Policies Commission, op. cit. 60 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Occupational Appreciation— The educated producer appreciates the social value of his work. Personal Economics The educated consumer plans the economics of his own life. Consumer Judgment— The educated consumer develops standards for guiding his expenditures. Efficiency in Buying— The educated consumer is an informed and skillful buyer. Consumer Protection— The educated consumer takes appropriate measures to safeguard his interests.” With a background of common agreement, vocational teachers could help those in the elementary school in planning a compre- hensive series of vocational activities, understandings, and skills which might become an integral part of the units of study at the various grade levels. Identification of available local resources which could add meaning to such study would be a valuable assist for most elementary teachers. Many elementary teachers tend to overlook certain types of local resources because they either are unaware of their existence or fail to see their possibilities or related- ness in the school program. In addition to assistance in planning, the vocational teacher can also make valuable contributions to what children need to learn in the elementary school by serving as a consultant and resource person. Where elementary teachers are encouraged by a climate of cooperative working relationships, they seek the suggestions and counsel vocational teachers can give with respect to resources, materials, and practices. They invite demonstrations and other kinds of direct contributions the vocational teacher can make to the elementary-school group. Activities of this type can add depth and quality to the elementary-school program and increase the oppor- tunity children have for developing an understanding of vocational concepts. They are also rewarding to the vocational teacher. " Ibid., p. 90-106. VOCATIONAL ASPECTS OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 61 Developing a Readiness for Vocational Education The specifics of most vocations are changing so rapidly as a consequence of technological advances that one cannot depend much in some vocational fields on what was learned as recently as 5 or 10 years ago. This emphasizes the need for education to furnish students with more than an established collection of procedures and skills which may well become obsolete in a short period of time. The suggestion of this discussion is that the educational programs of elementary schools have a major responsibility for developing readiness for vocational interests and vocational education. Even though specific vocational education can hardly be considered within the scope of its objectives, the elementary school can and should provide a climate and background of experiences which open the eyes of each child and stimulate his thinking about the vocational aspects of the world of which he is a part. He can learn to identify problems and to find the kinds of information or help he needs in solving them. Mastery of basic processes, understanding and skill in human relationships, and an ability to discriminate, evaluate, and communicate effectively—all are necessary to vocational competence. Equipped with a sound background in these areas, the child will have, already “built-in” at the time he completes his elementary education, many of the essentials for a satisfactory and productive vocational life. In a world where rapid adaptations to new people, changing conditions, and mobility are certainties for every individual, there is increasing need for a broad and liberal educational background. The elementary school can make its greatest contribution to the _vocational education of children through activities and experiences of a general education nature. The role might be defined as one of developing a readiness for vocational activity. EERIE TES TEE PERDITION SYD . Io , a > “ Be PN Pea OR eee ERE OS hey ae tm 3 2 x ‘ s CHAPTER 5 Vocational Education for Rural Adults Tae CHANGES taking place in the vocational life of adults in rural areas are being precipitated by growth of the total population of the country, the mechanization and modernization of farms and rural homes, the improvement of roads and communica- tions services, migration, an increasing number of rural nonfarm residents, decentralization of certain types of industry, and the extension of various public services and cultural opportunities. The vocational life of rural residents is becoming increasingly diverse and complex. Even though the farm population has declined—fewer farmers on larger farms—the total rural population is actually increasing. There is significance in the fact that approximately two-thirds of the rural labor force at the present time are nonfarm workers. Draftsmen, accountants, auditors, technical engineers, managers, proprietors, construction workers, clerical workers, sales workers, carpenters, electricians, plumbers, radio and television technicians, laundry and dry-cleaning workers, and transportation personnel can all be found among rural residents. Some work outside the community in which they live; many are actually employed near home. The steady shift toward specialization in nearly all rural occupa- tions makes a dependence upon random work experience as the chief method of developing vocational competence crude, inadequate, and most unsatisfactory. An organized and carefully planned program of vocational education is increasingly essential to quality perform- ance. Technological developments affecting occupations are so rapid that elementary and secondary education, however broad in scope, cannot be sufficiently comprehensive to anticipate them. Lloyd Phipps, assistant agriculture teacher trainer, University of Illinois, Urbana, prepared the original draft of Chapter 5. 63 eet haa 64 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Vocational education for rural adults must be a consideration in educational planning for the future. Contributions of Vocational Education to Adult Workers Providing vocational education for adults can hardly be con- sidered a new idea. Some opportunities for occupational training for adults have been available since Colonial times. A brief review highlighting past efforts may give some background for future planning and provision. Apprenticeships were the primary means of providing occupa- tional training in the days of the colonies. As a supplement to work in the particular trades, however, evening schools for adults were established in many communities and became quite popular. Privately operated, the evening schools varied their instructional offerings in accordance with the special vocational interests of the adults who enrolled. The programs of these small schools were so well received that they prospered for many years. They were an early recognition of the importance and need for a broad program of vocational education for adults in industry. Adult education for farmers has an equally long history. One of the earliest efforts, organization in 1785 of the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, got under way as a means of encouraging “a greater increase of the products of the land within the American states.” By 1860 there were 941 active agricultural societies in various parts of the United States. Josiah Holbrook originated the lyceum movement in 1826, an organization of adults which in different communities was used for sponsoring meetings, organizing regular courses, procuring books and apparatus, and establishing institutions for applying the sciences to agriculture. Farmer insti- tutes were begun about 1870; the Chautauqua movement was started in 1874; and a program of extension work in agriculture got under way throughout the state of New York in 1894. In Maryland, the Agricultural High School of Baltimore County was opened at Sparks Station in 1909. This school, which provided a series of 10- meeting courses for adult farmers had an average attendance of about 125 men and women during its first year. These early efforts to establish vocational education programs for adults were sporadic, but wherever they were organized they demon- — nese vet VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL ADULTS 65 strated that the participating adults benefited greatly. Passage of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917, therefore, was a result of a long history of successful experiences. It provided motivation and en- couragement for the development of programs of vocational edu- cation for adults through the public schools in all parts of the country. It is not surprising that most of the adult education efforts directed to rural areas both before and after the provision of federal financial assistance were in the field of agriculture. Farmers wel- comed these educational opportunities. They supported the programs. With the development of vocational programs in most local com- munity areas, their participation increased rapidly. In 1921, for example, there were 1139 farmers enrolled in adult courses in vocational agriculture; in 1954 there were 247,275 enrolled in regular adult courses as well as many additional thousands in on-the-farm training courses for veterans. At the peak of the program for farmer veterans there were 361,452 rural adults enrolled. An understanding of the contributions of vocational education for adult workers in rural areas and the readiness of rural adults for such training can be seen, in part, by reviewing the experience of programs sponsored through the public schools during World War II. At the beginning of educational programs established by the National Defense Training Acts, emphasis was on industrial and shop training for rural adults, who, after training, could be chan- neled into industry. Because of the need to increase and conserve the nation’s food supply, the emphasis of the program was later shifted to agricultural production, and, in this phase, an extensive training program in farm machinery repair and maintenance was developed. From October 1940 until June 1945 more than’ 4 million rural adults were enrolled in the various courses made available to them through their local schools.’ The experience of the past demonstrates that rural adult workers will respond to educational opportunities related to their occupa- tions if the programs and courses have specific applications and if they are available within local communities. With the range of specialized rural occupations increasing and the forecast indicating a future in which many rural adults will find it necessary to make certain occupational changes, there will be need for an organized 1 See “Wartime Training Courses” in Chapter 10, p. 183. 66 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA and systematic means for developing the new technical competen- cies called for. Efforts to provide vocational education for rural adults will need to be expanded greatly. Objectives of Vocational Education for Rural Adults The object or purposes of any organized undertaking should be clearly understood by those who work with it if their efforts are to be efficiently and consistently directed. Those who are or who will be involved in providing vocational education opportunities for rural adults must have a broader aim than merely developing specific technical skills. Understanding the why and for what of the program with which they work is necessary and important. An understanding of the purposes of a vocational program for rural adults depends upon understanding (or at the least recog- nizing) the social and economic forces which are changing the nature of rural communities. The key words for the future of rural America are change and diversity. Out of developments now taking place and those which can be forecast with reasonable clarity certain broad, major purposes of adult programs can be identified. ® Vocational education will be needed to help adults adjust to the technological changes which influence their jobs. Even though many rural adults will remain in the same general type of work in which they are now employed, they will find that their particular jobs require new knowledge and additional skills. A look at developments in agriculture in the past 25 years gives some clue to what undoubtedly lies ahead in this occupational field. Among the numerous applications of science and tech- nology during the period, farmers have had to learn how to operate, adjust, and repair many new types and kinds of farm machinery and how to use and apply various types of chemical sprays and fertilizers. There have been more advances in farming methods since World War I than during the several hundred years prior to that time. Developments within other rural occupations have been equally great, and all signs indicate acceleration in the rate of continuing change. While much of the updating of competencies for nonfarm occupations may well be provided within the context of the employment situation, schools VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL ADULTS 67 will also need to accept some responsibility for this educational effort. © Vocational education will be needed to help adults prepare for a new vocation. That many rural people will be required to make occupational changes is certain. Some will find their present jobs made obsolete by technological change. A majority of un- skilled workers will be replaced by automatic devices, more highly skilled and technically trained people will be needed, and certain types of skilled workers will find their skills replaced by other skills. Developments which already have taken place call for occupational adjustments by many of those who have been coal miners, cotton farmers, and operators of marginal farms. Other large occupational groups may soon feel the impact of changing methods of production. The rapid and orderly assimilation of these adults into different occupations will de- pend upon the availability of an organized and systematic means by which they can secure new technical competencies. ® Vocational education will be needed to help adults advance to higher levels of responsibility within their vocational fields. The worker's productive capacity relates closely to the satisfactions he receives from the job he does. Job satisfaction is greatest when the worker has a thorough understanding of the technical aspects of his work, a high level of ability in the specific skills required, a feeling of steady progress and achievement within the vocation (usually recognized by economic and social re- wards ), and an ability to see relationships between the specific job and the total production-consumption pattern of society. The mental health of workers becomes increasingly important as jobs become more and more systematized and routinized. The general and specific background which additional vocational education provides can enhance all of these relationships be- tween the worker and his job. It can improve his ability as a contributor and provide a basis for his promotion to greater responsibility and reward. © Vocational education will be needed for the vocational rehabilita- tion of the aged and the handicapped. In addition to assisting those required to shift occupations because of the disappearance of need for their jobs, many adults are forced to develop new VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA occupational skills because of physical handicaps resulting from illness or accident. While this type of program is sometimes a highly specialized undertaking, experience indicates that voca- tional education can help even the most severely handicapped become effective and valuable contributors. Older people, too, are often in need of learning new vocational skills either for supplementing retirement incomes or for providing useful and satisfying activities during their years as senior citizens in the community. The importance of vocational education efforts in these areas stems from the American ideal of developing all the individual talents and capabilities of all people, the need for the productive utilization of all available manpower, and the con- tribution constructive work makes to the mental health of those who are handicapped by age or physical disability. Vocational education can assist adults in developing the abilities necessary for dual occupations. In increasing numbers rural residents are engaged in more than one occupation. Nearly half of those who are classified as “farmers,” for example, earn part of their income from nonfarm work. Similarly, many of those whose primary employment is in business or industry are also part-time farmers, have a separate, independent small business such as radio, watch, or automobile repair which they operate out of their home or “on the side,” or otherwise engage in a secondary occupation. Most of these supplemental occupations either re- quire specialized training or could be made more productive and efficient if such training were available. Vocational education is needed for the large number of rural workers who are socially and economically underprivileged. Among the underprivileged rural adults are (a) the migratory agricultural workers whose chief occupational contribution is the hand labor necessary for harvesting perishable crops and (b) a large number of American Indians whe do not work at all. Social isolation because of language, mores, and way of life separates these people and prevents their participation in a normal pattern of community life. Within their groups individual abilities and talents seldom have opportunity for development because few ‘have a chance to take advantage of even the most rudimentary educational opportunities. While the nature of their problems VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL ADULTS 69 appears to be largely social, it is primarily a matter of economic ineptness. For few are equipped with vocational competencies of even the lowest order which can help them improve themselves and their standard of living. ® Vocational education will be needed to prepare the increasing number of women who will enter the labor market. Many girls and women living on farms and in rural communities are presently working at jobs outside the home, and the number is expected to increase substantially in the years ahead. A large number of those who will seek employment will not have had previous employment experience. Unless specifically trained, few will be able to enter vocations which require specialized skills even though their potential for mastering them is high. The availability of suitable vocational education for these women workers could do much to insure the probability that this major segment of the working force will not be underemployed . . . that these workers might approach their productive capacity. ® Vocational education will be demanded by rural adults who de- sire understandings and skills in avocational pursuits. The in- creasing leisure time available to large numbers of workers has created a desire on the part of many adults to develop special interests. Some turn to “do-it-yourself” activities—landscaping, photography, radio, cabinetmaking, or similar pursuits. While few of these adults are concerned about their special interests from the standpoint of their actual vocational possibilities, most of the interest areas are vocational in nature. Many need the kind of instruction that vocational education can provide in order to pursue their projects in an efficient, worthwhile, and satisfying manner, and to protect them from the health and safety hazards to which they might otherwise be vulnerable. Only the broadest purposes or functions for vocational education programs are set forth here. No attempt is made to outline the many specific objectives which could be developed. The intent has been simply to identify the various rural adult groups who now and in the future will require vocational training, the reasons for their need, and the general nature of the vocational training which will help them most. A further and most important concern of vocational education—one which pervades all of the groups, functions, and Castells MGA. cE Be as a 70 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA purposes—is that of vocational guidance. In addition to the voca- tional preparation phase, the development of specific skills, adults need assistance with regard to the types of vocational opportunities available, those for which they might be particularly suited if they had proper training, and where and how the necessary training might be obtained. Vocational guidance for rural adults will become increasingly necessary. Developing Vocational Education Programs for Rural Adults The changing nature of rural communities throughout the country and their increasing diversity have many implications for the de- velopment of vocational education programs for adults. Chief among these is the need for flexibility. The vocational opportunities and training needs differ from community to community and, from time to time, even within an individual community. The vocational program must be responsive to differences and to changes within each of the broad vocational areas in the community it serves. This is most easily achieved, perhaps, where vocational educators are con- tinuously alert to the occupational resources, opportunities, and developments within the community area and find it possible to adjust and adapt the educational program so it is in tune with both the immediate and projected circumstances. 38 Always a consideration in program planning, however, are the kinds of vocational problems individuals in the community must meet and the understandings and skills they need to do this ade- quately. Even though conditions will change and the manner in which particular problems are met will vary with the times, certain types of adult vocational needs are relatively constant. These offer some possibility for becoming a core for the vocational program. As technological developments alter specific vocational opportuni- ties and needs, the program can be adapted. While not all of the following areas would be applicable to every rural community, they suggest some of the occupational or vocational fields, some of the particular adult groups needing specialized assistance, and some types of continuing problems rural people must be prepared to meet.” * Because specific chapters in Part II are devoted to a detailed development of each of these areas, their mention here is only to suggest a few of the adult education needs. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL ADULTS 71 Programs for Workers in Agriculture Within the broad area of agriculture there are a number of separate and distinct groups for whom vocational educstion is needed. While all share a need for certain basic types of knowledge and skill in the field of agriculture, their immediate needs and problems (consequently, the point at which vocational instruction will be most meaningful and helpful) are different. One of the agricultural groups is that generally regarded as young farmers. This group is composed of young men living on farms who are actually of school age but who have dropped out of school, those above secondary-school age who live on farms but are not established in farming, and those who are beginning farmers. The interests and needs of this group are sufficiently diverse to make it difficult to include them all in the same young farmer program. The farm boy who continues in high school and studies agriculture may or may not become a farmer. If he plans to do so; he is usually able to become a beginning farmer soon after completing school; or he goes on to further agricultural training at college level. If his intentions are not actual farming, he frequently seeks employment in some farm-related business or industry. The farm boy who drops out of school, on the other hand, will very likely do farm work, and his major needs are in the area of improving his employable skills. The beginning farmer is in a still different category. Actually engaged in a farm business but having limited experience, he is faced with numerous kinds of problems and situations where assistance is needed.* A second group of agricultural workers are the farm operators. Older adult farmers are becoming increasingly aware of their need for education related to the business of farming. More are enrolling in adult farmer courses each year, and most rural communities are now finding enrollment demands so great that several courses must be organized to accommodate them. While either livestock or crop production and farm mechanics are their general areas of concern, the specific interests of farmers ate so diverse that a single course is hardly adequate in most communities. Systematic instruction on *For an itemization of the vocational needs of beginning farmers, see Hemp, Paul. Developmental Tasks of Prospective and Present Farmers in a Selected Illinois Community. Doctor’s thesis. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1955. p. 56. (Type- written ) 72 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA relatively small phases of the total farm business—intensive courses on such problem areas as the use of fertilizers, spraying crops for insects and weeds, and using supplemental irrigation—are most profitable. Classroom instruction, an introduction to new procedures developed through agricultural research, and application of practices on the farm are important elements in successful and meaningful programs. One of the fastest growing groups of people engaged in agriculture are the part-time farmers. Most of these people live on marginal farms and, although it may require a substantial portion of the worker's time (often more time than is devoted to nonfarm work), the farm operation tends to be a secondary source of income. More than just an income supplement, however, many of the part-time farmers regard their operation as a kind of economic insurance— something to “fall back on” if their present major source of income is threatened. Although generally interested in and receptive to vocational education opportunities in agriculture, their problems and the scope of their operation tend to be different from those of full-time commercial farmers. In most instances their needs for agricultural education are many, but the time demands of their dual occupations make them a difficult group to reach. Developing a vocational program for this group is a substantial challenge to the educator. Still other adult groups in agriculture for whom vocational educa- tion would be profitable are the specialized farm employees, the farm laborers, and the farm managers. The interests, concerns, and abilities of these separate groups are widely different. Few of the regular farm employees who operate complex pieces of farm equip- ment, work with dairy herds or as cattle feeders, or in similarly specialized jobs have had systematic training which could improve their efficiency. Seldom have there been programs developed for farm laborers, especially the migratory workers, although experience during World War II showed that their productivity can be in- creased greatly by short periods of training. The professional faim manager often enrolls in programs with other adult farmers, but the businessmen and the women who are landowners and farm managers are seldom reached. They not only need vocational education for farm management but welcome programs specifically organized to meet their particular needs. tana «“ VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL ADULTS 73 Programs for Homemakers Rural homemakers are no longer isolated. They tend to have as many advantages and mechanical gadgets for carrying on their homemaking activities as do their urban cousins. But whether in the early stages of establishing a home and starting a family or long experienced in the job of homemaking, they all have interests and problems which vocational education can serve. Home decoration and furnishing, foods and nutrition, consumer buying, family budgets, and numerous aspects of clothing design, construction, and re- modeling are interests of all ages. Most rural communities have people with varying levels of interest and ability in each of these areas. Caring for a baby, child study and development, getting children ready for school, problems with teen-agers, helping the child select his vocation, college, or mate, and various other types of concerns run the family cycle. They are areas in which many home- makers need and seek help. Refinishing old furniture, family recreation, flower arrangement, care of the sick, and similar interests are often pursued intensively. The opportunities for vocational education for adult homemakers are many, and where programs are developed, they contribute directly to the improvement and enrich- ment of family and community life. Programs in Trade and Industrial Areas Rural occupations are becoming more diverse, more specialized, more technical. As industry continues to find its way into rural communities and more and more rural people find their way into industry, there will be an increasing need for highly trained per- sonnel. If rural residents cannot qualify for these jobs on a basis of their experience and training, they will be forced to accept lower levels of employment. Industry needs skilled workers of all varieties —machine operators, maintenance workers, clerks, laboratory tech- nicians, and office personnel. Communities need construction workers, plumbers, electricians, automobile mechanics, barbers, beauticians, shoemakers, watch repairmen, and many others with specialized training and skill. The modernization of rural living has not only created a demand for many kinds of occupations but has brought with it a substantial change in attitude among most rural people. No longer are they willing to tolerate the jack-of-all-trades. ~ ne eA TON Pixie em Bs ee semen rr a a ? ee} 74 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA They expect and demand well-trained people to service their wide assortment of machines, appliances, and automatic devices. The responsibilities and opportunities for trade and industrial education for rural adults are many. Programs for Adults in Business Rural America has many small businesses. Many are marginal and in the past have depended largely upon the loyalty of friends and the community, their personal interest in individual customers, or the extension of credit as substitutes for modernization and efficiency. Adjustments to the changes in rural America have been slow and difficult. But with increasing industrialization and an increasing rural population there will be need for more trained salesworkers, more business managers and proprietors, and more service personnel. Many new rural businesses will be established. Continuing specialization will bring even greater interdependency. Milk from the same dairy and bread from the same bakery find their way into both farm and village home. All of these facts emphasize that modern business education for adults must be much broader than typing, bookkeeping, accounting, and other office skills, although some adults certainly will need such training. Be- cause few workers in the small businesses of rural areas have had specific occupational training, adult programs which prepare per- sonnel for sales, supervisory, and manageria! jobs, and to improve business organization and operation will be most needed. Programs in Service Occupations As rural society becomes more complex and more interdependent, there is a corresponding increase in the number of persons employed in what might be regarded as service activities. While certain service occupations are of professional level (doctors, lawyers, teachers, and clergy, for example), many require a level of skill to | which adult education programs within the community can make a great contribution. Practical nurses, custodial employees, school | bus drivers, firemen, law enforcement officers, other types of local government employees, and labor union officials are among those whose skill and effectiveness could be increased through. appropriate instruction. bl iG ba VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL ADULTS 75 Adult Education Responsibilities for Rural Schools In a majority of rural communities throughout the country the local public schoo! is actually a community center—not only for educational activities but for much of the social and cultural life of the community. Few rural communities have any other institution which could undertake to any degree the varied program of voca- tional education for adults becoming increasingly important. When the public schools undertake the provision of an adult education program it gives additional strength to all other school efforts. Adults often have an extremely limited understanding of what the schools in their community are actually doing. When involved in a program from which they receive direct personal educational benefits, however, it becomes much easier for them to understand and evaluate other activities. Confidence in and respect for teaching efforts come into new perspective through participation in an adult program. Still another avenue of adult participation through which the schools receive additional strength and stature is the use of citizen - advisory committees in relation to vocational programs. It has been the experience of teachers and administrators that working with lay committees who advise and help plan the curricular content of the vocational programs and with the adults actually enrolled in voca- tional classes helps the school keep both its adult and regular school program pitched to change and the realities of employment con- ditions and needs. Adults who participate in a vocational training program do so purposefully. When they enroll in an adult education program they want to acquire particular skills for a reason—so they can do their job better, so they can get a better job or get promoted, so they can do something they are presently unable to do, or for some other purpose. But always participation is voluntary; always there is purpose. For adults education must be practical. It must relate to real problems. Schools and teachers can learn much from this approach to education. The implications for elementary and second- ary education are obvious. Educational programs for adults need not be very costly. Every community already has a large amount of money invested in its school facilities, and these facilities are often completely available 16 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA for use by adults at the very times when adults are also free to participate in an education program. In addition, the possibility for the interchange and sharing of specialized machinery and equipment between regular and adult programs makes for their more economical use; it strengthens both programs. One report which refiects a great deal of adult education experience has esti- mated that a school district can provide adult education programs involving 50 percent of its total adult population and, over a five- year period, need only use funds equal to 3 percent of its budget for elementary and secondary schools.‘ To’ view outlays for adult vocational education as costs is to be shortsighted, however. There is probably no other educational undertaking which pays for itself more quickly or more directly. When workers are inadequately trained for their jobs, they are inefficient, they tend to waste materials, and the product of their work is generally decreased in both quantity and quality. Unskilled and inept workers are a financial liability to their employers and to the community. Vocational training can remove these handicaps for employers and assure a steady supply of competent workers. But the benefits of vocational education also go to the individual worker. His acquisition of vocational skills increases his earning capacity and his economic potential. With specialized training he can be on his way to increasingly higher levels of occupational performance. Vocational education programs for adults in rural communities greatly improve the economic assets and level of living of all rural people. ‘Hamlin, H. M. The Public and Its Education. Danville, Ill.: Interstate, 1955. p. 190. ad (\ 7 hc ints CHAPTER 6 Financing Vocational Education 1. FINANCING of vocational education involves the issues and methods of apportionment of funds that concern the general field of school finance. But beyond these concerns are certain historical facts in the development of vocational education that make the financing of this field unique, especially in the field of federal participation. In this chapter certain chief concerns in the financing of voca- tional education will be considered. Among these concerns are the following: (a) the historical background of vocational education in the United States, (b) trends in the financing of vocational education, (c) the effectiveness of federal financial policies in this field, (d) the size of the job of vocational education, (e) some conditions under which vocational education operates, (f) the issue of federal control of education, (g) evaluation of the methods of apportioning federal funds, (h) state apportionment of funds for vocational education, and (i) the road ahead in the financing of vocational education. Historical Background It is not necessary here to trace the various steps and develop- ments that led to the enactment of legislation for the financial sup- port of vocational education. That history has been amply written elsewhere.’ From its earliest years the federal government mani- Howard A. Dawson, executive secretary, Division of Rural Service, National Education Association, Washington, D. C., prepared the original draft of Chapter 6. See Blanch, Lloyd E. Federal Cooperation in Agricultural Extension Work, Vocational Education, and Vocational Rehabilitation. U. S. Office of Education, Bulletin 1933, No. 15. Washington, D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Govern- ment Printing Office, 1933. 297 p. See also Russell, John Dale, and others. Vocational Education. Advisory Committee on Education, Staff Study No. 8. Washington, D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1938. 325 p. 79 80 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA fested an interest in education. The Ordinance of 1785 reserved for schools the sixteenth section of every township, and the Northwest Territory Ordinance of 1787 provided for the encouragement of “schools and the means of education.” Beginning in 1802 with the admission of Ohio, Congress began to set aside certain public lands for the support of schools in each new state admitted. The amount of these grants of land increased through the years, and the schools in some of the last states admitted to the union were given as much as four sections of each township. None of these grants carried any provisions for federal supervision of schools. Early Federal Interest Federal interest in vocational education first took specific form in the Morrill Act of 1862, by which large blocks of public land (or land scrip in lieu of land) were allocated to each state for the support of colleges of agriculture and mechanical arts. Federal support for the land-grant colleges of agriculture and mechanical arts has continued in the form of annual appropriations of money and has been increased from time to time. In addition to the funds for the support of instruction, federal appropriations have been provided for agricultural experiment stations and for agricultural extension service on a cooperative basis with the states. Organizational Interests At about the beginning of the present century a number of organi- zations—notably the American Association of Manufacturers, the National Metal Trades Association, certain agricultural organiza- tions, and the National Education Association—began to advocate extended facilities for vocational education in the public schools. The American Federation of Labor urged that vocational education be provided under public auspices. Various organizations and indi- viduals interested in the problem met in 1906 and established the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. As a result of a statement issued by that group in 1911 setting forth the provisions it believed should be incorporated in legislation author- izing federal aid for vocational education, the Congress of the United States in 1914 by resolution authorized the appointment of a Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education. Following 7 — —_- — —. SI etree rrrerrrennnnerecneninennnn = FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 81 the influence of the recommendation of the report of the Commis- sion and spurred to action by war conditions that accelerated the need for skilled workmen and greater food production, the Congress early in 1917 passed the Smith-Hughes Act providing federal funds for distribution to the states for vocational education in the public schools of less than college grade. The Act was signed by President Wilson on February 3, 1917. The Smith-Hughes Act The Smith-Hughes Act? provided a continuing appropriation for distribution to the states beginning with $1,660,000 and increasing gradually each year until a total of $7,167,000 was reached in 1926 and annually thereafter. In addition, $200,000 was appropriated annually for a new federal agency to administer the Act. The pur- pose of these appropriations was to provide vocational training in agriculture and in trades and industries. It was also provided that some of the funds for trade and industrial education (not to exceed 20 percent) should be used for vocational home economics education. The funds were available for the reimbursement of the salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors of agricultural sub- jects and salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and in- dustrial subjects in public schools of less than college grade. Reim- bursemcnts could not exceed one-half of the salaries actually paid the personnel specified. The funds for vocational agricultural education were distributed to the respective states on the basis of their rural population; for trade and industrial education (including home economics) they were distributed on the basis of their urban population. In 1924 the benefits of the Act were extended to Hawaii and in 1931 to Puerto Rico. Additional Vocational Education Acts The original Smith-Hughes Act was later supplemented by a succession of four other acts: George-Reed Act. In 1929 Congress passed the George-Reed Act® authorizing an additional appropriation of $500,000 the first year and increased by that amount each year until a total of $2.5 * 39 Stat. L (929-36) 1917. * 45 Stat. L (1151) 1929. 82 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA million annually was reached. The Act was limited to five years and provided only for education in agriculture and home economics, nothing for trades and industries. An amount of $100,000 annually was allowed for administration. George-Ellzey Act. In 1934 the George-Reed Act was replaced by the George-Ellzey Act* under which $3 million annually was provided in equal parts for education in agriculture, in trades and industries, and in home economics, distributed respectively on the basis of farm population, nonfarm population, and rural population. Allowances were also made for administration and to guarantee a minimum allotment of $5000 for each of the three fields. George-Deen Act. In 1936 the George-Ellzey Act was succeeded by the George-Deen Act,® which more than doubled the Smith- Hughes appropriations by authorizing an annual supplement of $14,483,000, raising the total appropriations authorized for distribu- tion to the states and other areas for vocational education to $21,- 785,000. The George-Deen Act carried two other important new features. It added vocational training in distributive occupations. In addition, the George-Deen Act in the early years following its enactment did not require that federal funds be matched dollar for dollar as had been stipulated in all previous legislation. Instead, the states and territories were required to match the federal funds with state or local funds or both to the extent of 50 percent until June 30, 1942, after which the percentage of matching was increased by 10 percent each year until the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1946, when the required matching became 100 percent. George-Barden Act. To take the place of the George-Deen Act, Congress passed the Vocational Education Act of 1946, usually referred to as the George-Barden Act,® which provided for further development of vocational education and authorized an annual appropriation of $29,267,080. Of that amount $10 million was for vocational agriculture, apportioned to the states on the basis of farm population; $8 million was for vocational education in home economics, apportioned to the states on the basis of total rural popu- lation; $8 million was for vocational education in trades and in- dustries, apportioned to the states on the basis of total nonfarm vopulation; $2.5 million was for vocational education in distributive * 48 Stat. L (792-3) 1934. * 49 Stat. L (1488-90) 1936. * P.L. 586—79th Congress (Chapter 725—2nd Session). PS TENS PORT COMERS REY RST TTS ETRE RIED, FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 83 occupations, apportioned to the states on the basis of total popula- tion; and $767,080 to guarantee at least $40,000 annually for each state for each of the fields of agriculture, home economics, and trades and industries, and $15,000 as a minimum to any state for the field of distributive occupations. Acts of 1956—New Fields. In 1956 the Congress further expanded the vocational education programs by adding two new fields for which specific grants were made: for practical nurse training and for vocational education in the fishery trades and industries. Through Public Law 911 (Health Amendments Act of 1956) the George-Barden Act was amended to authorize an appropriation of $5 million annually for the ensuing five years for grants to the states to extend and improve practical nurse training. Allotments to each state are made in the same proportion as the total of other allotments under the Vocational Education Act of 1956, except that minimum allotments of $10,000 are provided for each state and territory and $5000 for the Virgin Islands. For the fiscal years ending in 1957 and 1958, each $3 of federal funds must be matched by $1 of state and local funds, and for the next three years dollar-for- dollar matching is required. The appropriation for 1957 was $2 million and for 1958 it was $4 million. For the school year ending in 1957 there were 23,000 students enrolled under this program. Through Public Law 1027 (1956) the Congress amended the Vocational Education Act of 1946 by authorizing the appropria- tion of funds to be allotted to the states for vocational education in the fishery trades and industry. Allotments are based on the relative extent of the fishing trade in each state, taking into account employment in the industries, the value and poundage of the annual catch, and the value of the manufactured products. The federal funds are required to be matched dollar for dollar. For the year ending in 1958 the Congress appropriated $228,000. Under the formula, 29 states have received allotments, eight of them receiving ~ less than $1000 and 10 of them in excess of $10,000. National Defense Education Act of 1958. Within the framework of legislation designed to strengthen the defense position of the United States in a time of both world tension and scientific develop- ment, the various provisions of the National Defense Education Act of 1958’ have implications for all levels of education, public and private. Among its provisions is a total annual appropriation * PLL. 85-864. a i i ee pune 84 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA of $15 million for each of four years to be distributed as grants to the states for the development of “area vocational education” which will train “highly skilled technicians in recognized occupa- tions requiring scientific knowledge . . . in fields necessary for the national defense.” Actually, this legislation in its provisions for vocational education can be considered, as were the laws of 1956, previously indicated, an amendment to the George-Barden Act. Included in the legislation is a plan for distributing funds in terms of dollar-for-dollar matching within each state with a maximum federal allotment proportional to the total of the funds authorized for other programs under the George-Barden Act. . Summary of Federal Appropriations The federal funds authorized for vocational education in 1956 can be summarized in the following tabulation:* Permanent Appropriation for Allotment to States— Smith-Hughes Act Alloted on the For vocational instruction in: basis of: Amount ROI a occ ncnssensanen Rural population" . .$ 3,000,000 Trade, home economics, and EN Sontivadesndussas Urban population .. 3,000,000 Teacher training ........... Total population .. 1,000,000 :; 7,000,000 Necessary to guarantee minimums (1950 Census) .. _138,330" Total (yearly for 10-year period, 1950-60) ...... $ 7,138,330 Authorization To Appropriate Funds for Allotment to States Public Laws extending benefits: Hawaii (Public Law, No. 35, 68th Congress)... .. $ 30,000 *A state’s allotment for agriculture, for example, is computed by the following formula: Total rural population of state Total rural population of U.S. » Rounded to nearest dollar. * U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education. Public Vocational Education Programs. Pamphlet No. 117, 1956. Washington, D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1956. p. 8. x $3,000,000 = state’s allotment. FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 85 Puerto Rico (Public Law, No. 791, 71st Congress) .$ 105,000 Virgin Islands (Public Law, No. 462, 81st Congress ) 40,000 OL sie e res shack UN ees onan $ 175,000 George-Barden Act Alloted on the For vocational instruction in: basis of: pr Pererrrerrrerryy Farm population . .$10,000,000 Distributive occupations .... Total population... 2,500,000 Home economics ........... Rural population .. 8,000,000 Trades and industry ........ Nonfarm population 8,000,000 Necessary to guarantee minimums (1950 Census) .. _ 767,080" Total (George-Barden Act) ............... $29,267,080 Public Law 911 Alloted on the For vocational instruction in: basis of: Practical nurse training ..... Total allotments re- ceived under George-Barden PRP eee $ 5,000,000 Public Law 1027 Alloted on the For vocational instruction in: basis of: Fishery trades and Extent of fishing y I: as icarcs tanner Meee 228,000 BOTAL, AUTMOMMEATIONS oo oi cs kecveecccies 34,670,080 TOTAL APPROPRIATIONS AND AUTHORIZATIONS . . . $41,808,410 Trends in Federal Financing of Vocational Education Since the beginning of the federal program of financial assistance to the states for vocational education in 1917, the amounts of aid have materially increased. Between the year ending June 30, 1918, and the similar year 1936 the total amount expended for federally aided programs increased from $832,000 to $9,749,000 and by 1956 ed a 86 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA had reached $33,180,000. Put another way, the expenditures in 1936 were about 11.7 times the expenditures in 1918 and in 1956 almost 39.9 times the 1918 expenditures. Between 1936 and 1956 | the expenditures were multiplied by 3.3 (See Table I.) | TABLE 1. FEDERAL EXPENDITURES FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR ALLOTMENTS TO THE STATES AND TERRITORIES AND PERCENTAGE Dis- TRIBUTION AMONG FIELDS OF TRAINING, 1918, 1936, AND 1956 (IN THOUSANDS)? Year 1918 1936 1956 Field Amount | Percent | Amount | Percent | Amount | Percent Total $832 | 100 $9,749 | 100 $33,180 | 100 Agriculture 273 42.8] 3,863 44.3] 12,668) 39.9 Trades and Industries 307 48.1] 3,430 39.3 | 10,694 | 33.7 Home Economics 58 9.1] 1,429 16.4 8,389 | 26.4 Distributive Occupations ae pee we or 1,430 | (4.8)¢ Teacher Training 194 . 1,027 ” “ * In order to make the percentages for the different periods comparable, the $194,000 for teacher training has been distributed proportionately among the other three fields and the percents calculated accordingly. ee > Percents in this column were calculated after the $1,027,000 was distributed pro- portionately among the other three fields. © Included under each of the other four fields. k | o 4In order to show the percents for comparable items for the three periods, the ; $1,430,000 for distributive occupations was deducted from the total before the percents _ for the other three fields were calculated. If the total shown and the amount for dis- tributive occupations were included, the i for the four fields respectively would be: 38.2, 32.2, 25.3, and 4.3. Hence, the 4.3 is placed in parentheses. * Sources of data: For 1918 and 1933: Russell, John Dale, and others, op. cit., p. 82. For 1956: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Educa- tion. Digest of Annual Reports of State Boards of Education. (Fiscal year ended June 30, 1956.) Washington, D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1957. p. 14. FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 87 Relative Emphases on Various Fields It is noted that from the beginning emphasis has been on agriculture, trades and industries, and home economics, with home economics receiving least aid of the three fields. Since 1918, agri- culture has exceeded trades and industries in the percentage of funds and the home economics appropriations have been increased materially—from 9.1 percent to 26.4 percent. More recently the distributive occupations (in 1946) and practical nurse training and fishery trades and industries (both in 1956) have been added to the fields receiving some federal support. Since the purpose of federal grants for vocational education in large measure has been cooperation with the states and their local school districts in expanding and extending vocational educational opportunities, it is important to observe what has happened in the relative expenditures of federal, state, and local funds for vocational education. In 1956 a total of $175,886,000 was spent from federal, state, and local sources for the federally aided programs. Of that amount $33,181,000 (19 percent) was spent by the federal govern- ment, $61,822,000 (35 percent) by the states, and $80,883,000 (46 percent ) by local school districts. The proportional expenditures shown in Table 2 reveal.that the pattern of financing developed by the states and localities gives substantially the same relative em- phasis to each of the various fields of vocational education as that given by federal appropriations. Effectiveness of the Federal Finance Policy One of the traditional arguments against federal aid for public schools is that the federal grants would pauperize the states and localities by lessening their efforts to support schools. The history of federal aid for vocational education belies the validity of that argument. State and Local Effort For each dollar of federal funds apportioned for vocational educa- tion in 1918, the states and localities spent $2.43 for the same pur- pose. By 1956 the ratio had reached $4.26 of state and local funds for each federal dollar. In the various fields there was a range of from $3.46 to $5.37 for each dollar of federal money. In each instance, except for the distributive occupations, the local contri- 88 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA TABLE 2. FEDERAL, STATE, AND LocaL EXPENDITURES BY FIELDS OF VOCATIONAL EpucaTIon, 1956!° (In THousAaNDs) Total Federal State Local Field Per- Per- Per- Per- Amount | cent | Amount | cent | Amount | cent | Amount | cent Total $175,886 | 100 | $33,181 | 19.0 | $61,822 | 35.0 | $80,883 | 46.0 Agriculture 56,658 | 100} 12,668 | 22.4] 19,555 | 34.5| 24,435 | 43.1 Trades and Industries 59,522 | 100] 10,694 | 18.0} 20,608 | 34.6 | 28,220 | 47.4 Home Economics 53,282 | 100 8,389 | 15.7] 19,185 | 36.0] 25,708 | 48.3 Distributive Occupa- tions 6,424 | 100 1,430 | 22.3 2,474 | 38.5 2,520 | 39.2 butions were proportionately greater than the state contributions, thus removing all substance from the pauperization theory. The facts confirming these observations are shown in Table 3 and Chart I. Table 4 presents data for each of the respective states. Administrative and Instructional Costs The history of federal aid for vocational education should allay any fears that the cost of administering the federally aided programs will be excessive. In 1956 more than 98.5 percent of the total federal, state, and local expenditures went for instruction and the supervision of instruction; only 1.54 percent went for administration as such. (See Table 5.) Sometimes it has been pointed out that the provisions for supervisory staff for vocational education in the state departments of education are disproportionate to the staff provided for other aspects of education. Such a charge, however, is no argument against what is done for vocational education; it is merely an indictment against some states for dereliction of duty and perhaps indicates that federal assistance to the states for the other areas of education would be a good thing. 10U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education. Digest of Annual 4 W.! of State Boards of Education. (Fiscal year ended June 30, 1956.) — . C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1957. p. 14. FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION TABLE 3. STATE AND LocAL EXPENDITURES FOR EAcuH ONE DOLLAR OF FEDERAL EXPENDITURES IN THE FEDERALLY REIMBURSED PROGRAMS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION BY FIELD OF SERVICE, 1936 AND 1956" State and Local Expenditures per $1.00 of Federal Expenditures Field State and Local Funds State Funds Local Funds 19386 | 1956 | 1936 | 1956 | 19386 | 1956 Total $2.43 | $4.26 | $0.88 | $1.84 | $1.55 | $2.42 Agriculture 1.67 | 3.46] 0.53) 1.54] 1.15] 1.92 Trades and Industries | 3.88 | 4.55] 1.23 | 1.92] 2.14] 2.63 Home Economics 3.06} 5.37] 0.95 | 2.29] 2.11! 3.08 Distributive Occupations 3.48 1.72 1.76 The Size of the Job of Vocational Education The financing of vocational education involves certain tangible measures of the size of the job to be done, principally the number of persons to be served. The number of persons for whom various types of vocational education should be available has not been determined by any substantial research. Perhaps such a determina- tion could not be made with any degree of finality, but research on the subject would be helpful in determining future policy. Enrollments in Vocational Classes Certain present facts are an aid in looking at the size of the vocational education job now existing in the United States. A first 1 Sources of data: For 1936: Russell, John Dale and others , op. cit., p. 85. For 1956: U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education. Digest of Annual Reports of State Boards of Education. (Fiscal year ended June 30, 1956.) —— D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1957. p. 14. 90 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Cuart I. ExpenpiTures OF FEDERAL, STATE, AND LocAL FUNDS FOR VocaTIONAL EpucatTion™” MILLIONS OF DOLLARS 175 @s 150 125 TOTAL FUNDS 100 4 75 7 INZ A , / a 7 f pops Local Funns / | _,/ / , a4 4 - ma a 0s , ae J FEDERAL FUNDS ee od, Ee 4 at — s _ pert STATE FUNDS sees Pe Lie? were ver Liisi ii 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 FISCAL YEARS 22, S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education. Digest of Annual Reports of State Boards of Education:( Fiscal year ended June 30, 1956.) Washington, D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1957. p. 12. FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION OL TABLE 4. EXPENDITURES FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION BY SOURCE OF FUNDS AND BY STATE OR TERRITORY, Fiscat YEAR 1956" (In THOUSANDS) Federal State | Local Total P. P Percent Amount | of total | Amount | of total | Amount | of total Alabama 4,292 Ig 898 | 20.93 Ig 3,394 70.07 | eG; AOS Arisona 1,091 181 | 16.59 154 | 14.12 756 | 69.29 Arkansas 2°879 657 | 22.82 778 | 27.03] 1,444 | 50.15 California 11,070] 1,620 | 14.63 713| 6.441 8,737 | 78.93 Colorado 1,565 284 | 18.15 259 | 16.55} 1,022 | 65.30 Connecticut 2.332 315 | 13.51 | 1,756 | 75.30 261 | 11.19 Delaware 847 165 | 19.48 450 | 53.13 232 | 27.32 Florida 5,214 515 | 9.88] 3,598| 69.00] 1,101 | 21.19 Georgia 5,859 964 | 16.45 ss | 15.16} 4,007 | 68.39 Idaho 943 193 | 20.47 357 | 37.86 393 | 41.67 Illinois 8,027 | 1,461 | 18.20] 2,516 | 31.34] 4,050 | 50.46 Indiana 4,401 872 | 19.82 387 | 8.79| 3,142 | 71.39 lows 3,057 741 | 24.24 412 | 13.48} 1,904 | 62.28 Kansas 2.111 484 | 22.93 267 | 12.65} 1,360 | 64.42 Kentucky 2,701 908 | 33.62 366 | 13.55 | 1,427 | 52.83 Louisiana 4,738 653 | 13.78 592 | 12.50] 3,493 | 73.72 Maine 546 190 | 34.80 118 | 21.61 238 | 43.59 Maryland 1,684 403 | 23.93 549 | 32.60 732 | 43.47 Massachusetts 6,649 638 | 9.60] 3,009 | 45.25] 3,002 | 45.15 Michigan 6,207 | 1,182 | 19.04] 1,366 | 22.01] 3,659 | 58.95 Minnesota 4,284 762 | 17.781 1,633 | 38.12] 1,889 | 44.10 Mississippi 3,455 26 | 23.91 | 1,080 | 31.26] 1,549 | 44.83 Missouri 3,494 929 | 26.59 569 | 16.28} 1,996 | 57.13 Montana 766 189 | 24.67 87 | 11.36 490 | 63.97 Nebraska 1,420 379 | 26.69 195 | 13.73 846 | 59.58 Nevada 432 151 | 34.95 71 | 16.44 210 | 48.61 New Hampshire 439 155 | 35.31 64 | 14.58 220 | 50.11 New Jersey 3,785 644 | 17.02 1,055 | 27.87 2,086 | 55.11 New Mexico 853 190 | 22.27 91 | 10.67 572 | 67.06 New York 9,298 | 2,070 | 22.26] 3,074 | 33.06| 4,154 | 44.68 North Carolina 6,049 | 1,288 | 21.29] 2,890 | 47.78] 1,871 | 30.93 North Dakota 871 257 | 29.51 258 | 29.62 356 | 40.87 Ohio 5,383 | 1,478 | 27.46 835 | 15.51 | 3,070 | 57.03 Oklahoma 4,596 582 | 12.66 849 | 18.47 | 3,165 | 68.87 Oregon 1,705 344 | 20.18 575 | 33.72 786 | 46.10 Pennsylvania 8,547 | 1,798 | 21.04] 4,951 | 57.92] 1,798 | 21.04 13 Provisional figures furnished by the U. 8. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, and subject to the 1 audit of state reports. Data for the “older” vocational education programs only. a es 92 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA TABLE 4. EXPENDITURES FOR VOCATIONAL EpUCcATION BY SOURCE OF FUNDS AND BY STATE OR TERRITORY, Fiscat YEAR 1956 | (in THousaANDs)—Continued | Federal State Local Total P Percent} Percent | Amount | of total| Amount | of total | Amount | of total i Rhode Island 421 138 | 32.78 73 | 17.34 210 | 49.88 South Carolina 3,584 656 | 18.30 1,386 | 38.67 1,542 | 43.03 South Dakota 817 253 | 30.97 30 | 3.67 534 | 65.36 Tennessee 4,350 958 | 22.02 1,078 | 24.78 2,314 | 53.20 ; Texas IS 14,795 |$ 1,671 | 11.30 |$ 12,366 | 83.58 Js 758 | 5.12 Utah 1,064 172 | 16.17 58 | 5.45 834 | 78.38 Vermont 525 168 | 32.00 98 | 18.67 259 | 49.33 Virginia 4,764 857 | 17.99 2,371 | 49.77 1,536 | 32.24 Washington 3,644 475 | 13.03 995 | 27.31 2,174 | 59.66 West Virginia 1,812 547 | 30.19 346 | 19.09 919 | 50.72 Wisconsin 4,562 819 | 17.95 309 | 6.77 3,434 | 75.28 Wyoming 573 165 | 28.80 51 | 8.90 357 | 62.30 Alaska 52 26 | 50.00 26 | 50.00 O Riek District of , Columbia 447 110 | 24.61 ih? Pere eee Hawaii 863 166 | 19.24 Gee. | Gee E escsee | acdex Puerto Rico 1,942 592 | 30.48 e Fe F § Berrrree errre Virgin Islands 80 40 | 50.00 78 | , Beppe pee TOTAL neni $33,179 | 18.86 | $61,817 | 35.15 | $80,889 | 45.99 * Less than $500 TaBLe 5. ToTaAL EXPENDITURES FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION—FEDERAL, State, AND Locat—By Functions, AMOUNTS, AND PERCENTAGES, 1956 (tn THOUSANDS) "* Function Amount Percent Total $175 ,886 100.00 Administration 2,709 1.54 Supervision, Teacher and Counselor Training 17,100 9.72 Instruction and Counseling 156 ,077 88.74 14 Tbid., p. 16. FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 93 look might be directed to the present enrollment in the various fields of vocational education and at the potential numbers of persons to be served. In 1956 a total of 3,413,159 persons was served in the fields of agri- culture, home economics, trades and industry, and distributive occupations. The numbers enrolled in these fields are shown in Table 6. It will be seen that since 1945 the enrollment in each of these fields has steadily increased. The number of students enrolled, the number of teachers, the number of educational programs, and the number of high schools involved give some indication of the size of the job now being performed. Any consideration of enrollment must include those TABLE 6. ENROLLMENT IN VOCATIONAL CLASSES BY TYPE OF PROGRAM AND YEAR, 1918-56" Type of Program Year Total Trades | Distribu- Agri- Home and tive culture | Economics | Indus- | Occupa- try tions 1956* 3,413,159 | 785,599 | 1,486,816 | 883,719 | 257,025 1955 3,314,255 | 776,138 | 1,431,808 | 870,954 | 235,355 1954 3,164,851 | 737,502 | 1,380,147 | 826,583 | 220,619 1953 3,100,139 | 755,293 | 1,327,285 | 808,549 | 209,012 1952 3,165,988 | 746,402 | 1,391,389 | 793,213 | 234,984 1951 3,363 ,412 | 771,028 | 1,458,605 | 792,339 | 341,440 1950 3,364,613 | 764,975 | 1,430,366 | 804,602 | 364,670 1949 3,095,513 | 651,604 | 1,328,521 | 801,913 | 313,475 1948 2,836,121 | 640,791 | 1,139,766 | 762,628 | 292,936 1947 2,508 ,618 | 584,533 968 ,846 | 720,098 | 235,141 1946 2,227 ,663 | 510,331 911,816 | 630,844 | 174,672 1945 2,012,931 | 446,953 890 ,464 | 522,733 | 152,781 1944 2,001,153 | 469,959 806 ,605 | 543,080 | 181,509 * Provisional figures, subject to final review of state reports. 18 Tbid., p. 7. BRO remem nen 94 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA involved in all-day classes, evening classes, and part-time classes. In all, in 1956 there was a total of 3,413,159 persons enrolled in various types of vocational classes, 79,078 teachers, and 45,455 educational programs. Because of duplications of programs, the number of separate public-school systems involved is difficult to identify, but the number of schools offering instruction in the various fields were as follows: agriculture, 10,188; trades and industries, 5488; home economics, 11,819; and distributive occupations, 1830. (See Table 7. ) The enrollment in vocational education classes aided by federal appropriation has more or less steadily moved upward since 1918 TABLE 7. SIZE OF THE VOCATIONAL EpUCATION PrRoGRAMS AIDED BY FEDERAL APPROPRIATIONS BY TYPES OF PROGRAMS, 195616 Distribu- Agri- Trade Home tive Item of Measure Total culture and Economics | Occupa- Industry tions I. Enrollment Total 3,413,159 | 785,599 | 883,719 | 1,486,816 | 257,025 All-Day Classes 1,557,529 | 460,300 | 246,698 REE b asscace Evening Classes 1,456,327 | 277,849 | 439,640 565,753 | 173,085 Part-Time Classes 399,303 | 47,450 | 197,381 70,532 | 83,940 II. Number of Teachers Total 79,078 | 20,469 | 29,036 24,955 4,618 All-Day Classes 34,842 11,112 9,871 13,388 371* Evening Classes 31,255 6,524 | 11,509 10,548 2,674 Part-Time Classes 12,981 2,833 7,556 1,019 1,573 III. Number of Schools 29,325"; 10,188 5,488 11,819 1,830 IV. Number of Educa- tional Programs Total 45,455 | 19,092 7,502 16,606 2,255 All-Day Classes 23,696 | 10,116 1,776 10,716 1,088¢ Evening Classes 16,537 6,262 3,823 5,617 835 Part-Time Classes 5,222 2,714 1,903 273 332 * Counselors—only 14 states and others. i > This is not the total number of schools affected by vocational education programs. There are duplications. ¢ Cooperative programs, not all-day classes. 16 Tbid., p. 17. Daa Ik i Na - FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 95 and especially since 1936. The only sharp recession in these en- rollments was during the years of World War II when employment demands seriously affected all high-school enrollments. The facts are reflected in Chart II. Cuart II. ENROLLMENT IN VOCATIONAL CLASSES BY TYPE OF PRoGRAM!? x ENROLLED Cd ¢ 1 a, 7 TRADES AND feo TL an 4 Smut a ae AGRICULTURE _— | DISTRIBUTIVE ate PATIONS 0 1945 1950 1955 The Population in Various Age Groups Another measure of the size of the job of vocational education is the number of persons in the various population age groups. Assum- ing that those most likely to need the services of vocational instruction are persons 14 to 24 years of age, the job involves a potential of 23,730,000 persons. Of this total number, 14,496,000 are in urban centers, 5,754,000 in rural nonfarm areas, and 3,500,000 in farm areas. Considering only those of the normal high-school * Ibid., p. 6. 96 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA ages, 14 to 17 years inclusive, the numbers are: urban, 5,647,000; rural nonfarm, 2,639,000; and rural farm, 1,848,000. These are sizeable numbers totaling 10,134,000. (See Table 8.) The percentage of these youths who should be engaged in some type of vocational preparation is not certain, but perhaps 60 percent is a fair estimate. At that rate the number would be over 6 million youths. When this number is compared to the total enrollment of 3,413,159 (Table 6) in all vocational courses in the year 1956, it can be seen that there is much room for an expansion of present programs. With respect to Table 8, there are at least two other observations that perhaps should have a material influence on the distribution of federal aid for the various phases of vocational education: (a) In the urban areas the number of girls ages 14 to 17 exceeds the number of boys by 145,000, or some 5 percent; in the rural nonfarm areas the number of boys exceeds the number of girls by 91,000, or some 7 percent; in the rural farm areas the number of boys exceeds the number of girls by 50,000, or some 6 percent. (b) In the urban areas the number of females 18 to 24 years old exceeds the number of males of the same ages by 1,303,000, or about 35 percent; in rural nonfarm areas the females exceed the males by 247,000, or about 17 percent; in rural farm areas the number of males exceeds the number of females by 78,000, or nearly 10 percent. These statistics undoubtedly are the results of a distinctive pattern of migration—females move to a greater extent than males from the farm, to the village, to the city. These have implications not only for what ought to be taught in the rural and village schools, but also for what is needed in part-time and evening classes in the cities. Just what these facts reveal as to the need for adjustments in the financing of vocational education is not certain, but they are a fertile field for research not yet adequately undertaken. Certainly, they point to the need for expanded opportunities in trade and industrial education and in distributive occupations in open country and village high schools. The Population Age Groups Enrolled in School Another measure of the size of the job in vocational education can be obtained from the percentage of the school-age population actually enrolled in school. To show the present situation, Table 9 FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 97 TABLE 8. Civ1LIAN PopuLaTION 14 To 24 YEARS OLD By AGE AND SEx FOR THE U. S., URBAN AND RuRAL, OcToBER 1957!8 (In THousANDS) All Rural Rural Age and Sex Total Urban Rural Nonfarm Farm Total 14-24 years 23,730 14,496 9,234 5,734 3,500 14 and 15 years 5,487 3,038 2,449 1,481 968 16 and 17 years 4,647 2,609 2,038 1,158 880 18 and 19 years 4,042 2,446 1,596 967 629 20 to 24 years 9,554 6,403 3,151 2,128 1,023 Male 14 to 24 years 11,118 6,525 4,593 2,744 1,849 14 and 15 years 2,786 1,512 1,274 760 514 16 and 17 years 2,315 1,240 1,075 605 470 18 and 19 years 1,802 985 817 485 332° 20 to 24 years 4,215 2,788 1,427 894 533 Female 14 to 24 years 12,612 7,971 4,641 2,990 1,651 14 and 15 years 2,701 1,526 1,175 721 454 16 and 17 years 2,332 1,369 963 553 410 18 and 19 years 2,240 1,461 779 482 297 20 to 24 years 5,339 3,615 1,724 1,234 490 is included. While many implications may be drawn from a study of the data indicated, the chief implications for the problem at hand are as follows: for all areas—urban, nonfarm, and farm—over 95 percent of the population 14 and 15 years old is in school; 9U. 90.8.1 rollment~O of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Population Characteristics, r —October 1957. Current Population Reports, Series P-20, No. 80. .: the Bureau, February 13, 1958. p. 8. School En Washington, D OO CRO LER LELLELI LEA DELILE IIE I CIES LLANES OLDE GE TNL TEE TIS INT ae ET TO EE 98 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA between 78 and 82 percent of the population of the ages 16 and 17 is in school; about 35 percent of the youth 18 and 19 years old is in school; and of the ages 20 to 24 about 16 percent of urban youth, 10 percent of rural nonfarm youth, and 7 percent of farm youth are in school. For this latter age group, the males far exceed the females in the percentage enrolled in school. These figures indicate that most of the population 14 and 15 years old can be reached in school. For the youth 16 and 17 years old about 20 percent will have to be reached out of school, and for the older age groups well over two- thirds will be out of school. The implications of such data for the financial arrangements for vocational education are considerable and call for extensive research. TABLE 9. SCHOOL ENROLLMENT OF CIVILIAN PoPpuULATION 14 To 24 YEARS OLD, By AGE AND Sex, FoR THE U.S., URBAN AND RuRAL, OcToBER 195719 All Rural Rural Age Total Urban Rural Nonfarm Farm and Sex Num- | Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num- | Per- ber | cent*| ber | cent*| ber | cent*| ber | cent*| ber | cent* Total 14 to 24 yrs. [11,812 | 49.8] 7,059 | 48.7 | 4,753 | 51.5 | 2,807 | 50.1] 1,883 | 53.8 14 and 15 yrs. | 5,328 | 97.1 | 2,982 | 98.2 | 2,346 | 95.9] 1,422| 96.0] 924) 95.5 16 and 17 yrs. | 3,739 | 80.5 | 2,152 | 82.5] 1,587 | 77.9] 904) 78.1 683 | 77.6 18 and 19 yrs. | 1,409 | 34.9] 879| 35.9] 530/33.2] 325/33.6] 205 | 32.6 20 to 24 yrs. 1,336 | 14.016,046| 16.3] 290) 9.21] 219) 10.3 71} 6.9 Male 14 to 24 yrs. 6,323 | 56.9 1 3,744 | 57.41 2,579 | 56.21 1,574 | 57.411,005 | 54.3 14 and 15 yrs. | 2,729 | 98.0] 1,496 | 98.9] 1,233 | 96.8] 744|97.9] 489/| 95.1 16 and 17 yrs. | 1,917 | 82.8] 1,076 | 86.8] 841|77.2] 486/80.3] 355) 75.5 18 and 19 yrs. 780 | 43.3] 471) 47.8] 309) 37.8 192 | 39.6 117 | 35.2 20 to 24 yrs 897 | 21.3] 701 | 25.1 196 | 13.1 152 | 17.0 44| 8.3 Female 14 to 24 yrs. 5,489 | 43.51 3,315 | 41.6] 2,174 | 46.6] 1,296| 43.3] 878) 53.2 14 and 15 yrs. | 2,599 | 96.2] 1,486 | 97.411,113| 94.7] 678|94.0] 435/| 95.8 16 and 17 yrs. | 1,822 | 78.1] 1,076 | 78.6] 746|77.4] 418| 75.6] 328) 80.0 18 and 19 yrs. 629 | 28.1 408 | 27.9] 221 | 28.3 133 | 27.6 88 | 29.6 20 to 24 yrs. 439| 8.2] 345) 9.5 94; 5.5 67| 5.4 27) 5.5 * Percent of population in this age group that are enrolled in school. 19 Ibid. FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 99 Conditions Under Which Vocational Education Operates The size of high schools has a material effect on the availability of vocational education and, consequently, on its financing. In the United States there were approximately 48,000 school districts in 1958. The large majority of all these school districts are small.” Thus it is certain that vocational education has to operate, if it operates at all, to a large extent in relatively small high schools. The result is that the vocational education classes in most rural and village high schools are confined to the fields of agriculture and home economics. Since large percentages of farm and village youth migrate to cities and industrial centers, such limitation is most unfortunate. Methods of allocating funds and of adjusting programs in trade and industrial vocational education and in dis- tributive education need to be created so as to accommodate the farm and village youth who are certain to migrate. In general, about half of the farm youth may be expected to migrate from the farms. Furthermore, not more than two-thirds of the em- ployed persons who now reside in rural farm areas are actually engaged in agriculture. This fact would also seem to require a new look at needed expansions and new methods of apportionment of funds for vocational educational opportunities. The Issue of Federal Control of Education A potent objection to federal support for education has long been the fear that such financial assistance would bring with it federal control of education and a resultant loss of state and local control which has always characterized the administration of Ameri- can public schools. The plain fact is that for more than 150 years the federal government has in one way or another been aiding the states with financial support for their schools and colleges. No one can seriously contend that the federal grants, past or present, have resulted in federal control of education. Federal control can come about only if the members of Congress enact legislation that authorizes such control. The most careful examination of our history will show clearly that the only substantial elements of federal control of education the United States has ever experienced have come from court interpretations of the Constitution. In no # See p. 119. 100 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA instance have such controls had anything to do with federal financial assistance. Under the various vocational education acts the only federal controls exercised are written into the law. They have chiefly to do with the purposes for which the money allocated is spent. Each state has been required to draw up a plan for the administration of its program of vocational education, but this plan can be revised by the state from time to time as the state deems desirable. For the most part, any complaints regarding the controls exercised under the federally aided vocational programs are based on self- imposed controls instituted by the state boards of education. State boards can resist federal control by the simple expedient of making their own plans and by refusing to comply with requirements they think to be unnecessary or unjust. Most people who think they have a complaint about control under the vocational education laws should look to their own state capitols and not to Washington. Pt Se RE Evaluation of Methods of Apportioning Federal Funds The purpose of federal grants for vocational education in the very beginning was stimulation; that is, to stimulate the states and school districts to undertake and give financial support to programs of vocational education that the Congress decided were necessary and desirable. _ Effectiveness of the Stimulation Policy That such an objective has been substantially accomplished is evidenced by the fact, as previously pointed out, that the states and school districts in 1956 were spending $4.26 for each dollar of federal funds, in spite of the fact that only dollar-for-dollar matching was required. It is also evidenced by the fact that over the years there has been an almost constantly increasing proportion of state and local funds going into the programs. (See Table 3.) The Need for Equalization An important consideration in the future development of voca- tional education should be the equalization of the financial burden FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 101 of its support. Although the present bases for distributing federal funds do afford some degree of equalization of educational oppor- tunities, in that the funds are provided on a population basis in excess of the support that presumably would otherwise be provided by the state, the plan of apportionment has no direct or objective purpose of equalization. In view of the historical development of the plans for supporting vocational education and the presence of ongoing, well-established, and generally well-accepted programs in the field, it is highly doubt- ful that any substantial changes should be made in the bases of apportionment of the present amount of moneys for the various funds. The acceptance of that proposition, however, does not preclude the desirability and feasibility of devising equalization formulas for future additional federal funds. The need for the consideration of the equalization principle in expanded financing of vocational education is amply supported by the facts concerning per-capita income and the proportion the school-age population is to the adult population in the various states. There are marked differences in both respects. The range in per-capita income is from $964 in Mississippi to $2858 in Delaware. Delaware has only 389 children of school age per 1000 adults, but Mississippi has 624. Thus it can be seen that the wealthier states are actually even more wealthy than they would otherwise seem because they have relatively fewer children to educate. (See Table 10. Special attention is directed to footnote “d” of this table. ) Certain observations concerning the data shown in Table 10 relating to wealth and relative number of children are incontro- vertible evidence of the need for considering the equalization prin- ciple in developing future plans for federal aid to vocational educa- tion, or for that matter, any other aspect of education: 1. There is a high degree of inverse relationship between the ability to support schools as measured by per-capita in- come and the ratio of children to adults. The higher the per-capita income, the lower the ratio of children to adults. 2. Of the 24 states in the lower half of the 48 states when ranked according to per-capita income, only two are in the upper half when ranked according to the lowness of the ratio of children to adults (Kansas and Nebraska). LG FONE 5 EAL LOL INE EAA sy lt caer 102 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA TABLE 10. Per- Capita PERSONAL INcoME, 1956, AND NUMBER OF SCHOOL- AGE CHILDREN (5-17) Per 1000 ApuLts AGEp 21-64, 1955, 1s CoMPARISON WITH NATIONAL AVERAGES Per-Capita Number of School-Age Income Payments* Children per 1000 Adults” State | Ability Num- | Ability Amount | Index* | Rank | ber Index* | Rank Continental U.S. $1,940 100.0 429 100.0 Alabama 1,229 63.4 | 45 563 76.4 | 43 Arizona 1,718 88.6 25 508 84.4 35 Arkansas 1,088 56.1 47 570 75.3 44 California 2,419 124.7 4 385 111.4 7 : Colorado 1,863 96.0 19.5 | 448 95.7 23 Connecticut 2 ,673 137.8 2 366 114.5 4 Delaware 2,858 147.3 1 389 110.3 8.5 Florida 1,762 90.8 23 410 104.6 13 Georgia 1,400 72.2 39 540 79.4 39.5 Idaho 1,587 81.8 34 549 78.1 41 Illinois 2,383 122.8 7 374 114.7 3 Indiana 1,946 100.3 15 430 99.8 19 Iowa 1,651 85.1 29 451 95.1 24 Kansas 1,668 86.0 27 431 97.2 21 Kentucky 1,324 68.2 42 539 79.6 38 Louisiana 1,444 74.4 37 526 81.5 36 Maine 1 ,667 85.9 28 476 90.1 27 Maryland 2,102 108.4 11 419 102.4 14.5 Massachusetts | 2,206 113.7 8 375 114.4 5 Michigan 2,156 111.1 9 426 100.7 16.5 Minnesota 1,754 90.4 24 456 - 94.1 25 Mississippi 964 49.7 48 624 67.1 48 Missouri 1,858 95.8 21 398 107.8 18 Montana 1,862 96.0 19.5 | 489 87.7 29 Nebraska 1,588 81.9 33 429 100.0 18 Nevada 2,413 124.4 5 394 108.8 10 *Graham, Robert E., Jr. ‘Personal Income by States.’”’ Survey of Current Business 37: 7-21; August 1957. FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 103 TaBLe 10. Per-Capita PERSONAL INCOME, 1956, AND NuMBER oF ScHOOL- AGE CHILDREN (5-17) Per 1000 ApuLts AGED 21-64, 1955, Iv CoMPARISON WITH NaTIONAL AVERAGES—Continued Per-Capita Number of School-Age Income Payments* Children per 1000 Adults” State Ability Num- | Ability Amount | Index*® | Rank | ber | Index* | Rank New Hampshire 1,812 93.4 22 419 102.4 14.5 New Jersey 2,443 125.9 3 352 121.8 2 New Mexico 1,494 77.0 36 611 70.2 46 New York 2,395 123.5 6 339 126.5 1 North Caroli 1,305 67.3 44 543 77.2 42 North Dakota| 1,365 70.4 40 532 80.6 37 Ohio 2,154 111.0 10 407 105.4 12 Oklahoma 1,561 80.5 35 481 87.1 31 Oregon 1,908 98.4 16 426 100.7 16.5 Pennsylvania | 2,008 103.5 14 389 110.3 8.5 Rhode Island | 2,012 103 .7 13 379 113.2 6 South Caroli 1,133 58.4 46 615 68.1 47 South Dakota | 1,330 68.6 41 494 86.8 32 Tennessee 1,317 67.9 43 495 86.7 33 Texas 1,686 86.9 26 472 90.9 26 Utah 1 ,633 84.2 32 569 75.2 45 Vermont 1,641 84.6 31 481 89.2 28 Virginia 1,647 84.9 30 491 87.4 30 Washington 2,022 104.2 12 446 96.2 22 West Virginia | 1,420 73.2 38 540 79.4 39.5 Wisconsin 1,864 96.1 18 436 98.4 20 Wyoming $ 1,875 96.6 17 497 86.3 34 Population of States, By Brood Age Groupe July 1, 1956, Current Population Reporte, of States, r ge Groups—J uly . Current Po on ar _ No. — D. C.: the Bureau, February 11, 1957. p. 4. *U. S. ave is 100. 4 Index of seanbes of children per 1000 adults is the percent each state is of the average for the Continental U.S. The numbers are really the reciprocals of the index numbers obtained by taking the U.S. average as 100. The reason for this type of index is that the ability to support education is measured by the ratio of children to adults: a low ratio gives a higher ability to support schools. Looked at in that way the two indices are positive measures of ability to support schools. peewee 104 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA 3. Of the 12 states in the lowest quartile of the 48 states ranked according to per-capita income, only two are in the next highest (third quartile when ranked according to the lowness of the ratio of children to adults (Louisiana and South Dakota). . Of the 24 states in the upper half of the 48 states ranked according to per-capita income, only two are in the lower half of the states when ranked according to the lowness of the ratio of children to adults (Montana and Wyoming). . Of the 12 states in the highest quartile of the 48 states ranked according to per-capita income, only three are in the next lowest (second) quartile when ranked according to the lowness of the ratio of children to adults (Michigan, Maryland, and Washington). Inadequacies of Present Methods of Apportionment The inadequacies of the present methods of allotting vocational education funds should serve to point to the need for using the equalization principle in any future provision of additional funds in this field. The failure of present methods to equalize financial burdens is clearly brought out by an analysis showing the kinds of states, ranked according to per-capita income, that obtain the largest amounts of grants on each of the bases used in allotting funds for vocational education: 1. Of funds allotted on the basis of urban population, approxi- mately one-half of the federal appropriation to all 48 states goes to seven states, all but one of which rank in the highest third of the states ranked according to per-capita income. . Of the funds allotted on the basis of nonfarm population, approximately one-half of the federal appropriation to the 48 states goes to nine states, all but one of which rank in the highest third of the states ranked according to per-capita income. . Of the funds allotted on the basis of total population, ap- proximately one-half of the federal appropriation to the 48 states goes to 11 states, eight of which rank in the upper half of the states ranked on the basis of per-capita income. . Of the funds allotted on the basis of rural population, ap- proximately one-half of the federal appropriation to the 48 FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 105 states goes to 14 states, of which seven are in the upper one-half of the states ranked according to per-capita income and seven are in the lower half. 5. Of the funds allotted on the basis of farm population, ap- proximately one-half of the federal appropriation to the 48 states goes to 13 states, of which 10 are in the lower half of the states ranked according to per-capita income. Thus it can be seen that there is little or no equalization in funds apportioned on the basis of urban or on nonfarm population. For the most part, the richer the state the greater the proportionate allot- ment. The chief equalization element occurs when funds are allotted on the basis of farm population when, generally, the greater allotments go to the poorer states. When funds are allotted on the basis of total rural population, there is a higher degree of equaliza- tion than is likely when allotments are based on urban or nonfarm population but not nearly as much as by allotment on the basis of farm population. : Further analysis of the effects of present bases of allotment of federal funds for vocational education also indicates potent reasons for developing different and newer methods of apportionment to be applied to new and additional federal funds for this field of activity. At least 20 years ago the Advisory Committee on Education offered four criticisms of the bases of allotment written into the Vocational Education Acts. Present analysis does not reveal any development that makes the criticisms of the Advisory Committee less valid now than when they were first made. Criticisms of bases of distribution. It may be presumed that the use of tion ratios as a basis for making allotments to the states an effort to scale the amounts to the relative needs of each state. It seems clear that the classified population groups on which the ratios are based provide a much better measure of the need for a particular kind of education than the total unclassified population would provide. Neverthe- less, certain shortcomings may be pointed out in the present method of making the allotments. In the first place, the present method of distribution does not take into account the fact that the training to be given is limited to certain age groups. The acts specify that the distribution must be made on the basis of the total population classified as either rural or urban, farm or nonfarm. The training program, however, applies only to that part of the popula- tion 14 years of age or older, and most of the training given is customarily supplied to those of adolescent and early post-adolescent years, up to the ; 106 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA | age possibly of 23 to 25. The age structure of the population varies markedly from state to state, so that the distribution on the basis of total population would not provide funds in amounts at all proportionate to the number of young people to be educated by those funds in each state. A second criticism of the present method of distribution arises from the fact that the place of residence of an element of the population is taken as an index of the need of that group for particular types of vocational education. This is at best a crude, and at worst a misleading, measure of the need for vocational education. Many young people who live in regions classified by the census as rural or farm should not and will not engage in agriculture when they reach maturity. The fact that present popula- tion in rural or farm areas is included in the basis on which the allotment of funds for agricultural education is set up and is not included in the basis upon which the allotment of funds for trades and industrial educa- tion is determined, in practice, operates to discourage provision of any types of vocational education except agriculture (and home economics) in those rural regions. The differential in birth rate between urban and rural populations almost inevitably results in the migration of certain numbers of the farm tion. Statistics are available which show that large numbers of - who are born on farms and obtain their schooling in rural regions later move into an urban environment and engage in some occupation other than agriculture. Some of the vocational education for these migrating elements of the population will undoubtedly have to be given after their arrival in the cities rather than before, although the foundation for voca- tional education needs to be laid during youth. The basis of the allotment to the states, therefore, discourages the giving of the types of vocational education in rural areas that are suited to the ultimate needs of a con- siderable percentage of the rural population. In the third place, the shifts in the total number of persons required in various types of occupations are not taken into account in the basis of distribution. For example, agriculture is requiring the services of a constantly declining percentage of the total workers of the country. This would seem to indicate that the present number of persons residing on farms is an unsatisfactory basis on which to plan a suitable program of training for the oncoming generation of agricultural workers. In the fourth place, distribution on the basis of population assumes that the financial support needed is determined solely by the number of people, whereas other factors, such as the unit cost of the training and the length of time needed to prepare a pupil for the occupation, also affect the total cost of a program. Furthermore, the per-capita amount of the distribution to the states for agriculture is markedly larger than the per- capita amount for trades and industries when the total appropriations for the two fields are approximately equal, because the urban popula- tion is more numerous than the farm population. The fact that the farm FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 107 pulation in a given state is 5 percent of the total national population iving on farms and the urban population of the same state is 5 percent of the total national urban population is not sufficient warrant for deciding that the amounts needed for the support of vocational educa- tion in agriculture and in trades and industries should be equal in that state.?! Earmarking of Funds Even prior to the enactment of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917 the question as to desirability of earmarking funds for specific phases of the educational program was a serious issue among educa- tors. The history of educational finance reveals that many of the educational improvements that have taken place over the years have been sponsored or initiated by grants from the states for specific purposes, that is, by stimulation funds. That method was well understood at the time of the enactment of the Smith-Hughes law. The justification of the plan of earmarking funds for particular vocational education fields was the need to indicate clearly the fields that were deemed in need of development. It was also true that in those days state and local leadership was generally without experience in these fields, so the earmarking of funds was in the nature of guidance to those leaders and a guarantee that the objective of the federal program would be undertaken and accom- plished with a minimum loss of time and resources. The programs stimulated and supported by the earmarked funds have now become well established and well accepted. The funds available from the federal government have become a definite and, thus far, dependable source of financial support to states and locali- ties which also have such substantial investments in the programs that they should not be lightly treated. There now seems to be no probability and even less desirability that the federal government will or should radically change its system of support. However, in any future expansions of federal funds, careful consideration should be given to the limitations of earmarking in categories which are too narrow and to the desirability of allowing the states greater leeway both in making adjustments among types of vocational educa- tion and for experimentation with new types of programs. ™ Russell, John Dale, and others, op. cit., p. 102-104. SEDER tm te. —— SE, 108 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA The chief objections to further extension of the earmarking of funds by watertight categories can be summarized as follows: 1. The amounts earmarked for specific purposes may have but little relation to the relative need for services. Analysis of census data showing the number of persons employed in the broad occupational groups aided by federal appropria- tions does not indicate that the amount of federal funds made available is proportionate to the job that ought to be done. There is certainly not the same, or even nearly the same, proportionate number of persons to be served in agriculture and in trades and industries. Yet there are relatively small differences in the funds made available for each of these fields. If a provision for the earmarking of funds is followed in the establishment of any additional federal funds for vocational education, the amounts designated should be determined by careful research. It would seem most important that the needs of each of the various fields to be subsidized should be carefully determined and adjustments in the legislation made accordingly. Inasmuch as these needs are frequently changing, it seems desirable that neither the entire appropriation nor any large percentage of it should be earmarked for any particular field. a 2. The earmarking of funds makes it difficult to adjust the | program to meet local and regional needs unless the distri- bution to the states is on a: flexible basis. Flexibility is necessary to making adjustments to trends in the distribu- tion of employees among the various occupations. Shifts in the occupational structure of the population (the migra- tions from agriculture, for example) are constantly going on and should be provided for in the allocation and use of funds. 3. Earmarking, in the absence of flexibility, makes difficult the provision of services that overlap two or more fields. For example, some valuable types of vocational training fall be- tween agriculture and home economics and some between agriculture and trades and industries. Strict earmarking of funds hampers and may make impossible such adjustments and cooperation. Ba. Meiners enters nemmmeretsnsinansns FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 109 State Apportionment of Funds for Vocational Education In every state all or a sizeable portion of the funds for vocational education furnished by the states has been used to support the specific programs subsidized by the federal enactments. While it is not a requirement that state and local funds be spent in the same proportion for each of the various fields as the federal allotments it is apparent that the states have followed that procedure to a con- siderable degree. Thus it is apparent that a federal influence of state apportionment has been substantial. A partial analysis of state policies for allocating funds for voca- tional education may be helpful. Approved Applications Nearly 30 states having special funds earmarked for vocational education follow the practice of allocating their state and federal funds on the basis of what is termed approved applications.** To understand this method, it should be remembered that each state board of education responsible for the administration of the federally aided vocational education programs must prepare a plan of voca- tional education that conforms to the federal statutes. The plans usually provide standards for facilities, teacher qualifications, time to be devoted to various types of vocational instruction, and other matters considered to be important whether or not required by law. The plans specify the bases upon which local schools are entitled to financial assistance. The school or school districts qualify for re- ceiving allocations or reimbursements only by complying with the state standards. The following brief summary of a typical state plan for allocating vocational education funds to local schools or school districts will illustrate: Requirements for participation: Courses must be organized and approved in accordance with state standards. * Alabama, Arizona, Colorado, Connecticut, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Caro- lina, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, and West Virginia. See Hutchins, Clayton D., and Munse, Albert R. Public School Finance Programs of the United States U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Misc. No. 22. Washington, D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1955. 251 p. 110 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Distribution plan: State and federal funds are used to reim- burse local school systems for a proportion of the expenses of conducting programs of vocational education on the basis of approved applications.” The extent of reimbursement of local school systems by the states under this plan varies all the way from a relatively small percentage to the full cost for some types of classes. A few of the states have provisions which illustrate such varying sup- port.™* Iowa reimburses local districts 50 percent of the expense they incur for adult vocational education classes and about 20 per- cent for their all-day classes in the regular school program. Massachusetts reimburses 100 percent of the expense of classes in vocational agriculture and 50 percent of the expense for all other vocational education classes. North Carolina reimburses two-thirds of the salary of ali teach- ers in day classes in vocational education and from two-thirds to 100 percent of the salaries of teachers in vocational extension classes. South Carolina reimburses two-thirds of the salaries of all voca- tional teachers, one-half of the travel expense of vocational employees, and practically all of the cost of evening school classes. Financing Without Earmarking Funds Fourteen states do not have any special state funds earmarked to match the federal allocations for vocational education.” In these states the local school systems receive state funds for salaries of vocational teachers and other expenses of vocational education on exactly the same basis as all other school support is apportioned. The vocational part of the school program is treated as an integral part of the total education program. Matching the federal alloca- tions so far as the matching of federal funds by state funds is con- cerned is merely a bookkeeping arrangement, and any other match- ing, or in some cases all of it, is done from local funds. Since nearly ~ ® Ibid., p. 59 (report for Alabama). * Ibid., p. 101, 125, 170, 198. * California, Delaware, Florida, Maryland, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Texas, Washington, and Wyoming. Ibid. FINANCING VOCATIO?.AL EDUCATION lll all of these states (South Dakota is the only exception) have rather substantial equalization provisions in their state school fund dis- tribution plans, it can be said that in these instances vocational educational costs are financed to a considerable degree on an equalization basis. Special Provisions in Some States Some of the provisions made by certain states that have no special earmarked funds for matching federal appropriations for education should be especially noted because their plans indicate develop- ments which integrate the financing of vocational education with the financing of the total school program and, at the same time, provide for the additional expenses of vocational education. The plans of Florida, Pennsylvania, and Washington are briefly described to illustrate.”* Florida includes in its state finance plan a provision that for all teachers and other school employees employed on a 12-month basis 20 percent of the regular allotment is for their salaries. Since many vocational teachers, especially in agriculture, are employed on a 12-month basis, this provision is of special im- portance. Pennsylvania provides an additional allocation of state funds annually for each pupil enrolled in vocational education classes on the following scale: for home economics, $20; for vocational agriculture and trades and industries, $35; for distributive occupations, $50. Also a maximum of $2.50 per hour is allowed for each teacher of extension classes. Washington apportions its state fund for the support of the basic foundation program on the basis of 40 cents for each aggregate day of school attendance. For pupils enrolled in vocational courses, one-fifth of a day for each hour of vocational attendance (8 cents per hour per pupil) is added to the basic allowance. Earmarked Funds Integrated with the General State School Finance Plan Arkansas and Georgia have special state funds earmarked for their federally aided vocational programs. But in these states the * Ibid., p. 83, 189, 222. 112 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA financing of vocational education programs is integrated with the financing of their total educational programs on elementary and secondary levels.?” In both states the number and base salaries of vocational teachers are determined by the same formula as for other teachers. Basic salaries are paid through the state foundation programs. Any additional salaries, regardless of the teaching field, are paid from local funds. In Arkansas special state allowances are made for adult education classes and for travel and conference ex- penses of from $50 to $500. In Georgia some 70 percent of the special state fund for vocational education is used as supplements for home visitations in supervising home projects and for adult education. The other approximately 30 percent is used to finance two resident trade schools. In Georgia the funds received from the federal government are used for the preparation of vocational teachers at the state university. The Special Case of Wisconsin Wisconsin operates its vocational education work in separate schools for that purpose and under special boards for vocational education.”* No other state has tried to operate vocational educa- tion exclusively under that plan, and it does not seem probable that any other state will attempt to do so. Such is generally disapproved by professional school administrators and school finance specialists. The aid that goes to the special vocational board is paid on the basis of approved applications to schools that meet approved stand- ards. The state funds (not including federal funds) are appor- tioned in amounts not to exceed 50 percent of the actual amounts spent for salaries of teachers and supervisors, but not to exceed $30,000 in any one year for any city of the first class, or $15,000 for any other city, town, or village. Federal funds may be used for additional allotments. The Special Case of Louisiana Equalization and Expansion Louisiana has two separate state funds for aiding vocational edu- cation.” The regular Vocational Education Fund is apportioned to the local school systems on the basis of approved applications and * Tbid., p. 65, 87. * Ibid., p. 230. * Ibid., p. 112-13. FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 113 approved programs in the fields aided by the federal government. In addition, a Special Vocational Education Fund is provided for the development of facilities in the various high schools of the state and to further develop and expand vocational education. School systems must use these funds for the purposes specified. Each parish is required to submit its plan for use of these funds to the State Department of Education by the first of each calendar year. The share of the funds allocated to each parish is based upon the proportion which the parish's total public-school fund distribu- tion is to the state total. There are two distinct features of the distribution of these funds that are worthy of note. The first is that, since the state school funds to the extent of about 13 percent are apportioned on the basis of general-fund equalization, there is a considerable element of equalization in the apportionment of the state funds for voca- tional education. The vocational funds allocated for each parish are not out of proportion to other state school funds. The second feature is the possibility that such a fund could, if the law were so written, be used to aid programs of vocational education in proportion to need, to make adjustments as circum- stances change, to institute new and additional programs besides those now subsidized by federal funds, and to conduct experimental programs. The fact that state and local funds are far in excess of the amounts necessary to meet the federal matching requirements would make such use of this state funda genuine possibility. The extent to which such uses have been made has not been investigated. The possibility, however, is of such significance that it is emphasized here. It also may be pertinent to suggest that such possibilities should and could be considered in enacting future federal and state legislation to provide additional funds for vocational educa- tion. The Road Ahead On the basis of facts, analyses, and conclusions presented in the preceding sections of this chapter, it seems proper to indicate some of the directions and principles that are likely to be followed in future developments and expansions in federal and state financial support for vocational education. 114 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA @ It seems quite probable that new and additional funds will be needed both for present programs and for additional fields of vocational education. Both the federal government and the states should now make plans to meet those needs. @ In making future plans, it probably would be unwise to make any extensive changes in the present federal funds and the plans of administering them. The present programs are estab- lished and have a long history. Since the educational needs which these programs serve continue, little could actually be gained from efforts to correct existing inadequacies by major surgery. This conclusion, however, does not mean that new and additional funds for vocational education should be used merely to enhance and expand these present programs or that they be administered according to present plans. @ Additional funds for present programs of vocational education should not be as specifically earmarked as are present funds, and provision should be made for a greater flexibility of use and administration both at the federal and state levels than is the case under present programs. @ For new and additional federal funds, different and more real- istic bases of apportioning funds should be provided. The in- adequacies of using various popuiation data as a basis for ap- portionment as presently provided by federal statutes should be avoided as plans are developed for financing new vocational fields or for expanding present programs. @ For any new and additional funds for vocationai education from federal appropriations, considerable provision should be made for equalization—a larger portion of funds going to each state in inverse ratio to its respective ability to pay taxes as measured by some such factor as per-capita income. @ For new and additional state funds for vocational education, provision should be made for additional programs and new fields, for adjustments to changed circumstances, and for en- couraging experimental programs. ® More states than those which now integrate funds for voca- tional education with the apportionment of funds for school systems as a whole should undertake such integration. Greater THER ER ~ BSN FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 115 consideration should be given in the apportionment of any new funds to the principle of equalization. ® More extensive and intensive research than has thus far been made either by the federal government or the states should be undertaken. It should be directed toward an evaluation of the present programs of vocational education, the discovery of additional needs in various vocational fields, and the develop- ment of more equitable and adequate methods of finance. Both federal and state funds will be needed for this purpose. The road ahead in financing vocational education holds promise proportionate to the vision and diligence of the educational forces responsible for educational administration and leadership. CHAPTER 7 Administering Vocational Education p eeeiieenem is the process which brings pupil and teacher together, which provides the situations and cir- cumstances in which learning takes place. It is a composite of the efforts of many people—boards of education, administrators, super- visors, teachers, and parents. The function of administration is to provide the facilities and the staff and whatever else is essential for an organized program of education. Educational programs—whether general or specific, public or private, for children or adults—do not just happen. They develop within an organizational structure or administrative framework which either requires or encourages their creation and continuance. Provision for a des‘red educational program is virtually impossible when the necessary structure is lacking or when the existing struc- ture is inadequate. Accomplishment then depends upon some variation of two alternatives: (a) a reorganization of existing administrative arrangements in a manner permitting the provision of the educational program desired, or (b) establishment of a new and separate structure specifically dusigned to accomplish the pir- poses which cause it to be created. Our history of educational organization and of government generally demonstrates that both approaches have many precedents. Administrative Arrangements for Rural Education Existing administrative arrangements for providing educational programs vary in some respects from state to state and from com- munity to community. What exists in each state and locality is the result of a gradual but steady evolution. There have been modifica- tions from time to time—always growing from and frequently Robert M. Isenberg, assistant director, Division of Rural Service, National Educa- tion Association, Washington, D. C., prepared the original draft of Chapter 7. 117 118 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA lagging behind an ideal that interested and informed people in ~communities have desired and an educated citizenry has needed. Some of these modifications have been substantial, some are of little significance. It should be emphasized, however, that the American experiment in public education is still very young. Further modifications, both major and insignificant, can be expected as conditions and circumstances eS and as these changes impli- cate education. Public schools as we know fie today have developed since the time that our nation was established. There being no mention of education in our federal constitution, each state school system has developed independently. Most are highly decentralized with major responsibilities delegated to school district boards of educa- tion. With the exception of certain state-wide standards, controls, and a few curricular mandates, each local school district through its board of education determines for itself the scope and character of the educational program provided. Where the basic district structure is adequate and community interest demands it, broad programs of educational opportunities are available. Where such conditions do not exist, offerings tend to be meager. The schools serving rural America may be classified simply as being part of a state system in which there are either two or three levels (or echelons) in the administrative organization. Every state has an educational agency, usually designated state educa- tion department, having state-wide responsibilities. Although the specific functions of state level vary in some degree among states, they may generally be identified as coordinating and regulatory. In 13 states (for certain districts in additional states also) there is only one other level in school organizational structure—the basic administrative unit or school district which operates schools. These basic units in nearly every instance are either a county, a city, or a unit in which city and county are combined. In a majority of states, a three-echelon system of organization has been developed. The state level is similar in design and function to that of states having the two-level pattern mentioned above. But basic school districts (except for cities) are generally smaller, usually a town or village but sometimes including only a few families. The third level of educational organization is an inter- mediate unit which functions between state level and the local PAW IE EASE AERO NY TOOELIE NE AK BAIA A EPA LEROS OEE LEAL IRIEL DEDEDE, ELE DLA OP OG ADMINISTERING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 119 district level. This intermediate level of organization (the county superintendent of schools, except in a few states where a different pattern exists) serves a dual role: (a) as an arm of the state or ex- tension of the state agency with specified regulatory, reporting, and judicial functions; and (b) as a service agency to the local dis- tricts within the intermediate area. Among the states, whether the established framework is a two- or three-level type of organiza- tion, there are a number of specific differences in the way each level is structured and in the way each functions.' There are also differences among states and among districts within the same state in the extensiveness of the educational opportunities provided. But so, too, are there many similarities. The educational program actually available in each local com- munity, except as will be noted later, depends largely upon the nature of the local school district. For rural areas a description of the existing local district structure would indicate a wide range of differences. | Some rural areas are constituent parts of large school systems enrolling several thousands of pupils. For others, the local dis- tricts are exceedingly small. A substantial majority of all the rural and small communities of the nation are served by these relatively small districts. In fact, a large majority of all communities, both rural and urban, are served by what must be considered small dis- tricts. Of the approximately 48,000 school districts in the United States in 1958, for example, more than 6600 did not operate any school at all. Of those districts which operated schools, nearly two-thirds employed fewer than 10 teachers, less than one-fourth employed from 10 to 39 teachers, and only about 12 percent em- ployed as many as 40 or more teachers.’ Few of the communities served by small districts have access to a broad program of edu- cational services. The relationship between size of school and breadth of program (and generally but not necessarily quality of program as well) 1A detailed discussion of variations among the states having either a two- or three-level pattern of organization is beyond the scope of this Yearbook. Numerous descriptions are available, however. See Dawson, Howard A.; Reeves, Floyd W.; and others. Your School District. Report of the National Commission on School District Reorganization. Washington, D. C.: Department of Rural Education, National Education Association, 1948. 286 p. 2 Data for the status of school districts on July 1, 1958, were secured from a survey of state education departments by the NEA Division of Rural Service. a 120 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA has long been established. This was pointed up specifically during the White House Conference on Education: . . . @ school endeavoring to offer a wide range of courses, including preparation for college, vocational training, and much more, has to hire many teachers with specialized training, and needs a large physical plant with complex equipment. A large faculty and elaborate facilities necessitate a large student body.’ The incidence of small districts and consequently limited oppor- tunities is further evident from data relative to school enrollment. More than half of all secondary schools enroll fewer than 200 pupils; about 1 in 10 have fewer than 50. These are rural schools, since more than two-thirds of all operating high schools are in population centers of less than 2500.‘ The significance of these data is not the incidence of small schools, however. It is the fact that the administrative framework for providing a broad program of education is presently inadequate in a majority of rural communities. Relationship of Administrative Structure to Vocational Education Opportunities Where the basic administrative unit is adequate, a broad educa- tional program including vocational opportunities can be provided in rural communities. Although a minority when all rural schools are considered, many school districts serving rural areas are now providing such programs—for those in school, for those outside the regular school program, and for adults. The Labette County Community High School serves an ex- clusively rural area in the southeastern corner of Kansas. The vil- lage of Altamont where the school is located has a total population of about 600. Although this is dominantly an agricultural area, many of the young people from this part of Kansas migrate to industrial *The Committee for the White House Conference on Education. A Report to the President. April 1956, Full Report. Washington, D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1956. p. 15. *The most recent data available are for the 1951-52 school year. The median enrollment for the 23,746 public secondary schools in operation that year was 175 pupils. See Rice, Mabel C., and Gaumnitz, Walter H. “Statistics for Public Secondary 2". Schools, 1951-52.” Biennial Survey. of Education in the United States: 1952-54. U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education. Washington, D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1954. Chapter 5, p. 42-43. TER RRR ARERR Ro seeihesP- ADMINISTERING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 121 centers after they complete their secondary-school program. About 1 in 5 enter college. The educational program offered is as varied as the interests, abilities, and educational goals of the approximately 700 pupils enrolled. In the vocational area alone the program in- cludes auto mechanics, machine shop, welding, blacksmithing, homemaking, home nursing, business and commercial, vocational agriculture (soils and crops, livestock, farm machinery and main- tenance), butchering and meat cutting, printing and linotype, radio and electronics, and others. Other phases of the program, including the counseling and guidance of students, college prepara- tory programs, and music, are equally comprehensive. Operating within a distinctly different administrative frame- work is the Woodrow Wilson Technical School in Augusta Coun- ty, Virginia. As part of a large county-unit type school system, the greater part of the area served by this regional school is rural. Instruction is provided year-round with specific courses varying from 6 months to 2 years to complete. The range of offerings has expanded each year since the school was first established. Among the courses now provided are preparation for secretarial and general office work, small business management, radio and elec- tronics, television repair and maintenance, cosmetology, watch and clock repair, laundry operation, auto mechanics, body and fender work, furniture repair and refinishing, upholstery, shoe repair, cook- ing and baking, commercial sewing, barbering, and vocational crafts. Until this school was opened, few of the young people or adults of the area had access to any of the kinds of opportunities now available. : Other school districts in rural areas with still different patterns of administrative arrangements provide comparable programs. The two schools identified and briefly described serve merely to illus- trate that broad programs of education—including vocational educa- tion—can be and are being provided in rural areas where the administrative framework is adequate to do what needs to be done. Ruralness in itself is no longer a serious handicap. Opportunities similar to those indicated above are not available in a majority of rural communities. Numerous studies of rural school curriculum—particularly at the secondary level—have identi- fied the frequency of shortcomings. While most schools do pro- vide some opportunities in business and commercial education, in ee Ee eee ey ore 122 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA homemaking, and either vocational agriculture or industrial arts, the breadth of offering even in these specific areas is often limited. Some rural schools have adult education programs; most do not. And except for those areas specified, vocational opportunities are not generally provided in rural communities as part of the school program. The absence of administrative arrangements adequate to initiate and sustain programs rather than the failure to recognize need is the major cause. Approaches To Making Vocational Opportunities Available Recent social and economic changes in rural areas have brought the need for diversified programs of vocational education into sharp focus. The steady development of highly commercialized and scientific agriculture, the increase in the number of part-time farmers, the decentralization of certain types of industry into rural areas and the consequent opportunity for off-farm employment, and the general economic necessity for many rural people to mi- grate toward larger population centers in order to maintain a satis- factory level of living are among these changes.’ Educational offerings which prepare and guide rural youth and adults into agriculture, service industries related to agriculture, and nonfarm vocations have become increasingly important. Providing opportunities for vocational education for those residing in rural areas lacking an appropriate administrative structure has resulted in a number of different approaches. These approaches vary so greatly from state to state and within the same state that any general classification of the several types of administrative patterns now existing must overlook certain specific organizational differences. A detailed analysis of different administrative relation- ships almost requires an institution-by-institution description. Each of the various approaches to secure vocational education either through adapting the existing administrative structure or by establishing additional framework has been motivated by the demand for making these opportunities available and an inadequacy _ ~ *For a more detailed discussion of social and economic changes and trends and their educational implications see National Education Association, Department of Rural Education. “Social and Economic Changes in Rural Life.” Rural Education— A Forward Look. Yearbook 1955. Washington, D. C.: the Department, 1955. Chapter 5, p. 53-62. ADN [INISTERING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 123 of the existing, or formerly existing, arrangements. By way of broad and general types, these approaches may be identified as follows: 1. Expanding the educational program through local district reorganization 2. Purchasing vocational education from other school districts 3. Developing a regional or area vocational school at local district level 4. Developing a regional or area vocational program at the intermediate district level 5. Developing a regional or area vocational program from the state level 6. Developing regional vocational programs through colleges and junior colleges 7. Developing regional vocational programs by establishing a special or separate agency. Although all of the above types of administrative organization operate within a state framework responsible for all public educa- tion, the distinctiveness of each stems from (a) points at which what might be regarded as “vocational” programs and “regular” programs are in contact and (b) relationships or lines of responsi- bility and authority. Major similarities and differences may be identified by a brief description of each of these approaches. Reorganization of Local Districts For a number of years states have made persistent efforts to reorganize schoo! districts and consolidate schools. The past decade has seen the number of separate districts reduced greatly—from 100,946 in 1948 to 48,049 in 1958.° The major purpose of all re- organization in rural areas has been the formation of rural school districts with sufficient enrollment to justify and afford an expanded program of education—including increased vocational opportuni- ties. * For data regarding the number of school districts by states for the years 1932, 1948, 1953, and 1955, see Committee for the White House Conference on Education, Subcommittee on “In What Ways Can We Organize Our Schools More Efficiently and Economically?” A Statistical Survey of School District Organization in the United States, 1954-55. Washington, D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1955. p. 7; data for 1958 was obtained from a survey of state education departments by the Division of Rural Service, National Education Association. 124 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Through reorganization local communities can and do improve their administrative framework sufficiently to make a wider range of opportunities available. A study including an analysis of cur- riculum changes in 525 reorganized districts in 8 states pointed up that nearly 3 of every 4 districts added at least one additional course following their reorganization. Among those most frequently added after reorganization were industrial arts, homemaking, agri- culture, and business and distributive education. In larger re- organizations specialized shop courses, including machine shop, metal work, electrical work, printing, automobile mechanics, build- ing trades, and diversified occupations, were added.’ In these dis- tricts science, mathematics, art, music, physical education, and other curriculum areas also expanded through reorganization. The specific nature of reorganized local districts tends to vary in accordance with differences in state laws, provisions, and incentives. In some states reorganized districts provide for both elementary and secondary education. The central school districts of New York, the community unit districts of Illinois, and those reorganized in Wisconsin, Washington, and most other states operate in this manner. In certain other states, however, many reorganization efforts have been only for secondary education. The regional high schools in : Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and New Jersey and the rural high-school districts and community high-school districts in Kansas are illustrative. A somewhat different pattern of reorganization at only secondary level has caused the establishment in North Dakota of the Benson County Agricultural and Training School and the Walsh County Agricuitural High School. Although local districts in the sense that administrative responsibility rests with the local county board of education, these schools provide dormi- tory accommodations for some pupils and are thus able to serve those who come from over a wide area of the state to take advantage of the vocational program provided. When local districts reorganize, they merge into a single adminis- trative unit under one board of education and one superintendent. Reorganization is the process through which a number of formerly 7 Fitzwater, C. O. Educational Change in Reorganized School Districts. VU. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Bulletin 1953, No. 4. Washington, D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1953. p. 34-39, Sica mm tecenmammnincemmnenremreeetemmnn — wor OE GERI, Peer i i Oe Tm POUR a ce cect TL ELEEES Paina ana: acne : : ne rmaronsprrsspsassmsasssccasnsssiiiiaisll A Teme ADMINISTERING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 125 separate administrative units become one. It is a process through which many rural communities are strengthening their ability to provide a broader educational program. It is one approach to securing vocational education for rural pupils and adults. Purchasing from Other Districts Many rurai school districts have a long history of purchasing educational services from neighboring districts on a contract basis. Approximately two-thirds of all operating districts provide only an elementary school. Some of these elementary districts are included in or are part of separate high-school districts; but many are not, and they must then arrange to secure or purchase secondary educa- tion for their pupils from another district. Arrangements of this type are common in some sections of the country. When districts reorganize, this pattern of purchasing educational services gen- erally tends to disappear. There is a distinct parallel between this long-existing contract or tuition method of purchasing an educational program, however, and the securing of vocational education in some states and areas. Even after or in spite of reorganization, local districts are often still somewhat limited in the scope of educational offering they can provide. When resident pupils need or desire specialized training in the field beyond that which the local district offers and when these courses are available through a neighboring district, arrange- ments can sometimes be worked out whereby the pupil or pupils attend school in the neighboring district with tuition provided by their own district. In a few instances state law requires districts to pay such costs when they do not provide a specialized educational program their pupils desire. Even though this method of securing vocational or other educational opportunities is neither commonly practiced nor popular, it is an approach through which some rural pupils can and do secure vocational training. Regional Vocational Schools—At Local Level The enrollment of local districts in areas of relative population sparsity, even after extensive reorganization, and that of the separ- ate attendance centers in many of the larger local administrative units is often far too limited to permit provision of a broad and diversified program of vocational education. Because the need for cena eennee PUPS NR 5) Te ea a Mic 126 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA vocational education is as great in these communities as anywhere, the problem of providing the program desired has been attacked in many places by the development of a regional vocational school which serves students who come from a reasonably wide area. In some instances a regional or area vocational school has been developed within the same local framework through which other public schools are administered. Where such regional or area schools are administered by basic administrative units, each local district must be sufficiently large in enrollment to make efficient organization possible. The Woodrow Wilson Technical School in Augusta County, Virginia, briefly described earlier, is illustrative. This school as well as the Wise County Technical School and the Danville County Technical Institute in the same state are regional schools operating within county school systems. Each is adminis- tered by the same board of education which also has responsibility for all other county schools. The Okaloosa County and Marion County Vocational Schools in Florida and the Mercer County and Raleigh County Vocational Schools in West Virginia and others in these same states are similar in their pattern of organization. In some instances a regional school is developed and adminis- tered by a local district but, as designated within the state frame- work, may serve a much larger area than the particular district responsible for its operation. The St. Paul Area Vocational-Tech- nical School in Minnesota, for example, is operated by the city school system. Students who attend, however, are drawn from the six-county area around St. Paul. The Thief River Falls Area Voca- tional-Technical School is likewise administered by the local city district, but the entire northern part of Minnesota is served by the school. Other schools in that state in St. Cloud, Mankato, and Winona are similarly organized and operated. In a number of California counties, as well as in other states, special junior-college or community-college districts have been formed. Administrative responsibility for their programs, often in- cluding a wide range of specialized vocational education, generally resides with a special district board of education or board of trustees. In reality this type of organization might be termed a “regional district.” Frequently these districts include a large number of separate districts responsible for elementary and secondary educa- tion. Their operation is regional in nature. But they also operate ADMINISTERING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 127 in the same manner as do other local districts. Further discussion of junior-college programs is included in the description of the college and junior-college approach. Regional Vocational Schools—At the Intermediate Level Establishing a regional school at the intermediate district level which students from each of the various and separate local districts in the intermediate area can attend is another approach. Although school programs and most aspects of operation in these regional schools would appear identical to those operated within or by a large local district, they are distinctively different in terms of their administrative relationships. Responsibility for operation rests with an intermediate (usually county) board of education rather than with the board of a single local district. The intermediate area including a number of separate local districts also is the common base for such local financial support as is provided. A number of regional vocational schools at intermediate district level have been developed in New Jersey. Some are quite extensive in their operation. The Essex County Vocational School, for ex- ample, is actually a system of five vocational and technical high schools and adult technical schools. Three separate schools are included in the Middlesex County Vocational and Technical High School. Each serves the entire county area, with the county board of education and county superintendent of schools having certain direct responsibilities for their administration and super- vision. A different and unique plan for developing a regional vocational program at intermediate district level has been developed in a few instances in New York through Boards of Cooperative Educational Services. The Oneida County program, for example, includes (among numerous other services) programs in vocational agricul- ture and automobile mechanics on a regional basis. Students from the several local districts in the area are brought together for this specialized vocational instruction. They then return to their home schools for other instruction and school activities. Responsibility for the program is assumed by the intermediate type cooperative board of education, with management and supervision provided by the intermediate superintendent. 128 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Many intermediate units further serve vocational education by providing vocational supervisors or consultants who work on a regional basis with the separate local districts, even though actual programs of instruction are carried on by local districts themselves. In some states this type of intermediate district service has ex- panded significantly in recent years. Regional Vocational Schools—At State Levei The most common pattern of organization among presently operating regional vocational schools is that in which regional schools are administered directly from the state level. Local ad- ministration of these regional schools is usually delegated to a super- intendent or director whose direct line of responsibility is to the state education department. Programs usually serve students from a large area of the state. And since the purposes of these regional schools as well as their administrative framework are different, they operate in complete independence of other schools responsible for elementary and secondary education. Direct relationships between these regional schools and either local or intermediate districts do not exist. Georgia has organized two regional trade and vocational schools of this type. There are six in Alabama and 25 in Louisiana. All are directly under the control of the state board of education. The relatively recent establishment of the Maine Vocational-Technical Institute at Portland follows a similar organizational pattern. New Hampshire has state technical institutes at Manchester and Ports- mouth; Nebraska has a state trade school at Milford; Oregon has a technical institute at Oretech; South Carolina has two area trade schools. Others operate in Rhode Island, Connecticut, Massa- chusetts, New York, Utah, and North Carolina. In most respects these schools are alike; to some extent they differ. Some serve a reasonably small area; some are state-wide. Some provide dormitories and other necessary facilities for students. Some are specifically post-secondary; others have no specific formal education requirements for admission but consider each applicant in terms of his ability’to profit from vocational education. Some serve only full-time students; some have substantial part-time adult classes. But all are state administered and regional in their approach. SAAT AAR RTI ee Tae arma Ie Stik: Shed ADMINISTERING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 129 Regional Vocational Programs Through Colleges Since the provision of vocational programs on a regional basis re- quires classroom facilities, instructional staff, and frequently dormi- tory and supporting facilities for students away from home, there has been a tendency in some instances to organize a regional voca- tional program in relation to an established college or junior college. Although the vocational program in most of these situations is terminal in nature and is almost completely separated from the regular college program, the multiple use of certain types of facili- ties offers numerous advantages. Virtually all of the regional programs in vocational education which have been developed in relation to colleges are at institutions wholly or largely supported from state funds. Frequently the administrative organization is identical to that which exists for other college departments. In some instances the vocational program is directly administered from the state education department, and actual relationships with the college are entirely a result of their geographical sharing of the same campus. A special terminal vocational program has been organized at the Arkansas Polytechnic College at Russellville. Administered by the board of trustees of the college, this program provides opportuni- ties to students from anywhere in the state in a number of spe- cialized vocational areas and trades. The School of Trade and In- dustrial Education of Idaho State College is organized in similar fashion. The State Teachers College at Pittsburg, Kansas, maintains what is called a Non-College Vocational Education Department through which a broad program of vocational education is offered to students who come from a wide area of the state. Special voca- tional programs at Western Michigan University and the Ferris Institute at Big Rapids, Michigan, make it possible for vocational students to share dormitory and food service facilities along with the four-year college students. In a number of instances junior colleges provide programs in vocational education. There are many differences among these institutions in terms of organizational patterns and relationships, and these variations multiply as the number of institutions steadily increases. Many are organized as a part of a city or county school district. Many are actually junior-college districts—local districts in their own right—and reference to this type of organization has by Ne eee Be ee iS te hl re ee ed en ele 2 ad i el i oe eo od Sa 130 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA previously been made. There also are many private or semiprivate institutions—business schools, barber schools, hospital training pro- grams, and the like—but these are not included in the scope of this discussion since few are actually located in rural areas. Some of the public junior colleges, such as Kilgore College and the Lamar School of Vocations in Texas or the East Central and Northwest Junior Colleges in Mississippi, are largely state supported and state administered. They are much like the regional vocational schools provided directly under state education department super- vision, except for the junior-college type of organization and the inclusion of other than terminal and vocational programs. Regional Programs Provided Through Special Agencies Each of the several approaches to providing vocational education programs previously described is administered by or through one or more of the existing levels of the same organizational framework established by states for all public education programs. Variations in the extent to which local districts, intermediate units, and the state level of administration are involved have been briefly described. In certain other instances programs of a regional type operate under administrative arrangements which at local or operating level are apart from “normal” school administrative organization. These programs are generally provided either by a special agency created for the purpose or by an already existing agency other than that normally responsible for the operation of public schools. Since they operate within the same general framework of control and supervision of the state department of education, they differ chiefly with respect to the particular local organization or agency respon- sible. Eleven separate school districts in Missouri, all unable to provide an extensive and high quality vocational program within their own local district, have established a joint cooperative enterprise— the Lead Belt Vocational School of Bonne Terre. Each of the participating districts helps to finance the regional program and each is represented on the board of directors responsible for its joint operation. The nature of the organization and management is identical to most cooperative enterprises. This kind of adminis- trative structure has been developed specifically apart from the intermediate unit organization, even though the program itself is ARO FRONTED ARIPO RAEN NEL EE eel alr aL Pte em ae Se) ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee oe ey oe con ho a ‘ = ia = 7 v ee ae sik aes 7 ome i MeN tse had a A Nw ae WADARS HORE PRE EE AY er enemas ene ADMINISTERING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ° 131 identical in most respects to those provided by intermediate units in some other states. Although such cooperative organization involves local districts, it is itself a special agency created for a particular and specialized purpose. Organizationally it is somewhat apart from the normal administrative structure through which public schools operate. Two different types of regional vocational programs in New York also operate at the local level through other than regular school organization. In a few areas Vocational Education and Extension Boards, such as that in Rockland County, have been established. These special agencies operate regional programs within the total framework of the state education department but locally these pro- grams are a responsibility of the County Board of Supervisors, the political governing body of the county. The intermediate unit organization which operates in these areas works with but is not directly involved in the administration of these regional vocational programs. Each local school district contracts with the Vocational Education and Extension Board for those vocational services they desire to purchase. The other New York pattern is similar in some respects. Im- mediately following World War II a number of special regional | Institutes of Applied Arts and Sciences were established throughout | the state. They were designed to provide post-secondary education in a variety of specific vocational and technical fields. Initially organized as a part of the state university system, these institutes — approximated the previously described regional schools administered from state level. in terms of administrative relationships they were much like the agricultural and technical institutes which have been operating as regional vocational schools in that state for many years. In 1953, however, efforts were made to continue these special pro- grams under local sponsorship. The Erie County Technical In- stitute in Buffalo, for example, continues to operate, as always, under the administrative supervision of .the state department of education, but locally it has become a direct responsibility of the County Board of Supervisors in a fashion which compares closely with the Vocational Education and Extension Board mention :d above. It operates a regional program. It continues as a post- | secondary institution. In its present organizational framework, : | however, it operates largely as a special agency without any close SPP OI Oe Ne tee see aa emacereenneaincpeemeonememencnereneerneetmer mere —_ en SEMGREN comer et 132 ; VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA local administrative or organizational relationship to either the existing local or intermediate districts. Still another type of regional program which can be classified as a special-agency type, because organizational relationships with other school structure are absent, are the several schools of Vocational and Adult Education located in various sections of Wisconsin. These schools operate under the direction of local Boards of Vocational and Adult Education which, like local school districts, have author- ity to levy taxes to support their programs. Additional support comes largely from tuition paid by students. The programs of these schools are broad and comprehensive in a variety of vocational and technical areas. The school at Eau Claire serves not only students from the city but also those from a number of surrounding coun- ties. A number of out-of-state students are among those also en- rolled at Janesville. The regional nature of the programs at Wausau, Fond du Lac, Port Washington, and the others could similarly be a indicated. q A Pattern of Organizational Variations The preceding brief descriptions of various organizational ap- 4s proaches for vocational education emphasize the present diversity x of administrative structure. The classifications used are arbitrary. A q completely detailed analysis of administrative organization and operation would almost necessitate the separate description of each operating program. No attempt has been made to do this. With only slight modifications in the frame of reference, many of the specific schools and programs actually used as illustrations of organizational types could be classified appropriately in a distinctly different way. If the many other currently operating programs not identified were added, the resulting analysis would be even further confusing. The significance of these organizational variations for administer- ing programs of vocational education—either in rural areas or in urban centers which include a rural constituency—is not merely that there are a number of ways in which these specialized oppor- tunities can be provided. These variations demonstrate dramatically that (a) a broad program of vocational education can be provided even where the local communities are small and the population sparse, and that (b) states, areas, or communities will find some ADMINISTERING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 133 means through which programs can be provided when aware of the -need and importance of these specialized opportunities and suffi- ciently motivated to make them realities. On this latter point, it should be emphasized that the tendency to grasp for and use whatever administrative agency is at hand may well result in the establishment of the type of program desired; but it certainly is not a guarantee that the resultant administrative ma- chinery is efficient, philosophically sound in terms of both educa- tional and democratic principles, adequate to provide the breadth of opportunities which should be provided, or adaptable to meet changing circumstances and different vocational needs. The chances are that it will not be. Many of the vocational programs now oper- ating are functioning within an organizational and administrative framework which serves as an excellent example of what others should avoid if at all possible. They are a result of what can happen in an absence of either planning or adequate legal provisions. They are expedients and should be recognized as such. At most, the struc- ture responsible for pioneering and operating these programs should be regarded only as a means for accomplishing what needs to be done until a more appropriate and more stable organizational frame- work can be established. Administrative Problems and Issues From the standpoint of administrative organization for providing vocational education for the rural areas of America, two facts are eminently clear. One is that most rural communities do not yet have access to the kinds of opportunities and programs needed and which could be provided. The second is that the present organiza- tional variations among programs already established are so great that any orderly effort to insure rural access to vocational education will be extremely complex. It is equally apparent that the existing administrative structure responsible for the provision of elementary and secondary educa- tion in the rural areas of most states is not adequate to undertake a broad program of vocational education. In spite of the tremendous efforts exerted to improve local school district organization, there is little evidence to indicate that even after substantial reorganization a majority of these basic administrative units will have a sufficient euahasmaniennscremesinerspae moment emsemns 134 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA number of pupils or adequate local financial resources to justify the efficient or economical provision of such programs. The trend instead will undoubtedly need to be toward the de- velopment of regional or area vocational schools or programs. In harmony with this approach, certain federal funds for the develop- ment of “area vocational schools” have been provided by the Na- tional Defense Education Act. At this writing, the provisions of this legislation are yet to become a reality. Whether the availability of federal funds will stimulate within each state a systematic and carefully planned system of regional or area schools bringing a broad range of vocational and technical educational opportunities within access of every community cannot yet be determined. Although the area approach to vocational education seems to offer greatest promise, there are a number of problems inherent in the development of such regional programs. Most of these more accurately should perhaps be regarded as questions; whether or not they represent serious problem areas will depend upon the kinds of answers which are found. Who should attend the regional voca- tional school, for example? Everyone who can profit from instruc- tion? At what time in the course of their school experience might they go? Are vocational programs to be available to students “in- stead of” or “in addition to” the program provided by the regular secondary school of the local district? Or is there some other alterna- tive? In other words, should the regional program be secondary, post-secondary, or adult? Should it be all of these? Or should it have a specific clientele entirely separate from that which other districts might enroll? The matter of relationships between regional vocational schools and other school districts suggests a number of organizational prob- lems. To what extent might or should the regional school be part of the same organizational structure as other schools? In some instances they now operate under the same board of education as all other schools; in some, through the intermediate unit; in others their administrative channel is directly to the state education de- partment. Is there desirability in tying a regional program into the educational framework of the state at the level closest to the community where the program can operate effectively and eco- nomically? Is there desirability in separateness? Is there danger that, unless carefully studied, vocational programs might become ADMINISTERING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 135 so separated from the other school programs that a state's total educational efforts might be undesirably divided? Or is this not really an issue? Many other administrative concerns have less to do with whether or not a program is actually regional in nature. Because vocational education has need for equipment and materials far beyond those required for study in the academic fields, vocational programs can seldom be equated on a cost basis with most other types of in- struction. Its costs exceed the ability of most local areas. Even many states cannot afford provision of the number of programs which would assure availability to all those in both urban and rural areas who need specialized training to maximize their economic productivity. Is vocational competence really an educational ob- jective? Is it valued sufficiently to cause it to become a reality for those who now have little, if any, opportunity? How much and what kind of vocational education? Rural areas have a broad range of vocational needs. Many rural people will remain rural; many will migrate. Programs must also reflect our continuously changing technology. From what sources can the necessary financial re- sources be justified? If a state's efforts to expand vocational opportunities move for- ward within an organizational framework designed to assure access for all, what happens to those programs and institutions already operating in this field? Many present programs have actually been pioneer efforts. In plowing new ground without an adequate general plan, most have encountered obstacles, only some of which could be overcome. Many are still poorly supported and inade- quately organized. They grew up as best they could in the absence of other provisions. Can they be strengthened? Should this be done? Or would it be more desirable to eliminate their vocational programs and redirect their efforts? If the latter is the more appro- priate course, what would this do to their well-deserved pride of accomplishment and vested interests? How might these be accom- modated without handicapping what should be done? The tendency for vocational programs to develop within what- ever educational framework was available has resulted in numerous administrative patterns—even within the same state. Does it really make any difference how vocational education is administered— just so long as opportunities are available? Do the relationships of 136 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA these programs to other educational administrative organizations make any real difference? Who has administrative responsibility? Should vocational teachers give some attention to or indicate some concern for the structure within which their program operates? If not, who will be concerned? Many of the questions with regard to administrative responsi- bility and relationships may be straw men. Certainly they are not unanswerable. Any organized effort to make vocational education programs available for those to whom they should be extended, rural and urban alike, will find it necessary to answer these or similar questions. Satisfactory solutions undoubtedly can be found. A few states have already found temporary answers; in the future they may seek alternatives. Different answers for the same question may result from differing local conditions. There is probably no single administrative plan that could serve all states and localities with equal effectiveness. Without some plan, however, those for whom opportunities for vocational education are not now provided will continue to be unserved. saeeerbs ogee CHAPTER 8 The Expanding Horizon in Vocational Education Macs of the strength of our system of public education stems from its diversity, its decentralized responsibility, and its adaptability to new conditions and new circumstances. Public schools receive a somewhat more personal regard than is accorded most other community agencies and institutions. That the schools primarily serve a community's children and in their operation have actively sought citizen involvement is to a large extent responsible for this allegiance. But the same forces and factors which contribute to strength are also contributors to weakness. This is more easily observable in those places where the adverse effects are most severe—in the rural areas and smaller communities of America. Most of the schools serving rural children are small. They are limited in enrollment, curricular offering, administrative and instructional personnel, and financial support. Our pattern of limited or flex- ible organizational controls designed to maximize local autonomy and encourage diversity has tended also to encourage the con- tinuance of inadequacy—often unrecognized. Corrective efforts, although generally successful, have been dependent upon a local recognition that expanded educational opportunities will require some organizational change. But not infrequently these efforts have been thwarted by a fear that the close personal attachment and control which has always existed may be lost through such change. In those instances, the decision reflects a satisfaction and con- tentment with existing limitations of opportunity. A majority of rural and small communities do not now provide opportunities for instruction for vocations. Nor can they do so as H. M. Hamlin, Professor of Agricultural Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, prepared the original draft of Chapter 8. 139 1 GREE eMee a eevee 140 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA they are presently organized. That the children attending these schools will soon be seeking employment in the labor market is without question. Expanding opportunities for vocational education in order that more of the potential contribution of this segment of our population can be constructively utilized in appropriate occupa- tions is an important challenge. Educational Policy—A Public Responsibility The most important single fact in considering an expansion of vocational education in rural communities is that, ultimately, all of the controls over public education are in the hands of citizens, for all decisions determining the future of vocational education will be made by the public or its lay representatives. Among the basic decisions for which the public is responsible in managing its education, including its vocational education, are: How is policy for public education to be made? Who is to share in making it? How are they to share? How is policy to be in- terpreted, executed, and publicized? What education is to be provided publicly and what education is to be provided privately? What are to be the essential differ- ences between public and private education? Who is to be served by public education? To what extent, when, and where will each element of the population be served? What public purposes are to be served by the public educa- tional agencies? How is the public to decide whether its pur- poses are being served? (How are the schools to be judged officially on behalf of the public?) What provisions will the public make for organization and administration, program planning, staffing, funds, and facilities? Finding appropriate and acceptable answers to these questions will require decisions that are as difficult to make as any the American public has ever before considered. They must be made at all levels of responsibility—in the school districts, the states, and the nation. We may be sure that the decisions made about vocational education in rural communities will depend upon the decisions made about public education generally. THE EXPANDING HORIZON 141 The Situation in Rural Communities Very few rural communities have ever faced the issues that must be faced in making adequate decisions about vocational education. This neglect is nothing new. Some states and most rural com- munities provided no vocational education until after 1917 when the national government began to encourage it. Since then, pieces of vocational education have been introduced here and there, often in haphazard fashion. Sometimes these partial programs have resulted from promotion by state officials; sometimes they have been introduced in imitation of other school systems; sometimes they have resulted from a genuine feeling that a particular form of vocational education was needed. The people of many rural communities still think that they have provided for vocational education when in their high schools they have provided some courses in agriculture for farm boys, some courses in home economics for girls, some courses in typing and stenography, and some courses in industrial arts—the latter never intended to be a vocational subject. Most rural communities have not yet discovered what the founders of vocational education knew a half century ago: Effective voca- tional education must be provided largely after full-time schooling is oer for persons already engaged in occupations. In far too many cases, the teaching of vocational subjects is confined to the schools’ classrooms and shops, and the functional teaching that could be done outside the schools is neglected. Other limitations also exist. In a high percentage of our rural schools there are inadequate provisions for counseling youth and adults about vocations and vocational education. In approximately one-third of the nation’s public schools in which vocational educa- tion in agriculture would be appropriate, the schools take no responsibility for it, but leave it to nonschool agencies. There are very few area vocational schools in rural areas, though nearly all the larger cities have them. Since our Industrial Revolution has been more a gradual and cumulative process than an abrupt revolt, the occupational adjust- ments it has brought about have often been subtle and even transi- tory. The general public, unable to share in the kinds of discussions which led to the establishment of a national program of vocational education in 1917, has little real understanding of why it is a AGA Sages E . ‘ ; 4 142 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA national necessity. The founders believed firmly that a national program of vocational education is essential: © To develop and maintain national prosperity, to provide for the defense of the nation, and to develop the nation’s human and material resources ® To provide vocational education for those unserved or inade- quately served by the public colleges, the private educational agencies, and corporations with training programs, and par- ticularly to provide it for farmers, homemakers, small business- men and industrialists, and laborers © To balance our educational programs by emphasizing the obli- gation to work, the means of earning a living, and the integra- tion of the practical with the theoretical ® To imbue workers in the various occupations with a sense of social responsibility and to acquaint them, through association, with the other classes in our society. The public pays for vocational education, no matter who provides it, and pays for the lack of vocational education when no one provides it. Many of this generation do not see as clearly as the founders that the most feasible way of providing vocational educa- tion for all at costs which can be borne is to provide it through the public schools. In spite of the lack of any clear rationale for vocational education, the public and the school administrators in rural communities have discovered that vocational education is popular and that usually money can be more easily raised for it than for most other forms of education. It has been found, too, that vocational education need not be an isolated part of a school program but can contribute to the major purposes for which public schools were established and are being maintained. These purposes, as significant now as when the first public-school system was established, are: ® To help hold together the nation and its constituent states and communities and to enable them to function effectively @ To develop a special kind of citizen for a special kind of coun- try @ To help each American become all that he may become. THE EXPANDING HORIZON 143 The Status of Public Policy for Vocational Education The earliest public policies for vocational education were enacted in isolated school districts. Later, many of the states enacted policies designed to encourage vocational education; most of these were shortsighted and short lived. Effectively, the beginning of modern policy making for vocational education was the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917. Those who were responsible for the Smith-Hughes Act thought of it as a temporary measure which would stimulate the states to provide and develop opportunities for vocational education. They were certain that, at an appropriate time, the national government could withdraw, leaving the program entirely to the states. The Act was drawn up, therefore, to encourage a maximum of state initiative and responsibility and a minimum of federal regulation. It is significant that the Act, created with this purpose in mind, has not been changed in any way since 1917, even though attitudes regard- ing the propriety of federal aid to the schools have changed markedly and present national legislation regards vocational education as an ongoing program, not a temporary one. The Act has been sup- plemented at various times by other acts, but the current com- panion act—the George-Barden Act—differs from the Smith-Hughes Act only in a few points of minor consequence. The Smith-Hughes Act was passed after 10 years of careful con- sideration by many organizations, by a special commission appointed by President Wilson, and by Congress. Congressional and public enthusiasm for the program developed by this legislation probably never has been greater than it is today. Although there has been more social change in the past 40 years than in any other compar- able period, there still is very little to criticize in the Act. This demonstrates, as few other acts of public policy demonstrate, that policy can be developed which, despite change, will endure. The principal objections to the Smith-Hughes Act are that (a) it did not provide effectively for the research and evaluation which should have accompanied the development of a new program and (b) it is legislation for a particular type of education. The first difficulty was a product of the times. In 1917 very few thought of research and evaluation as essential in the development of a new program. Geman Rremmremnm— 144 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA There is room for considerable argument with regard to the second objection. But the fact is that special legislation was needed, since it was not considered feasible to turn funds intended to develop vocational education over to the boards of education and school administrators, who for generations had shown little or no interest in developing it, without also providing some restrictions on their use. Many believe that special funds for vocational educa- tion will have to be maintained for a long time if we are not to destroy much of the vocational education that has been developed. It takes a long time to establish a new program in the public schools, and the type of vocational education the founders contemplated is even yet far from being fully established in the United States. The Smith-Hughes Act left most of the basic decisions about vocational education to the states and provided only those precau- tions believed necessary to insure that the funds would be spent honestly for the purposes for which they were appropriated. Vary- ing amounts of regulation and control have been developed in the various states. In many states, particularly in the North, most basic decisions are left to the school districts. But all local districts, re- gardless of the amount of regulation exercised at the state level, have certain fundamental policy matters which they alone can determine. The following questions represent some of the deci- sions commonly made by local school districts—either by formal or informal action or by inaction. Failure to make any decision can in some circumstances be most decisive: Will federal and state funds be accepted for the development of vocational education? Will the available funds be used for all or a part of the pur- poses for which they may be used? | How will local policies for vocational education ‘be made? What local purposes, consistent with the broad purposes of the National Vocational Education Acts, will be served? What kind of a local program will be provided to accomplish these purposes? How will a program be evaluated and improved? Will state and federal standards be exceeded in providing staff and facilities? ae aes Bea canesnsetonee tet tse nO oe z Stove Pee ehh o> raN pate dees y Sh RC IS names WARS see ahs , THE EXPANDING HORIZON 145 State and federal officials may provide funds, may insist that certain standards be observed, and may be very valuable as consultants to local communities; but they cannot compel a community to have a good program of vocational education if it does not want one. In contrast to the studied and careful national policy making represented by the Smith-Hughes Act, the policies of the states and the school districts for vocational education and all other forms of education are notoriously slipshod. Only a few years ago, the National Citizens Commission for the Public Schools estimated that only 20 percent of the school districts of the country had any organized, systematic, and written policies. There are probably few, if any, school districts in the nation that have a policy state- ment which gives adequate answers to the kinds of questions stated in the first section of this chapter. In many instances where reasonably good policy statements do exist, they have been de- veloped by school administrators and enacted by boards of educa- tion with little or no help from the school staff or from lay citizens other than board members. With such a pattern of development, neither the public nor the profession understands the need for them or supports them fully. Attempts to publicize and gain understand- ing of local district policies are seldom made. The policies are valuable, if valuable at all, to the boards and administrators only. They serve to satisfy the representatives of accrediting agencies who insist that an accredited school have policies. A good share of the difficulties we have had and are having in developing vocational education in rural communities arises because states and school districts have never developed the policy they were expected to have developed to supplement the Smith-Hughes Act. Though the Smith-Hughes Act was in itself a sound piece of legislation which has been proved to be helpful in the development of vocational education in the public schools, Congress has not been content with this single provision for vocational education. It has developed and is still developing other nonschool agencies of voca- tional education, each with its own special provisions and its special relationships with the states. The earlier vision of a national unified program of vocational education through the public schools has been forgotten or hope for it has been abandoned, largely be- cause of indifference on the part of professional educators and the people in the states and communities. IARI ES, 146 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA The Process of Developing Policy for Vocational Education The absence of adequate and clear-cut policies must be corrected if effective programs of vocational education are to become a reality. These policies are needed at all levels of educational organ- ization. In the School District Boards of education have the responsibility for enacting most local policies; a few have to be referred to the electorate. However, a board can enact all the policy there is in a few minutes. It is the development of sound policy for enactment that is difficult. This process requires the help of professional educators, other lay citi- zens, and, frequently, consultants from outside a community. The starting point is the provision of machinery for policy de- velopment. The minimum requirements are: e A school staff organized for participation in policy development @ A system of citizens committees whose primary function is to assist in policy development @ An arrangement whereby the school staff and the participating lay citizens are brought regularly together and where both groups meet regularly with the board and the administrators. Reference again is made to the questions posed in the first section of this chapter. It quickly will become evident that adequate answers to the policy questions inherent in vocational education require that the school system already have adequate answers to such questions. There are very few special policies for vocational education which can be justified. What would really be good for the entire school system would also be good for vocational educa- tion. The three steps taken in policy development are usually taken concurrently: 1. The codification and review of existing policy (written and unwritten ) 2. The proposal of answers to questions unanswered by exist- ing policy 3. The comparison of answers given locally with answers other school systems have given. THE EXPANDING HORIZON 147 A great advance has been made when a board of education indi- cates that it is not self-sufficient, that it aims to conduct school affairs openly, that it welcomes policy proposals from any source, and that it will provide adequate lay and professional agencies to review proposals before they are enacted. It is in the atmosphere such acts create that vocational education, and every other form of public education, can best advance under our American con- ditions. In a State The necessity for wide professional and lay participation in policy formulation described for local school districts also exists at state level. State policy for vocational education is included in legislative acts, usually very few, and in state plans for vocational education which are checked by the U. S. Office of Education to insure that they are in line with national legislation and the regula- tions which national officials are allowed to make in interpreting the meaning of this legislation. Both forms of policy should be sub- ject to continuous and close scrutiny by large and representative portions of the public and the educational profession. Too many decisions in tle past have been made by directors and supervisors of vocational education and rubber-stamped by state boards of education and state legislatures. One evident reason for the frequent lack of enthusiasm of school administrators and general educators about vocational education is their lack of opportunity to share in planning policies and programs. In the Nation A federal board for vocational education served a useful purpose in the formative years following 1917, but it was abolished, probably wisely, when the federal administrative responsibilities for voca- tional education were transferred to the U.S. Office of Education in 1934. Since then, there has been no continuing, orderly, or adequate procedure for involving professional educators and lay citizens in national policy decisions. Advisory groups have been called, now and then, to deal with special problems. Professional groups have generally found it necessary, however, to put their pressures upon Congress. : ES erp aremen ener mmennesncacoeeinensonen woke 148 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Congress has demonstrated conclusively that it is a poor national school board. It has created nearly 300 separate educational agencies in 200 branches of the national government. William G. Carr, NEA executive secretary, recently wrote: Confusion has here made its masterpiece. For the same Congress that has trembled in fear of general federal control of education has in one law after another added at once to the diversity of Federal influence over education and to the difficulty of tracing responsibility. What Congress and the American people would never sanction by deliberate intent threatens to occur by indirection and indifference. A satisfactory national policy-making process for vocational education awaits the development of a satisfactory process for public education as a whole. Major responsibility for accomplishing this must be assumed by the entire educational profession and the general public. Vocational educators can at least cite one out- standing piece of national policy, the Smith-Hughes Act. At All Levels A prerequisite to sound policy making at all levels is the use of studies yielding the facts and considerations essential for ade- quate and appropriate policies. The participants in policy develop- ment can carry out some of these studies, but special provisions for making them are needed. Far too many policy decisions are reached without the facts that should guide them. The Kind of Vocational Education Rural Areas Can Have Sound policy making at the local, state, and national levels could be expected to result in: © Vocational education that is a regular and integral part of public-school education © Comprehensive and balanced programs of vocational educa- tion ® Adequate counseling prior to and accompanying these pro- grams * Carr, William G. “The Federal Government and National Interest in Education.” Policies for Education, Health and Social Services. (Edited by James E. Russell.) Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday and Co., 1955. p. 7-8. ee THE EXPANDING HORIZON 149 Vocational education provided for youth and adults at what- ever time during their working years it is needed Vocational education that is correlated with and supplements that provided by private agencies, including the home and the farm Public vocational education conducted through the public schools and colleges, not relegated to miscellaneous public agen- cies outside the schools and colleges | Vocational education based on the fact of accelerating change, dedicated to the development of adaptable people, and able to help individuals adapt to change whenever change occurs Vocational education provided only when and where adequate and related out-of-school experience can be provided to supple- ment what is done in the schools Vocational education provided to the extent possible by com- munities with state and national assistance, rather than by state or national agencies Vocational education which takes into account the facts of mi- gration Vocational education used to develop the economic possibilities of communities Vocational education appropriate for those making up the rapidly growing segment of our population who live in the country but are not commercial farmers Vocational education which makes an important contribution to the reduction of juvenile delinquency and the stability of the younger part of our population Vocational programs in agriculture, homemaking, and business which are supplemented by nonvocational programs in these fields, as industrial education is now supplemented by industrial arts education. (It would not require a radical transformation to change many of the present high-school “vocational pro- grams” into nonvocational or prevocational programs. ) Vocational education that is planned, organized, and system- atic Vocational education that takes the time required to teach thoroughly the abilities, skills, understanc!ngs, and attitudes required in vocations. Gaal OS Nika SON BA rca 2h mY | an VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Measures Needed To Improve Vocational Education We must be careful to conserve the best that has been developed over the past 40 years in what we have called vocational education. There is no doubt, for instance, that the new kind of education for farm boys provided through courses in vocational agriculture, super- vised farming programs, and the FFA, has been a tremendously important development and one greatly appreciated by farm and city people alike. Though we recognize that a high-school program in vocational agriculture provides only the beginnings of vocational education for some farmers, and not even that for many who elect to enter farming after high school, we honor it for its contributions to general education, which have probably been greater than its contributions to education in agriculture. Many farm boys would receive a less helpful type of secondary education if vocational agriculture were omitted from or materially curtailed in our pro- grams of secondary education. Vocational agriculture has brought into our high schools a type of teacher much needed for work with farm boys. It would be most unfortunate if the influence of such a teacher was to be lost to the secondary schools. A purposeful relating of most areas of the curriculum to the realities of the community is needed in most schools. However, if we are to develop the kind of vocational education in rural communities that will serve its intended purposes, the people in these communities and the professional educators who work with them will have to begin very soon to think about vocational educa- tion in ways that will lead to actions that would now be con- sidered revolutionary in many places. : ® There must first come a general realization that there is likely to be almost no market for unskilled persons in the next genera- tion. We cannot continue to be as casual as we have been about providing or not providing vocational education. ® We must face the fact that ours has become a nation devoted largely to industry and business, that the rural group is a small and declining portion of the population, that its influence in public affairs will not continue to be disproportionate to its size, and that this group must learn to act as all intelligent minority groups act. Provisions for vocational education for pee RP EIS MOLL PRE ILS ILE LLIN INIT OL COR LAE GE PEROT NOEs ERE THE EXPANDING HORIZON 151 farm people that are not considered to be in the interests of the general public will cease to exist. © We must use differently the funds for vocational education that we have and raise far more money for use in vocational | education. We cannot continue to spend most of our funds for | vocational education upon high-school students. New methods of distributing state and federal funds must be devised. @ School administrators must learn to administer vocational edu- cation sympathetically and intelligently. School staffs, and not merely vocational teachers, must plan programs of vocational education as parts of general school programs. Vocational teachers must learn to work in school systems as regular staff members, not separate and superior entities. ® Opportunities for adult education must be made available for every rural community. It must have a director of adult educa- tion in charge. It cannot be entrusted to high-school principals, already overloaded as specialists in the education of adolescents. Vocational education for adults must be placed in a division of adult education within the same framework through which the regular school programs and other specialized educational services are administered, not operated as separate programs. @ The education of vocational teachers must be expanded and improved. Inservice education of these teachers must be de- veloped. Service must be provided by departments of teacher education and state staffs in vocational education to schools developing policy for vocational education and planning pro- grams of vocational education. @ Public-school buildings must be planned for the use of adults who are enrolled in vocational and other adult courses as well as for children. ® Advisory committees for vocational education must be carefully planned and organized and must be articulated with school- wide citizens committees. School staffs must learn to share in policy development and program planning. © We must recognize the influence in American life of various occupational groups and use the influence of vocational educa- tors and other educators to guide these groups toward the ert het LNN EAE LAER TN ENTE E A LORE LD EIT, + ArH TOLER 152 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA development of intelligent policies more nearly in the public interest. We should recognize that vocational education is not merely the education of individuals who function in isolation from each other; it includes also educating vocational groups to function as a part of our American society. Some General Conclusions We have made only a small beginning in vocational education in rural communities. Much that we have done will have to be undone. Much that we have failed to do will have to be accom- plished. | Recognizing that vocational education can only be effective when there is opportunity for participation in the vocation for which training is given, we shall continue to provide education in agri- culture and homemaking in rural communities, but we shall recog- nize that one-half to three-fourths of rural youth will probably engage in other occupations outside the communities in which they have grown up. Rural communities will undertake to provide counseling about the occupations in which these prospective mi- grants may engage and help individuals plan a program which includes the basic education and the practical arts education which will be helpful to them. As new industries and businesses penetrate into communities hitherto rural, the schools will provide the special education required for participation. The problems in providing appropriate vocational education in rural communities are enormous. We get nowhere by oversimpli- fying them or by trying to convince the public that what we have is adequate. Professional educators and the public must face these problems together. They must be solved. Some can probably be solved quickly and easily. The most serious mistakes we could make, however, would be to assume that what we have in vocational education even approaches adequacy and to judge that what is adequate today will be adequate in the future. PART Il | CHAPTER 9 Vocational Education in Rural Community Areas Pr scnisies rural life is organized around numerous small communities. In earlier years they were separated from urban centers and from each other both by geography and by the absence of opportunities for social interaction. The influences of technological change, identified elsewhere in this volume, have removed all the previously existing handicaps of rural living, how- ever, and the social and economic integration of rural communities is becoming more and more a fact. Rural people are being forced away from self-sufficiency, are tending to specialize in what they do or what they produce, and are becoming more dependent upon others. The rural economy has become so intermeshed with the general national economy that neither is any longer separately distinguishable. And yet, the basic desires of rural people have changed very little, if at all. Rural youth and adults still want and are earnestly striving for the security and confidence that comes from a job at which they can earn a respectable living, a comfortable home for themselves and their family, an opportunity to participate in wholesome com- munity life, and some protection against catastrophes which may develop from factors beyond their control. The changes in rural life have not influenced these ends. They have affected only the situations in which people try to achieve them. Rural communities can no longer be isolated from nor insulated against the specialization which has been taking place in all occupa- tions—farm, business, and industry. This is fact. And increasingly the desires of rural people for job, home, community life, and security are dependent upon their readiness for and adaptability to M. D. Mobley, executive secretary, American Vocational Association, Washington, D.C., prepared the original draft of Chapter 9. 155 o » ‘ se eR? Tip SPS AR AS has Bit Cac ar : CPDL SENNA LS LITO OEE EM OOK: Bee OP 156 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA occupational specialization. Increasingly the fulfillment of desires which make for the “good life” are dependent upon educational background—both general and specific. The Shortage of Educational Opportunities There is ample evidence available to indicate that the educational opportunities now available in the rural communities of our country are greater than ever before. A larger proportion of rural children and adults are enrolled in school or in some other educational pro- gram. They stay in school longer and go with more regularity. The number of rural school graduates steadily increases. But in spite of such progress, most rural schools have lagged so far behind the social and economic changes which influence community life that they are poorly equipped to give people the assistance they need in coping with even the more common and basic problems confronting them. After all the successful reorganization and consolidation efforts, the enrollment of a majority of rural schools is still so small that a broad curricular offering can neither be justified nor afforded. Small enrollments probably impose their most severe limitations in the rural high school. At the secondary level often there is a serious lack of choice of educational opportunity. The shortages exist in all areas of the curriculum, but of special concern here is the decided lack of opportunity for vocational guidance and training. It is a usual and common practice in many rural communities for a young person to choose a vocation because his parents want him to, because some friend or relative wants him to, because someone he knows has succeeded in the particular vocation, because it hap- pens to be the first job that comes along after he leaves school, or just because there doesn’t seem to be anything else for which he can qualify. Whether or not he has any aptitude for the job is a matter given little consideration. The schools are not equipped to do much either to help him make a reasonable vocational choice or to prepare him with the specific skills he needs for entering a vocation which can use his abilities to greatest advantage. To the extent that educa- tion is a local community responsibility, a state responsibility, or a national responsibility, it is relatively easy to prorate the source from which should come corrective action which would eliminate the handicaps now placed upon rural youth by their lack of educational opportunity. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN RURAL COMMUNITY AREAS 157 Failure to recognize the seriousness of this relationship between inadequate educational opportunities and vocational placement and adjustment may be due in part to the fact that it seldom actually has been observable within the rural communities themselves. In- dustrialization, the mechanization of agriculture, and the tendency for many marginal small community businesses and services to give way to larger and more efficient urban operations have resulted in a consistent surplus of employable people in rural! areas in relation to the number of actual job opportunities. That a majority of rural youth after completing their formal education would find it neces- sary to leave their home community to seek employment has been an obvious and accepted reality. Rural people have not been pleased with this exodus of youth but they have been seemingly helpless to remedy it. One of the problems which most migrating rural youth are soon to discover, however, is that they have been poorly prepared by their rural schools to compete in the labor market. Lacking specific voca- tional training, most of these youth in the past have found it neces- sary to accept beginning employment at unskilled or apprentice levels. Some have been able to progress in time to skilled and managerial occupations; many have not. All have been handicapped to a degree by their lack of educational preparation, especially their lack of vocational education. Among currently identifiable social and economic forces which will bring additional changes to rural areas are some which may well lessen the need for much of this labor migration. Advances making for rapid transportation enable increasing numbers of rural resi- dents to work outside the community in which they live. As the rural population continues to increase, the demand for more goods and more services provides opportunity for more trained sales- workers, more business managers and proprietors, and more service personnel. The tendency for certain types of industry to decentralize is expected to continue bringing a wide variety of new vocational opportunities to the particular rural communities which feel the impact of this shift. Such developments, along with those which now can be forecast with reasonable clarity, will undoubtedly make it possible for many, who in circumstances of past years would be forced to migrate, to find productive and satisfying vocational place- ment within their own rural community. aR TT BE Til ae RS A Be 158 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Whether rural people—men and women, youth and adults—will be able to adjust to and be assimilated by the new and additional empluyment opportunities which can be expected to develop within their community will depend primarily upon their readiness to make adjustments and to be assimilated. Without vocational train- ing and the availability of opportunities for vocational retraining their chances will be small. At present the opportunities available in rural communities are limited indeed. Vocational Education in Rural Communities In times when vocations were relatively stable it was essential and appropriate for young people to develop their skills and abilities by learning from those who were experienced in the field. The printer, electrician, carpenter, stonemason, and tinsmith learned their trades “from the ground up.” Now circumstances are somewhat different. The complex organization which supports modern industry, agri- culture, and business,the tendency to break the production process into small and specialized operations, and the rapid changes within any given vocational field as a result of technical developments are factors which make it impractical for a majority of workers to re- ceive needed job training by the apprenticeship method. More in- tensive vocational education is necessary. One of the advantages of the apprenticeship method was (and still is in those trades where the system is used) that training oppor- tunities were available wherever there were practitioners of the trade. Training opportunities were available within local communi- ties. This characteristic is equally essential to the success of a modern program of vocational education. Those who are to benefit from an organized and systematic program of vocational instruction must have access to opportunity within their own local community area. Few can afford either the time or the cost of attending 4 specialized school some distance from their home. Any program designed to equip local people for vocational competence and voca- tional adjustment must be accessible. The extension of vocational guidance and training to rural areas is not an impossible undertaking. In some rural communities oppor- tunities for training in a variety of vocational fields have been pro- vided for a number of years; other small communities are now in the VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN RURAL COMMUNITY AREAS 159 process of establishing such programs. The fact that these com- munities that “have” are no more favored by size or wealth or other advantages (actually less favored in many instances) than nearly any of those which “have not” is significant. Even more significant are the contributions these programs have made to improving the individual competencies of those who have received vocational instruction and to the general improvement of the quality of com- munity life. Although there are many variations in the details of program organization and operation, rural communities which pro- vide vocational education opportunities have tended to do so either ,by the establishment of a comprehensive secondary school through consolidation or through the development of an area voca- tional education program. Both of these approaches might be briefly described." Vocational Education in Comprehensive High Schools Public schools in this country developed as community and neighborhood institutions, and they continue to be largely local and autonomous both in their character and administration. Because a majority of communities are small, most rural schools are small. But not all rural schools. “Rural” and “small” are no longer synono- mous. The rapid reorganization and consolidation of rural school districts has resulted in many relatively large rural schools. The multimillion dollar school plant at the edge of a small village or in the open country is becoming increasingly the dominant pattern of rural education. Many actually enroll more students than the total population of their community center. Because of their size, rural communities seldom ever have more than one public high school. This gives rural schools a responsi- bility for providing a comprehensive educational program, ie., a program designed to serve many different and special needs. The program must have both an academic and a vocational orienta- tion since the school attempts to serve students of all levels of ability and all areas of interest. Thus purposed, to be all things to all, it is understandable that rural high schools vary considerably in their comprehensiveness. In general, their comprehensiveness is directly * An analysis of various types of administrative organization developed to make vocational education opportunities available is included in Chapter 7. 8 PN BOM RII ROL ER SBN RL LF OEIC EIDE PAL ODN REAR LIAL HE ABE IP pS a Ns Ba Lee — UPN OEE 160 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA proportional to size—the larger the enrollment, the more varied and comprehensive the educational program. Requirements for a High Quality Vocational Program ’ In establishing vocational programs in comprehensive secondary schools, it is most important that real vocational offerings be de- veloped and maintained. This is most difficult for smaller rural high schools, but it can be and is being done. The basic requirements for any high quality vocational program would need to include the fol- lowing: © A vocational curriculum based upon an analysis of the occupa- tions for which training is needed © Adequate and up-to-date equipment and space Teachers and coordinators who have a high level of teaching 3 competency, who exemplify professional performance, and who : can hold a job and perform efficiently in the occupations for which they give instruction @ Admission to the programs of only those who possess the mental and physical qualities essential for success in the particular oc- cupation for which they are preparing @ Adequate provision for the essential related instruction of a gen- eral education nature © Periods of instruction long enough to insure sufficient time to give effective vocational training @ The maintenance of good working relationships among the school, employers, and labor organizations—often accomplished through the use of an advisory committee © Provision for the placement and follow-up of students. With the vocational programs an integral part of the total school program, certain kinds of adjustments often need to be made. Adjustments may be needed with regard to the length of the class period, for example, since vocational instruction cannot be handled adequately in the short periods designed for teaching academic sub- jects. Sufficient time must be provided if vocational teachers are to do a useful and productive teaching job. Working relationships between groups of teachers also need to be sound. And, since voca- SO DRESS IARI ia oe ee ee ee a re oe VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN RURAL COMMUNITY AREAS 161 tional programs often provide instruction beyond the scope of that in certain other curricular areas, the possibilities of conflicting pur- poses, imbalance, and lack of adequate coordination are ever present in the comprehensive school. When School and Industry Cooperate The cost of establishing and maintaining programs of instruction in several different occupational areas is often prohibitive in many small communities, even though there are local employment oppor- tunities in these occupations. Because of this high cost and the sometimes limited number of persons desiring a particular type of vocational instruction, some schools seek to increase their compre- hensiveness through a cooperative program developed between the school and industry. Although programs vary considerably from place to place and often among particular occupational areas within the same school, the cooperative approach is a plan which enables students to spend part of their time in the school pursuing high- school courses and part in a plant or factory where they obtain direct experiences in an actual job situation. In cooperative pro- grams the school has responsibility for relating schoolwork to job experience and for general supervision and control. Cooperative programs of this type are not without problems. How much school credit, the relative proportion of the student's time spent in school and on the job, and the possibilities of exploitation of students, care- less teaching, and inadequate supplemental instruction are among areas needing constant serious consideration. Still, despite such problems, cooperative programs open the way to specialized train- ing opportunities which otherwise could not be provided. The strengths which develop through cooperative efforts are additional special benefits—for schools, students, employees, and communities. Where carefully planned and closely supervised, they work ex- ceedingly well. Provision of a Guidance Program Whether the specific occupational training is in school or on the job, vocational education in a comprehensive program needs to be accompanied by provisions for pupil guidance. An adequate guid- ance program is a necessary supportive effort. It helps students analyze their own abilities and weaknesses, become familiar with a ae eee eee a ee ee Oe 162 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA the whole world of work and its many opportunities, think seriously about vocational areas in which they have particular interests and chances for success, direct themselves toward obtaining the specific training they need to enter the field of choice, and know how to find a job and progress in it. The total educational program of each pupil can more easily be coordinated in a comprehensive high school than where vocational training aspects are separated. Certain guid- ance advantages are also available in a comprehensive school through the numerous opportunities for prevocational experiences. The Shift Toward School Consolidation Looking toward the future, the steady improvement of school buses and pupil transportation programs coupled with increased recognition of the inadequacies of most small high schools will undoubtedly result in the continued reorganization and consolida- tion of rural community high schools. The result will be fewer rural high schools, but all will be more comprehensive. The benefits of this shift will be many. The greatest beneficiaries will be the rural communities themselves, their youth, and their adults. There are some, of course, who view this inevitable shift toward school consolidation as a threat to community solidarity. They hold that giving up a small high school will mark the beginning of deterioration in all aspects of community life. In many such in- stances this solidarity is more imagined than real. To the extent that rural people want security and the satisfaction of having a good living, an educational background that helps achieve them is essen- tial. The rural school, providing a comprehensive educational pro- gram and serving as a community center, can bring real community solidarity because it actually helps the people solve their problems and achieve their goals. Vocational Education Through Area Vocational Schools One of the most serious handicaps of comprehensive high schools in rural communities is their inability to be comprehensive enough. Even after substantial reorganization, many are still too small to provide appropriate vocational instruction for the varying abilities and interests of young people who need intensive training prior to going to work and for adults in the community who need retraining. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN RURAL COMMUNITY AREAS 163 Programs in agriculture and homemaking are generally available. And an increasingly larger number of rural schools are offering limited programs for distributive and business occupations. But providing the extensive and expensive equipment and varied in- struction required in a broad vocational program tends to be more than most of these schools can do. Recognition that a majority of communities are unable to provide adequate programs has led to the establishment of area vocational education programs in many states and regions of the country. Area vocational schools have a long history in some places, but their special significance lies in the increasing interest in and rapid de- velopment of area programs in recent years. Although area vocational programs have many kinds of organ- izational patterns, all have two major characteristics in common: (a) they prepare for specific employment, and (b) they serve stu- dents from an area that generally includes more than a single school district.2 Rather than being a special type of school, an area voca- tional program is a kind of service. It is an attempt to bring a varied and specialized offering of vocational education within the practical reach of all students and all communities, regardless of the size or affluence of individual local school districts. Area vocational education programs generally function within the framework of state and local school systems. Some 15 states have authorized the establishment of area vocational education pro- grams under direct state administration. Twelve states have laws enabling local school authorities to operate area schools on some cooperative basis, and in only two of these states have local com- munities failed to take advantage of the legislation. In at least eight states there are area vocational programs being -carried on as divisions of junior colleges or state colleges. Exemplary Programs in Operation The importance of area vocational schools as a means of making opportunities available to rural communities can best be seen from actually observing their programs in operation. The few brief descriptions included here may be heipful. * An analysis of various organizational types of area vocational schools is included in Chapter 7. oe a wt LLL IV ES 164 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Six area vocational schools are operated by the state in Alabama —in Decatur, Gadsden, Birmingham, Tuscaloosa, Dothan, and Mobile. The Alabama School of Trades in Gadsden was established in 1925, but the other five schools resulted from the 1947 Trade School Act. Together these schools provide training in 47 different occupations for more than 2400 young people and adults each year. A high percentage of those enrolled live in rural areas. The special emphasis of the programs for rural youth and adults is on skills they need when they leave their farms. A modest tuition is charged for those enrolled. Auto mechanics, cabinetmaking, plumbing, pipe- fitting, tool making, printing, practical nursing, and the repair of office machines are among the courses offered. The 26 state-operated area vocational schools in Louisiana—more than in any other state—make opportunities for specialized vocational training easily accessible to people in all of the 64 parishes (coun- ties) of the state. This development began in 1934. Modern machines and tools which approximate as nearly as possible the actual working conditions of each trade in industry are among their training facilities. Only those who have at least six years of trade experience are employed as instructors. Along with regular trade training, the schools provide trade extension courses for journeymen, workmen, and apprentices who usually enroll for evening classes. In addition to trade training, most of these area schools also have programs in stenography, secretarial work, and business adminis- tration, and some offer specialized training in agriculture and home economics. Similar state-operated area vocational schools have been estab- lished in Nebraska, Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, North Caro- ‘lina, South Carolina, Kentucky, Connecticut, and Georgia. Some serve entire states or very large areas. The Georgia Trade and Vocational School at Clarkesville, for example, serves an area of 9000 square miles. It offers programs in more than 15 occupations in- cluding refrigeration and air conditioning. A substantial number of rural people regularly take advantage of its training programs. In some states area vocational programs are offered through exist- ing secondary schools. Often serving pupils of one or more coun- ties, programs of this type have been organized in some places in Florida, Kentucky, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Virginia, and West Virginia. In some instances, pupils from outside the dis- VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN RURAL COMMUNITY AREAS 165 trict or county operating the program are required to pay a modest tuition fee. : Many area vocational schools are operated through some system ~ of cooperation among the separate school boards of a region. In the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania, for example, 16 school districts joined together in 1955 to create the Wyoming Valley Technical Institute. With the assistance and encouragement of the local chamber of commerce, an advisory committee first studied the need for expanding training opportunities. A survey of the high-school students in the area indicated that 72 percent wanted vocational education and would enroll in a program if it were available. An industrial survey showed that 95 percent of all area industries and business establishments would prefer to employ locally trained workers if suitable training could be provided. The vocational education program that was developed following the study of needs and possibilities demonstrates what cooperative effort can do. Sup- ported in part by county and state funds and with the local districts paying the cost of transporting students, the area school began its work in 1955 with a faculty of 14 and training opportunities in seven different occupations. Another illustration of cooperation is the Silver Lake Regional High School in Massachusetts—a result of the combined efforts of citizens of four towns. Beginning in 1952 they started a program in which industrial arts, carpentry, mill work, automobile mechanics, metal shop, vocational agriculture, and vocational home economics were taught for young people who were not planning to go to col- lege. Evening courses were also provided for adults. The appeal of the program can be illustrated by the fact that in a recent year more than 150 adult women from the various surrounding communities were enrolled in evening home economics classes. Many other area programs could be described. The few which have been briefly described are probably sufficient, however, to in- dicate that through the area approach many communities, both rural and urban, are having access to vocational training opportunities otherwise unobtainable. The idea is not new; it has been developing for many years. Connecticut, Massachusetts, North Dakota, and New Jersey began the establishment of area schools in the 1910- 1920 decade. Other states quickly followed. The number of area programs has definitely been on the increase and further expansion LEVEL ALAA IOC rare 02 BAILII 166 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA is expected. The provision of federal funds through the National Defense Education Act of 1958, specifically for area vocational ' education programs, undoubtedly will bring new and additional training opportunities to many areas. « The extensiveness of current interests can be illustrated by activity in Connecticut where area vocational education programs have a long history. The first aréa vocational schools in that state were established in New Britain and Bridgeport in 1909. Others were later developed. From 1949 to 1959 the state legislature appropriated more than $40 million for buildings and facilities for area vocational schools and technical institutes. In 1957 they approved plans for a 10-year building program for 14 modern area vocational schools. In addition, a new facility in Norwalk which will house both a voca- tional school and a technical institute has been planned, and five other institutes of the same kind are to be developed in the next few years. The range of training opportunities offered through area voca- tional programs is as varied as their organizational patterns. In nearly all instances the program of the school is geared to the voca- tional opportunities of the area served. The Mayo Vocational School in eastern Kentucky, for example, offers instruction in practical mining and mining electricity. Classes in oil well drilling are offered by some of the California and Louisiana programs. A recent survey of 145 area vocational programs found only 42 area schools offering programs in agriculture and only 39 with programs in home econom- ics. These facts indicate that area vocational schools are primarily engaged in preparing students for business, trade, and industrial occupations. Local Community Responsibility Rural communities throughout the nation are being influenced by the forces of change. Change always challenges security, creates problems, and requires adjustments. The forces now at work can- not be dodged, however; they must be met head-on. Rural living is no longer as it once was nor will it ever be again. How well and how rapidly rural people solve problems and make adjustments is yet to be seen. Some of the adjustments will not be easy. Some may even require a realignment of values. o> ee oe ——ur ye VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN RURAL COMMUNITY AREAS 167 Although all aspects of rural living are being influenced by tech- nological developments, consideration here is limited to those which influence the vocational life of rural people. The specific social and economic forces discussed elsewhere in this volume point up clearly that the occupational life of rural people in the future will be more diversified than ever before, that all occupations will be more specialized and require a higher level of knowledge and skill, and that the need for many rural people to make occupational changes and adjustments will be more frequent. All conclusions of the fore- cast emphasize the importance of opportunities for vocational train- { ing and retraining. Insofar as the experience of the past has value, it has been demon- strated that rural people eagerly take advantage of vocational educa- tion programs when they are accessible to their local community. Through training, their proficiency, productivity, and adaptability are increased. Experience also shows, however, that when training opportunity is not within easy reach, few rural people get its bene- fits. At the present time, the opportunity for vocational training in most rural communities is extremely limited. Some areas, through consolidation and the establishment of a comprehensive high school, or through the development of an area vocational school, have demonstrated that a varied program of vocational training can be developed. Their experience shows that no community, large or small, needs to be without access to a high quality program. But the programs which have been developed did not just happen. They took vision, initiative, and determination, coupled with the highest level of community cooperation. Rural people often take pride in their local prerogatives and have a high regard for local initiative. Certainly these are positive quali- ties. They are qualities to be built upon and used, however, and have little real value otherwise. One of the important understand- ings which rural communities need to develop is that the local pro- vision of vocational training programs is not likely to be developed unless or until the local community accepts responsibility for it. State and federal assistance are available and may even increase, but the development of an educational program designed to meet the particular vocational interests and needs of all local people must be carried out by local initiative. ANNA EI EEO ETI ETE SUSTAIN 168 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FCR RURAL AMERICA Rural communities are rich in resources to draw upon. Individ- uals, the local school, the facilities of the agricultural extension service, nearby local branches of the state-federal employment service, farm organizations, community organizations of various kinds—all are available. Any individual or group could spark a sys- tematic inventory of vocational opportunities and training needs. All could assist in bringing together the best possible knowledge of local conditions. Such group activity will not occur without leader- ship and organization . . . without community recognition and accept- ance of responsibility. Merely accepting responsibility will seldom be enough, however. To collect all the dividends of change, rural communities will need to make some basic adaptations in their institutions and their pattern of providing services. Rural residents will have to acknowl- edge two separate facts: (a) a specialized program of vocational education requires a population base and a financial base larger than most rural communities have, and (b) since rural communi- ties are no longer isolated, their ability to maintain independence will depend upon their willingness to cooperate with neighboring communities in areas of common interest. Some kind of joint action frequently involving several separate communities will be needed. There is often opposition and resistance by rural residents to any kind of consolidation. Yet, in areas where comprehensive high schools or area vocational programs have been established, few of the concerns emphasized by those who oppose such development ever actually take shape. Where communities have joined together cooperatively, the educational programs resulting are socially, economically, educationally, and financially sound. The economic well-being of a community depends upon the ability of its resi- dents to be competent workers and effective wage earners. Rural communities become better communities when vocational training opportunities are provided. pO Beane CHAPTER 10 Agricultural Education—lts Contributions and Opportunities A LTHOUGH 40 years is a relatively small seg- ment of educational history, it is probable that no period has seen such striking changes and developments as rural America has ex- perienced since 1917 when vocational education in agriculture had its real beginnings. In that interval two major wars, periods of both economic depression and extreme prosperity, and unparalleled tech- nological and scientific advances have had a marked effect on farm families, farming, and rural life. To single out the part played by vocational instruction in the dramatic developments in agriculture, to bring its contributions into focus, and to sum them up is not an easy task. The program of voca- tional instruction in agriculture has had many facets. Although major emphasis in terms of both time and effort has been upon vocational instruction for boys in the secondary schools (and many are inclined to think of this.as the entire program), this has not been a single-phase operation. Along with the instruction given to youngsters of high-school age programs of instruction have been developed in many states for out-of-school farm youth who are be- coming established in farming and who fall roughly into the age group of 18 to 30. In many areas of the country -considerable emphasis has also been given to instruction of adult-farmer classes —programs designed to improve the practices of farmers and farm families already engaged in agriculture. During the years 1941-45 workers in vocational agriculture were called upon to offer their training services in the furtherance of the war effort. In addition to courses for adults designed to aid them in increasing the production of food with a decreasing number of farm S. S. Sutherland, Professor of Education, University of California, Davis, prepared the original draft of Chapter 10. 171 ‘ nA 40 Sate 72 P 3 AIL INE OTOD CE 172 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA workers, there were many courses established in rural communities to train workers in the mechanical skills needed for war industries. Then following World War II, thousands of returning farm youth were trained for establishment in farming through the Institutional On-Farm-Training Program sponsored and subsidized by the Veter- ans Administration. Assessing the contributions of these varied programs, therefore, is difficult. A statistical analysis of the numbers trained and involved in these various educational programs is relatively easy, but this can provide only a minor part of the broad picture of the contributions which agricultural education programs have made. An accurate assessment of contributions—educational and otherwise—which have been made is a complex undertaking which involves a number of elusive factors. For example, not all of the educational services available to farm people and affecting rural America are provided through the secondary schools’ program of vocational education. The contributions of the land-grant colleges of agriculture; those of the Agricultural Extension Service; those of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, with the many agencies included therein; and the services made available to farmers and farm people by commercial concerns of all kinds have undoubtedly made tremendous contri- butions to the advancement of rural living and to the improvement of farm practices. Therefore, isolating the contributions that can be attributed solely to organized vocational instruction in agriculture becomes extremely difficult. If in the paragraphs following there seems to be attributed to vocational instruction somewhat more than may seem its just due, keep in mind that there is recognition, if not description, of the contributions made by the other agencies. The Contribution of Vocational Agriculture in the Secondary School Although there were sporadic attempts before 1917 to teach agriculture as a subject in the secondary school, the real growth and development of this program began with the passage of the first of the National Vocational Acts in that year. Since then, the program has grown to the extent that the high schools in more than 10,000 communities in the United States are now offering vocational in- struction in agriculture to boys and a few girls of high-school age. Aarti Rll cia? 3 SR Ai RI ne oe — . ? 7 = SGT ROSE RL REST ET nent IES AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 173 The primary, over-all, and stated objective of this educational program, adhered to rather rigidly throughout the years, has been “to train present and prospective farmers for proficiency in farm- ing.” This has been expanded to include the development of able students so that they might become well established in farming, produce farm products efficiently, market them effectively, manage their farm business, conserve soil and other natural resources, and maintain a desirable environment in their farm home. Although a vocational program assumes that the students enrolled have de- cided upon a vocation, this is obviously not entirely true when ninth-grade students in the 14-year-old age group are involved. Therefore, especially in recent years, it has been recognized that instruction during the first year should be exploratory in nature and to some extent actually designed to assist students in deciding whether or not they wish to follow agriculture as an occupation. Vocational agriculture courses throughout the United States now enroll over 450,000 high-school students. But since figures in themselves mean little, we must look further to see what the real contributions of this program have been. These contributions may be classified as (a) those which are primarily vocational and agricultural and (b) those which have been made to the educational programs of rural schools. ; Agricultural and Vocational Contributions Some of the contributions of programs of instruction in vocational agriculture relate directly to farming as an occupation. Teaching methods in many instances have permitted and encouraged the immediate application of the content of instruction to a specific farm operation. Several general types oi contributions may be identified. Training for Proficiency in Farming There has been a realization almost from the inception of voca- tional agriculture instruction that the content of these programs in local departments of vocational agriculture should be based upon the agriculture of the community and the real agricultural problems of the farmers and the students enrolled. Although the actual en ee a ee 174 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA quality of instruction offered in individual schools has varied tremendously with the competence of the teachers, in the main an excellent job has been done in the area of selecting content for the preparation of youth for farming—not only for farming in gen- eral, but for farming in the specific community in which the depart- ment is located. The inclusion of instruction of farm shop work and farm mechanics has been another useful and common aspect of these programs. Having overcome the traditions of the old manual arts courses, this phase of instruction has been largely concerned with the mechanical problems and activities of the farm. Although earliest instruction in high-school courses in vocational agriculture undoubtedly borrowed much from the methods and content of agricultural courses offered in the land-grant colleges, it was soon found that new approaches were necessary. Classroom instruction quickly progressed from the formalized courses in animal husbandry, crops and soils, and farm management to instruction concerned with the immediate problems of the farms in the local area. Instruction has not been limited to the classroom; the field trip for studying farm problems at their source became an accepted educational procedure very early in the development of this pro- gram. The “project” approach, mandatory in the National Voca- tional Act, soon developed into supervised farming programs en- compassing far more than a single enterprise. Rather than being limited to short-term activities, they tended more often to be of such scope that they extended throughout the entire high-school career of the student. From this, it was an easy step to begin basing much of the classroom instruction phase of these programs on the immediate problems encountered by students in carrying on their own farming operations. There is little doubt that there have been weaknesses in the voca- tional agriculture instruction provided. In many local programs there probably has been an overemphasis on the livestock phases of farming and perhaps too little attention given to the production of crops. And the quality of instruction in farm mechanics often has not kept pace with the development of instruction in agricul- ture itself. In the main, however, these departments have done a commendable job of meeting their first obligation—that of training youngsters for proficiency in farming. ee ee es ee AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 175 Establishment in Farming Since helping young people establish themselves as farmers has been the foremost objective for leaders and teachers of vocational agriculture, it is to be expected that much would be accomplished in this area. As a matter of fact, it has become rather standard to measure the effectiveness of vocational instruction in terms of the placement of students in the occupation for which they have been trained. Here also, however, statistics fall far short of telling the entire story. A study completed by the U. S. Office of Education in 1940 determined the occupational distribution of a random sampling of 33,283 persons who had taken two or more units of vocational agriculture while in high school. Data were secured for 40 states and Hawaii. With only 13.4 percent of the sample deceased or otherwise lost t» the investigator, the study found 72.6 percent of those accounted for in some agricultural occupation. Of those engaged in agricultural occupations, 81.4 percent were actually in farming.’ This figure of approximately 70 percent has been maintained fairly uniformly over the years. One of the most recent studies shows again that approximately 70 percent of former high-school graduates who had completed at least three years of vocational agriculture were engaged in some agricultural occupa- tion or were continuing their agricultural education in higher in- stitutions. The percentage of those actually in farming, however, had decreased radically to from 25-30 percent.” Such statistics fail to give a complete story, however. Undoubtedly in thousands of communities throughout rural United States, there are successful farmers who, as a result of instruction in agriculture in the secondary schools they attended, developed an interest and made a beginning in farming during their high-school careers and now are producing food and fiber for the nation. One of the major contributions in this area is the large number »f successful father- and-son partnerships which can be found in nearly any community —often directly traceable to the efforts of some teacher of voca- tional agriculture in getting the boy and the parent to start some 2 Cook, Glen Charles. Handbook for Teaching Agriculture. Danville, Ill.: Inter- state Printers and Publishers, 1947. p. 21. * Thompson, O. E. Agricultural Education in the Secondary Schools of California. Bulletin of the California State Department of Education. Sacramento: the Department, 1958. p. 12. - OO OE ES nee TREE TI es 176 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA cooperative farming activity which grew through the years and eventually resulted in a two-family operation. Changing and Improving Farm Practices Although many agencies have played an important part in the tremendous technological development in farming throughout the United States, much is traceable to the efforts of the teachers and schools in rural communities. Thousands of head of pure-bred and improved livestock have been brought to farms as a result of a teacher's awakening an interest in his pupils in the raising of better farm animals. New farm practices and previously untried agricultural enterprises have been introduced, not only on individual ( farms but in entire communities. In many cases the superior re- sults achieved by the son of the family in a relatively small farming program through the use of improved methods taught him by his vocational teacher have led to adoption of those practices in the larger operations of the farm. In some instances where conditions have been particularly favorable the results of improved practices have been spectacular. In one Western range community, for example, a livestock buyer for a large meat-packing firm recently reported that the quality of the beef cattle in that particular com- munity has been improved more than 40 percent over a seven-year period. He attributed this spectacular improvement almost en- tirely to the efforts of a highly competent teacher of vocational agriculture. Doubtless this story could be repeated in almost every state and every section of this country. The Development of Rural Leadership One of the finest contributions made by high-school vocational agriculture has been in the area of developing rural leadership. From a small beginning in 1928, the year that the Future Farmers of America was first organized, the activities of this organization have become an integral part of the work of practically every de- partment of vocational agriculture throughout the United States. With an organization which involves a national, state, and local membership, the growth of the Future Farmers of America has been spectacular. Many high-school administrators have stated that vocational agriculture would be worth a place in the secondary a Vac eee —_ AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 177 school for the values obtained from FFA alone, even without reference to the vocational aspécts of the program. With local, state, and national programs of work planned around the develop- ment of supervised farming activities, leadership, scholarship, com- munity service, thrift, and a variety of cooperative activities, con- siderable emphasis has been placed on the maximum participation of members toward integrating the work of the organization with class instruction in agriculture. In almost every community throughout the country former FFA members now hold positions of leadership in farm, civic, and social organizations. Most of these individuals pay high tribute to the training they received as high-school students in the Future Farmers of America organization. Among the activities stressed as a part of the Future Farmer program of work are local, state, and national contests in public speaking. Boys are trained and are given many opportunities to acquire experience in expressing themselves and their ideas to groups. When they speak on farm subjects and respond to questions regarding their presentations, they develop both skill and self-confidence. Another activity, often conducted only on a state and local level, is parliamentary procedure com- petitions. Through such activities boys learn how to conduct proper and orderly group meetings and have an opportunity to demonstrate their ability in leadership teams. As a result of these two activities alone, many Future Farmer members rise to leadership positions, not only in their high-school student bodies but also later in adult groups within the community. Counseling for Higher Education in Agriculture Vocational education in agriculture was originally conceived as a terminal program leading to placement in farming. At the time such instruction was begun during its early history, only a small percentage of high-school students continued their education in the land-grant colleges and universities of our country. However, in recent years there has been a material change in this picture. The educational plans of an increasingly larger proportion of high-school duates now include higher education. The records of many land-grant colleges show that a high percentage of their agricultural enrollments are made up of former students of vocational agri- culture. Frequently they enroll for post-high-school education with AFLG At BOODLE ISS EGE SUSIE LE SALLIE NEALE IIE LON OGLE GOT 178 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA the counsel, advice, and guidance of their teachers of vocational agriculture. A survey presently being conducted in California shows that the percentage of boys completing vocational agriculture who plan to continue their education in this professional field is almost identical with the percentage of high-school students as a whole who plan to continue their education beyond high school. The evidence is, therefore, that teachers of vocational agriculture are rendering a distinct service in encouraging students who have the capability to profit from higher education to develop these abilities and to continue their agricultural education. Educational Contributions of Vocational Agriculture During the 40 years vocational education in agriculture has been included among the curricular offerings of many of our smaller rural high schools, it has often taken the lead in the introduction of new educational procedures which later have been generally accepted and adopted. Those directly concerned with this program are sometimes accused of a lack of modesty in laying claim to having introduced some of these innovations, but there is evidence that many excellent instructional devices and procedures were in com- mon use in vocational agriculture long before they were generally adopted in other high-school subject areas. Vocational agriculture has also done much to alleviate one of the major problems of high schools everywhere, that of keeping stu- dents in school. Drop-outs always have been and continue to be a major concern of both large and small school systems. In many rural high schools agriculture has captured the interest of farm boys and kept them in high school a longer time. If these courses were not available, the chances are that many who have been graduated would have elected to drop out before graduation. Since the White House Conference on Education in 1955 and perhaps as an indirect result of that Conference, there seems to have been an upsurge—almost a rediscovery—of the problem ap- proach in teaching, especially in the secondary schools. Through the efforts of some of the early teacher educators in agricultural education, notably Professor W. H. Lancelot of Iowa State College, the problem approach to the teaching of vocational agriculture has a - — » scoreesmermenmaen: “ ‘ -" Sb RNS RA EO Org AY PO ayia Ph ee oe Naess BOLTED Nf LEVON REE DE APL LL IETS ST eee RG er oe eo Tien ee Ah OTS lal a ee erie aS ee gee a5 ee ted AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 179 been an accepted method since the early 1920's. The practical nature of the subject matter and the fact that students had projects which were an immediate source of true-to-life problems requiring solution have been especially favorable to the use of such methods. There is considerable evidence to indicate that, as yet, the problem- solving method of teaching has probably had its greatest develop- ment and most effective use in the teaching of vocational agricul- ture. The value of student organizations as a means of developing: leadership and citizenship already has been indicated in the brief reference to Future Farmers of America activities. In many smaller schools the organization of an FFA chapter has encouraged the development of other similar organizations. In these schools many of the substantial learning experiences have resulted from student participation in such activities. Probably no other single phase of our educational program has done more to bring parents into close contact with the affairs of the secondary school and with the progress and the problems of their youngsters than has vocational agriculture. Since each student carries on some form of supervised work-experience or project activi- ties, generally at home, it is mandatory that vocational agriculture teachers visit and confer with these boys to instruct and guide them in the conduct of these activities. Home projects necessarily involve the use of facilities on the farm, and parents, almost without excep- tion, are brought into the picture and become a part of the in- structional program of the school. The following statement made by one farmer would undoubtedly apply in thousands of cases throughout this country: “The only time any other teacher comes out here is when my boy is in trouble. Naturally, we welcome the vo-ag teacher's visits.” The value of using community resources in teaching at all levels is increasingly being recognized. This commendable development offers limitless possibilities for a meaningful and adaptable cur- ricular experience for children. Use of local resources and real ex- periences has been inherent in the teaching of vocational agriculture from its beginnings, for agriculture is not a subject which can be confined within a classroom. Realizing that the farms of the community offered a rich laboratory for putting into practice many of the principles and theories learned in the classroom, vocational 180 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA agriculture teachers long ago accepted this method of teaching. Even yet, unfortunately, agriculture departments are perhaps the only place in our total educational effort where one might report with confidence that community resources are regularly used. Departments of vocational agriculture also have pioneered in the use of lay advisory committees. Citizens committees and lay advisory committees for school systems as a whole only recently have come into rather general use. In many states lay advisory committees have been assisting in the planning of curriculum content and the use of facilities for vocational education in agricul- ture for a number of years. Like many other educational innova- tions the use of lay assistance is a procedure which has undergone major development in vocational programs before being adopted in other school activities. Instruction for Out-of-School Young Farmers The language of the National Vocational Educational Act implied that first consideration should be given in vocational education in agriculture to the training of present farmers rather than prospec- tive farmers. As indicated earlier, major emphasis throughout the United States actually has been on the high-school program. But it should be pointed out that a great deal of attention has been given, especially in more recent years, to the instruction of out-of-school young farmers in the general age group of i8-30 years. These stu- dents, these young farmers, have real problems: problems of be- coming established in the farming occupation of their choice, prob- lems in finance, and problems in establishing a home and a family. It would appear that instruction for this group would offer some of the richest opportunities for worthwhile results. Educational programs designed for young farmers have not been completely successful, however. In spite of the fact that the number of young-farmer classes throughout the United States has increased and enrollments doubled within a 20-year period, this phase of voca- tional agriculture programs has never yet seemed to reach its full potential. Other educational agencies and organizations—the Agri- cultural Extension Service and the American Farm Bureau Federa- tion, for example—have also attempted educational programs and organizations pointed directly toward serving the needs of this group. Surprisingly, none has met with particular success. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 181 The objectives of instructional programs for young farmers through vocational agriculture departments in our schools have been to aid them in becoming successfully established in farming and to give assistance with the farming and farm management problems they encounter in their early efforts. In certain areas of the United States programs have been set up primarily as subject- maiier classes covering rather specific agricultural units and enter- prises. Often little effort has been made to provide a social organ- ization which would bring these young farmers together on other than a formal class basis. In certain other parts of the United States—notably in Utah, California, and the Far West—a different approach has been used. Young-farmer organizations have been the central point, and the instruction given by teachers and visiting instructors has been more or less at the request of members of the organization to meet specific and immediate needs. Those who have participated in this type of program attest to the benefits they have received, both from the point of view of technical assistance and technical educa- tion as well as from the opportunity to socialize and to participate in an organization of young people with mutual interests. Yet, the fact is that the number of young farmers involved in these pro- grams has been small. Adult Evening Class Instruction Many leaders in agricultural education have seriously questioned whether vocational instruction in agriculture should ever have been attempted at the secondary level and given to boys of high-school age. It has been their feeling that the intent of the National Voca- tional Act was to give first attention to the training of established farmers and to improving the proficiency of their farm operation. As a result, evening class instruction for adult farm groups has been an integral part of the program of vocational education in agricul- ture for the past 40 years. Interest in this educational program has increased greatly during the past 20 years with enrollments growing from some 14,000 in 1936 to 272,000 in 1956. The success of adult programs has varied in different parts and sections of the United States, and it is rather interesting to speculate upon some of the reasons for this variation. Undoubtedly it has a TN A OLE 182 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA had its greatest success in the South and perhaps in the great central region of the Corn Belt. There has been relatively less attention given to it in the North Atlantic states and the states of the Pacific region. In areas where adult programs have met with most success, there is no question that it has made a major contribution to the improvement of farming and farm conditions in rural communities. Much value has resulted from bringing together groups of farmers interested in the production of a given farm commodity, giving them an opportunity to discuss mutual problems, and helping them become familiar with sources of technical information. Intrinsic in this program has been the interest of the agriculture teacher in following up the results of his instruction—visiting the farmers and assisting them in putting into practice some of the technical information and improvements discussed and discovered in the more formal class meetings. It is interesting to speculate on reasons why this prog:am of in- struction has met with more success in the Southern and Central states than in other areas. A partial answer may lie in the size of the farms in these areas. The fact that there is less variation among farms with respect to the type of farming enterprise is probably another factor. The South and the Midwest traditionally have been a stronghold of the family-size farm. The farmer tends to be owner, operator, and manager; and the family furnishes much of the farm labor. The number of commodities produced tends also to be limited. Commonly all or a major percentage of the farms in a given community produce many like crops and are engaged in much the same general type of farming. Such circumstances encourage the organization of adult classes, for it becomes relatively easy to bring together a group of people interested in a particular kind of farming or in studying the problems of producing a given com- modity. Contrasted with this, agriculture in the Pacific Coast states con- sists, in part, of huge ranches and some of the larger corporation farms. There are also many extremely small farms in the irrigated and more intensively cultivated sections. The owner-manager of one of the large holdings needs far more specialized instruction than may be available through an adult evening class. Furthermore, when a farm operation assumes the proportions of an agricultural business rather than being a mode of life, more consultant services AGRICULTURAL EUVUCATION 1% are available. In addition to the opportunities for education through adult evening classes and through the assistance of the county agents in the Agricultural Extension Service, there are professional con- sultants and consultant services available from the many com- mercial concerns which buy from, sell to, or otherwise serve the farmer. In any event, commodity classes concerned primarily with farm production problems have met with little success in the Far West. In contrast, courses in farm mechanics—instruction in the care, adjustment, and repair of farm equipment—have been most successful in this region. This could be true because, with the de- velopment of large farm operations, the development of a highly mechanized type of farming follows naturally. In summary, then, there is little doubt that in those areas where adult instruction has met with favor, the contributions made to farming and to farm life have been material. On the other hand, it is recognized that while the total enrollment now in high-school classes of vocational agriculture approaches a half million students, the enrollment in young-farmer classes is less than 50,000 and the number in adult evening classes is only about 275,000. It becomes evident that the values of young-farmer and adult classes lie more in their potential rather than in their actual contributions thus far. Wartime Training Courses Under sponsorship of the Rural War Production Training Pro- gram, courses were inaugurated at the beginning of World War II primarily to provide training in industrial skills for farm youth not needed on farms and employable in defense industries. How- ever, in a short time the war circumstances changed, and the pro- duction of food crops sufficient to feed ourselves, our armed forces, and our allies became the major objective of this training program. It has been said that perhaps no other appropriation made by Congress to stimulate increased food production contributed more to this end than did the appropriation made for the Rural War Pro- duction Training Program, which was carried on during the war largely through departments of vocational agriculture throughout the United States. 184 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Some 4 million adults were enrolled in the courses sponsored by this program. In addition to the courses set up at the beginning of the war for the training of workers in industry, there were classes concerned with the adjustment, operation, and maintenance of farm machinery; in food production; food processing; and the training of farm workers. While fewer than 800,000 students en- rolled in all industrial shop courses, the numbers involved in the food production phases of this program are indicative of the em- phasis those areas received. There were 1.2 million enrolled in the farm machinery courses, 1.5 million in food-processing courses, and over 100,000 in the courses directed toward the training of farm workers. The courses concerned with the care, maintenance, and repair of farm machinery constituted a major contribution to rural America during the war years in themselves. Although practically no new farm machinery was available during that time, farmers were asked to produce more critical food and fiber commodities than ever before. In addition, there was a shortage of farm labor, which in turn increased the demand for farm mechanization. This made it necessary for farmers to keep old machinery functioning as long as possible. The courses conducted in the farm shops of local departments of vocational agriculture proved to be one of the best answers to the needs of farmers in this respect. As an outgrowth of the food-processing courses, hundreds of school-community canneries were set up for processing the vege- tables and other crops produced by farm and rural families. Thousands of rural families were able to grow and process most of their own food needs, thereby releasing to the urban public, the armed forces, and our allies greater quantities of commercially produced and packed food crops. Because unpleasant recollections tend to be forgotten as quickly as possible, memories tend to be short in recalling the frantic efforts of the war years. The accomplishments of the wartime training programs constituted a major contribution to rural America, how- ever. Many of the local school-community canneries established during that period, for example, are being operated today. They have been taken over by local boards of education for the con- tinued use of farm families and the rural communities these schools serve. A PEI MLLEELL ONS WT LN ety ae AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 185 Training of War Veterans for Farming The education in agriculture of farm veterans under the Service- men’s Readjustment Act of 1944 (Public Law 346 and Public Law 16) has been largely conducted under contracts between the Veterans Administration and either the state education agencies or individual schools whose departments of vocational agriculture were receiving federal assistance. In addition, specific arrange- ments for educational programs for veterans engaged in farming were provided early in 1946 through Public Law 377. This legisia- tion provided that a full-time training program involving full sub- sistence payments to the veteran should include both (a) organized group instruction in agriculture and related subjects of at least 200 hours per year at an educational or training institution and (b) supervised work experiences on a farm or other agriculture establishment. It is estimated that about 1.6 million young men went into military service from the farms of the United States during World War II. The 838,000 veterans enrolled in the Institutional On-Farm-Train- ing Program by April 1951 was well over half of that total number. This is the largest adult program of systematic instruction in agri- culture, or indeed in any subject, ever conducted in this country. It was unusually effective in assisting veterans in becoming estab- lished in farming and in home and community life, and it con- stituted one of the greatest contributions which vocational educa- tion in agriculture has made to the rural communities of this coun- try. The objective of this program was to assist veterans in becoming successfully established in farming. A study in 1951, involving approximately a 2 percent sample of all veterans enrolled in these courses throughout the United States, shows some striking results of this educational program.* Directly traceable to this instruction was a general increase in the size of the veterans’ farms in all regions by approximately 6 percent, an increase in the animal units on their farms, and a decrease in the number who kept relatively few farm animals. Increases in farm receipts, total assets, net worth, and labor income were also noted. * Arnerican Vocational Association. Education of Veterans in Farming. AVA Re- search Bulletin No. 5. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1952. 96 p. 186 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA More important than these outcomes dealing specifically with improvement in agricultural prectices, however, was the advance in the tenure status of enrollees in all regions. More than 77 per- cent of the veterans were farm owners or became farm owners between the time of their enrollment after the war and June 1951. There were other important by-products of this training program, too. Farm housing and general farm home conditions were ma- terially improved and veteran participation in community affairs was favorably affected. In general, these veterans of World War II were given assistance both in becoming successfully established in farming and in developing the kind of farm homes that make a valuable contribution to rural America’s way of life. A similar training program for the Korean veterans was estab- lished at the conclusion of that conflict. This program is being con- tinued today. Figures are not yet available to indicate the number being trained, but, inasmuch as the conduct of this program has objectives and procedures similar to those utilized in the training of veterans of World War II, there is every reason to anticipate that the excellent results of the former program are also being realized in this later edition. The accomplishments of vocational instruction in agriculture in the training of youngsters of high-school age, young farmers, and families already engaged in farming have been great indeed, not only in improving their proficiency in farming as a business but also in the whole area of rural leadership. Present and Future Opportunities Dramatic changes are taking place in the agricultural picture of our country. Perhaps no period has seen so many and such far- reaching developments as have occurred in the past few years and are occurring today with an accelerated tempo. Although the number of people actively engaged in farming in the United States has decreased so that now perhaps fewer than 10 percent of those gainfully employed are in farming, the number of businesses which serve the farm has been increased substantially. It has been said that 40 percent of the working population in the United States is now involved either directly or indirectly in the processing and distribution of farm products or in the manu- facturing, distribution, and sale of goods and services to farmers AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 187 The 10 percent of our population now engaged in producing food and fiber is capable of producing not only enough for our needs but a surplus. The increased mechanization of our farms and the rapid development of technological knowledge and skill have been largely responsible for the fact that fewer farmers today ean produce adequately for our steadily increasing population. Similar developments, perhaps not so striking, but of almost equal importance are taking place in education. In many sections of the country, school enrollments, especially at the secondary- and post-high-school level, are increasing at a rapid rate. With our currently unprecedented elementary-schoo) enrollments, these can be expected to continue to grow rapidiy during the next few years. This influx of students will bring not only problems and challenges, but also increased opportunities for service through vocational education in agriculture. Training for Nonfarm Agricultural Occupations Whether or not vocational education in agriculture at the sec- ondary-school level should concern itself with the training for agricultural occupations other than farming is a highly contro- versial subject. Studies have shown that in agricultural businesses alone, i.e., those concerned primarily with providing goods and services to farmers, we have a growing number of occupations requiring a knowledge of and certain skill in farming. Placement opportunities in those areas are increasing. Appropriate training for these occupations requires a type of vocational education which in most instances will be less than college level. There are some dangers, however. The core of the educational program at the high-school level should still be subject matter. Program content and teaching methods that train for farm- ing and for placement in farming continue to be important. Training for the nonfarm agricultural occupations should be supplementary and should never dilute the original intent of vocational education in agriculture—to train for the farming occupations. It is highly probable that, important as training for agricultural occupations other than farming may be, agricultural businesses will discover that an educational program designed specifically for farm- ing may, in fact, be the best “general education” their employees could have. It is equally possible that the task of preparing for 188 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA these nonfarm occupations may well center at the post-high-school level and be accomplished in area vocational schools, junior colleges, or perhaps, increasingly, even through a four-year college program. Training for Part-Time Farming Along with other changes in agriculture and farming has come the advent of the part-time farm. Surrounding almost any urban area are large numbers of small farms, some of which may be classified as part-time farms and others merely as rural residences. On many of these we find people with dual occupations, working in some trade or business in the city and also utilizing their small acreage to provide fruit, vegetables, and other food primarily for their family tables but sometimes also producing a surplus for sale. Although not commercially important, numerically these part- time farmers represent a large segment of our agricultural popu- lation. Training for people who prefer this mode of life may well be a concern in the future of vocational education not only in agri- culture but perhaps also in trade, industrial, and distributive educa- tion. Area Schools and Junior Colleges At the present time there appears to be an upsurge in interest in area schools to provide vocational and technical education at a post-high-school level. Significant is the development of the area vocational agricultural schools in Connecticut and of junior colleges, in a sense area schools, in many other states.‘ With youngsters spending more time in forma! education, these current efforts may well be the beginnings of a trend toward expanding post-high-school vocational education. Many educational leaders have been advocating this development. As such programs are made available, there may come some lessening of the vocational education emphasis perhaps at the high-school and certainly at the junior high-school levels. It is probable that in such post- secondary schools as have been and will be established much can be done in the training for agricultural occupations other than farming, particularly for those employed in the distribution and processing of agricultural products and in the services provided to farmers. ‘For an analysis of the various types of area vocational schools which have been developed, see Chapter 7, p. 125-32. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 189 High-School Courses in General Agriculture Although nonvocational or general courses in agriculture have been offered at the high-school level for many years, there ap- pears to be increased interest in this area. There is some evidence that even those schools which now offer a vocational program are expanding to include such courses. The content of some of those programs amounts to a combination of agriculture, homemaking, and industrial arts in which an “improvement of rural living” theme is the emphasis. The course or courses often inciude land- scaping, home decorating, gardening, household maintenance and repair, and the like. It would appear that such courses have, if not a direct, certainly an indirect contribution te rural America and to agriculture as a whole. When they involve the boys and girls who, even though they do not intend to enter agricultural occupations, will be engaged in business or professions which will bring them closely in touch with rural and farm people, will be consumers of agricultural products, and will be among the citizens who will share in making public policies affecting agriculture, these courses could make a real contribution. Careful attention must be given to the objectives of these courses, however. They can do much to bring about a more abundant and more satisfying type of rural life. Oa tie other hand, if offered as watered-down voca- tional courses with objectives and instruction designed accord- ingly, they will fall far short of reaching their potential. The Necessity for Improved Counseling Although guidance and counsel.ag services in our seconaizy schools are making marked improvement and receiving increased attention, there is still need for even more attention to this most important service, particularly in the field of agriculture.’ Several factors contribute to this situation. No longer is farming the only agricultural occupation, nor is it the major one if considered in terms of the number of people engaged. Agricultural businesses have need for salesinen, consultants, managers, and skilled workers. Thousands of professional people are employed to provide serv- ices and assistance for farmers. Positions are increasing steadily in * For a more detailed description of the development, contributions, and potential of vocational guidance, see Chapter 16. 190 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA the agricultural extension service; in state and federal departments of agriculture; in federal, state, university, and commercial re- search organizations; and in secondary schools, junior colleges, and universities for teachers of agriculture. The Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities esti- mates that agriculture needs 15,000 new college graduates each year and that more than 12,000 of these individuals are needed for jobs in fields other than farming.® In the face of this demand, the land-grant colleges of agriculture each year graduate only about 8500 students. An increasing percentage of high-school graduates are attending our colleges and universities. Many of the students enrolled in secondary-school programs of vocational agriculture are planning or should plan for some post-high-school education. With the wider choice of agricultural occupations now available, the importance of improved counseling becomes obvious. Summary Vocational agriculture throughout the years has made its most important contributions in the area of training for farming and in the development of rural leaders and citizens. In the future this important core of the program must be maintained. But, in con- junction with it, provision also should be made for training in other agricultural nonfarm occupations, either at the senior high- school or post-high-school levels. Unless provision is made for agricultural instruction other than vocational, a serious dilution of vocational courses may result. Post-high-school education offered by the secondary school for adult farmers and for young farmers who are becoming established should receive increasing attention. Every effort should be made to realize the potential of this form of education in rural com- munities. If this is done, there is every reason to expect that the many valuable contributions of agricultural education in the past may be enhanced, if not overshadowed, by the accomplishments possible in the years to come. * Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities, National Project on Agricultural Communication. Careers Ahead. East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1955. 32p. CHAPTER 11 Business Education—lts Contributions and Opportunities | Wrenn A community is rural or urban, small or large, agricultural or industrial, it has a business life and its people have daily contact with business services. Regardless of age or occupation, people are involved in business activities which influence their home, school, club, church, job, and almost every other aspect of community life. This almost unrestricted influence of business in the lives of people gives rise to the coordinate purposes of an educational pro- gram for business competence. Every functional program of business education must (a) provide a broad base of consumer economic knowledge and (b) provide individuals with specific skills in busi- ness activities. Business education begins early in the school program. Infor- mation about the business aspects of a community as well as knowl- edge of certain elementary business skills is introduced in the early elementary grades, and the amount of business content steadily increases. Even a cursory analysis of the instructional content of arithmetic, social studies, and English in the elementary school will reveal a surprisingly large proportion of material drawn from the business world. Many basic business concepts are the illustra- tions and examples used at this level of the educational program. Thus, prevocational aspects of business training are an almost in- separable part of the elementary- and junior high-school program. At the high-school level, the program of business education be- comes more formalized and tends to be organized into the specific courses of a business curriculum. Increasing attention is given to the variety of occupational opportunities. Generally, in the first Arthur L. Walker, state supervisor, Business Education Service, State Department of Education, Richmond, Virginia, prepared the original draft of Chapter 11. 193 aces t MEI LED 194 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA two years of high school, the business courses are devoted to extend- ing the knowledge, understandings, and skills useful to all consumers and to exploring business as a career. With this background, stu- dents are in a position to choose whether or not they want more intensive vocational preparation in the field of business and, if so, the particular area of concentration they would like to pursue. While the following discussion of business education deals primarily with the more specific vocational aspects of the program, the broad emphasis business receives throughout the general educa- tion curriculum at elementary-, junior high-, and senior high-school levels must also be considered. They are very much a part of the total vocational program. Exploratory Experiences in Business Children’s interests are both broadened and sharpened by their participation in a variety of activities. As experiences cumulate and their background of knowledge increases, they have a basis for being more discriminating and more selective. They are then able to profit from more intensive work in some specialized area in which they have particular interests and aptitudes. Information About Business Many consider “exploratory experiences” in the area of voca- tions an important aspect of the junior high-school program. The specific way in which schools go about acquainting students with general occupational information takes many forms, however. Some- times they actually organize a course on “Occupations”; sometimes it is part of a group guidance program; sometimes it is handled through a special unit in the social studies curriculum. Often the exploratory course includes actual experiences in home economics, shop, agriculture, business, or other areas in addition to the more general “information” approach. The purposes of such a multiple exploratory course include introducing students to various occupa- tional or avocational areas in which they may have interest and familiarizing them with occupational requirements, possibilities, and local training opportunities. Generally, at about eighth-grade level and through some type of exploratory experience students have their first direct contact with BUSINESS EDUCATION 195 the business or “commercial” teacher. How much is accomplished toward business orientation depends, of course, upon how much time is allocated to such an orientation program. Usually some attention is given to consumer economics, to occupational opportunities in the business field, and to the business education program available in the local school. Most authorities in business education agree that this short-term exploratory program is defensible only when used for providing information and developing areas of interest. The inclusion of instruction in such specific skills as shorthand, typing, bookkeeping, filing, or the use of office machines is seriously questioned at this level. General Business Training One of the truly significant developments in the business educa- tion curriculum during the last decade has been the steady growth of enrollment in the General Business course at the ninth- or tenth- grade level. Originally called Junior Business Training, it is largely an exploratory or introductory course in the business field. Its exploratory purposes together with the advanced maturity of stu- dents in these grades tend to negate the need for the unit approach mentioned above. General Business has been aptly referred to as a course in ele- mentary economics. Much of its content deals with such basic business and economic concepts as (a) the production and distri- bution of economic goods and services, (b) the organizational and operational framework for doing business, and (c) financial manage- ment in business enterprises. The popularity of this beginning course is evidenced not only by the rapid growth in enrollment but also by the increasing number of textbooks and other instruc- tional materials being developed. Business Education for Consumer Efficiency People earn their livelihoods by producing commodities, provid- ing services, buying and selling goods, and investing and saving money. The business life of an agricultural community relates closely to the growing and marketing of crops, livestock, or poultry. The operation of even a small farm involves legal contracts, labor laws, insurance, credit, investment, record keeping, and communi- 196 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA cation services. Rural children, therefore, whether living on a farm or in a village, are inevitably surrounded by business activi- ties. In a very real sense they live in a laboratory environment with an opportunity to study and observe the business practices and procedures which they will use increasingly as they mature. Many of the basic economic concepts which young people need to develop in order to be efficient producers and consumers can be taught by drawing upon the normal business activities of the local community. Every community provides limitless opportunities. In a local context, the various general areas of business activity take on special importance. Using Financial Services Finance is a center of interest and the object of serious study both in and out of school from childhood to old age. The manage- ment of a personal budget is a matter of vital importance whether income is in the form of a weekly allowance, an annual salary, or Social Security payments. Decisions have to be made concerning income disbursement. One may spend all of his current income, he may postpone spending through saving, or he may spend future income through credit. Credit and the importance of personal in- tegrity in the use of money and credit are concepts which may be taught early. An understanding of sources of credit such as com- mercial banks or building and loan companies and various types of credit such as installment buying or deferred payment purchases and their relative advantages and disadvantages are important to the efficient consumer. Using Communication Facilities The ability to communicate clearly and forcefully is a skill of great importance in business as well as in social life. Articulate ex- pression, both written and oral, must be an integral part of training for effective living in a business community. Its development is not the exclusive or even major province of the business education teacher, but the area of business is rich with opportunities to develop special skill through direct practical application. Effective use of the telephone and its importance to business activity are under- standings which can be developed in the general business course and in the vocational office practice experiences provided later in BUSINESS EDUCATION 197 the program. Basic principles of written communication find ex- pression in letters of inquiry, orders for merchandise, applications for jobs, letters of appreciation, and letters of adjustment or com- plaint—all are within the purview of business education for consumer use. Savings and Investments The development of concepts of saving and investment is im- portant to both business and personal efficiency. The practice of thrift is a necessary phase of training for business, and all young people should be acquainted with the desirability and the process of opening a savings account at the local bank. The principle of stock ownership in business corporations by many millions of individuals in order that sufficient capital can be available to finance the manufacture and distribution of goods should be part of the training. Only by understanding that large corporations depend upon many thousands of small stockholders for working capital can the corporate nature of American business be understood and the free enterprise system comprehended and appreciated. Moreover, this understanding is important to the concepts of risk, growth, and dividends. In many rural communities, these concepts can be developed most effectively through the study of cooperative busi- ness operations. Taxation A realization of the importance of taxes can often be developed through a study of the great variety of local, county, state, and national governmental services. The postal service, the various protective services for national security and individual safety, pro- tection against fire, provision of educational opportunities, the construction and maintenance of streets, sewers, highways, water systems, and forest reserves, and the many other governmental services give a basis for understanding that taxes are necessary for defraying the costs of government and public services. The future citizen also needs to understand how taxes are levied, collected, and expended. He must understand that ownership of wealth imposes an obligation to support the agencies that protect the value of ownership. Se eee REBT SSN GLOVE MIL 5 Ra IRE PIERS IY LIONEL GE RE ELE RESIGN LM PAILS PELE UOTE CONTI ATP ID 198 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Home Ownership The economics of owning a home as opposed to renting and tenancy are areas within the experience of all young people. Meth- ods of financing the purchase of a home or farm, interest, taxes, insurance, the cost of utilities, and home maintenance all provide extremely important and interesting approaches to functional mathe- matics. They are essential concepts to all future homemakers if they are to be effective consumers. Consumer Buying All young people can profit from an organized study of how to make the consumer dollar of maximum usefulness in satisfying his needs and wants. Booklets or pamphlets which discuss the selec- tion and purchase of home furnishings, life insurance, wearing apparel, home appliances, automobiles, and a whole array of avail- able goods and services are most useful materials in the business field. They contribute directly to consumer education. An analysis of the advertisements in local newspapers, comparative prices of competitive articles, the practices and advantages of special sales events, and information about new products, where they can be pur- chased, and how they may be used are important and useful areas of concern. Each contributes to an understanding of business operation and to sound personal financial management. Record Keeping The importance of keeping adequate and accurate records can be developed through real home and community experiences. Many rural young people actually get a start with practical record keep- ing through such 4-H Club projects as raising chickens, a calf, a lit- ter of pigs, or other similar activity. Experiences of this kind contribute directly to cost accounting of a more formal type. Oppor- tunities for relating organized record-keeping procedures to practical business experiences within the community are readily available to every business teacher, and the development of individual ability in keeping accurate records is necessary for consumer efficiency. The foregoing areas are illustrative of the wide range of business activities likely to affect every individual. While all can be con- sidered as content for a program of general education, they are also part of vocational education in the field of business. Any actual BUSINESS EDUCATION 199 differences in the general and vocational approaches would depend mainly on the emphasis given and the intensiveness of the study. Each of the areas of understanding identified has been described in simple fashion primarily because this broad approach to business problems and practices tends to be the usual procedure in intro- ductory business courses (with more detailed development reserved for a more highly specialized vocational context) and to emphasize that the teacher of business does not need to deal with abstract con- cepts. Every community—the agricultural service center, the mining town, the fishing village, or the metropolitan area with its multi- faceted business complex—is literally surrounded by an abundance of opportunities for using local activities as the basis for fundamental business education. Business Education for Occupational Use The focus of this Yearbook is upon educational programs which will provide the specific training individuals need to perform com- petently in a specialized vocational area. There are some who question whether the secondary-school program should include occupational training or whether this phase of education should be deferred to post-high school or college in favor of a more thorough grounding in general education. The point of view held here is that the most appropriate answer to such questioning will be found by a careful consideration of the nature of school enrollment, the proportion of students who graduate, and the opportunities for full- time, post-high-school employment. It has been well established that a large proportion of high-school graduates do not go on to a college or technical schooi on a full-time basis. In many rural com- munities the secondary school is terminal for 60 to 70 percent of the students. Another question frequently raised concerns whether secondary schools can offer vocational business education of sufficient quality to meet the requirements of jobs. This question actually has been answered (and rather emphatically ) in the past decade by the large number of graduates who have gone directly into business offices and been highly successful. Secondary schools can and do prepare young people for highly effective performance in business employ- ment. ee ve Pe ee as ated a mee POS NSF ENS Saletan. os ev erre eerne i noe hn al Pate tee ey ii ss "i PEA, e os TUE bee > Net ae a ~ ne po emeetm ae oe lS - — . 9 5.63 EEA MME ROPE ENE I MS PAREN GE 200 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Some individual students defer election of the business field as the area in which they will seek employment until after they com- plete high school. Unless they have had specific training they usually find it necessary to enroll in a specialized business school, a technical school offering business courses, or an adult program where the training opportunities are provided. Other individuals who choose business as their vocational field while they are still in high school are generally able to acquire much of the necessary training as part of their regular program. Regardless of where the training is provided, and a case could be made to substantiate the need for both types of programs, it would need to include certain common types of training opportunities. Areas of Specialization in Business Training Just as in any field of work, business offers employment opportuni- ties covering a wide range of training requirements—from certain semiskilled sorting and filing jobs to managerial and executive posi- tions. Since entrance to the higher levels of business responsibility is gained through college and university preparation in the field of business administration with emphasis on economics, merchandis- ing, consumer research, and other special areas of study, or through experience and promotion within a particular business organization, the discussion of vocational business education here is limited to the skilled and semiskilied clerical levels. It is primarily to these em- ployment areas that vocational programs are directed, and it is in these areas that beginning employment opportunities are available and increasing. This can be seen from the fact that the clerical labor force of this country increased from 6.75 million in 1940 to almost 9 million in 1958. The importance of clerical training for rural as well as urban youth is emphasized by the large proportion of the millions of recruits for clerical work who are drawn from rural areas. It has been estimated that approximately 25 million workers entered clerical occupations during the past 10 years with an average tenure of from three to four years. Of this number, nearly half came from rural areas or smaller communities. The range of specific occupational opportunities in the business field is expanded greatly by the nature of many individual business operations. File clerks, typists, stenographers, bookkeepers, mail clerks, cashiers, receptionists, payroll clerks, machine operators of BUSINESS EDUCATION 201 many kinds, telephone operators, and administrative secretaries are some of the general types of positions available. The number in- creases steadily, and each can lead to a variety of opportunities for increased responsibility and improved occupational status. Even the smaller rural schools having but one or two business teachers can offer a program which emphasizes at least two, perhaps three, different areas of occupational specialization. Initial courses such as general business, elementary typewriting, bookkeeping, and business law are generally considered basic and common background for all the occupational areas in business. Areas of specialization normally provided are (a) bookkeeping-clerical, (b) stenographic, and (c) selling occupations. Rural secondary schools provide a sub- stantial service to both the national economy and the individuals who receive training when they organize a sound vocational pro- gram for each of these three areas of business employment. The following chart illustrates a possible sequence of courses which most smaller high schools can offer in an effective and differentiated pro- gram in business education. TABLE 1. DIFFERENTIATED PROGRAM IN BusINEsSsS EDUCATION (MINIMUM OFFERING) Bookkeeping-Clerical Stenographic Selling Year Given Program Program Program First Year - — — —No specialized courses in business education given - — -— —- Second Year | General Business 1* General Business 1* General Business 1 * Typewriting I 1 Typewriting I 1 Typewriting I ] Third Year | Bookkeeping I or Shorthand I 1 Record Keeping Record Keeping! Typewriting II 1 Distribution I Typewriting II 1 tiled Fourth Year | Clerical Practice 1 Shorthand-Tran- Distribution II 1 Cooperative scription | Cooperative Work Training | Record Keeping Work Training | or Cooperative Work Training | * Indicates the approximate number of Carnegie Units of Credit usually given. It should be emphasized that the few courses included in the above chart indicate what is considered a minimum program for each of the areas of specialization. Where a broat#er program of instruction 202 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA can be given and courses in business law, business arithmetic, eco- nomics, and office machines offered, it generally is desirable for high-school students to begin the specialized business program in their first year. Future Business Leaders of America High-school and college students enrolled in business education courses have an opportunity in most schools to supplement their formal training through participation in the activities of the Future Business Leaders of America. This national youth organization, operating as part of the regular school program and guided by busi- ness teachers, school administrators, and businessmen, provides young people with additional educational and vocational experiences and special opportunities to develop leadership abilities. As a special-interest activity group, local FBLA chapters select and carry out projects designed to increase both student and public understanding of the business education program and to help indi- vidual students make intelligent choices with respect to business occupations. Planning and sponsoring exhibits and demonstrations of business machines and equipment; visiting various business offices to observe workers, study procedures, and inspect equipment; participating in radio and TV shows which describe the business education program of the school and the career opportunities avail- able to students who receive specific technical training; and inter- viewing or conducting discussions with community business leaders regarding local occupational opportunities in the business field are illustrative of club projects. The contributions of such activities to the local school and to individual students are many. Business teachers find that the leadership experiences and projects encourage an improvement of scholarship, promote school loyalty, and strengthen the confidence of young people in themselves and in their work. Adult Education Programs While the foregoing discussion deals almost exclusively with vocational business training for high-school students, many smaller communities also carry on (or could carry on) a program for adults. The objectives of adult programs are usually the upgrading or re- training of people already employed and those who wish to prepare FADS Ah RIA cen oP RABE wo BUSINESS EDUCATION 203 themselves for employment. The programs also offer adults an opportunity to develop practical business skills useful in the home, and many actually enroll for this purpose. The major difference between adult programs and those offered high-school students is not so much in course content (except as the maturity of individuals is taken into account) or in the specific business skills developed as it is the time given to the program and the tendency for adults interested in the business area to concen- trate upon specialized courses only. Whereas high-school students need to spread their vocational training over three or four years in order to complete other requirements for graduation, most adults limit their selection of courses to those needed to qualify them for employment or promotion. In this way many adults are able to achieve a high level of vocational proficiency in a relatively shorter time. Throughout the larger and smaller communities of the country thousands of adults are taking courses in typewriting, record keep- ing, shorthand, business machines, business correspondence, busi- ness law, business arithmetic, and business management. Such offerings provide an extensive, valuable, and popular service in the field of adult education. The high enrollment in these courses attests to both the interest of the public and the functional nature of the training given. Business Education Facilities Part of the success of a business education program depends upon the availability of suitable physical facilities. This applies particularly to the vocational phases of the program where in- struction and practice must simulate actual working conditions as nearly as possible. Accommodating the increasing secondary-school enrollments and the demands resulting from continuing district reorganization and consolidation in rural areas will require a substantial amount of new schooi building construction. With this particularly in mind, spe- cial emphasis is given here to the characteristics of functional facili- ties and equipment needed for a business education program. The actual number, size, and arrangement of rooms must be determined in each locality, of course, by such factors as the school enrollment, the business training needs and vocational interests of students, Oe ee ee 204 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA and the nature and extent of employment opportunities in the community and adjacent areas. As teachers, supervisors, and school administrators take stock of current and future building needs, they will find it necessary in the business education area to consider both the size and type of furniture as well as the nature of machines when they plan type- writing, bookkeeping, and office practice rooms. Width of desks, tables, or other work stations has direct relationship to the length and width of a room. Electrical outlets should be planned for type- writing and office practice rooms; and storage cabinets, work coun- ters, chalkboards, and tackboards provided in teaching areas where they are needed. Types of Specialized Rooms Several types of rooms for special or multiple purposes are needed for an effective business education program. The size of each and the work space provided for pupils will be dependent upon the kind of furniture and equipment to be installed, the number of work stations, the built-in facilities, and the nature of class activities. As a guide to planning, the following descriptions and generally accepted standards may be useful. Typewriting Room. Each typewriting station should have a table no smaller than 18” x 34” and a chair. Typewriting tables are best arranged in pairs. Space is needed in the front of the classroom and at individual typewriting stations for teacher demonstrations. Storage cabinets, filing cases, and a teacher desk are necessary. If duplicating is a part of the typewriting course, space is needed for both spirit and stencil duplicators on stands and for a collating table (or counter) for assembling materials. If a strongly directional natural light is present and copy holders are not used, the room arrangement should be such that the brightest source of light is at the right of pupils; otherwise typing copy will be in shadow or poorly illuminated. A room 30’ x 36’ will adequately accommodate 30 to 36 typewriting sta- tions. One of the disadvantages of a typewriting room is that, except for the transcription of shorthand notes, it is unsuited for use by other classes. Bookkeeping-Shorthand Room. A bookkeeping or shorthand work statiun requires approximately the same space as a typewriting station, but its furnishing would be somewhat different. A flat-topped table approxi- Oe ee Se ee Oe ee ei invin ors BUSINESS EDUCATION 205 mately 20” x 40” is desirable. A room 30’ x 30’ will adequately house 25 students. Office Practice Laboratory. Space should be provided in the office practice room for various types of work stations—secretarial, office machines, type- writing, assembling, filing, duplicating. These work stations require tables and chairs of different sizes and types. Sufficient provision of space between work stations should be made to permit the movement of the teacher and students from one work station to another while a class is in progress. Identical work stations may be grouped together. The office training laboratory should be equipped and arranged to ap- proximate a business office as nearly as possible. A room 30’ x 34’ is generally adequate for a class of 25 students when machines are taught on a rotation schedule. When the laboratory is properly located, it may be used as an auxiliary room for shorthand-transcription, bookkeeping, and advanced typewriting groups, but it does not lend itself well to use by other classes. Multipurpose Classroom. A multipurpose business classroom is one equipped with specially designed furniture to give proper facilities for teaching a variety of business subjects within the one room. It is often a practical arrangement for smaller schools having only one business teacher and classes smaller than normally could be taught. It also lends itself well to multiple-class teaching—teaching students in separate courses in the same room at the same time. A multipurpose classroom can be equipped for teaching any of the fol- lowing combinations: 1. Typewriting, bookkeeping, shorthand-transcription 2. Bookkeeping, shorthand-transcription, office practice 3. Typewriting, shorthand-transcription, bookkeeping, clerical practice. Furniture for a multipurpose business classroom usually consists of an L-shaped, two-level table with a swivel (secretarial-type) chair. The L-shaped table provides room for the office machine or typewriter at the side with sufficient table space in front for other instructional activities. The typical L-shaped table measures 36” x 40” and, with a swivel chair, each pupil station requires about 10 square feet of floor area. When clerical or office practice is taught in a multipurpose classroom, space should be provided for at least one double-pedestal secretarial desk in addition to the L-shaped tables. A multipurpose room 30’ x 36’ will accommodate 25 to 30 pupils depend- ing upon the combination of classes for which the room is used. Equi ping this type of classroom should be considered in schools where the usual typewriting room or office practice laboratory would be vacant 206 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA for several periods in a day because their furnishings do not lend them- selves easily to other types of classroom activity. Other Business Classrooms. Such courses as general business, business law, and business arithmetic can be taught effectively in a regular or gen- eral school classroom. These courses may also be taught in the bookkeep- ing room or in a multipurpose classroom. The Number of Specialized Rooms Always a consideration in planning a new building or the use of existing space is the determination of how many specialized rooms will be needed. An extensive study of students enrolled in each of the business education courses offered by 408 high schools in Vir- ginia during the 1957-58 school year illustrates one approach that may be helpful. It was found, for example, that the enrollment in beginning typewriting was about double that in general business and more than four times that in business arithmetic. See Table 2. Coupled with the average proportion of students in each of the business courses shown in Table 2 are the desirable and maximum number of students recommended for effective teaching in each course and the type of specialized room which might ‘be used. To the extent that the percentages of total enrollment in other areas would be somewhat similar to those in Virginia, it could be determined in the planning stages that in a 350-pupil high school, 25 pupils (7 percent) would be in an advanced typing class. If the total enrollment were over 450 pupils, the school would probably need to plan for two sections of this course. On the basis of these estimat»s the expected enrollment in shorthand-transcription in these same schools would be 7 and 9 pupils respectively. Using the desirable and maximum class size recommendations, it is relatively easy for any school to determine the number of sections of each course that will be needed and, depending on the course offering, the number and type of specialized classrooms that should be pro- vided. | It should be noted that one of the limiting factors to any wide use of the specific percentages shown in Table 2 is that some of the courses for which smaller proportions of students are indicated were not actually offered by all of the schools surveyed. In an individual school where all of the courses in a business education program are offered the percentage of the total school enrollment in each could easily be higher than the average figures shown. The “Teak [OOYIS BS-166] Ul BIUIZITA UT sfooyds YBIY gO UI poyjorUa syUDpNys Te Jo JUIIIAd oBesaAy » ‘$0z aBed uo umoys suoHeulquios pasoquinu Ajreprusts 03 J2y21 (¢)-(Z)-(]) SUOISIAIG] p *Aressod0u jt posn oq Avy] o *sosn ATepuodras 2/qeId399y gq “WOO 2Y} JO UOTNIUTY UTEP » ihc SPECIE id Sia OE et ws % Teoy jUsWIaZeUePY SsouTsng Z O€ SZ q Sururesy, 24D feuones0,, zZ Sz Iz q snIe1g [BIWsD Z SZ 1Z * 5 s itty re Z o¢ SZ ¥ . ydesZouarg S 0€ SZ 2 . ® SuidAy], psourapy Z S¢ 0€ “ s * SuidAy Azequowsyy Lt S¢ o¢ °° . ee es * Suidseyxy00g Arejuawe;y 9 0€ Sz ® q q q q so1mou0sg Are}usUIe]y 00° O€ SZ « q q q q MB’T ssoutsng o¢° o0¢ SZ . q @ 4 qa AydeiZ025 stwo0Uu007g €0° 0€ Sz s q q q q WHeuIyILy ssouisng 4 o¢ SZ . q q q SsouIsng [B12us5) & o¢ SZ "QUT 291j904g Fuge], payjosusy = “xD paatsaq ~Surgeayyoog jr07, fo yaalgny 40 asanory qus24ag aztg ssv7-) suooy fo agf7, 9 avs0y papuasmwumory BUSINESS EDUCATION NOILVOAGY SSANISNG WOd SLNANAYINOAY WOOY °Z ATAV], 208 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA analysis is included here primarily because it represents a very useful approach to planning building needs and could easily be adapted in any area or by any local school system. Securing and Holding Business Teachers Although problems of recruiting and retraining well-qualified teachers are not unique to business education, they tend to be more severe than in many other fields. Maintaining a competent and experienced teaching staff in business education is a most important area of concern. Two forces militate against long tenure for com- petent business teachers. An analysis of the tenure of business teachers shows an annual turnover ranging from 27 to 33 percent. Since a majority (but by no means all) of the teachers of business are women, the largest single reason for this high turnover is marriage and the subse- quent rearing of a family. While some of these women return to teaching after their children are grown (or at least attending school) and then constitute a stable segment of the profession, the exodus of younger teachers continues. In addition to the problem of re- cruiting, this situation also means that business teachers more than those in any other vocational field tend both to be inexperienced in teaching and to have less than a desirable amount of occupational experience as a background. The second factor that makes securing and holding business teachers extremely difficult lies in the fact that the same training that prepares a business teacher is also preparation for a business office. Opportunities in business are often more attractive, and the proportion of college majors in business education who enter teaching is sometimes small. The salaries paid stenographers and secretaries often exceed teacher salary schedules. It is not uncom- mon, in fact, to find a high-school business graduate beginning employment at a salary higher than that paid his teacher. The more attractive working hours and absence of social pressures also tend to encourage a high proportion of college graduates to prefer business to entering upon a teaching career. These problems of teacher shortage and teacher tenure are in- herent in every circumstance where relatively low salaries are paid to people readily employable elsewhere and when the field has not yet been able to attract a sufficiently high proportion of men. CO reins Aa Waa Sava mio dame IB BUSINESS EDUCATION 209 Summary In a variety of forms, business education extends from the early elementary grades to the occupational and special-interest needs of adults. In each stage its most important function is to develop business and economic literacy. In the elementary grades the business aspects of community life offer numerous opportunities for teaching. At the junior high level the exploration of business problems, the principles of economic efficiency, and the skills necessary for competitive participation as producer or consumer of economic goods or services are areas which can constructively be developed. At the senior high level the special interests developed earlier in exploratory activities can be pursued more selectively and intensively. Both producer and consumer skills may be developed sufficiently to permit effective participation in a business community. In a sense, business education is a special offering in American schools. It has its own distinctive space and equipment require- ments and problems of teacher recruitment and retention. Yet, it serves the general and special interests of all students. Its con- tributions to education in both rural and urban areas are likely to enlarge as the problems of business increasingly grow in number and complexity. Dias DAS inant CHAPTER 12 Distributive Education—Its Contributions and Opportunities Tis SUCCESSFUL school administrator is the edu- cational leader in his community. In a sense, he is a “salesman” for a high quality educational program. He must continuously be alert to the results of the educational program provided by his com- munity, just as a successful sales manager in business studies the product he sells, the men who sell it, and the characteristics of prospective buyers. The sales manager must know what is accom- plished through his sales efforts and sales organization. His keeping informed requires continuous supervision and study and what might be called a “sixth sense.” So it is with the school administrator. In every community, large or small, administrators should be seeking clues to the effectiveness and appropriateness of the edu- cational program provided: How many students, for example, drop out of school between the eighth and the twelfth grades? What percentage of graduates enter jobs in the sales field? Other ques- tions are equally important: In what fields of work do graduates get their first jobs? What vocational training is provided in the school and what job mobility is feasible with this training? What are the local employment opportunities? How do regular employ- ment channels extend from and to the local community? Answers for such questions are too frequently avoided, ignored, or oversimplified. But these questions grow out of the real problems confronting students in every school community. They are the problems of students with a wide range of ability, interest, and purpose. They beg scrutiny of the purposes of education itself. They present challenges that must be accepted. William B. Logan, head, Teacher Training, Distributive Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, prepared the original draft of Chapter 12. 211 212 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA The Challenge to Distributive Education Pronouncements recognizing the values inherent in organized vocational preparation for youth and adults appear frequently in educational literature. From the Seven Cardinal Principles through the Imperative Needs of Youth the inclusion of preparation for vocational competence as an integral part of a community's educa- tional program has had a share of the emphasis. The first of the Imperative Needs, for example, states: All youth need to develop salable skills and those understandings and atti- tudes that make the worker an intelligent and productive participant in economic life. To this end, most youth need supervised work experience as well as education in the skills and knowledge of their occupations. 1 In every community where an educational program is provided there exists an unmistakable partnership between the school and business and industrial operations. On the one hand, there is con- | tinuing need in business and industry for qualified personnel to staff | broadening and expanding enterprises. The school, at the same | time, needs the counsel of business and industry in order to make certain that its training programs are meaningful and realistic. The school also needs cooperative assistance so that facilities of the business and industrial establishment in the community might be used as training laboratories. The Field of Distributive Education Distributive education is one of the more recent additions to vocational programs. Because of this, many teachers, school ad- ministrators, and other workers in education actually have a limited understanding of what “distributive education” is or includes. The field of distributive education embraces retail, wholesale, and service types of business. It is a big field. The number of people involved in distributive occupations is‘so large that this group rep- resents one of the three largest occupational clusters in the economic system of our country. The field ranks first in terms of the number of operating businesses. Moreover, it is a field which extends into every community, regardless of size, and its work schedule is 52 1 National Education Association and American Association of School Adminis- trators, Educational Policies Commission. Education for All Youth. Washington, D.C.: the Commission, 1944. p. 225. PO. a Seasuae Tax» Serena DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION 213 weeks of every year. It can be conservatively estimated that one of every eight employed persons in the United States is involved in wholesale or retail trade or in some other miscellaneous distributive occupation. The worker in a distributive occupation is engaged in either direct or indirect contact with a customer. Distributive occupations in- clude the sales and service personnel in food stores, hardwares, general merchandise stores, grain elevators, milk plants, and farm equipment agencies. They include the sales and service personnel in the various types of wholesale establishments, in cleaning and dyeing shops, laundries, and shoe repair businesses. And they in- clude door-to-door salesmen, advertising and display personnel, and management at all levels in wholesale, retail, and service business. It can be seen, then, that distributive education prepares its grad- uates for a wide variety of occupations. In addition to the types of work situations indicated above, the following job titles are further illustrative of this diversity: | Advertising manager Model Buyer Personal shopper Canvasser Personnel director Cashier | Rack jobber Copywriter Restaurant hostess Display manager Service station manager Fashion coordinator Supermarket manager Illustrator Traffic manager Manufacturers’ representative § Training director Merchandise manager Waitress Wholesale drug salesman Until the establishment of distributive education programs very few of the vast number of people entering into these and similar occupations had the benefit of specific training for their jobs. Now, however, increasingly larger numbers have both the background of training and the work experience that a vocational program in the distributive field can provide. The Demand for Distributive Education The development of vocational education programs for distribu- " tive occupations evolved from the changing nature of economic Beh i eawadh Wend ee 214 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA activity in this country. When retail stores were small, it was rel- atively easy for a young person to “learn the ropes.” The proprietor was close to the entire operation and “on call” to every customer. But as early as 1900 department stores and other specialized retail and wholesale establishments began to develop in those industrial areas having relatively large concentrations of population. Although the development of such retail outlets greatly expanded the range of available merchandise, the close relationship that had once existed between store owner and customer and even the re- lationships between the store owner and his employees were much reduced. Consequently, salespeople had to learn through trial and error, a system extremely costly to both owner and consumer. Train- ing programs of some type were inevitable. In recent years the need for training programs in the distributive field has become more acute. Department stores have become larger and their departments more specialized; the number of independent specialty shops has increased greatly; and, more recently, super- markets for a variety of purposes have been developed. Yet, none but the very largest of these merchandising operations is of sufficient size to provide a thorough and varied training program for its employees. In various communities throughout the country there developed a recognition of the importance of training for the increasing num- ber of people entering distributive occupations. In some communi- ties a high level of leadership and cooperation resulted in a willing- ness on the part of both the schools and business organizations to undertake the type of educational program for which there was such great demand. These programs, when established, were almost immediately successful; however, widespread development of similar programs in many communities was relatively slow until 1946, when distributive education was included among those vocational fields for which federal financial assistance was authorized. Since then growth has been most rapid; for example, during the first 10 years in which federal financial help has been available, enough distribu- tive education programs were organized to provide training for over a quarter million pupils. The rate of the enrollment increase in distributive education has been almost phenomenal. The importance of efficient distribution is continuously empha- sized by the delicate balance that exists within our economy. DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION: 215 National prosperity depends upon full employment, which results from high-level consumption. And consumption depends to a large extent upon good salesmanship and sound merchandising practices. As demonstrated during World War II, our capacity to produce can be, within limits, readily expanded. We can produce more than we can consume. Continued high production is impossible, however, without a comparable high level of consumption. Full employment for the 20 to 30 million workers in our factories depends upon the sale of what they produce. Efficient mass distribution and effective salesmanship are essential to our national well-being. The goods sold by one salesperson represent pay checks for more than 75 men and women in factories and offices and on farms. During much of our industrial development attention has been directed chiefly toward increased production. Only in recent years has comparable attention been given to distribution. We have learned the hard way about surpluses, that goods produced and not sold are liabilities. An even greater concern with distribution can be expected in the future. What Research Has Revealed The findings of studies of business operations in the distribution field point clearly to the importance of proper training. The follow- ing are high lights of a number of studies: © Of the total number of retail stores in the United States, 84.4 percent are independent businesses with fewer than five em- ployees, including the proprietor. Their rate of failure in some years has been as high as 25 percent of the total number operat- ing. Few of these merchants had specific training for the management responsibilities with which they were regularly confronted. Lack of training was a serious handicap not only to individual merchants but to their employees and the public as well. Properly trained management and employees reduce the number of small business failures. © Those who establish a new retail business have only two chances out of three of remaining in business for one year, an even chance of remaining in business for two years, and only two chances in five of lasting three years. Properly trained persons entering busi- ness or management improve the odds for a successful venture. pss ia ean 216 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA © Failures of retail businesses in the United States can be classified very simply according to the major cause of failure as follows: Due to faults of those failing...................- 81.5% Not due to faults of those failing................ 18.5 100.0% When retail business aspirants are properly informed, many of the faults leading to failure can be eliminated. ® The labor turnover in full-time distributive occupations is esti- mated at about 22 percent. This figure does not include the turn- over among part-time and contingent workers. This high degree of instability is detrimental to the distributive field and far greater than that which applies in most other occupational areas. Prop- erly trained personnel are much less likely to flit from one job to another than are untrained workers. @ Distribution costs can be reduced by either of two possible _ methods: (a) by the elimination of some of the functions and services now offered by distributors or (b) through the more economical and efficient performance of these functions. Properly trained employees contribute greatly to the latter and, thus, also contribute savings to consumers. As implied above, much of the labor turnover and many of -the business failures may be traced directly to the incompetency of per- sonnel, a characteristic which itself is usually traceable to lack of training. It has been demonstrated in many communities that an adequate and appropriate training program for store owners, man- agers, executives, and salespeople will result in more economical and efficient methods, a reduction in labor turnover, and a conse- quent reduction in the costs of operation. The public pays for the failures of business. Frequently persons with only a limited understanding of the dis- tributive education field believe that these programs are designed for and limited to the schools in larger cities. The many successful programs operating in small communities should disprove such a contention. However, research in such states as Illinois, Michigan, and Missouri does indicate that many school systems do not now provide this type of educational program and that the opportunities for expansion in rural communities are great indeed. A large number DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION 217 of the graduates of rural high schools actually find employment in a distributive occupation. And studies show that, when these young ple are trained, they are usually able to enter jobs at a higher level and to progress more rapidly than those who have not received such training. The Objectives of Distributive Education The major objective of every distributive education program is the preparation of persons for useful employment in distributive occupa- tions. Preparation of these workers is usually provided (a) through cooperative part-time classes offered during the twelfth, thirteenth, or fourteenth years or (b) through adult distributive education classes conducted for employed workers at all levels—managerial, supervisory, sales and service personnel in both wholesale and retail operations, and personnel in service establishments. Distributive education programs, through the development of vocational competence, attempt to encourage the adoption of modern management techniques and procedures so that intelligent, economical, and helpful service will be extended to customers. Equally significant, these programs foster a feeling of security, stability, and satisfaction in the sales field by stimulating and de- veloping an increased earning potential among all distributive workers and by encouraging promotion and advancement on merit. Numerous values accrue to a community through its distributive education program. In most areas these advantages are quickly recognized by parents, employers, the faculty of the school, and, perhaps most important of all, by the individuals who participate in the training program. The extent to which these contributions are both real and recognized depends, of course, upon the com- miunity and the quality of the program. Generally, however, the following kinds of advantages make the program appealing: To the General Public Distributive education contributes to improvement in standards of living through better service, lower selling costs, and general upgrading of marketing and merchandising practices in the field of distribution. Also to be noted are improvements in customer relationships, merchandise accessibility, accuracy of merchandise information, and customer comfort. To Educators and Educational Groups The program brings the school and business into closer cooperation, thus increasing the practical contribution from the school to society. The . tia eter an ia at er ate woo 218 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA schoo! administrator and his staff see their efforts rewarded by decreased school drop-outs of students who must work, increased home contacts of school, fewer criticisms regarding the teaching of so-called impractical subjects, promotion of budget increases, and expansion of the school offerings. To Parents The efforts of the school are directed toward making the daily work of boys and girls more interesting and more useful through opportunities of employment, greater economic security, and improved knowledge and skill in buying and selling. To Employers The chief advantage to the employers is that distributive education pro- vides. for more careful selection of future full-time employees and an upgrading of those now employed. Other advantages are a return of taxes in the form of direct service, basic training for new employees, re- duced personnel turnover through better selection and training, advisory service in training problems, and aid in the public relations of a business.” As indicated earlier, there is much misunderstanding and lack of understanding with respect to distributive education programs and much opportunity for an expansion of programs in rural and smaller communities. The balance of this chapter, therefore, is devoted to discussion and suggestions that may be helpful to any community wishing to explore the possibilities of establishing a vocational train- ing program in the distributive field. Surveying the Potential Before attempting to develop a program of distributive education, school officials should make certain that need for such a program exists in their community and that there is at least some chance for its successful operation. A sound program requires the full coopera- tion of students, parents, school staff, and merchant employers. They must understand what the program is; they must believe in it; and they must all work to make it succeed. It is important, then, as a first step, to determine whether or not a distributive education program would really serve the needs of the community. If sufficient need does not exist, many man hours, frustrations, and disappoint- ments can be saved or avoided at the outset. ?U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education. Voca- tional Education in Distributive Occupations. Vocational Division Bulletin No. 255, Distributive Education Series No. 19. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Docu- ments, Government Printing Office, 1954. p. 2. ASNT Adee rides Be ine DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION 219 Get Information and Assistance Before need or lack of it can be determined, the school adminis- trator or some other person should bring together sufficient informa- tion to insure that the purposes and objectives of such a program, how it operates, and what it involves in staff, facilities, and equip- ment are reasonably well understood. It might be useful for him to visit some nearby school where a program is already in operation. A series of informal visits with students, business proprietors cooperat- ing with the program, and faculty members could be most helpful. If called upon, the supervisor of distributive education in the state department of education can be most helpful; he may offer personal assistance and may furnish or suggest sources of written material available through his own office or from the Vocational Division of the U. S. Office of Education. As students in distributive education programs quickly learn, effective salesmen must know their product, they must be able to answer all the questions that the customer might want to ask. It is equally important that schools understand what is involved in this kind of educational program; their repre- sentatives must be ready to answer the questions which will and should be raised before an attempt is made to “put the program on the market.” A complete distributive education program in a community con- sists of both extension courses for adults and cooperative part-time classes. A community may initiate its program with either type of class or both types simultaneously. The most common practice (and there are a number of reasons why this approach works out most satisfactorily ) has been to establish a cooperative part-time program at the secondary level first and later to develop the extension or adult classes. For this reason, the following discussion is based on the organization of a program for a small community's cooperative part-time class. Although only suggestive, the steps here described should be a useful guide. Determine the Interest Once there is an adequate understanding of what a distributive education program includes and how it operates, it is time to begin discussing its possibilities with others. A brief statement distributed to individuals or groups for later study and reference may prove very ia Ais Be CE Peas ao 6 eee nb. o Rieti £ Giiaeneresoemnese == 220 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA helpful in exploring community interest in this program. Such a statement should include essential information about the program and should answer those questions most likely to be asked by busi- nessmen, parents, teachers, pupils, and the school staff. If the school already operates cooperative programs in other vocational areas, many of the working relationships will already be reasonably well understood. If not, the concept of students’ spending part time in school and part time on the job in a training situation could en- counter difficulty in a community. A prepared statement, such as the one suggested, can clarify this idea for many people. It should also prove useful as a guide in discussing program possibilities with in- dividuals and groups; as a ready reference, it may do much to pre- vent the spread of misinformation. Most states have prepared such a statement which may be obtained from the state education department and adapted to suit conditions in the local community. Discussing the possibilities of a distributive education program with key individuals in the community is most important. Often this can be accomplished through informal group meetings. When the school administrator, teachers, parents, and businessmen meet to review and discuss the possibilities of a program, factual information can be furnished and a high level of understanding developed. The state supervisor of distributive education can give most valuable assistance in such group meetings. Some people will be interested in knowing what the program will cost, what its public relations effects might be, and how it will coordinate with other aspects of the school program. Businessmen will probably ask about pupil selection, age requirements, work schedules, training, job requirements, responsi- bilities of the store, wage rates, and other terms of employment. Parents will want to know about working arrangements and how the part-time cooperative aspect might influence credit for graduation. Indications of interest within the community are clues to the potential success of a distributive education program. But a number of problems must be faced before a program can get under way. The meetings and discussions, for example, may well identify a need for additional information which was previously overlooked. Once such information has been obtained and strong community interest has been displayed, planning for the actual program can begin. DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION 221 Make a Community Survey A survey of employment opportunities in the community is a logical starting point. (Don’t let the word “survey” scare you.) The school administrator can request help from the state education de- partment for the study. State departments of education are fre- quently called upon to assist communities in this type of activity; the experience and guidance they can provide will be most valuable. The survey is a real “test” in predicting the support the program is likely to receive. Bankers, store owners, service station managers, doctors, lawyers, and others must be willing to provide places of employment and training during the first year. Promises of place- ment for approximately 15 students will be necessary before the program can begin. Since it will be important during the first year to establish the quality of the program and to resolve the numerous problems that inevitably arise in any new venture, it would be desirable to keep the first class small, about 12 to 15 pupils is about right. More pupils may be included later, after the program is working smoothly. | It is possible, of course, that the survey might show that the com- munity cannot support a distributive education program alone. In that case, it may be necessary for one community to join forces with another community in order to develop and to conduct an area program that will serve the two (or more) high schools. If such a need is indicated, the administrator would do well to meet with his counterpart in the adjoining community or communities for a dis- cussion of possibilities of joint action. Together a program for hoth communities might be developed. Discuss Results with Students When community interest and reaction have been determined through discussions and the survey, the possibilities of establishing a distributive education program should be discussed with high- school pupils. The manner in which this information is presented to the students should be carefully planned. Individual conferences with pupils by the guidance counselor or the administrator has possibilities, but greater success can usually be realized from group discussion first. Such a group meeting is another place where state POOR TE Ee ee Ee ee Te ee eee eat 222 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA department assistance is valuable. The opportunities for young people in the sales field and the way in which the proposed dis- tributive education program will function are important ideas which must be communicated to the students, who will also have many questions which they will want to raise. Most will be interested in the possibilities of a part-time job, but they will also be concerned about graduation, class schedules, and the relationships of students in the training program to other school activities and other pupils. A sound distributive education program is more likely to develop when each student has reliable information from the survey and from qualified leaders. Enrollment should always be stimulated by information and understanding—not pressure. In whatever way this information is presented to students, the next step should always be careful individual counseling of those indicating interest. It will be essential for the interested students to understand that distribu- tive education is a vocational training program and not just an opportunity to earn a little money or be away from school during the afternoon. The number of serious pupils actually placed in a training situa- tion is nearly always less than the number originally making applica- tion. From 25 initial requests in one small school, for example, 16 pupils were tentatively selected for training and only 12 finally entered the program. Organizing the Program There are no hard and fast rules nor is there any one “best way” to go about organizing a distributive training program in a com- munity. The place to begin is wherever and however a start can be made. As emphasized in the preceding section, much planning, preparation, discussion, and surveying are necessary before any formal steps can be taken toward establishing a program. If the interest, need, and understandings have been carefully determined in the preliminary stages the organization of the program can move ahead rapidly, possibly even on several fronts at the same time. The actual point of beginning, to some extent, will be dependent upon the time of year the board of education actually decides that it definitely wants distributive education as part of the total community education program. Piss AR nerd ev DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION 223 Employ a Teacher-Coordinator It is desirable to have on the scene a person intimately acquainted with all that a distributive education program involves to help in getting started. The school board and administrator would be well advised not to delay employing their distributive education teacher longer than necessary. He can relieve the administrator of nearly all the necessary “leg work” and attention to details. The state depart- ment of education and the teacher education institutions in the state can supply a list of capable people. In the first year and with a new program it is essential that the distributive education teacher- coordinator be on the job well before classes start. A period of two weeks would be an absolute minimum. The coordinator must be qualified as a counselor, teacher, ad- ministrator, and public relations specialist. Since the distributive education program will be continuously in public view in various places of business throughout the community, failure could be dis- astrous to good school-community relations. Success, on the other hand, could contribute much to the development of good relation- ships between school and community. It is very important, there- fore, that the board of education choose its teacher-coordinator wisely. The supreme test for the coordinator will be his ability to work with other people—pupils, parents, fellow teachers, school adminis- trators, merchants, and store personnel. In the school he must work with other teachers, and some may not be wholly enthusiastic about the new program or his “pupil load.” He will be responsible for the guidance and counseling of the pupils in the program. And, in the stores providing cooperative training situations, he will be working with merchants who, in some instances will have been in business more years than the coordinator is old. Yet, the coordinator must say, in effect, to the merchant, “I am going to instruct this student in the operation of your store and he will use it as a laboratory.” Occupational experience as a full-time worker in the sales field is an essential prerequisite for the distributive education teacher. The length of time in such employment is considerably less impor- tant than the level of responsibility the teacher had attained and how recent his work experience has been. In some instances the part-time work experience secured as part of the teacher education a a tid Cl hd ee a SREP ENON EARNER BARRE RT RR re te 224 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA program in distributive education is the most valuable. In addition to this work experience, the teacher needs a good background of general and professional education and a specific background of technical preparation in the distributive field. Although institutions preparing teachers variously describe and title courses, the following list is generally representative of technical courses most commonly offered: Economics of Distribution Business Statistics Marketing Techniques Survey of Materials in Modern Retailing Problems Distributive Education Retail Store Management Business Law Labor Relations Executive Leadership Salesmanship Business Finance Advertising and Display Credits and Collections* Store Accounting and Control Most of the professional education courses required by states for certification in any of the various teaching fields can contribute to the competence of the distributive education teacher. It is usually recommended that certain additional courses directly related to distributive education be included. The following are illustrative: Principles and Philosophy of Vocational Education, Methods of Teaching Distributive Subjects, Job Analyses and the Development of Instructional Material, Organization and Administration of Distributive Education, Curriculum Construction in Distributive Education, and Supervision of Distributive Education.* In summary, then, the teacher-coordinator in a distributive edu- cation program should have a background which includes work experience, technical training, professional preparation for teach- ing, and as much teaching experience as local school-board policies require. Introduce the Coordinator to the Community If, as has been suggested, businessmen are involved in the early planning stages, most will be looking forward to the arrival of the program’s director. Nevertheless, the teacher-coordinator needs a proper introduction to the community. Since much of his work will entail coordination between the school and local business establish- * Ibid., p. 18. * Ibid. PR eeereeesenmnessenaonen SPN esnanehntnt en np mentee DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION 295 ments, “getting acquainted” with the community becomes more than a formality for him. He undoubtedly could make his way alone, but much would be contributed to a successful beginning if the school administrator or a businessman member of the school board will take time to introduce the new teacher to those merchants and proprietors likely to be interested in cooperating with the program. Once introduced, the teacher is ready to initiate such further con- tacts as will be necessary without further assistance. The importance of this first contact is often underestimated. What is done or not done in the hour or two this requires may have a lasting effect. If the merchant's first impression is unfavorable, it could take several years of the most highly successful program possible to break down his resistance. The teacher-coordinator should also become acquainted with other members of the school faculty. Here it is usually desirable to make the introduction at the same time and in the same way that all other “new” teachers are introduced. One of the frequent sources of difficulty within a school system is the tendency for a breach to develop between teachers in the academic and the vocational pro- grams. Everything that can possibly be done to prevent such a separation in the thinking and attitudes of a faculty will have a wholesome effect on morale. The distributive education program is an integral part of the community's total educational effort, and the teacher-coordinator is a member of the school’s faculty. He must be accepted and acceptable if the program is to function smoothly. He must be ready and willing to assume his share of the responsibilities regularly expected of all faculty members. Since his work schedule normally includes afterschool hours and week ends, some adjust- ments naturally will have to be made, but this is not difficult if appropriate attitudes have been developed. Provide Adequate Facilities If a decision to inaugurate a distributive education program is reached some time before it is expected to begin operating, atten- tion to facilities and equipment might well be an appropriate next step. If the time required to make plans is not sufficient or if a teacher-coordinator for the program has already been employed for 926 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA the following year, it would probably be desirable for the teacher to accept responsibility for making recommendations. It is entirely possible for a distributive education program to operate satisfactorily with only a classroom, a textbook, and a teacher-coordinator. Ideal facilities for such programs, however, will include certain types of equipment and supplies. Each com- munity must ultimately make the decision as to what will be in- vested, but it can be assumed that appropriate equipment and work materials will contribute to making the instructional program more effective. A suggested list of equipment and supplies can be secured from the state education department. In addition to indicating tables and chairs, which become individual work stations, such a list will very likely include the following equipment, some of which might be obtained from or through local merchants on a loan or gift basis or purchased outright: Cash register Bulletin boards Display case Paper cutter Drawing table Wrapping table Full-length mirror Display equipment Audio-visual equipment Merchandise Supplies valuable in the distributive education classes are: Staple gun Reference materials Scissors Poster paper Rulers Tempera paints Drawing paper | Lettering pens and brushes T-squares Adequate work space is essential to the successful operation of a distributive education program. The pupils and the coordinator need storage areas, conference areas, display areas, and demonstra- tion areas. These can be developed very simply in almost any space, and, consequently, facility requirements can be met with relatively little difficulty by almost any school. Establish a Sound Instructional Program Distributive education is an “active” subject, for pupils engage in projects directly concerned with the sales field. The course of study is usually divided into two parts. The first is a general orienta- DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION 227 tion to the distributive field, and, in most instances, all the students are involved as a group in considering such subjects as principles of selling, merchandise promotion, the organization and management of business, and customer relations. The second phase concerns specific job instruction. Here individual pupils study a particular product intensively. The range of products studied often relates both to the particular community and to individual pupil interests, but such topics as the following are often among those pursued: selling men’s shoes, selling millinery, selling in a service station, sell- ing art supplies, selling hardware, and selling electrical appliances. Establishing high standards of expectation and quality is a most important objective for the first year of any new program. A falter- ing beginning can shatter the confidence which the community and other faculty members have for the program’s success. As a means of keeping the quality of the program high and assuring understand- ing, it is common practice to invite local businessmen to the class- room to take part in the discussion of specific phases of business operation or to invite other members of the faculty to serve in similar manner. The homemaking teacher, for example, has a great deal of knowledge (from the consumer's point of view) about foods and fabrics and appliances; the teacher of business law can discuss the legal aspects of proper identification of products, misrepresentation in advertising, contracts, and other topics; the English or speech teacher can assist students required to prepare speeches for special occasions. The county agricultural or home demonstration agents, the personnel directors from nearby industrial plants, and repre- sentatives of the state employment agency can profitably be in- volved. The alert teacher-coordinator will recognize the resources available and utilize them to the advantage of the students who are being trained. Appoint an Advisory Committee. - The advice and guidance which a representative group of busi- nessmen can contribute are of substantial benefit to the distributive education program, the school administrator, and the teacher- coordinator. When such a group of interested people meet regularly to discuss the program, many of its difficulties and problems can be resolved and many of its strengths reenforced. Their counsel on such her tetinl LAAT orn Meebo a A we Te PN ee ee ne) ee ia Dainti 228 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA matters as hours of work, wage scales, and curriculum content is a much needed resource. The general procedure in establishing an advisory committee is that the superintendent of schools asks interested businessmen to serve, usually for a year although sometimes longer and overlapping terms are preferred. The function of this committee is chiefly to strengthen the program and to give it direction. The teacher- coordinator also will find the advisory committee helpful in many specific ways. Its members can give him the support he needs when difficult human relations problems arise. They can assist him in identifying desirable part-time training stations and in avoiding some which might not be desirable. They can help make certain that the training program is realistic. For such efforts, they will be rewarded by the satisfaction of being part of a program which gives meaning- ful training to young people interested in a distributive occupation. The experience of most communities has been that most business- men are quite willing to serve on an advisory group. They appre- ciate an opportunity to help forward the community's educational endeavor. Select Good Training Stations That cooperative work experience is primarily a training program should always be kept in mind. Students are entitled to protection from any possible exploitation by business. This is seldom a problem when business proprietors fully understand the purposes of the program, but it does emphasize the need to select the part-time work experience situations most carefully. It is important that the business establishments selected be in a position to provide year-round work for students. They should be interested in having trainees. And they should be accessible—not too far from the school or from the homes of pupils. In small com- munities the number of possible business operations is frequently limited, but the range of different opportunities quite broad. The following types of work situations are illustrative of some of the possibilities: Hardware store Bank Grocery store Insurance office Sn et ee Se a oes aoe Dea DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION 229 Wholesale house Farm machinery distributor Milk plant Automobile agency Doctor's office (receptionist ) Auto accessory store Hotel Most business establishments in small communities are relatively small, but this is frequently an advantage to the pupil-trainee, in that he can more easily come in contact with numerous aspects of the operation. The smaller establishment—assuming competent management—usually offers possibilities which make it an excellent training station. Place Students on Jobs Placement of students in work-training situations is the final test of the preliminary planning. The coordinator will have tentative lists of students and of potential employers as a result of the pre- liminary surveys and discussions. By relating the qualifications and preference of students to the requests and desires of merchants, the coordinator gets the placement process under way. The school administrator usually becomes concerned at this point over the deportment of pupils, their possible abuse of privileges, and the relation of work schedules to other school programs and activities. It becomes important, therefore, for students to recognize and understand their opportunities and responsibilities. They need to know how to conduct themselves in an interview with their em- ployer and as a trainee in his business. Many class and individual dis- cussions are needed. Close and frequent supervision of pupils in their training station setting is essential. The program is finally under way, and it is important that it function smoothly. The teacher-coordinator can now begin to look for results in the form of specific evidences of progress as work experience unfolds the pupils’ abilities, develops their self-confidence, and creates in them a genuine sense of responsibility. | Once the program is established and in operation, the coordinator will find it desirable to make tentative placement agreements with local merchants during the late weeks of the school year and the summer. He will also find that actual employment for some of the beginning students should be withheld until he can be relatively assured that they are ready. Faulty work habits, poor attitudes, and ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ae Pe eee ee 230 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA misunderstandings often develop when students go to work before . they are properly prepared. This situation often shows itself among students who have had work experience before entering the dis- tributive education program. Often their work habits are fixed and considerable retraining becomes necessary. Check Pupil Progress Once students are placed in training stations, their work ex- periences are in the hands of the job-training sponsor. This person : in a small store is usually the manager, although in a larger establish- | ment it may be an experienced fellow worker. Careful attention | must be given to the person who accepts this role, and regular visits to training stations are necessary to assure varied experiences and progress, at least until it can satisfactorily be determined that the work experience is properly directed and worthy of the efforts of the school, the employer, and the pupil. Expanding and Enriching the Program Once the cooperative part-time classes in the distributive educa- tion program are working smoothly, some attention can be given to broadening its scope. A high quality program depends on many things, and the following suggestions are illustrative of some of the possible directions such a program may take. Sharing Experience with Others The teacher-coordinator will find it extremely valuable to share his experiences with the teacher-coordinators in other distributive : education programs. Most state education departments conduct | annual conferences for these teachers, frequently at a teacher- | training institution, and participation at these programs is extremely valuable. In many states attendance is required. Such meetings and exchange of ideas give all who attend many suggestions of how they can improve their program and do a better job. Summer courses and workshops are also available, and the alert coordinator will take advantage of such opportunities to improve himself and the distributive education program with which he works. DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION 931 Forming a Youth Club The need and desire of young people to associate with others having similar interests frequently finds expression through various types of club activity. As in other vocational areas, a national asso- ciation of clubs in the distributive education area has been organized. Known as DECA ( Distributive Education Clubs of America), these groups frequently conduct some fund-raising project which gives them additional management and salesmanship experiences as well as funds for a service project and an annual employer banquet. Some DECA groups have moved in to take a “lemon” project off the hands‘of the school principal and actually turned it into a money- making activity. DECA is not confined to money-raising activities, however, nor is this its primary emphasis. The state and national organizations have developed award programs to stimulate individual club achievements and to promote interest in distributive education. With most clubs, the projects in these various areas are an integral and important part of their activities. The six projects presently carried on are: 1. Speech contest. Club members in competition are called on’ to give an eight-minute extemporaneous speech on some phase of selling or merchandising. 2. Window display contest. Club judging teams compete against “experts” in judging the effectiveness of retail store windows. 3. Newspaper contest. On a state basis clubs compete with respect to the quality and effectiveness of their club paper or newsletter. 4, Essay contest. A competition is held for essays with topics related to selling. 5. Scrapbook contest. Most local clubs keep scrapbooks relat- ing to club or distributive education program activities. On a state basis these are judged in terms of originality and effectiveness of presentation. 6. Merchandise manual contest. Manuals on specific items of merchandise are developed and submitted for competitive judging. . El Ug Ab ET Bi Ri Ie Sh AP SO rirrteerennsrescencenieanemnencnenesnne ; iccochasoaasiea ee 232 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Develop an Adult Program Emphasis throughout this chapter has been given to the program for high-school students. Some of the most effective training for distributive occupations can be accomplished through extension programs for workers already employed in business establishments on a full-time basis, and including these adults in the program is a valuable direction for a distributive education program to take. The increasing numbers in adult programs every year demonstrate that adults do want to go to school. Businessmen’s clubs, chambers of commerce, retail merchants’ associations, and women’s clubs can be helpful to school officials in determining how much interest there is for setting up adult classes. Information and guidance in respect to details of an adult program can be secured from the supervisor of distributive education in the state education department. And just as in the cooperative part- time program, state education department assistance can be secured in helping get the program started. Evaluating Results Continuous study and evaluation of all aspects of the distributive education program will be required to insure its effectiveness. As each new crop of students and each new product comes on the market, adjustment will be necessary. An up-to-date program for the distributive occupations must be a continuously changing program. The specific study and planning needed will vary from one com- munity to another, but certain general areas can be suggested. The following check list may give guidance for an orderly program evaluation. I. Establishment in the Local Community 1. Scope of survey of needs for distributive education 2. Intensity of the evaluation of the survey 3. Emphasis on employment opportunities and needs of youth II. Attitude of School Acceptance and acknowledgement of vocational education Recognition of distributive education Success of distributive education pupils in general education Acknowledgment of values in work experience phase Consideration given to study-work program in scheduling Fe ep a TC teas Td Sg ee oe ee ee - DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION 233 III. Support of Local School Administration 1. Relationship of school-administration with business community 2. Utilization of state and national resources in program develop- ment Care with which teaching staff is selected Availability of suitable physical facilities Provision of suitable equipment Adequate amount of instructional materials Quality of instructional materials IV. Support of Merchants 1. Provision of adequate number of diversified placement oppor- tunities 2. Provision of diversified types of placement opportunities 3. Provision of proper placement opportunities 4. Placing emphasis on educational values of work experience 5. Serving in an advisory capacity to the school V. Organization Structure of the Local Program 1. Utilization of advice of interested persons and groups 2. Freedom given to coordinator in program development 3. Provision for protecting best interests of pupils 4. Scheduling of work experience for advantage to pupils and merchants VI. Guidance of Pupils 1. Provision of information on distributive occupations 2. Determination of pupils’ aptitudes, interests, and abilities 3. Emphasis on counseling, placement, and follow-up 4. Coordinator's participating in performance of guidance functions 5. Merchant’s participating in performance of guidance functions VII. The Distributive Education Staff Suitable personal qualifications of distributive education staff Acceptable occupational experience Technical and professional distributive education preparation Effectiveness as instructors Effectiveness as organizers and leaders Improvement of business and professional capabilities Contribution to total general and vocational education program Participation in community affairs Promotion of distributive education program Effectiveness of supervisory staff “TD GUS & — SH OSNOULWD > VIII. The Distributive Education Curriculum and Methodology seem ar eee 1. Curriculum based upon current and authoritative information 2. Instruction aimed at present needs of pupils 3. Friendly and mutual relationship between teacher and pupils 4. Distributive education pupil participation in school activities 234 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA IX. State Leadership 1. Suitable qualifications of the state staff 2. Allocation of adequate funds 3. Effectiveness of staff in all phases of the work 4. Effectiveness of leadership as reflected in local programs X. Teacher Education 1. Provision of teacher training program to meet needs in state 2. Good relationships between state department and teacher train- ing institution 3. Integral part of total teacher education program 4. Qualified pupils admitted to teacher education program 5. Effectiveness of institutional in-service teacher education pro- 6. Effectiveness of informal in-service teacher education 7. Certification standards developed, accepted, and maintained.5 5 Logan, William B. Criteria for Evaluating a State-Wide In-School Program. Doctor’s thesis. Columbus: The Ohio State University, 1952. (Typewritten) Me . iE NE DE coma a me —— ae ee a ee SO WOLT PE I ehree . man CHAPTER 13 Homemaking—lts Contributions and Opportunities - H OMEMAKING education is an urban educa- tional innovation which probably has undergone its greatest devel- opment in rural areas. First introduced as part of the secondary- school curriculum of larger city school systems, the idea spread rapidly to communities of all sizes. Through a development of cer- tain homemaking skills and an understanding of human relation- ships, this field has been directed toward helping young people achieve a more satisfying home and family life—in both their parent's home and in the homes they themselves will establish in the future. Homemaking is now a familiar field in most rural communities, for very few high schools fail to include it as part of their regular offering. The development of homemaking programs has been similar, in most respects, to the development of other vocational fields. Since 1918 the growth in enrollment in home economics classes and the widespread establishment of homemaking programs has been phenomenal. Two major factors have been responsible for this rapid expansion. One was the passage of federal legislation designed to encourage and support vocational education programs, including homemaking. Stimulated and assisted by the financial grants made available to the states by this new federal educational venture, school administrators moved quickly to include homemaking courses for girls that would parallel the vocational agriculture courses offered for boys. A second and perhaps equally significant factor in the rapid growth of homemaking programs has been the changing pattern of school attendance. Prior to passage of the first of the series of Catherine T. Dennis, supervisor of home economics, State Department of Public Instruction, Raleigh, North Carolina, prepared the original draft of Chapter 13. P 237 238 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Vocational Acts, only a limited number of those students who were eligible actually attempted to get a high-school education. This situation has changed, and the proportion has been increasing steadily. Completion of high school has come to be the normal ex- pectancy for nearly all young people. As more and more students continued their secondary education, high-school programs designed primarily as preparation for entrance into college were increasingly unsuited to their range of abilities and interests. Many students needed programs which were vocational in nature, and school systems developed such programs as rapidly as possible. Substantial development of programs in the various vocational education fields began with passage of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917. Subsequent legislation expanded and reenforced those pro- visions. The contributions of this federal assistance to vocational education have been undeniable, but it cannot be concluded that they were the only cause of program expansion. Greater high-school attendance resulted in comparable growth patterns in all curricular areas (including those not receiving federal financial assistance), and it would be difficult to determine what can be considered directly attributable to the stimulating effect of the legislation or to increasing educational expectations. Undoubtedly, both have been substantial. The Field of Homemaking Homemaking deals with the concerns of everyday living. Its focus is on people as individuals and as members of family grovips. It is concerned with the food people eat, the clothes they wear, and the homes in which they live. Any factor directly affecting the family as a social institution is within its scope. The personal development and adjustment of individuals, their relationships as members of a family, and the establishment and achievement of wholesome human values are among its major objectives. The vision of those who wrote the Smith-Hughes Act is demon- strated by the purposes defined by this legislation in the field of homemaking. The Smith-Hughes Act identified certain broad areas of home and family living in which specific instruction was needed; these areas continue to be as appropriate today as when they were HOMEMAKING- 239 first set forth—more than 40 years ago. These areas might be briefly summarized as follows: 1. Selection and purchase of goods and services for the home;,. consumer responsibility. | 2. Maintenance of satisfactory personal and family relation- ships. 3. Selection, purchase, preparation, serving, conservation, and storage of food for the family. 4. Selection, purchase, care, renovation, and construction of clothing. 5. Care and guidance of children. 6. Selection and care of the house and of its furnishings; choos- ing, using, and caring for home equipment. 7. Maintenance of health and home safety; home care of the sick and first aid. 8. Management of the home; the conservation and wise use of energy, time, and money by family members. 9. Selection and provision of educational and recreational ex- periences by family members.’ These areas of emphasis are remarkably pertinent to today’s con- ditions. This does not imply that homemaking programs have not been influenced by the vast array of changes taking place since 1917. Indeed, changing patterns of family life—the consequences of rapid social changes and technological advances—have brought about numerous changes in homemaking courses, but these have been largely in specific details. As a curriculum area that is primarily concerned with the personal growth of each individual and with the development of his understanding and skill in achieving a satisfying home and family life, homemaking programs have been consistent in their broad outlines of purpose. The Community's Homemaking Program Because individuals, families, and communities differ in many respects, one of the chief characteristics of a program designed to 2 Adapted from the purposes of homemaking education included in the Smith- Hughes Act, 39 Stat. L (929-36) 1917. 240 - VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA reflect family conditions and to emphasize individual development must be its flexibility. Successful homemaking programs need to be specifically planned for each school. From an assessment of local conditions and resources, homemaking teachers develop a program which permits emphasis of those broad areas likely to contribute most to the over-all purposes of this field for each student. Because of such flexibility, specific homemaking programs vary considerably from one community to another, but, again, these differences are, for the most part, apparent only in specific details. On the whole, homemaking programs throughout the country show many similarities. Nearly all young people at secondary-school level are beginning to think seriously about their own future homes and families, and, as adolescents, they are struggling with problems which arise from their effort to be independent of their present family ties. For these reasons, homemaking is considered by many to be more general education than it is vocational. In many schools where the primary emphasis of homemaking is general in nature, all boys and girls are involved at some point in the program. Initial and exploratory ex- periences tend to be provided at the junior high-school level, with more specific and intensive instruction offered for senior high-school students on an elective basis. It is possible that homemaking is one area where the blending of general and vocational education reaches nearly equal proportions. Certainly, almost all young women look forward to marriage, and for many being a housewife and mother will be a full-time career. There also are numerous wage-earning opportunities for persons who possess certain homemaking skills and have a background of homemaking training. The following general description, therefore, relates to the vocational aspects of home- making programs. The Classroom Phase The homemaking program in the secondary school encompasses a wide range of content and provides for various levels of skill development. In the area of foods, for example, attention is given to basic understandings of nutritional problems, marketing, food preparation, the use of cooking equipment, serving, and other skills. Buying and taking care of clothing, making alterations, selecting PEA NR So PRL ISIRED LL EE NR RPDS SER PEM EN AMD RE ES RN HOMEMAKING 241 patterns, tailoring; home planning and decorating, arranging and selecting furniture, refinishing, upholstering; flower arrangements, etiquette, and personal hygiene; home nursing, first aid, and child care all illustrate the types of concerns often included in the content of a homemaking program. In the classroom, teachers make the work situation as nearly homelike as possible, and, through a variety of ever more complex activities and experiences, the desired skills and understandings are developed. Although a large part of the classroom phase of the homemaking program is group instruction, the projects and activities of students provide. many opportunities for individual attention and guidance. Demonstrations, observations, field trips, discussions, planning and evaluating together, and a lot of actual “doing” on an individual or group basis give variety to teaching procedures. In a majority of states vocational homemaking courses are organized to provide a minimum of 300 minutes of classroom instruction each week. Offer- ing courses on a daily basis is generally considered preferable, but there is usually flexibility in arranging the schedule to fit into the total school program. — The Home-Visiting Phase Since the content, problems, and experiences of any homemaking program are designed to meet individual and family needs, home visits and community surveys become an integral part of each teacher's efforts. These enable her to become better acquainted with the families in the school community and to gain from personal experience an understanding and awareness of the home situations of the pupils in her class. Since teachers are involved in classroom instruction for most of each day, the idea of extended employment was introduced and ac- cepted as an important part of the vocational homemaking program. This procedure, which gives the teacher time to make home visits and to supervise the home projects of her students, contributes sub- stantially to the success of the homemaking program and helps the ‘teacher make adaptations, appropriate to local conditions. The values derived from home visits need not be limited to the homemaking program, however. The information and understand- ings gleaned from visiting in the homes of pupils can be shared with other teachers and school administrators through conferences, 242 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA records, and reports. The firsthand knowledge of home situations which the homemaking teacher acquires through these visits is a particularly valuable resource for guidance counselors, school nurses, instructional supervisors, and attendance officers. All profit by sharing it. Home Experiences Are Home Projects Although one of the major purposes of the home-visiting phase of a homemaking program is to gain insights helpful in planning a program that will have an immediate carry-over into family situa- tions, this phase also provides an additional opportunity for the teacher. A most important phase of every vocational homemaking program is the home experience or home project which students carry out. In the simplest descriptive terms the home experience phase of the program gives the student a chance to apply what is learned in the classroom to real-life situations in the home. Within the home context teachers try to provide learning experiences which might actually be difficult to duplicate in the classroom. Through such application of knowledge and practice, young people develop ability to assume certain homemaking and family responsibilities in a most meaningful way. Home visits give the teacher an opportunity to supervise each student's home experience and practice so that optimum values can more nearly be realized. Concern for building a close relationship between experiences at school and those at home has characterized homemaking instruction since its inception, and the home experience phase of the program helps to achieve this. The following points delineate some characteristics of a “good” home project: 1. The home project is based on a problem of concern to the student and its difficulty and complexity are adjusted to her level of pro- ficiency and previous experiences. 2. Working on the home projects helps to meet basic personality needs of the student. 3. The teacher has sufficient information about the student, home, and - community to give adequate guidance during the selecting, planning, and evaluating of the home project. 4. The student, teacher, and members of the family plan the project cooperatively in terms of goals that are clearly understood and attain- able to some degree. apt FA RENO NT TNE COS ASTID OOP, HOMEMAKING 243 5. The home project encourages the development of certain basic skills, understandings, and appreciations in homemaking. 6. Emphasis is placed on the efficient management of all material and human resources during the project. 7. The learning experience provides opportunity for developing the skills essentia! for solving problems of everyday living. 8. The learning experience is designed to stimulate growth and can re- sult in behavior changes in relation to the home situation. 9. Continuous evaluation is made a part of the entire home project. 10. The learning process involved in the project provides opportunities for the student to clarify beliefs, attitudes, and values toward personal and family living.” Basic to the philosophy of every homemaking program is a con- | viction that educational efforts can contribute most to individual | growth and development when they are directed toward particular | backgrounds, needs, interests, and concerns. It becomes important | in implementing this belief for the homemaking teacher to: 1. Think in terms of the values and practices of different families in our own communities, and not of families in general. 2. Recognize the worth and dignity of each individual in the family. . 3. Believe in the importance of cooperative effort in solving family problems. 4. Deal with all phases of subject matter, not in isolation, but to use | problems in teaching which cut across several areas of family living; | and 5. Believe in the importance of choice making because individuals and families face and solve problems in different ways.® Most state plans for vocational homemaking require the provision of time for teachers to visit homes and counsel with individual stu- dents as a condition for qualifying for vocational education funds. However, the value of home experiences and home visits in a func- tional homemaking program has been demonstrated so successfully that these phases of an instructional program are frequently found in programs which are not designed to receive the special vocational financial assistance. ? Outlined by Mary Allice Sheaffer, Home Economics Education Division, Uni- versity of Illinois, Urbana. *American Vocational Association. Family Focus in Home Economics Teaching. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1956. p. 4. PY A MILER TE A NE SRN IEEE I FOE ET 5 i a 244 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA The Future Homemakers of America In a majority of high schools throughout the country local chapters of the Future Homemakers of America or New Homemakers of America have been organized to provide a club-type experience for those particularly interested in the homemaking field. The activities of these groups are primarily directed toward training in citizenship and service to others. They focus attention on developing attitudes for wholesome family life, creating an awareness of the needs of all families in the world, training for leadership, and encouraging stu- dents to enter home economics careers. Many of the goals of the homemaking program are achieved or strengthened through the activities of these groups. Homemaking Education for Adults One of the best means of evaluating the homemaking programs is through observable changes which take place in the families and homes of the community as results of school efforts. Youth cannot make these changes alone. An integral and vital part of the home- making program, therefore, is instruction for adults. The primary basis for all adult programs in this field is the teaching of home- making skills which will increase efficiency in the management of time, energy, and resources; such a program develops the under- standings, interests, and appreciations necessary in the total task of creating satisfying family life. There is no “one way” to do the job of homemaking, nor are there “pat answers” to the problems families face. Since the adults in the community are either full-time homemakers or working mothers with dual responsibilities, the instruction given must be up to date, well organized, concise, and appropriate to the needs of the group. This phase of the program is frequently the most difficult and most time consuming. The homemaking teacher must be alert to the possibilities for adult education. She must analyze each home visit and be sensitive to those problems which could become the basis of a useful adult class. Exhibits, conversations with homemakers, talks before groups, and affiliation with adults through church or other community organizations are common approaches to encouraging an interest in “wanting to learn.” HOMEMAKING 245 The Homemaking Teacher The homemaking teacher in most schools is either a young woman recently graduated from college or a more mature woman who assumes the dual role of professional worker and homemaker. Re- gardless of age, experience, or family status, she has entered this field of education because she is interested in family living and in helping people make better homes. Her technical training has in- cluded work in art, sociology, the physical and biological sciences, nutrition and foods, clothing and textiles, family relations, child development, housing and home planning, household equipment, and home management. The teacher of homemaking must have a knowledge of the homes from which her students come, be competent to counsel them with respect to their personal and home problems, be aware of constantly changing social patterns, and be able to use professional materials and research findings effectively. Through her knowledge of her students and their homes, she endeavors to teach in a manner which will directly relate learning experiences to meaningful family situa- tions of students, and she seeks results that reflect individual per- sonality development and more satisfying family living. To carry out these roles, the homemaking teacher needs to have a broad general education, good preparation in home economics, and sound professional background in related areas and methods of teaching. Homemaking teachers have generally been exceptionally well prepared for this complex series of assignments which make up their job. A problem more serious than teacher preparation which faces schools in this field is the rapid turnover of teaching personnel. The homemaking teacher tends to marry after only a brief teaching career and to establish a home and family of her own. Recruitment of teachers in this field becomes a continuous job. Facilities for Homemaking The large number of new school buildings now under construc- tion or soon to be built offer many opportunities for cooperative planning and decision making with respect to the space and facilities needed for a functional community homemaking program. Greatest satisfaction has been obtained im communities where administrators, teachers, and school patrons have all been involved cooperatively in fai icpe eine sn stance PUY th oRinn 28 a LEE OO LI A SOG OLS FDP LD GEG NOT SRY LE REBT LEK LI BITE AES BITE SEDI IMDS FR ALA TREY oe IRE 246 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA the planning process. For many years opinion was that the home- making department in the school should include equipment similar to that found in the homes of every economic level in the com- munity. Perhaps more important in planning, however, is the com- munity’s recognition that the new plant will be constructed to serve for many years. Future developments should be anticipated and provided for to the greatest extent possible. Trends in the use of newer home equipment should be studied, and as much flexibility as possible should be built into the new facilities so they will be adaptable to future developments. Strengthening the Homemaking Program In any community school it is essential for teachers and admin- istrators to wor:. cooperatively for the same educational objectives. Each has a specific role and each is important. But each depends upon the others. The principal of the school, for example, is a key person in making an effective homemaking program possible. If familiar with the aims and purposes of the program, he will be cognizant of its value in enriching the total school program. If he believes that both youth and adults are genuinely concerned with family living, he will arrange a schedule that provides time for class instruction, for counseling with pupils on personal and family problems, for studying the community, and for working with adults. He can contribute much to strengthening the homemaking program. Relationships are reciprocal, however. The homemaking teacher has the responsibility of keeping her administrator informed on how her time is spent anc on the effectiveness of the program. Schedules of visits, their purpose, information on home situations, and other contacts relevant to the total school program should be shared with all other school personnel who can use this information to advantage in their own educational efforts. The homemaking program can also be strengthened through cer- tain other kinds of relationships and activities. The following para- graphs will briefly discuss the use of an advisory committee, the development of cooperative working relationships with other com- munity organizations and agencies, and program evaluation. PROT teak mab ict tay oS hee ow LLL LILLE DREN ANE S SLBS TEEN SD IN re ee HOMEMAKING- 247 An Advisory Committee This chapter has repeatedly pointed out that the homemaking program in each school reflects the home and family living charac- teristic of the particular community. Home visits, home projects, and adult programs—all give the teacher helpful understandings for effective planning. An advisory committee or advisory council, similar to those described in other chapters for other vocational fields, is another means of strengthening the program through close and sympathetic family-community-school contacts. When made up of homemakers, parents, businessmen, or other local people in- terested in and aware of the needs and problems of the school com- munity, an advisory committee can give invaluable suggestions, advice, support, and infornation to the teacher. Such a committee also proves helpful in interpreting the program to the community and in maintaining good relationships between the community and the school. Cooperating with Other Agencies In every rural community throughout the country there are a number of groups, organizations, and agencies with whom the voca- tional homemaking teacher can work. Many community problems that influence family living can best be solved by cooperative group action. The manner in which schools and other organizations work to- gether may be illustrated by a program that has been working ex- ceptionally well in North Carolina. At the state level a Board of Organizations is in operation; its membership consists of the heads of all state groups having district and local personnel working on problems of farm family living. This Board meets monthly or even more often if problems requiring immediate attention arise. The objectives of this group are (a) improved rural living, (b) increased per-capita income, (c) greater and improved educational oppor- tunities, (d) improved farming practices, and (e) greater spiritual development. The district representatives of the state group meet quarterly to work on plans for their respective territory, and the county workers meet monthly to discuss rural problems in their particular area. Within most counties there is further organization nin on mientancesse tI ‘ 248 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA at the community level. Here local leaders are able to determine the particular problems to be tackled and how, through cooperative planning and mutual assistance, these might be resolved. It should be acknowledged that the large number of man-hours devoted to this cooperative effort and the reenforcement of indi- vidual efforts which comes through group action have not solved all of the problems nor have all the objectives been fully achieved. Nevertheless, the results of this cooperation of agencies and indi- viduals have become markedly apparent after only a five-year period of operation. Local farm people and trained workers have united in trying to find solutions to agricultural problems that will con- tribute much to the improvement of rural living. Participation in such an undertaking can add considerable strength and meaning to the homemaking program. Evaluating the Program The purpose of evaluation is to discover ways in which a par- ticular program can be improved. This is always difficult in any area where judgment must be made in terms of such intangibles as values, attitudes, and understandings. Evaluation becomes even more difficult in the homemaking field, since the work is not with individuals alone but with individuals as members of a family group. The complex nature of a process which thus attempts to evaluate changes in human behavior calls for unusual awareness on the part of the homemaking teacher; she must understand what is taking place in her classroom, in the school, in each student's home, and in the community. Successful evaluation calls for careful consideration of what needs to be evaluated, what measures might be used, how specific and objective evidence might be gathered, and how such information can be analyzed and used to improve the homemaking program in the school and community. Any general appraisal of the entire homemaking field will reveal a number of substantial contributions. Homemaking programs have helped to bring about decided innovations in teaching. They have taken subject matter out of the classroom and into the students’ home situations through home experiences which apply knowledge, skills, and attitudes to the solution of problems within the family. They have contributed substantially toward better living through HOMEMAKING 249 efforts toward home improvement, better food and food preparation, improved personal behavior of individuals, and better family rela- tionships. Homemaking programs have opened new areas of edu- cation for many adults and out-of-school youth with resulting improvement in personal and family living. They have focused attention on the need and value for teacher time for cooperative work with students and their families and have given impetus to home visiting as an important link between the school and the child's needs, interests, and problems. Homemaking programs have helped substantially to bring the home, the school, and the community togetlier. Opportunities in the Field of Homemaking The field of homemaking is one which might be characterized as offering many different types of opportunities, one of which includes the opportunities available for a career in any of the specialized occupations utilizing homemaking knowledge and skills. Although preparation of pupils for a satisfying home and family life receives primary emphasis in homemaking programs and although the majority of women look forward to marriage and a career as a house- wife, the opportunities for outside employment in this field are far greater than generally recognized. In fact, few fields offer as many opportunities for the employment of women as does home economics. One of the largest areas of employment opportunity is found in teaching. At junior high, senior high, and college levels homemaking teachers are continuously in demand. Work with the homemaking branches at various levels within the Extension Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture is a close second in number of oppor- tunities. Many other homemaking opportunities similarly requiring professional preparation are also available. Interest on the part of business organizations in home economics specialists is constantly growing. Research and testing, the demonstration of new products, and the determination of consumer reactions are illustrative of services especially valued by home appliance manufacturers, food processing concerns, and similar business enterprises. Dietetics, consumer economics, interior decorating, and family and marriage Ree dee Aas ate chk at PERLE SLL IEE LEO LENS OPI ee Be OD ee I es eS 250 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA counseling are other opportunities at the professional level. Oppor- tunities for such homemaking-trained people as restaurant and cafeteria managers, dressmakers, tailors, workers in child care centers, laboratory technicians, and product demonstrators are equally great. A second type of opportunity lies within the homemaking field itself and comes as a kind of challenge. The fact that women are entering the labor force in growing numbers and staying in it longer than ever before raises serious questions with regard to the future of family life in this country. With approximately one-third of our total labor force now made up by women and with three of every ten married women working outside the home (two of every five having children of school age), the pattern of family living at present is far different from anything we have previously known. As yet little research is available to help determine the full impact of this change on family life. Whether it will contribute to stronger family ties through the mutual sharing of home responsibilities, the streamlining of the mechanical jobs of housewifery, increased democratic practices, and wiser decision making on the part of each family member or whether it will contribute to anxiety, frustration, resentment, and delinquency is yet to be determined. Finding ways of teaching home and family life that are applicable to today’s chang- ing conditions and circumstances is one of the great opportunities for the field of homemaking. Another type of opportunity develops from the changing pattern of family life just described. The general pattern for American women today involves marriage before age 21, early childbearing, and then a return to employment. Homemaking and home respon- sibilities no longer are exclusively the woman’s job. All family mem- bers work together for the welfare of the whole group. This shift toward cooperative family relationships emphasizes the need for functional homemaking programs which will reach boys as well as girls and at all levels. The “ready-mix,” the “ready-made,” and the multitude of labor-saving appliances are established; consequently, human relationships should receive greater attention in future homemaking courses. There are many opportunities for broadening the general education aspects of homemaking programs and for in- cluding both boys and girls in the program. Already a demand for LI EL EE ERY RNS STROBE NON RT WR rh Se am ne enti acne HOMEMAKING. 951 mixed classes which deal with the problems of family living has resulted in the establishment of such programs in a number of junior and senior high schools across the country. More can be expected in the future. Still another type of opportunity in the homemaking field is of particular relevance to rural communities. As previously noted, most rural high schools include homemaking experiences as part of their regular curricular offering. That many of these programs are severely limited and fall far short of their potential contribution to the community’s total education effort should also be recognized. As rural areas become increasingly urban oriented and rural and urban family patterns become more alike, there are and will be many new and additional opportunities for reval communities to capitalize on a full and enriched homemaking program. Better family and community life and better home and school relations will both be served. The opportunity is one that demands com- munity action and leadership. ) | ) CHAPTER 14 Trade and Industrial Education—lIts Contributions and Opportunities = INCREASING need for skilled manpower and technicians has been well established. As yet, however, the train- ing of people for such occupations is not keeping pace with the needs. Circumstances, even for present-day labor demands, require the provision of specialized training programs for younger workers, older workers, and women who have not previously been a part of the labor force. The industrial tenor of present-day technology is such that random job selection is no longer adequate. Its inappro- priateness in the future will be even greater. Four out of every ten persons now entering the labor force earn their living in the trades or industries. Some who begin employment in the trades and industries do so with the benefits of a planned preparation which includes apprenticeship or trade preparatory ex- periences. A significant number, however, are forced to enter the labor force in the trades or industries with little or no previous experience or training. The rural-urban composition of the labor force, its geographic distribution, and its mobility demonstrate how a supply of available workers will adjust itself to the work which needs to be done. But the kinds of adjustments frequently necessary handicap utilization of our full potential productivity. Seldom does a worker seeking employment in the labor market have an opportunity to match his skills or abilities to the vacancies for which he is best qualified. Other handicaps and limitations to employment often arise from employer specifications, workers’ personal preferences, personal or educational requirements, and a variety of additional factors includ- Melvin L. Barlow, director of the Division of Vocational Education and asso- ciate professor of education, University of California, Los Angeles, prepared the original draft of Chapter 14. 253 254 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA ing race or national origin. The National Manpower Council, how- ever, acknowledging all the facts of inefficient use of our labor potential, has identified one of the basic problems of the present-day manpower situation as follows: Yet freedom of opportunity is restricted by a condition far more wide- spread and far less obvious than discrimination—the general ignorance among youngsters, and almost equally among their elders, of the myriad of trained personnel required by our complex society. Ignorance of available vocational opportunities can as effectively prevent access to them as restrictions rooted in racial, ethnic, or religious discrimination.1 Rural communities and rural schools are confronted with this general lack of understanding:of employment opportunities the same as other communities and other schools. It may well be that the problem in rural areas is even more acute—not so much in the numbers of people involved as in the lack of ability and resources to effectively make occupational information available. By some means, however, the students who attend rural schools must be made aware of occupations. All must be ready to enter the labor force. The Field of Trade and Industrial Education Since a major obstacle to developing effective vocational programs of trade and industrial education in rural communities is lack of information or misinformation, the field should be described. Its major objectives have been simply and positively stated in terms that have the general approval of practitioners in every state. The two statements of objectives which give a basis for the operating policy of all programs conducted in the public schools throughout the country are: 1. To provide instruction of an extension or supplemental type for the further development of performance skills, technical knowledge, re- lated industrial information, safety, and job judgment for persons already employed in trade and industrial pursuits. 2. To provide instruction of a preparatory type of the development of basic manipulative skills, safety judgment, technical knowledge, and related * National Manpower Council. A Policy for Skilled Manpower. New York: Colum- bia University Press, 1954. p. 266. : : 4 ~My Jeb Ae SM REE AM OAT IIR ANNE THE ance TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 255 eta aone It will be noted that these objectives identify two distinct groups of people to whom the program is directed: (a) persons already | employed and (b) persons preparing for initial employment. While | many aspects of an instruction program for both of these groups tend to be similar, their motivations are different. It is presumed that specific training will provide the employed worker with a wider range of skill, knowledge, understanding, and appreciation of his occupation to the end that he becomes a better producer of goods or services, improves or increases his economic position, and derives | greater satisfaction from his job than was previously the case. This extension phase of a trade and industrial education program is be- coming especially important in rural areas for those engaged in apprenticeship training; the apprentice needs and is required to have formal instruction related to his work experience in the particular trade. The person preparing for initial employment, on the other hand, is desirous of developing the understandings and skills which will qualify him for entry into the occupation of his choice and toward which his training program is directed. Programs of trade and industrial education developed in rural communities should be alert to the need for serving both groups. Every com- munity has among its residents both the employed and those who need preparation for employment. They welcome the assistance an educational program can give. The particular occupations for which training is given vary con- siderably from one program to another. Machinist, television and radio serviceman, p!umber, electrician, meat cutter, auto mechanic, body and fender work, baker, carpenter, chef, welder, stone mason, printer, linotype operator, shoemaker, watch repairman—these are but some of the occupational specialities which might be included. Those an individual community is likely to emphasize in its program tend chiefly to be determined by such local factors as occupational opportunities, the availability of cooperative work-training facilities, and the interests of student-learners. The scope of trade and indus- * Federal Security Agency, U. S. Office of Education. Administration of Vocational Education. Vocational Education Bulletin No. 1. Revised 1948. Washington, D. C.: - Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1949. p. 61. Beak yi Rta le MRS ad Asa ome 256 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA trial education has been defined as any organized training program providing instruction in: 1. An industrial pursuit, skilled or semiskilled trade, craft, or occupation which directly functions in the designing, producing, processing, as- sembling, maintaining, servicing, or repairing of any manufa product. 2. Any service trade or occupation which is not classified as agricultural, business, professional, or homemaking. 3. Other occupations which are usually considered as technical and in which workers such as nurses, laboratory assistants, draftsmen, and technicians are employed.’ This relatively unlimited definition of what might be included in a trade and industrial education program does not identify certain limiting factors which are extremely real to rural schools considering the establishment of a program, particularly the number of persons interested in specific vocational training and the availability of equipment and other instructional necessities. A rural school pro- gram can seldom expect to provide as differentiated a program as the school in a community where larger numbers of students and a broad range of employment and work-training opportunities are available. Such limitations need in no way deter the provision of a program of high quality, however. The point that needs special emphasis is that when any community has carefully studied and determined its instructional needs it is possible to find a way, within the framework of acceptable procedures, to define an appropriate program. The Need for Information and Guidance It is somewhat strange that actual choice of an occupation has not commanded more attention and a greater proportion of school time. While many reasons could be cited to explain this situation, the point is that it is unfortunate when a secondary school permits any of its dropouts or graduates to leave the school environment without some assurance that each has reasonably realistic vocational goals. The exit interview, career day, or the six-weeks’ study of occupations as a part of Senior Problems is hardly sufficient atten- . tion to the matter of vocational choice. Vocational guidance prob- * Ibid. ee EOE EE. Nad OTe ee ek ee eee en Een a a oar TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 257 ably needs to become more of a core program in the secondary school integrated with as much of the subject matter of all regular courses as possible. Economic efficiency as one of the general goals of education is frequently overlooked. Its accomplishment requires attention to each student's interest in occupations and his need to have reliable information concerning possibilities for his own vocational choice. His areas of interest, the vocations in these areas, his aptitudes and abilities, the training requirements, and the employment oppor- tunities are among the things he needs to know. His aspirations must be realistic. The importance of providing information and assistance to students in the area of selecting a vocation rests upon an even more serious consideration than helping them make a transi- tion from school to work. It is in influencing their entire future vocational life. This emphasizes the need in schools for trained counselors. Assisting students in making a vocational choice can- not be entrusted to the hands and imaginations of the untrained or self-appointed. Rural youth have had far too little guidance. For them, choice of a voca- tion is a special problem, since so many must migrate to cities to find employment. They need expert help in thinking through the relative values of rural and urban life and in choosing, preparing for, and entering a vocation. The effective school counselor knows about each young per- son’s achievements and difficulties at home and school, has opportunity to note trends in his development, and is thus in a strategic position to help him develop his potentialities.* The importance and need for vocational guidance in rural schools is demonstrated in every community where effective counseling service is not provided. Consider, for example, how one four-year rural high school (enrollment 170; faculty, 9 teachers and a prin- cipal; curriculum, college preparatory only) handled one of its problems recently. Two of the students, it is recalled, had clearly defined vocational ambitions. Tom wanted to be an electrician and George wanted to be a printer. Both students “pestered” the science teacher (and probably other members of the staff) with their in- terests but received practically no tangible assistance. Both boys ‘Strang, Ruth. “Potentialities of Education in Rural Communities.” Education in Rural Communities. Fifty-First Yearbook, Part II, National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952. Chapter 3, p. 55. 258 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA did well in the work that interested them but neither made much attempt to succeed in other subjects. The science and mathematics teacher hewed to his syllabus, coercing both boys to balance what to them were uninteresting chemical equations and to calculate the number of rods of fence needed to enclose an irregular cow pasture. It seemed not to occur to any member of the faculty that the an- nounced and persistent occupational interests of the boys might have been used to broaden their educational experience. Some slight changes in lesson plans to whet occupational appetites might have been made. The services of the one printer and the one elec- trician who lived in the community might have been enlisted to help resolve a real educational problem. Since efforts of this sort were not made, Tom and George received certificates at the end of their senior year indicating that they “had been in school four years.” They did not graduate. It is difficult to know how much better their school experiences would have been if an effort had been made to secure the coopera- tion of the two master craftsmen in the community and if Tom and George could then have been involved in a well-planned, coor- dinated, work-experience program. Whether English literature might actually have become interesting to them and whether they might have more willingly tolerated algebra cannot now be de- termined. Unfortunately the opportunity to use existing vocational resources was completely overlooked. Planning and Operating a Trade and Industrial Education Program At one time rural people were required to travel far from their home community to find industrial employment. Improved trans- portation and industrial decentralization has reduced this distance. Industrial employment is now easily accessible to nearly every rural community, and increasing numbers of industrial workers are seeking the advantages of rural living. Their proportion among rural residents increases with each estimate made. It is recognized that the geographical location of rural schools in relation to the industrial experiences and employment opportunities is still a problem to some extent. The most urgent problem for rural schools, however, lies within the schools themselves. Rural , Ys tp AN a TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 259 educators tend simply not to be aware of what can and is being done in this area. Programs of trade and industrial education have been maintained in schools near the industrial areas for many years, and most educators in metropolitan areas are reasonably well in- formed regarding their organization and operation. The teachers, administrators, and school boards in rural communities generally lack such information and experience. This is detrimental to the vocational objectives of rural students who might well find job satisfaction from employment in the trades and industries. How Does a Community Begin? Every state has one or more specialists in the area of trade and industrial education. In most instances these persons are staff mem- bers of the state education department. Their services are available to every public school in the state to assist in the organization and development of trade and industrial education. Generalizations about program development in rural schools are difficult to make because there are always a number of variables. The size of the school, the nature of the community, the presence or absence of industrial development, the interests and abilities of students, parents desires, previous practices in vocational education, and other factors enter into determining the course an individual school might profitably pursue. Consultants from the state education de- partment or the state university who are specialists in trade and industrial education can be most helpful. Their advice and assist- ance are seldom offered without invitation, however. As a school undertakes to study its own particular problems and makes plans to improve and expand its contributions to the voca- tional goals of students, it usually is desirable to begin by finding out what the faculty and administration of the school really know about trade and industrial education. Many excellent ideas can be drawn from faculty understanding of the local and larger com- munity. Such ideas, along with previous experience in trade and in- dustrial education and the consultation of ‘persons outside the school, can give direction to change in accord with actual industrial needs and opportunities. “Perhaps the migration of youth from the farm means. . . more training in industrial skills for rural youth. Certainly it means that nee ae ener eT eT ee ae ee OO we ee ee, we ee ee oe 260 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA rural education can never be provincial education if it is to be in tune with current social trends.” One rural superintendent approached the organization of a program for his community in the following manner. He invited specialists in trade and industrial education from the state education department, the state university, and from several nearby metropolitan area school systems to an informal meeting. He opened the discussion by acknowledging that the local school did not offer a program in the field of trade and industrial education, that a relatively large proportion of for- mer students found employment in this area and many currently enrolled were interested in training possibilities, but that he and the faculty simply did not know what to do or where to begin. The group offered many suggestions. A number of additional meetings followed before all the necessary facts could be brought together and adequate plans completed. From this informal beginning a modest trade and industrial education program was begun. Sub- sequent industrial development near the community has facilitated substantial growth of the program. In another small community the superintendent felt that the general lack of information concerning trade and industrial educa- tion prevented his school from offering an appropriate program. With surprisingly little effort he was able to have a comprehensive seminar on vocational education conducted for the benefit of his local staff by personnel from the state education department and the state university (at no cost to the district). With complete faculty support and cooperation, a program of trade and industrial education was initiated. The superintendent and faculty in still another rural community were much better informed in the area of trade and industrial education. During one school year with the help of state specialists in trade and industrial education they mapped out a summer pro- gram of study and research designed to solve their own problems. Since then, the Toms and Georges in this community have had a .. much better “break.” The faculty found out what might be done and then did it. * Moore, Hollis A., Jr. “National Conference Charts Next Decade in Rural Educa- tion.” Nation’s Schools 54:126; November 1954. TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 261 As illustrated by these brief descriptions, there is probably no one way, no single formula, by which a community might best go about the task of studying its needs and establishing a trades and industries program. Perhaps the most important single thing every community should know is that consultative help is available to assist in any or all phases of program development—study, planning, organization. The Nature of the Program Classes in trade extension enroll most of the students in the area of trade and industrial education; they are designed for employed workers who desire to increase their skill and knowledge in the occupations in which they are presently working. The need for such training may be determined by brief surveys of employed workers in a local area and can be verified by advisory committees. Apprenticeship training constitutes another large part of the trade and industrial program. An apprentice, employed under the provisions of state or federal law, must spend a certain amount of time each year during his apprenticeship in school in related in- struction predominately of a scientific-mathematics nature. In cooperation with appropriate apprenticeship committees, most of the states have prepared instructional material for use in apprentice- ship classes or have designated material from other states as appropriate for instruction for certain groups of apprentices. All-day trade training of several types is provided for full-time students who have made an appropriate occupational selection and desire to obtain the basic skills and related technical knowledze required for entry into the occupation of their choice. The usii organization of a program for these students would have half of each school day devoted to instruction in practical work on a useful and productive basis and the remainder devoted to the study of other school subjects. Cooperative training for diversified occupations is especially applicable to the needs of small communities. The objective of cooperative training is to provide vocational training through cooperation of the school and industrial and business establish- ments for groups of youth, 16 years of age and over, whose individual . employment objectives may differ and whose cooperative agreements Oe ee Sat ad a ne ea eee Se ee ee ee ne 0 fare neernrsinnt am abe en einer - pan aA NAA OE . 262 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA provide for legal employment, systematic training on the job, and supple- mentary instruction in the school. Such instruction is widely used to provide training opportunities for high school boys and girls.® A cooperative training program is frequently the logical starting place for smaller communities interested in the trade and industrial field; for many it is the only possible way to begin. The cost of equipping shops to train students in a variety of industrial occupa- tions is more than most small communities can meet; in a coopera- tive program the machinery, tools, and other facilities of local industrial plants are used. Instead of employing a nuraber of specialized teachers competent for the diversified occupational interests of even a relatively small number of students, a single teacher-coordinator in a cooperative program can provide the re- lated instruction given in the school and can work with the on-the- job craftsmen-teachers of the industrial plants. This cooperative approach to trade and industrial education offers rural communities many possibilities for a high quality program with a minimum investment in facilities and personnel. Teachers of Trade and Industrial Subjects A good teacher is the most valuable asset to any educational program. All states have some provisions for the training of teachers of trade and industrial subjects. Inherent in all preparation plans for teachers of the trades and industries is the concept of occupa- tional competency. It is absolutely imperative that the instructor be a master craftsman. In order for students to select occupations in which to pursue a training program, they need to have available both up-to-date occupational information and the wise counsel and guidance of teachers who have more than a casual understanding of the occupations. It is not possible to equate desirable teacher characteristics and extensive educational achievement to the work experience gained by the craftsman. The Saturday afternoon car- penter, as skillful as he may be, cannot substitute effectively for the journeyman carpenter. A teacher of trade and industrial education must have lived the trade or occupation he is to teach. As rural communities, either individually or in cooperation with others in some type of area vocational education program, are able *U. S. Office of Education, Federai Security Agency, op. cit., p. 67. POOL ELE OE AIL LE NINE LAELIA OLDIE TEM ME TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 263 to institute programs in the area of trade and industrial occupa- tions, the occupational competency of the teachers selected to work with the training of students should be a primary concern. Numerous personal characteristics also contribute to the effective- ness of the teacher and it is not intended here that these should be overlooked. Good vocational teachers can be secured. Many of those now teaching in trade and industrial education have sub- stantial trade experience, remarkable educational achievements, and a more than ample supply of the important, though hard to define, desirable personal qualities. The Advisory Committee An item of major importance in the planning and operation of a trade and industrial education prog m in any school is the selec- tion of an appropriate local advisory committee. Frequently a separate advisory committee consisting of representatives of man- agement, labor, and education is established for each occupational area in which training is given. All successful programs have ad- visory committees; their activities insure against unrealistic practices and procedures. | The effective use of employer and employee groups in guiding a trade and industrial education program is currently being demon- strated in one of the large junior colleges of California where more than 50 active advisory committees have been organized. Since each of these committees holds a regular monthly meeting in one of the conference rooms of the junior college, two or three such meet- ings are held concurrently nearly every day. Good working relation- ships between the school and the industries has been one of the outcomes of this regular meeting together. Far more important, however, is the continuous advice these committees give to assure school administrators that the vocational training programs are not only up to date but are actually meeting real industriai needs. Blind approaches to providing a trade and industrial education program often result when the school does not involve advisory assistance. The experience of one smaller school system will illus- tratc. Aware that many of their students needed vocational training the school administrator and faculty felt that something should be done. Their proposal to the board of education was approved and 264 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA with great hopes ond enthusiasm a program was begun. Their be- ginning was a modest attempt to provide the technical education needed for one occupational area. They were able to accomplish this by rearranging certain of their existing curricular offerings and using the special skills of faculty members in classes for carefully selected students. Unfortunately, it was discovered after several years of operation that the students who completed the were not readily employable. Their instruction did not lead to entry in any particular occupation. In their enthusiasm for the program, teachers and administrators had completely overlooked the real educational requirements of the occupations to which their training program was geared. The success of a trade and industrial education program depends on many things in addition to the organization of advisory com- mittees. The advisory committee can do much, however, to keep a program on the right track and assist the school program to achieve its desired goals. Some Points of View The imperative need for skilled manpower places increasingly greater responsibility upon the rural community to provide an opportunity for its students to acquire vocational skills as a part of their educational preparation for life. When a thorowgh program of vocational guidance and counseling has assisted these students to make realistic vocational choices, their educational efforts become more meaningful because they aye directly related to one of the most occupying and significant roles in life—work. This is not to say that other areas of education lack importance. It merely calls atten- tion to the tendency for educators to underestimate and overlook the total contributions of programs in vocational education. It sug- gests that some of the goals of general education can often be realized more effectively in the subject matter of specific occupa- tional preparation than at any other place. It is false to assume that giving attention to industrial training in school de-emphasizes the importance of individual growth. Educators should be acutely aware of the fact that occupational success depends upon the mastery of certain technical skills, hand in hand with other areas of educational and personal growth. TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 265 The challenge to American education, therefore, is the develop- ment of an effective combination of the specific skills of an occupa- tion with desirable general and personal traits and qualities. Educa- tional literature frequently has pointed out the importance of this blending of the general and the specific. While general and liberal education needs to focus attention more clearly on the careers of students, vocational education needs to concern itself increasingly with the cultivation of humane personal qualities in indi- viduals. As far as the individual student is concerned, general and voca- tional education have no distinct boundary line separating them. More harmonious integration of general education and liberal education will best serve the interests of individuals and of the nation.” Greene, in writing about a liberal, christian, idealistic philosophy of education, expresses the thought as follows: What is obviously needed is a truly liberal academic community in which the study of art and typewriting, of philosophy and accounting, of theology and medicine, of pure and applied science, are, though ad- mittedly very different, judged to be equally honorable and valuable in their several ways. In such a community the so-called liberal disciplines would indeed be liberal because they would be studied and taught with an eye to the total enrichment of the life of responsible members of a free society; and in such a community the acquisition of the vocational skills, from the simplest to the most complex, would be equally liberal because they would be taught, not in a spirit of predatory egoism, but in a deep social concern for the needs of others and for the common good.® Most of the students now in school will find employment in the trades and industries at some level, depending upon the total con- tribution they can and wish to make. Some may work in the same occupation for 40 years or more. Others will need to adapt them- selves to changing occupational demands. The direction of indus- trial development is such that every person now entering employ- ment must have a better background of preparation than has pre- viously been necessary. The new technical occupations developed during just the past few years emphasize the breadth and depth 7 National Education Association and American Association of School Administrators, Educational Policies Commission. Manpower and Education. Washington, D. C.: the Commission, 1956. p. 70-71. ® Greene, Theodore M. “A Liberal Christian Idealist Philosophy of Education.” Modern Philosophies and Education. Fifty-Fourth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955. Chapter 4, p. 119. PLOT LOLA YEE RD ALERT UOMO! WLLL TE LEAP EG IA LOE A LIU EDO De 0CAY FO 5 oe 266 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA that must be developed and maintained in vocational education programs. Many schools are now aware of the need for additional voca- tional education programs and are making preparations geared to the requirements for manpower in the new technological age. National committees and commissions are conducting meetings to define and determine proper courses to follow in order to provide the best education possible and to meet the demands of industrial- social development. It will indeed be unfortunate if students in rural communities, because of an accident of geography, are denied opportunity to find a place in a trade and industrial education program. : Any rural community that is willing to look squarely at the future will discover vast areas of opportunity—new opportunities—different from what most have known in the past. They will find that the technological age will require the services of more men and women and that more youth from rural schools will enter the labor force in occupations of a technological nature. Many will enter occupa- tions unknown a decade ago. A large share of the technical training all will need lies within the area of trade and industrial education. PRAIA EE AES NONI PLEMENT TELLER IEE IIE AFH cannes esi D CHAPTER 15 Industrial Arts—lIts Contributions and Opportunities Tw FirsT settlers who came to this country were forced to produce nearly everything needed for their existence and comfort. They raised or gathered their food and raw materials and processed them in the home into usable and consumable forms. Members of a family worked together. The children shared what- ever chores and duties they were capable of performing. In the day-to-day, season-to-season, and year-to-year kind of living which characterized that period in our history, most of each child’s “education” was acquired in the home. He learned from his parents, copied adult methods, practiced skills, and acquired his knowledge through the practical and necessary activities upon which life de- pended. He learned how to hunt and fish, raise crops, cure hides, card wool, grind flour, make furniture, preserve food, bake bread, make clothing, and forge iron into tools. Few of life’s necessities were outside the scope of what a tamily could do for itself. What has happened since is well known. Industrialization, com- mercialization, and specialization have taken over. It is true that the shift has been gradual, but it has been unrelenting in its direc- tion. Interdependence has steadily increased. Families now pur- chase most of the goods and services they need to maintain a satisfactory level of living and depend on others for its production and processing. Their purchases are made out of returns received from their own specialized contributions to economic activity. — William R. Mason, director, Industrial Arts Education, Board of Education, Cleve- land, Ohio, prepared the original draft of Chapter 15. He was assisted by the follow- ing: Leven Hill, head of the Industrial Arts Department, Bowling Green University, Bowling Green, Ohio; Merle Leggett, supervisor of industrial arts, Medina County Board of Education, Medina, Ohio; F. Theodore Paige, Department of Industrial Arts, Ohio University, Athens; William Stoner, Department of Industrial Arts, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio; and E. W. Tischendorf, head of the Industrial Arts Depart- ment, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio. 269 EOL NERS EM IGE ELIE PIPL IE EIEIO NEE sil de BPRS ORL AALS OLELA LORE LOOLA RA ere 270 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA industrial Arts as a Curriculum Area The specialization and interdependence developed with respect to methods of producing and processing has had a substantial in- fluence on education. Nearly all of the “how-to-do-it” types of learning opportunities children once had in their homes have now disappeared. This shift, too, has been gradual, but today few chil- dren, rural or urban, have much opportunity for practical, mani- pulative-type work experiences at home. Only where paren‘s con- sciously make an effort to teach their children some of the basic manual and tool skills do children enjoy the learning opportunities that were once a regular part of family living. And the number of homes in which parents are willing to make such a “sacrifice” of time is small indeed. The Development of Industrial Arts The tendency for homes to relinquish instruction in practical skills began during the earliest phase of industrialization. Activities formerly carried on in the home became less necessary as goods and services were increasingly available from other sources. And since whatever home instruction was provided had always been limited to “essentials,” the range began to narrow rapidly. A few educators began to be concerned about what they saw developing. They recognized that academic subjects alone did not sufficiently prepare young people for living. They were especially concerned for chil- dren of the working classes, and they wished to provide laboratory experiences designed to develop the handtool skills which might make it possible for them better to earn a livelihood, to appreciate the dignity of work, and to understand production and processing. The fact that the Imperial Russian Schools exhibit at the Philadel- phia Centennial Exposition gave this idea impetus is history. So also are John D. Runkle’s introduction in 1876 of manual training for boys at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the founding, by C. M. Woodward, of the St. Louis Manual Training School. The idea spread and the number of school shops increased rapidly. For four decades manual training thrived and was the family name applied to all school shop work, both public and private. Ce EOI ET PEPE LEY 5 IPAS > eos WARY aha 23 Se eer ee INDUSTRIAL ARTS 271 A change of emphasis began gradually to develop in these pro- grams, however. The series of increasingly complex and formal hand-skill exercises which made up most manual training programs gave way to the construction of articles of utilitarian value. More attention was given to design and use, and a much broader range of materials and activities was introduced. The term “manual train- ing” no longer seemed to apply and was replaced by manual arts. A range of activities that included woodworking, mechanical draw- ing, metal work, printing, leather work, jewelry making, clay work, and bookbinding gave students and instructors substantial room for flexibility and variation in choosing and designing specific projects. The manual arts concept was not destined to last, however, for the emphasis in this type of instruction again shifted. This was the time in our educational development when concentrated attention to the learner, his needs, his motivations and his reactions was get- ting under way. All educational activities, it was felt, should be considered in terms of their contribution to well-defined educational ends. Educators began to recognize that in manual activities and the programs designed to develop manual skills there was great opportunity for even broader educational and guidance pur- poses to be achieved. Coupled with this expanding concept of pur- poses were increasing industrialization and machine production, and the name “manual arts” gave way to industrial arts, the term current!y in use to designate this curriculum area. Industrial Arts Today Today industrial arts is considereci primarily to be that phase of general education which has as its chief concern the materials, processes, and products of manufacture and the contributions of those engaged in industry. It is a curriculum area rather than a subject or a course. In many schools instruction in industrial arts begins in the elementary grades. It usually is required of all boys (in some schools girls as well) at the junior high-school level. In the high school a more varied array of specialized courses is usually offered, almost always elective. Many communities also provide an industrial arts program or “shop” course for adults. Although there persists some tendency to regard industrial arts as preparation for a vocation, it is not so considered by those who work 272 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA in the field. Such terms as “prevocational” or “exploratory” are often associated with its purposes, but its partisans make a strong case for its general educational and guidance values completely aside from any specific vocational purposes. Through experiences with tools and materials, it attempts to teach an appreciation and understanding of the industrial nature of the society in which every boy or girl or adult in America must live. One of the key emphases throughout this Yearbook has been that there is a real difficulty in separating or differentiating between what is general, or liberal, education and what might be considered vocational. Moreover, it has been repeatedly pointed out that attempts to describe such a dichotomy actually have little value inasmuch as all education is a blending of the general and the vocational. Subject content in the physical sciences, for example, might be strictly liberal education for one individual and vocational education for another. It is also recognized that industrial arts, often imperceptibly, becomes increasingly more vocational as stu- dents elect advanced courses. The mere fact of election is evidence of student interest in the particular line of work. In addition, the depth to which certain skill areas are explored in some advanced industrial arts courses approaches trade training, even if such was not the original intention. Industrial Arts Objectives To some extent geography and environment influence the content of industrial arts programs. Programs in highly industrialized com- munities will often have a tendency toward metal work and fabrica- tion. Woodworking courses often receive greater emphasis in lumbering areas. Similar vocational programs in different communi- _ ties will feature, to a greater or lesser degree, printing, welding, ceramics, or handicrafts as a reflection of dominant local economic pursuits. But the industrial arts program is sufficiently flexible to accommodate such special tendencies, emphases, or omissions, for the objectives of industrial arts are broader than the specific skills or processes. Some importance and value is placed on skill develop- ment, but the tendency is to regard such activity as a means or vehicle through or by which other purposes may be achieved. The American Vocational Association has identified nine objec- tives commonly emphasized by the literature in the field of industrial INDUSTRIAL ARTS 273 arts. These are the development of attitudes and understandings which lead to: 1. Interest in Industry. To develop in each pupil an active interest in industrial life and in the methods and probiems of production and exchange. 2. Appreciation and Use. To develup in each pupil the appreciation of good design and workmanship and the ability to select, care for, and use industrial products wisely. 3. Self-realization and Initiative. To develop in each pupil habits of self- reliance and resourcefulness in meeting practical situations. 4. Cooperative Attitudes. To develop in each pupil a readiness to assist * others and to join happily in group undertakings. 5. Health and Safety. To develop in each pupil desirable attitudes and practices with respect to health and safety. 6. Interest in Achievement. To develop in each pupil a feeling of pride in his ability to do useful things and to develop worthy leisure-time interests. 7. Orderly Performance. To develop in each pupil the habit of an orderly, complete, and efficient performance of any task. 8. Drawing and Design. To develop in each pupil an understanding of drawings and the ability to express ideas by means of drawing. 9. Shop Skills and Knowledge. To develop in each pupil a measure of skill in the use of common tools and machines and an understanding of the problems involved in common types of construction and repair. As can be seen from such objectives, industrial arts utilizes the processes and products of industry as its means or method of achiev- ing general education ends. Programs are designed to give orienta- tion to and understanding of the complex, specialized, and industrial characteristics of present-day living. That the development of shop skills and knowledge is included as the last of the stated objectives is some indication of the relative importance this area is given in industrial arts programs. Nevertheless, most industrial arts teachers would readily subscribe to the adage of “what is worth doing is worth doing right.” Generally, it can be observed that the degree to which shop skills are developed by pupils depends upon the de- gree to which the teacher himself has developed these same skills and to which he stresses them in his classes. Actually, it is difficult to separate the development of knowledge from the development 2 American Vocational Association. Guide to Improving Instruction in Industrial Arts. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1953. p. 18. 274 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA of skills in an industrial arts program. The two seem to go hand in hand. {n fact, it remains largely for the teacher to determine the degree of success to which any of the objectives are accomplished. And how much pupils develop in any of the desired areas will de- pend upon the importance the teacher places on each. Any objective will be developed to a high degree only in shops having successful, enthusiastic, and energetic teachers. The Industrial Arts Program Since industrial arts programs are designed to provide a general orientation to industry rather than the development of a high level of competence in specific industrial skills, an almost limitless flexibility in content and activities is possible without detracting from such purposes. Most programs attempt to provide as many different kinds of experiences with tools, materials, and processes as possible, but industrial arts objectives can successfully be achieved through instruction in only a limited number. The local situation may limit work experiences in all the potential areas, may result in particular emphases, or may give opportunities for projects in some areas and not in others; but such program details should not change or deter the understandings and attitudes that are to be developed on the part of all children. Woodworking and carpentry, electricity, sheet metal work and welding, mechanics, printing, masonry, ceramics, mechanical draw- ing, and handicrafts are some of the areas in which instruction is most frequently given. To a large extent such instruction might be described as a laboratory type. The teacher describes and demon- strates methods and tool processes; then pupils are given an oppor- tunity to try out what has been learned under teacher supervision. The skills demonstrated are copied by the pupils. They are practiced until mastered to a degree commensurate with each pupil's age and ability. In most industrial arts programs pupils apply what they learn and get additional practice in specific skills through work on projects which are of special interest to them. The teacher must help each pupil in planning his project to make certain that the information, skills, and methods outlined for the particular area and level of INDUSTRIAL ARTS: 275 instruction are incorporated. This project method of teaching has proven most effective. It has been said that “what the mind attends it learns.” The projects demonstrate that the application of infor- mation in making something useful keeps student interest high. The range of pupil projects and the things they make or build are as varied as their interests. The type of project will also vary according to the educational level of the student and his previous industrial arts experience. A recent state industrial arts exhibit in- cluded the following items among the projects developed by junior high-school pupils: coffee tables, boats, lamps, fly traps, a motor scooter, ceramics, pet cages, models, camping equipment, block prints, towel holders, a bobsled, floor scrapers, stools, dairy record boards, tote carts, electric door openers, and hay tongs. Within a single class there will be many different kinds of individual projects. Teachers encourage pupils to select projects which involve a variety of experiences in as many areas as the shop has facilities and oppor- tunity. Additional projects are usualiy selected or assigned to give pupils experiences in areas not covered in their previous projects. It can be seen that different pupil abilities and interests can be accommodated through such projects. The level of difficulty and the level of skills involved make adjustments easy. The individuality of the approach permits pupils to advance at their own rate. When the industrial arts teacher analyzes each of his pupils in terms of interests, skills, and previous experiences, he is usually able to de- termine his particular needs. The challenge to the industrial arts teacher is to help in the development of all pupils, the superior and the mediocre alike, by inspiring them to do their best. Through proper project selection, superior teachers can help every pupil complete projects which give him a sense of accomplishment and pride. Industrial Arts Facilities Because industrial arts courses vary somewhat in content among schools and communities, the shops in which the classes are taught may also be equipped differently. Generally, there are three major _types of shops in the industrial arts area: 1. Unit shop. The unit shop is a specialized facility. Since it is designed for concentration on specific single units of work, it normally is utilized nmcsntmcensennnssttone ETE 276 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA only in schools which can provide a number of separate shops. A furni- ture- and cabinet-making shop limited to such activities would be an example of a shop of this type. 2. General unit shop. A general unit shop is also somewhat specialized, but it includes several areas of instruction in a broad general work area. In a woodworking shop there would be provision for pattern making, wood crafts, cabinet making, finishing, and the like. In a school with such a facility there would probably also be an electrical shop, metal shop, print shop, and shops in such other areas as might be included in the industrial arts program. 3. General shop. The most common type of shop in smaller schools is the general shop. A general shop is designed for multiple use and mul- tiple activities. It might provide areas within the same shop for draft- ing, woodworking, metal work, electricity, graphic arts, or some other combination of activities. The general shop is particularly suited to schools in rural and suburban areas, in schools able to have only one or two industrial arts teachers. Its organization in these situations permits effective teaching and broad program content to a much greater extent than would a more specialized shop. It permits exploratory experiences with many different kinds of materials, tools, and processes. The general industrial arts shop in a rural community usually pro- vides facilities for electricity, metal working and welding, wood- working and carpentry, automotives, mechanical drawing, and handicrafts. The room would be equipped in the metals area with an anvil, a forge, welding equipment, a lathe, and possibly a shaper and grinder. The woodworking area would have a circular saw, band saw, jigsaw, wood lathes, a sander, and usually a jointer and surfacer. The handicrafts area would be equipped for ceramics, leather work, and model building. The areas for electricity and automotives would be similarly equipped. Provision of space for a library and planning area is also desirable. Whenever possible, this area should be partitioned off from the rest of the shop. In- dustrial arts shops should be so designed and equipped that accom- modations for adult classes would also be possible. The general shop is organized on the basis of assigning groups of pupils to each of the several work areas and then rotating the groups for different kinds of activities and experiences, each group being considered as a separate class. In some instances this rotation plan for groups is based on a specified period of weeks in each work area. INDUSTRIAL ARTS 277 Such procedures are particularly suited to the beginning and ex- ploratory classes. The general shop is equally adapted to advanced classes where the pupil's work or projects are planned to include all or several of the activities offered in the program. The various types of facilities and equipment make it possible for pupils to work con- tinuously on their projects regardless of the various work areas in- volved. Since the aim of industrial arts instruction is to give ex- periences ii: related lines of work rather than to develop trade pro- ficiency in any one of them, the more advanced groups can have valuable and profitable learning opportunities through the diversified facilities of a general shop. Industrial Arts in Rural Communities Many rural youths have an advantage over their city cousins in this educational area. A much larger proportion of them grow up with some kind of workshop facilities available to them at home. Power tools of various kinds are relatively common to many farm boys, and practically all rural young people learn to improvise from their earliest days of childhood. The do-it-yourself trend that has relatively recently developed among city dwellers has always existed in rural areas. Recognition of these advantages is not intended to indicate that the home experiences of rural youth are an adequate substitute for the attitudes, understandings, and skills toward which the industrial arts program is directed. At best, they give rural pupils only a very slight edge. To a very large extent the interests and home life of rural and urban children are much alike, and similarities increase with the rural-urban blending that our country now is experiencing. The mechanization and electrification of farms, the decentralization of industry, and the increased number of nonfarm workers who commute to employment centers all contribute to this decreasing distinctiveness between rural and urban life. Comparisons between industrial arts programs in rural and urban schools show that, if any major differences exist, they are chiefly a reflection of the size of the community the school serves. There are no differences in objectives. Geography and environment do tend to influence the work areas which the program will offer or emphasize, 278 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA but these differences are as great among cities as they are between cities and rural areas. Geography and environment influence city and country youth and city and country industrial arts programs in much the same manner. Perhaps the greatest area for developing a specific rural flavor in an industrial arts program will be with the individual projects which pupils undertake. Projects which contribute directly to a farm or 4-H Club activity or to some other rural interest are especially suitable and desirable. The experience of industrial arts programs shows that variations in project activities are not nearly as great as might be expected, however. Since pupils select projects on a basis of their special interests, it becomes almost necessary to conclude that the interests of youth are strikingly similar without regard to community setting. Almost any industrial arts exhibit at a state level will show the same types of furniture, the same kinds of cabinets, and the same trends in design as project features for both rural and city schools. State fair catalogs listing junior and senior high- school divisions further bear this out. There are numerous groups and agencies ready and willing to assist rural schools and their industrial arts programs. In recent years farm equipment dealers, industry, and public utility com- panies, among others, have welcomed opportunities to be of service to schools. Films, charts, diagrams, pictures, and other types of visual materials on almost every phase of industrial arts work are available for the asking. Trips through processing and manufac- turing plants are easy to arrange. Nearly all rural electrification cooperatives are able and anxious to provide instructional materials which are extremely valuable in teaching practical phases of the use and consumption of electricity on the farm. Such course material is often prepared specifically for school use through the joint efforts of electrification cooperative representatives and local teachers. Frequently, demonstration panels are prepared to help teachers show the ways in which power is brought into the home or the barn, new ways of wiring and lighting, and new types of controls and fuse boxes. Materials dealing with the use and care of motors, pumps, and electric milkers, the importance of safety in working with electrical circuits, and the effect of overloading wires and INDUSTRIAL ARTS- 279 fuses are but a few illustrations of valuable teaching aids readily available. Industrial arts opportunities in rural areas have been expanded greatly in recent years in most parts of the country where school district reorganization and consolidation have taken place. Further expansions can be expected, since changing educational organization in rural areas is continuing, and further expansions are needed. Many rural students do not now have an opportunity for experiences such as those which industrial arts programs attempt to provide. This shortage of opportunities is equally great in the more specific vocational areas. The shortage of industrial arts opportunities in rural schools calls for expansion. However, staffing additional programs with ade- quately trained teachers appears to be a great problem for school administrators at the time of this writing. Undoubtedly, there are numerous reasons for a national shortage of industrial arts teachers, but such shortages must indeed seem strange to those already teach- ing in this field. Surely, they must wonder why all boys who like people, who have an interest in mechanics, who get satisfaction out of creating, and who like to help others develop in skills and under- standing are not clamoring to get into the profession. There are few jobs which offer more personal satisfaction, better working con- ditions, or greater sense of accomplishment. ee ae CHAPTER 16 Vocational Guidance— Its Contributions and Opportunities Msicowss supply and utilization have be- come growing concerns of our nation. Considerable attention is directed currently to problems of wastage of talent, identification of gifted, and, in general, to an existing crisis in the development and conservation of our human resources. Proper development and utilization of human talent represents one of the most important considerations facing any nation in its effort to achieve maximum cultural and economic progress. Vocational guidance in its philos- ophy and practice holds a significant relationship to these objec- tives. Our democratic concept of vocational guidance leads us to devote primary attention to the developmental needs and interests of the individual, and, through this, to the ultimate concern for the manpower needs of society. In the face of an urgent need to meet manpower demands, some danger exists that authoritarian policies might influence the philos- ophy and methods of vocational guidance. Super examines this issue carefully and contrasts the role of guidance in terms of human development and manpower utilization. He concludes that although an emphasis on manpower utilization may exist in certain social struc- tures, it is quite clear that the principle of freedom of choice and self-determination predominates in democratic societies. Ultimately, of course, any adequate program of vocational guidance will en- deavor to serve effectively both the interests of the individual and, through him, the needs of society. The interrelationship of these two objectives has been succinctly expressed: “Vocational counseling Willis E. Dugan, professor of educational psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, prepared the original draft of Chapter 16. 4Super, Donald E. “Guidance: Manpower Utilization or Human Development?” Personnel and Guidance Journal 33:8-14; September 1954. 281 282 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA has two fundamental purposes: to help people make good vocational adjustments and to facilitate the smooth functioning of the social economy through the effective use of manpower.” Guidance and Technological Change Although notable progress has been made in this century in the improvement of educational and vocational guidance, much remains to be done. The improvement of vocational guidance services is one of our most pressing educational problems. Increasingly large enrollments of youth in our schools and a high “holding power” have meant both a wider diversity in terms of abilities, and an in- creased complexity of educational and vocational adjustment prob- lems. In addition to the recent “population explosion,” which has accentuated our need to identify and develop all levels of human talent, there has occurred a “technological explosion,” which has resulted in marked changes in vocational needs and opportunities.* Choosing a career has always been a serious business for American youth. However, the task of making an appropriate and satisfying vocational decision is even more serious and difficult today. With more than 30,000 different kinds of jobs in our world of work and some kind of specialized training required for many of these, high-school graduates and young beginning workers quickly face the necessity of giving careful attention to appropriate avenues of further training and eventual life work.* The President's Com- mittee on Education Beyond the High School concludes that the occupational outlook emphasizes the need for education and also makes pertinent forecasts which hold significance for both guidance and educational practice.’ If present trends continue, this com- mittee reports, the various career fields in our labor force will *Super, Donald E. Appraising Vocational Fitness. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949. p. 1. *See, for example, National Education Association and American Association of School Administrators, Educational Policies Commission. Manpower and Education. Washington, D. C.: the Commission, 1956. 128 p. ‘See Greenleaf, Walter J. Occupations, A Basic Course for Counselors. U. S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Vocational Division Bulletin No. 247. Wash- ington, D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1951. 193 p. °The President’s Committee for Education Beyond the High School. Second Report to the President. Washington, D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1957. 108 p. eee ee ee oe ee ee ee ee Te. ee ee ae ee ee ee ae eee eee ee ee ee ee eee ee VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 283 undergo great change. The number of laborers and farm workers will gradually decline in the next 10 years. Skilled workers will be increasingly required. Professional and technical careers will rise sharply. Some types of skills may become obsolete in our fast- moving society, so the Committee urges a sound education to provide a basis for adjustment to constant and abrupt change—a base upon which new skills may be built. In his examination of vocational guidance as related to manpower policy, Bray offers a helpful review of principles underlying effective vocational guidance practice in a world of rapid technological change.® Support for Vocational Guidance Guidance as an educational philosophy and program of specific services holds the most favorable and influential position in its history. Thoughtful policy statements of prominent educational commissions and other national groups concerned with human re- sources are outspoken in their support for extended and improved programs of guidance and counseling for youth. The National Man- power Council, a foundation-supported body with representatives from government, business, labor, and education, has since 1951 stressed the important role of vocational guidance in conserving and developing human resources. Among the several important publications of the Council, one policy statement devotes consider- able emphasis to vocational guidance and makes four important recommendations for the development of a more effective voca- tional guidance program: 1. State and local governments and boards of education recognize that the provision of essential educational and vocational guidance services is a major responsibility of secondary education by increasing sub- stantially and rapidly the funds and staff available for guidance and counseling purposes. 2. School officials use their guidance and counseling staff primarily for vocational guidance purposes and, when expanded resources of staff and funds permit, also for counseling students with personal adjustment problems. 3. School officials make vocational guidance available no later than the ninth year and have it continue throughout the high school course, *Bray, Douglas W. “Vocational Guidance in National Manpower Policy.” Personnel and Guidance Journal 34:194-99; December 1955. — ik as al 284 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMIQRICA and that they assign to the classroom teacher major responsibility for helping the student to make sound educational and occupational decisions. 4. School officials take the lead in their communities to assure a vigorous cooperative effort, in which industry, business, labor, government, the armed services, and civic groups participate, to provide occupational information and other types of assistance essential for effective voca- tional guidance.” The American Personnel and Guidance Association recently has issued a statement of policy concerning the nation’s problems in human resources which upholds the following principles: 1. Freedom to choose one’s life work is basic to our democratic society and is necessary to the fullest possible growth of individuals. 2. In order for freedom to flourish: a. Students must learn, at successive levels of education, progressively more about themselves—their interests, talents, values, and abilities —through assistance in interpreting test results, educational experi- ences, and personality potentials. b. Students must learn about the large, complex, and changing world _ of career opportunities. c. Students should be motivated to explore the best outlets for their talents. d. Students must be instilled with a sense of responsibility, and a feeling of “stewardship” in the use of their talents. 3. Professional counselors must be available in elementary and secondary schools and colleges, where, in cooperation with teachers, they can help students understand their potentialities, the educational choices to train those potentialities, and the career possibilities especially suit- able for particular potentialities. There, also, skillful counselors can encourage these students to try out their potentialities. 4. The appalling waste of human resources can be reduced by providing guidance and personnel facilities within our educational institutions that make it possible for young people to plan their careers and the education necessary to achieve their careers. 5. Counselors have a profound obligation to individuals and to our society to assist students in making their career and educational plans in terms of their potentialities, as well as in terms of the uses to which these potentialities can be placed in our society. Students whose future contributions and prospects of self-fulfillment can be greater in fields other than science and technology should be encouraged to develop in these fields. "National Manpower Council. A Policy for Skilled Manpower. A Statement and Recommendations. New York: Columbia University Press, 1954. p. 5-6. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 285 6. In order to make the fullest use of scholarships and testing programs, it is necessary to have an adequate staff of professional counselors, assuring every student the opportunity to plan his future wisely. With- out suitable counseling assistance, testing, scholarships, and other aids cannot be fully effective. Talents can be identified by means of counseling and testing, and through observation of students by teachers. What happens to those talents—whether or not they are ever developed —depends largely upon the counseling functions in our schools and colleges.® This statement of policy underscores vigorously a basic philosophy which has wide acceptance and which must continue to guide the further expansion and improvement of guidance services in schools and communities. In short, the professional body of guidance workers support the view that our nation has an obligation to assure the maximum growth of all individuals, both for their own satisfac- tion and for the benefit of all society. The APGA policy further asserts that with guidance our youth can make their choices in free- dom, and at the same time the human resources shortages in all areas of our democratic life can be met. Guidance and Vocational Education Vocational guidance and vocational education have interests and objectives that have much in common. It is interesting, in view of the National Manpower Council’s statements of policy regarding voca- tional guidance practices, that this same policy statement points out an obligation for vocational education: To make certain that vocational education is fully responsive to changes in technology and to the ways in which skilled and technical manpower resources are developed in the United States, it is necessary to guard against certain errors which have been made in the past. One of these errors is to conceive of vocational courses as a means of preparing stu- dents for specific jobs rather than as preparing them with a broad base for later training. A second is to relate the vocational instruction provided in school solely to the needs of one or two major employers in the com- munity, or to traditional occupations, thus neglecting new fields of work. A third error is to direct less able and poorly motivated students into voca- tional courses on the ground that their educational needs cannot be met in *American Personnel and Guidance Association. A Statement of Policy Concerning the Nation’s Human Resources Problems. Washington, D. C.: the Association, December 12, 1957. 3 p. 286 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA any other way. A fourth lies in failing to provide vocational, as well as general, high school students with as much mastery over the basic mental skills as they are capable of acquiring. And a fifth error is to compel voca- tional students to pursue programs of study which severely reduce their opportunity of going on to college, if they later decide to do so.® Such admonitions as this have as much implication for the general secondary education program and the vocational guidance counselor as for the vocational education teacher. Those involved in any aspect of the educational program must attain better understanding of common objectives and increasingly improve cooperative methods of working for the best interests of all the youth in the school system. Over the years vocational education programs and both national and local leaders have been strong supporting arms for improved vocational guidance. Meaning of Vocational Guidance Vocational guidance, as the process is understood today, stems from the early work of Frank Parsons, who opened the Vocation Bureau in Boston in 1908. Previously, almost all emphasis had been put on placement. However, Parsons held a broader view of the role of vocational guidance, namely, to assist young people in the choice of an occupation.’° His concept of vocational guidance was expressed as (a) a clear understanding of self, (b) a knowledge of the requirements and conditions for success in different lines of work, and (c) “true reasoning” on the relations of facts obtained by these two processes. Out of this beginning at the turn of the century developed the concept of vocational guidance as a process of assisting young people in choosing an occupation, preparing for it, finding proper placement in it, and adjusting to the vocation as a successful career. Practically all procedures of vocational guidance that have developed in the succeeding half century have been built upon these fundamental factors as defined in Parsons’ original concept. Current refinements in vocational guidance result largely from the fusion of improved methods of individual appraisal and job analysis within the framework of Parsons’ three-step process of vocational guidance. *National Manpower Council, op. cit., p. 23. Brewer, John M. History of Vocational Ghiioans New York: Harper and Brothers, 1942. p. 61. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 287 Actually, the current concept of vocational guidance is consider- ably broader than the views held during the first quarter of this century. The examination of a series of definitions demonstrates the trend toward a more “global” concern with the individual. The National Vocational Guidance Association in its statement of principles as revised and adopted in 1937 took the following view: Vocational guidance is the process of assisting the individual to choose an occupation, prepare for it, enter upon and progress in it. It is concerned primarily with helping the individual make decisions and choices involved in planning a future and building a career—decisions and choices necessary in effecting satisfactory vocational adjustment. A meaningful consideration of vocational guidance is given in a relatively recent vocational education report published by the U. S. Office of Education. It not only considers the purpose of the program but also delineates the important relationship vocational guidance holds with the total instructional program. This definition, in part, includes: The purpose of the vocational guidance program is to provide individuals with the information and skills needed to make wise decisions in matters affecting vocational adjustment. The vocational guidance program is designed to result in efficiency in education and training, both for the individual,and the school, and to improve the chances of the individual for progress and satisfaction in his occupation. It provides the individual with cumulative evidence about his abilities, interests and aptitudes. It pro- vides, also, comprehensive information about occupations, training, and employment opportunities. It sets up means for aiding his placement and adjustment in his chosen work, and particularly provides for counseling. The program is part of the total educational program but is not identical with any other element in it. Guidance services are not a new form of instruction in the accepted sense of classroom activities. They aid the school in its instructional program and render assistance essential to effective administration and supervision. They do not recruit for any phase of education or training, but aid the individual to make an educational plan which will lead to an attainable vocational objective from the stand- point of self-interest and understanding.!? “National Vocational Guidance Association, Committee on Principles and Practices of Educational and Vocational Guidance. “The Principles and Practices of Educa- tional and Vocational Guidance.” Occupations 15:772-78; May 1937. "Federal Security Agency, U. S. Office of Education. Administration of Vocational Education. Vocational Division Bulletin No. 1, General Series No. 1. Washington, D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1948. p. 81. rN Hs SNe ch lanter h k Ea tc AR RRs AO SRPreme cy cuee4 pEerertis seamen 2 288 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Wrenn has helped to clarify the interrelationships of various forms of guidance in a diagrammatic outline which depicts the ways that help is extended to students in meeting their planning and adjustment needs. He emphasizes the necessity of more clarity in our concept of vocational guidance and suggests that: “Vocational guidance is best considered as assistance in the selection of and adjustment to a vocational goal without loading it with training (preparing for) and placement (entering into) functions.”® In contrast, Myers has taken a broad view and outlines a com- prehensive program of vocational guidance in secondary schools as one which is concerned with eight services: (a) vocational in- formation service to provide needed information about occupations; (b) and (c) individual appraisal services with emphasis upon ob- taining a comprehensive picture of abilities and interests of students in both school and out-of-school experiences; (d) counseling serv- ices which aim to help the student evaluate his assets and liabilities in light of occupational opportunities and requirements; (e) voca- tional preparatory service as a vocational guidance responsibility in terms of helping a student to choose and obtain an appropriate type of vocational preparation; (f) placement or employment service; (g) follow-up or adjustment services related to helping the youth make good on the job and in deciding questions concern- ing transfer and promotion; and (h) research service as an aid to all the other services in evaluating techniques and keeping up with occupational trends.”* Recent trends in the field of vocational guidance tend to stress the need for concern with the total personality and adjustment of each individual. The role of self-concept in influencing a youth's identification is clearly depicted by Super in his statement that: “The choice of an occupation is one of the points in life at which a young person is called upon to state rather explicitly his concept of himself—to say definitely ‘I am this or that kind of a person’.”* In considering the influence of this self-concept upon career choice, Super also offered a redefinition of vocational guidance and occupa- *Wrenn, C. Gilbert. “Training of Vocational Guidance Workers.” Occupations 29:414-19; March 1951. “Myers, George E. Principles and Techniques of Vocational Guidance. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1941. *Super, Donald E. “Vocational Adjustment: Implementing a Self-Concept.” Oc- cupations 30:88-92; November 1951. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 289 tional adjustment: “Vocational guidance is the process of helping a person to develop and accept an integrated and adequate picture of himself and of his role in the world of work, to test this concept . against reality, and to convert it into a reality, with satisfaction to himself and benefit to society.”*® Common Elements in Vocational Guidance However we may interpret vocational guidance, certain common elements persist in our definitions that identify functions contained in an effective program. In brief, vocational guidance is a process of helping an individual to understand accurately both himself and the world of work—in particular, the specific educational and job requirements of occupations in which he may be interested and for which he may be qualified. Finally, help is given at the point of entrance into further training or actual placement in the vocational field most appropriate for him. This dynamic and ongoing process of vocational guidance is based on the assumption that an individual actually reaches his ultimate vocational choice, not at any single moment in time, but through a series of experiences and resultant decisions over a period of years. Despite the continuous improvement of school guidance services, many youth make unwise vocational choices and frequently embark upon wrong avenues of training. Many reasons account for this misdirection of human talent, including: Lack of a realistic understanding by many youth of what their real interests and abilities are Lack of sufficient try-out experiences whereby youth may test out in practical ways their best aptitudes and interests Lack of accurate knowledge about the world of work, opportuni- ties, and requirements in specific occupations. The surest approach in overcoming some of these obstacles is through improved vocational guidance and counseling programs in the schools. Budgets and qualified staff for vocational guidance purposes must be increased substantially and rapidly. The pressing need for maximum development and conservation of our nation’s resources of potential talent among youth underscores the need for Ibid. 290 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA making competent vocational guidance services available for every American youth. Vocational Guidance and Government Agencies!” Considerable influence has been exerted over the years by various federal and state agencies in the stimulation and growth of guidance services. The contributions of these organizations in providing leadership, financial support, and helpful guidance materials have been outstanding."® Office of Education The U. S. Office of Education has maintained a lasting interest in vocational guidance over the past 40 years as evidenced by its continuing activities in this field. In 1915 the Office appointed one of its staff members to part-time duty in this field. In 1931 a tests and measurement service was organized to give consultant aid to state and school officials in their testing programs. In 1938 the Occupational Information and Guidance Service was established within the Division of Vocational Education. This service's publica- tions and advisory work assisted schools in promoting guidance work and gave administrative and professional assistance to the states in organizing vocational guidance services as provided in the George-Deen Act and in the George-Barden Act. In 1952 the Occupational Information and Guidance Service was discontinued. This action was protested vigorously by professional workers in the field, counselor-preparing institutions, school officials, and professional organizations. In 1953 the Guidance and Pupil Personnel Services Section was established within the Division of State and Local School Systems. This section has continued to give vigorous leadership and assistance to the maintenance and expansion of sound vocational guidance services to the states and in the schools. “The assistance of Duane Lundgren, state supervisor of guidance in the Minnesota State Department of Education, Division of Vocational Education, is acknowledged in the preparation of this section on government agencies. #84 recent review by Bingner highlights the role of many of these supporting agencies. See Bingner, Janet L. “Contributions of Government Agencies to the Guidance Movement.” Personnel and Guidance Journal 35:587-90; May 1957. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 991 State Departments of Education The establishment of state guidance offices to provide consulta- tion services and professional leadership is a relatively recent development. Although states provided consultation services in the field of guidance for a number of years, it was the development of the Occupational Information and Guidance Service Section in the U. S. Office of Education that spurred states to set up professional standards for guidance supervisors and to activate the state guidance offices. In 1929 the Bureau of Guidance was established in the New York State Education Department. Since that time a continuing growth has occurred until at the present time all states have some unit functioning to provide leadership and state supervision in the guidance area. The Brewster report indicated that in 1956 federal funds were being used by 29 states to partially support the state guidance service.’® Under current legislative proposals and the ex- pansion of state support, it is expected that more staff and facilities will develop at the state level. Bureau of Labor Statistics The Occupational Outlook Service within this Bureau has given leadership since 1941 in developing materials in the field of occupa- tional information which have become some of the most widely used vocational guidance tools in the nation. The third edition of the Occupational Outlook Handbook in 1957 covers about 500 occupations, including new emphases upon such fields as the physical and natural sciences, atomic energy, electronics, banking, and the social sciences. Present plans provide for this handbook to be issued biennially. A new quarterly periodical, the Occupational Outlook Review, carries current information on employment de- velopments, earnings, and job outlook. The Wall Chart Series, depicting the major conclusions of occupational studies and other bulletins and special reports of interest to counselors, are available for use by guidance and counseling personnel.” *Brewster, Royce E. Guidance Workers Certification Requirements. U. S. Depart- ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Bulletin 1957, No. 22. Washington, D. C.: Superintendent of Docuirents, Government Printing Office, 1957. 58 p. See Wolfbein, Seymour L. “The New Occupational Outlook Program.” Voca- tional Guidance Quarterly, Winter 1956. p. 48-50. ee ee ee ee PI Oe ee ° pagoaemane amen = 292 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA U. S. Employment Service In addition to providing strong leadership in placement services through a cooperative system of federal-state employment offices, this agency has made other significant guidance contributions. During the 1956-57 school year, for example, direct counseling and testing services were provided for more than 227,000 high- school seniors in nearly 8000 separate high schools throughout the country." Increasingly emphasized in the policy statements of the Employment Service is “more service to rural and small-town graduates as well as to those in the immediate local office area” and a recommendation that “plans be made to meet the needs of _ outlying areas.”*? Among the specific aids familiar to most counselors are the various trade tests, the General Aptitude Test Battery, the Dictionary of Occupational Titles, Occupational Guides, and other publications of current interest in the field of employment. Other Related Agencies Invaluable support has been rendered vocational guidance generally by the quality of leadership and professional practice demonstrated by such agencies as the Veterans Administration, the Office of Vocational Rehabilitation, the Department of Defense, the Women’s Bureau, and the Bureau of the Census. Cooperative rela- tionships in veterans’ counseling with local communities did much to develop support for stronger local programs of vocational guidance. At one point the Veterans Administration Guidance Centers in nearly 400 colleges were assisting 70 Regional Offices in counseling an average of 55,000 veterans a month. The Depart- ment of Defense definitely assisted in improving vocational guidance practices through a variety of publications on military service op- portunities, a guidance unit “Your Life Plans and the Armed Forces,” as well as through professional guidance practices in the classifica- tion, training, and research areas of the military program. The recent expansion of guidance services through the Office of Voca- tional Rehabilitation and the enlarged programs of technical assistance, training fellowship programs, and support of state “UJ, S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Employment Security. Employment Service Program Letter No. 869, May 6, 1958. =U, S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Employment Security. Employment Service Program Letter No. 859, March 12, 1958. Bai re ie SRO ee VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 293 rehabilitation plans has enlarged our total resource of guidance service at local levels. The reports of the Bureau of the Census hold particular value for vocational guidance, and a new series of reports has made these data even more accessible and useful to counselors.”* NVGA Standards for Occupational Literature Specific attention is directed here to some major contributions of the National Vocational Guidance Association because of the particularly helpful influence this professional organization has extended over a period of nearly 50 years. A major figure in the long history of this professional group is Harry D. Kitson, who served as president of the organization in 1922 and as editor of its official publication, Occupations, from 1937 to 1950. The history of vocational guidance parallels very closely the work and many significant contributions of Dr. Kitson.* Currently the official publication of the NVGA, since its affiliation with the American Personnel and Guidance Association, is The Vocational Guidance Quarterly. This publication has much practical value to vocational counselors and guidance workers in many different types of settings and should be part of the professional library of every school system. The NVGA has long been concerned with problems of profes- sional standards and criteria which may be used to guide the im- provement of guidance practice. One of the outstanding examples of this interest is the work of the NVGA Occupational Research Division, which revised and published in 1950 “Standards for Use in Preparing and Evaluating Occupational Literature.”** These standards are the most recent outgrowth of committee work; the first code was published in 1921. Utilizing the standards for occupa- tional literature, the NVGA Guidance Information Review Service developed a new aid in 1956, the NVGA Bibliography of Current *See Kaplan, David. “Occupational Information from the 1950 Census.” Personnel and Guidance Journal 32:368-70; March 1953. “The March 1951 issue of Occupations was dedicated to Dr. Kitson by the National Vocational Guidance Association. For his own analysis of the changing — concept of guidance services over the long period of his experience, see Harry D. Kitson, “Psychology in Vocational Adjustment.” Personnel and Guidance Journal 36:314-19; January 1958. *National Vocational Guidance Association, Occupational Research Division of the Publications Committee. “Standards for Use in Preparing and Evaluating Oc- cupational Literature.” Occupations 28:319-24; February 1950. PEED GT LE Oe BARRY wrest LENT PRS Oe RTO Ny tre ee ee AN OT te we . — 294 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Occupational Literature.”* This publication reviewed 500 titles out of thousands submitted by publishers. Current additions to this review are a regular feature of the NVGA Vocational Guidance Quarterly. Among many other helpful contributions, the NVGA, through its Ethical Practices Committee, initiated a national survey of vocational guidance services which resulted in the establishment of standards and the publication of a directory of approved voca- tional counseling agencies. Standards of Certification for Counselors Requirements for certification of counselors have improved rapidly in recent years. By 1957, 41 states had established certifica- tion requirements for guidance workers—an increase of 40 percent in 2 years. Only 27 states had special certification requirements in 1955; the number was increased to 32 in 1956 and 41 by 1957. In 34 states counselor certification is now mandatory while in 7 states it is optional. Most states require a state teaching license and a master's degree, or its equivalent, in guidance training. About one- half of the states require that counselors have at least 1 year of work experience in an occupation other than teaching. Details regarding the requirements of specific states are reported in Brewster's survey, including the standards for school or counseling psychologists in 12 states providing for such certification.”” Opportunities for Counselors An extremely high current -demand exists for counselors, par- ticularly in public schools and certain types of community agencies. Evidence reported by Hitchcock indicates that there were ap- proximately 13,000 full-time (or the equivalent) counselors in the secondary schools of the nation in 1958.7 Hulslander and Scholl, reporting the results of a survey of school principals throughout the United States, indicate that within the next 5 years an additional **National Vocational Guidance Association. Bibliography of Current Occupational Literature. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1956. 40 p. *7 Brewster, Royce E., op. cit., p. 44-58. **Hitchcock, Arthur. “Quality and Quantity of Guidance Services.” Unpublished paper presented at the Thirteenth National Conference on Higher Education at Chicago, Ill., March 3, 1958. ATEN ELIE LENO EB LTE I NN A ORL ALY ENE EOS TNT RI Gt NES IS EY Se ELT IOI TR ER I Ee VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 295 30,000 counselors will be employed in the schools.” Principals in- dicated that their needs actually doubled this figure. Indications are that the present ratio of about 1 counselor for every 500 or 600 secondary-school students is much too high. Strong appeals are being made for this ratio to be reduced to 1 counselor per 250 secondary-school students to permit the development of adequate educational and vocational counseling services. Some Maxims of Vocational Guidance for Teachers and Counselors Certain elements of a sound vocational guidance program exist within the educational pattern of every well-planned school pro- gram. Good vocational guidance is a continuous process beginning in the elementary grades as teachers help children to better under- stand themselves and the world about them. At the high-school level, more emphasis is placed upon aptitude and interest measure- ment, try-out courses, co-curricular activities, part-time work ex- perience, occupational units, and individual counseling with a quali- fied school counselor. Effective methods and materials to support the vocational guidance program are available—what is needed, mainly, is increased awareness of needs and coordinated action by administration, staff, and parents to see that the services are organized. Among some specific maxims that might be offered -to strengthen local programs are the following: 1. All youth, particularly in adolescent years, need guidance in developing appropriate goals and an increasing awareness of the significant educational and vocational decisions that lie ahead for each of them. 2. Classroom teachers and special staff need to be constantly alert for the identification in each child of positive qualities, characteristics, and aptitudes which may be encouraged and cultivated. 3. Youth with highly specialized talent and gifted mental ability can and should be identified early so that enriched opportunities for intellectual and skill exploratory experi- ences may be provided. *Hulslander, S. C., and Scholl, C. E. “U. S. Principals Report their Counseling Needs.” Vocational Guidance Quarterly, Autumn 1957. p. 3-4. Me oe SAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Vocational guidance and occupational information values are inherent in the total educational program of the public school. All elementary and secondary teachers, activity ad- visors, and specialized school staff have an obligation to become increasingly sensitive to the vocational implications of their work with all children and youth. Orientation of the teaching staff and counselors to current occupational trends, opportunities, and requirements is es- sential to the enrichment of school learning experiences and the development of realistic attitudes of staff and students toward the occupational world. Continuous and comprehensive appraisal of the abilities, interests, and achievement of every pupil provides not only the necessary foundation for teachers to know their pupils, but also to assist each pupil to know himself thoroughly. Effective vocational guidance includes utilization of the re- sources of the school, home, and community in the process of vocational exploration and planning with youth. In the final analysis, the actual vocational choice made will be up to the individual himself. The role of the vocational guidance program and the skillful vocational counselor is to help each youth gain a clearer understanding of himself, his abilities, and his potentialities for meeting the educational and job requirements of all possible and appropriate voca- tional alternatives. PLATELET LE PLE MGR LASS ILO OE PER Ea MN Aa ee TE CHAPTER 17 Critical Issues in Vocational Education Bw development of vocational education in the United States, like most movements associated with the social and economic welfare of the people, has occasionally been obstructed or delayed but never seriously deterred by major obstacles in its path of progress. The inspired wisdom and judgment of those who helped make the historic decisions that solved crucial problems in the past are reasons for national pride . . . are responsible for much of the progress which our country has made. The problems facing vocational education today, however, seem to be more numerous than those encountered previously. They also appear to be more complex. Indeed, many may be without immediate solution, since certain vital issues are involved. These are issues which need to be discussed freely—by teachers, adminis- trators, and students of education. They are issues on which school boards, administrators, teachers, and lay citizens should be ready to take a stand, for if educational leaders fail to consider these critical questions, and, worse, if after consideration they avoid a commitment to basic principles, much of education’s progress may be jeopardized. Dedicated leadership and allegiance to vocational education's philosophy and purpose are necessary, as never before, if the pro- gram that has served so well is to go forward. The force of develop- ments which are influencing the ultimate answers to all current questions is ominous in its power. This chapter, as a conclusion to this discussion of vocational education for rural America, briefly examines certain issues which must be faced by administrators, students, and members of the lay public who must ultimately make Lowell A. Burkett, assistant executive secretary, American Vocational Association, Washington, D. C., prepared the original draft of Chapter 17. 299 300 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA the decisions that will assimilate the impact of future developments and structure the direction of future progress. Vocational Education for a Democratic Society A philosophy of education based in part upon class distinctions, characteristic of the European culture of our forbears, applies to some extent in America’s public schools. While the importance of vocational training is recognized in current educational objectives, many persons still hold to the theory that preparation for occupa- tional competence is outside the realm of public schools. As a re- sult, a number of communities completely ignore the need to offer vocational training for youth and adults. Proponents of one educational philosophy would relegate the occupational training authority to agencies other than the public- school administration. This principle, if adopted, would destroy the basic objective of relating the skill of the hand to the function of the mind; it is felt that through such a procedure the real educa- tion values of training for an occupation might well be lost. Education in a democratic society must give full attention to the worth of the individual. It must foster and provide a means for the maximum development of all the people. Educational maturity and occupational training are inseparable components in a formula of preparation for successful earning and successful living in a democ- racy. The impressive record of service that identifies vocational education’s first half century in the United States immutably affirms this conviction. The consistently increasing need for workers with a high degree of both skill and technical knowledge makes occupational training essential to the maintenance of our economy. Government agencies with special responsibility for economic planning and progress are acutely aware of this fact. Some agencies previously involved only in promoting training programs now also are planning to administer them. A careful examination of budgets for government agency operations discloses large appropriations for vocational education. Bureaucratic leaders, seeking opportunities to extend their influence and the scope of their activities, seize upon vocational training as a means to this end. ae 4 CRITICAL ISSUES IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 301 Inasmuch as public educators have not been totally active in supporting the vocational program, other forces of our society have necessarily moved in to fill the void. But, if such movements succeed in removing from the public schools the responsibility for providing vocational training, generations to come will suffer an irretrievable loss. Instead of enjoying the rich advantages of preparation for re- warding and productive living, there is great risk that they will have only routine training for routine jobs . . . that our society may lose the democratic qualities that have made it great. Equally unfortunate would be the loss of man’s freedom to improve his lot by changing jobs or advancing in his work. The possibility of such disaster should highlight the thinking and action of all persons who are involved in education as well as those who are concerned with our nation’s future. Education leaders must be aggressive and forthright in making certain that this issue is examined. Although it may be true that there is a world-wide trend toward “extraschool” educational activities and although it may also be true that vocational education is among the happiest of the hunting grounds for such activities, the trend may not be inevitable. It is a trend which can be described as more feasible than desirable. The question of whether or not public schools should offer vocational education and the corollary question that considers the extent to which these offerings should be provided by other agencies are not academic questions. They are issues that beg educational leaders to take a stand. Vocational Education To Serve a Large Segment of Society Unique in the history of the world is the progress of today’s civilization. Barring the tragedies of atomic warfare or unforseen destruction, mankind’s future is unsurpassed in its promise of abundance, comfort, and well-being. The men and women whose vision brought about the program that educates our nation deserve much credit for what has been achieved. Their research, study, planning, and implementation have hurried the transformation of dreams into reality. But as applause is given, review is equally important. The recent emphasis on narrow definitions of science and academic rewards, 302 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 1OR RURAL AMERICA although eminently worthwhile, must not distort our carefully cul- tivated system of serving a diversity of needs. Our privileged mis- sion is to provide education for all levels of aptitude. The inclination today to choose engineering, science, and the professions as the initial occupational target for all children, even for all children with high intellectual ability, is absurd. The varied and special talents of the toolmaker, the farmer, the surgeon, and the clerk—so vital to our society—are no more diversified or impor- tant than the talents of our children. If all students are forced into standard education programs, many may suffer and only a few may learn to make a living. Contrary to what some believe, the boys and girls who would fail would undoubtedly have a similar lack of suc- cess in less important fields. As the residue of an inflexible educa- tion system, they would simply grow up unprepared for life. To keep pace with the complexities of the day, abilities must be identified at the earliest possible time so that each person will be made ready, according to his individual needs, for a productive and useful role in society. It is the important responsibility of educators to provide guidance and other services necessary to the early identification of interests and talent. A comparison of enrollments and the population of the 14-to 17- year age group in 1956 shows that slightly more than one-half of the high-school boys and girls who could profit from such instruction were actually in vocational classes.’ Although programs are offered at post-secondary-school level, the need for their expansion in the secondary schools is critical. The administrative and financial boundaries of school districts (even of area schools) are legal and finite, while vocational education needs extend infinitely beyond the boundary restrictions of local school programs. Human nature is such that people continually look for new job opportunities— they have and they always will—and, as a result, migration never ends. This makes it important for communities to train youth and adults not only for loeal opportunities but also for jobs they may find elsewhere. Only through a wide variety of offerings and a broad training program is such a goal achieved. Successful administrative arrangements permitting this type of service is a matter requiring much more resourcefulness than the past has shown. Federal sup- 1 See Chapter 6, “The Population in Various Age Groups,” p. 96. CRITICAL ISSUES IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 303 port has eased the burden of this issue somewhat, but it has not been faced squarely in most local school districts. Enrolled in our public schools and to be found among our adult population today is an unfortunately large group of people who have little or no ambition for vocational competence. Some claim our way of government and the philanthropic objectives of church and social groups have encouraged this aimlessness. Re- gardless, it is the duty of public education to impress upon the in- dividual his obligation to contribute in some way to his fellow man, while supporting himself adequately. A sensible approach is to provide practical arts courses that call special attention to the world of work. Such courses have broad general education values and are useful in helping youth to discover interests and aptitudes. In- dustrial arts, an example of this type of offering, is a valuable asset to vocational education. A serious impediment to the further development of some phases of vocational training is the social stigma suffered by some occupa- tions, even though they are of vital importance to society. While some young people gravitate to these fields, they are often deprived of training when it would be most effective because of the unjustified prejudices of their families and friends. Guidance counselors are also sometimes guilty of steering young people away from occupa- tions they consider less socially accepted than others. Here an issue must be faced. Can an educational system accept anything less than excellence in any aspect of its program? Can a school ascribe occupational roles to its students on the basis of intellectual skills, learning speed, or the current fads of educational criticism? Administrative Organization of Vocational Education Perhaps the most complex challenge to public education today is the need for an administrative structure that will provide the kinds of vocational training likely to be most helpful to rural Amer- ica. Much has been said about the advantages of comprehensive secondary schools, and educational leaders seem to agree on the value of this type of program, provided it lives up to its name. At the present time, however, rural America is not suited for secondary wns Le DONE 304 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA schools which could be of sufficient size either economically or effectively tc provide a comprehensive program. New methods must be developed to insure broad vocational offerings to that phase of secondary education which prepares rural youth for jobs. The area vocational program concept has been introduced with reassuring success in many communities. Area schools have been set up under various administrative patterns. They lend themselves to serving young farmers in organized classes designed to offer specific help in their farming enterprise. Organized classes for young homemakers, in the trades and industrial occupations, and for efficient and economical marketing and distribution through area distributive education programs can similarly be provided. Many different kinds of adaptations have been successfully tried, and area vocational programs have proved to be a most satisfactory means for serving the unique needs of rural youth. Much has been said in behalf of the separate vocational school that provides both occupational training and. related general sub- jects. Such institutions generally give little attention to grouping students into grade levels. Instead, they are concerned with offering education and training that will fit students for their chosen occupa- tion. Admission is based on interest and ability to profit from the instruction, and, once enrolled, each student may progress at his own speed. In most of these schools a wide variety of previous edu- cational attainment can be found. Students who have not completed the twelfth grade often find among their classmates some who have a liberal arts degree. Because many occupational fields require training that is usually classified in post-high-school categories, the separate vocational school is generally successful in its purpose. Most are state operated, but it is quite possible that a trend toward having several secondary-school districts band together for such programs may develop. While the junior-college and community-college movements lend themselves to vocational training needs, most rural communities do not have access to this type of program. When vocational courses are offered at this level, they should have traiaing for occupational entrance as their major objective rather than preparation to ‘meet the requirements of a baccalaureate degree. Junior and community CRITICAL ISSUES IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 305 colleges can also serve the training needs of occupations requiring high-school graduation before entrance. There is a constant search for appropriate administrative organi- zation for vocational education. The tendency in educational reor- ganization has been to give separate attention to elementary, secondary, and higher education—to accomplish reorganizaton one level at a time. Vocational education occupies a role at each level; in addition, vocational education assumes large-scale responsibilities in the field of adult education. Again, an issue must be faced. How can vocational education align itself to a reorganization pattern that makes its adjustments one level at a time? How can area vocational schools adjust their administrative boundaries to a pattern of educa- tional boundaries which at the elementary, secondary, and higher education levels already frequently overlap? The Content of Vocational Education A few prominent educators describe all education as vocational. Although it is certainly true that all types of education affect the life of the person who works in a specific occupation, the contention that all education is vocational is undoubtedly a gross oversimplifica- tion. Vocational education has an immediate objective—to prepare the individual to enter or advance in a given occupation. Its pro- grams and courses must be subject to constant revision if they are to keep up to date with an economy that advances at an accelerating rate. In determining appropriate content, vocational educators face and must solve urgent questions. For example, in the preparatory phase of an occupational field, how broad should be the base of skill training and technology? Should a course in general metals precede entrance into training for tool and die making? Or does the tool and die maker trainee learn about other metal trades at points where they have direct relationship to his specific work? Our rapidly advancing technology also presents a problem for today’s occupational fields. Many are now so advanced that they are often classified as “technical,” and we hear much of technical education. What is a technician? Some say he is a high-level, skilled 306 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA craftsman with wide technical knowledge that serves as an important resource in the application of his skill. Others use a reverse defini- tion. To them, the technician is a person with wide technical knowledge to which he can apply a small amount of skill experience. Despite the confusion of terminology, modern industry has strategic needs for all types of well-trained technicians. The devel- opment of such technical courses requires a type of direction, super- vision, and teaching that can come only from those who have a high degree of skill and practical experience . . . who possess con- siderable industrial experience and insight. For them, courses in methods of teaching and organizing instructional materials are also essential. In certain other vocational fields, preparation for teaching (assuming an appropriate amount of actual work experience) can be accomplished exclusively at the college level. But the fact that all vocational teachers must be qualified craftsmen or specialists makes them especially valuable to agriculture, business, and in- dustry. Salaries and working conditions which will keep them in the field of instruction thus become another critical issue that calls for action. How do we select vocational areas for instructional purposes? Community and national surveys invariably point up needed in- structional areas, and such surveys should always precede the initia- tion of a vocational course. Advisory committees are also of vital importance; craft committees are essential. The use of such groups has and will continue to keep vocational education abreast of chang- ing concepts, practices, and technology. But these advisory groups should not attempt to control any phase of the program, and their continued and successful use, with restrained control, requires tactful direction and sound leadership. The critics of vocational education often charge that it is over- specialized. They point out that although occupational fields do demand specialization, most industries and businesses are equip to provide this training. It should be remembered that the function of the public schools is to lay a foundation for broader aspects of training during the preparatory phase of vocational education. More specialized training may await apprenticeship programs or evening and extension classes for adults. AG hdl tle tan am Sa aes CRITICAL ISSUES IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 307 The content of vocational education thus presents issues that may be resolved in some local situations. More difficult to resolve, how- ever, is the issue of content emphasis in any given period of time. Some countries have developed “five-year plans” or other forms of “crash” programs for vocational education. This probably becomes necessary where vocational education has been permitted to lag and where an imbalance has developed in the relationship of vocational education to other aspects of education. Such has been the experience of many countries in Europe and Asia, including the Soviet Union. Even in the United States imbalances have occurred, and they have required emergency programs emphasizing vocational education. This issue should be a matter of prime concern to the nation and to the profession. Financing Vocational Education Since the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917, a system of federal-state-local sharing in the financing of vocational education has operated successfully. This plan has inspired each level of government consistently to increase its support of the program. It has been demonstrated, for example, that federal appropriations | have actually stimulated increases in the financial support offered by state and local governments. The provision of federal funds for vocational education is often | cited as an outstanding example of a grant-in-aid program that pro- | motes healthy federal-state relationships. But within the ranks of federal and state leadership, there are those who advocate with- drawal of federal appropriations for vocational education. Pro- ponents of such action charge that the federal government's function has been performed. Several factors should be carefully considered before such a pro- posal is entertained: Has vocational education been so promoted that it serves all needs in all areas? What is the responsibility of the federal government in providing a kind of education that is directly related to the defense and the economy of the people? Can state and local governments adequately finance general and vocational education? Can the financial support of education be equalized ENE a I PE Bee 2 308 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA without involving the federal government? What is the respon- sibility of a state government for financing a program that trains a mobile population? As these and other issues are resolved, new insights will be gained. As critical questions are answered, new problems will be identified. Perhaps new ones will be created. But discouragement should not im- pede those who have defensible goals. For regardless of problems— past, present, and future—vocational education will move forward in priceless service to the people of one of the greatest nations in history. With vocational education, each individual enhances our nation’s sacred heritage by sharing his gifts and skills. That is our way of life. Spe ae - ; are 2 re POV EP AE A a Cn a nS a re S ietieetetined Official Records Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association AO SPOR SL OREPLIA NAT LEER IAI ORE LOE S EMIRATE IIE EH ON EEL SEP INE DERE NAPE SEE NI TD Ee ey REE SEE THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION The Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association, a professional organization of rural education, serves as spokesman for rural children in securing for them the educational rights that are the rights of every child; representative of rural teachers in seeking the status, preparation, and resources they need to fulfill their obligations to youth and society; interpreter of rural — education—its needs, problems, and resources—wherever such in- terpretation is needed to insure attention to the educational needs of rural children and youth. The Department as it is presently organized grew out of the De- partment of Rural and Agricultural Education authorized by the NEA Board of Directors in 1907. In 1919 it was reorganized under its present name. Since the establishment of the NEA Division of Rural Service in 1936, the Department has been served by the head- quarters staff of that unit. Membership in the Department is open to all persons working or interested in rural education, provided they are members of the National Education Association. Annual dues of $4 for each calen- dar year make each member eligible to attend all conferences or meetings of the Department, to vote, and to hold office. Members also receive the Yearbook, four issues each year of both the NEA Research Bulletin and Rural Education News, and other publications as they are developed and become available. The Department's Constitution and Bylaws, in conformity with those of the National Education Association, provide for the organi- zation of divisions to serve special-interest groups. The two divisions currently active with their own officers are the Division of County and Rural Area Superintendents and the Division of Pupil Transportation. Through state directors and state committees for rural education the Department attempts to keep its program and activities closely related to the varied rural concerns and conditions of states and regions. Other special committees operate on a national level to 311 312 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA help shape the Department’s program in such specific areas as the recruitment and preparation of rural teachers, and the forces in- fluencing rural life and education on the world scene. A special committee is also currently functioning to appraise the changing nature of rural life and, based on findings, to develop policies and outline an appropriate action program for the improvement of education throughout rural America. Another special-interest group, sponsored by the Division of County and Rural Area Superintend- ents, is the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit. THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 313 OFFICERS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION (Terms expire in October 1959) President—VELMA LinForp, Superintendent of Public Instruction, State Department of Education, Cheyenne, Wyoming President Elect—W. E. Bisuop, Superintendent of Schools, Engle- wood, Colorado Executive Secretary—Howarp A. Dawson, Director of Rural Service, NEA, Washington, D. C. Executive Committee President, President Elect, Presidents of Divisions, plus: James O. ANsEL (1962), Associate Professor, Department of Rural Life-and Education, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, © Michigan CHARLES CHRISTIANSON (1961), Superintendent, Roseau County Schools, Roseau, Minnesota Ernest M. Coppinc (1963), Superintendent of Schools, Addison Northeast District, Bristol, Vermont J. C. Firzceratp (1959), Director, Audio-Visual Education, Okla- homa A and M College, Stillwater, Oklahoma Mrs. ANNE L. HommyeELLe (1960), Curriculum Coordinator, San Diego County Schools, San Diego, California Joun Moncon (1963), Superintendent, Burlington County Schools, Mt. Holly, New Jersey W. E. Parrorp (1961), Director, Division of Field Services, State Department of Education, Atlanta, Georgia Mrs. Mary C. Pierce (1959), Superintendent, Adams County Schools, Ritzville, Washington L. A. Roserts (1959), Superintendent, Dallas County Schools, Dallas, Texas MERLE A. STONEMAN (1962), Professor of School Administration, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 314 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Mrs. Juanrra THompson (1960), Director of Rural Education, Kanawha County Schools, Charleston, West Virginia T. M. Verpin (1959), Director of Rural Service, Division of Instruc- tional Services, Greenville County School District, Greenville, South Carolina Ratpw C. Norris, Past President, Superintendent, Polk County Schools, 216 S. W. First Street, Des Moines, Iowa Division OF CouNTY AND RurRAL AREA SUPERINTENDENTS (Terms expire in October 1959) President—L. M. Dimitt, Superintendent of Schools, King County, Seattle, Washington President Elect—Winston Brown, Superintendent of Schools, Waukesha County, Waukesha, Wisconsin Vice President—ALvin E. Ruopes, Superintendent of Schools, San Luis Obispo County, San Luis Obispo, California Executive Secretary—Howarp A. Dawson, Director, Division of Rural Service, NEA Executive Committee T. C. Knapp, Superintendent of Schools, Stark County, Canton, Ohio W. F. Loccins, Superintendent of Schools, Greenville County, Greenville, South Carolina H. CxiaupE Moore, Superintendent of Schools, Dyer County, Dyersburg, Tennessee NoBLE J. PurFer, Superintendent of Schools, Cook County, Chicago, Illinois James E. Butts, Past President, Superintendent of Schools, Blair County, Hollidaysburg, Pennsylvania THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 315 DivIsIONn OF Purr TRANSPORTATION (Terms expire in October 1959) President—MicuHaEL J. Haccerty, Director of Pupil Transportation, State Department of Education, St. Paul, Minnesota Vice President—Louis A. YANDELL, Director of Pupil Transportation, Fayette County Schools, Lexington, Kentucky Executive Committee Lester C. Winver, Director of Pupil Transportation, Normandy Consolidated School District, St. Louis, Missouri E. E. McBrovz, Director of Pupil Transportation, Tuscaloosa County Schools, Tuscaloosa, Alabama Wa TER M. Gorpon, Director of Pupil Transportation, Baltimore County Board of Education, Towson, Maryland W. Eart DarnELL, Past President, Director of School Transporta- tion, Greenbrier County, Lewisburg, West Virginia a Slee cr Sra ne Pee ee ae ROSTER OF MEMBERS THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION A Department of the National Education Association of the United States This roster includes the active membership of the Department for the caiendar years 1957 and 1958. It is arranged by states, and lists alphabetically for each member his name, position and location, and official Department responsibilities. Street addresses are not Ce except where other information is not available. Libraries and institutional members are liste the listing of individual members. ALABAMA Allen, Beulah, Supervisor of Instruction, De Kalb County Schools, Fort Payne : Boockholdt, J. H., Superintendent, Chilton Coumty Schools, Clanton _ , Martin V., Superintendent, Cullman County Schools, Cullman _ , Carroll, Thomas W., Superintendent, Coving- ton _ Schools, Andalusia Coleman, ulda, Superintendent, Lowndes County Schools, Hayneville Colburn, Paul W., Superintendent, Fayette County Schools, Fayette Elliott, Carl, U.S. Congressman from Seventh District of Alabama, 528 Old House Office Washington, D.C. Elliott, W., Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Columbiana Elmore, H. C., Superintendent, Pickens County Schools, Carrollton Posse. R. Th eceecumanne Coffee County ools, Faught, Raymond E., Superintendent, Walker County Schools, Jasper Greer, G., Superintendent, Monroe Coun- ty Schoo s, Monroeville : Hatch, Robert C., Supervisor of Instruction, State D ment of Education, Montgomery Holloway, Otto, Curriculum Laboratory, School = es Alabama Polytechnic Institute, uburn Hubbard, Ben C., Superintendent, Bibb County Schools, Centreville Johnson, Kermit A., Superintendent, Tuscaloosa County Schools, Tuscaloosa: Advisory Coun- cil to the National Commission on the Inter- mediate Administrative Unit Jones, W. J., Superintendent, Wilcox County Schools, Camden Lawrence, R. J., Superintendent, Bullock County Schools, Union —_ tate Com- mittee Member; Second Vice-President, Divi- —_ of County and Rural Area Superinten- ents Mellown, zigin W., Superintendent, Sumter County Schools, Livingston Newell, C. Frank, Superintendent, Calhoun County Schools, Anniston Norton, E. B., President, State Teachers Col- lege, Florence: Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education Philpot, Frank N., Supervisor of Instruction Secondary Education, State Department of Education, Montgomery: State Director under their respective states following Pierce, Truman, Dean, College of Education, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn: Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education Popejoy, W. E., Business Manager, Madison ounty Board of Education, Huntsville Pruitt, C. A., Superintendent, Macon County Schools, Tuskegee Self, David, Superintendent, Butler County Schools, Greenville Simmons, I. F., Superintendent, Jefferson County. Schools, Birmingham: State Com- mittee Member; Special Committee on Scout- ing in Rural Schools Smith, (Mrs.) Bessie C., Jeanes Supervisor, East Tallahassee Smith, O. Romaine, Youngfolks Editor, The Progressive Farmer, Birmingham Thomas, E. G., Sr. + -cnae, Jackson County Schools, Scotts Tidwell, R. E., Assistant to the President, Stillman College, Tuscaloosa: Advisory Coun- cil to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education; State Committee Mem- r Torrence, Andrew P., Head, Department of Agricultural Education, Tuskegee Institute Wooten, Lester, Superintendent, Morgan Coun- ty Schools, Decatur : INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER Library, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn ARIZONA Best, (Mrs.) Bessie, Kidd, Superintendent, Coconino County Schools, Flagstaff: State Committee Mem Chadwick, Daniel R., Head Teacher, Cave Creek District No. 93, Phoenix Folsom, Sarah, Superintendent, Yavapai County hools, Prescott Haldeman, Della M., Teacher, Ganado School, Ganado Ham, Gwyneth, Superintendent, Yuma County ools, Yuma Johnston, Lillian B., Curriculum Coordinator, State Department of Education, Phoenix: State Committee Member Joslin, Louis F., Superintendent of Schools, alo Verde Martin, (Mrs.) Mary McCollum, Teacher, Re- tired, Eloy : Olea, (Mrs.) Wilma B., Teacher, Salome Porter, (Mrs.) Margaret, Superintendent, Navajo County Schools, Holbrook 317 wn ee eee ; ; 4 4 | $ i | el Preceding blank page not numbered. a Ra ME Lala Ne Gato 318 Reece, (Mrs.) Florence, Superintendent, Pima hools, Tuscon: Satte Director; Council to the National Com- Spencer, (Mrs.) R. W., Principal, Forrest School District No. 81, Douglas ARKANSAS Anderson, Homer L., Supervisor of Schools, Ouachita County, Camden : Armstrong, W. V., County School Supervisor, St. Francis County, Forrest City Bankston, Marvin, Supervisor, Ashley County Schools, Hambur; Bell, N. H., Supervisor of Schools, Pope Coun- ty, Russellville Bishop, Harold, Supervisor, Schools, Benton Blanchard, H. H., Supervisor of Schools, Lawrence County, Powhatan Saline County Bolding, G. P., Supervisor of Schools, Sevier County, De Queen Bollen, J. D., Supervisor of Schools, Faulkner County, Conway Bradford, David E., Supervisor of Schools, Van Buren County, Clinton Brewer, John F., Supervisor of Schools, Pike County, Murfreesboro Brown, E. R., Supervisor, Hempstead County, ope Cannaday, Frank, Supervisor of Instruction, State Department of Education, Little Rock Castleberry. W. E., Supervisor of Schools, Prairie County, Des Arc Chitwood. R. B., Superintendent of Schools, Lake Village Clark, J. O., Superintendent of Schools, Mc- Gehee Coulter, N. R., Superintendent, Howard County Training School, Mineral Springs Dagenhart, R. S., Supervisor of Schools, Polk ounty, Mena Ejidson, i L., Supervisor of Transportation, State Department of Education, Little Rock Ford, Commissioner of Education, Goodner, Hal, Supervisor, Montgomery County Schools, Mount Ida Head, Robert A., Superintendent of Schools, Lamar Howell, Lioyd, Supervisor, Schools, Paragould Hudson, Joe L., Director of Disbursements and Accounting, State Department of Edu- cation, Little Rock Isenman, Ann, Arkansas Education Association, Little Rock Jacobs, Fay, Ozark Keaton, William T., Superintendent, Conway County Training School, Menifee Logan, Coy, Supervisor of Schools, Carroll ounty, Berryville Loudermilk, H. C., Supervisor of Schools, Perry County, Perryville McCaskill, C. P., Supervisor, Chicot County Schools, Lake Village McCuistion, Ed., Director of Negro Education, State Department of Education, Little Rock: State Committee Member; Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education McKenzie, A. R., Superintendent of Schools, Sheridan: State Committee Member Martin, John _H., County Supervisor of Schools, Arkansas County, Dewitt Green County Franklin County Supervisor, State Department of Education, Little Rock VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Mapes, John, Supervisor, Mississippi County hools, Blytheville Moore, G. H., — of Schools, Indepen- dence County, Batesville Morris, Clarence E., Supervisor, Fulton County Schools, Salem Poteet, Custer, Supervisor of Schools, Conway County, Morrilton Pyle, . R., Executive Director, Arkansas State Teachers Retirement System, State Department of Education, Little Rock Roberts, O. E., Supervisor of Schools, Sebastian County, Greenwood Roberts, Roy W., Head, Department of Voca- tional Teachers Education University of Fayetteville: State Committee Arkansas, Member Robinson, L. D., Supervisor of Schools, Clay County, Piggott i Regus, James M., Supervisor, Bradley County hools, Warren Ross, Clyde, Pagevione of Schools, Drew County, Monticello Rozzell, Forrest, Executive Secretary, Arkansas Education Association, Little Rock: Adviso Council to the Committee on Policies an Program for Rural Education Sheets, W. R., Supervisor of Schools, Garland Canney, Hot Springs Shuffield, Cecil E., Supervisor of Schools, Howard County, Nashville: State Director; Advisory Council to the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit; Planning Committee, Southwest Regional Conference on Administrative Leadership Tom, Supervisor, Serving Community Schools Simpson Izard County Schools, Melbourne Smith, Earl, Supervisor of Schools, Randolph Pocahontas ’ (Mrs.) Lila, Seperetaan, Columbia Snell, H. Z., Supervisor of Finance, State Department of ucation, Little Stuart, C. C., Supervisor of Schools, Desha County, Arkansas City ugg, B. A., Supervisor of Schools, Phillips ounty, Helena be R. » Superintendent of Schools, arton Thomasson, R. B., Supervisor of Schools, Clark County, Arkadelphia Thornton, R. H., Supervisor of Schools, Grant County, Sheridan Torry, Harry, Supervisor of Schools, Monroe County, Clarendon Trice, (hirs.) Grace B., Supervisor of Schools, Woodruff County, Augusta Tucker, M. C., ——— of Schools, Johnson County, Clarksville Walker, B. K., Jr., Supervisor, Little River Cotinty, Ashdown Ward, Henry H., Superintendent, Stephens Public Schools, Stephens Wetherington, A. Supervisor, Pulaski | County Schools, Little Roc Whitmore, B. E., Su isor, Jefferson Count hools, Pine Biuf J r Williamson, Horace, Supervisor of Schools, Union County, El Dorado: Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education Wilson, E. B., Supervisor, Yell County Schools, Danville Wilson, W. B., Lafayette County Supervisor, Lewisville Woodrome, O. J., Supervisor of Schools, Lee County, Mariana INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER Torreyson Library, Arkansas State Teachers College, Conway ATTA NO Ra ail Tite Baa St Fw bS ROSTER OF MEMBERS CALIFORNIA Atkins, Charles H., Superintendent, Amador County Schools, Jackson Bandy, Eleanor K., Superintendent of Schools, Yolo County, Woodlan Bequette, Albert F,. Superintendent of Schools, — County, Auburn ‘ Beyer, Fred C., Superintendent, Stanislaus ounty Schools, Modesto ; Brownfield, Marshall, 3980 Electric Avenue, San Bernardino Byrnes, Margaret, General Elementary Super- visor, Mendocino County Schools, iah | Cagney, William G., Superintendent, San Benito ounty Schools, Hollister Carroll, John S., rtment of Education of California, Santa Barbara College, Goleta: Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education; Special Committee on Scouting in Rural Schools ——— Hal D., Superintendent of Schools, nta Barbara County, Santa Barbara: State Committee Member k, George W., Superintendent of Schools, Merced ate Merced Cohen, Milton S., Superintendent of Schools, Inyo County, Independence De Avilla, Elsie, Teacher, Yreka Denison, Alan M., Superintendent of Schools, Tuolumne County, Sonora Drag, Francis, Assistant Superintendent, Napa County Schools, Napa: Committee on Rural Life and Education on the World Scene Gansberg, Lucille, Superintendent of Schools, Lassen County, Susanville Gibson, (Mrs.) Bernice, Superintendent of Schools, Sutter County, Yuba City ; Gibson, (Mrs.) Carmen, Director of Curricu- lum, Imperial County, El Centro Greshan, Olin R., ; om of Schools, Imperial County, Ei Centro Hall, Wallace W., Superintendent of Schools, Marin County, San Rafael _ Hamilton, De Forest, Superintendent of Schools, Sonoma County, nta Rosa Hanson, W. Rolland, Superintendent of Schools, Lake County, Lakeport Hardesty, Cecil D., Superintendent of Schools, San Diego County, San Diego: A “eo | Council to the Committee on Policies an Program for Rural Education ost, + District Superintendent of Schools, Pond: Committee on Rural Life and Education on the World Scene Heffernan, Helen, Chief, Bureau of Elemen- tary Education, State Department of Educa- tion, Sacramento: State Committee Member Hill, (Mrs.) Margaret F., Teacher, Santa Barbara Hoffman, (Mrs.) Howardine G., Director, Division of Elementary Education, Los ngeles Hoihjelle, Anne L., Curriculum Coordinator, San Diego County, San Diego: Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education; State Com- mittee Member Jacobus, Gerald L., Superintendent of Schools, Kings County, Hanford Jegi, Evelyn, Assistant Superintendent, Contra Costa Coutity Schools, Martinez Johnson, Lloyd G., Superintendent of Schools, Colusa County, Colusa Johnson, Ray W., Superintendent of Schools, Riverside County, Riverside Kaar, Harold W., Assistant Superintensient, Educational Service, Contra Costa Comnty, Martinez Kay, Clayton _E., Consultant in Elememtary Education, Riverside County, Riverside 319 Lewis, (Mrs.) L. Helen, Superintendent, Cala- veras County Schools, San Andreas Liddell, Glenda, Consultant, Rural Education, _Kern_ County Schools, Bakersfield Lien, Norman S., Superintendent of Schools, Santa Cruz County, Santa Cruz Maguire, Mildred E., General pacer, arin County Rural Schools, Mill Valley . Martin, Walter G., Superintendent of Schools, Fresno County, Fresno ser > Ray, Board of Education, Bakers- e Michael, (Mrs.) Dale, Monterey Schools, Monterey Motowski, John J., Agriculture Teacher, Escalon Park, (Mrs.) Florence M., Principal, Fall reek School, Hornbrook Rhodes, Alvin E., Superintendent of Schools, San Luis Obispo County, San Luis Obispo: State Committee Member; Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Roberts, W. E., Superintendent, Siskiyou County Schools, Yreka Rogers, Wilma S., Director, Instructional Materials Center, Auburn Sadler, (Mrs.) Katherine, President, Marin Rural Teachers Association, San Rafael Seidel, Vaughn D., sepetintenions of Schools, Alameda veg ayward: State Director Simmons, Linton T., Superintendent of Schools, Orange County, Santa Ana Smedberg, T. R., Superintendent, Sacramento County Schools, Sacramento Stockton, Jesse D., Superintendent of Schools, Kern County, Bakersfield Stone, Gladys, Superintendent of Schools, Monterey County, Salinas —, John W., Superintendent of Schools, endocino Count iah Thrall, C. Burton, Geseriatentiont of Schools, San Bernardino County, San _ Bernardino Tierney, (Mrs.) Hallie M., Superintendent of chools, Modoc County, Alturas Triggs, Dean E., Superintendent of Schools, Ventura way Ventura Trillingham, C. C., Superintendent of Schools, wn — - — Los oo alter, # ief Deputy Superintendent me rag ey] —— County, Ten Ken apple, Ro +» Superintendent of Schools, Yuba County, Marysville Williams, J. Post, Superintendent of Schools, Tulare unty, Visalia Wilson, B. O., Superintendent of Schools, Contra Costa County, Martinez: State Com- mittee Member; Committee on Policies arfd Program for Rural Education; Executive Committee, Division of County and Rural Area Superintendents, 1956-57; Advisory Council to the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Wishart, Blaine, Superintendent of Schools, El Dorado County, Placerville Wolzak, Heiltje, Superintendent, Mono County Schools, Bridgeport Woodcock, P. F., Superintendent of Schools, Humboldt County, Eureka Youss, eth G., Director of Curriculum, Siskiyou County, Yreka INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS California State Library, Sacramento Curriculum Laboratory, County Schools Office, San Bernardino Library, Humboldt State College, Arcata Library, University of California, Berkeley Library, Chico State College, Chico Honnold Library, Claremont College, Claremont Library, University of California, Davis 2 I gama me a ER A try ite din sia 2 320 Library, Fresno State Coico, Fresno Library, Santa Barbara Conny Schools, Goleta Library, Los Angeles State College Los — Library, University of og vie Los An ay aa of Southern California, s Library, Saniversity of Redlands, Redlands Library, San Jose State College, San Jose a City Elementary Schoo! District, et San Diego “State College, San come Los haadee State al e Library, San Fer- nando Valley Campus, ‘Northbridge COLORADO Acre, (Mrs.) Eva, Superintendent, Baca County Schools, Spri Archer, Gee) a, Superintendent of Schools, Fremont Geman Canon City Auld, Lucy C., Administrative Assistant, State Department ‘of Education, Denver Bailey, John R., lon se Summit County Schools, Dillon Barrett, (Mrs.) ogy Su , Sepeeeneens, Rio Blanco County Bateman, Lillian G., came cae Superin- — El Paso County Schools, Colorado pri a oy “(es Evelyn F., Supereentant, Bennett, C. Wil lis,_Superintendent of Schools, Ouray County hools, Oura aguache Bethke, Paul G., sugertanendont, Cache La Poudre Consolidated School s, La Porte: State Committee Member ishop, W. E., Superintendent of Schools, lewood: Executive Committee of the De- ent; State Director; Committee on olicies and a gee for Rural Education Broadbent, Willi ~" Superintendent, Crowley County Schools, Ordway Buchheit. Cis) Ss Jane em Suk’ ‘Gies Secmbine”’ Supedetantest us ate Mrs ine, uperintendent, G County 3 Schools, G Ste Springs Carter, (Mrs.) Edith W., Superintendent, Gilpin ae Schools, Central City —— izabeth, ‘Superintendent, Lake vagag | hools, Lea Leadville Cole, Ito: High School Superintendent, Cheyenne Wells Cromie, (Mrs.) Lilian B., Superintendent, Montrose ow hools, Montrose: State Committee Mem Cushing, Colbert E., Division of Field Service, Colorado Education Association, Denver: State Committee Member Davidson, Reva, Superintendent of Schools, Prowers County, mar: Stat» Committee Member Davies, Beulah L., ae of Schools, Arapahoe County. Davis, Loretta S Surber, yea Teller ‘County Schools, Cripple * hay I., Superintendent of Schools, Secie eld kins, (Mrs.) Geraldine, Superintendent of hools, Routt County, Steamboat Springs Isaesser, (Mrs.) Lydia, endent of Schools, Kiowa unty, Gaylord, (Mrs.) Pueblo ounty High School, Pueblo Gould, Lorrayne, Superintendent, Grand County hools, ot Sul oes Springs of Schools, intendent righton »_ Superintendent, District ~Ry ty, Lakew lean, (irs. Earlean, Superintendent, Phillips County Schools, Holyoke acpuansap ene VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Kettle, Pegneee E., Superintendent of Schools, Custer County Westcliffe Kettle, (Mrs.) Tew ony Supestgoratont, El Paso County Schools, Colorado S oringe Kin ~~ 5 —— D., Superintendent of Schools, og "Kiowa Latting, = rs.) Lucille H., Elementary Super- visor, State Department of Education, —— Leftwich, Stanley A., Consultant, State D ment of Education, Littleton: State ““ mittee Member ines. (Mrs.) Vera E., Superintendent, Alamosa County Schools, Alamosa Lockwood, Marian, og mg of Schools, Morgan’ Coun’ TN, Fort Morgan Lodwick, —— Superintendent of Schools, Weld pe Y Greeley Lytle, Ruth gory of Schools, Otero County, La Junta: Advisory Counci to the National Commission on the Inter- mediate Administrative Unit or (Mrs.) Cecile G., Superintendent e. r.. hools, Cheyenne County, Cheyenne ——- County, Pu [crn aaa of Schools, ahannah, (Mrs.) Lucile H., ‘~ "Fem eM; ys oy shoe PP mom «ren Jackson County Schools, W: alden Martensen, i Golden of Schools, Jefferson ame, Oe — (Mrs.) Vase Martinez, «ng Re rT tendent of Schools, Costilla County, Luis Mauldin, Anna C., Teacher, Lay: State Com- mittee Member Maxwell, Ciss. hg J., Superintendent of hools. ite County, Metzler Mon F., > Superintendent of Schools, Dougias C on Senate, Cee Moore, Gertru Superintendent, Washing- ton County Ste n, Frances, Su sn of Schools, Huerfano County, alsen’ Pennock, (Mrs.) Glen Wildman, eceatensent of ools, — County, Petteys, (Mrs.) Anna C., State Beard. of Edu- cation, a Pickens, T. Superintendent, Las Animas Public Schools, Las Animas Ramey, Griffith D., Superintendent, Logan Rickarton, CHL) Fomnse Crowkecd, Sune ichar rances Cra ora Mr. ear Creek County Schools, Savage, so Bete of Schools, Sh waiter, (Mrs) Bes .s dent of Sh ie? uy} nt t ; hace Cour County, “Sal Salita seenete ta sua —_ Director of Placement, Colorado State "Universi, Fort Collins: — Gifrs) Me ae ae one, rs —~— t Sch Rio Conse County, Monte Vista Streiff, Dean E., Assistant Director, Division of Field Service, Colorado Education As- ennie ES Summers, He te Fane Ss tend f weeney, rs.) une, uperin ent oO ools, Moffat County, Cra Vest, H. Grant, Commissioner of Education, State rtment of Education, Denver Watsen, Claire J., Superintendent, Montezuma County Schools, » Cortes bag me Irene M. P., Su age San wes I County Schools, Telluride res ri rs Carolyn, t, Hinsdale County Schools, Lake Supe iy Zick, (Mrs.) Willa, Su sitontiont, it Carson County Schools, Burlington Fi ARN a tine Om Naren ence crrrensencnenmmncevesanceenasenneriseneanmnentnntenaamnninennnanescssansniniancmaanamenaivatinad gly ELEM nee RUE ” sake ROSTER OF MEMBERS INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER Library, Adams State College, Alamosa : ee, Colorado State College of Education, reele srs Pueblo County Rural School, District 7, Pueblo CONNECTICUT Bouteiller, (Mrs.) Harriet Day, Rural Super- May: Ry. opp, R. Douglas, Superintendent o 00 Old Saybrook Board of Education, Old Saybrook Graff, George E., Superintendent of Rural Education, State Department of Education, Rockville Hoctor, Cathryn R., Elementary Supervisor, State Department of Education, New Haven Hopkins, Natalie A., Elementary Supervisor, tate Department of Education, Waterbury Larson, iola M., Elementary Supervisor, mm McDonald, (Mrs.) Helen B., Elementary Supervisor, State Department of Education, Winstead: State Committee Member Nybakken, Ernest O., Chief, Bureau of Rural Supervisory Service, State D ment of Education, Hartford: State Directcr, Ad- visory Council to the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Outlaw, Guy T., Teacher, Andover Elementary hool, Andover es Sanders, William J., Commissioner of Educa- tion, State Board of Education, Hartford Saunders, Richard P., President, Save the Children Federation, Norwalk del, Ida E., Elementary Supervisor, State a of Education, Willimantic Stoddard, Paul W., Principal, Housatonic Val- ley Regional High School, Falls Village Walker, (Mrs.) D. W., The Educational Pub- lishing Company, Darien DELAWARE Affierbach, Calvin E., Rural Elementary Super- visor, State Department of Public Instruction, Wilmington: State Committee Member Baltz, Austin D., Principal, Oak Grove School, Elsmeer: State Committee Member Burris, (Mrs.) Evelyn W., Teacher, Bear Dees . Mary A., Teacher, District 212%4-c, elmar Eisenbrey, Preston G., Supervisor of Transpor- tati State Department of Public Instruc- tion, Dover: State Committee Member Harris, Charles R., Executive Secretary Dela- ware State Education Association, Dover Hastings, Grace E., Teacher, armington School, Bridgeville James, J. Stanley, Principal, Millsboro District No. an, ro: State Committee Member Leasure, May B., Principal, Eden School, New Castle County, Bear: State Director gan, a P., Teacher, New Castle Meitzler, ilmer K., Elementary Principal, Commodore MacDonough School, St. Georges Piper, Viola W., Teacher, District a Milton Taylor, Evelyn B., Rural Teacher, ees Walley, (Mrs.) Alfarata, Teacher, New Castle Walton, (Mrs.) Sylvia, Teacher, Newark INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER Library, University of Delaware, Newark DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Bathurst, Effie, Life Member, 2022 Columbia Road, N. W.: Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education 321 Clark, Lois M., Assistant Director, Division of Rural Service, National Education Associa- tion: Assistant Executive Secretary of the Department . a Condon, Mary M., Assistant Director, Division of Rural rvice, National Education ll Library, | Georgia Teach AR IDAHO Anderson, Fred W., Superintendent, Canyon County Schools, Caldwell Gases, Mary M., Superintendent of Schools, 8) County, Murphy: State Committee Mem co Hulme, Amos B., Elemen Supervisor, Bear Lake County ” Schools, aris: State Com- mittee Hentes Warner, Carl W. > Sapestntendent of Schools, Williams, 2 County, 3 Re eripal, Grace School, Minidoka Count INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER Library, Idaho State College, Pocatello ILLINOIS B Norman W., Superintendent, Monroe cout Schools, ‘Waterloo arlan D., Southern Illinois University, w Carbondal e Dean, College of Education, eae, 2 int Peoria Sate T t Beard’ See Department ~~ eld: = R ation of Rural Teachers; State Committee Member 323 Blair, Clarence D., Speertesentont of Schools, St. Clair County, Belleville a, Robert _L., Superintendent, Clay —~ 3 Schools, Louisville Brown, Horace G., Superintendent of Schools, Gallatin County, Shawneetown: State Com- mittee Mem agentes of Schools, eo — E., Su County, Mt. oom Mabel, ife cater, Marseilles in, Paul S., “ intendent of Schools, Winne ockford Conway, } Se ee ” ‘Superintendent, Warren unty Schools, Monmouth Corrie, — 4 B. ~ =m of Schools, =" Coun se Cox, John . Secretary, General Services, Illinois eet ssociation, Chicago: State Committee Member Crackel, Verne E., Superintendent of Schools, ill County, Jo Delay, — Superintendent of Schools, x Greenville oo hon te 2 dent of Schock, tural Educa- page a eaton G. P. fessor, Agricul tion, University of Illinois, Urbana: State ommittee - ember ,. ~~ wee of Schools, De Driscoll, L E., Assistant County Superin- y Fy steed Saou” Arlington Engl Assi Co S a. Seas : Connte ge estes — u County, 4 of Schools, Sag Fricke, Ss tendent of Schools, H a wka ty, Gaines, Gerald, Suy intendent, Community Unit School, District No. 02, Villa Grove Goodrich, Mrs.) Lucile, uperintendent of ivingston gy ‘ontiac Harshbarger, Ernest "hs of 5 gh wiley, y, Superintendent o 00 Salle County, Ottawa Hiett, ame ig Executive Secretary, agg a -, vee Springfield ssistant Lae Illinois H . — ‘Cook Co y dikes Ch cam, Park wy hay of Schools, Ford Knapp, ones Director, Educational Re- search, F. E. En on and Com , Chicago Laughlin, Butler, Absistant _Superintendent of Leffler oF acl G. "Superintendent of Schools, Lasse DE. P. Heetesser of Buel Sect ology, Coll of A iculture, University of elory, ken: State Co Committee Member Lundquist, John M., er —- ity Consolidated District 80-C, Coa oy Luthe, Roy M., Su intendent “| ls, Edwards County ommunity Unit District No. 1, Albion McDonald, James V., Superintendent, Cal- houn County Schools, Hardin McLure, William P., Director, Bureau of Edu- cational Research, Coll of Education, University of Illinois, rbana: Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education; Joint Com- mittee with the Rural Sociological Society Mepee, G. C., Eastern Illinois State College, arleston SDPTIMO SN ROMOR Rr MNT I A ENON SIRS 324 Meyer, Pauline, Superintendent of Schools, Menard County, Petersburg Mueller, E. W., Secretary, Rural Church Program, National Lutheran Council, Chicago Nickell, Vernon L., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, State epartment of Education, Springfield Peck, J. R., Superintendent of Schools, Knox County, Galesburg é sr hy W. L., Superintendent of Schools, Ogle County, —— Puffer, Noble J., Superintendent of Schools, Cook County, Chicago: Advisory Council to the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Putney, Harry E. Superintendent of Schools, White County, Carmi Rice, Wilfrid E., Superintendent of Schools, Morgan County, qe sonville Roberts, R. P., aparasendent of Schools, Iroquois County, Watseka Schmidt, Victor, Assistant Superintendent, Cook County Schools, Chicago Stitzel, D. E., Superintendent, De Kalb County Schools, Sycamore Taft, Harold, Superintendent of Schools, Jo Daviess County, Galena Tazewell, R. L., Superintendent of Schools, McHenry County, Woodstock Topping, George, Assistant Superintendent, ‘ook County Schools, Chicago Torrens, John A., Superintendent of Schools, Lee age ixon: Executive Committee, — of County and Rural Area Superin- tendents Vincent, Grace E., Sublette Walker, Lillias a Superintendent of Schools, Sounty Soumty. Morris White, Arthur L., Superinfendent of Schools, Henry County, Cambridge: State Director Wilkins, George T., Superintendent of Schools, Madison County, Edwardsville Wilkinson, Thelma C., Superintendent, Greene County Schools, Carrollton Will, (Rev.) Irvin R., Director, Catholic Rural Life Conference and Rector of the Cathedral, Springfield: State Committee Member Wilson, O. A., Jr., Superintendent of Schools, ersey County, Jerseyville rench, Frank Superintendent of Schools, Piatt County, Monticello Wright, H , Superintendent and Principal, Newton Community High State Committee Member Wright, Roe M., Business Manager, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, Chicago: Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education; National Commission on the Intermediate Ad- ministrative Unit INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS itesty, Southern Illinois University, Carbon- School, Newton: ale Library, Eastern Illinois State College, Charles- ton Libr University of Chicago, Chicago The "Chtcags Public Library, Education De- rtment, Chicago igor, Northern Illinois State College, De- a Library, National College of Education, Evans- ton Library. Western Illinois State College, Macomb Library, Illinois State Normal niversity, Normal Library, Illinois State College, Springfield INDIANA Adair h N., Superintendent of Schools, ite Canty, inten CERN eR ARR eI treme VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Alexander, Eugene H., Superintendent, Clin- Fran ton County Schools, fort Beck, Paul H., Superintendent of Schools, Randolph County, Winchester : Cole, Raymond, Superintendent, Switzerland County Schools, is’ k : Davisson, John H., Superintendent, Miami County Schools, Peru Elliott, C. H., Superintendent, Steuben County Schools, Angola Endres, (Mrs.) Mary P., Associate Professor of Education, Purdue University, Lafayette: Vice-President of the Department, 1956-57; Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education ; Fleetwood, Lloyd C., Elementary Supervisor, Indianapolis Foote, Lawrence E., Seiten of Schools, Allen County, Fort Wayne Gardner, Hawley A., Superintendent of Schools, Union County, Liberty Gerichs, G. W., Superintendent of Schools, Pulaski County, Winamac Gladden, Robert F., Superintendent of Schools, Marion County, Indianapolis: Advisory Coun- cil to the National Commission on the Inter- mediate Administrative Unit Huntington, Ira L., Superintendent of Schools, Brown County, Nashville: State Committee M r Hyslop, Orb, Superintendent of Schools, Gib- County Princeton Kelsay, H. Paul, Superintendent of Schsolis, St. Joseph County, South Bend Leslie, iesacy T., Administrative Assistant, — Ibany-Floyd County Schools, New n Meyer, suite P., Board of Church Extension and Home Missions, Anderson Nelson, Norbert I., Pssdue University, West Lafayette Noble, Charles B., Superintendent of Schools, Switzerland County, Vevay Kenneth E., Superintendent, White County Schools, Monticello Norris, Richard D. Dugurenentent of Schools, Newton County, Kentland Peregrine, Donald, Superintendent of Schools, Starke County, Knox Pierson, Charles H., + "weeps County Schools, Terre Haute Pound, Clarence A., Associate Professor of Education and Consultant in Rural Educa- tion, Purdue University, Lafayette: State Director; National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Purcell, William E., Superintendent, Lake County Schools, Crown Point Ratliff, Fred, Superintendent of Schools, Grant County, Marion Rayburn, Russell H., Superintendent of hools, Hendricks County, Danville: State Committee Member Sarver, Clifford L., Superintendent of Schools, Scott County, Scottsburg Sutton, Clyde S., = s— _crcrae, of Schools, Elkhart County, Gosheri Thomas, James D., Secondary Supervisor, ke County Schools, Crown Point: State Committee Member Tower, J. Harold, Superintendent of Schools, La Porte County, La Porte Vining, Edna L., Teacher, Bourbon Town- ship School, Bourbon Whitehead, Glen, Superintendent, Kosciusko County Schools, Warsaw Wiison, W. E., Superintendent, Clark County hools, Jeffersonville Yoder, Harry, Superintendent of Schools, Whitley County, Columbia City York, I. R., Superintendent of Schools, Daviess County, Washington Norris, Vigo cai od Ps eh gen grt ie RES mtn ist umanony is, ROSTER OF MEMBERS Yunker, J. C., Assistant Superintendent, Marion County Schools, Indianapolis INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Library, Butler Universes. Indianapolis Executive Department of Institu- tional beleteen 7 CMS or Indiana State Libr » indiana Teachers Special ry, - napolis In- struction Center, Indianapo Library, Ball State Teachers ont e, Muncie iaeery, University of Notre Dame, Notre Wa Works. I. G. Brown, Sales anager, Richmo Lieery, Indiana ~d Teachers College, Terre au mo y IOWA ae K., Superintendent of Aikman, “Siena, “President, Audubon County Boar Education, Gray =~" Dayle M., ~~ ermmere of Schools, Bako'E he WS Superintendent of Schools, oteweiomie, County, Council Bluffs: Ad- pone ny 1 to the Committee on Policies am for Rural Education —. a, Ee ~ aang Greenfield Bell, "Deak Chairman, County Board “ Education, Pottawattamie County, Carso National mn on the Toteresediate Administrative Unit Berge, Earl O., Superintendent of Schools, Seymour: State Committee Member Bergmann, Geor Sopeeneentent of Schools, Adais ounty, Greenfield Bielefeldt, |A 4 Superintendent of Schools, fowashi hool, Waterloo Bone an E BL .Pu. of Schools, Ry reson, » Superintendent of Schools, Sheldon Bowen, R. W., ‘Geiebiities Durant Com- munity School, Durant Brouhard, Superintendent of Schools, a ma eg "Harlan Byerley, (Mrs.) Edith, Superintendent of ools, Hamilton County, Webster City oS, ae C., Superintendent of Schools, ockfor Cleveland, G. S., = sn na of Schools, Edwin, Su Worth County, ‘Nort Coen, a of Schools, gg at | Comaty, Cook ~Tapatinniodent of Schools, Post- v ttle Davis, Floyd A., Superintendent of Schools, Davis, —— S., Superintendent, Henry County S Is, Mt. Pleasant ae ge H. C., ‘Professor of Education, Col- lege of Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa City: State a Member —. ) era F., —— of Schools, inggo ounty. Mount Ayr ,. ‘Rex G., Superintendent of Schools, tenkee, ting iltiam H., Assistant Professor of Education, Department of Education, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls; State Director Dresler, We Superintendent, Dubuque County Sc eile hk buque Dunsmore, Gerald, Superintendent of Schools, Wayne County, Corydon Durant, Robert B., Su — Polk oa "Phyllis, Ss Schools, Des ‘Moines rvisor, Audio-Visual ounty ools, Des Therapist, Polk County 325 a , W. T., Director of Transportation, tate Department of Public Instruction, Des Moines: State Committee Member a J. H., Superintendent of Schools, Erickson, Dwight A., Superintendent of Schools, Warren County, Indiano ae, Leo J., Superintendent of Schools, entura Evans, —. a, Superintendent of Schools, Superintendent of Belmond County Sc noete, igne Louisa County a Superintendent of Schools, Fleming, [Everett O., Bremer County, ls, Boone County, Tipton Lyon Contrary, iiexs E. Superintendent of Schools, Faris, Donald ye Superintendent of Schools, Farris, me i. J. Lite, Member, Independence Fellows, ove ht, $ Superintendent, Fremont Fesgesse a oe S of Schools, uttenber Field, sere R,. Superintendent of Schools, Fitzgerald, H a, Superintendent of Schools, ea Gaard, Re ” ol — of Schools, abach, Ralph W... Sanarlotendent of Schools, Gienapp, William H., se Guy G., Iowa Farm Bureau Federa- es Moines Gill "tome N., Superintendent of Schools, Gilliland, David -» Superintendent, County Schools, Rock Rapids Dallas County, Ad Granner, H Supériatindent of Schools, Rockwell City Green, Edwin F., <~ >? amano Jefferson County Schools, Fai Gogo, -" ) Superintendent of Schools, Genanaall, Ralph W., Vocational “ay =o ’ Instructor, ipton’ Community Schoo Tipton: State [_— Member Halverson, B. G., Superintendent of ‘ie Carroll Coun ” Carroll Hammond, C. » Superintendent, Sac County Schools, Sac City Harris, James C., Jr., Superintendent of hools, Sergeant uff Harrison, A Capegintendent of Schools, Buena Vista County, Storm Lake artman, W. Harold, Superintendent of Schools, Blackhawk County, Waterloo Hendrick Abner A., Duperiatnndent of Schools, a County, Cresco Henning, County Saris, Hensleigh, Esther, Penne eb vor Page County hools, Clarin Hickman, Irving J., 7. omar of Schools, Wapello Count mwa Helene, Glenn, "Bregnsion Specialist, Iowa State — lege, Fr ge m State a eros 2 orgen, ys, ponsery upervisor, State Department of Public Instruction, Des Moines: State Committee Member Hoth, Donald L., — Lamont Con- solidated Schools, mont Fannie —— of Schools, Floyd County, Charles Ci a , re Huehn, Kermith S., Superintendent of Schoo Hardin County, ‘bias Hulsart, Frank W., —— artatentate. Glidden- Ralston Community Sc Hungerford, J. B., Becew cade ve naa Schools, Coggon Isenberger. W., Consctidated School, Howel < ~ ye Hudson RAN SOK OD. 2 went te Seaman tate ecacaniamc inten a ae iacce nner ee atten es ss IO ARTS IOS RR NOE TEI RON BENT ARNT ONCE E ENE Di is a naa we cs 326 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Jensen, Chester, Superintendent, Audubon County Schools, Audubon — Johnson, L. E., Superintendent of Schools, Appanoose Comaty, nterville Fageen. W. F., Superintendent of Schools, pencer “—_ Clifford, Superintendent of Schools, Kennedy, Pe, h M., Superintendent of Schools, Bondurant Killion, Ray A., Superintendent of Schools, Harlan b Klaus, Catherine, West Union: State Com- mittee Member Knappenberger, Lula A., Administrative As- sistant, Polk County Schools, Des Moines Knezevich, S. J., Associate Professor of Educa- tion, State University of Iowa, Iowa City: Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education Koontz, Donald H., Assistant Professor of Sociology, Simpson College, Indianola Krabill ster B., Superintendent of Schools, Washington County, Washington Krauth, Wilbur W., Superintendent, Momona Mah =~ Cg, S rueger, e ae, entary Supervisor, Floyd County, Charles City . , Vernon W., Superintendent of Schools, Marshall County, Marshalltown Kusten, Noreen, Teacher, Des Moines Laipple, Aron, Superintendent, Villisca Com- munity Schools, Villisca Landess, N. S., Superintendent, Urbandale Independent Schools, Des Moines Larson, Ira E., Superintendent of Schools, Mitchell County, Osage Lee, Amos C., Suprintendent of Schools, West Des Moines Lodge, Duane E., Superintendent, Allamakee County Schools, Waukon Maier, Dee, Director, Continued Education, Polk County Schools, Des Moines Manship, Raymond, Superintendent of Schools, Van Horne Marro, Thomas David, Director, Special Edu- cation, Polk County Schools, Des Moines Martir. Beryl E., Superintendent, Lu Verne Consolidated School, Lu Verne Martin, Charles F., Executive Secretary, Iowa State Education Association, Des Moines Martin, M. C., Superintendent of Schools, Cerro Gordo County, Mason a9 Meloy, F. E., Superintendent of Schools, Iowa County, Marengo Messer, Frances I., Superintendent of Schools, Humboldt County, Dakota City Mick, Waldo, Superintendent of Schools, Pocahontas Miller, K. W., Assistant Superintendent, Polk County Schools, Des Moines Milligan, Donald C., Superintendent of Schools, Davis County, Bloomfield Molsberry, W. W., Superintendent of Schools, Keo County. Sigourney Montgomery, John A., Director of Elementary Education, Polk County, Des Moines Moorhead, David L., Superintendent, Mahaska County Schools, Oskaloosa Morris, R. A., Superintendent of Schools, Green County, Jefferson Morrow, Warren R., Superintendent ot Schools, Cass County, Atlantic Morse, A. S., Superintendent of Schools, Fayette County, West Union Norris, Paul B., Executive Secretary, Iowa Division, Izaak Walton League of America, Indianola Norris, Ralph C., petnesont of Schools, Polk County, Des Moines: President, Depart- ment of Rural Education, 1957-58; Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rura: Education; Advisory Council to the Natisnal Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Come ae. Superintendent of Schools, ebolt Ohde, Mrs. Margaret, President, Iowa Rural Teachers Association, rote ne Ortmeyer, H. W., Superintendent, Lohrville Community School, Lohrville Pickett, L. L., Superintendent of School Scott County, Davenport: Advisory to the Committee on Policies and Programs for Rural Education; Planning Committee, Midwest Regional Conference on Administra- tive ae we Serving Community Schools Pond, Millard Z., Superintendent of Schools, Burlington: Advisory Council to the Com- mittee on Policies and Programs for Rural Education Pontius, Russell R., Superintendent of Schools, Westside Price, W. K., Superintendent of Schools, Sioux —— Orange City Quintard, A. M., Superintendent of Schools, Koosuth County, Algona Reed, Lula B., Superintendent of Schools, Montgomery County, Red Oak Reeves, Roy E., Superintendent of Schools, Alleman Rice, H. H., Superintendent of Schools, Robinson J, Clare, § dent of Schools obinson, J. e, Superintendent o ools, Webster County, Fort (Deceased) Raster K. R., Superint t of Schools, er a hy u ar ’ t ee ‘County, Fort. Madison Samuelson, Melvin V., Superintendent, Alta Community School District, nders, Stanley G., Superintendent of Schools, Poweshiek County, Montezuma Sankey, Claude W., Superintendent of Schools, hee County. Clarion Schindler, E. P. ~ ~iemeetames of Schools, Story County, Neva Schuchert, Richard, Superintendent, Dike Community School, Dike z Schuler, A. H., Superintendent of Schools, Atlantic Shepherd, Lou A., Professor of Primary Edu- + ge Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar alls ; Shultz, — G., ca Consultant, State Department of Public Instruction, Moines Shupp, Walter A., ae of Schools, Linn County, Cedar Rapids Simpson, Edwin R., Senior Speech and Hear- ing Therapist, Polk County Schools, Des Moines Smith, J. E., Superintendent of Schools, Palo Alto County, Emmetsburg Smith, Lloyd H., Superintendent of Schools, Madison County, Winterset Smith, Janice S., Director of Music Education, Polk County Schools, Des Moines Snider, F. J., County Superintendent, Johnson County, Iowa City - Starry, W. Virgil, Superintendent, ‘ayne Coaney Schools, Corydon Stoen, Charles G., Superintendent of Schools, Winneshiek County, Decor: Stroh, Allen N., Superintendent, Garner Com- munity School District, Garner Taylor, (Mrs.) Blanche L., Supervisor, Ele- mentary Education, Polk County Schools, Des Moines Thomas, C. E., Superintendent of Schools, Manilla ‘ na Thomas, C. S., Superintendent of ools, Marion County, Knoxville ° Pa Sse Pe ee ee ee ee ae Se Oren et ee ee ee ne ee eee ee ee Pe ee eee RT ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee pe tee wy LPR NERA REELS SOME CELE Ee ROSTER OF MEMBERS T .» Superintendent of Schools, Winnete 1) 5 Mem ay oro City: State Com- ember takereend. Charles, a a Modale Consolidated School, Vanderlinden, = s., Superintendent of Schools, Dawson Vanderwal, R. .4., Superintendent of Schools, Montezuma A Varner, Charles S., Superintendent of Schools, woe itney, Charles S., Superintendent of Schools, Hancock County, Garner Woodruff. =. L., Superintendent of Schools, Des Moines County, Burlington Wright, J. C., Superintendent ret Public In- struction, State rtment of Public In- struction, Des Moines Young, (Mrs.) Frances, Su tendent of Schools, Pocahontas County, Pocahontas KANSAS Anderson, Edith, Superintendent of Schools, Decatur County, Oberlin Andrews, (Mrs.) om: Superintendent of Larned Bel Cesrae » % Seperated of “on Wyandotte county Kansas City: Bere (Mrs, irs) E oo of Schools, wrence Bak ,_ Ee. Gremaent. Kansas Congress of Bn Wy ‘and T be ore p ecutter, ol gy uperin o Schools, Pratt County, Pratt Bowman, Gladiola Superintendent of Schools, ffey County, Burl Brown,” Minter E., ae of nine yen a tiene, Kansas State Teachers B tion, T Walter L. um, oo Schools, Raat (Mrs.) Pearl B, Superintendent of Schools, Pottawatomie County, Westmore- lan Cundy, John » ._ Superintendent, Johnson ay = es Olathe. J DeBolt, Alma, Seoecintendont of Schools, bette County, La hoo Mrs. ee ty L., ©. rpesnsy intendent, Cowley tate Harris, ith, Superintendent of Schools, Rooks County, Stockton ag Bo Arthur, Superintendent, Rice County Schools, Lyons Hayden, Murle H., Su tendent of Schools, Lincoln: State Committee Member Holroyd, Flora E., t Professor of Rural Education, Kansas State Teachers College, Fitebure bag oe om >» e M., Thomas County Huff “Citteae t B, Head, Department of Rural Education, Kansas Mone Teachers College, Emporia: — Director; Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education Johnson, Homer L., Professor of Education, Kansas State Teachers College, Pittsburg Jones, (Mrs.) Frances, Superintendent of Schools, Lyon County, Emporia: State Com- mittee Member Kaufman, Otto O., Assistant Manager, Kansas — bog, Se Cirele, Kansas State Stare "Teachers gamma n, : State Committee Mem- 327 Kesler, H. A. W., Superintendent of Schools, emeee County, Topeka: State Committee Mem King, Sohn E., President, Kansas _ State Teach hers College, Emporia: Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education eee Viola W. oe parma of Schools, County, Krull, Eva , Su sintendent, Bourbon County x seieols, Fert Seperin dent of Schools, ugler u tendent o 00 Smith County, Smith Center Lani (Mrs.) Dorothy T., “'Superintendent, Cheyenne County Schools, St. Francis Luse, Eugene E., Superintendent of Schools, Coldwater McBride, Mollie, ) oe almeaae of Schools, Rawlins pematy A twood Marzolf, Earl, Tapertendant of Schools, 00 London . Joda, oe ge Lincoln Coun- ty koe sneer’ Parks, Burgess rom oa Scott County sete, ioe hy pote Roses, Lenis, Principal, Hisevalle School, Hise- ville Rose, (Mrs.) Green, Chairman, Public Wel- fare and Health, yonky Federation of Women's Clubs; V Presi PTA of Jackson City School, “Tackson! tate Com- mittee Mem ber Stewart, T. W., Su dent, Christian County Schools, Hopki ba Turner, | "Cou Marie R.. — iver ation, State Department of Educa- tion, Frankfort a Weed, (Mrs.) Emma B., Superintendent, erson unty Schools, Lawrenceburg: State Committee Member; Ad Council to the National Commission on the Inter- mediate ae Unit Watson, C. V., Superintendent, McLean County Schools, oun Wear, Pat W., Professor of Education, Berea e, Berea: State Committee Member Yan Louis A., Supervisor, Shook Bas Bus poration, Fayette County Schools, Lexing- on INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS a ne I. King Library, University of Johnson Csden Library, Morehead State College, Morehead Library, Eastern Kentucky State Teachers Cdlines, Richmond LOUISIANA Babin, Larry, en 'e —a— Donaldsonville: Advisory the Committee on a Policies and Br Program rier a an eee ol runso: ay uperinten Ascension Parish Sch Geismar . sh rooney Avoyelles Parish ue Biarkeville CD Deceased January 1958) Corker,” J Saperinterdent, Tangipahoa » ry Paar West Baton B J. M ks 'e Member, Baton Rouge J a be ialter ‘Deemed ohn Da Su tendent, Jackson > he Schoo avid, an crys mlas J Com- mittee, Southceat Regional owe on a te Leadership Serving Com- muni Pitcher, J. E., Superintendent, Webster Parish Schools, Minden Robertson, J. B., Aueisant Superintendent, a Py L., Saportasendent Red _ River Schools, Coushatta Thatcher, Fred -» Executive Secretary, — School Boards Association, Baton Webb, Gordon A Superintenden : h Schools, ‘Donaldsonville: ine De Sie -— INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS [Aves McNeese State College, Lake Charles tee iat, Northwestern State College, Na MAINE B , Alfred A., S int S macy, re he a endent, Supervisory Brown, James » Elemen upervisor, tate an of Education, B rem Gordon, Asa A., Superintendent Union No. Foe tay Ge "Albion: State a Hill, State Commissioner of Edu- cation, oer State Department of Education, Houston, John Wiest Serenata, Winslow m h Schoo Schools, Eavard i Superintendent of Unio “ orace Pr 1S, Ginter cites ROSTER OF MEMBESS Quinn, (Mrs. Bs, - Hayden, Elementary y oan nt of Education Augusta: pF ~ a il to the National Commission on the Intermediate Administra- tive Unit; Advisory Council to the Commit- tee - Ba ccy and Program for Rural Educa Redding, _ EZ., Se oy Su ding, Union No. 5 South Berwick a MARYLAND Ahalt, Arthur M., Professor and Head, Depart- ment of Agricul tural Education, University of land, College Park: State Com- mittee Member Aiton, E. W., Director, 4-H Club em, Federal Extension Service, Department Agriculture, Adelphi Bri William M., Superintendent, Washing- ton County Schoo agerstown Brown, (Mrs.) Lola P. Supervisor of Person- a Queen Anne’s vad Schools, Centre- » Paul als, Sapertetetent, Worcester unkle, Maurice os D Baperintendent, Calvert County Schoo _Prinee Frederick: State Committee Mem Elena, Witten , Director of P ccm sg and es _ Bal more ong | Schools, Tow- visory Council fo e Committee on Palicies oa Program for Rural Education Cum, Me med M., Supervisor of Transporta- tion, Baltimore County Schools, Towson Hauver, Herman A., Coordinator of Pupil Services, Frederick County Hawkins, Elmer T., Princi —— High School, Kent County Is, Chestertown Hawkins, ao ag 9 om Garrett County Sch om, ¢ Advisory Council to the Nationa oan ees on the Inter. gue. 6 age Unit _ epbron, —— Su isor © lementary Schools, Board of Edu ucation, Chestertown: State Committee Ray r Hoffmaster, Paul L. ong A ‘.. Tran tion, ~~ % Count Fr eferick Jenkins, Arundel County ‘Schoo s, Annapolis: —_ visory Council to the Committee on Policies Jen and am hs — ber mee bien enness, _— uperintendent, rr County Schools, MS tminster: State Com- a. Robert a a Superintendent, St. ary’ 5 — Schools, Leonardtown Oliver, J. ofessor of Rural Life and Education, ig State College, Princess Anne Reseda. Morris W., _ Seperianen ten, Cecil og Schools, Ream, Richard M., Director of Transportation, Rhee Haw S intendent, Queen es, arry C., Superinte t, Anne’s County (Schools, Gentrevi Robinson, Alice L. we isor of Libraries, Montgom County Schmidt, te. iam Re go Prince George’s County Sch » Meriboro: State am Member Sensenba James A., Sw tendent, Frederi Cou ‘county Schools, Frederick bar eae Edward G., Superintendent, Balti- re County Schools, Towson: State Direc- Whiter, & Taylor, Superintendent, Mont- Coun "Zager Rockville will cw. yy uperintendent, Hartford Coun- RAPE YG TER FI RE TPIS ELI OO LEE LILIA SLE ALE LEI ER LOE ETD aT RO TE 329 MASSACHUSETTS Goodrich, Ralph W., Superintendent, Super- visory Union 27, ‘Amherst Nourse, Lawrence G., Superintendent of Trainor, Henry Superintendent, Union 30, Erving School Minit New Salem MICHIGAN Anderson, Carl R., Dixons of Field Services, Eastern Michigan College, Ypsilanti: State Committee Member Ansel, James O., Associate Professor of Educa- tion, ment of Rural Life and Educa- tion, estern Michigan University, Kala- manee: Executive Committee of the Depart- me oan. (ee) Ruth N., . + 2 of gs St. Clair County, P. ort Huron oof. E., Su rintendent, Mesick Con- solidated Schools, Mesick Bickford, F aul a . i Assistant ee Manager, Homecra 4 hool, Duluth Kroll, Leo S Superintendent, Morrison County Schools. Little Falls Lane, Willard, Associate Professor, College of Education, University of Minnesota: mittee on Policies and — for Rural A I SARI IO A ELIS NE AE DO LOR LR Sener ae ROSTER OF MEMBERS Larsen, (M Superintendent, eine County, PF —— Pie’ City Donald, Superintendent of Schools, Croft ovine County, Bra rainerd atone, Gladys, ve ee t, Todd County ools. Bissota, on, ‘Margaret, ppetenensent of Schools, County, Menihen Caroline, “Superintendent, McLeod Schools, Glencoe Melin, (Mrs. ordica, Su aoa. of Schools, County, Center a Meyer, Eugene, Director, Elementary ools, tate ——— of Education, St. Paul: State Committee Member M “— M., Coordinator of Student Teaching, oorhead State Cofewe Moorhead . Ralph E., Associate Professor. partment of ota, St Pa Education, Univer- ng .» Teacher, Austin Gale sik School, Austin Nelson, Agus F., Superintendent, Big Stone County hools,. Ortonville Nelson, (Mrs.) Avis P., Superintendent, Henne- i Ng Schoo hools, casor of Soc o ® "al eee % & - ee neabinocs Newstrom, (Mrs) Ma RR B., Tae dent, Aitkin County nage Aitk Norlinger, iiss.) Me pees Superintendent, Douglas i ‘Alexan Nuernberg, W. S tendent of Schools, one ceuney Faria tendent, Wabash n, rs. erna, Superin a a nog Schools, Wabasha t, Clay County n ent, n Schools 7 f ae. ga, Myrtle J. ero Lakes of Schools, m4 Milo j., H ead, Department of Agri- cultural Educati Fay "University of + nesota, St. Paul: State Committee Member; Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education Rebstock, Charles W., Superintendent of pistons sae Fare printer, i Ripoy. (Mrs.) Elizabeth, Superintendent of — Lake of the Woods , Baudette S. D., Administrative "Assistant, State Te yee College, St. Clou Salmi, W. W. ,_ Superintendent of Schools, St. Louis County, Duluth: State Director; Executive Committee, Division of County and Rural Area Superintendents Schimming, Vernice, S ~ gam of Schools, Renville County, ». Helen R., S -cee OEE of Sonesta, Beees County, New Ulm Siewert, . Superintendent of Schools, Pain ow ag yp SE n rancis int t, ueur County Schools, Le Center Sela, Lorot Uri D., Assistant Professor of . nag University of Minnesota, Duluth Smith, Frank 7. Cottons of Education, Uni- versity of Minnesota, inneapolis — - W. B., Superintendent of Schools, Stapleton, C. L., S tendent of School Beltrami County, Bonide State Committee t of Agricultura’ sity of type Conmittee on Publications and e Studies; Com- 331 Swenson, Louise, Superintendent of Schools, T ke, Pl ip Cr tructo Department f s i ip ns ‘ ° 7 i Mnnes ‘Education, University of in mast. P 3 mtendent of Schools, "Hlennepin Seunty, inneapolis: ~ oe Com- en ember; gga Council the ae li Commission the Seeceneiene Administrative Unit (Deceased September 1957) Th Clara, ange ae Schools, Yellow Medicine i alls Thorson, (Mrs.) conn Magy = intendent, Kandiyohi County Sadak, vuperi Thpepen, Tord yd E., Superintendent of Schools, Teen, B Dora L. Sepetneentont of Schools, Mower County, Aust Vig, A. M., Gupertetendent of Schools, Free- Wallien Conats,, 5 2 ere School Chippewa ontevideo wee : eter, keseeie o., Superintendent of Schools, nnebago Weitgenant, Blanda C., Superinten- my of st eee County, Worthing = Ware, Cora A., Superintendent of Schoois, Traverse Coun . ‘Wheaton "ae ak 9 Executive Secretary, — Zi Rdg oe wrence, S tend Borup Consolidated School, Boru ~ oy prea Minneapolis Public Librar Moen innea: ic inneapolis rary, eachers liege, t. Cloud Library, State Teachers College, Winona MISSISSIPPI Aléridge, J. ¥, coun Superintendent of Schools, Allen, Otis eentant of Schools, austere County, Superintendent of Schools, . Poplarville Pearl River County, Middleton, an % ecutive ve Secretary, M sissippi State Textbook mg Bo 1 oizeneaen (Mrs.) Annie Rig Jeanes Teacher, ‘Walter “5 A Secretary in Charge bie gp ssistant ield Seevie, Mississippi Education wo Soeien ackson te State Superintendent of Educa- =. , "Department of Education, — Tre Gycelle, Superintendent of ools, INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER Periodicals D it Library, University of Mississippi, University MISSOURI Beck, ee, Superintendent of Schoo Mi County, Chorlestee ™ Capps, A. sippt Professor of Saeseten, Univer- sity of Missouri, Columbia: Advisory Coun- cil to pg Committee on Policies and Pro- a= = for Rural Education; State Committee Clements, _- & Superiatendent of Seas see — SS REE I a RSENS Ree et tee ct me OUTEAE ladtanmce ma teense SNe AIR, i cS RENTS eee E 332 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Collier, Eva, Grate Teacher, Bn a Davis, Fred E., a Andrew Godse? —_ ten f Schools, rey, u ry Dade County, Greenfield Graves, Masry “> Superintendent of Schools, Macon yeounty, Macon Ora N uae Superintendent of Guth Hamle es 2s, Superintendent of Schools, Su a eemte Clyde, _—s tendent of Schools, ion tian an Maney. W.. R., % ogg of Schools, Hill, Robert a aaer t e of Education, ¢ Buth- east Missouri | —_ yh: Advisory ogy ro omy and = “m for —— Education; State Committee udson, — "Superintendent of Schools, pe ng (Mrs. County, Sa ~ he of ools, Hickory Cc County, Hermi uperintendent of chotia, Buchanan County, St. Kimbrough, (Mrs.) O. om emma > ay. Chillicothe, of Schralis, Cou ye ee 1 sees ~~ esammoe Miller Tuscumbia, County Sch McDaniel, o Superintenden Monitedu Gounty co ~ Caligornia a Pam me oo of Schoo oy an 4 Vezsailles: Ad Counci to the National Commission on the Inter- MiG fi rank, Super —~ es raw, Fran n ° we .. Fr s,suPerintendent Butler orrow, r , Coun Schools, Molar BI Martin, 4 ay _ RR of Schools, BOT. Maxwell, Howard, Superintendent, Audrain nty Schools, Mexico Mittler, E. F., Head, Division of Extension Service, Northeast Missouri State Teachers College. Kirksville: State Director Oliver, C., Professor of Education, ott ee issouri State College, Spring- _— qupentatendens of Schools, Ben- Pattinson, "Sallie Life Member, Huntsville R les A., Superintendent of Schools, gE seaniilie Ri dine nn H., *.. me of Schools, —. (ites. Mr)” Vera, Super “Superintendent of Robertaon, ‘Gt irs) M Made Sone PR of County, Ava Rang “inase) Cleo L., Superintendent of Schools, Lincoln , Troy Se L., Transportation Supervisor, Scotten, C. F., S$ peseetene of Schools, Skelton, S._ W., Siepariasendeat of Schools, Atchison County, Rockport Slaughter, Seth W., Dean, Missouri School sa i SEE pewpemten, So Ah ag marr, rs. tendent Schools, Montgomery County, Montgomery Stewart, Donald, Superintendent of Sehetts, Cass Ss Arthur L., Ditector f Resnganiention ummers, ° f School Ae Department of paar Jefferson pny State Committee mber Swindel, (M Mabel A., Superintendent, "Ripley coonty Schools, Doniphan Thies, oo ge Supervisor of Transportation, Florissa Th is. Cary D Sepetenenteem, orbs rs. : Schools, Colum Tek, Andy, = ag & ae Sepetatentent of Schools, Variinesicn teak P., ~ Dicecter, Services and Information, LoRiverview Gardens School gg ay St. Louis White, Department of Agri- culture, Cen oo re hea State "Caltane, Willi an s., S — d aia aus ae Lawrence Winder, Lester C., ae x ho om .: Executive i: aN Division of we a = yg oe A., eg of Schools, i County, Gert, Superintendent —_ INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Kent Library, popeannt Missouri State Col- lege, Library, |} q-* Somlaery, Bible College of my & E. "Page ws, Lincoln University, Kansas “Cay Publi Library, Periodical De- Library, W Washingt CF air St. Louis Library, Conteal Missurt Stee College, War- MONTANA Barnard, Lu Superintendent of Sch Finite Conner Kalispell : PSB gp Publications ” Constructi vi Council to the National peng ree rete . ~~ ee of a a ia County, issoula Bergan, » Indian Education — Transportation, State Department of ee oS Superintendent of Schools, County Gall thet” dicink: - Wibetinnionn ra r Daniels County Schco . Fossen, (Mrs.) * Rite, ’ & intendent of Schools, Roosevelt County, olf Point Haight, (Mrs.) Sylvia, Director, State Cor- compas School, State Department of + ~ Lc aatcmiee: Ricsouls: State Committee em Ham Muriel, Superintendent of Schools, ris i'n Superintendent of me Mrs. ools, Gallatin ounty, Bozeman z IEEE ABE OLIN SON RR MEN ROSTER OF MEMBERS Kyler, Zula, S intendent of Schocls, Jeffer- son County, Ider Lammers, G. D., Vocational Agriculture In- structor, Har : State Committee Member Metcalf, Lee, Con n from the First District, 334, oid House Office Building, W. Moore, Poul 1 5. Oe as 4-H Club Leader, Mon- tana’ State Co! liege, Bozeman: State Com- mittee Member Moore, (Mrs.) Winnafern H., Supervisor of Rural ats ; State Department of Public sacruaties. | elena: State Director Morgan, — ) Catherine G., Superintendent, Mao — aunty > perinenden of . nna tu Se ay Mineral Su Paterson, Hilfred B., *Su ietandent of Schools, Park County, Livingston Peterson, Frances M., Teacher, Miles City: State Committee Member Pesgrcon, , (hire.) Lillian L., Life Member, Phillips, Ofrs) Pearl A., Superintendent of Schoo udith Basin Co "Tecateet Poese, Waive K., ~ ntendent of Schools, Potts, (Mrs.) Oo eel , Toole County Schools, She by Sherle, (Mrs.) Opal, Superintendent, Hill . Schoo avre aie ~ Sivertson, Ethel 7 ns panes Wheatland a cteny Schools, Be servicer, Vieusl Ed een, orr ) & Sw ua uca- A... State Department of f Education, Helena (Mrs.) ~— D., papertntentent of Ta aft, chools, Fergus Superintendent of of School County, Cut ° Ternstrom, Alice hy “Superintendent of Li se nty, cima B., Toscher, Malta: Walker, Raymond P., anor of Educa- tion, Carroll College, H Wright, (Mrs.) Margaret M. Superinter.dent righ Schools, oneal County, Glendive NEBRASKA Andersen, Olga, Superintendent of Schools, Sarpy -_ > ane Anderson, W., Superintendent of — i AM State Committee Mem- Belz, Paul H., enon of Schools, Logan County, Stapleton Bi Doris, Superintendent of Schools, ‘Cosper County, saweek B d, Thomas Superigeeptens of ane ee na, abn Red : Cook Ca li, (Mrs.) Anne, Superintendent, of Sc ools, Gi igon : County, Wedieos ison: State Committee ieee Clear, Mabel E. me . Garden Cupningham, "Eldon don, ‘Su nitetenten of Schoo —_ County, Gr ker Bow Be ony of Public pinstracton, "Linea tendent of Schools, uperintendent o 00) a County, St. berinte State Committee Dutton, ¢ (Mrs.) — g H., Superintendent "Cha Bessie F., S intendent’ of Schoo 7. e — ls, 333 Elli Mr Elizabeth A., S dent of. Sch ool, % gy ae =m County, ‘ahoo Estes, "C., Superintendent of Schools, Rock ey) Bassett: State Committee Member Farley, Rosalie, W., Coordinator, In-Service Education, Teachers College, University of Nebraeka, Lincoln: Advisory, Council to oe Committee on Policies and Program Rural Education; State Committee oaker Prose. Alice L., S intendent of Schools, Holt County, O’Neil Fritz, (Mrs. " Pgnice, sfapeenentent, Web- Gilmo og Superi dent of Schools, ilmore, ary, ntendent o 00 Cee eek H., Deon Cotten of Rissoshe rman, Fr. ° ucation, University of Omaha, an, State Com- mittee Member; Advisory Council to the ittee on Policies and Program for Rural Education; Committee on peas and Gugelman, Emma H. a of Eteale, Frontier Cor Stockville Hanika, (Mrs.) R. A., Superintendent of Schools, Richardson County, Falls City ansen, G. G., Superintendent, Hamilton County Schools, Aurora Hartman, (Mrs. Sarah, Superintendent, Sioux Co hools, Harrison Hayes, Dale Assistant Professor of Edu- cation, Teachers College, University of Sareeed, teat Wiiead tinutinmdens et aywar rs. ntendent hools, Grant County, Hyannis Holland, Dorothy E., Cannan, S and | pari oy State Department of cation, incoln Hunter, rs.) M E., ip eTENE Blaine County Schools, Brewster a Jamison, Superintendent, Buffalo Count Strole ge = Kas! _(Mrs.) | Penner! S endent of , Saline County, — — e a .» Superintendent of Schools, F McBeth, Slive’ M, Superintendent of Schools, Polk Osceola Coun McClatchey, Clara M., Consultant, Elementary Tineets ion, State Department of Education, nco Marshall, (M Ida M., S tendent, armel. uf rs.) : uperin Marshall, Wayne, Professor of Education, | sewn me State” ieee College, Kearney: Sta ember Miller” Mrs. wes D., S tendent of ( ) uperin' ° is. Brown 5 Murray, Hanson ay: dent of Schools, Butte County, ce Oldershaw, re — of Schools, ae a Sia "uth, "Superintendent of Pama County, Ci Clara, ms neendent of ools, Comal eames Unit Reece, C. S., qr. Vice Bresident, Stat Rural 1 Boards Association Renken, Emma, S lent of Schools, Fillmore County, eva Rentfrow, Rhea, S tendent of Schools, herman Coun Ss Ripa, Evelyn D. ” Principal an Pusteors, Edu- soticn Teacher, Wilber High School, Wilber: e ttee Member . ae Mrs.) M Sita, thy Gay, Cua tad tied ob pi PORT OPH mE HT TA fp PORE TOE A te OY Bee SOR 334 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Robertson, (Mrs.) R. gunty, Fa intendent of Schools, efferson Schmelzer Cire) i aye yes Co ~y oe 7: ayes mith, Le endent of "Schools, las County, , aga _— seria, A-. Protonser of cee o ation, Teachers e, Universi “ by Lincoln: ive t; State Director Ge Depertmes Di rei A Jeannette, Assistant Professor of Rural Education, a Ween State Teachers College Turner, Glenn E., sppectpeendont of Schools, er Coun nco Waring, (Mrs.) J., Superintendent of ls, Stanton County, Stanton Warp, Paul A., ent, Warp Publishing Minden wae cies Mrs.) Velen Superintendent of Schools, = Comat. Whitten, Merr ." Su tendent of Schools, Sounty. e City Winne, M. G., intendent, Gage County Schools, Bea ls, Beatrice z Sion.) Gatvte, _Sunerincenden.. of age Eee), Guivie. Seoerie . Ineriruriowal Memebers Nebraska State Teachers College, Midland College, Fremont Library, Nebraska State Teachers College, Library, University of Nebraska, Lincoln Library, Gea of Omaha Library, Nebraska State Teachers College, Wayne NEVADA State S Copechoes, Be Bonin, Deputy = me uperinten- eens 2 £ Nessas, Las V. Mrs.) Reser, Teacher, Glendale Gamble, J R., S of Schools, Pershing C Gaw, Robert B., Teacher, Tahee School Dis- trict, Cove Dougies County, dent, State De Auduant Bat go Reedy < dastration, of pts aod upervisory Dis- Saen 3 3 Eugene, S tendent of Shecla, Ruscha County, Hardin St. Sa Superintendent of Public truction. Stetler, Byron F., State S of T 4 og dent of Schools, N ‘ennan \ en ° 00 County ao NEW HAMPSHIRE A David, Superintendent, Supervisory nion No. ye Oy ee y Lester dent, Supervisory Union ve. 47 Bennett, it A., Superintend Sugerviaery Union oy 23, Wvodsville ie: State rector; Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and am for Rural Education; Advi to the National Com- Administrative t Bowlby, Charles L., . te Union No. “0 as... ‘om- mittee Member Brasier, Everett 5, Superintendent 98 Seow, Fernie OoS Cait’ Division of Adminis yon ne Fy Be Ef certment of dues “Fe a ere emis Union ey 20, Tee, fetus E., Superintendent of Schools, H , Young. —— Superintendent, Supervisory NEW JERSEY aie, © Director p Repel Soomting, Boy < Saad Teacher, Gloucester Franklin Towns ip Middicbaeh: Stents giv Di. Commins on ice hk art ‘Sheol A., ‘. intendent, Atlantic u J aro oo t of Schools, — Jack + q Superintendent of Schools, ~ Superintendent, Cc berland County Scho er Woolf, Kenneth A., S ntendent of Schools, Hunterdon County, ington: State Com- mittee Member 7 NEW MEXICO Bigg hy fo Coordinator of Cur- Department of Education, Santa Fe Schosts, Cha Superintendent, Santa Fe Coun- ty Schools, Santa Fe: State’ Commaitece Mem- ber M Elien Hartnett, Director, bo State Department of Education, Santa Fe: Advisory Council to Se Commins on and Program for Doran, rece Ruby, Superintendent, Curry rs. u n Godley Coun Joel W., Superintendent, Roosevelt Wiley, Tom, Executive es 9 vg ~ — Education Association, e: Council to the Committee on Sonicies ek gf ye rs. ice C., Schools, Wagon Mound ty InsTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Uni ity of New Mexico, Albuq Library, New Mexico A & M College, State Library, Eastern New Mexico University, Portales versity, New York City Bryan, | ae , Board of Co- "7=e pereerd ional Se Valhalla Ww. R,, of County, East Aurora 335 Butter . E., Life Member, Professor of merworth, 5 Ls Mem 7 Cornell University, Ithaca: Advisory to the on and Program for Rural Education; National Commission on the Intermediate /.dministrative Unit Carroll, (Mrs.) Melissa D., District S tendent, St. Lawrence County Potsdam -. . S cet Sehoals, Os B oe Paes Lonmne Morale, Asotclation, New York Ci Clark? Claude R., Superintendent of Superintenden f Se Athens District > Spex County, Clark, F. B.. Districe coating” "W.. Didsict "Superintend ames 2 J n School Clineen . _ Bull, District Crist, dent of Schools, Orange County, Mont- Dy’ Robert P., District Superintendent of 9 ct t Schools, Monroe County, R Finn Maurice J., District Su tendent of Schools, Franklin County, Malone F Mrs.) Thomas J., Director of School Re Girl Scouts of the United States New York C . Rural Hakes, Elton J., District of Ha Ww. te sci District ‘Superintendent of Schools, Dutchess County, ¥ — Leon W. i f Schools, ° Harrold, John W., District S Schools, Clinton County, Hausner, Harold S., District th, Seeeln, He Cplet, Benend od Miemeatery eyl, He ay, 3 Curriculum Devslegment, Department Depot ent 336 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA oJ peweninenaes Preparation of Rural Hodldthe. "Ernest H. District, “Sa tendent ie Co ete ead We, Danske Seperintendent of Schools, Columbia County, e Hopf, John F., Jr., District Supe endent of R d County, New C ools, Roc ty Hussey, Virgil H., District Superintendent of Sch ben County, Greenwood Te tes ve ‘District y, Deposit tendent eaten tons of senting Copnty ett heads an esl uipment Sai a, Penn Yan oy is Superintendent of Schools, Cort Mrs.) Mabel Sheen District S$ i ee) FT ikeiie bough, County, North Tonawanda tiieeen. M. J., District Superintendent of Schools, Wayne County, Williamson “ = Su tatentont of MeWhorter, (i aS eh ifs Mondo Pine Mer Ce S.. Diaries Superiatendent of moe Char columbis iret Superintendent of Sivoo th en, of ctor of Guidance, Board of Servic Lewis County Schocie Port Ser testent Committee on Publications and Construciive Studies; Advisory Council x... the Committee on Policies and P m for Rural Education ne. a trict Superintendent of Schools, Ontario County, Stanley unson, J. Paul, District Superintendent of Schools, ompkins eenty, cols, Sara’ Coun ilton Nickerson Seretogs, District Superintendent, oun County Schools i, tee t Superintentent of Sc uae County. Ithaca b lace D., D etegtent ee ge of Jamest R yt y say k A ur District eae of a the Methodist Church, New York City Sackett, Howard G., District Su — of Schools, Lewis County, Leyden: Executive Council of the a = i Com- mittee on Policies and Program for Rural Education Schmidt, A. W., Assistant Commissioner, Finance and School Administration Services, State Education Department, Albany Sears, Clinton T., District Superintendent of Schools, Ontario County, Honeoye Shoemaker, Elwin S., District Seperiosendant of Schools, Oneida County, Yorkville: Ad- uy Council to the Nat onal Commission e¢ Intermediate Admiristrative Unit Slater, Glenn A., District Su ee of Schools, Broome Dist ee , Sloan, De Vil istrict —— ry Schools, On Smith, Calvin U., Diaries s mtendent of Schools, Steuben County, ted Post Smith, Herford A., District peeerintentont. ek County Schools, East Smith, J. E., District Superintendent of Schools, Delaware County, Deposit: State mene Member Smith, Orrin M., District Superintendent of Schools, Wayne County, Wo Southworth, Nathan C., aearet teen gene of Schools, Otsego County, Id prings Stewart, Robert C., Executive he tral New York School Stud + pol ey, Syracuse: ot Stra OFT ath ee «gg of Education, Teachers aat, bia Uni iversity, New York Syiveter, Hi Harold D i Opens County, jnadilla Council to the Committee = olicies Program for Rural Educatio Wines, R tog District S intendent f Schools, County, ound Lake Winch, Ruth B., Sepeemeeneent of Schools, ee Scr Westfield Wyckoff Herkimce A., “Frankfort of Younes Figg eg mre ‘oumans, uperintendent Ay eg, EB. County, Sherburne Dusan. saan Muxven Buijer cabeacherg Wulfalo,” York State “College for cel New York University, New York Libeary, | New York Seate Teachers Collae, Turkish” Educational Attache, Turkish Em- bassy, Empire Stat- Building, New York City NORTH CAROLINA Arndt, H. M., Superintendent, Catawba County Schools, Newton Bias, J hee 5 Md Principal, Brawley High Bu — us, ye ntendent, Macon cca aa cols, State S anes of ° ar e e Public Instruction, State 1 epartment of Public Instruction, Ralei t Be 0 A M., State mentary) Schools, State foo eA of Edu- Cox, m, John, RatsiEn inal, Westfield School, West. E Paul F., §S intendent, Davidson ‘County “Schoo ot woe — pore aoe Supervisor, Halifax Furr, C. A., S ntgnacn Cabarrus Coun Schools, Concord Conteed: ate Commitice Member Gallimore, —— Gap School, Gavi _— ,s eat H Count iced, Poms € —— t, Hyde y ROSTER OF MEMBERS Griffin, R. B., Superintendent, Person County Schools, Roxboro Hiatt, James C., Principal, Franklin School, Mt. intendent, Nash County 7. Calvin C., Superintendent, Ala- Massengi ll, Bessie, pools, Gre "Harnett Cc . , oun- oe Schools, Lillington: State Committee Mem- Metsinger, G. R., Principal, Dobson High 00], Dobson 7, . A. P., Principal, Flat Rock School, . 1 Proctor, S., Superintendent, Wayne Count Siw Slane: tase Commas ten. Robertson, Glenn, Principal, Beulah High School, Mt. Airy: State Director Ryan, W. Carson, Professor Emeritus, Univer- sity of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Shelton, Nollie W., ~~ crc Camden County Schools, Camden Turner, N. L., Superintendent, Northampton County Schools, Jackson Vance, J. T., Regional Sales Manager, P. A. Thomas Car Works, Inc., High Point —— W. F., Superintendent, Beaufort Coun- ty Schools, Washington Wall, Martin, Principal, Pilot Mountain School, Pilot Mountain Yount, M. E., Life Member, Graham Zimmerman, (Mrs.) oe gga Y., Supervisor, Caswell County Schools, Yanceyville: State Committee Mem! INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Library, North Carolina College, Durham D. H. Hill Library, North Carolina State Col- lege, Raleigh NORTH DAKOTA Aarnes, Hale, Director, Department of Educa- tion & Pugchoiogy State College, Fargo Adamson, Natalie J., Su rintendent, Golden Valley County Schools, Beach Baken, (Mrs.) Mattie, Superintendent of Schools, Wells County, Fessenden Barnstable, Doris I., pepereeensent of Schools, Sheridan ounty. McClusky Benson, Alice G., Superintendent, Bowman County Schools, Bowman Bishop, R. S.,_ Superintendent of Schools, Hazen: Planning mmittee, Midwest Con- ference on Administrative Leadership Serv- i: oy as ee. Schoo’ Bjork, A. J., airman, Department of Edu- cation, University of No Dakota, Grand Forks: Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Educa- tion Brown, (Mrs.) Clara D., Superintendent of ools, Si County, Amidon Brown, Corabelle F. Superintendent, McHenry County Schools, Towner Cordner, Ruth A., Superintendent, Burleigh County Schools, Bismar Cushman, M. L., Dean, College of Education, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks: State Committee Member; Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education 337 Evanson, (Mrs.) Lulu, Director of Education, North Dakota Farmers Union, Jamestown , Caroline J., ntendent of Schools, Cass County, ny Ewen, Leila C., State Teachers College, Minot: State Committ ee Member Helland, Selma, Superintendent, Griges County Schools, C stown Grubb, Mrs. S Superintendent of Schools, Gruwell, Melvin, : catien, University of Nerth orks Jacobson, (Mrs.) Helen C., Superintendent, Williams County Schools, Williston Johnson, Charles A., Supervisor, Elementary Teaching, Dickinson Lynne, He i. = intendent of Schools, McLean County ashburn McCrae, Minard, Superintendent of Schools, Valley City ; Moon, Inez G., Director, Elementa and Rural Education, State Teachers liege, Mayville , Nordrum, G. B., Director, School Construc- tion Fund, State t of Public In- struction, Bismarck Page, Jessie M., Superintendent of Schools, ottineau County, Bottineau: State Com- mittee Member vne, Frank B., Superintendent of Schools, Ward Coy, Minot Peterson, M. F., Superintendent of Public In- struction, State Department of Public In- a Bismarck a Randall, mes, Superintendent of Schools, Stark County, Dickinson Rasmusson, Florence, Superintendent of Schools, Grand Forks County, Grand Forks: State Director; Advisory uncil to the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Snortland, Howard J., Director, State Equali- zation Fund, Department of Public Instrue- tion, Bismarc Svihovec, (Mrs.) Agnes, E., Superintendent, Hettinger Count hools, Mott Dillon, Samuel H., Superintendent, Monroe County Schools, Mott Thompson, ulia M., Superintendent of cKenzie County, Watford City Well, Alice C., Superintendent of Schools, Pembina County, Cavalier INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER Library, State Teachers College, Minot OHIO Armstrong, George E., Superintendent of Schools, Centralia School, Chillicothe Berry, George C., Superintendent of Schools, Franklin County, Columbus Brand, R. G., Superintendent of Schools, Van Wert County, Van Wert Bryson, David M., Superiatendent of Schools, inton County, McArthir Christman, rge E., Superintendent of Schools, Athens County, Athens Coffeen Carl, Superintendent of Schools, Sum- mit County Cuyahoga Falls Crouch, Charles B., Superintendent of Schools, Hamilton County, Cincinnati: State Com- mittee Member ‘ Dillon, Samuel H., Superintendent, Monroe County Schools, Woodsfield Ely, Ra ph, Superintendent of Schools, Barber- ton: Advi Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education Euphrasia, Sister, St. Francis Convent, Tiffin Eyman, R. M., Assistant S rintendent of Public Instruction, State ent of Education, Columbus 338 Finley, L. M., Superintendent of Schools, Ashtabula County, Jefferson Floyd, W. i Superintendent of Schools, Allen County, Lima Peay. James, Cogn cof Schools, Hock- Gants, T. 4. intendone of Schools, orro County, t. “weetres Ww. Supertatentest. Sailem- ngton School Distr t, Port Washington Gibbens, C. A., Schools, S Gower, Albert * Superintendent ef Schools, Ress County Hanes, Glen M. t of Schools, pee County, ‘Mt. Vernea: State Committee Hatfie Raymon F., Superintendent of Lebanon Schools, Warren ty, Holt, ward E., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, State rtment of Public ——— ——— on um .» Supervisor o emen- tary Education, State Department of Educa- Richland County, Mansfield ‘ Kirkpatrick, Ellis me Professor of Sociology, Marietta College, Marietta Knapp, T. C., Superintendent of Schools, Stark County, Canton: State Director; Executive Committee, Division of County and Rural Area Superintendents; Advisory Council to the National Commission on the Inter- mediate Administrative Unit Lautenschlager, J. F., Superintendent of Schools, Assistant Comptroller, State De- partment of Education, Columbus Laws, W. E., Superintendent of Schools, Tus- carawas County, Dover: State Committee Member Lea, John R., Superintendent, Wayne County hools, Wooster Longsworth, Robert H., Superintendent of Schools, Carroll County, Carrollton McBride, James L., Superintendent of Schools, Columbiana County, Lisbon McCowen, E. R., Superintendent of Schools, Scioto Coun Portsmouth McPherson, ifliam N., Superintendent of Schools, Darke County, Greenville Martin, Samuel E. ‘Superintendent of Schools, eca County, n Mills, D. T. Zeserintendent, Marion County M Rete Vi i's. Ss d f School i) irgil B., Superintendent o ools, ‘Ashland County Reload Morton, M. B. Superintendent of Schools, Montgomery County, Dayton Murphy, Robert P., a of Schools, Guernsey County Cambridge: State Com- mittee Member Nichols, Walter N., Superintendent of Schools, Clinton County, ‘Wilmington Oman, D. W., Superintendent of Schools, Wyandot County, Upper Sandusky Pontius, Harry M., Director of Safety, Nation- wide Insurance Company, Columbus Quick, Thomas J., Superintendent of Schools, Franklin County, Columbus Randsdell, Frank C., Superintendent of Schools, Hardin County, Kenton Rasor, Floyd, Assistant Superintendent of ools, Montgomery County, Dayton Redman, George E., ~ crn of Schools, Harrison County, Cadiz VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Roshon, Ray B., S intendent of Schoo fe t “Steubenville - Jefferson County, ¢ Russell, Donald, Superintendent of Schools, Lawrence County, Ironton Ryder, H. E., Life Member, 2107 East Brook Sanders, Hershel W., Assi Superintendent, n . Assistant Superin Preble County Schools, Eaton Savel, John E., superintendent, Glouster Ex- Herel, Superintendent of Schools, Licking County, N Shanon, We Tacs Superintendent ef Schools, Smith, eh Superintendent, Mercer re Schools, Celina Sam, ¥. C., Superintendent of Schools, ie, wa Stanfield, John Rushsylvania Tom, » rs Superintendent Muskingum county ools, ille Tullis, Ralph H., Superintendent of Schools, ashington County, Marietta: State Com- mittee Member Vannorsdall, H. C., Superintendent of Schools, Williams County, Bryan Ward, K. C., Superintendent of Schools, Cones- Way, J. E., Superintendent, Pike County Schools, Waverly Weagley, W. E., Superintendent of Schools, Erie County, Sandusky: Planning Comi- mittee, Eastern Regional Conference on Administrative Leadership Serving Com- munity Schools Weible, R. F., Superintendent of Schools, Paulding County, Paulding —— ae c. ig “ Research, ‘arpenter y Company, Worthington White, H. A., Superintendent of Schools, Medina County, Medina: State Committee Member itman, William A., erintendent of Schools, Sandusky County, Fremont Wieting, C. Maurice, Vice President and Di- rector of Information and Education, Ohio Farm Bureau Federation, Columbus: Ad- visory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Evucation INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER State Library, Columbus Library, Miami University, Oxford OKLAHOMA Bartow, A. H., Principal, D Rock Public School Cushing - — Bollen, F. M., Willow Camp, Wesley L., Director of cg men State Department of Education, Oklahoma City: Executive Committee, Division of Pupil Transportation Chapman, Elsie D., Su Roger ills County Schools, Cheyenne Ferguson, Leslie Guy, Superintendent, Tulsa County Schools, Tulsa Fitzgerald, J. C., vane og Education, Okla- homa State University, Stillwater: Execu- tive Committee of the Department; State Director Franklin, W. A., Superintendent of Schools, Kay County, Newkirk Golden, Neal V., Ss "he of Schools, Canadian County, El Reno Hatchett, M. E., President, Oklahoma Rural Teachers Association, Superintendent, Nor- folk Schocl, Cushing Heding, Howard W., Assistant Professor of Education, Oklahoma State University, Stii- water ROSTER OF MEMBERS Hollabaugh, G. L., Superintendent of Schools, en de rrow Howe aa 2 | Spettensent of Schools, Le dent of Sch nag ret, Gyre ot Scho ——_ WwW W., Superintendent of tendent of Schools, MWeshita_ County, Oklahoma rah pe of Schools, Carter National Arémere; Adv 2 se ministrative Unit Oklahoma yan, Henry y> ° Rural Teachers Association, Norman: State an Take. ead Rural and Elementary mart, e, ector, Rural an Education, State Department of Education, Oklahoma City: State Committee Member Sorenson, Helmer E., Associate Dean, Co of Education, Oklahoma State Univ Stillwater: Advisory Council to the tome mittee on Policies and Program for Rural Education vou _ d W. -, Zeowtetearn, Garfield ht, Charlee ool, & es of Schools, County Wheeler, Marvin, Su prissendent of Schools, Marshall County, Madill Yarbrough, Theo, Superintendent of Schools, Texas County, Oupanae INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS = ogy Department, University ahoma, Norman OREGON Armstrong, Herbert, .. eenens, Beaverton Union High - oa, bes Baker, (Mrs.) Helen P., Superintendent « a Schools, a lh ee Corvallis Barneburg, peemtendont, ao ue Schools, ” Roseb urg Beardsley, Florence E., Director of Ele- mentary Education, State Department of Edu- cation, Salem: Advisory Council to the Somenities on Policies and Program for Bom Tames E, Elem Su er, James upervisor, Washin n County Schools, Hillsboro Booth, ( ~" Agnes C., Su tesantah of Schools, Marion , Couane, Beyer. (Mrs.) Estella C., ja. of hools, Grant Se a on Sent, nten- Buckingham, dent of Pe aay B--. County, Bend Casiday, — Lois S Corwin, Geo n rge A Hood River County, Hood River Danielson, Oh) hate Klinge, Route s, Box ncil to the pe all Unit Eaton, Asa _T., . "a of Schools, Jefferson County. Pariey, —. Kuperintendent of Schools, Ly ring” w Sa Su uperintendent of Schools, ug, Jack County eppner rge, (Mrs.) Frances L., Principal, Post School, Post ~_ m eis | nee Superintendent of Kan ang Tole D., Superintendent of < Columbia County, t. Helens Kin E., Superintendent of Schools, ne, AM: County, Pendleton 339 Mekvold, Alf B., S intendent of Schools, Jackson County, Medford: State Committee ember Putnam, Rex, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, oo epartment of Public R “ee Superintendent of Schools, , md n ‘County, Portland «Crook Cc , Assistant Superin- “*tendent “bale e.. Schools, Port S A tendent of et % Tegter hy ectenandent of Schools, County, Astoria wou? William R., Superintendent, Lane County Schools, Eugene INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Library, Eastern Oregon College of Educa- tion, La Grande — Geeaen College of Education, Mon- mout Oregon Association of County Schools Super- intendents, Salem Oregon State Library, Salem @ PENNSYLVANIA Ammerman, H. ~ © ow = ama of Schools, Wayne Coun ale Barnett, ty 1-% , Ascistant Superintendent of Schoo merset County, Somerset Beattie, Mitre W., a of Schools, Alleghen County, ttsburgh: State Com- Beck, Joh ‘B.S dent, Clinton Co ohn intenden inton unt We gh tyes : Boehm ys H., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, State a of Public Instruction, Legere Adviso Council to the Committee on tikes os an am for Rural Education; Co-Chairman, National Commission on the Intermediate eaeeive Unit Bugiholder saa - Conk: Superintendent of Schools, Brae, James E. eas of saaete. Blair pie Holli yeburg: State Director; ivision of heiaaey Council Policies and ‘—o for Rural Education Conway, R. a: . EF of Schools, Lawrence County, Diehl, Fred Superintendent, Montour County Schools, — Donaldson, W. H., _ od of Schools, Washington Cc County, Washington: State Com- mittee Eastman, Wesely C., Teacher, Honesdale: State ‘Committee Member Farber, - obart A., Superintendent of Schools, i h County, "Allentown: State Committee ember Faust, Beaver S., 5 erintendent of Schools, Juniata County, M intown Fink, Lyall J., Assistant —- of Schools, Dauphin County, burg 340 Geiss, Newton W., Superintendent of Schools, Berks County, Oley art, Wetlen” W., Graduate Assistant, niversity of Pittsburgh, is og Grgeenthatee, R ) Pn E. . own a urches, Presbyterian Church in the U. Me. A., H Herzog, Wi to ete sae oe Gace, "Beiiwood: State Uchooly Stoudsburg ee Se MeKelvey,, Eugene Superinten- dent Schoo!s, a BS Counte. Be: G., Supervising Principal, Pali- . Melvin u ne sades J Joint Schools, Kintnersville ie. yf we Su My Huntingdon ‘ounty Sch Mesery. Joke J > be — crintendent of Schools, Warren County. Martin, Harold Sup crintondent of Schools, Marion Townshis ing of Prussia M A. d h urphy, ‘ ae — ent of Schools, Oates, H. Brown, Trans tion Special State Department of blic a ae my Harrisburg Peters, Floyd B., Suqerintondent of Schools, Crawford County, Meadville Prutzman, Stuart E., Su ——. Carbon County, Jim Thorpe ~~ ——y Child Develegment: Camere Bucks ount ristol Schell, ohn S., Supervisor of Special Educa- tion, Mercer County, Mercer: State Com- Png Wal — H., Assistant Superintendent, ring, Walter n en - Schools, pi whe onres ~~? Shaw, (Mrs.) nevieve Bowen, _ Specialist, State Department of Public In- struction, Harrisburg Sheaffer, Pat A., Assistant ay Coston Spot H jh School, New Holland Smith, Thomas oe rintendent, Franklin Mg homo te Daclenent Superintendent of ogicel. in Sch hoylkil County, Pine Grove: State Committee Member Stevens, Glenn Z., Professor of Agricultural Education, Pennsylvania State University, University Park Stock, Earl K., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Centre Coney, Bellefonte: State Committee Member; Advi Council to the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit P F am Swimley, Walter W., Superintendent, Tioga County Schools, Wellsboro ‘ . bie msm oy G. Baker, uperintendent 0 Schools, Delaware County, Media Ulrich, Foster G., Superintendent of Schools, Lebanon County, Lebanon: State Committee Member ee ‘ Wills, M. Vincent, Assistant Superintendent, Westmoreland County, Greensburg wi , William A., Professor of Educational A ministration, “Emeritus, University of Pittsburgh, Phoenixville Zetler, a Paul A., Unit President, Con- er of ts and Teachers, Altoona: tate Committee Member INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS D t of Social Education and Acti ‘Breabyeerian ‘ Board of Christian Socction, rintendent of a ey FOP VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA F zm, . f Philadelphia, Middle City sta pina ee Ca Ce Rs poem RHODE ISLAND E., Tancher, Saylesville 3 See Oe SOUTH CAROLINA ~~ ey Superintendent of Schools, Horry Conway Mrs.) Dewitt, Director of Instruc- Segaeen,, © Orangeburg C Schools, Chieiin, Elles Po Superintendent of Instruc- Cox, {Ben een ene of Schools Fair- Culpepper, _ Superintendent of Lee Sen, opville Dubose, E., Su Mn om East Clarendon pDinriet No, ois of Stele, in . ~ ys Greenwood ood Edwards, Katharine, Professor of Elementary Education, Erskine lege, Due West: State Committee Member Sandee, "A hools, Cordova: State Committee Member; Advisory Council to the Policies and Program for Rural Education Hunter, C. R., Superintendent, Marlboro County Schoois, ville Loggins, W. F., pupertanentent, Greenville ounty Schools, Greenville: Executive Com- mittee, Division of County and a iy Superintendents; Advisory Council the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit; Advisory Council the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education Mabey, T. E., Superintendent, District Schools, nman —— > ia. Vs upeietenten ans Honea hoois, nderson unty District No. 2, 7 Path Rawlinson, Lin W., Supervisor of Transporta- —_ State Department of Education, George- own Sartor, Herman W., South Carolina State Col- lege, Oran Thompson L., Rural Negro Super- visor, oan County Board of Educa- tion, a own Verdin, T. » Jr., Director of Personnel, Di- vision of Instructional Services, Greenville County Schools, Greenville: Executive Com- mittee of the Department; State Director —_ William C. er orm oe Department : ucation, Georgetown County, George- ht. ; INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Library, Clemson College, SOUTH DAKOTA Berg, Mrs., Olive S., Supervisor of Elemen- tary postion. & State Department of Public gaieee, thle ) “Dosis, S tendent of wine, rs. uperin ° Schools: a ee Ha ott Superintendent of Schools, Belk Florence y, Clark ROSTER OF MEMBERS Bymers,, Cis) Gladys, Superintendent of mente, Red Deisell a School of Educa- tion, tea, a °douth D Dakota, Ver- million: State mittee Member Dickinson, Shirley, Education Director, South Dakota Farmers Union, Huron Fraser, (Mrs.) FP +» Superintendent of Schools, B County, Gann Valley Gehring, Mrs.) Ada, Superin of gia tne Gta ace, +» Me Groethe, Pennington K County, a bel, Superintendent of Schools, Roberts irs.) Winifred, Superintendent Locgagien and County, Miller Martin, ( % oe _ uperintendent, Fall Mae, Mrs.) Hazel, S ntendent, Cod- ngton Schools, atertown Peterson, Fred J., Professor of Education, Uni- Dakota, V of ermillion Rolsrud, Lenora, Superintendent, Marshall Count Schools, Britton Scott, (Mrs.) Edna, cee — Dakota Associated School nna, Super _— = of s, Hy Seaeee, Titus, Edna M., mon of Schools, nborn County, Woonsocket Vannatter, Haroid H., Director of Rural Edu- cation, Northern "State Ti Teachers College, Aberdeen: State Committee Member; Com- mittee on Recruitment and Preparation of Rural Teachers; A visory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education Weiszhaar, Nellie A., Su ~~ of Schools, Edmunds County, Wells, (Mrs. ) Hilda, Superintendent of Schools, Lawrence Cont, eadwood White, C. E., Superimendiont of Schools, Can- ton: —— Committee, Midwest Con- ference on Administrative Leadership Serv- ing mere Schools; State Committee Woodall, F. Su periatendent of Schools, Aurora Local: INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER Library, Northern State Teachers College, Aberdeen TENNESSEE Barnes, Geezge H., S ertatondens, Shelby County ——— Mem State Director Bird, E. A., #4 Marion ty Schools, Re =. > ;, Superintendent, Crockett County 00 = dir ‘Superintendent, Henry County Cole, °C. . “Superintendent, Gibson County Schesis, Trenton Dossett, Burgin E., President, East Tennessee State Coliese, oligson City Doyle, Mil ee i £., Superintendent, Knox Coun- Faulkn kner, ote, Knoxv D., Superintendent, Tipton County Schools, Covington ————— 341 Fisher, C. F., Superintendent, Robertson County Schools, Sorinete Fit Dean, College of Education, weaes, Harden ot ts Je Member, Rural Education, . ur: American Institute of ion, Nashville: Powers, re Sons! Lite Momber Mer okie i ‘ tendent, Se Fayetteville: State Committee Mem- Smotherman, Bealer, Assistant Professor 4 Education, Middle’ Tennessee State Murfreesboro: Advisory Council to Education © on Policies and Program for Rural Turner, W Director, Division of Instruc- “Dassen of Education, Nash- rf Teg uaa Cannon County Warf, J. H., Superintendent, Lewis Co at us henwald wets . asia Willi tend kso C County Schools ye — 5 sedis Wilson, Ht. ee, Morgan wont pg a Dickson or’ ‘a uperin en County Schools, Charlott san INSTITUTIONAL init Lierery, East Tennessee State College, Johnzon i ® TEXAS Alves, H. F., Professor of Educational Admin- istration University of of Texas, Austin Beiley, (irs) Mary, Teacher, Austin Superintendent of Schools, Beaird, 3B. W “County, ellin —_ Roy, seoraeen of Lubbock unty, Lubbock: Planning mmittee, Southwest Conference on Administrative Leadership aie Community Schools Carlile, Shel yi of Elementary Edu- cation, Lub! County, Lubbock: State c cammiges Me oa R tive, Office of » ie esentative, e 0 Education, U Depertarent of Health, en and Welfare, Dallas Chalmers, Superintendent of Schools, Cooke County, & inesville Crawley, Superintendent, Liberty County Schools ne Pea Dean, Mau he mmm | t § endent of Schools, Lubbock County, Ls Pabbock 342 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA pict: B. M., Su asl of Schools, ita County, Wichita Falls D., Superintendent of Schools, State Committee Pte ied — of Schools, Fort, Ben, uperintendent of Schcols, Bowie Galbreath, Moody H., frigen. Texas Small (Mrs.) Elizabeth og A Supervisor of Gaston, rs. Schools, Lockhart Haithcock, Oise.) Willie M., Superintendent f ea Saer Bale WF ntendent of Schools, "Teune cae ‘cm Harris, H. O., Superintendent of Schools, Denton County, Denton Harris, R. E., ivision of Administrative Serv- ices, State Education Agency, Austin: Ex- ecutive Committee of the rtment: Chair- man, Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Educatien — Neal, Superintendent of Schools, Hardin H County, Kountse Roy, Superintendent of ughes, rs oy, uperintendent o School Wittbarser County, Vernon Jackson, Frank M., Executive Secretary, Teach- er Retirement System, Austin Johnson, R. H., Superintendent of Schools, Anderson Cues, Palestine Jolly, (Mrs.) am. + eames of Schools, Lynn County, T: Lowe, (Mrs.), G. O., Ascletent Superintendent of Schools, Burnet souney, Burnet McAfee, Mrs.) Sally » Superintendent, Stonewall County Schools, Aspermont — Kenneth E., Professor, rtment ucational Administration, College of Education, University of Texas, Austin: State Committee Member; Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural poscetens, Joint Committee with the Rural Sociological a cPherson, W. B., Jr. puttentans of Schools, Hamilton "County, amilton —_—.. William, Superintendent of Schools, a Arnulfo S., Superintendent of Schools, Starr County, Rie Grande City Mason, J. Marcus, Superintendent of Schvois, pe County, Crockett: State Committee ember Mason, Mapes, E. Meenas of Schools, Moseley, County, F ssuperint dent of Schools, oseley, uperintendent o 00) me County, in Neal, Conally, t- -— ent of Schools, Bell County, Belton: State Director — B. R., Superintendent of Schools, Gray County, Pampa Ong, piaaie Rene, Sepetegentont of Schools, ler Count ty, Hempstead Oliver, yrendet | H., Superintendent of Schools, Van Zandt County, —— om Parker, Grady P., Head, Department o u- cation and Psychology, Texas A & M Col- , College Station: Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education; State Committee Member Parsons, C. G., Superintendent of Schools, Glasscock County, Water Valley Petty, T. O., 4 pe of Schools, tendent of Schools, Ramsey > hele — Superintendent of Schools, Hill County, Hillsboro Richerson, —_ ag superintendent of ochesla, Donley Coun ‘Clarendon; Vice President Division of Clee and Rural “rea Superin- tendents, 1957-58 Roberts, L. xs of aces med High School, Blackwell Vek 1 teal Coeinty Sypecinesn tent of Schools, wil fines, Morris ~ Head, Departmen cotien, fi Texas erhaclourant «he i Watson, J. I Pe tendent of Schools, Wentz, Gesree, «Superintendent of Schools, wear Seunty, Sag 2 ¥ £ Schools, uperint ent o 00) Wyrn, oe Bend County,” Didhmend INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Library, University of Texas, Austin Library, West Texas State College, Canyon Walker +o Library, oward Payne jalene Brownwood Lib Liecary, University of Houston, Houston Lib ibrary, Sam Houston State Teachers Lib tical, Gates P. Aucin Gute Gal ibrary, en F. n Stat ollege, Nocogdoches ee UTAH Ab Max, G., i ott. ax, Superintendent, Uintah School D Carlisle, John C., Dean, Coll of a Utah’ tate University, leon: 9 chi jpman, R. 8. R. S., eo North District, Coalville Nichols, ‘vere, “iscoter of Vocational Edu- ten State Denartment of Public Instruc- tion, Salt Lake City: Vice-President of the Department 1957-58; Advi Council to the Committee on Policies an Program for Rural Education Theurer, Joga M., Superintendent, Cache County ool District, Logan: Advisory Council to the National Commissipn on the Intermediate ag ene ge Unit; Planning Committee, Rocky Mountain Regional Confer- ence on Administrative Leadership Serving ee Sch = Von Wagoner, Superintendent, Wasatch plaice Schools "Heber City NSTITUTIONAL MEMBER Library, tain of Utah, Salt Lake City VERMONT Coddin a M., Superintendent of Schools, Northeast District, Addison County, Bristol: State Director; Advisory Council to the a ~~, / ROSTER OF MEMBERS National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Currier, Roland E., Superintendent, Essex- Orleans District Schools, Island Pond Gafflin, Mildred W., Teacher, Goshen School, Brandon Holden, ‘A. John, Jr., Commissioner of Educa- tion, Department 9 of Education, Sa yp Mi ~ F--fRE, — Irvine, William L., University of Vermont, ur Whitcomb, FG Superint a Ry ls, Scheel District. Brox 00 gg Pvnemnben Memaer Castleton Teachers College, Castleton, Vermont State Teachers College, Lyndon Center VIRGINIA Chittum, — W., Division Superintendent, Norfolk County Schools Norfo Advisory Council to the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Collins, Paul W., Division apne, Scott County Schools, G Gate C iy Combs, J: ne Superintendent, loyd County Schools, Floyd Fears, Macon F., Division Superintendent, nine 5 County Schools, Victoria hy ch mer, —_ Division Superintendent, mherst ounty Schools, Madison Heights my . D., Division Superintendent, ~~ appahannock County ools, Front Gayle, T. Py Division Superintendent, ing George-Stafford County Schools, Fr rere Hoyashell, 5 cae Division Superintendent, Fa iter, Schools, Culpeper: Kay, Floyd S., ‘inion Superintendent, Rock- bri saute, Schools, Lexington Kyle uperintendent, Orange County Bchocie O Orange Kyle, Roy E. Division Superintendent, Bedford County Sc ools, Bedfor Lacks, Cc. Vocational Agriculture Instruc- tor, otts rg Morgan, Samuel C., Superintendent, York ar Schools, Yorktown Stanfield, John M. te sescatiete Professor, William and Mary Williamsbur, Vas William Hq. Paege, Superintendent, Madison Co County Schools, ls, Madison Will, Edwin E., Superintendent, Bath County ‘Schools, Warm Springs INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS jpeery. Longwood College, Farmville Johnston Memorial Library, Virginia State oo Petersbur: , Radford College, Radford WASHINGTON ara na Prt Superintendent of Schools, oe i island, ¢ elen A., Superintendent of County, Coupeville mw, Mrs. lizabeth, Assistant - rintendent rant County Schools, phra' Bega, | (Mrs.) Dorothy J., Sw "cc of Schools, Snohomish ounty y, Bebe, (Mrs.) Ruth, “Tecoma mal Schools, ( hools, Stevens County, Colville: Committee Member Durkee, R. S., Superintendent, Clarke County Sch Vancouver ools, Emerson, Van W., S ntendent of Schools, Spokane Coun’ » Sp ane Forry, (Mrs.) M., Superintendent of Schools, Klickitat County, Goldendale: State Committee Member Grenia, (Mrs.) Lura A., Superintendent of Schools, Skamania County, tevernson Hasty. Thomas N., Lind: State Committee ber Hoffman, Allen B., Superintendent of Schools, Stevenson: Stete Committee Member Irvin, Pat, Suprintendent, Whatcom County hools, Bellingham Johnson, Cliff, Assistant Superintendent, King Count Schools, seattle Kalles, Eileen B., Puyallu 8 Kennicott,. OMe.) Florence rr] of Schools, Lewis County, Kenrick, peergerel, ——_ Superintendent, Pierce Gone Tacoma —— e&- Superintendent of Schools, Chelan Co —_ Wenatchee — Donald L., apy Os intendent of King County, le: State oe ember Leidle, Vern V., Consultant in County School Administration, State Department Educa- tion, Olympia intendent ae ~~ Iville Nichols, Walter Re onperiatendent San Juan County Pennock, Blank’ Superintendent, Grays Har- bor County — Montesano Pierce, (Mrs.) Mary C., Superintendent of Schools, Adams County, Ritzville: Executive Committee of the ) gy State Director Repertene,, Ralph, Director, Rockford Schools, Readers, C. P., Superintendent of Schools, Steinke, E. L., School District No. 119, Yakima County, - Selah: State Committee Member Thom (Mrs.) Margaret, Superintendent of Sch ools, Benton } Comnty, v Schools, et Ss _— of +e ® Count He : School mis oa a Medical tate mittee INSTITUTIONAL MemBeEr Central Washington College of Education, Ellensburg Library, State ee | of Waesningtoa, Pullman Library, Universi Washington, Acquisi- tions Division, ttle LL nme 344 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA WEST VIRGINIA Archer, Charles H., Director, Program in TE eee Ratleery* Coonell arleston: visory to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education ; win, Robert D., Professor of Educational Administration, West Virginia University, Morgantown: State Director Bartlett, Paul C., Superintendent, Taylor County Grafton Schools, Bohrer, Curtis, Assistant Superinpentomt, } reg anon r _ : vo Schools, wa w J ong Berkeley y : = Darnell, Witten Bort, Superviees 4 rene ty Schoo Schools, Lewisburg: State coment . tee ember ; hs me Division of ransportation, 1957-58 | Geseee Stelman, Superintendent, Tucker Coun- Schools, Parsons ; Hill, Corile, General Supervisor, Elementary Schools, Nicholas County, Summersville _ Kennedy, Eddie C., West Virginia University, organtown < Knotts, Ronald L., Assistant Superintendent, Taylor County Schools, Grafton : McGuffie, Jeanette, General Supervisor, Mineral Count ools, Keyser : John =: President, Greenbrier M Tutor College, Lewisburg: Committee on ural Life and Education on the World Scene Mills, (Mrs.) Virginia Neel, Dean of Women, West Liberty State College, West Liberty Nichols, Mark, Director of Vocational Educa- tion, State Department of Public Instruction, Salt Lake City: Vice-President of the De- rtment, 1957-58; Advisory Council to the mmittee on Policies and Program for Rural Education Randolph, J. K., Superintendent, Doddridge County Schools, West Union _ Rohrbough, R. Virgil, State Superintendent of Education, State Department of Education, Charleston 4 Sommerville, Delmar K., Dean, Glenville State Coliege, Glenville: State Committee Member: A a to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Educa- tion , Stemple, Andrew, Principal, Kanawha County Schools, Sissonville = C. D., Superintendent, Boone County Se ools, Madison: State Committee Member Thompson, (Mrs.) Juanita B., Director of Rural Education, nawha Ceunty Schools, Charleston: Executive Committee of the Department; State Committee Member; Ad- visory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education Upton, Arthur V. G., Superintendent, Harri- son County Schools arksburg: Special Committee on Scouting in Rural Schools Watson, Paul W., Superintendent, Preston County Schools, Kingwood Willard, i) Margaret Elementary Super- airmont State College, Morgantown INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER James E. Morrow Library, Marshall College, Huntington WISCONSIN Allender, Clarence, Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee Barber, George, Superintendent of Schools, Waupaca County, Waupaca Bargen, Henry, Superintendent of Schools, St. Croix County, H d intendent oz Schools, Bar 1 4 isco nt ortage Bieckboura, g + Vocational iculture Instructor, Berlin High School, lin Broraker, Walter Fe i to Agriculture aad ension Education, Wni- County, Balsam e Donovan, Joseph D., Superintendent of Schools, Brown X Groen Ba Drake, Alice, rector of Rurat Education, A ~ me College, La posse nean, James A., Department of Agriculture c e -... E _ Education, University of Wisconsin, Madison Edl, Steve, Superintendent of Schools, Wal- rth Elkhorn wo! Xf) Edmund, Harold R., peistentont of Schools, incoln Gounty, erri Erickson, N. , Principal, Polk County Normal School, St. Croix Falls: State Com- lly ay dent of Schools anagan, F. J., Superintendent o ools, Calumet County, Chilton Forgie, Amelia E., Supervising Teacher, Oconto Fowler, F. Robert, Superintendent of Schools, Winnebago County, Oshkosh : Garnett, R. L., Director of Rural Education, Wisconsin State College, River Falls Gaulke, Robert J., President, Door-Kewaunee County Teachers College, Ge, R. P., Principal, Frederic School, r c Grege, Russell T., Professor of Education, niversity of Wisconsin, Madison Gustaf: mee.) Margaret Diehl, Superinten- dent o hools, Kenosha County, Kenosha Hanson, Harry M., Superintendent of Schools, Dane County, Sun Prairie Haskee, Rudolph T., Superintendent, Green County Schools, Monroe Ihlenfeldt, S. W., President, Outagamie Coun- ty Teachers College, Kaukauna Johnson, Robert L., Curriculum Coordinator, New Richmond Jones, Alex M., Superintendent, Grant County hools, Lancaster ungek, F. W., = Member, Fort Atkinson ennedy. Marie ° — Wash- burn County Schools, Shell Lake Kies, Michael S., Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee County, Milwaukee: Advi Council ©, the a on — po | Program for Rura ucation; \visory Council to the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit; Special Committee on Scouting in Rural ools Knedle, Matt C., Superintendent of Schools, Wood County, Wisconsin Rapids Kreitlow, Burton W., Professor of Rural Edu- cation, University of Wisconsin, Madison: State Director; Committee on Publication and Constructive Studies; Advisory Councii to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education Krull, Rex G., Superintendent of Schools, Shawano C » Shawano Kueter, Armond E., Superintendent, Manitowoc MPa sg —— Manitowoc mberg, Arnold A., Supervising Princi _ Joint School, District No. 1, Hokombe" -» Principal, School District No. 1 Ghenweed City “i . oo oe AN, LAPS Race ton ROSTER OF MEMBERS Leicht, (Mrs.) Hazel, a of He oe La Crosse arren, President, Wood County —~ +e College List’ m, Devt © K, Gipervising hinba Amery uss. qty sptendent of Schools, Lelie: Public Sehcos, Gilet Dane a~ ount Horeb sh McGinnis, D. L., Superintendent of Schools, I ‘um é Hurley ren Gerdon of Schools, —. nion O'Beirne, L, Superintendent of Schools, Peebett, ©, A., ri Joint Schoo! o. 1, Phipps, Doris, Supervising Teacher, Sheboygan panty, Ty Milton, ay rvisor and PAdininstration, Milwa county, Mil- a: Pesdhuam, Arthur A., aoe of sows, T Taylor County, Gilman Ritter, ( ge) Pi *Phyllis, Principal, Dodge County Roe aly 1, Meyvele intendent, Central ohling, uperintendent, Centra Seine, ect No. 1 Ph Phillips scene, Kurt R., Snadiatendant of Schools, Sauk County, Baraboo Ellseorth of Schools, seeenane, Jefferson oo Alfred 3 | Superintendent of Schoo ae County, Union Sheski Superigeencest of Schools, be: Soheueid e, O. J., p . —aaaaemae of Schools, Buffalo County, A Sorenson, Theo Y "Dicoster of Transporta tion, State Department of Public Instruc- tion, yr State Committee Member Stewart, M: -ay Director of Curriculum_ for Rural School Teachers, Wisconsin State College, Oshkosh Teasdale, Howard, Superintendent of Schools, Lafayette County, eo Timm, Superintendent of Schools, Fond du tas “Geaane i Fond du Lac Turnell, Edith M., enta Supervisor, Joint School District No. 1, Maple Upson, Donald E., Superintendent of Schools, ock County Schools, Janesvil Varenick, Alette Olson, se Supervising Teacher, Buffalo County, Alma Wakefield, Howard E., Director, Cooperative Educational Research & Services, y sCounel of Wisconsin, Madison: Adviso to the Committee on Policies an for Rural Education. Watson, G. E., State Superintendent of Public Instruction. State Department of Public In- struction, ~ a . § Scectin be my, ennie L., Superintendent o 00 ates Jere County, Eau Claire . N., Superintendent, Dunn County s, Menomonie 345 Werth, A. Superintendent, Marathon Schoo Waus Sh — ens Willems, Homer, Superintendent of Schools, , Sturgeon Ba: | ee Director of Rural and Wisconsin State Col- tary ucation, Woodie, (ars Marcha G., Superintendent of W. Earle, St of Schools, ‘onroe County, InstituTionaL Mempers Wisconsin, Pete Cotigge, Eau Claire iiecary, WV isconsin State College, La Crosse Wisconsin Colleen ilwaukee Wisconsin sate Library, Wisconsin Whitewater Point : ‘ nt WYOMING Mrs.) Effie, S Schools, Ackerly, (Mrs.) Violet Bauman, V. Deputy Superintendent, Camp- bell Coun ools, Gillette Byrd, (Mrs.) Blanche, Superintendent, Crook unty Schools, Sundance: State Committee nmtendent of emmerer iy, Teacher, Sheridan ber OE) — eel of ools, Laramie County, eyenne: State Committee Member Conley, Hazel M., Superintendent, Sheridan County eenege. Sheridan Emmett, H. T., Su etent of Schools, Washakie Coun orland Hockett, Rosalie ‘Superintendent of Schools, Sublette puaty, Irving, Helen Superintendent, Carbon County Schools,” awlins Jackson, Sybil, Superintendent, Weston County Schools, Newcastle Kuns, (Mrs.) Grace E., Superintendent, Niobrara County Schools, Lusk Linford, Velma, ———— # Public Instruction, State D ent of Education, Cheyenne: President-Elect of the D ent, 1957-58; Advisory Council of the Committee = _ Policies and Program for Rural Educa- MeCort essie Chipp, Superintendent Sek fools, weetwater County, Rock Sorin State Committee Member : len J., Superintendent of Schools, County, Laramie: Advisory Counci = a Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education; Executive Committee, Division of County and Rural Area Super- intendents; Advisory Council to the National Commission in the Intermediate Administra- a -,, Pay dent, Con wen, rs. nna uperintendent, - verse County Schools, Douglas Petersdorf, Helen, a Fremont Redfern ghost, Lan B.S é edfern, rs orence uperintenden' Platte pane Schools, Wh cattaad ” Reusser, Walter C., Dean, Division of Adult Education Community Service, Univer- sity “ Wyoming, Laramie: Advisory Council to the Committee on Policies and Program for Rural Education der, Dorris L., Director, Elementary Edu- cation and Education for Handica: Chil- dren, State Department of ucation, enne: State Committee Member; Ad- visory Council to the Committee on Policies cad Pregven for Rural Education 346 Shoemaker, (Mrs.) Mey D., Superintendent of Schools, Big Horn County, Basin Thompson, (Mrs.) Jessie C., Superintendent, Hot Springs County Schools, Thermopolis Welter. Lawrence A., Saison ye ~d Education, Un Committee of Wyoming, mie: State Warlow, (Mrs.) Viola W., tendent of Cet County, pt rb Westover, (Mrs.) Superintendent, Johnson County Schools, ent, A - Par State M , Lois M., Education Supervisor, Depart- pron of Education, Juneau, Alaska ats BOLIVIA Erickson, Oscar Y.. USOM, American Em- bassy, La Paz Olson, a Education Division, USOM, American Embassy; La Paz: ttee on — Life and Education on the World ene INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER Institute of Inter-American Affairs, Division of Education, American Embassy, La Paz BRAZIL Wheelock, John 7 2) Director, Lavras Agricultural College, Lavras, Minas, Gerais A InsTITUTIONAL MemBers Livraria Civilizacao Brasileira, Rio De Janeiro Institute Nacional, De Edtudos P cos, —" Da Educacao E Cultura, Rio De aneiro BRITISH GUIANA Vaughan, Theo L., Community Development ‘Adviser, ICA, USOM, Georgetown” VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA CANADA enh, Me, My, eee Stoo HAITI "hed veka Oe Pa , ISRAEL NSTITUTIONAL BER The Jewish National and T.. tam, LEBANON Chief, Urban Teacher Education, USOM, LIBYA Beran, D. L., USOM to N.Y.: Committee on Rural tion on the Worl ene APO 231, fe and Educa- Scene NICARAGUA Quintanilla, Raul E., Ministero De Educacion Publica, ‘Managua PARAGUAY Ambrose, Lathet anit of Party, Division of Education, USOM, % American Embassy, Ascuncion PHILIPPINES INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER Philippines Women’s University, Manila Imhof, A. H., Communications, ICA, APO 26 New York saa Vekaleti, Maarif, Dis Munasebetler, Ankara CAPR IA PEP eset NAME INDEX B Barker, Ernest, 6 Barlow, Melvin L., 253 Bersman, Joseph, 38 Beran, D. L., 51 Bingner, Janet L., 290 Blanch, Lloyd E., 79 Bray, Douglas W., 283 Brewer, John M., 286 Brewster, Royce E., 291, 294 Burkett, Lowell A., vi, viii, x, 299 Cc Carlton, H. O., vi Carr, William G., 13, 14, 148 Clark, Lois M., vi, viii Condon, Mary M., x Cook, Glen Charles, 175 D Dawson, Howard A., iv, vi, viii, 79, 119 Dennis, Catherine T., vi, 237 Dewey, John, 17 Dreier, William H., 58 Drummond, Harold D., 55 Dugan, Willis E., 281 F Fitzwater, C. O., 124 G Gaumnitz, Walter H., 120 Graham, Robert E. Jr., 102 Greene, Theodore M., 265 Greenleaf, Walter J., 282 H Hamlin, H. M., 76, 139 Hemp, Paul, 71 Hill, Leven, 269 Hitchcock, Arthur, 294 Holbrook, Josiah, 64 Hulslander, S. C., 295 Hutchins, Clayton D., 109 | Isenberg, Robert M., vi, viii, 117 K Kaplan, David, 293 Kirschenhofer, G. William, xi Kitson, Harry D., 293 L Lamkin, Estelle, x Lancelot, W. H., 178 Leggett, Merle, 269 Logan, William B., vi, 211, 234 Lundgren, Duane, 290 M McGovern, Ann Marie, xi Martin, William E., 57 M:.son, William R., 269 Mays, Arthur Beverly, 11 Meyer, Adolph, 9 Micheels, William J., 19 Mobley, M. D., iv, vi, viii, x, 155 Moore, Hollis A. Jr., 260 Moreland, Mary L., x Munse, Albert R., 109 Myers, George E., 288 N Nelson, Elizabeth, xi P Paige, F. Theodore, 269 Parsons, Frank, 286 Phipps, Lloyd J., vi, 63 347 348 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA R Sutherland, S. S., 171 Reeves, Floyd W., 119 Swanson, Gordon L., vi, ix, x, 3 Rice, Mabel C., 120 t Runkle, John D., 270 Thomas, H. O., vi Russell, Bertrand, 13 Thompson, O. E., 175 Russell, James E., 148 Tischendorf, E. W., 269 Russell, John Dale, 11, 79, 86, 89, 107 . s Vidich, Arthur J., 38 Schmitt, Marshall L., 56 Ww Scholl, C. E., 295 Walker, Arthur L., vi, 193 Sheaffer, Mary Allice, 243 Walker, James L., xi Smith, Sir Thomas, 6 Whitehead, Alfred North, 6 Stendler, Celia Burns, 57 Wilcox, John, 37 Stoner, William, 269 Wolfbein, Seymour L., 291 Strang, Ruth, 257 Woodward, C. M., 270 Super, Donald E., 281, 282, 288 Wrenn, C. Gilbert, 288 oe —_ ——S — > SUBJECT INDEX A Administration: function of, 117 Administrative organization: improvement of, 46, 118, 123, 159, 162 inadequacies of, 120, 122 types of, 32, 118, 127, 132, 163 Administrative responsibility: decentral- ized, 118, 139 Adult education: 29, 31, 63, 66, 219, 232, 255, 271 contributions of, 182 for business occupations, 202 for distributive occupations, 217, 232 in agriculture, 64, 181, 185 in homemaking, 244 need for, 29, 31, 70, 122, 151 support for, 110, 111 Advisory committees: 75, 139, 146, 151, 160, 180, 227, 228, 247, 263, 306 at national level, 147 Advisory council: (see Advisory com- mittees ) - Agriculture: changes in, 23, 34, 66, 176, 186, 277 production in, 23, 39, 65, 183 “er of, (see Agricultural educa- tion workers in, 23, 72, 190, 283 Agricultural education: 171 contributions of, 150, 172, 173 development of, 172, 190 enrollment, 173 for adults, 64, 71, 181, 185 in elementary schools, 56 in secondary schools, 38, 171, 172, 189 in wartime, 65, 183 objectives of, 171, 173, 189 support for, 81, 82, 110 teachers of, 43, 189 Agricultural experiment stations: 80 Agricultural Extension Service: 80, 172, 180, 183 Agricultural High School of Baltimore County: 64 Alabama School of Trades: 164 American Farm Bureau Federation: 180 American Personnel and Guidance As- sociation: 284 American Vocational Association: viii, x, xi, 272 Apprenticeship training: 5, 8, 43, 64, 158, 255, 261, 306 Area educational programs: 32, 46, 118, 124, 165, 262, 304 Area vocational schools: 12, 33, 46, 163 development of, 134 interest in, 163, 188 support for, 84, 166 types of, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130 Arkansas Polytechnic College: 129 Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities: 190 Audio-visual materials: use of, 32, 278 Automation: in industry, 26 Benson County Agricultural and Training School: 124 Board of education: responsibility of, 146 Board of Vocational and Adult Educa- tion: in Wisconsin, 132 Bureau of Labor Statistics: guidance services of, 291 Business education: 193 content of, 195, 199, 201, 207 enrollment in, 195, 206 expansion of, 193, 194, 200, 209 facilities, 203, 205 for adults, 74, 202 teachers, 43, 208 Business enterprises: failures of, 216 Business machines: influences of, 25 Cc Certification: for vocational teachers, 43 Citizens committees: (see Advisory com- mittees ) Citizenship: training for, 31, 202, 244 Civic responsibility: as an objective, 51 Class size: in vocational education, 41 Clerical occupations: increasing number of, 24, 200 Communications: developments in, 28 Communications skill: development of, 57, 196 Community college: 32, 46, 47 (see also Junior college) Community differences: 39 Community life: improvement of, 39, 57, 66, 73, 155, 168, 186, 189 Community resources: use of, 31, 5£ 60, 168, 179, 196, 258, 296 Community responsibility: 166 Community solidarity: 162 349 cata AEE OROLLEL SESE LES, 350 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Community tax base: limitations of, 40 Comprehensive high school: 11, 159, 304 Consolidation of schools: (see School district reorganization ) Cooperative educational services: (see Area educational programs ) Cooperative work-experience programs: 161, 217, 219, 261 training stations, 228, 229 Counseling: (see Vocational guidance ) Curriculum: influences on, 14, 30, 38 international emphasis, 30 ; limited opportunities, 38, 119, 121, 133, 156 Danville County Technical Institute: 126 Decentralization of industry: 73, 157, 258, 277 Distribution of goods: 25, 215 Distributive education: 211 enrollment in, 93, 222 evaluation of, 227, 232 facilities for, 225 objectives of, 217 program expansion, 96, 213, 216, 219, 230 scope of, 212 support for, 82, 214 teachers of, 43, 223 Distributive Education Clubs of America: 231 Distributive occupations: 213 increasing number of, 24, 212 turnover in, 216 Drop-outs: 16, 44, 59, 71, 178 Dual occupations: 68, 72, 188 Economic efficiency: as an objective, 51, 59 Economic forces: 19, 66, 73, 157, 176, 186, 277 Economic interdependence: 155, 269 Education: by nonschool agencies, 28, 145, 148, 269, 300 federal interest in, 79 financial support of, (see Financial support ) for adults, (see Adult education ) in Colonial America, 7 i grams of, Educational objectives: 48, 51, 59, 142 Educational opportunities: extending, 12, 15, 30, 38, 75, 123, 140, 158, 162, 173, 178, 299 limited, 8, 38, 99, 119, 121, 133, 156, 163, 216, 230, 301 Educational Policies Commission: 51, 59 Educational policy: development of, 140, 146 in school districts, 144 rational level, 143, 147 state level, 147 Educational support: equalization of, 100, 104, 114, 307 (see also Finan- cial support ) Electricity: on farms, 27 Elementary education: vocational aspects of, 51, 60 Employment opportunities: 24, 40, 157, 200, 250 (see also Occupational op- portunities ) Erie County Technical Institute: 131 Essex County Vocational School: 127 Evening classes: 32, 64 Exploratory experiences: vocational, 47, 59, 149, 194, 295 Extended employment for teachers: 179, 223, 241 — classes: 180, 219, 254, 261, F Family life: changing nature of, 250 Farm mechanics: 174, 184 Farm workers: (see Agriculture: workers in) —— control of education: 99, 143, 1 Federal financial support: 11, 80, 81, 82, 84, 87, 92, 238, 290 re .. 100, 151 e on of, 8, 85, 113 ro an of, 100, 109, 238 related to state and local, 87 Federal-state relationships: 87 Ferris Institute: 129 Field trips: 53 Financial support: 8, 33, 79, 151, 307 equalization of, 100, 104, 114, 151, 307 federal, (see Federal financial sup- port) flexibility in, 108 local community, 87, 92 state, (see State financial support) Fishery trades: federal support for, 83 Freedom: desire for, 21 Future Business Leaders of America: 202 Future Farmers of America: 176 Future Homemakers of America: 244 Deh Ss tauinisa aie cians lis ¢ f SUBJECT INDEX G General education: 5, 29 defined, 13 related to vocational education, 11, 13, 42, 56, 150, 159, 250, 265, 271 George-Barden Act: 82, 84 George-Ellzey Act: 82 George-Reed Act: 81 Georgia Trade and Vocational School: 164 Gifted students: 8 Group guidance: 194 (see also Voca- tional guidance ) Handicrafts: programs for, 56, 270 Higher education: enrollment in, 32, 177, 190 vocational aspects of, 47 Highway development: influences of, 25 Holding power: (see Drop-outs ) Homemaking education: 73, 237 content of, 240, 241 contributions of, 248 enrollment in, 93 evaluation of, 248 expansion of, 237, 251 facilities, 245 for adults, 73, 244 in elementary school, 56 objectives, 238 support for, 81, 82, 237 teachers of, 43, 245 Home projects: in agriculture, 179 in homemakin Human relationships: as an objective, 51 developing skill in, 58 i Idaho State College: 129 Illiteracy: elimination of, 29 Income: distribution of, 22 Industrial arts: 269 as general education, 56, 271 content of, 274 development of, 270 expansion of, 279 facilities, 275, 276 in elementary schools, 56 objectives, 272, 277 teachers, 43 vocational aspects of, 272 — decentralization: 73, 157, 258, 2 Inservice education: 151 351 Instruction by television: 32 Instructional materials: (see Audio-visual materials ) Instructional innovations: 178 Intermediate administrative unit: 32, 127, 131 services of, 46, 118 J Junior college: 32, 129 vocational programs, 126, 129, 163. 188, 304 K Kilgore College: 130 L Labette County Community High School: 120 Labor: dignity of, 54 Labor force: 23, 24, 253 entry into, 12, 140, 266 women in, 24, 31, 46, 250 Lamar School of Vocations: 130 Land-grant colleges: 9, 80 Lead Belt Vocational School: 130 Leadership: development of, 176, 202, 244 Liberal education: (see General educa- tion ) M Maine Vocationa!-Technical Institute: 128 Manual arts: 271 Manual training: 56, 270 Manpower: utilization of, 68 Marion County Vocational School: 126 Mayo Vocational School: 166 Mental health: of workers, 67 / Middlesex County Vocational and Tech- nical High School: 127 a (see Population: migration 0! Migratory workers: 48, 68, 72 children of, 48 wer 3 forces: educational programs of, Morrill Act: 80 N National Citizens Commission for the Public Schools: 145 National Defense Education Act: 83, 134, 166 BEET EON, RE Bena Se 352 National Defense Training Acts: 65, 183 National Manpower Council: 254, 283, 285 National Vocational Guidance Associa- tion: 287, 293 New Homemakers of America: 244 Nonfarm occupations: growth of, 24, 39, 67, 187, 277 in agriculture, 187, 189 eo) Occupational adjustment: 67 Occupational advancement: 67 Occupational choice: (see Vocational choice ) Occupational information: 55, 291 need for, 254, 262, 284 provision of, 194, 202, 284, 287, 291, 293 Occupational retraining: 31, 47, 67 Occupational specialization: 3, 15, 24, 63, 72, 155, 167, 306 Occupational training: need for, 19, 122, 139, 158, 300 Occupations: and social class, 16 changing nature of, 24, 66, 265 Office of Vocational Rehabilitation: guidance services of, 292 Okaloosa County Vocational School: 126 Open-country culture: 8 P Part-time farming: 68, 72, 188 Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agri- culture: 64 Pittsburgh State Teachers College: 129 Population: characteristics, 96 growth, 20, 22, 63 migration, 22, 39, 40, 106, 122, 157, 259 on farms, 23 rural nonfarm, 39 Post-secondary education: 15, 33, 46, 134, 141, 199, 302, 304 (see also Adult education ) Power: sources of, 26, 27 Practical nurse training: 83, 256 Presidents Committee on Vocational Edu- cation: 11, 79, 86, 89, 107 Prevocational programs: (see Vocational education: exploratory programs) Pride of workmanship: 55 Private schools: 10, 64 Production: emphasis on, 215 Project method of teaching: 275 a ahaa VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Public agencies: school cooperation with, 247 Public education: control of, 99, 140, 143, 148 development of, 8, 118 support of, (sve Financial support) Raleigh County Vocational School: 126 Regional high schools: 124, 165 Regional vocational schools: (see Area vocational schools ) Religious education: 7 Research: emphasis on, 21, 32, 33 need for, 115 Rockland County Vocational Education and Extension Board: 131 Rural community: changing nature of, 39, 66, 155 urbanization of, 39, 57, 277 Rural education: structure of, 8, 117 Rural life: changing nature of, 27, 39, 73, 155, 166, 168, 186, 189, 247 Rural population: decreasing, 150 Rural schools: improvement of, 38, 75, 123, 159, 162 inadequacy of, 139 smallness of, 12, 119, 139, 156 Rural War Production Training Program: 183 Rural youth: migration of, 157, 259 Ss St. Louis Manual Training School: 270 St. Paul Area Vocational-Technical School: 126 Safety: 41 Sales occupations: increasing, 24 Scheduling of classes: 42 School: as community agency, 38 as community center, 75 School districts: reorganization of, 123, 159, 162, 279 School enrollment: 29, 97, 156, 187 School facilities: 109, 160, 203, 205, 225, 245, 275, 276 School term: 32 Science: influence of, 20, 27, 158, 305 Secondary occupation: 68, 72 Secondary schools: development of, 8 smallness of, 120, 156 Self-realization: as an objective, 51 Servicemen’s Readjustment Act: 185 Service occupations: training for, 74 Silver Lake Regional High School: 165 Skilled workers: need for, 24, 73, 264 3 ey . SERIEER RIAA rR eEI mn SUBJECT INDEX Small community: limitations of, 40, 155 (see also Rural community ) Small schools: limitations of, 12, 15, 139 Smith-Hughes Act: 65, 143, 307 provisions of, 81, 238 Social forces: 13, 19, 21, 38 Social stratification: 7, 13, 57 Specialized education: defined, 13 (see also Vocational education ) State educational department: assistance of, 221, 230, 259, 260, 291 State financial support: 87, 92, 109, 110, 112, 113, 129, 290 (see also Finan- cial support ) Student activity groups: 176, 202, 231, 244 Suburbanization: 22, 39 Surveying community needs: 221 T Teacher education prog-ams: 224 Teachers: qualifications of, 43 (see also Vocational teachers ) shortage of, 31, 208, 245 Technical occupations: increasing, 24 Technological change: adjusting to, 66, 158 Television: an instructional tool, 31 Textbooks: limitations of, 58 Trade and industrial education: 253 content of, 255, 259, 261 enrollment, 93 expansion of, 96 for adults, 73 objectives, 254 support for, 81, 82 teachers, 43, 262 ; Transportation developments: 27 U U2; of work: in elementary school, 52 Universal education: 7 Unskilled workers: decreasing need for, 24, 150 U. S. Department of Defense: guidance services of, 292 U. S. Employment Service: guidance services of, 292 U. S. Office of Education: guidance services of, 290 Vv Veterans: educational programs for, 185 Veterans Administration: guidance ser- vices of, 292 ne ae a ee nc RR EE ANY Mire Semen baer on 353 Vocational agriculture: (see Agricultural education ) Vocational choice: 211, 256, 264 Vocational competence: as an objective, 15 factors influencing, 56, 61 Vocational counseling: (see Vocational guidance ) Vocational education: contributions of, 16, 45, 48, 64, 76, 150 development of, 3, 5, 11 exploratory programs, 47, 59, 173, 149 for adults, 46, 63, 65, 75, 182, 305 (see also Adult education ) for girls, 45 for women, 31, 69 future of, 19, 139, 299 general education aspects of, 150, 250 need for, 63, 122, 142, 158 support for, (see Financial support ) Vocational education programs: 11, 121, 132, 136, 142, 149, 151, 300 absence of, 8, 12, 15, 99, 133, 156, 158, 163 administrative framework for, 117, 120, 125, 303 by nonschool agencies, 145, 148, 300 community interest for, 48 cost of, 41, 75, 88, 111, 135 critical issues in, 133, 299 enrollment in, 89, 93, 95, 128, 160 evaluation of, 143, 232, 248 expansion of, 140, 158 facilities, (see School facilities ) financing, (see Financial support) in college, 47 in elementary school, 51, 61 in junior colleges, 46, 163, 188 in junior high school, 47 in private schools, 10, 64 in secondary schools, 11, 42, 46, 99, 159, 199, 302 in wartime, 65, 183 objectives, 37, 46, 48, 61, 305 post-secondary, 46, 134, 141, 199, 302, 304 problems of, 285, 299 scope of, 48, 87, 302, 305 state administration of, 128, 144, 163 supervision of, 88 Vocational guidance: 221, 262, 281, 286, 288 by nonschool agencies, 292 counselors for, 294 expansion of, 158, 282, 292 for adults, 70 354 4 functions of, 287, 288, 289 in elementary school, 284, 295 need for, 44, 45, 141, 156, 189, 256, 295, 302 occupational placement, 160, 229, 286, 288 provision of, 148, 161 support for, 283, 286, 290 Vocational opportunities: expansion of, 157, 200 in agriculture, 23, 187, 283 in business, 200, 208 in distributive occupations, 212, 213, 216 in homemaking, 245, 249 in industry, 253, 258 in local communities, 40 Vocational rehabilitation: 67 Vocational school: as separate institution, 9, 11 Vocational skills: development of, 56, 57, 60 Vocational teachers: and school staff, 151, 223, 225 inservice education for, 151 preparation of, 43, 151, 306 pupil load, 41 qualifications, 109, 160 turnover, 208, 245 work experience, 43, 223, 262 AP ERE L 2 Re VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA Vocational training: in the home, 269 Vocational understandings: development of, 52, 54, 60 WwW Walsh County Agricultural High School: 124 Western Michigan University: 129 White House Conference on Education: 120, 178 Wise County Technical School: 126 Women workers: 24 opportunities for, 24, 31, 69, 250 Woodrow Wilson Technical School: 121, 126 Work: attitude toward, 13, 52 Work experience: 43, 179, 185, 223, 262 Work-experience programs: (see Co- operative work-experience pro- grams) Workweek: length of, 25 Wyoming Valley Technical Institute: 165 7 Year-round scheduling: 32 Youth organizations: vocational, 176, 202, 231, 244 Young farmers: programs for, 71 een