r = fora, Ss at - - - — iease al area =. ive sajc ~~ 3 fo’ e ~ a achievesents, 2 tiy c . ~ Sii 4 4 5 Y in 1 w vd 7] 4 4 2] wo . la >] rf uP a) . wy ) WU «w ti | (ie @ crrnrrt: ae one igs 1955 YEARBOOK RURAL EDUCATION EAL EDUCATION fe Qe Ty sue Dt A EDUCATION —a torward look Natoma Ecucsmor = > memes eee Neer Rursi Exuaaoor bas efecovely 2S3DORsi S2ecS cf Tare Chikires is Fr aoc UCU SOOT mt Oiesing ese ceeds under comditers cecullar © ol ce De sca- 793 ]2r3 \- PAT Ok Cre Reh AcKt W BV NER SLiv iil Vi BAW Rae . w . NX Des elopment »¢ the Book on Pobiscatoes 2d Comsctract’ Shades s indeneed > literally mee for ther part = the cewelooment of the 1°55 Yearbook the Nameoeal Confeceaxe on E E Mm 2 ¢ Goes fo be book cegecs che lomeome nlacemg of Decartmenr the more coemecomte cismentg 2 wich reeesseecoess of be Oe oe aakoe ae rf agent oc of the US Demaromert of Health Ecmeocrtoe, and eifare as atc Mary Cooeraieg Orgamiutatmoers and azaocess shared Even rere & CACC COLTS MSOC anc See Pacey Mercere. pach Arenhorm ss calied {> the mmporctact woek of the Pioeegs Commmittess whah (CIS 2CCSSSsS are A. DaDeTsS orients DCRASeS & Dumber of papers from vances L SOs. SEITE Por thet Vane S COitceheasve Statements O¢ Seacuse thestr cagpore GOetest CE at Of DUO Sh oe eecessamiy Ooet treatmest of tocas @ Fart A cumber of npeoole have hbeiped i= the deveicoment of the Yearhouk mare somet OW aSSumletiiog atc woterortirg he svar etorteoewe 2 Cees A i d a 4 and prepamng Feme D Aexmemer Sooo! & vs Acai cmacsex Va ce Action’ Ecuesoonad Aadmeustrsmoe, Us: tC Mes, React O Seore. Amemcm Potix Eelamoes Asmoston, Wesiogeoe D. C x oa the seiecrec - duran FOR RURAL CHILDREN Tee Few Weer Some Comreceac: oe Bare tecacee 2 Se Purse Or Fuluw ag 3 a Daa aCe: igm w iver Dare fo Dos cer Ser ferent f re ee ee Se ae ee ee f > t oo, re ew ow wh cee oe © eee er ee or ae : oe fer amie eet ee we ee eee fee — Oe ore & | Re ee ; : 2a” Cee . oe See Se ao 8 eee we aoe ~— ese a Re 8 Rl Ree See ; oe fe et eee ee et of ol ee ote oP ' S aaliitieed ae fo we at Se Pit he i oe Saal arr ee ae Peet eS RY oe. Re eee “ - fe Gls eet @ coe Owe tm 2 oe ay ae ag = we Grong ot er nag & wee ox ere ware uN Geer ce — =e oe Se tet Renal Tatil ’ ~~ uF . rr 4m ut. 7 — = ar eo ee am Ge = sti | - See “et aN heme 268 ee ee ; ON CE A Een OE a ee ae | her eee onde ee Se ee) eee eee sce Cnr sage, eee eal ot See ’ ated ee ee ee oe mM =e ee ; wre a « . oor oe ~ ee f | wane oe = Teg OF Seg 7 a eee oe ie i i ae ed ; } ow ae ar ee ee ee fe et fe ee me ee ; ; — ee ee ee ee ee ; | 7, ar ee eat ete en fw Be fe oS ' ar we ele ae ee 8 ae eee page Ger booger ; ae Ce et ee ee Ghee We age @ acer oer ‘ Se Fem ON ome RU eae 5 Ne ee me | we ee afte ' ee he te —~ - oo wr ————— ~” : a a mn ey oe ' ; H quater fy kame eee « . ——— om i ee i ee | fr “were: e~-ceam "8 a Se Pore a7 Peo ae oe ~~ &£ om ee ; ee ee ee Be ee ; — — ' ND RD Re oe ay ee erat gee Se a : owe ' a Re RN RE Oe meee ET Oe eee — : —ae SO oe een eee ff “ert Of gw © ; ; oe ee ee ee ; | . ee ae ee ee ee ee ; H os my Ne a 8 EE ee ee oe ' a ecw aperteet — gh me me Sa : : er re et ee ee ee ee oe tee RST Se RE ree Nee er Ue et Neer ote i ar eR Gee OF mee me ee ee 8 a me me te 2 a SE ce a Ge ae Gee fe aoe ee —_ - me = = : vee ae ee ee ** met ae Re ee aot ge a he corre Samer Game ; im ert ae > ae o pe aor ee ' - -_ - me le - oe a ee I ee et oo 6 gut atheconee ' ——— > ee ot Ger ee .> ; | ee ee ee fee ee Ww acme 9 ; tw me « ——~ ‘= eee & er ner : / ‘ ae te Eee om one wee OM Thee are te gee af ate Rare Chel menor ay oe te Rihe w Emery pt paral: © Lan 3 — a te ke mee on eur ae Fag > eee eee fee — Xill aa ’ _ oo “ LWlercs Prot iw iil> A Decade of Progress Rural Education Ncence of UMAR Ui eet ecducatio ; ; educational : e . } R mie Adaptations and expansi0 YMOrrron : lavas : OmmMmuNITY , , nee pr po undec } aaa her address on The Educatic First White House ore become of anid in music, and other act It has er high s ne a See Pigg weattaanal liately thereafter. The need for vocational homema changes ol organization informed citizens, vocation we educational opportunities business and ive services now known to be essential to the i OUR Se ee Si Ui Vi @ll AUQCUUALO MM riVelt alii a? Pane °? , |B per he Intermediate U nui ry “A > fe 4 a , 4 perintenden and Rural Area Superintenc erences and have become in the American They have become a strong and active ele ssociation of Sch yrs, which has given the fullest i 3 i . 4 possible support to the advancement of this sector of American school . u ION aul Without doubt one of the more important contributions to rature in school administration n = CP ; ; Community School and th of the Department of Rural Education "Isenberg, Robert M.. editor. The ¢ Yearbook 1954. Washington, D. C: Department of Rural Education, National Educa tion Assocration, 1954. 259 p. ny Y mm a & = 3 4 } & 4 *~ a ¢ Commun ection ¥ v - ~ AA t170Nn of Usa lec , pecome —s ry soon ve g > . evalua CHAPTER Inuing _— o oz > \ SD \ ace S —<— as a Iai is W ~wncern VII LES X teaching, rter h sia iC mrere ca mpere on P Wtae FORWARD LOOK , > | (Mere ntiaread MIiCICMilaled experience of MMe rt ity UPPO.TUnATY teachers will wn petent t t{ op final word (eye Mme 7.) ementary-secor 1) } ti D re ruNm ote RLARTE EAL } ——e DCL AUSE } , to be individual RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK Only thu iacy has { the sense of « to develop h own way, he m contribution to in potentral huma Your disadvantage ‘ If we accept adequacy rather than equality as satisfactory, modert which Mr ( hase calle d for meat liscarding n production | of education which moves learners along through standardized learning experiences ; 1 rat This method ts not good enough pi Pram to meet the needs of today. What is needed is a quality of teaching, a flexibility of grouping for experiences, which make possible sequence i t Al for the individual learner in the learning experiences provided Teaching of this kind and quality is not new but tt is far too rare What is needed is that itt become universal The administrative arrangements the preservice preparation and inservice education oft teachers, and the expectations which citizens, including educators, hold for their schools-—all of these must be examined and, where necessary, revised with such a goal in view What special implications for a satisfactory program for rural children, youth and adults derive from the of their living? The basic principle that instruction should be related to the experiences, needs and community life of the learner is we!l established. What does this principle mean with respect to ¢Ais child—or this youth or adult—living here, now, with this background of experince, in a THE CHALLENGE OF CONTINUING PROBLEMS “ society that is trying to achieve democracy? The answer to this ques tion is something teachers must eternally seek to discover. And those who work with the schools so teachers may teach—the administrators, supervisors, specialists, and others—must help them to find adequate inswers to that question for every learner For each rural learner the answers involve an understanding of what is meaningful in rural living both for what it has done to shape him and as a resource for further learning.** Because rural living is chang because it varies greatly in its external aspects, superficial aspects of experience will vary. What matters is that we identify whatever is fundamental and of enduring value in rural living and give it so vital a place in our educational programs that the whole society is enriched. And, because we are a mobile people, how we in rural schools educate each child is of concern to all citizens. In these facts lie not only our task but a great challenge IMPLEMENTING AN ADEQUATE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM The provision of facilities and the adoption of a functional pattern of administrative organization comprise anothet broad area about which many problems of rural education tend to cluster The vast educational program now required to serve the needs of the American people cannot be achieved unless adequate provisions are made to irry it on effectively in each locality throughout the Nation. Today we face the tremendous task of providing the corporate organization, the physical facilities, the personnel, and the financing necessary to make the educational ram needed a reality. Our forefathers had the foresight and courage to set up a public school system to serve the educational needs cf their day. Since that time men have struggled to change, adapt and improve these early pro visions for education as the demands for more education have increased and is modern technology has changed our ways of living and earning a living The rapidity of change has multiplied the need for reorganizing our school systems, constructing new buildings, and refinancing our schools. We must be courageous in adapting our public school system to meet new needs in : education It is in the area of educational administration that perhaps the greatest changes have taken place in the past decade. Gains were noted **See Chapter 4; For a full discussion of the impact of the rural environment on children, see Dunn, Fannie W The Clild in the Rural Environment. Yearbook 1951 Department of Rural Education. Washington, D. (¢ Department of Rural Education National Education Association, 1951, 254pp **Adapted from the address of Frank ¥.". Cyr, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University Making the Provisions Necessary to Implement an Adequate Educational Progran 238 RURAL EDUCATION—A FORWARD LOOK in Chapter I with respect to financial status, reduction in number of school districts, expansion of pupil transportation, and the develop- ment of the intermediate unit of school services. Yet. despite the progress made, in each of these aspects of school organization and administration a great task lies ahead. And to these tasks must be added another —overcoming the tremendous shortage of suitable school buildings. How can we best direct our further efforts in the immediate future? What guides to desirable action have emerged from past experiences Mr. Cyr suggested three guiding principles: (1) Equality of educa- tional opportunity, (2) democratic control, and (3) design adapted r equality to the development of all provisions for education in rural to the small community situation. In applying the principle of areas, he has in mind, not absolute equality, but the elimination of the gross inequalities which now exist among local districis and among states, inequalities which penalize the children of economically poor maximum progress.""** The principle of democratic control must ever be applied to new situations and problems as they emerge. John K. Cox told of its being put to test in his own state. “The degree of success of the Illinois school reorganization program on a voluntary basis, depending upon local people making the moves after they know and have thoroughly discussed the alternatives, is an unmistakable proof that the demo- cratic process works.'"** As we face new problems or plan new attacks on continuing problems, we must give thought to guarding and foster ing this process. Democratic control “requires intelligent, active d constructive participation by the people, within a structure which is capable of putting their desires for good education into effect.’ How does the principle of design apply? We ask for a structure capable of putting the people's desires for good education into effect. What might such a structure be for a rural community? Are we, even now, dominated in our thinking by pi.as developed for city school systems? Mr. Cyr, believing that we are, emphasized that in consider- ing provisions for implementing the educational program in small ~ 8tTE F "Adapted from the address of John K. Cox, Secretary, General Services. Hlinois Agricultural Association Rural Education Problems: Past and Present.’ "Adapted from the address of Frank W. Cyr. op. cit CONTINUING PROBLEMS 29 tne size of the gr » be served > problems with open minds and creative imagination be ignored.*” What general line t action should Our efforts to improve imple mentation of the educational program now take? With respect to the ganization and stres gthening of the administrative structure, action ne forward on three levels: the local administrative unit, the mediate superintendency and the state education department part, reorganization has been carried on at one level at As we begin a new decade of effort see the need for approach, applying what Mr. Cyr called Following this principle each level local, liate, and state would be assigned those functions it ts erm ex ICTneG especially fitted to perform. And, applying the principles of demo cratic action and equality of opportunity, all levels would be repre determining at which levels the various functions can best ‘d to insure adequate educational pportunities to all to the provision of physical facilities, two basic prob »us: (1) to appropriately combine the financial resources of localities, individual states and the Federal government in over & coming the building shortage without endangering the support of the program itself; and (2) to plan functional buildings the needs and circumstances of small communities. The functional buildings requires consideration of unique the school for a small community, including its nships with the community.*! In the matter of pupil transportation the task ahead its largely one of continuing to move toward the accepted goals of safety, economy and ade Gacy With respect to financing an adequate educational program, ‘ade quacy” is perhaps the key word. Thinking of the call for a quality revolution, we note the estimate that the school budget for current expenditures must be increased from seven to twelve billion dollars to provide an adequate educational program.” Equalization has not yet been achieved, let alone adequacy. Two items identifying inequi- ties are noteworthy. The cost of transportation, about a quarter hool Buildings for Activities RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK of a billion dollars annually, is included in rural expenditures in com paring the proportion of money spent for public schools in rural areas with the proportion of rural children. Hence, funds available for teachers salaries and expanded educational services are not yet in balance as between urban and rural children and youth. Also there is the special problem of providing and financing services to children of migratory workers This ts, im some cases, as serious a burden to the states and the local school units as are impacted areas for which Federal aid is available. Yet there is no help with this problem = Facing these unfinished tasks in ways that strengthen the abilities of people to cope successfully with their own problems requires special peor f | } qualities of leadership. Persons with administrative responsibility and ; j authority havé special! need to understand what the principle of demo cratic control means in the day to day planning and operation of school programs. Increasingly we see that the best answers to even our most nettlesome problems may be reached through enabling the people affected to know the facts, the possibilities, the alternatives, and to share in making the decisions Courageous leadership is called for. Shirley Cooper, reviewing the “unfinished business’ in his interpretation of the 1954 Conference, Says Educational leadership in many rural communities lacks courage and initia- tive. It lags behind the expectations of the lay citizenry who should look to it for stimulation and counsel. In far too many instances it waits to be pushed or driven by legislative enactments or minimum standards rather than stepping out boldly into the stream of competitive community life. It is too often content with a meager half-loaf for the pupils and teachers, for the schools, for the community's educational program, rather than courageously contending for the schools that are needed and the rightful share of community and _ state resources." THE SCHOOL IN THE COMMUNITY The school in the United States has been established by the people to perform an important part of the task of educating each new gener ation, in order that each person can find or make his appropriate place **Adapted from the address of Francis 8S. Chase, of. cit ** Adapted fror on of School Administrators, National Education Association One Man's Interpre lable from the Department of Rural Education, N.E.A the address of Shirley Cooper, Associate Secretary, American Associa 41 American public school carried a nsibility, chiefly for the 3 R's: the of his role of making a living and upright citizen was carried on in the home and the communit As the Nation grew and the economy became more com plex, it seemed necessary for more and more of this second phase of education to be carried on the school. The purpose of such education continued, in theory at least, to be preparation for life in the community, the society. There is, therefore, an inherent relatedness of school and community which is fundamen*‘al to the effective function- ing of both institutions in American life Attainment of the full potentiality of this relatedness of school and community lies almost entirely ia the future. Only here and there have we achieved a true community school in the fullest sense. Too *n the school is 7 the community but not of it; ‘school and com- munity” too often emphasizes divisiveness rather than unity. It is as though we regarded schooling as a world of its own, without organic relationships to the life around it. Schools depend too exclusively on the ideal of good teaching in limited fields—such areas as reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography, and so forth—without making these meaningful from or relating them to the vital life experiences of those we teach We need to recognize, from the viewpoint of the school, the un- tapped resources in every community, and especially the rural com- munity, that would give the school “an enrichment and a quality that many teachers and communities and children have not yet had the Opportunity to experience.” What are these resources? What are the relationships of school with community which will help us ty tap these resources, to begin to use them more fully and wisely? IMr. Goslin identified three areas of relationship: (1) the relationship between the school—its content, program, policies, procedures-—z nd our American system of freedoin and democracy as represented by our institutions and ideals; (2) the relationship of the school to the land—the soil, the moisture, the forest, the ground covering, the minerals, and so forth; and (3) the relationship between the school and the community—to the economic “Adapted from the address of Willard E. Goslin, Chairman, Division of School Community Leadership, George Peabody College for Teachers School in the Community—-An Educator's Viewpoint.’ Iministration and RURAL EDUCATION—A FORWARD LOOK flow and development and welfare of the community, the development of constructive social activities for viduals and groups of indi- viduals Within these broad areas of school-community relationships lies the source of much of the significant content for learning which the schools need to take hold of and use Exploring education's stake in the relationship of the school to the historic national community, Mr. Goslin suggested: The rural school is in a particularly advantageous position to offer the needed learnings to both children and adults—to children in need of the cultivation of initial understanding and habits, to adults in need of recultivation and orientation in terms of the changing needs of our concepts and institutions and freedoms in these times. Rural schools in America—farm, village and small town—are closer to more of the important things out of which we built this land, its institutions and its ideals, than any other set of schools in this country. We happen to be at a period when guidance and inspiration and help are needed, not alone for rural education and the work it has yet to do, but for the whole of American education and American life.** The relationship of the school to the land is at the very heart of life and education in the rural community. To keep education from being “academic, theoretical, floating around in the misty blue,” is to root it in the realities of the community where the education is taking place A part of this reality for a rural school is to root it in terms of the resources that underwrite not only the school, but also the people the school serves. A rural school cannot come close to meeting its responsibility if it is not realistically attuned to, aware of, and a part of what is happening to the soil of the area where the school is located. If problems with respect to the land and its use are to be faced in that area, the schools should have a share in facing them, if for no other reason than to provide a forum where new understand- ings and new techniques and procedures can be brought to the aware- ness of the whole community.” What sorts of problems with respect to the land may need to be faced in our various communities? How can the facing of them be made an appropriate and meaningful part of the life of the rural school in its community? What is the significance of these kinds of learning experiences for persons who remain in rural communities? Ibid "Ibid CHALLENGE OF CONTINUING PROBLEMS 43 For those who move to urban centers? These are questions to chal lenge our best thinking and doing area of relationships between school and community is broad and often hard to take hold of in meaningful ways. Mr Goslin pointed to a very great challenge when he identified ‘our desperate need, in education, for sociologists and others to help us understand what some of the handholds are on a community; how a8 to take hold of them and get to work with them Without await full identification of “nese handholds, we are challenged to identify the basic problems of rural life—the problems that are push ing people, at xout which they make their decisions. We are then challenged to understand ‘vhat these problems mean for the cur- riculum of the school and, as we come to understand, putting it into practice We face another challenge-—-a sometimes nebulous and always difficult one. It ts the challenge to understand the significance of the community itself—particularly the small community—to the life of individual citizens and the Nation; and to examine and clarify our responsibilities toward communities in light of such understanding Griscom Morgan suggested that the small community is vitally important: he questioned whether civilization itself could long survive the disappearance of small community life The community values which all people require for wholesome living are universal values, not limited to rural areas or any one Nation Both children ind adults have vital need for the community as an area of life in which the intimate group shall have mastery over its affairs. To survive, the community must be cared for and loved for its own sake, as the family or Nation ts loved and cared for. It must be a self-respecting, self-existing institution, managing its own local affairs in its own way, as does a mature family.*” We cannot dismiss lightly the implications of this viewpoint for, willy-nilly, whether we realize it or not, we Munge Communities by what we do. by the decisions we make. Mr. Goslin illustrated this fact by referring to the tremendous expansion of school transportation in the past decade Transport children to and from school, do this for one generation, and you will have remade an American community. You will change the contacts socially, economically, religiously and perhaps even politically. Few changes ; ls "Adapted from the address of Griscom Morgan, Community Services, Inc., Yellow Springs, Ohio The School in the Community—A Community Leader's Viewpoint RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK nore basic than what ts happening to the American people in the lives under the impact the transportation workers in education and rural life we need to take a deep-seated attitude toward such development. We need research so that we have at our disposal some of the best insights as to what changes mean in American life and im the content and procedures in American school systems 40 Experiences such as that described by Millard Pond, in which groups of citizens and educational workers in school dis .1cts take a look at their communities and their educational programs, are helpful. Each of these groups has set out, first, to describe the characteristics of what the group thinks their community might be and then to try to determine what the educational program ought to be. It is not an easy process, but progress is made.*! Another very serious challenge must be faced. The kind of school community program here outlined implies teaching staffs who under stand and know how to implement that kind of education. What next steps can we take to get the appropriate kind of teacher preparation? This brings us full circle, returning us to The Teacher, with whom we started our exploration of major areas of challenge to our efforts in the decades ahead. As we turn now to more specific aspects of the job to be done, perhaps the greatest challenge of all is that we keep in perspective each phase of the great overall goal which is the broad concern of rural education—the goal of adequate as well as equal opportunity “Adapted from the address of Willard E. Goslin, op. cst "Infor 1| statemen luring the discusston of Conterence Assembly IV by Millard Project Coordinator for CPEA, Ohio State University CHAPTER 3 The School as a 2 ommunity Institution Aw RICA is made up of many communities, large and small. Communities are different; each has a certain degree ot! individuality. But despite these differences, it is within each com munity that the concerns of people for the welfare of each other and their willingness to share in the cooperative solution of vital problems give meaning to the democratic process The school is a part of the community. It is an institution esrab- lished to fulfill one of the specialized services that every community needs to provide. The school shares with all other community insti- tutions, Organizations and agencies the responsibility for the solution of community problems and for learning how to work together for the common good of all. An understanding and appreciation of some of the characteristics of our rural communities is necessary for an understanding of the place of the school in this network of relation- ships and social structures which we call community. THE RURAL COMMUNITY It is not the purpose of this report to make a detailed sociological analysis of the components which go to make up a community. Our focus here is primarily upon the ideas, the feelings and the beliefs which the dairy farmer or the superintendents of the canning factory or the telephone lineman express when they refer to my community. People generally take “community” for granted. It just is. But everyone has some feeling about it. Not the kind of feeling that comes from objective analysis, but a feeling which expresses the composite of their impressions and experiences as interpreted by their personal values. The range of these understandings is perhaps even more broad than the range of the differing concepts developed by students of community. It is with these people and these ideas, however, that community leaders must work. 45 RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK Despite these varying conceptions, however, there are some common elements, uncomplicated by physical differences, which can be identified Communities have locality, Although its boundaries may be un certain and elusive, the center of it will be tied to a location. Every rural community has two interdependent parts—a relatively self sufficient multipleservice center of population (town, village, ot small city) and the people living in the surrounding area who use its facilities and services regularly Communities are more than peopl. and place. They ate a complex of human relationships. Morgan emphasized that the community is more than ‘simply the location of largely unrelated activities and insti tutions, such as school, church, and business. It must be a self-respect 1g, self existing institution, managing is OWN local affairs in its own way.” Communities have institutions. For any population center to provide ’ the required goods and services, it must have an adequate set of insti tutions, organizations, and agencies to keep the community framework secure. In addition to the family, community institutions center about political, economic, educational and religious activities.’ Communities have common interests. The community provides its people an opportunity to come together, plan together and act to gether. The community gives opportunity for the development of a feeling of belonging, of a high degree of loyalty of people for each other. Cohesion ts measured by the sharing of common services, the feeling of relatedness, and the extent of common endeavor Communities are dynamic. They continuously feel and are affected by the pressures which come with the passage of time. Goslin stated that “one of our limitations ts perhaps a static concept of the word community. It would be difficult in a changing culture to put your finger on anything that is more subject to change than the American community in our time.”"® Many places which once could have been ‘A lapte 1 fron he rnddress f CGriscom Morgan { nity Service, Ir Yellow Springs Ohio The School in the Community A Cor nity Leader's Vue wpoimt See pine »75 *For a detailed analysis of American institutions, their variations and interrelationships see Williams, Robin M., Jr. American Society New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1951 $45 pp "From the address of Willard FE. Goslin, Chairman, Division of School Administration and Community Leadership, George Peabody College for Teachers. ‘The School in the , Community—-An Educator's Viewpoint.” See p. 270 THE SCHOOL AS A COMMUNITY INSTITUTION 47 classed as communities no longer qualify as such today. General changes identified by Bertrand include (1) the increasing centraliza tion of social institutions, and (2) the increasing multiplicity ot special-interest groups.* Although this des ription of some of the characteristics of rural communities is over-simplified and incomplete, it does represent to some extent the kind of context within which schools function THE SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY Education 1s identified in the preceding section as one of the areas of community activity about which institutions a. other groups are established. It ts generally recognized that education in a community is not limited to a single institution, the school. Burt the school, having education as its primary tunction, is here the focus of discuss‘~n Other educational programs are discussed in a later section of this report Regardless of its program of activities, its emphasis or its leadership, the school is a community institution. These factors do determine however, the extent to which the school functions harmoniously in the total complex of community activity and actually contributes constructively to a mutual support of other social structures School and Community vs. School Districts Any consideration of the relationships of school and community is compli..ced by the existing patrern of school organization within each state. School districts very often have little relationship to community boundaries. This not only makes it difficult for the school to really serve as an instrument for community processes, but also impedes the natural flow of activity In states where organization is on the common school district basis, there are many instances where the school district is only a small part of an actual community. Numerous small one-, rwo- and three-teacher schools serving only a single neighborhood are also the basis for school districts. In these instances school organization tends to divide com munity ties *Adapted from the address of Alvin L. Bertrand, Associate Professor of Rural Sociology, Louisiana State University. “Cultural Changes in American Rural Life.” See page 410-511 *See Chapter 16, ‘The School and the Educational Programs of Other Agencies.” RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK In certain other states the schools are organized in a manner which makes the county the basic administrative unit. Most of these counties include several identifiable communities. But direct responsibility for managing an important social function 1s removed beyond the grasp of each single community Except where county administration provides a structure giving each community some individ, al responsi bility, this type of district organization tends to weaken community by taking ‘‘away’’ one of its functions When school district boundaries are limited to straight lines of contained within village, town or township or county boundaries, relationship to the boundaries of social interaction, of community, ts in most instances substantially lessened Comrinunily Ni h / Distria fs Many educational leaders, particularly in regard to the reorganiza tion of school districts. have long advocated the establishment of community school districts’ for which boundaries would correspond as nearly as possible to the area within which a major portion of the social interaction of a group of people ts carried on. Such districts take advant ige of the patcerns Of association and lines of communication alre ady established The full impact of school district reorganization upon community life and community solidarity has not yer been determined. It ts significant, however, that an increasing number of reorganized districts have completely disregarded political bound: lines in order co take ay advantage of the boundaries of social interaction. Community leaders generally recognize the importance of having school organization close ‘ enough to the people in each community for them to deveiop a strong personal interest in its welfare and to actively participate in its rrogram Community school distri ts shoul 1 contribute to community cohesion toward making communities strong The Le idership R Most educational leaders recognize that the responsibilities of the schools are something more than the kinds of activities that can be carried on within the ‘schoolhouse Frequently this desire to serve See Fitzwater. C. O. Selected Characteristn f Reoreanized Sch | District Office of Education. U. §. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Sulletin 1953 No. 3 Washington, D. ¢ Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office 93 p. 15 THE SCHOOL AS A COMMUNITY INSTITUTION 49 the community finds expression in the development of some kind of i I community improvement program—making the school a community center, establishing aduit courses, providing recreation programs. i . : & improving an understanding of the economy improving health and sanitary conditions, and other types of programs which are conceived to inspire the community and in other ways contribute to the achieve ment of the ‘good life.” Such programs often become school goals Administrators and teachers frequently become devoted to these objec tives which when accomplished ca result in a better commun:t» for all citizens But desirable as such objectives may be and however substantial the actual improvements are, community goals cannot be determined by the school alone. Too often the well-intentioned efforts of educational leaders place the school in the center of community development activities. The schoo: is an integral part of the community—not something apart from it Community development depends upon the coordination of the many soc educational, and economic Organizations which share responsibility. The leadership th school exerts should not be that of setting its own independent go's for community change but rather that of an institution arriving at its goals cooperatively with other community organizations and agencies and having their understanding and support. Only then is the school an integral part of the com munity in both planning and process.’ THE COMMUNITY SCHOO! The mayor function of every school is that of providing an educa tional program. It has already been indicated that the rel itionship of a school to its community is affected by the degree to which school organization corresponds to natural community boundaries and the concept of its leadership role which the school assumes. Of even greater importance, however, to the development of a community ‘chool is the nature of the educational program provided A school is a community school to the extent that it derives its program from the problems of the people whom tle school serves and draws upon all of the resources available in attempts to solve them Goslin gave emphasis to the importance of schools which realistically "See Kreitlow, Burton W. Rural Education: Community Backgrounds. New York Harper and Brothers, 1954. pp. 163-67 40 RURAL EDUCATION——A rORWARD LOOK relate curriculum and activity to the area in which the school is located. He indicated three areas of relationships which must be developed and exist at a high order if the schools in rural America are to meet the responsibilities to their communities, the Nation, and the world These were identified as: (1) a relationship between the school and our system of freedom and democracy, (2) a relationship between the school and its environment, the land tn all of its aspects, and (3) a relationship between the school and the economic flow and development and welfare of its community.® Effective learning is meaningful, not absr-act. The schools of rural communities, because of the relative ease by which intimate acquaint- ance and mutual endeavor are or could be realized, have a unique opportunity to develop into community schools. These schools serve as the center for many community activities and use these same activi- ties as the core about which learning activities revoive. Rural schools and rural education are distinctive and roeaningful to the extent to which they are tailor-made on a community by. community basis. It is the responsibility of all who are interested in the educational well- being of rural people to help these community schools emerge CONCLUSION The school as a community institution 1s more than a matter of organization and financing or a collection of buildings, teachers and pupils. Its place in the community is that which all of the people, including its own leadership, conceive it to be. It should be an integral part of all community activity. The school does not always retlect the “ideal characteristics’ which have been ascribed to it here. Achieving them would seem to be the task ahead for all community leaders. Such a challenge was outlined by Morgan: Education of children and adults was once an integral part of community life. As formal schooling became an increasingly specialized activity, it nas tended to institutionalize education away from direct relationship with the community. Education has become primarily the responsibility of administrators and teachers, to a much less extent of the parents, and almost not at all of the community as such As the nature of communities has changed, we have too often tried to solve educational problems as though schooling was a world of its own, without long and organic relations with society as a whole. The problem is to determine *Adapted from the address of Willard E. Goslin, op. cst. f? THE SCHOOL AS A COMMUNITY INSTITUTION afl how the underlying life of the small community is to find expression in a world of large governmental and economic affairs, and of extreme mobility and interrelatedness of people, of population centers and of econornics. It cannot be solved except by seeing life as a whole and by treating education, not as an indcpendent interest, but as one of the interweaving threads in the whole seamless fabric of society.® People in rural communities need somehow to discover means for using technological advances to build and strengthen their communi- ties, not disintegrate them. The school as a community institution can assist. It has some responsibility. Its achievements might well be measured by the extent to which the combined efforts of people can develop what might truly be called a community school. The success- ful development of a community school is a test for all community leaders. But the reward is a realization of the close interdependency of school and community. The more closely allied they become, the stronger each is made to meet whatever challenge it is called upon to face. For good schools make good communities. *Adapted from the address of Griscom Morgan, op. cit CHAPTER 4 The Rural Environment's Distinctive Impact on Children and Youth Boe the 1944 White House Conference on Rural Education, Fannie Dunn spoke into being a profound conception of a sound basic philosophy of rural education and the kind of oppor- tunities the program should provide for youth. If we accept these three principles—the child growing up in the community as the center of the educational effort; active experience as the means; improve- ment of present living as the test and the immediate purpose—tutal education must be distinctive, because the community, the present living, the opportunities for active experience, are rural. The rural child's development must be rooted in the soil. His present needs and problems will be what they are because of the interrelationships of his life and those of the rural community. His first hand experiences will be those which rural life affords.’ It is recognized that many statements of educational principles and goals have been advanced but the above appears to furnish anchorage in this discussion of the rural environment's impact on children and youth. With such a philosophy as a foundation and possessing a basic understanding of the way children learn, grow, and develop, the teacher can and does set about to create situations and experiences that hold rich promise for each learner entrusted to his care. As growth and development occur and the progressive stages of growth and development are reached, the learner becomes more and more the emerging, developing personality he should become in light of his capacity, interests, and abilities. "Adapted from the address of Fannie W. Dunn, Professor Emeritus, Teachers College, Columbia University, and presented at the White House Conference on Rural Education, Washington, D. C., October 1944. ‘The Education of Rural Children and Youth.” 43 RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK It should be recognized however, that each child has his own unique environment and that environment is not what the casual observer might describe it to be. Growth-encouraging environments can be provided only if we understand that which each child is able to choose and use from the wealth of potential resources about him. It is a temptation to assume that the potential values of a rural environment are fully utilized, but experience tells us that this is not necessarily so. NATURE OF THE RURAL ENVIRONMENT It is difficult and dangerous to generalize about the influence of the rural environment for conditions vary greatly from country to country, state to state, and even from one farm to its nearest neighbor. The prosperous dairy farmer in Wisconsin or New York have little in common with the Alabama sharecropper, beyond the fact that neither lives in the city. Nor does the well paid worker in a branch plant of a large industry, recently located near a small rural village, have much in common with the farm laborer who may be his next door neighbor. In essence, there are wide differences in occupations, standards and values, and the general way of life among the people who make up our rural population. That environments vary considerably is well known. That the same or identical environments may affect individuals in different ways has not always received due consideration in recent literature. This con- cern was expressed by Anne Hoppock when she reported the fol- lowing: Two children I know well illustrate the unique impact of similar environ- ments. These two ten-year-olds are cousins. Their families live in neighboring farm houses. The fathers rent their fields to nearby farmers and make a living as mechanics. A garden, a cow, and a few hens supplement the family re- sources. Both sets of parents are high school graduates and live fairly com fortably but with few luxuries. They spend a good bit of time together. The children walk a mile to the little school in the village. Jane lives zestfully. She has a dog which she cares for faithfully, and with it roams the countryside. She is writing a book and consults gravely regarding her writing problems with a young teacher who lives in the neighborhood. She is intensely interested in plant and animal life and has a number of collections including several live animals. She collects rocks and Indian artifacts. She is an inveterate researcher into the meanings of her out-of-door experiences. In pursuing her various interests, she exhausts available printed material at home and school, asks questions of everyone who might have infor- mation, and writes to the county agricultural agent, the U. S. Department THE ENVIRONMENT § DISTINCTIVE IMPACT ON CHILDREN AND YOUTH 45 of Agriculture, and other organizations and agencies. Jane swims, picnics, and sings in the children’s choir in the church in a nearby town Jane's cousin Carol, also ten, is quite different in her interests anc ner approach to living. She is an avid comic book reader, is interested in clothing and beginning to experiment with cosmetics. She makes half-hearted attempts to keep up to Jane's pace but seldom follows through on projects they start cooperatively. She evidences little curiosity. She putters around the house; is indoors more than out Obviously, we cannot generalize about the influence of the rural environment on child development. Jane and Carol seemingly live in the same rural environ- ment, go to the same school, roam the same fields and woods and streams under the same sky. But even this superficial description indicates that the two children are learning different values and interests; their lives are taking different directions. I cannot accurately account/for this. This we do know, however. The appropriations a country child makes from the experiences i available in his environment, and how these — affect his growth ! and des clopment lepend upon many tactors.* j BASIS FOR GENERALIZATION ; Realizing the many dangers and limitations inherent in making generalizations about the rural environment, it is possible to go to a basic source of sociological data, the reports of the Bureau of the Census, and discover some important facts from which certain quali fied generalizations may be drawn. (1) There were 54 and one-quarter million rural people in the United States in 1950, comprising 36 percent of the total population. There is no question but that the rural proportion of the population declined somewhat between 1940 and 1950. Within the rural population there was a great difference between the growth pattern of farm and non-farm areas (2) Several factors have combined to draw millions of people away from the farms. Military service, the great expansion jof industrial activity, the extension of industr‘al plants into rural areas, the rapid mechanization of agriculture, and major improvements in yields fdr many crops have each played a part in influencing nearly 9 million people to move off the farm, or at least to abandon argriculture, in the 1940's. From a 1940 level of 30 million, the rural farm population declined to 25 miflion by 1950, and today is but a little more than 21 and a half million—allithis without a decline in agricultural production (3) The rural non-farm population has greatly expanded. It would appear to have grown by at least 35 to 40 percent during the 1940's, and more than 10 per cent since then. In general the increase has been especially large arowad "From the address of Anne S. Hoppock, Assistant Director of Elementary Education, New Jersey State Department of Education. “The Elemeritary School Child in the Rural! Environment.” 16 RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK the periphery of urban centers The farm to non-farm shift in the rural popu- lation has proceeded so rapidly that the farm population which, less than 15 years ago comprised 55 to 60 per cent of the rural population now constitutes less than 40 perc ent (i) In the aggregate, the total rural population is growing and should continue to grow. The most rapidly growing segment of this population is children of school and preschool age. In each year since 1946 there have been more births than the population analysts just the year before had predicted there would be. There will be about 4 million births in the United States this year as compared with 2.5 million in the years just before the war. (5) Rural families, on the average, tend to have much lower incomes than those living in urban areas. Thirty-six and nine tenths percent of rural non-farm families had an annual cash income of less than $2000 in 1950. Fifty-six percent of the farm families had a cash income of less than $2000. Of those persons who live on the Nation's five and one-half million farms, 35 percent derive their income from sources other than farming.* These data could well serve as the basis for certain generalizations. The rural farm population is decreasing despite the tremendous growth of our total population. The migratory movement is in part due to the changes in agricultural methods. Fewe; workers are needed as the use of machinery increases. Similarly, the number of producing farms is decreasing since technological and scientific improvements have made it possible for a greatly reduced number of farms to pro- duce the goods that our economy demands The rural non-farm population is increasing. Many small villages and their environs are growing rapidly as small industry, some of them branch plants built by large corporations, are locating in rural areas. Another factor in the growth of rural non-farm population is the trend toward the rapid expansion of suburban areas. While chese areas are not officially classed as rural, they are in many cases actual farming areas which have experienced a large influx of people from nearby cities.’ Many of the people living in rural areas are “disadvantaged.” Their income is considerably below the level which makes it possible for *All statistical data are drawn from U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1953. Seventy-fourth edition. Washing ton, D. C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1953 ‘Rural population as used in the census data no longer includes the suburban fringe of large cities, nor unincorporated towns such as those characteristic of mining and textile areas. The resulting definition of rural as the population living outside of places of 2500 inhabitants and beyond the built-up fringe of large cities is a much cleaner one. It handicaps analysis of historical trends, however, since it cannot be applied to past censuses THE ENVIRONMENT § DISTINCTIVE IMPACT ON CHILDREN AND YOUTH 17 them to maintain a realtively acceptable standard of living. Their opportunities for culcural growth are extremely limited, and their educational opportunities are far below that of both urban centers and the more fortunate rural areas in spite of tremendous growth of improved school district organization, improved support, and rapidly growing professional leadership.® Presently about half of the farm children leave the farm upon reaching maturity. Even if the size of the farm population should stabilize, the farm birth rate is sufficiently high at its current level that only about three-fourths of the farm boys will be needsd to replace those presently engaged in agriculture. The obvious conclusion is that for many farm youth, their ability to enter the labor force in a skilled remunerative job is dependent upon the preparation they receive in their schools for non-farm -smployment To persons having a philosophy of life which recognizes the romance and beauty and wholesomness of rural life, the decline in the farm population and its increasing dependence on urban modes of employment may be cause for lament. But there seems to be no prospect in the foreseeable future of a reversal in the current trend. Briefly then, it would seem that farming is becoming less and less a way of life for more and more of the total rural population. We may expect an increasing number of rural people to be engaged in various aspects of industrial life, other than farming, if the decentrali zation of industry continues. At the same time we are faced with the fact that proportionately, the rural areas of this country are poor in wealth and rich in numbers of children. On a regional basis, it can be said that ‘where the kids are, the money ain't.” And finally, we may expect the suburban population of our more populous industrial states to continue to grow. These trends are already well known to most rural leaders CHILDREN IN THE RURAL ENVIRONMENT It has been emphasized that in view of the wide differences existing among children and among rural environments in the various regions and sections of this country, it is difficult to discuss rural children in generalizations. There are, however, certain conditions which pervade almost all rural areas and which rural children can be expected to experience in common. *See Chapter 7, “Education for Disadvantaged Groups.” RURAL EDUCATION~—A FORWARD LOOK Children in rural areas live close to nature and have virtually unlimited opportunities for observing nature. We must ask ourselves, ‘What is the effect on growth and development of the country child’s closeness co nature and natural phenomena? Whether they live on a farm or in a small rural village, they are usually free to roam through fields and woods, to explore creeks and rivers, and to engage in vigorous out of-doors activities They are in daily contact with growing, living plants and animals. The rural child, unless over- protected, is face to face with reality. He observes that life comes from life and in turn produces life. He sees the strong prey upon the weak, but realizes that life goes on and that nature's balance is main tained unless upset by man. As he lives near nature, the country child can derive fundamental meanings from the turning of the earth and the changing of the seasons. He lives in a great scientific lab- oratory. In his explorations of his environment he is at best very much in time with his universe. He may be grubby and tousled of hair, but he has distance in his eyes, wings on his feet, and stardust in his hair.® Rural children have unique opportunities for responsible partici pa- tion in the enterprises of family living. We must again ask ourselves “How can we assess the affects of family participation and responsi bility on development ?"’ Usually there are several children in the rural family and there is much work to be done both indoors and out, whether it be a farm or non-farm home. In such familes, children accept responsibility for the care of younger children and pets, domes:- tic tasks, weeding and cultivating gardens, barn chores, care of lawns and flower beds, the gathering of eggs or the feeding of young stock, and many other important chores which contribute to family welfare Children have opportunity to acquire many desirable attitudes as they become functioning members of a working unit. A feeling of family solidarity is a most desirable outcome. Even though the child makes but a small contribution through his efforts, he is developing a sense of responsibility and a sense of pride and personal worth which comes with doing work that his family considers essential. He ts also acquir- ing skill in working with others on cooperative projects, and is well along the road toward becoming a good citizen of his community. Children in most rural areas have opportunity to participate in many community activities. A sense of neighborliness is characteristic of *From the address of Anne S. Hoppock, op. ci THE ENVIRONMENTS DISTINCTIVE IMPACT ON CHILDREN AND YOUTH 49 rural America. Rural people make it a point to know their neighbors, to offer a helping hand where needed, and to join with their neighbors in promoting community welfare. Young people are welcomed into these groups and made to feel an important part of the many activities carried on by 4-H Clubs, Grange organizations, church groups and organizations sponsored by their schools. In this friendly, face-to-face atmosphere, rural youth learn the fundamental concepts of democratic citizenship EDUCATION FOR RURAL LIVING Education for rural children today and tomorrow must be much wider in scope than the traditional school curriculum. It must Zo beyond the "3 R's’, a little history, and geography. It must include a broad program of modern science, the arts and music, technical education, and guidance in the appreciation, enjoyment, and utilization of the advantages of the rural environment. It must include specific instruction directed toward the development of economic com petency for all rural youth-——for those who farm, those who go to the city, and those who remain in the country to engage in a wide variety of industrial activities. And it must work toward the development of those knowledges, skills and attitudes which will make good citizens of all the children who grow up in rural areas. But we are not yet fully utilizing the potential values of the rural environment Look, for example, at the farm youngster who rises before dawn, has his breakfast very early, helps with the chores, walks a distance to the bus, rides another distance to school, eats cold sandwiches for lunch (perhaps six hours after his breakfast) studies how the Egyptians built the pyramids and why some nouns are in the objective case. When he leaves school, he reverses his morning marathon—-with perhaps homework added Such lack of time is not the only reason why some country children cannot benefit from happy experiences in the out-of-doors. It is unhappily true that some country children, particularly girl:, do not have the skills and awareness to enjoy these pursuits. One has only to drive through the countryside on a Sunday afternoon to see children alone or in small groups, just “hanging around,” looking bored and lonely I live within comfortable driving distance of three state parks with outdoor cooking facilities, hiking trails, fishing streams, and overnight camping privi leges. It is, by and large, people from the cities and their children who fill these parks on weekends.? It would seem, then, that one important educational need of rural children is a school program which helps them to recognize and utilize 50 RURAL EDUCATION=-A FORWARD LOOK the potential values in their environment. They need school sponsored experiences in hiking, camping, picnicing, swunming and other out door activities which will help them to realize the possibilities about them. They need a school program that will teach them how to im- prove their environment, through such activities as conservation programs and the beautification of grounds, and to derive satisfaction and enjoyment from the task. Older children, in particular, need other school sponsored recrea tional activities which will help them to develop a desirable social life. Attendance and participation in community dances, school plays, basketball and other sports, all will tend to make the loca! community, rather than the nearest city, the center of social life, Such participation in company with adults should do much to help young people develop healthy personalities. Rural young people need an education that will help them to de- velop economic competency. As previously noted, the general level of income in rural areas is considerably below that of urban areas. Our rural high schools must provide a program which meets the needs of those children who will not farm but who must seek other jobs. This means that a variety of vocational courses must receive increasing emphasis. It is highly probable that the move to decentralize industry will continue, and it is likely that industries will locate in those rural areas which have a trained labor supply available Meeting these educational needs of rural children and youth will involve increased expenditures. A number of our rural areas, particu. larly in the South, are in dire need of funds and local sources are no longer adequate It is apparent that some new sources of income for many school districts must be found Country schools spend less per pupil, have inferior equipment and buildings, and in far too many cases are forced, by inability to pay good salaries, to employ emergency teachers. Although there are numerous and outstanding exceptions to this general condition, we must face up to the fact that a great many of our country children are denied equality of educational opportunity. We must recognize, too, that the city itelf tends to benefit from the well educated country youth who finds his life work in the urban center. The life blood of our municipal centers flows in from the open country THE ENVIRONMENT § DISTINCTIVE IMPACT ON CHILDREN AND YOUTH CONCLUSION The basic needs of children as well as the broad purposes of educa tion are fundamentally the same regardless of where children go to school. But because active experience 1s the means of im provement of present living and because the experiences are unique in rural areas, rural education must be distinctive if the school is to be vital, creative and meaningful. The rural environment offers much that can and does enrich the lives of children. What is needed is the wise guidance of children and youth by adults—in the home and in the school—who understand and appreciate the beautiful richness of rural life and feel the challenge of living in harmony with Ameria's rural environment CHAPTER 5 Social and Economic Changes in Rural Life I Hk school is a community institution and should be a part of the total social structure of that community. It should determine its goals or objectives in terms of all community processes and be closely associated with other community institutions, organt zations and agencies. To the extent that each school blends into the total context of its community, schools will be somewhat different each from the others The individuality which schools achieve in response to differing com munity patterns, characteristics and resources will take into account the effects which a rural environment has upon children, The children attending school in a community related almost wholly to agriculture have different experiences than those in a rural industrial or mining community. Good schools recognize the distinctive influences of en vironment and take advantage of them in shaping their educational program. But however carefully a school has organized its program to be responsive to environmental influences upon children, and however sensitive it is to its appropriate role in or relationship to the total community, it is most important that it recognize that these factors do not have stable characteristics. Communities change. And with the changes which are continuously occurring, the environment for chil- dren changes and the kinds of experiences they have are different. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGES The manner in which people individually and in groups relate them selves to each other and to economic activities is constantly changing These changes are brought about or stimulated by many highly inter- related factors—discovery, invention, technological development and political concerns and policies, both national and international. They 53 54 RURAL EDUCATION—-A FORWARD LOOK result from new influences or a new emphasis of some specific factor or group of factors within a large complex of interrelationships It is important for us to recognize that social and economic changes are seldom abrupt. They come about slowly and gradually. They reflect a continuously evolving set of circumstances which never become fixed or stable. They usually have direction, although this is also subject to change or fluctuation—at times tending toward one direction and then reversing to tend toward another. At any given time we can expect only to determine directions or trends During recent years there have been a number of significant changes in rural life. Our purpose here is not to identify the causes of these changes but to indicate the trends and point out some of their implica tions for education.' POPULATION CHANGES Trends Farm people are becoming a smalier and smaller part of the total population Im plications The non-farm population is becoming de- pendent on a smaller group to furnish a large part of their fundamental wants Hence, it becor--s important to have highly trained individuals operating the Nation's agricultural enterprises, and to have a non-farm population that has a sympathetic understanding of the farmers’ problems. But within the rural population the rural sector is growing rapidly while the rural farm is declining. Many non non-farm farm people now live in the countryside Despite over-all out-movement of the farm population, there are many areas in which this has not occurred; often these areas are in the same school adminis- trative area. *The tabulated identification of trends and This suggests a re-examination of the rural school curriculum in terms of more varied vocational training as well as im proved generalized education directed to developing adaptive behavior for a variety of environments. Necessitates a broader base for school financial support to take care of population shifts The general public should be acquainted with this fact so that school administ ;a- tors are permitted flexibility in handling the distribution of and school funds facilities their educational implications which is included in this chapter represents the report of the Findings Committee for Division 3, “Economic and Social Trends Related to Rurai Education.” SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGES IN RURAL LIFE 55 The growth of fringe, non-farm populations around towns and cities below the metropolitan level has been large and exten- sive The movement of young people out of the farm sector of our population is taking place con tinuously and in large numbers These fringe areas are often areas of administrative chaos. The public school people along wth planners and others should give serious attention to adult edu cation in thes: areas so the citizens be- come more enlightened with respect to securing adequate public services This raises important questions concern ing the kind of education these young people are receiving in the rural schools We need to give increased attention to guiding our surplus rural boys and girls into non-farm vocations where they can capitalize on their rural background, inter ests, and aptitudes. Since many of these youth end up in cities, a strong argument for equalization of education funds is presented OCCUPATIONAL CHANGES Trends A large sector of agriculture has become highly commercialized agricultural technology has increased including machines, crops and livestock, contro! of diseases and pests, fertilization, etc.; size of operations has grown in terms of capital, not alone in acres; the number and amount of business transactions of farmers have expanded greatly; and agricultural policy has become important in terms of adequate returns to the oper ator The number of part-time farm ers has increased tremendously Industry 1s being dispersed into rural areas which provides addi tional off-farm employment An increased proportion of the rural population is compelled to find gainful employment in non-farm occupations Im plications Educational offerings for youth planning to enter agriculture must be adapted to this change in the agricultural system Training in technical agriculture and farmer cooperation should be given in a much larger number of rural schools. The curriculum should be broadened to in clude more training in the business trans actions of farm. families. Adult education programs of schools and the Extension service should be strengthened and should include public affairs as well as farm production and living A program needs to be developed to meet the needs of these part-time farmers and their families. Mutual self-help associa tions can be of material assistance to these rural families Vocational guidance and training in rural schools need to be expanded to include more of the service industries and non farm occupations related to agriculture RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK The homemaking and farm Homemaking courses for rural high family living probl« ms of rural school girls and farm women need to be people are becoming more like broadened to include more of the train- those of their city cousins, In- ing essential to meeting the responsibili- creased home mechanization, ties of modern-day rural living better roads and improved com munications operate to bring the farm closer to the city IN ME CHANGES Trends Implications While fain income has in This means’ the school curriculum should creased considerably in recent seck to develop an appreciation for gov years, the farmer ts still in an ernmental efforts through research, edu unfavorable position as com cation, credit, production, marketing, pared to urban workers ind conservation programs to strengthen the income position of farmers. Likewise an appreciation’ of what he can do himself through better business practices individ ually or jointly with his neighbors through cooperatives. This also has im plic itions for equalization of facilities i definite shift in These small, low income farmers consti » more economK tute a group who have received little at igher incomes, ther tention from public agencies. The rural any low production schools are often inadequate in these areas ome farms Educational leaders need to study and plan how to help these people to increase their farm income and to find supple mentary em] loyment employment and Educational help should be provided to j farm jobs for enable these families to obtain full ad. or business profits vantages from their rural situation, in provide income for a large num iding usually some food production as ber of rural people M s full development of aesthetic and social opportunities CHANGING SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND PATTERNS Trends Im plications Rural and urban cultures and More emphasis on education programs economies are being blended that will help rural young people better through interrelated vocations as understand and adjust to urban life and in part-time farming; education to help urban young people better under- in consolidated schools; recrea- stand and adjust to rural aspects of liv- SOCIAI AND ECONOMIC tion in movies, fairs, and social ictivities; services of electricity, telephones, hospitals; common levels of consumption in auto household mobiles uppliances, and living patterns There are numerous changes shifts from small, personalized, inti occurring which involve mate groups, to large, less per sonal groups. These changes CHANGES IN RURAL LIFI ing. General courses and activities that will lead to the development of basic attitudes, skills, and understandings for living as democratic citizens in today’s world and in today’s modern rural-urban community This means that we should make the most these including school district rational adjustments possible to broad changes reorganization and curriculum, and not block them by insisting on maintaining ire the result of technological old broad forms and symbols which can no New district take account as “natural community” and other economic longer function school changes over which we expect boundaries should into at present a minimum of con far ' trol Ssociai as practicable contacts are made ireas which are taking shape over wider areas: the commun Yet the family still continues to be the « ore of rural sor iety some ity 1s larger functions of the rural A broader basis of school financial sup family ré be ing shifted to the port is probably a necessity if the changed schools :n terms of the inculca structure of rural life is accepted realistic tion of group responsibilities, illy. Im many cases the number of chi) early emotional conditioning, dren 1s high and the amount of wealth eu low This suggests the need for more effective training of teachers who are responsible for the moral and emotional development of children. Worthwhile values of che past have to be consciously maintained The wide range of the trends identified makes the detailed analysis The implications which they have for the educational programs of rural of each more than can be accomplished in this brief report communities can be sharpened, however, through an understanding of the specific changes which each implies. Attention ts fo used here however briefly, upon a few areas as illustrative Commercial Farming Technical developments in agriculture have been associated with a rapid growth in the acreage and output of commercial farms. Since 1930, output per commercial farm has more than doubled. Farm acreage has increased by a half; cropland by a third Not only has acreage 58 RURAL FDUCATION-——A FORWARD LOOK increased, but output per acre has been raised by increased yields and the decreased use of farm-grown crops for feeding horses and mules These changes have occurred largely by adding land and capital to a relatively fixed labor supply made up largely of labor resources of the farm operator and his family. Estimated labor requirements per commercial farm for 1950 were only slightly above the 1930 level averaging slightly more than 400 man-days per farm. The number of commercial farms has been rapidly decreasing; farms are much larger—fewer farms but more acres. They decreased in number by approximately one-third from 1930 to 1950. Recently they have been dec reasing at the rate of over 2 percent a year The reduction in the number of commercial farms has been, to a considerable extent, offset by the rapid increase in part-time farms and rural homes, The estimated number of part-time and residential farm units has increased from one million in 1930 to 1.7 million in 1950 The total number of farm operators who have non-farm jobs has been increasing even more rapidly. In addition, there has been a considerable increase in the number of older farmers operating small retirement units From the standpoint of education in rural areas it 1s obvious that those who are planning to enter agriculture—farming itself or the increasingly numerous related occupations—must bé more highly trained than has been necessary in the past. Training in agriculture should include a more thorough understanding of business transactions, accounting, record keeping and reporting, and the like. Successful farmers must now be competent business men, Rapidly changing methods and techniques clearly point out the need for more adult education, both as a part of the program of the local school and through the Extension Service of the U. § Department of Agriculture The increased number of part-time farmers puts emphasis on the need for a broader program of agricultural education than that which might be classified as ‘vocational.’ Part-time farmers and non-farm rural dwellers are interested in gardening, fruit growing, lands aping home decoration and repair, and numerous other types of activities which rural people generally do for themselves An educational pro gram which could thus enrich rural living for those not involved in commercial agricultural should be available for both youth and adults Perhaps the most significant implication of the trend toward fewer but larger commercial farm operations is that rural schools need to OCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGES IN RURAL LiPFI 59 provide a much broader range of vocational education. A rural school cannot adequately serve its youth and adults when .ts vocational pro- rram is limited to agriculture z ‘ Farmer ( oo peratives Agricultural cooperatives have a place in both the cultural and eco- nomic phases of American rural life. The economic phases, however, are the most do.ainant, with the cultural accruing as residuals. How- ever, they are both significant Two features of agricultural cooperatives may affect the culture of American rural life. One of these is the fact that cooperative action brings into focus and encourages expression of the age-old tendency of people to work together and pool their efforts for both individual and collective benefits. The second application is that cooperative action sharpens the tools of democracy Cooperatives are economic democracies and thus, in their operation, develop leadership and skills in democratic procedure. This leadership and these skills are bene ficial when determining policy in local, state aad national governments. As just stated, agricultural cooperatives have the greatest bearing on the economic phases of rural life. Farming is a business. Thus, it has joined others in the fast moving business parade. As a result, the commercial farm of yesterday is the self-sufficient farm of today. An example of the modern farm going commercial is the fact that only about one unit in 14 of the products of the farm are now used by the farm family. This is in contrast to more than one unit in six a genera tion ago The increasing size of farm operations has resulted in an increase in total production with an accompanying decrease in farm population Yet, as compared to other business, agriculture is basically a multiple small units. As such, they operate independently and competitively in their pro juc'ton efforts Business is streamlining and integrating as part of the modern proc sses. For example, we do not have to look to industry and manu facturing alone. Just look for the ‘drummers’ and other traveling salesmen who used to line the lobbies of country hotels each week day evening a short time ago. Where are they now? Not only are they gone, but the hotels in which they used to assemble are largely casual ties to the integrating and streamlining of distribution and other busi Ness Processes RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK These are visible effects. The invisible ones are equally as signifi cant. Thus, in the distribution of wheat, livestock and cotton, the physical facilities may still be there. However, the invisible processes, the transactions of marketing and pure hase, have integrated to as great an extent as have the ones that are visible Agricultural cooperatives are a natural means by which the indi vidual farm units can join in this mer handising integration. Anothe: alternative 1s am intensification of the trend toward very large farm units of sufficient size to maintain the necessary management skills and facilities to meet competition. A number of examples of this ability can be found However, the small farmer cannot do it His alternative is the cooperative? The implication for educational programs that an understanding of cooperatives and the pl ice of cooper itive Organization in a free enter prise economic system is quite obvious. It is important that these under standings be a part of the educational programs for both rural and urban schools and that they be a part of the economic education of all nm for rural members of Vn unit of moming forces | cooperating. This well understood need ts identical to that which Malt sé ol unt have for provi ling in educ ational program of the scene and quality considered essential in smaller com munities and rural areas. Some educational leaders have recently m the development of cooperative educational e of intermediate unit a: f a specialized ty} ystem.” The theory of cooperative « is little understood. The e ganizations and their understa SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGES IN RURAL LIFE 61 potential for developing cooperative programs of specialized educa- tional services. Educational leadership must recognize and capitalize upon this development. Family Living A cultural change important for rural education programs to take into account is the lessening differences between rural and urtian people in ways of living. For farm families this has meant more convenient homes, kitchens and laundries with labor-saving equipment for getting the housework done and the cash commitments for fuel and services to keep these conveniences in operation. It has also meant the money spent for other aspects of a higher standard of living—better medical care and more recreation and education, for example. A number of forces are responsible: (1) incomes are now generally higher than they were ten years ago; (2) rural electrification programs have extended electric power to many areas which were previously without it; (3) there are many more opportunities for off-the-farm work for farm people; and (4) contacts with urban ways of living through move ment of city people to the country and through the schools, radio and television, magazines and other means of communication Farm living has remained different in one important respect—de pendence on the home farm for a large share of the family’s food supply. The home farm, for example, provides on the average nearly half the dollar value of family food on farms in the North Central States. This pattern of getting the food from the home farm, therefore, is a cultural difference between city and farm people that is persisting, despite their growing more alike in other ways of living. Its economic importance to farm people is apparent. Intangible values, however, may be even more significant—for example, farm people have greater opportunities for family projects and for realizing benefits of home activities in a manner which is not generally available to urban people For education, especially in home economics, the lessening of rura!- urban differences would point to the need for the same basic training, for rural as for urban people. But in this emphasis on rural urban likeness, we should not lose sight of the continuing different farm pat tern of obtaining its food supply and of the opportunities it offers for strengthening home life.* of Mrs. Gertrude 8. Weiss, Assistant Chief Home Department of Agriculture Special Aspects of a RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK CONCLUSION Rural areas are sometimes regarded as resistive to change. It is no doubt true that traditionally changes have come about more slowly in rural sections. In recent years, however, rural life has undergone tre mendous change For educators, it is most important that they understand what changes have taken place, the implications of these changes for educational programs, and the manner in which this program might be adapted to take new conditions into account. For rural people in general, it is most important that they understand that changes have taken place and that the school of yesterday is no longer adequate, that it, too, must change When change takes place, the ‘good old days” are gone-——never to return. ‘ihe challenge for everyone is to make the most of it. For these days’’-—by any measure—are better CHAPTER 6 The Scope and Quality of the Needed Educational Program HAT educational program 1s needed by rural per pie ural communities for the years ahead 7? How much 1S needed, in terms of over-all offerings and in relation to individual and comm y variations? What guality of education 1s adequate’ for w and in the foreseeable future? Are the needs of rural people and rural communities distinctively different, with respect to either scope or quality, from the needs of other people, other com munities ¢ Answers to thes ques is are neither §$ my le nor easy to achieve r can they be fully answered for the whole of the Unite 1 States by statements, even though such statements evolve from the liberations of broadly rey ‘ ativ roupns. such as the National munity and each school se questions for itself and tal answer organizations goals that are educational children. We it every y comy rehensive RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK We can, if we set ack juate goals and marshall our forces effectively, do what needs to be done to assure adequate educational programs for all rural people. What general guides will be useful to us in setting sound and adequate goals and in marshalling our forces effectively to achieve them 7 SOME GENERAL GUIDES FOR DETERMINING GOALS We be lieve that the edu ational program must be yeared to the life of the people, to the needs and resources of their communities. There fore, for rural people generally and for our communities-—or counties Or states—specifically, we must ask: What are the significant needs of the pe o ple and the community? What are the important resources and value fof rm il Lifi We ognize that the tremendous changes which characterize the are reflecte ! rut il life SO we ask W hat hanves have dh / Ghadill Lh ed ue iit nal program j j P f Ossential Chavacleristt0 ) TT tttonal Ppropranis ge wed / ai / ch ‘i )} Vii | / : Serve a tendency nor yet fully overcome, for rural to set inadequate specifications | Z veer for their educational programs. So we ask: What are general specifica ‘ Guate educational ; j What ways of working }} / l best help rural people the schools nal pro Or at cross of leader ure attainment for rural rural life. we have are ble nding s0 that differences are decreasing an mteri 1Of hip: becoming more impor tant. We have noted, tox vat ¢ much that 1s shared by all our people, because human likeness underlies individu ifference and the shared aspirations Ou ultut 1d mmon honds which tran scend differences begin our delineation of ind ros 1 by recognizing that THE SCOPE AND QUALITY OF THE NEEDED FDUCATIONAL PROGRAM 65 many of the needs that rural schools serve are not unique for rural people or rural communities. Certain things we all need, whoever or wherever we may be But we are not wholly alike, either as individuals or as communities, and ruralness of environment is one of the factors which effects dif ference. So we have reviewed available information concerning the rural environment's impact on children and youth and have noted that the rural child's present needs and problems are influenced by that environment. We have looked at the total rural community and have noted that adults also have needs and problems which the school must take into account in planning its program. And, in looking at the rural community and its setting on the land, we have been impressed with he resources——often untapped offered there for the enrichment of learning As we weigh the significance for the educational program of ences provided by rural environments, we are challenged by the ques tion Francis Drag raises: How can we discover the ut iqueness in rural life that can be exploited by education in de } r citizens with the competencies needed for democratic living in the present-day culture f y , loring this question Mr. Drag said e have come to feel that the trength and the worth in rur il education lies where within the whole wide area of how people can live better together whole area of human relation hips Is there not to be found in the rural ronment a pe iliar and har py combination of relationships of soil to people } ind time which somehow sets the stape lor the kinds of human rela which are es i I good life? When w have disco 1 th ; of rural |ife d its contribution to be mia then it would seem j nd would have only then. a sound ipproach to the innumerable plague u from ay ‘ / 5 : wor » rural education * lentified un "§§ the discovery id 1uality ; of lucation which ; iris wir culture Conterence Divis RI'RAI PITICATION A FORWARD LOK IMPLICATION POR ELDUCATION change for education on a long range, never indicated to the Conference by John Davis lucation 1% not just one of trying to meet the educa Rather vf one of fe veloping in rial pro 1 to change-—one which will meet not only the needs orrow, next year and ten, twenty and even fifty years identified in the previous ral which relate f the educational program For mn | hid ind enrich certain currt types of adult educational services are seen n changes. Similarly, the scope or quality of are seen to be affected by occu hanges in the social 67 m } an { d in the area of farm poli y making Educational Implications of Farm Poli y-Making * Desirable farm policy would seem to require a gradual shift of the responsibility for basic economic stability in agriculture from govern nent to farmers processors. at | thy di tributy fm tra te YW hat does his share in being responsible for basic economic stability demand of the individual farmer, processor, or distributor? What kind of educational i | 1 program best fits him to carry this responsibi'ity well Today our rural society is so complicated and intricate that no one person of zation has the competence to deal with all phases of it. Therefore, people M mpetencies must work together to find solutions respect to many problems the best solution ts often obscure—it must be searched for and devel pe 1. Under such conditions the searci for truth is a COnLINNGOH nust often choose between alternative courses which are open idgment must be exercised. a decision made Therefore tru fact thle and be used in ch ine a uvte of action 1 technology, while they are powerful tools in the hatids of men, se of moral direction Man, himself, must up ply the piritual values which determine the way in which the fruits bye used j it1ons do Si ( : } ave ) lucationa! search for W ¢ le iff IRWARD LOOK facts. to weigh them, to make up ids on the basis of therm? What is the school’s responsibility / j j Mt Spirvtltal values school's role in rogram provision is most ire valid questions affecting the scope and ywram. It § 1S equally clear that the wind more in /ow teaching and learning eld or unt of subject matter. So. as lequate edu ational program we will nsibility to help learners develoy attack needed in facing problems nal and the future 1s in ople must go on learning ill their vide appropriate wocietyv ¢ ich ntable for his decisions, tt be so organized that eac/ winy } not alone of the traditional culture are so readily weather nding the ill significance of opment and the inter-relation view of implications of cer change which have important consequences for | teenee he ion, may be helpful iterial cultur em inization of farm and tion media and iman s$ control over ind intimately exercised by the f man's increased control of ce ntempt of the THE SCOPE AND QUALITY OF THE NEEDED EDJ}CATIONAL PROGRAM 69 real world and, in turn, contempt for his fellowmar.. These are nega tive values and attitudes. They do not enable the person holding them to solve his problems well in an interdependent world. How can edu cation help to correct such atuitudes, develop positive ones?” @ Organizing the work of the school to emphasize individual capacities and differences and to deal with each person on his own merits, rather than expecting conformity to a standardized goal, is one way to help. Following democratic procedures which give opportunity for the indi- vidual to play various roles—sometimes exercising leadership, some ies followership—helps him to achieve adaptability, a positive quality Specialization of work and centralization of services have led to the impairment of communication. We have developed specialized jargons, which within a group we understand, but which tend to shut out others, and we tend to gather in groups of our own specialities. Being unable to communicate adequately, we are unable to work together with full effectiveness in matters which concern a total community or any cross- sectional grouping of people. In education, we need to learn to com- municate better with other special groups within education. We especially need to learn to communicate with the community. How can be learn this? @ Increasing lay participation in school activities is helpful. Consider- ing the school an integral part of the community, using the school for idult forums and so forth, also help. By bringing youth into adult forums we can contribute to another important network of communica- tion—that between generations—and help bring about the gradual transition of youth to full adulthood A change from production orientation to consumer orientation in our culture ts evidenced by such things as increased interest in hobbies and sports, in homemaking appliances and the like, and by the emer gence of women as the chief money spenders @ The school program can include directed activities in handicrafts, hobbies, sports, consumer education and so forth Extensive development and dissemination of information from the social sciences——sociology, social psychology, anthropology, and the integrative fields such as human growth and development—bring con- sequences which may be good or ill. As we learn how human behavior is caused, we may utilize control it gives us to ‘‘use’’ people for our purposes or to contribute to their own growth 70 RURAL EDUCATION-——A FORWARD LOOK Teachers can make sure that their own application of the social sciences is sound and ethical. They can help children to develop sound attitudes about helping others to achieve their own goals as being better than ‘‘using”’ people. ESTABLISHING SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM Further implications for education could be drawn from an examina- tion of rural communities of the Nation in their varied physical settings and their complex interrelations with a changed and changing world. Perhaps enough has been suggested, in this and preceding chapters, to indicate the major elements to be considered in establishing specifica- tions for an adequate program. To organize our ideas, it may be helpful to turn to two familiar analyses drawn from educational literature; the one to look at pur- poses, the other to see how the nature of learning affects program. The Educational Policies Committee has presented a classification of the goals and purposes of education which groups them into four major objectives: Self-realization; Human Relationship; Economic Efficiency ; Civic Responsibility.’° Fannie Dunn, in discussing the distinctive aspects of a rural educa- tional program, referred to three principles of education: (1) The center of educational effort is the child (individual) growing up in the community; (2) Active experience is essential to learning; (3) Improvement in the present living is the only way in which we can test whether learning is taking place."! Using the four major objectives as the focal points and applying the three principles to them, what general guides to the planning of an adequate educational program for rural people and rural communities may be drawn from the observations reviewed above? The chart entitled A Genealogy of Educational Aims (page 000) may be help- ful in expanding the meaning of the four objectives selected for use here. **National Education Association and American Association of School Administrators, Educational Policies Commission. The Purposes of Education in American Democracy Washington, D. ¢ The Commission, 1938 “Dunn, Fannie Wyche. See Chapter 4, “The Rural Environment's Distinctive Impact on Children and Youth.” p. 43. THE SCOFE AND QUALITY OF THE NEEDED EDL CATIONAL PROGRAM A GENEALOGY OF EDUCATIONAL AIMS (1918) (1938) (1952) Seven Cardinal Priniciples Four Groups of Objectives Ten Imperative Needs (Commission on Reorganization (Educational Policies (Educational Policies of Secondary Education) Commission ) Commission ) Worthy Home Membership Family Life Health Health Command of Fundamental Self-realization Think and Processes Communicate Clearly Worthy Use of Leisure Arts (aesthetic) Science Use of Leisure f Occupational Skill | Wise Consumer Citizenship Civic Responsibility Civic Understanding Ethical Relations Human Relations Human Relations Vocation Economic Efficiency Self-realization We i.ccept this objective as applying to a// people. We have specified the need for each individual to develop his full powers and have indi- cated that we regard the enrichment of life at all age levels as a concern of the school. We have identified certain groups as requiring our special concern, calling for a fair chance for the seriously disadvan- tage low income and low social status groups; for an open road for the talented; and for better provision for exception children,’ We recognize that opportunities for self-realization for the individual in his community—be he child growing up or adult continuing to de- velop his capabilities—are varied in their nature and quality. Every individual has his own environment, his own ‘community,” not only because environments differ but because environments affect individuals differently. We know, too, that physical and mental health affect opportunity for self-realization and that families and communities differ in the adequacy with which they provide healthful environments and health- fostering activities and services. "See the address of Francis $. Chase, Chairman. Department of Education, University of Chicago. ‘The Task Ahead in Achieving Equal Educational Opportunity for All.” See p. 247 RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK What do these facts imply for the planning and development of an adequate educational program? With respect to the school unit for which leadership is being exercised—the local school, the community school district, the county, the state—such questions as these are pertinent What pe ople, if any, lack a satisfactory minimum of opportunity for self-realization? There may be an age group, a cultural or economic minority group, or people having special needs because of handicaps or special abilities, who lack adequate or suitable opportunities to develop their full powers. There may be school ‘dropouts’ who found school offerings unrelated to their immediate needs and interests, or able young people for whom college opportunity is lacking, or adults in need of developing new interests and abilities for whom neither school nor community is making any provision. And so on What extensions of the educational program would satisfactorily correct these lacks? Attention would be on the scope of the program in terms of people to be served, the variety of offerings, when and for how long offerings are available, and the like What changes in the organization of the school for teaching and learning are destrable? Concern would be to develop patterns of organi zation and ways of working with children, youth, and adults that will bring to light their individual interests, needs, and capacities and enable each to progress at rates and along lines best suited to him What resources and what lacks in the total environment must be taken into account? Where there are inadequate provisions for the arts, library services, recreational activities, and the like—and this is true of many rural communities, the schools will need to provide the services or to work with the community to see that they are provided in some other way. A special resource of most rural communities is the rich nature environment; schools may need to provide guidance in the appreciation and enjoyment of its various aspects Other questions might be listed. However, many of them have equal significance for the consideration of others of the four objectives we are ¢ xploring Human relationships. We see the objective of developing good human relationships as taking on increased importance. We have noted that many problems faced today are so complex that only by persons working together who THE COPE AND QUALITY OF THE NEEDED EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM 14 have different competencies, ca1 best solutions be found. We have been reminded that schools must help to develop the social, moral, and spiritual values which will guide us to desirable uses of % ientific and technical developments, and we see this as involving human values We have noted, too, that our greatly increased control over nature through science and technology can lead to a false sense of power and even a lack of respect for other people. And, we are told, with special ization has come a loss tn ability to communicate, one group to another These ramifications of the need for developing good human relation ships grow out of changes in our economy which have taken place at an accelerating rate. They are but ps the picture of human rela tionships in rural communities. The sense of power and feeling of peeing able fo port alone , whi h may come with inc reased control over nature are balanced by the sharp reminder, through a heavy frost, a id, or a tornado, that man’s power is limited and he needs his fellow men. Though ready transportation and communication have giver rural people more casual human contacts than previously, face-to-face relationships are still an important aspect of rural life Application of Dr. Dunn's principles to the objective of human rela me Questions which can guide the development lucational program. With respect to the individual in the community as the center of educational effort, what unglul community of these children—or ‘nese youth or adults, whichever is of concern? Is it one community or many? In terms of space, where are the human beings with whon:. for these particular individuals, establishing better relationships is important ? What part ‘does getting correct and significant information about peo ple play in the establishment of good relationships? What imply for what ts included in the educational program 7 of learning through active experience sug ves in and through the school will ¢ desirable human relationship Economic Efficiency We have noted that changes in the economy have reduced the rela tive number of people needed in agricultural production while numbers of children growing up in rural areas remain large. Vocationally, therefore, the majority of rural youth must seek their opportunities in rural non-farm or urban occupations This and other factors necessitate RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK the development of qualities which foster adaptive behavior. We note, too, that success in present-day agriculture requires a high level of busi ness efficiency We ve seen, too, that the development of modern conveniences has changed the nature of many home-making tasks in farm homes Further, we have noted that, in Americe:. life generally, there has been a major shift from productive orientation to consumer orientation When we consider the effect of iis particular er.vironment on the individual's needs for economic efficiesrcy, we note great differences In farming operations the range is from highly specialized and efficient factories in the field,’ with labor and management quite distinct, to very meager subsistence farms. With respect to non-farm occupations, ncluding both the service trades and the professions, the range is from communities with comparatively few, mostly generalized, jack-of-all trades typ jobs to communities with a wide range of job Oppor tunities at all levels, some of them calling for a high degree of compe- tence or professional training. With respect to consumer aspects of economic effectiveness the range is from extreme dependence on out side services, to the more nearly self-contained family units which ersist in some isolated areas or among isolated groups. In all rural canmunities, the land and problems related to its conservation and are an active part of the environment. In general opportunities active experience as the method of learning are more easily avail able in rural communities than in cc nplex urban economies With such facts as these affecting the situations for which we plan educational programs, questions such as these are pertinent What vocational opportunities are avatlable to the people of this community 2 We need to know what the situation is for those who wish to engage in farming. For those wishing to find other employment within the community. For persons interested in entering the profes sions or skilled trades. For persons who will migrate to urban centers to find employment. We see this as including not only the work of the “breadwinner” of the family but also the work of other family members which contributes to both productive and consumer efficiency What educational program should the schools provide to equip people for vocational effectiveness? To determine this, some subsidiary questions need to be raised. What preservice preparation is needed for successful entrance into the various occupations identified for the people of this community? What guidance services are needed to help people THE SCOPE ANI EEDED EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM in making vocational choices both as young people getting started and as older people needing to make changes? What on-the-job or inservice education is needed to develop new skills or keep abreast of new knowledge? With respect to all of this, what is the responsibility of the schools and what « 7 best be provided by other agencies ? How can the educational experiences and services for which the sponsibility best be provided? This would involve decisions concerning new offerings such as the provision of vocational agricultural courses where they are needed but do not exist, or the pro vision of a greater variety of vocational courses, or the provision of an adult program, and the like. It would involve decisions regarding the emphasis or content of courses now offered: for example, adaptation of homemaking courses to the needs and potentialities of homes in this mmunity, or the inclusion of consumer education content into various school courses. Important consideratior «ould weed te ve given 0 th relationship of the school to homes and community enterprises and institutions ip providing adequate learning experiences. The avail- routh of the community of education at the college level nportant consideration Responubility We have noted that the identification of the individual with our American system of freedom and democracy as represented by institu- tions an leal: an important responsibility of all education. All citizens have a responsibility to help preserve our freedoms We have noted, too, that where society is complicated, people are con- stantly called on to make decisions in matters where the solutions of ) are obscure. Decisions made in many areas of our living mav preservation of our freedom. It is important, therefore, that all citizens develop the qualities and abilities which enable them to make decisions which are in harmony with fundamental principles and vaiues of our way of life With respect to education for civic responsibility, what Opportunities does this community offer its citizens to understand and det elop loyalty to the ideals of American democracy? We will want to consider this for citizens of al’ age levels—when they are beginning to identify themselves with these ideals and as they need to understand them in 7/6 RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK relation to changed and changing conditions ymaller communities these Recognizing that in practices that are ¢ deals are represented by institutions and se To the people we will want to know how the ‘ i Want to know Ww in the community has been affected by his experi or how these elements of community further learning What can and should the scho als do te equip people to deal with pr hlems where Choice a doment must be exercised? Concern here will be with the de of the skills and attitudes needed in ontinually seeking for true facts as the basis in making decisions, and the like. How these qualities for both the « ontent and working with other for judgment nertno« problems which Ait ith ispects of educat , ; ; ; F What of portunities does this rural / whith draw upon COMMUNITY since we need experience ALE Le irwnine experience f in makiny decisions that re: ind relate learning to problems people We need to think ind apy 8S OF A? F PROGRAM gram that is juate for the uch in comn vith other educationa t nmunity te rf asl ecifications of an The intent of this ch ipter has bring t Viewpoints and informatior fit all situations gether vhich suggest how te Rp and qualit of educational! geared to the needs of rural people. Some implicat what is known of the or and the social Some general guide as meaningf illy programs 1OnS hive been , and resour;rc going need s of rural environment n nic and cultural changes in rural econor r I s for establishing specifications for the educa P oOpgram have been uy gested iV the SCODE notably in Butterwort' Arr fil thinking and RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK dA goals by quoting from the concluding staternent of the same pub lication provided are limited many the educational opportunities ite. These shortages will place their mark on the future Everyone wants good schools. The characteristics of an adequate program are known. The means are available for providing them. We cannot escape the conclusion that we can afford good schools. The possibilities and how to achieve them, the inadequacies and how to resolve them—these are the responsi- bilities of everyone.'* How shall l—and you—and all of us together—set about exercising that responsibility 7 nal Cor rT of hig Imuinistrative | RURAL EDUCATION A FORWAKD LOOK IDENTIFYING THE DISADVANTAGED GROUPS In the sections of the United hy States there are many grou which ru gyrrit ; classed as disad ant point out that disadvant ives Consist OF Butterworth and Dawson lack of ownert hity regation, dis | rath where none } Lhey point out nm are united occupational | wi il i orrunirvic } I] stratify usually leterrnined national f hore parricipatt It is important that tl it identified. Who CHAPTER 7 Education for Disadvantaged Rural Groups JLN most of the rural schools in nearly all of our states there have been changes ‘| hey have been gradual the response to technological and scientific advances afiecting other aspects of rural living. The ominous jacketed stove has been replaced by an s automatic | { plump nas replaced the old hand pull verall NAVE py p ) bright plaids and spring is no long a time fi re-footed freedom. The arrival of the yellow school bus now indicates that school will soor old school bell no longer rings Improvements ‘es. there lia not be gin fy but of that Rus il modern | i chil fren For them the youthw vexetables arth s blessings may need hands for a short time In disc usSsINny the importance of equal OF ! mportul ' i ideritified the d AUV atita pPCt if l ( hase similarly OMe agricu al workers f the rural people Who work oes, the Indians, the Spanish ecially the mining and manufacturing | other RURAL EDUCATIO® —A FORWARD LOOK the physical and mental efficiency of its mempers in their productive and associational relationships, as their means limits or pro.es inadequate for their i 1 goal ispirations, and f{ vents ther pearing into the community institutions and the successful manipulation of the resources and techniques of the community.’ The problem of the disadvantaged is the problem of resources whose exploitation does not provide incomes adequate to meet consumer needs. Their schools, churches, and tax-supported institutions are inadequate to supply expected and sorely needed services.’ problems of low income and day-to-day security for the large groups of migratory workers were described by an Arizona teacher whose rural school attempts to provi le ‘schooling’ for their children as they come and ZO lawn till dark, sleep on miserable beds, and know always it rains, there is no picking to be done. The cotton ticket each evening Suppose the money and brings home very little food n the cabin where you could store food, there gas or electricity, There i: Most of the women innot machine or any furniture, pay (you nr },} . propiems fores, % hools if the migrant better housing, n this deacrip | ‘ > similar dees conaitions are similar in most But in certain other -y are here their problem extends Personnel Needed for Schools Serving Rural! People 7 Xu . Physical Facilities for Schools Serving Rural People and Their Communities p ; COM ML LOU CLUiAl Ameren r pricy extreme ements sive 5 . ‘ —- j school omens ale Biase eee! OPP’ transpor eh School D ey, CUAL Lik AUOCUUALC teh District with Dhustrict ; Consequently, when we rms of numbers a >} mpared with ; nmneare a appeared ft g like a yale educatx ue that we have virtu eees be such an ol rganized school districts number-ot out to years number of reduced r ‘ throu - | ~ yund sociological lay Innorte UDDPOTTec the ee i« SCHOOL DISTRICT REORGANIZATION 125 It is dithcult t se § thing that one does not have On the other han reorganizat na nores everything bu Nia? ett ficy uld easily pre t wholes f t f level by getting small mmurs I tes ; ‘ j : \ t< em that bas been getting increasing attention tn recent years is that of the organization of suburban areas around our larger cities 4 completely sacistactory rationale for the organization ; Ta een : of such areas is still lacking. The tendency toward decentralization of the , ' from th ter tie: rradually making other services, away trom the nters Of cities, 18 @radually Making it possible for residents of the typical suburb to satisfy most of their wants and needs within the suburban area itself. Where this ts hap pening, ic Ww uld seem to give support co the appli ation of the natural community concept of organization resulting in the existence of inde pendent suburban school districts rather than their inclusion in the city systems. On the other hand, the same argument could be given for organizing independent school districts around some o f the ‘shopping centers’ that are scattered throughout our cities and larger towns Many of these centers provide not only the usual retatl trade estab lishments. but medical and dental services, movie theaters banks almost all of the services considered by sociologists to be reliable indi rf d community."” Hence, if we push ir argument far enough, we could make a case, not only for separat ing the suburban fringes from city school organization, but also for carving out certain areas for independent school systems within the city proper. Perhaps the time will come when intermediate units will be developed far enough to make quite plausible the decentralization of city systems into several areas of socio-economic design. Such a procedure mav not actually be ridiculous or far-fetched as tt probably seems at first glance ATTAINING SCHOOL DISTRICT REORGANIZATION Although no simple formula for attaining reorganization has been devoloped, certain principles seem to be emerging. There is a pre ponderance of opinion among the leaders in the field of redistricting that change should be based on publi understanding, on both theo retical and practical grounds. Assuming this to be true, the success of any given redistricting program will depend upon the degree to Thaden ha suggested a prerequisites to a good community the provision of ti it ul, econor medical, recreational, religious, and social services. See Thaden 126 RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK which the public knows and is in sympathy with the purposes and probable outcomes of proposed changes It is becoming increasingly clear that those who would depend upon the understanding and support of people, particularly rural people, tor progress im reorganizing school districts, must realize that neigh borhoods and communities vary. Not only is every person a unique problem in communication, but clusters of people also differ to the extent that approaches to groups must be individualized. Kreitlow, in studying rural neighborhoods in Wisconsin, has found significant differences in the C gree to which neighborhood groups accept selected educational programs and practices, depending upon the homogeneity or heterogeneity of their ethnic and religious backgrounds.'' He infers from his study that we must individualize our approach to neighbor hoods and communities, as we would to the children in a classroom. if we would deal successfully with them Printed materials can be of considerable value in a reorganization program, burt as an addition to, not as a substitute for, person-to-person contacts. Newspaper publicity has been found to be quite ineffective in changing deep-seated attitudes concerning school district reorgani- zation, particularly in rural areas.'* Esserr and Howard capture the essence of enlightened community relations when they say. the cornerstone of America’s rural public school policy is still the kitchen chair—tilted back on two legs, teetering gently to the gestures and head-shakings, the chesty and deliberate reflections of its occupant Enthroned above the curricula, the new buildings, the organizational skills and the specialized knowledge of educators, there it teeters as indisputable proof that the schools not only belong to the people, but that the school is the people—socially, morally and economically, today and tomorrow. Community relations begin in the kitchen chairs.""*8 "‘Adapted from the address of Burton W. Kreitlow. Associate Professor of Rural Education, University of Wisconsin. “Standards of Organization Pertaining to the Com munity to be Serve "Chisholm, Leslie I The School District Organization Program Lincoln, Nebr Teachers College, University of Nebraska. (Mimeo.) Contains an analysis of the most effective public relations activ’’i2s used in redistricting programs in 29 communities in tive Midwestern states “Essert, Paul L., and Howard, Robert West. Educational Plannine by Neighborhoods im Centralized Districts. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1952 p. 95 SCHOOL DISTRICT REORGANIZATION 127 yn is hampered where a sound framework for bringing provided by law. As stated previously, it likewise hampered where laws pertaining to nAnance ace a premiu mM main ly resent organiza. i . ; ring adout t / scrrice LISTLICT passage ‘ level leadershi 1 stimulating desirable change | 1 been well illustrated in The State Education tment in that state assumes that its role in school district reor ion lies primarily in working to secure effective legislation, ig with lay and professional groups, disseminating information, polices through vill be treated equitably and ir back slans was taken away, anc lines was made possible. In incentives, ling state support for school building and transportation, re i The petition procedure to assure a large measure support, particularly among before submitting a ph fa vO One especially worthwhile feature of the New York State Education Department's work is the assistance it gives local committees in studying proposals great detail, including a two-day intensive study of (1) general provisions of the law, (2) educational plans for the next six years, (3) the need for additional school building space, (4) transportation and (5) financial plans.” studies as those described, people make their own ing changes will be locally determined. not decreed by the state. This, in essence, seems to be a desirable policy for continued efforts to bring about the reorgantzation of our rural school districts, so badly needed if schools are to provide educational programs of the quality which rural children have a right to expect Adapted fron * addr f is E. Grithn, Chr Bueau of Rural Administra tive Services, Nev ‘ork State Education Department The Role of the State De partment of Edu on School District Reorganization CHAPTER 11 The County Unit as a Lype of Administrative Organization the history of education and in the develop America the county unit pattern is a It resulted fram attempts to improve tructure of education which traditionaily had been wumerous small school districts. The adoption of the county unit pattern has been especially in the rural areas of the southern section hen Lor na, in 1879, consolidared all units within a parish unty) into ; ngle «niftied school system, the county unit pattern | school administration was born.' Since that time eleven other Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, New Jersey, arolina, Tennessee, Utah, Virginia and West Virginia—have ounty unit type of organization, or some modification without any intermediate units functioning between the local tare levels. In addition to these twelve states, there are ocher states which have one or more counties organized as a basic school unit Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota and Oregon have county ' one to five in number DIFFERENCES AMONG COUNTY UNITS the twelve county unit states lack intermediate have only counties as the local unit of school only Florida and West Virginia have coter boundaries for all counties and local school districts for the of the state. In the 6ther ten states will be found local uwiy Superintendent of Ser i Department of Rural Education, Nati ducation J. Knezevich, Associate Professor « lucation, State ntages. Limitations, and ture of th ounty Unit of 129 FORWARD LOOK yf selection members Then, too members or in igreement among lay board serving boards, in each the manner by which county ucation tendent of schools. In some unty unit | officer is elected by popular on: and in still thers depending upon the appointed, ny of ofhce for the superin ' fates as fo the fiscal are fiscally independent however. Suc h as Vir ind Maryland, upon the o governing officials county units, perhaps even the if the educational program provided, ic least set the st: ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION trom differences among counties yn and resources | These ditter- as great within any given as they are among states. In Maryland, for example, one county system empl more than 1900 teachers, while e are other and 121 n Florid: * number of 3500 to 16 nits range from more counties which employs Tt ORGANIZATION ng counties where the county unit ts county units offer some definite ad who are interested in patterns of he j *rStiy : } We » } f » rere pe understood, however, that pattern _f problems tacing the school admin to better advantage. Likewise if as universally acceptable al administration of schools levelopment of coun of school administrative units i ohh 1 educational progress in many of very small school districts. insufh- provide resources and leadership for forward units in a school district might be minimum for an acceptable educational program, then erating y¥.aool districts in the Nation his meager minimun: in 1953, At that time there | districts schools in the United States. state.’ In contrast, within the twelve ipproximately 1350 local school adminis rage of about 112 per state.“ Although counties of local administration do not guarantee adequacy in ational programs, it can be expected that their greater size would ige for improved quality William | School District Reorganization RURAL EDUCATION 4 FORWARD LOOK zation, inter develop intermediate units an assist them in making comprehensive progran educa tion possible for the communities, the county unit states with their less numerous and larger school districts, by and large, do not experience the same need T the same extent. It should be recognizd that there are in the county unit states a great number population and do They foo, could viding needed services, rantzauon developed might states which have a larger number of district The smaller number of basic units in the county unit states makes the need for intermediate organizations a kh 7 somewhat difterent prt and the ditterent advantave of economy in ad ministration of schools unit states. For example, in Marviland there are but twenty ir school lministrative units (cwenty-thre uinties an salt City) calling tor twenty-four boards of education, twenty-four superintendents and twenty-four central office sta is conceivable that ; ate this size might ; : : have within tts bord several hundred local school districts, each | } with its own board, superintendent and statt, albeit limited, tf organ small local distiret p. In addition the need would then exist for eighteen or twenty intermediate units. The “overhead ' ; , sd } costs for administration would thus be considerably higher tn county unit states than is now the case with the present pattern of organiza tion. Perhaps the increasing costs of education will cause more states to re-examine the size of their school administrative units with a view toward some type of consolidation which can ettect economy Considerable savings in school costs can be made by the county wide purchase of school supplies and equipment and in the operation ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION large quantities nting eliminate w: extravagance i PATTICULATLY mit type ot organiza educational programs ne-ceachet be necessary to serve onsolidation of f mstances inimies tor boys d from 1948 t lan 26,000 one were eliminated.” 1 doubtless be It 1s especially significant f these schools nas occurred in d with large school districts ettected where vartous vested interests control are not involved. In this. the ates have lecided advantage ls has brought on to the American the transportation of pupils as public expense If transportation were not available, the advantages of consolidation would be nullified since many children would then be unable | ind avail themselves of the better Opportunites many problems caused in providing transportation, can provide the service more ethciently than an the smaller local units Among large Aaagministrative units other things, reduction in. the duj ication of routes better scheduling, control and maintenance of the I went, and general o supervision of the service are operation ( transportation system as an enterprise covering a large area FORWARD LOOK rural areas proper the exceptional, library ot these ely populated communities suf rently difficult in loubly difticult to organize le | ps within the seiected grous rural administrative ind personnel ’ ert : tHe =C1icire ut systems h; vantage er the bringing i of opportunities county county are yn toward the areas directly more than pure equalization wuld follow. Should it possible the quality of instruction tn the county i resources are provided by individual administrative units favor the employment of an provide leadership in various areas and bi r ly their special talents toward improving school units employ a greater number the area and population of the wl district is broadened, persons with more outstanding ability the teaching staff but concentration of talent applies not only eral population and to the combined student body as well sased leadership should reflect in improved participation, f ind educational quality THE COUNTY UNIT AS A TYPE OF ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION DISADVANTAGES OF COUNTY UNIT ORGANIZATION Those who advocate county units as the pattern of organization tor districts recognize that some difficulties are experienced in administering them imistrative Organizations Perhaps the greatest handicap of county unit Organization lies in maintamning a feeling of unity throughout all parts of the county Educational progress ts most readily realized when there is general rreement and understanding as to the peculiar problerns faced by public education and the manner of attacking them. The fact that most counties cover large land areas and contain within their borders various and diverse comriunities creates a special problem in develop ing a oneness and commonness of effort. The county is not a basic sociological unit and though there may be developed over the years a certain political athnity, apparent social cohesiveness is likely to be artificial or superficial The ‘distance’ between the people and the administration of their school ts especially great where community centers lie close to county boundaries and interests of people in many areas of social interaction spill over into the adjoining county or counties. This problem iS manifesc, or likely to be so, in any instance where political rather uitt Socrological boundaries are the basis of administrative organiza con, It ts not limited to or entirely unique with county school units But in these county units the problem ts likely to be both greater in degree and more difficult to overcome The problem of developing a high degree of relationship between the people of a county and the administration of schools is nor alle viated when certain communities are removed from county administra tion and set up as independent school districts. This frequenily re moves from the remaining rural area the nuclei which provide the needed unifying influence. That county which consists of but one primary community doubtless finds itself in a peculiar position and one of a very limited group of counties The difficulty of securing county-wide participation in the school program. ts serious, especially in the large county units. Just as the consolidation of rural schools without careful planning and manage ment tends to increase the gap between the home and the school so RURAL FDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK does the organization of county units make it more difficult to maintain local interest in educational planning If consolidation leads to im proved education for children in rural areas, then perhaps on a " grander scale the combining of various loc, istricts into a large administrative unit c: > sustified on the its elevation of school quality The problem is resolved ( values, quality versus possible loss of participation. The challenge to administrators is to maintain the interest, concern, and participation of the people in school matters. Though the dithculty of active participation may originate because of physical remoteness, dist: ‘need not continue to be the deterrent. When nearness is considered as a thing of the mind and as the distance between the source of authority and the scene of operation, schools can be kept close to the people.'” Related to the difficuley of securing local participation in the school program is the possible development of a feeling among the citizens that their problems will be solved by the county seat, for school matters as well as for other governmental services. This apathy and civic lethargy can be deadening to communities and, if permitted to con tinue, could lead to inefhctency and waste in the school ystem. Indif ference and waste go hand tn hand, Then, too, citizens do not fully the services they receive when they are forthcoming without effort and when they can be charged to county-wide resources It is easy, for eaxmple, to request tree transportation for a particular community and expect that it will be granted if the cost can be charged against a broad tax base. The request, however, might never originate if the local beneficiaries could directly see us reflection in the next tax bill. This is not to imply that needed services should not be granted. Rather it ts hoped that citizens will be more discriminating when Y are not “pampered and spoiled” by receiving services without eftort / } " Sep Board Representation Although diversity of thought among members of any board of education is desirable and wholesome, it is a hindrance to administra tion if it represents provinctalism When the ections and decisions } of school board members are dictated by limited and narrow interests from the address of Fe Norr rye endent, Montgomery County is. Rockville Marvland Spec : ’ County Unit Organization Presented at the Ninth National Conference 0 { Rural Area Superintendents Washington, D. C., October 2, 1954 ORGANIZATION will CAXPTEss itselt in county wide educ att rather than in granting one community special privileges and favors at f other t would be desirable and « mendable if } Pappy ! This 1s not d have toward | utes may have towar And, in a similar vein the minds of many people toward Ameri their problems antag or ur r the problems of the less wealrhy areas and deve loping a read are resources les with the local level vere that comn s are relatively close togeth ind can ept informed 4 recommunity communications and relations properly cultivated and RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK SPECIAL RURAL PROBLEMS Some special problems more or less peculiar to rural areas present themselves and, consequently, are of concern to county units just as to any other type of rural school district Providing or m pete nt Teachers The stafhing of schools in outlying areas poses a particular problem During a period of critical teacher shortage, good teachers can shop and to a considerable extent choose the kind of community in which they wish to work. Their final selection is more often motivated by such factors as living conditions, conveniences, nearness to cultural and recreational opportunities and salary than by the challenge of the position. Though the need for capable teachers in rural areas ts just as great as in urban communities, good teachers’ tend to gravitate toward the cities. Perhaps the county units with their advantage of equalization can meet the challenge Opportunities for Transp wed Pupils Previous mention has been made of school transportation and how its efficiency can be improved bv consolidation of small districts Yet transportation itself brings certain restriction to school programs. This restricting influence is particularly felt on after-dismissal activities Many children may be denied the privilege of engaging in numerous worthwhile activities that can be pursued and are pursued, esperially in secondary schools, after the buses leave. Doubtless proper sched uling can provide for many of the activities during the school day, yet the length of the day is dictated in part by the amount of time needed in providing transportation between home and school both in the morning and afternoon hours j jr Polity dl I le Chion of Su pe ALLE nde nis Another special problem of an entirely different nature is created by county units in those systems where the chief school executive is elected by the people. Though it is considered best practice to elect the members of the board of education and have them select the administrative head of the school system, there are still many school units where the superintendent is elected directly by the people. In such a county unit much time is lost by the superintendent for meeting the educational needs of the people because he is forced to use politic THE COUNTY UNIT AS A TYPE OF ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION 149 rh means and campaigning throughout the county in order to secure or hold his position. The time remaining and available for meeting the ; : , county's educationa! needs stands restricted, especially in election years CONCLUSION It might be well to indicate some precautions which should be taken in order to insure the most successful operation of counry school units These are by no means all inclusive and will not of themselves guar antee the success of the county unt pattern , p a sen pomsibility to the entire coumty board of education appointed, the appointing authority should know well the capabil ities and breadth of vision of the ayypointee. When members are elected they should stand tor election before the voters of the entire county and not of a limited area | h mcatt } outstandin g the lay citizens in the Oran As the chief school fheer for their school sys This ts important for any »chool system, but it is especially important in county unit systems Since the county is not a primary sociological unit, involving lay people from various communities in seeking solutions to common education problems will help to develop the unity essential to the effective functioning of a county system blementations ould b sade at the nomically and r fh chHreiy accom pli ed ak he i 77yY b€1 el It 1S important th it schools be kept close to the people. Excessive centralization of control should not develop at the county seat. To encourage grass roots partici pation, capable leadership must be provided in each local school. This InV< ly ves the careful staffing of each school so that adequate resources in personnel are available for conducting a proper educational program for the community served. Authority commensurate with its respons bility should be delegated to each school staff Opportunities should be provided for the forward-looking communi a county unit to move ahead of the county program. This means more than permission; # involves encouragement. If it requires additional financial resources, provision should be made for this. In some communities it may mean the privilege of imposing additional taxes: in others it may mean securing funds through more voluntary 140 RURAL EDUCATION-—A FORWARD LOOK sources. Progress in education develops from success in pilot centers A county unit should be designed to promote educational progress Finally, it must be recognized that the county unit is not a panacea. It is a man-made device for promoting school administration and as such is subject to limitations. Whether or not the county unit type of administrative organization is suited to any particular region should be determined only after thoughtful consideration by both educational and lay groups in the area to be served CHAPTER 12 The Intermediate Unit of School Administration O,.. of the ideas or concepts which received a great deal of attention and stress at the 1954 National Conference on Rural Education, very little at the First White House Conference on Rural Education in 1944, was that of the intermediate unit. Within a relatively few years the terms intermediate unit or intermediate dis- trict and intermediate superintendent have come into the vocabulary of educational administration. The intermediate unit is not a recent organ- izational innovation, however. In many states it has existed for more than a century. Some states made provision for an intermediate unit of school administration in the first state constitution which they adopted. The recent consideration of and concern about the intermediate unit results from a new emphasis of what desirably should be its purposes and functions. This shift in emphasis is the result of a different and changing situation from that which once existed. The shift in emphasis is responsible for the use of the term intermediate as a substitute for other names more familiarly associated with the same unit of adminis- trative organization, most common of which are “county school office” or ‘county superintendent of schools.” And although the term inter- mediate unit is now rather common in usage among administrators in most states, the changing concept—the new emphasis—is not well understood THE INTERMEDIATE UNIT—ITS PRESENT SETTING Historically the intermediate unit of school administration in the United States emerged and has developed, by and large, as an arm of state government. In detail its functions in the different states have varied widely but in general it has served the purposes of: 1. Maintaining, through the exercise of general supervisory oversight in local districts, the minimum educational standards prescribed by state law. 141 142 RURAL EDUCATION——-A FORWARD LOOK 2. Maintaining the essential unity of purpose in the educational programs of local districts without the smothering effects of uniformity 3. Maintaining a two-way flow of information between the local districts on the one hand and the state department of education on the other 4. Exercising the function of general educational leadership in educational planning and classroom instruction. 5. Serving as a spokesman for education in the arena of county government With such orientation and such general responsibilities to meet, the intermediate district has been placed, not infrequently, in its relations to local districts in the roles of a stern father, an annoying inquisitor, an uninvited guest, a volunteer fire department or an old-fashioned circuit rider who went about saving people whether they wanted to be saved or not. The intermediate district came into existence and developed during a period in which the school systems of most states was characterized by thousands of small local administrative units. For the most part, each was a district with its total educational program housed in a rectangular one-room building with one-teacher constituting the entire family. Two or three decades ago it was not at all uncommon to find as many as a hundred, and in some instances as many as two hundred, of these small districts in a single county. In such a situation an intermediate district having responsibility for relatively routine coordinating duties fit naturally into the scheme of school administration. It was simple; it was economical; it made sense to practical minded rural people; and to a reasonable degree, it met the educational needs as they were recognized and understood by a great majority of the people But the structure of school administration in rural areas of the United States has drastically changed since intermediate units were created. School district reorganization, proceeding in recent years at a phenomi- nal rate, has reduced the number of administrative units in many counties from a hundred or even more, to six or eight and sometimes even fewer. With the resources of several districts brought together in a single administrative unit and with a new and more vigorous out- look towards education, these larger districts have employed capable superintendents who are proud of their positions, enthusiastic about their work and, perhaps, over confident about their ability to move forward ‘‘on-their-own” in developing a good educational program. This highly commendable and most desirable local pride is by no means limited to the local district superintendent. The people flush THE INTERMEDIATE UNIT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 143 with their accomplishments in school district reorganization, which has been in many instances no mean achievement, are equally proud of their school district. They feel that they have gone all the way in reshaping their scheme of school administration—that they have done what needs to be done and, after the price they have paid, have a right to stand on theic own feet without interference from any quarters. The inter- mediate district is looked upon as a challenge to their jealously guarded autonomy. This feeling has been so pronounced that in many instances newly formed administrative units have disassociated themselves from the intermediate district and are known as independent districts. Among local superintendents, school board members and local citizens in the area involved, this action takes on some of the character of a ‘‘little declaration of independence.” There have been other important changes in the situation. The kind of services the intermediate district was created to provide for the small local unit are scarcely needed in the newly created, larger and stronger reorganized districts. Professional leadership for the board of educa- tion and the teachers is provided in the local superintendent. He is capable and has the means of seeing that minimum state requirements are met. He ts able to serve on the local scene and even at county and regional levels as a spokesman for education. He can compile and trans mit essential information, perhaps, even more effectively than the inter- mediate district superintendent. And he can receive and interpret information and directives from the state government. From looking at intermediate district and local school administration from this limited point of view, many people in areas where reorganiza- tion has progressed rapidly come to the conclusion that there is no longer need for an intermediate district of school administration, This unsound and unwarranted conclusion results from looking at the struc- ture and mechanics of administration without, at the same time, view- ing the instructional process. Changes in this aspect of public education within the last few years have been, perhaps, even more phenominal! than the progress made in school district reorganization THE CHANGING EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM Although they have by no means been confined to a single decade, there have been substantial and significant changes in the educational programs which schools provide. The scope of services which have come to be considered essential in a modern educational program has 144 RURAL EDUCATION—-A FORWARD LOOK been expanded greatly. This is generally well recognized, but because it is basic to the changing concept of the intermediate unit, their ts probably some value in noting briefly the types of changes which have taken place. Virtually all of the educational program changes have meant an ex- pansion or extension of school services. Schools have extended the educational program upwards and now provide high school education for nearly all young people. In some communities this has come to include a 13th and 14th year. Many communities now have programs of education for adults. The educational program has also been ex- tended downwards to include kindergarten and, in a few communities, even nursery schools The educational program of public schools has been broadened. Ideally and generally it is no longer limited to an academic program. The curriculum has been broadened to include agriculture, homemak- ing, business education, industrial arts, and other types of vocational specialization for those who will seek employment rather than college admission. Safety and the ability to drive an automobile safely and courteously have become increasingly important. The curriculum has been enriched through music, art, crafts, dramatics and the like. Social skills are now given emphasis through courses in family relations and group leadership, through student councils and various types of club activity, and through the tendency to put an increasing amount of responsibility for pupil conduct upon the pupils themselves, both indi- vidually and in groups. The educational program has become compre- hensive—in skills, in understandings and in the ability to work both independently and with others School programs have also been greatly expanded in terms of new and additional services which have been undertaken. Many schools have now taken on responsibility of a school lunch program, the trans- portation of pupils and the maintenance of school buses. Schools have begun to accept responsibility for handicapped children and are fre. quently providing corrective programs for those with speech or other handicaps. They are providing specialized programs of pupil guidance and are helping those with emotional problems through school psychol- ogists and the availability of psychiatric services. Health and dental services are a part of the school program. In some communities the schools are also providing programs or facilities for community-wide THE INTERMEDIATE UNIT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 145 services—canning centers, farm machinery repair, community library, and many others. These changes in what people have come to understand and reg -d as essentials in any comprehensive program of educational opportunt- ties have involved a tremendous increase in the number and complexity of school services. The expansion of services has been defensible— largely a reflection of the increased complexity of modern life. And although it is recognized that all schools do not provide all or even those which have been identified, there is an ever increasing number of schools which do provide all or a majority of them. THE EMERGING CONCEPT OF THE INTERMEDIATE UNIT Almost every aspect of the way in which people live and make a living has changed—in both rural and urban areas. Social institutions, however slowly and painfully, however much through trial-and-error, must change and adapt in order to meet the needs of the new situations and circumstances. Without responsiveness to change, social institu- tions can no longer serve the people or the purposes for which they were created. And at this very point in time—a recognition of change and a struggle to adjust—educational organization is in transition, per- haps what will in time be the greatest adjustment American education has ever experienced. The intermediate unit is but one integral part of educational organi- zation. In some states, those which have the county as the basic adminis- trative unit, an intermediate unit does not even exist. And while this discussion is focused upon this one segment of educational structure, it cannot be understood without an understanding of its relationships to other parts of the structure and the outside pressures which bear upon it. The emerging concept of the intermediate unit is a part of this total complex of relationships and their response to change It is recognized that the shifting conditions within which school Organization local, intermediate, state—has attempted to provide an educational program have been relatively gradual. It is further recog- nized that these changing conditions have been met with certain struc- tural adjustments from time to time. But a brief identification of the kinds of changes to which schools as a social institution are attempting to adjust can be described most clearly by looking only at the extremes what conditions once were and what they now are. Attention here ts focused only upon rural aspects. 14¢ RURAL EDUCATION—-A FORWARD LOOK Small, relatively self-sufficient communities have been changed by the avail- ability of good transportation, the ease of communication, and access to all the elements of a high level of living. Whereas once the major interests of people were within the community, they are now very broad. Communities are larger in terms of the area of relationships; they are more interdependent. The simple agrarian way of life which once characterized rural people has changed. Only a few can farm, and they, like the others, need a high level of technical skill in order to make a living The educational program above the elementary level was once restricted to the few who planned to enter college. Now it is generally available for all. The demand has been, and still is, for a widely expanded educational program suited to the special needs of all. Schools have responded with a great'y expanded program of services—previously described. The cost of education was once very low—an academic program was not expensive. But with a broadened curriculum and the addition of many other services, costs have increased tremendously Education was once financed wholly on a community basis Expanded services, increased costs and the limitations of local taxation has resulted in a substantial proportion of educational costs being shifted to the tax base of the state. Equalization provisions have been a significant development. While many changes not reported here are perhaps equally impor- tant in their relationship, these few may well be adequate for this description. Their significance ts that as change has taken place, it has strained all levels of the educational structure. Relief has come in the form of structural adjustment; all levels have been affected—local districts most, intermediate units least. Local school districts have needed to respond to the demand for more services and to find some means for offsetting greatly increased costs. Increased state support has helped. The general response, how- ever, has been school district reorganization—the combining of a num- ber of smaller school districts into a single administrative unit. Smaller schools which have not been involved in reorganization are in most instances both unable to provide what might be considered a desirable educational program (particaularly at the secondary level) and pressed with a continuous financial insufficiency. State education departments have greatly expanded their services, staff and influence. They have generally encouraged local districts to reorganize and have assisted them with technical help and, in a few states, even with financial incentives. The intermediate unit has also been affected. The 100 to 200 former districts in an intermediate area have suddenly become three or five THE INTERMEDIATE UNIT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 147 or eight. In some states the channel of communication (or “jurisdic tion’) between the intermediate unit and these reorganized districts is cut. Functions previously performed are no longer needed. Jeal ousies over ‘power’ arise. The intermediate unit 1s a:tected by the changes which have occurred but only in a few instances (especially lowa and New York and, in a financial way, California) has provision been made for structural adaptation It is therefore clear that the emerging concept of the intermediate unit cannot be tsolated from the organizational structure of local school districts and state education departments, The reorganization of tecal districts, the PCOr LANIZALION of state education departments, and the revamping of intermediate units are not separates. They are all part of the same process the adjustment of a social institution, 1.e., schools, to meet the needs of a new situation and different circumstances, The major difficulty has been that attention has generally been focused upon only one area at a time. They cannot be so disassociated. With this background of relationships, the emerging concept of the intermediate unit can be described rather simply, Primarily it ts one of an overhaul of what have traditionally been its functions and, in most states, a substantial change in its structure Many of the duties heretofore performed by intermediate units can and should be transferred to local districts. Direct leadership with local boards of education, for example, should appropriately be a func tion of the superintendent of the local district. The intermediate unit should, however, take on new functions Among these would be the provision Of specialized educational services which the smaller local districts in the intermediate area are unable to provide for themselves. A second general function would be that of coordinating the individual efforts of its constituent local districts when cooperative action can contribute to greater educational benefits. The leadership provided should be that of assisting local districts in determining their need for specialized services, in establishing service programs, and in evaluating and improving those services it is already providing. Leadership should also be directed toward developing local districts able to perform appropriate local district functions Thus it is apparent that the emerging concept of a desirable inter- mediate unit requires an administrative structure that is sufficiently flexible to (1) supplement the efforts of all the local districts in the 148 RURAL EDUCATION-——A FORWARD LOOK intermediate area, and (2) coordinate these efforts for the maximum educational benefit of all. PROVIDING SERVICES TO THE COMMUNITY SCHOOLS Areas which are rural are so regarded because of their relative sparsity of population. Rural areas are made up of smaller villages, towns and cities and the open country area around and between them. Smaller population means smaller schools Schools in most rural areas are small and have limited resources Although states and communities vary widely in their ability to pro- vide education, there are actually very few schools in rural areas which now provide what might be considered a completely desirable educa- tional program in terms of the real needs for education which the children and adults of their community have. A broad and varied curriculum is generally both impossible and impractical in small schools. But the inability of any school district, regardless of its size, to provide an ade quate program of educational services does not lessen the need for these opportunities. The intermediate unit can serve the educational programs of smaller school systems by providing the services which are needed to supple- ment what local schools are able to provide The types of services most suited to this kind of provision are the same as those which smaller schools are generally lacking—those services which are of a more specialized nature. A brief and simple example may well illustrate the way in which this can be accomplished. In a certain county (in this instance the county is the intermediate unit) there are six high school programs—-all relatively small. The largest has 325 pupils in grades 7 to 12, the smallest 85. Only the largest school has an organized program of guidance services. Such services are needed and desired by all the schools. Cooperatively they plan to employ a guidance specialist who will be available, as a member of the intermediate staff, to work with all of the schools in the county. The guidance specialist is employed as a ‘‘director of guidance.”” His time is spent among all the schools—-with administrators, with groups of teachers, with groups of parents. He helps them to understand, for example, that teachers must all work in the guidance program. He encourages the part-time release of an especially interested teacher for special guidance responsibilities. He works with these part-time counselors in developing skill with specific tex hniques interviewing, information services, testing and test interpretation, and the like. He continues his work with teacher and parent groups—inter preting, demonstrating, teaching. He coordinates guidance services in the entire county—each individual school program supporting the others. THE INTERMEDIATE UNIT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 149 The above ts an illustration of a very simple program, and the man- ner in which guidance services are carried on in the elementary schools has not been included. In many situations where schools are sufficiently large that each has its own full time guidance specialist, or even a number of counselors, intermediate services in this guidance area would more likely be a school psychologist who could work with the full time counselors, a mental health clinic, and possibly even the services of a psychiatrist. But the illustration, however simple, does show how schools needing services which they cannot provide for themselves can obtain them by sharing with neighboring schools similarly situated. There are many other kinds of services which are especially adaptable for provision by the intermediate unit. Only a few are suggested here.’ Curriculum Consultant Services, Curriculum specialists provided by the inter mediate unit can serve all of the local community schools in the intermediate district. Frequently these consultants will work in a particular area of the curriculum, such as, for example, a reading consultant who could work with individual teachers, groups of teachers, and whole school systems in regard to special reading problems, instructional methods and the general improve ment of reading Services for Handicapped Children. Small school systems generally have too tew children with particular handicaps to permit the establishment of a specialized program. A regional type approach within the intermediate district offers many possibilities, A specialist in corrective speech, for example, as a member of the intermediate unit staff can work very effectively with speech problems in all of the schools in the intermediate district Instructional Materials Services, Most smaller school systems generally have an inadequate provision of instructional materials. The establishment of a single materials center in an intermediate district cooperatively supported by all of the local school systems can soon put a library of films, filmstrips, slides, recordings and all other kinds of audio-visual materials and equipment, books, collections, models, and all manner of instructional materials within the easy reach of every teacher Inservice Education Programs. Inservice education programs in smaller school systems may well be approached on an area basis within the intet mediate unit. Prograrns can be more carefully planned and of greater value and quality. Special help in kindergarten instruction, for example, is most difficult tn a small school system which employs only one or two kindergarten teachers. But when the six or twelve kindergarten teachers in the intermediate district are brought together, an effective program can be organized "For a detailed discussion of intermediate unit services and a brief description of many presently operating programs, see Isenberg, Robert M., editor. The Community School and the Intermediate Unit, Yearbook 1954. Department of Rural Education. Washington, D. C.: Department of Rural Education, National Education Association, 1954. 259 p 150 RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK Cooperative Purchasing Service. Smaller school systems purchase supplies and equipment in small quantities and are seldom able to get the advantage of savings possible through larger quantity orders. When the orders from the separate school systems in an intermediate district are pooled and purchased in a single order (taking advantage of competitive bids where possible) sub stantial savings to the local school districts result There are many other kinds of services which most beneficially and economically can be provided in smaller school systems through the intermediate unit. The possibilities are, in fact, almost limitless OPERATIONAL PROCESSES AND PROCEDURES The extent to which any intermediate unit is able to assist local school districts in providing a better educational program than would other- wise be possible depends primarily upon (1) the organizational frame work within which it functions, and (2) the understanding which exists as to the appropriate role and responsibility of local districts, intermediate units and state education departments in providing a well coordinated educational program in every state Legal Framework for Effective Intermediate Units At this time there is legal provision for some type of intermediate unit in thirty-four of the states. Although there is a considerable varia tion among them, it is doubtful if the legal framework for any could be considered ideal. Probably of even greater significance, however, is the fact that substantial efforts to study the possibilities for reorgan izing intermediate units have been undertaken in a number of states These efforts have in the main been confined to the past two to three years and as yet have not produced changes of the type which can be expected in the two to five years ahead, Very great improvements have been accomplished recently as regards the functioning of intermediate units but these have come about im spite of legal framework The great interest in improving the structure and functioning of intermediate units within the past two to three years has resulted in the establishment of a National Commission on the Intermediate Ad ministrative Unit.2 This group has concerned itself with an identifica tion of desirable legai framework and has recently issued a statement *The National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit was established by the Division of County and Rural Area Superintendents of the Department of Rural Education, Nationa! Education Association, consequent to a resolution adopted by their Seventh National Conference in New York City, October 1952, authorizing such a Com- mission THE INTERMEDIATE UNIT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 151 of recommendations.* It no doubt would be more valuable to review some of these recommendations briefly than to describe the variations which actually exist among the states. In general, the Commission's recommendations are for a structure which is both simple and clearly defined and adequate to provide inter- mediate units with the financial resources, personnel, and legal author ization necessary for effective operation. The specific recommendations are as follows The intermediate unit should have a board of education. This board should be broadly representative of the intermediate district and would serve as a policy-making group for the provision and administration of the intermediate unit program The intermediate unit should have a well qualified superintendent. He should be appointed by the intermediate district board of educati 1 The intermediate unit should have a competent professional 4 aff. The staff should probably be made up of specialists in particular areas of service The intermediate unit should be fiscally independent, A requirement for budget approval by an outside reviewing body is considered undesirable The structure of the intermediate unit should be flexible It should permit cooperation with other intermediate units and adjustment to meet changing functions, responsibilities and circumstances.* The kind of legal framework which intermediate units should have to function in terms of the emerging concept of this level of educational organization should be such that it can supplement the educational programs of the local school districts in the intermediate district, both in terms of circumstances as they now exist and as they may later becom Role of Effective Intermediate Units Perhaps even more important for effective intermediate units than the legal framework ts the manner in which local district, intermediate district and state education departments work together. The inter mediate unit has a dual role. It is a means of assisting local districts in improving the scope and quality of the educational program pro vided, It 1s also a means of assisting the state education department in the administration of a state system of schools. The relationships which the intermediate unit has with the state level of organization are generally quite clearly defined and there is little *National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit. Effective Intermediate Units—A Guide for Development, Washington, D. C.: Department of Rural Education, National Education Association, 195%. 16 p *Ibid., p. 8-9 152 RURAL EDUCATION-——A FORWARD LOOK room for difficulties to arise. These relationships involve a relatively small number of people and are largely administrative in nature But relationships between the intermediate unit and local school districts are more difficult. More people are involved and the relation: ships are more likely to be concerned with educational services and instruction. Because it is here at the local district level where schools are close to people. The extent to which proper relationships are under- stood and given opportunity to develop will in great measure deter mine the quality, at the very least the comprehensiveness, of the educa tional programs which will be available in most rural areas in the years ahead The National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit has defined rather sharply what it considers the related roles of local districts and intermediate units. These roles as briefly and simply de fined are repeated here The intermediate unit is vot a substitute for local community school districts Local districts are a necessary part of educational organization if control ts to be kept as close as possible to the people served. Modification of present inter mediate units to better serve education should in no way weaken local districts or retard efforts to reorganize them into desirable community districts. Inser mediate units function best when local school districts are strong. Experience shows that effective intermediate units strengthen local districts Local community school districts are sof subordinates of an intermediate unit They are completely autonomous as defined by state law and full partners with the intermediate unit and state education department in providing educational services Democratic educational administration requires that every function be per- formed by that unit of organization closest to the people which can carry it out with completeness, equity, and efficiency. This should be the basis for determining how specific educational services should be provided. Intermediate units should perform only those functions and provide only those services that local districts cannot perform or provide with comparable effectiveness.® Although these roles for local districts and for intermediate units are contrary to some extent to the understandings which now exist in many quarters, the Commission has recommended a number of guides for g establishing programs of intermediate unit services which are consistent with local school district-intermeditate unit relationships as described above.® They are indeed deserving of consideration by all educational “Thid., Pp 5 *thid., p. Li rHE INTERMEDIATE UNIT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 154 and community leaders who are interested in or who have responsibility for establishing or defining the kinds of interrelationships which should Cxist Much more about the proper roles of local districts, intermediate units and state education departments will be learned in the few years ahead from the experiences these administrative levels have in pro viding educational services in each of the several states where programs are now underway or are about to be undertaken. The relative absence of experience with the type of intermediate units now emerging does not in any way minimize the importance of developing a clear under- standing of roles CONCLUSION Intermediate units are an integral part of educational Organization in a majority of the states. Most commonly organized on the basis of the county, intermediate units function between the state education department and local school districts. In spite of substantial reorgant- zation of local school districts during recent years in response to in creasing demands for more and improved educational services, many intermediate units function in much the same manner as when they were first established. They are handicapped by a legal organization which is not adequate for present conditions. Properly developed, intermediate units can make it possible for every community to obtain the wide range of educational services needed. This is a new and different emphasis for intermediate units. It offers great promise for rural education CHAPTER 13 Improving the Administration of Small Schools ae educational program available in many rural areas of the country is provided through what might be considered as small schools. A large number of these schools provide education only for the clementary grades, some provide only a high school program, and some provide both. There is probably value in any discussion of small schools to identify ‘smallness’ since a common base is most necessary for both understanding and interpretation The “small school” in this report includes both elementary and secondary schools. The small elementary school as considered in the program of the Conference was a one-, two-, or three-teacher school Small high schools were considered to be those serving fewer than 100 pupils. There are no doubt some who would consider a three-teacher elementary school or a 100-pupil high school as ‘‘large’; others would consider these limits much too low PRESENT STATUS OF SMALL SCHOOLS Although there are many who regard the ‘little red schoolhouse” as an institution of pioneer days, it has by no means vanished from the American scene in some sections. School district reorganization and consolidation have greatly reduced the number of small schools, but in 1953 there were 48,735 one-teacher schools operating. It has been estimated that more than half a million pupils are enrolled in one-teacher schools at the present time. These schools are very dif ferent from each other. however. Some have only one or two pup ils some have 60 or 90. Some have modern buildings and equipment Some have good teachers More than two-thirds of the high schocls in the United States have fewer than 200 pupils. There are 600 high schools which now are fering a four year high school program with a total faculty of only two teachers. High schools with total 9 to 12 grade (or even 7 to 12 15 4 156 RURAL EDUCATION—-A FORWARD LOOK grade) enrollments of 17 or 23 or 34 pupils and a faculty of three or five or seven teachers are much more common. It is not the purpose of this report to pass judgment on these schools but merely to empha size that they are the type of school which a large number of rural children attend For a number of years there has been a division of Opinion among both educators and lay people regarding the relative values of these small schools. Some have believed that the problems of rural educa tion could best be solved by abolishing the very many small schools through consolidation and reorganization and replacing them with larger centrally located schools. As reported in a previous chapter, much has been achieved in this direction.! Others have felt that the smaller rural schools can provide as good an educational experience to the rural child as a large school. They further point out that smaller schools are a means of keeping the vital function of education near to the rural homes and of maintaining a “community” center within easy reach of every farm. It is perhaps sufficient here to report that both points of view are still strongly and sincerely held, the majority of opinion being in favor of the larger units if statistics on school district reorganization and consolidation are an adequate measure T his disc Ussion premises about which there is little room for disagreement |. There will always be need for a number of small schools. Tucked away in remote mountain valleys often isolated for weeks by winter snows of perhaps separated from other centers of habitation by great sert or unproductive land lie ranches logging centers hamlets, mines, oil wells or power dams. Here ire children; here there needs to be a school. There now exist where children are tt insported 40 miles there is the case of the smal ne-teacher ip the canyon from a village with fewer than 200 people } ls } 414 CVi aT) / if 1s l'¢ ahi Jnstru The same ‘specially the too liffer nt j j hool im be preatlly 177 prove 4 Some nall s | al ro") ‘ (0 many are not This See ¢ nat ter 10 r o| District Reorganizat IMPROVING THE ADMINISTRATION OF SMALL SCHOOLS 157 statement, too, is applicable to all schools—regardless of size. The manner in which improvement is accomplished is the point at which school size requires somewhat different and unique consideration It is upon these three premises that the subsequent section of this chapter is based. Because the special problems of the one-, two- and three-teacher school differ in many respects from those of small high schools, these two types of small schools are considered separately THE ONE-, TWO- AND THREE-TEACHER SCHOOL The special administrative problems of the many small elementary schools which have from one to three teachers are basically of two general types. The first of these is associated with the character of its school district organization while the other is primarily one of the teacher's organization of time and effort for effective instruction There are a number of specific problems which come within each area and considerable variation among schools as to their nature. It will not be possible to identify all of them here nor to discuss them in great detail School Dietrict Administration One-, two- and three-teacher schools are sometimes a part of a larger school administrative unit. Such is the case in states where the county unit type of oryanization exists. West Virginia, for example which has only 55 county districts had more than 2000 of these small schools in 195%. In these situations the problems of school district administration are completely those of the county board of education and superintendent of schools. A similar situation exists in some of the reorganized school districts (not county units) where a few of thes¢ small schools are maintained as branch schools In most instances, however, the small school is the only school in the district. These districts do not employ administrators. Frequently they designate a he id teacher if more than one is employed This head-teacher (or the teacher if there is but one) usually assists the districts’ trustee or trustees or board of education, whichever the case may be, in the completion of required reports, purchase of supplies, and other routine administrative matters. Generally, however, their resp nsibility is that of managing the school itself. The greater amount of district administration ts carried on by the trustee or board with the assistance of the county school superintendent 158 RiKAL EDI CATION A FORWARD LOOK small ghools have certam which maintain emnall size A few of The small districts yult cyt their lems which are venerally the re pr yb identified briefly gore exceptions, modern stand in many these will be 1. School buildings and equipment emall district schools are penerally lacking 1 urds would cause them to be rated unsatist tory districts 1S more than 100 years old and with the exception modern heating plant, have been improved very litt completed in 1952 indi ated that teachers in one neces Ene percent of facilities in many fe) for drinking fountains was 48.4 aring hot lunches 64.2 yudio Although there are facilities which by The echoolthous of electricity and le if at all ometimes 4 A survey of rural schools teacher schools had inadequate one-teacher schools having #0 provision inside toilet fa ihities, 46.0 749. Teachers 1 facilities for pre p echools while | three-tea her (wo in these tat jhitie visual equipment, slightly more fortunate, were also penerally jacking » Enroliment Many small district schools have a very limited enrollment of schools which have one Of two or three instances fewer pr irted that more such 5 hools have There irc numerous 8 At the othe extreme than one if 1% pupils It has been fe than 10 put ‘ig. more than half have fewef than 20 sre the sch ols with exceptionally larve enrollments in Breathitt County (Kentu ky ) for example, there afe a7 schools uttered over im} rugged quar miles Three or tou. have an enrollment of less than 20 pul (| ten r fitteen have an average enrollment oO! about 32 children to the classroon while the wy children in one room," The from 40 to ly small of extremely remaindet have an enrollment of the extremery ery much 1ifficulty with small districts 1 regard © large enrollments Is that they are usually unwilling of unable to do ibout itt 4 >, * f The costs of education are frequently cxpres ed in terms OF innual per-pupil cost the average number of dollars fe vred for each put il for ne year. omece more than half of the one-, two ind three teacher schools sverage less than 20 pupils per teacher, the innual pet pupal costs Of mos if 15 11 jarget shools small schools 1s considerably higher than ; chool districts have many | roblemns with regard to their that exceptions, lower salaries Teachers small Generally spe king and mall schools have lower certification there are many relatively poor le ive def recognizing teachers in living 4 ommodations, and few employment benefits (tenure G1C k n ylary sche fule ct ) It 1 increasif why din ult to attract competent and three teacher yhools harder still to 1} qualified tea hers for small one: to Tea her turnover 1S high High School Pupil Pr viding for educational program 4! the high school {yatricts do not Leep them level. They mall elementary 5 generally provide any ion AS jation Research Division Rural Teachers if 1991-52 *Nat i] Fducat Research Bulletin 31:9°9° February 1953. P- 39 ‘ j +4 4, p. 11 ‘ ohe + the Conference bby Mrs Marie Turner County yuperintendent of School IMPROVING THE ADMINISTRATION OF SMALL SCHOOLS must therefore depend upon other districts ¢. The most common method is that of ending their children to t vision of transportation then becomes an ontfra D i nearby village high school on a idditional $5 provided by the receiving district The contractual agreements is that the sending district sacrifices f the secondary education its pupils receive. Contracting lationship to or for the high school board of educa id ition provided In a few states the I cparate ;), although the coordination The major alleged advantage of small very child i school within the walking distance of ¢ isually clear cut—-1t may be one or may be se parents often transport When the distance 1s more than a minin tr children. The alternative 1s true for me une ¢ d whose iren st children they walk ts afriy him the three over af unimproved road which crosses a mud right by the door’ on its way to a neighboring small district rates in these extremely lit i substar tial increase 1n that of the previous the purchases f new equiy 1 shortened ny loyment ching the prog [here are a number ier special problems which small school direct result of small size and limited (Some of those which have been indicated are also prob of school districts.) Many of these problems can They lo not always need to improvement have not been included roblems afe § d | by the problems persi ! here hecause themsel ve Orvanizing for Instruction The special administrative school generally ire limtied to the area of Manapings he school lesignated as the head program. As previously indicated, even when d OO RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK teacher, the responsibilities which most teachers have for school district administration are largely limited to routine matters. But the management of the instructional program is usually at least a full time job The special problem which the teacher of one ce) three-teacher schools usually have centers around the fact that they have within their classrooms two or more grades or age groups. Many teachers have a few children in eight different grades. The average teacher in a one-teacher school teaches children in six different grades.” The administrative problems which the teacher has are associated largely | witl ) this necessity of guiding and directing the learning activity of these various groups of children simultaneously The illusion that children can be classified into neat and comfortable group ings-——a sorting into bins is the picture that comes to mind doggedly persists though experiences disproves it daily. So teachers whose classrooms are in habited by lively assortments of six- to fifteen-year-olds, or some lesser combina tion within that range, still struggle with a graded system that fits no group of hildren and is at its disastrous worst in the multi-graded schools where age lifferences dramatize the individuality of all personality. Little wonder that, iy a teacher, the smali rural school has come to mean a task so complex wants none of it. That this situation is a hurdle more apparent than ns the difficulties it present 6 AAS 158 suggested in the above quotation the problems Of organization which the teacher has in f “a six or eight classes (more than that if there is a “grad arge enough to group) of reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, science history geography, et st impossible if that 1s the approach the teacher makes 1 is the possibility that there may be other ways to But the possibility that this can be done requires some adjustment portant idjustment in the teacher ro n an oO come many idjustments helpful in making the school a place { learning can take place? oblems which te rs in small schools have in organizing effective .@arning the part of children can be overcome necessitates the application of teaching methods which have School.” Phi Delta Kappan 46:20-24; IMPROVING THE ADMINISTRATION OF SMALL SCHOOLS 16] long been recognized and recommended but which all too frequently are not employed. A few of those which were identified by the Con ference are reported here 1. Developing a Flexible Schedule. The teacher in a multi-graded school might be able to ‘‘teach’’ on a schedule that begins at 9 o'clock and stops at 4 and has little parcels of time—10 minutes for this, 8 minutes for that, recess at 10:45; 17 minutes for arithmetic, et< which come out even at the end of the day. But it is doubtful that children learn much. The daily schedule that is flexible, that is realistic, thet helps rather than handicaps the teacher in working with children, that can be used and adjusted as the special needs of each day arise-—this type of schedule is needed. It need not provide time for children to recite. The teacher will know their accomplishments 2. Teacher-Pupil Planning. Pupils need to know what they should be doing and why. Together with the teacher they can consider what was left undone yesterday, plan what needs to be done today, and think ahead to what else. This planning process is learning itself. Teacher guidance is most important, The skills of planning develop slowly through many experiences Some days plans do not work out and need to be modified. Often it may be necessary for the teacher to ask the group or an individual child what the plans are, thus checking the children’s understanding. A part of planning is saving time each day to evaluate, to see if plans have been accomplished, and to make suggestions for the next day 3. Grouping Children for Effective Learning. The effectiveness of the day's planning sometimes depends on how the children are grouped for learning Ways of grouping depend upon individual and group needs for a particular day or a particular activity. Sometimes children interested in the same activities form a committee to read about, or find out about, or do something. Commit tees or informal groups are sometimes formed to plan school tasks. Now and then it 1s helpful to children to be grouped wi their special friends for certain kinds of school work. The teacher may find it helpful for children who all need to learn the same new skill--how to do multiplication or division for the first time—to be taught in one group until individual differences begin Curriculum a Part of Real Living. Drilling children in the so-called lamentals’ is of little value to children when ipplication to life is not ipparent. The learning situation needs to be tied to something that is real and meaningful to children. The small school should be made more informal. more home-like, and more functional Aajor emphasis should probably be piven to hell ing children improve ind enrich their living within their own community environment. Reading materials, for example, can be constructed about the things children are doing, have done, or expect to do. The environ ment of every rural community is rich with resources to draw upon 5. Home and Community Can Contribute. In a small community everyone can feel that he is important to the school. The County Agent has a contribu tion that no one else can make in enriching the school program. The parents RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK of the mmmuigrant family have experience which could be most valuable to children. There-are mothers who can help the girls with sewing. There was a carpeter and plumber who constructed a jungle-gym from old pipe. Every community has many resources which are “on call’ for every rural teacher the health department, the county librarian, the county school superintendent, the sheriff. the high school, the local minister, the dairy farmer, et All are re idy to come to the school, but they will await the call of the teacher or of the children. Outside the school the resources are even more bountiful There are numerous other suggestions which could be utilized by teachers in small schools to assist in improving the quality of the 1 in making the task of organization more edu ational pr rain an manayveable These are described more fully and descriptively else where It 16 perhaps more important here to pomt out in a general way that the school program of each day should provide for every child a balance of work, play, rest and relaxation. The experiences which each child should enjoy are | A happy existence Healthful living | demon 4. Practice in } The icquisition ; The development « pecial lividual and/or avocational interest An appreciation of nature irt literature [he small one- to three-teacher Ol Can He i good WO But a without VuO J In fact here the teacher i Important than ever one-teacher school the teacher 1s yenerally all the children hat Pitt MALI whit hy ene which Likewt of these Finance Mo ' mall often lim te With 4 mall tax base ind consequent hig h small high schools have considerable pressures f ther f general characterists iten accentuates IMPROVING THE ADMINISTRATION OF SMALL SCHOOLS 164 poor been has c Buildings) The school buildings of most small high schools are relatively Few of ; hools now operating in most sections of the country have involved in school district reorganizations and an even smaller qumber been abl provide a new building or to substantially improve existing Therefore buildings a now generally obsolete to some devree © strait-jack itional program. Also rather general in | both day-by-day and long ran pe gram. The most serious problem of the small high school rovic ‘ tional program Small high school: which exter fewer than 100 pupils’ are homemaking, and occasionally instruction in music: few hav portunitie Most are college entrance program stry, physics, biology, modern foreign languages id an rdequate library iny good colle narrow yyram in a higher proportior 164 RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK available, and frequently schedules do not fit the needs of students. Class size in many courses ts small-—not infrequently one, two or three students Per-puy il costs are extremely high. And teachers often ittempt to use methods more suited to larger groups the results are dis: ppointing Teachers. Instructional personnel are a mayor source of problems in the admins tration of small high schools Salaries paid are often slightly lower than those of reorganized districts and larger systems. Not only is it difficult to compete with other schools for te wchers but the teachers employed must have a der ran pe of abilities Each must be able to teach in two or three general subject areas. Although class size 1s often small, the number of classes taught is greater than average. Housing accommodations available for teacher rental 1s frequently disappointing Teacher turnover is high The above identification of problems, while not at all complete, are those which generally characterize most small high schools. There are, of course, some exceptions in each of these problem areas. Some districts have a large enough tax base to provide a good building, well maintained, good salaries for teachers, adequate instructional materials, and even an enrichment of the curriculum Some districts have found it helpful to provide housing for teachers. But these districts, by and large, are indeed exceptions The preceding liscussions Of administrative problem areas or sore spots’ is not intended to imply that small high schools are without } } advantages They frequently have certain advantages which larger schools must strive very hard to achieve. hey are close to the people in the community. The administrator and the teachers Anow the parents and homes of their pupils; they A#vow the members of the board of education, their hom ind their families. They can easily discov 'SO\ s wit ati itial which the community are informal: social children and adult: CoOminu IMPROV small schools i yuntry a there will always ichers and boards of ike tt possible for the sible educational Present schools ; far from achieving this vr of thing: which could he done IMPROVING THE ADMINISTRATION OF SMALL SCHOO 65 Because small schools, both elementary and secondary, need teachers with an extra amount of resourcefulness every small COMmMuUNnity should make an effort to attract the very best teachers, not necessarily from among those who are seeking jobs but the very best jut the community Cannot sto ( They must make certain that desirable housing is avatlhable and that everything 1s do that 1S necessary to keep the good teachers once they are found mall schools ‘ed instructional materials, perhaps chor Children are often “on their own with 1 hie key foo any good school teacher. but even tl good teacher 1s teacher when he t tools with which to work Small school ly frictS should look at thet I it tual ling Adults who ( xtoll the bounteous benefits Of the small 4 woh Can hardly have the school building in their own district in For those areas where small schools are 1 necessity districts ) j rovide the most useful and comfortable and attractive school afi be j roud fo atten th clementary and i thet COUNTY by pecialized i potential wouree rovram of the small issistance Cult ul library servic ocational orrection, admunistrati combination of these and many ot ger’ Pos of the schools im an at rt te im them of the country a 1d f of coopera ivatlable. But the potential 1s there. Programs rat idly even despite ryanizational hand i look to their intermediate unit. But they the y need pre e them They port the intermediate un with money they receive RURAL POUCATION A FORWARD LOOK uggestions for mmproving small schools, for These are but a few reducing af not completely climimating certain of their admunistrative problems Everyone will recognize that these suggestions are expensive they w And they will indeed jut as Waurine Walker, tersely stated im opening the Conference. “Good j j fy ; WIT COU lhe wiod schools and the small high schools Per-pupil costs in these Dut | two inva three chools. This fact in itself unfortunate especially for per itiiy ibe ( thie frightening what 1% mm the children who hav © alternative, 1s that inadequate Peo le are paying the veneral level of being grossly le with a statement of the thread Corie lucle liscussion, the major emphasis with entire which has run which all those who h concern for Lhe key problem to a id small school 16 the quality of the educa program provided It not the size of the school but the rials and equipme nt, the huild wmall schools must consider tional pers nnel, the administratioy j / / f Yelther with the ¢ i} Ompinnity the funds ve prow le these other ni ponents all lop quality CHAPTER 14 Financing Rural Education A AMERICA 1s Committed to the great ideal of unt versal education for its children—that every child, regardless of where he lives, should have the benefits of a compr: sensive program of educational services. The success of every democratic form of govern ment—ygovernment by the people depends upon the ability of all peovle to manage their own affairs. As civilization has become more complicated and Nations more interdependent, education is more than ever the one essential which can assure stability and prevent de cadence. There ts absolutely no disputing, and most leaders recognize it, that the future of this Nation lepends upon the quality of educa tion of all our peo Means | W 1 a more satisfactory educational! program can be pre ve been identified and emphasized throughout this report Empha 1s has also heen piven to the fact that many children and com munities do not now have adequate educational opportunities, a great portion of the inadequacy being in the rural areas and smaller com munitic It 1s immediately obvious that corrective measures must be finance that they will be expensive but that the expenditures required are the necessary investment in the American belief. not wholly shared throughout the world. that democratic government can succeed over even a long period of time in the isdistory of civilization and competently meet every crisis situation which arises The financing of education, with emphasis primarily upon the financing of education in rural America. is here considered with respect to three major aspects of the problem (1) some of the special types facilities required for rural education (2) the various problems encountered in financing rural educatio rom state and local funds and (4) an attempt to bring the controversial issue of federal financial to rural education iC TAT PROKLI a, | pt RI RAT ARTA had a sufficient respect for the values of education ight and courage to set » a public school system to ve the educational needs of thet districts levies te edu ation the Yq sired possible the chan r¢ ducation have i¢ { wi changed our lemands for li life Wuivs if Arne rican y has rapidity f hanve i reorvantzin x hoe | SVSTCING cation Rural ire have certar edu for somewhat unique financial problems School Buildings for Rural Areas butldings i I hie 1) le mS Pow ice racin American education ing facilities in rural areas ts due a districts an ree ryrAaniZz ae ' fricts to finance the Population decre; has cre ited a Sifuation in lon ated where thre ure | ve hook thy need for ift¢ | Many rural ce if) mmunities has i st 1s of Nation with inadequate | 1 taxes, built buildings and employed teachers t Since that time men have struggled i VEiy’ constructing large ly to i Ol buildings f ome | Construction thie building nru it¢ tf the iften lannins EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK | hye y organized . he 8) | day ) make idapt tod improve thre »¢ early provisions for edu ation as ncreased and as modern tech and earning a living. The has multiplied the need for ind refinane which make new buildings of demand tyre b most urgent pro build the of the shortage The f school yy pulats mm) Mmipratios the inadequacy of small local neede i ireas and increases in other rural extent school buildings The o¢ hy ol building fo) Sore iweded {¢ Wid spre ad reorpgan obs ilete many rural ion in ahead many of Many hav to f new construs heen able with significance that the rural areas ther ire if} howe e been further has te nded provrams t major commu frequently the iditorium, gymnasium, library by community organizations outside construction in rural if ile ration College Ad equate FINANCING RURAL EDUCATION Pupil 1 rans portation he financial burden of pupil transportation falls disproportionately upon small towns and rural communities. The transportation of pupils in rural areas is essential, however, in order to make high quality educational opportunities available. The tremendous giowth in the provision of transportation and the improvements which have been made in rural education have to a great degree been hand-in-hand The yellow school bus on the highway ts rapidly becoming a symbol : of public education in rural America, But itis a syrnbol which puts an extra financial burden upon rural people S pe cialized Educational Services In addition to suitable buildings and transportation, rural schools should be provided with a large array of special services-—audio-visual and other instructional materials, library services, guidance services, services to exceptional children such as cardiac cases, those with speech defects, the hard of hearing, those who should have sight-saving classes, and so on. Such services can almost always be provided for rural schools better, more effectively and economically, through an intermediate unit. Research is needed to determine the best ways ti finance these specialized educational services in rural areas PROBLEMS IN FINANCING RURAL EDUCATION FROM STATE AND LOCAL SOURCES” Although rural areas have some unique financial problems, they also many with urban areas. It is significant that all people, rural and urban together, have worked shoulder-to-shoulder to improve financial provisions so that there might be provided better education all children Increased State Support In recent years there has been a substantial increase in public school revenues derived from state tax sources. While the number of school age children in the United States increased from 21 million in 1900 to 31 million in 1950, state contributions to public school support increased from 38 million in 1900 to over 2 billion dollars in 1950 "This entire section has been adapted from the address of E. L. Lindman, Professor of Educational Admir ation. George Peabody College for Teachers. “Present Problerns in Financing Rural Education 170 RURAL EDUCATION—-A FORWARD LOOK The percentage of public school revenues derived from state sources increased from 17 percent to 39 percent during the same period Although much of the total gain in revenues merely reflects the declin ing value of the dollar, the re/ative increase in state funds contributes much to the improvement of education in rural communities Improved Apportionment Perhaps more important than the total amount of state funds pro- vided are the improvements made in the methods used to apportion these funds. In 1900 most state funds were apportioned to local school systems on a school census or, at best, on a school enrollment or attendance basis. These plans of apportionment gave little considera tion to the peculiar problems of rural areas Although progress has been Spotty, today most states have some provision for using teacher units and pupil transportation in their state school support program. Similarly, most states have some form of state equalization aid for schools. Although there is yet much room for improvement, the in reased state school support and the improve- ment of state apportionment formulas have done much to improve the many states. It should be noted, financial position of rural schools ir however. that in a few states little progress along these lines has been made Improved Teacher Preparation Rural areas have shared with urban areas state financed improve- ments in teacher preparation programs and in state teacher retirement systems State supported colleges have increased their Capacity for preparing teachers, have improved the quality of their instructional staff, and have greatly increased the competency of their graduates as beginning teachers.’ At ‘he present time in many states there are tremendous programs, many long overdue, to improve the facilities of these institutions. During the present shortage of teachers, how- ever, urban school systems have a distinct advantage in recruiting these better qualified teachers Financing Small Schools Although progress has been made, many states do not provide & } Fe ! adequate funds for financing the small isolated school. Only a few states have recognized the responsibility of the state for adequately FINANCING i L EDUCATION 171 financing smail high-cost schools after it has been determined that some such schools will probably always need to be maintained. This special problem needs to be given careful attention and recommenda tions for solution supported by both rural and urban citizens City mize the fact that extra state funds will be school leaders must recos required for these small schools. On the other hand, rural leaders must recognize that many of the existing small schools cannot be justified in terms of a state finance program. In many instances the one-room school ‘a quarter of a mile down the road” must be closed and the children sent to a larger more economical school. Ever though it may be desirable to maintain some of these small schoots as attendance centers, they can seldom be justified as separate and independent administratis e€ units j Financing Pupil Transportation Although some state financial WUPO.t 60, ppt tidsStuitatun is j > > } i , “) In most states, there are some where no such aid 1s provided tal # al aa ebraska, for example, the entire cost of pupil transportation is la, state pupil transportation funds are avail ble only for one- and two-teacher elementary schools: no such aid is provid for the rural high school. New Hampshire provides some state funds for transporting elementary pupils but none for those attending high schoo! Clearly action ts needed fo provide adequate t , funds for pupil transportation in such rural states the better arrangements for state support for pupil trans ve foundation pro gram. In such states, the cost of pupil transportation is included in the foundation program and is financed from state and local funds on a partnership basis. The inclusion of adequate allowances for pupil transportation in the state aid program requires continuous emt hasis Financing the Intermediate Unit An aspect of school finance of special interest to rural school leaders is financial support for the intermediate unit. Services provided by inter- mediate units are especially important to rural schools since most rural schools are not large enough to employ full-time specialized profes- sional personnel in these areas of special service Arrangements for financing the intermediate unit have not as yet been extensively RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK investigated in almost every state The problem is complic ated by the fact that county boundaries, the most common determiner of present intermediate units, are in some instances not large enough to establish an adequate program of intermediate unit services Intermediate units are presently finan ed in several ways. The county property tax is the largest single source of support In a few states a substantial amount of state ‘unds is provided for the intermediate unit service program Some of these services are financed by cooperative and contractual agreements involving contributions from the several local administrative units which participate in the program. A number of recommendations for desirable means nancing intermediate units have receatiy been advanced by the inal Commission on the Intermediace Administrative Unit.* But it remains that the organization and administration of intermediate l, units af - adequate financing of appropriate educational services st challenging problem for state and rural school leaders OME PROBLEMS FOR RURAL AND URBAN SCHOO! LEADERS* Although certain aspects are almost uniquely rural the financial education are closely related to general school The familiar issues of adequate State support of nproving assessment of property and of developing citizen concern ¢ better schools and school needs apply to financing rural education t of the problems of rural school finance are the same as those of school finance } I ment Practices and Equalt zation What can be done to improve local property assessing practices? Have carelessly drawn state equalization programs tended to subsidize and reward poor assessing practices? A large number of states still yw equalization payments to local shool districts based wholly d lo« ally ( hosen assessors fin ngs COnceming taxable resources of the school district. This is obviously a practice which provides state reward for low assessing and has tenced to undermine the prop erty tax base ional Commission on the Interrnediate Administrative Unit. Effective Intermediate A Guide for Development. Washington, D. ¢ Department of Rural Education National Education Association, 1955. 16 p ‘This entire section has been adapted from the address of E. L. Lindman, op. eit / FINANCING RUKAL EDUCATION 173 Some states have succeeded in minimizing this effect by one of three methods (1) authorizing the stat. tax commission to equalize assess ment ratios amony towns or Counties (2) using an objective index of taxpaying ability to determine the state equalization payment; equalization program so that only a few very poor in equalization aid, the others pa Ipating in a ge fund flat grant type of program j 4 , / WI PPASlSs ON Mintninm Pr Most tate fNinance propran WY 1 base upon what ha: termed the “minimum rat should be guaranteed fe children as too much emphasis been placed upos minimum , are now extensively ] 4 ' } toward the deve yn Is this just a trivial Siynificant effort to raise tram above YT ! i iT da ication i] that y hool necessarily it formulas ' , landation The } j outnerr eedS j ] proac h fosters the adequate one i FORWARD LOOK Com petition tor State and Local Funds very phase of public works or public welfare is legitimately in need of funds and support These Varying demands for public funds upon relatively limited state and local resources actually creates competition among public agencies for adequate support Recently schools have been placed at great disadvantage in th .t bargaining position with the participation of Federal government mat hing funds in road build ing, hospital construction, and the likv. This 1s an increasingly serious problem which must be faced realisticali; in every state Other Problems are many questions regarding state and local financing of which need to be raised. Have schooi districts become too ate financial supp in some states that local intia tive has disappeared? Are people saying that the state provides through the foundation program an amount of funds determined by it be adequate? Our teachers receive an annual salary based upon state minimum salary’ regulations. Does this mean that the state has determined that the salaries required in this manner are enous Why should local school districts tax themselves more to pay teachers hig..er salaries? Are these attitudes hampering local efforts? Are we losing a healthy competition in the improvement educational ito available state financial construction has sl ply increased the burden on the state tax structure. Wall local school strict debt service levies have a similar effect upon local school revenue sources? Is Federal aid for shool construction a feas Has everything possible been done to get maximrnum returns f school dollar? Should cooperative purchasing of certain of the lars standardized iterns be extended’ What other possibilities are there for greater economy and efficiency 7 These are some of the questions that rural and urban school leaders | 1 must answer if the shortage of teachers ts to Le met, if the shortage of school buildings is to be corrected, and if the quality of our educa tional programs is to be raised to what might be considered even a satisfactory level. There is no simple answer to these questioas univer sally applicable in all states Educational leaders and community FINANCING RURAL EDUCATION DZ leaders have a responsibility to study each problem and point the way to a solution in each cOomMmmMuUDILY and in each state FEDERAL AID TO EDUCATION It has been said that public education in the United States is a local responsibility, a state funct. » and a national concern. It is certainly true that the Federa! government cannot afford to stand completely aside when the quality of education provided its youth will determine to so large a degree its future levels of production and standards of living, the intelligent participation of its citizens in democratic gov ernment (now being challenged in many parts of the world), and the scrength of its defense 71 he Fear of hede val ¢ ontrol The objection to Federal aid to education most frequently advanced is the fear that support from the Federal treasury will result in the taking over of control of education by the Federal government. It is extremely doubtful tat this fear is well founded. The legal authority for state control over education is well established. The granting of financial support oy the various states for their local school admin er ative units has not tended to lessen the controls which the local administrative units exercise. Although the extent of state controls have in fact been increased in a number of areas—certification of teachers, specifications for school buses, ap val of school building plans—it is seriously doubtful that any can be traced directly to the substantial increases in state financial support. Furthermore, at the Federal level, there is no political party or even any body of opinion in the Nation but that favors keeping the respective roles of the states and local administrative units as they are. A representative Congress could scarcely do otherwise T he Justice of Federal Aid An objection to Federal aid to education perhaps more deeply felt although not nearly so often advanced, is that any Federal financial program based upon the principle of equalization would take tax moneys from one section of the Nation to spend it in another. This is considered by many as unjust and inadvisable. It is sometimes represented as something new and un-American, when in fact it is an inevitable consequence . ’ national government 6 RURAL LDUCATION~-A FORWARD LOOK The history of our country has a number of interesting examples which are parallel One example of the transfer of economic resources from one part of the Nation to another part through the intervention of the Federal government cat en Ly the effect of a protective tariff. Uf the period ror analysis were only to the years between the Civil War and World War 1, there was a protective tariff on manu factured goods imported into this country in force during practically all of that period Because of this tariff, the agricultural South and West paid more for manufactured goods bought in the industrial North and East AS a CONSEQUENCE of the tariff, hundreds of millions of dollars were transferred from the agricultural areas to the industrial areas by way of higher prices. This policy was probably a good one for through it, at least :> part, the Nation develoy -d an industri system which carried it through two gre for much of the world Hut if it was just and good fo ta*x the ay asi Ufas wuth aud | for the benefit of the industrial North and East to increase manufa turing. it is now just and good x the wealthier industrial areas i ational Opportunities 5s wealthy agricultural are: in the latter case. as in the former, ~~ ire of the vation Viti r €f ncoerned many areas portunities whic vailable for comm are grossly ima AT " iNation annot continue to be cannot ntinue lemon strate to the world that a lemoc atic form of government can successful ove a long period of time without a high ucation for all, It is possible that one of the mayor handicaps educational of > ae f adequate financing ational finance 1s st, iplicate it every nunity and should do all in power to available to schools the vecessary for a satisfactory a uate level of education yources of } are sufficient. the Federal government move quickly to make sure that the funds needed for educa rovided. For each day and each year there are children who only opportunity tney ' have to obtain an ry are using up the education. The nature of their opportunities will determine to a large | extent their life-long social, econom competence CHOO! minor! Year after farm Pp as continu o shift from farms and villages spite of the dw‘ndle in farm popula PO} ullion farmers are able t But even today a million or more f 1 One thousand dollar: a year income and EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK vel pment which has significance for our rural communi ‘s, and schools ts the so-called rural non-farm population iways and fast transportation fulfill the urge of city dwellers the intry. Some travel 20 to 100 miles each day to f suntry and smaller it addition population ringing with them who are both union members ral school has given way now rap lly doing so to system. The rural teact with new and How to prepare portance: how to translate the mo ation in everyday liv competen reacher must deal with, alo s of reading listening spcaKking mmunitics by any and still changing pattern ) influenced blic school leader if change which they » meet the real which have been developed ig which frequently lose their | their development ther emphasis for change influences which but tend to spread to cause dissention bitter me about slowly modifications made ns which alter their avenicie the changing d whom they serve to lose their value and effectiveness. Those which do not CHAPTER 15 The Schools and the Educational Programs of Other Agencies l. evcry rural community there are many Ofyanl zations and agencies, both formal and informal, which contribute to the knowledge and understanding of all those who participate in their programs. The school ts but one institution. The school has a special ized and necessary place in every community. But it does not have should not claim exclusiveness in carrying on an educational program It is important and essential that our rural schools be aware of those independent agencies which carry on educational programs in their community, both for youth and for adults. For many of these organ identification is made easy by the existence of special committees on education and, in some instances, even full-time educa ial directors. Certain of the orhet groups have not formalized their ucational efforts to this extent and may not even consider education is one of their major functions. Their contributions to the develop ment and spread of ideas, however, definitely point to their relation ship to the total educational effort of every community An indication of some of the erganizations which function in most rural communities with definite educational programs for youth was ven by Charles Bennett } of community schools to maintain close and friendly relation ships with the various youth organizations. Of course, in many instances this is done automatically. As an example, the Future Farmers of America are under the supervision of vocational agriculture teachers in the community high schools There are « mportant youth organizations, however, which necessaril; in ; such. Undoubtedly the most wide these youth grou ire t) {/-H Clubs in adiun if the Extensior which have as their senior advisors either 4-H Club Agents within the counties or, where I f lacking, the County “nts. The Grange also 1s well organized if has both a very active Juvenile yfanpge for youngsters from 177 FORWARD LOOK five ¢t fourteen nad } h | | tme young peo; le hetween tourtcen ty in | led by the Boy the Rural yut ce and includes wns to fit into the pack h youngsters to compose iffiliate, The Future A Close y while the 4-H Clubs are o- educational,” the In addition, the Farm Fi CHOOLS AND THE EDUC if j ( OF OTHER AGENCII tend to become not only const uctively impotent ut also structive forces to community solidarity Those in lance a ational Conference on Rural Education illustrats m of how necessary tt for any organization of ’ hange the emphasis of its program to meet new and d mndition UMStANCES Although the setting for the illustration is a large urban center. the need for tion 15 ally great in every rural community 1 street from the RUKAL EOUCATION A FORWARD LOOK That is why the church remains ind move from strencth to strength in a lowntown area, It serves its community Chis illustration attaches to a single urban church the characteristics which should and must be reflected by all groups which will continue of our country--a willingness to ve purpose im the rural areas to change and a genuine desire to serve people and their t unity THE IMPORTANCE OF A BROAD APPROACH TO EDUCATION gnition of the kinds of educational programs which are needed rural areas of America ts increasingly given by (ae leadership In each case, the expression of f our major areas of activity resvnts an emphasis of more meaningful educational re p> ire now generally provided Each stresses the inter the interests and well being of any single group with Among the major viewpoints expressed were if . ZFOUPS | | avriculture, labor and business | believe must be developed merica are to meet their re nMmunities to this nation pts me to say wld community sates I do i good school ig its first guideline ontent | ind democracy ation that perhap: to capture the f freedom { that most of our ing and arith ions that f relationshit be the relationshiy intendent Rural Education on the World Scene procecure school support | exces opoortunities have been ocal school Cahoon nh Sre Major Conference Addr MIDCENTURY h have ocoiers are greates? ire matfoas of modern sive ~~ Assocat ~~ every Amencan, that mM Of CerraxTat re some observations the education be CUCU BA mind 1 fram 7S nerent qd from percent ual the sre ress te-r wTACY com tO en »oy " ; -+ who need ; te 8! CISOUDSS< June VUE ’ 7 nad oplicabie, mu we Betwee nes are the vears ahead expand) Keeping ency ighth grade, in nercent of rural adults had n 1950 there were 15.3 percent with t of school: percentage of rural adults who were juates was than a third greater than in 1940. However, there 4 FORWARD LOOK ? om <) Michigan Way } $ workers in MI Beach County mprovement in Harlan | Wali eeerera' South are indica Green Sea in Horry County, communities Kentucky, and ts that should be made in effor ANT FOREWARD LOOK 22 5 iance for the Guidance NEA, under the titles, mn Reval imaustroad the meman . ie provement it financially possible tc the obligations . ssahe * — . i sught to t the financial burden of making ~d ¢ Cu imposed. It seems as interpret by the Supreme if imposed RGANIZATION long been a Ac shout «6 99 9 g abou i ii American years aco. It was one of the the White House Conference ten years ago As a result of reorganization, the States has been remarkably reduced to 66,47 1933 2 19 This reduction *n greatly accelerated the past six Michigan, lowa, total number of Texas, Kans as, it seems listricts either had no pupils I Last year about 30 per The trend, how- ice as Many ting districts In this six-year period over 37,000 small school Relatively large districts i u however, are still the excep percent of all operating school districts employed 40 or 4 The trend in school district reorganization is reflected by 1952-53 a total of 1 ' the fact that in t hat O88 reorganized school districts were proposed. Of A FORWARD LOOK number 9 ¢ i wed and only 93 defe The usual method of was by popul: e of the local people affected. What can be expected in the within the next ‘cades the number of basic school about 2,100 intermediate future of reorganization [ bably the making of hetween demands protecting and conserving the n the well-established NEED FOR INTERMEDIATE UNIT OF SCHOOL SERVICES Natio s fully comm 1 to the community unit of school dis have many virtues and some limitations. The is that man; them ; too small to afford a com gram and necess: vices, and there is hardly any going to become large enough mostly wre than 25 the new districts have 40 of mor uc] : minimum size through um acceptable program for the most pai ot goin » large enough f them, they obvious! going to need services ind they are gol ave k operative ly with their neighboring community units. The available instrumental f meeting the needs arising from this situation is the intermediate unit 1 * majorty of is the most logical unit for that purpose although there are h counties wil } e combined for that specity purpose Lh intermediate u { 5 { scers e is the least understo d concept in the field of school administration $ an organization within the legally estab ed structure of school administration which includes the territory inistrative units. It serves as the intermediary between the state of education and the quasi corporate units having immediate respon sibility for maintaining schools. It may have a board or officer, or both, respon sible for performing sti ulated services for the basic administrative units and for exerting leadership in their fiscal, administrative, and educational functions Through leadership and services the intermediate unit promotes and strengthens local control and responsibility It assists local districts and the state education department in finding ind meeting more effectively the educational needs of children and communities by performing functions which can best be adminis j by an intermediate type of organization The idea that where school districts are reorganized there is no longer a need for the county superintendent as head of an intermediate unit is a very mistaken one. The statement ts frequently heard that the county superintendents are consolidating themselves out of a job. The truth is, that if educational leaders will envision the scope of the educational program really needed, reorganization of school districts alters but enhances the job of the county supe rintendent 4 BACK me meaning 1 other a Opportunities af a minimun A general nowledges and skills needed by all mem curriculum provide for those who should ral arts anc prof vocational edu iditronal training sem) professional wt go hevond » SOU ndary school in their formal education, and fer those who droy out completing high school. Vocational educacional opportunities should include instruction in agri culture, business, homemaking, and industry Still other program a es, and services are needed before a comprehensive program of educat ay ties is made fully available. Among them are the following FORWARD LOOK rich includes 4 ult education, school and community recreational facilities, sum festivals, classes 10 mercializ supervision of attend es psychological and psychiatric materials bureau, special teachers ad crafts, and special services and excluding the hard-of-hearing, con of instruction, imservice services, and instruc tional nersonnel WOT, business “ul transportation, operation eachers, communit and hmOn LlOble THI TEACHER SITt ATION ago the shortage of teachers was referred fo a crisis, Now we the crisis hi ecome chron There are about 79.000 teachers certificates. About two thirds of those in rural schools, a disproportionate number when com} ired to the 17 percent of the « e mployed are for additional teacher slculated on the basis of the num e those ho dre or retite, to relieve over crowded classes, increasing enrollment, it 1S 185.000 additional teachers - equirt fo supply that need only n all our colle pes and How to supply fcit f necessity a mayor problem ot rural edt tion. The answer would seem ¢ . found in concentrating of where t lem is rather than using shotgun met is most of the rese arch in this now seems to do. The first thing to do is to improve salaries, tenure and employment conditions of rural & es. The next umportant thing is to induce teacher education institutions to pay proper attention to equipping teachers to cope successfully with the compli sated problem reaching In small schools and communities The other important thing needed services avail able through development of the intermediate unit rHE SCHOOL BUILDING SHORTAGI That there 1s a school building shortage ts a well established fact The govern ment has already spent some $3,000,000 dollars to find out that there 1s a current deficit of 341,000 classrooms and that at the present rate of construction the deficit in 1960 will be 757,000 classrooms FORCES CONFRONTING FDUCATION IN BUILDING A BETTER WORLD is for new school buildings to make the fruits hat there is possible. It is an established fact t 100,000 in the available funds for school building } deticit is in school districts that accom FOR ACTION Obviously what has beer is intended to stimulate the understanding of the task of rural education and an ac ‘ptance of the responsibility to do some thing about 1 The American people had better lose no time in perfecting the practice of their ideal of equali t educational opportunity, We are too small a part of the world and in too great a struggle against the enemies of our way of life er away any of our human resources. We have no manpower to sacrifice ignorance, physical underdevelopment, poor health, undernourishment, and Education is the bulwark of our free republic and our demo ption of human dignity and relationships American educators are in no petty business. The quality of their performance may well determine the Nation's destiny. In the decade ahead may our per ’ formances more arly equal our professions! FORCES CONFRONTING RURAL EDUCATION IN BUILDING A BETTER WORLD JOHN H. DAVIS , 1 Agriculiuve and Business happy to be here on this occasion, both because of my deep interest in the welfare of rural people and because as a young man I spent several interesting years as an ‘Ag. teacher’’ and a superintendent of schools Even though | have continued to be interested in rural education, I do not come before you as a rural educator—nor would I feel qualifed to do so Instead, my role more nearly resembles that of a reconnaissance othcer pointing out to you some of the general characteristics of the “terrain of the future’ before you embark on the examination of specific problems relating to rural education As one scans the agricultural future he sees a host of problems, There is the whole complex of issues relating to farm price support programs, the squeeze between farm cost ; income, the dilemma of the small family farmer who lacks suthcient resources to make a respectable living; the shift in population from farm to city; the competition for markets on the international front; the impact of synthetic fibers in competition with wool and cotton: the wasteful use of our land and water resources; and many others. merica if we hane PATD A Ww ar rs yrtunity , sistent with th developing n policies and programs must be an tt ify process which capacity for our Vhe areas in pressure } ; develope I / i the a more which has nd basic price ivate interests warranted mproveasents in the rural and urban population In all probability gradual migration from farm to city. This tion a responsibility not only to prepare young vod farmers, but also to train for urban cirls who desire to leave the farm | ] lesome moral, social, utes which have characterized the family type } can best > by concentrating on the retention iumily farm adjusts ent «s desirable or inevitable with respect to nethods, or the like, it ts better orderly rather than that it be blocked or aids for agriculture should be towards the implementation of such h as research, extension port programs it is essential In a sense, the The dk veloped regions are n terms of kn Low, productivity, wealth, and reneral, they also tend e reli calm weather socially, and political In contrast, the under nd to be | mressure regions in terms of know-how, ilth, and living standards. _ they tend to be areas and even revolution ty years would seem to indicate that high-pressure chnological development, cannot be tsolated from the low as. which are underdeveloped. The mighty forces which have been by, science and technology know no national boundaries. Nor does RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK tionality of have a monopoly on the ability to comprehend and use and technology. Underdeveloped countries have a desire to share in the ress which science and technology have made possible. This desire ts in- creasing along with the accelerated communication and transportation which characterizes ou how progress can best be made with respect to general fy as , 4 ? cad ed sb P05 i tiricate hy, f ie : j . the P rPefence eal ws fy a ty é tat in agriculture today is so simple that it is exclusively the rural institution or organization. This be:ng true, competence needed to solve a problem is to bring ed individuals whose composite know-how covers all essential fe. Working together, such persons can find satisfactory answers iplicated rural issues, including the problems of rural education liure, the he Jution often To a large extent this ob- product of the rate of change in our rural society. Under search for truth has to be a continuing process Education a great cesponsibility—to search for the truth and to dis- it when it 1s known rural pe ple This means nt to be exercised—a decision to be made. With respect farm policy, education should develop true facts and disseminate them the task of choosing a solution to the farm leaders, government officials, ind the electorate. In no event should education become deeply in- partisan politics over farm issues. To do so would reduce the ability of education to play its vital role of developing and disseminating truth, with out color or bias The : ? ime education 1 not ; te f trying fo meet the edn- Rather, it is one of developing an educational hast ge me wht rot only will meet the next year and ten, twenty, and even fifty td other insti ms must assume ‘ity with respect to the use to which new discoveries and td he put. While research and technology are powerful tools in the hands of men, of themselves they possess no sense of moral direction. They contain no imbherent qualities to assure us that the changes they initiate will esult in the evolution of a better world. A new discovery or machine may as eadily be used to promote the ends of Communism, Nazism, or Fascism as to further the cause of Democracy. They may be used as readily for war as peace They can be used to subject masses of people to enforced slavery as well as to raise their standard of living. Man, himself, must supply the social, moral, and spiritual values which determine the way in which the fruits of technology will be used TER WORLD ions wall another ortant | : f learning. Actually. nm 1 gree boy or girl h no school lu } ree Where harmony nal services controlled by them ie is best that However, it 1s essential that each institu of the total rural community and that it A FORWARD LOOK ‘ress 1s to be made. By working together 1 total result which is greater than the sum of the wre ; Ore - ined this National Conference have evidenced a recogni umwork by inviting farm leaders, church leaders, and | commend you tor this. Such teamwork needs to be ial level, but also at the local levels for the discussing gencral objectives, the role each ts equipped to play in groups can work in harmony toward a common actual method by which each partict’ to the respective organizations to de ivoid the conflict which would arise if educators rations how to run their business or vice versa task of schools and colleges. Since we can ms under which the young people of today nty years trom now, we cannot prepare them for a we must develop within them the qualities of lLency to change which will fit them tor what and women who can outstanding farmers, school executives, college wernment officials It calls tor more educa rdministration, and expanded curricula teachers who themselves are equipped see positive Opportunities in new situa 1 men and women to dedicate their rmine ested roe nie nile sk by sitting down together as equals around out a program. Certainly, educators should not wh answet and then cal the other interested parties is that you will fail ur whole society. It affects every person roaching the problen. from one viewpoint, The same thing is true with respect 1a restricted viewpoint. There it 1s pt to be interests come together around the conference tal ion which is in the best interest of everybody, the better, but more salable In fact im} rtant believe in it because they helped fornvlate it THE NATION TAKE IN SOLVING THE TEACHER SHORTAGE CRISIS THE NATION'S STAKE IN SOLVING THE TEACHER SHORTAGE CRISIS VERNON L. HEATH mh CU Pamber It is a privilege and a pleasure for me to discuss with you the Nation's most critical educational problem—an adequate supply of competent teachers. As a layman who has devoted a great deal of thought and energy to the problem of recruiting capable young people for a career of teaching, I am convinced that the ultimate solution will depend largely on how sympathetically and how effec tively both lay and professional people can join in a partnership to save and preserve the most cherished institution of our democracy——our schools The crisis facing the rural schools of the Nation is of special significance and importance and will require more than an Herculean effort to solve Approxi « mately one-half of the children of school age, or nearly 15 million, live in the open country or in centers of less than 2,500 population. Of that number more than 7.7 million live on farms More than one-half of the Nation's teachers are tn rural schools. To meet the demand in the years ahead, it is estimated that as many as 125,000 addi tional elementary teachers must be recruited, not to mention the many thousands more who will be needed if we are to bring about a 30 to 1 pupuil-teacher ratio in the rural classrooms of the Nation. While exact statistical information on the teacher shortage has not been completed, indications are that approximately 80 percent of the Nation's total teacher shortage is in the schools serving rural people The ‘Little Red Schoolhouse’ makes a pretty picture in rhyme and prose, but how many ot us realize that this little symbol of rural life in many instances is much the same today as it was 5O years ago. Fresh air, light, heat, water, and sanitation facilities are about the most inexpensive items on the face of the earth, but many schools in rural areas still use obsolete wood burning stoves with poor outside ventilation, the center inc indescent light fixture, outside sanita tion facilities, and desks and equipment that no longer meet the needs of the modern educational world. Under the circumstances, how can we hope that today’s young graduate just out of college will choose this rather unattractive and unprogressive surrounding to launch a career of rural teaching? We frequently hear citizens in both rural and urban areas defend the in adequacies of their educational system by saying that what was good enough for them is good enough for their children. By and large this is not the actual case with these individuals, nor does it represent their true feeling on the matter Take a look at the farms and the homes surrounding many of our rural schools The old horse-drawn plow practically has disappeared In the “good old days” it required as many as 35 man hours to produce and harvest an acre of corn Today on many mechanized farms, with modern tractors, corn pickers, and other labor-saving devices, it is accomplished with fewer than 11 man-hours. In 244 RURAL EDUCATION 4 FORWARD LOOK addition, we find that e shift from animal power to machine power has released about 72 million acres of crop land from producing feed for horses and mules to producing food for the Nation's tables. In the last $0 years or so while this country’s population was growing from 75 mullion to more than million, a great change has taken place in agriculture. Today 8,000,000 fewer persons on America’s farms are producing food for 85,000,000 more ins An educated people played a vital role in this story of rural progress and industrial achievement. Unfortunately, education in many rural sections of the Nation has not kept pace with this phenomenal advancement. Weak nations of the world are weak from a social and economic point of view because of a lack of emphasis placed on education. They are also weak because they have not developed through education the ingenuity and the scientific skill that have made our own Nation so great and so resourceful. We show more concern over the dangers of soil erosion than we do over the human erosion that threatens us in many areas through the neglect of the education of our rural youth Our pleasures and our happiness in acquiring the modern conveniences on the farm and in the home for the most part are purely personal, and it is not easy for some to show much concern for needed improvements that do not affect them directly or that do not involve their own everyday employment. Many individuals are pertectly satisfied with the rural school in the community, no matter how inadequate it may be, because it embodies a certain amount of atmos phere and tradition carried over from the distant past The horse-drawn plow also has a certain amount of atmosphere but in this case we are glad to sacrifice tradition for comfort and convenience. Our desire for better schools and better working conditions for our teachers must be something more pronounced than mere lip service. It must be so strong that we will be more than willing to pay the cost that a good system of public education demands. Many citizens want a high-priced system of education but they want to purchase it at bargain-countetr rates Figures on our national income reveal rather convincingly that we pay more for liquor and tobacco in this country than we do for education. The reason that we do not show more concern about this situation is that we as individuals pay tor liquor and cigarettes by the pint and by the pack and this pay-as-you-go principle ts less exacting and far less painful. On the other hand, our bill for education usually comes to us from the tax collector once a year. I am sure that if we were billed for these other two items on the same basis at the end of the year there would be far greater concern over the high cost of living and our tax bill for education would look small indeed in comparison in a large number of households across the land With school enrollments at an all time high and continuing to rise at a rate of more than a million children each year, the Nation's schools have now reached flood-stage. Time will tell whether the dams and levees that we have erected during the past half century will withstand the torrential waves of chil dren that are descending on our educational fortress. I am sorry to say that there are hundreds of thousands of people in the lowlands who do not sense THE NATION S STAKE IN SOLVING THE TEACHER SHORTAGI impendin : A’ [ it Ci . ‘Oo gan proportions to move ther to a Q is § i use mam -veres who will stand j mut warnings and it many unwarranted attacks that are being Many writers in national weaknesses of our educational systen zens in every community to make the Seldom do they go to any «f izens who are happy with and pro d if the real progress that has been mide nrar never | . | f lems of ed munities luals as illin wove ¢ pressures that they are exert ing < e school nad len elping ’ cause of better education nistrators are wy financial support 1] us laymen im fe ild's mind when there ts poor instruction teacher is | classroon for that if these in the first, fourth ; mental development young nm 1 ott results in hostil in the child's mind process itical shortage of teact ifraid that our citizens will not mpressed ¢ re mere statement of facts or the threat of close ily that tows the publi responsibility to see that our in adequate number of competent teachers—that this is cannot solve This 1s the philosophy we adoy ted his whet he State Chan ! orunerce St igo enlisted the services no n 90 busimessme le the prob lem of th rtage. In our pros ted a good feeling in Illinois to education. even though 1 se months to convince our sch i 1 others that our businessmen actually were interested I am sure that have done nothing else we have i n new hop« id en ne | couragement t ose who are struggling with this immense problem In Illinois we have directed our attention to the general problem without con centrating our efforts in any given field. The rural teacher shortage may not be as acute in our own state due to the fact that through a program of reorganization and consolidation our school districts have been reduced from a total of 12,000 in 1947 to less than 2,800 as of today. However, this program of reorganization of school districts in most states has not decreased the demand for rural teachers, RWARD LOOK «d rural teachers “4 on in Illinois profession ou might for rural program solve the | fanwrcation lent or commis iment program. Vf the task pomtment or an ichers for rural areas. In Illinois this working with the high schools lay and pre fessional groups chool wh le especialy In Illinois we | senior in the to the homes Facts You Should to return 1] . colere in OOU cards the various | make the i’ ’ Pe [ f ’ i large share of j posit ve apy roa h, es that » from ex year period our State h were pla ed on wok the potential the coun bus Ss are ied 7) Impress upon the nature of the te: shortage and the danger is 1 proper solution ts not found ed more than 15,000 folders to lay groups entitled onal standard Shortage ifging every community to study its oni ion could be inaugurated to correct good teaching THE NATION S§ STAKE IN SOLVING THE TEACHER SHORTAGE CRISIS be farm bureau, the grange, the agricultural asso service clubs PT A's home bureau units, and nal groups to provide scholarshib« o, teacher edu catioy The Illinois Congress of PTA's is awarding several district scholarships each year to deserving students who plan to enroll in teacher education, involving a total outlay in nine years of $286,000 i small town of 6,400 population, we have sent dents to teacher colleges in the last few years on s holarships pro the local Chamber of Commerce and Moose Lodge. We feel greatest reservoir of future teachers s not to be found in the 28 percent of the high school students who go to college, but in the 72 percent who have to remain at home because thv can't attend for finan cial reasons. I am sure many scholarships could be obtained from rural and farm organizations if a special appeal were directed to these groups ! 1 the meet tzalions, and ret j } Te , ts. Through panel ussions on effective methods oe: recruiting future teachers and other ction programs, try to encourage local groups to work with the high id elementary schools in setting up a program at the community n Illinois, last December, the State Chamber sponsored a similar at the state ital. which was addressed by the governor and ’40 businessmen and school administrators Fol wide conference with several cr gional conferences, with } } ies devoted entirely to rural education f é nN COMMmuUnities i jess than 2, 900 p pulati ny Chamber completed a salary survey of 208 Illinois cities as well as selected cities from 42 other states. We published an attractive brochure showing the -alary schedules that prevail, by population areas, in various ommt ies. This gave every community an opportunity to compare its teacher salaries with those of other cities of similar size. We hope the of 16,000 of these brochures to business men and other rroups will spur every community to greater effort in raising teacher r levels ry commit r education mmunity and im every rural area of your state organizations iw many-fold nd the opportunities ire unlimited. These citizens’ committees should see ing quarters are found for teachers, that the good work doing within the community ts properly recog buildings and facilities aré up-to-date and ade quate to meet the needs of the community in a time of greatly exp anded enrollments. All farm and rural organizations, both state-wide and nation-wide in scope, should set up education departments within their own organizations to give whatever assistance they can to solving the teacher shortage problem your scp administraters, the AAUW and the professional fraternities to sp r Future Teachers of America clubs in RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK each high school. Ask these organizations to work with and encourage the students who have shown an interest in a teaching career. Urge the formation of a cadet training program in the high school. We believe the most effective way to retain the interest of students ‘n teaching is to assign them to special classroom and playground work in the elementary schools Finally, there can be no effective recruitment program at any level unless the teaching profession joins in the program and willingly stands up to be counted in the great crusade that is before us. Every individual teacher in America must be willing to recommend his profession to his own students, otherwise the work of lay groups and loca! citizen groups will be to no avail, The failure of many schools to assume leadership and initiative in this crisis is the most serious problem that faces us in our attempts to recruit capable young people for the profession That briefly is our program of action in Illinois and I believe the same principles can be adopted in every state. What have been the results of this effort? In 1949 approximately 950 elementary teachers were graduated from the teacher training institutions, in 1950 the figure increased to 1,200, in 1951 it was 1,500, in 1952 there was 1,900 graduates in elementary education and about the same number were graduated last year. In the fall of 1952, the 46 colleges in our state, both state-supported and private, reported an increase of 21.7 percent in the number of freshmen enrolled in teacher education. In 1953 the same institutions reported an increase of 17.1 percent in freshmen enroll ments. This fall several of these institutions have reported as high as a 50 percent increase in the number of freshmen enrolled The number of graduates in both secondary and elementary education last June totaled approximately 4,500, about sixty percent of whom accepted or were available for teaching jobs this fall. We believe the program, by pub licizing the shortage and by encouraging young people to consider teaching, possibly accounts for only a seven percent turnover in the profession in our state. We feel that many of the older and experienced teachers are staying on to teach in the line of public duty rather than retire at a time when their services are needed so badly May I suggest a few basic problems that are facing’us at a local level and then raise a few questions as to how best we are going to solve them? Many rural school districts do not have a salary schedule for teachers. Most of the small districts still employ teachers on a bargaining basis, from year to year, with no guarantee of continuity of employment no matter how competent and faithful their services may be About half of all the high school teachers are receiving higher salaries than grade school teachers with equal training and experience. This condition where- ever it prevails will have to be corrected or there never will be enough teachers in the elementary schools now, or at any future time. .The single salary s¢ hedule where possible appears to be the only solution The surveys made by the Illinois Chamber of Commerce also show there is a rather wide variation of salaries in the rural and city schools of the Nation. THE NATION S STAKE IN SOLVING THE TEACHER SHORTAGE CRISIS 249 Beginning salaries in rural areas and in towns of 2,500 population or less in many instances are six hundred dollars per year under those paid beginning teachers in schools of 2,500 population and above. The spread is even more noticeable in the maximum salaries paid rural and city teachers. This is one of the factors in the exodus of many rural teachers to. better paying jobs in urban areas In several states that have a teacher tenure law, I understand rura! school teachers are not covered by its provisions. This means that city school teachers are assured continuous employment after having served the necessary period of probation, On the other hand rural teachers can count on employment only on a year to year basis subject to whatever whim or handicap they may encounter in a small local situation. This problem will have to be solved before we can expect any upturn in the number of teachers who will agree to accept employ ment in our rural schools Then, too, we have numerous cases where school boards of small school systems are hiring regular teachers as substitutes, knowing full well that these teachers will be working full-time in regular positions, This practice is followed not only for the specific purpose of keeping teachers off tenure or continuing contract, but also to prevent teachers from being placed on the regular schedule that has been adopted in the district and that is provided for by legislative action I believe that equal educational opportunities for our teachers are just as essen- tial as they are for the great masses of the Nation's school children. The shortage of teachers in rural areas will continue critical as long as school boards and superintendents in small localities show an unwillingness to afford their teachers equally as yood treatment as city school teachers enjoy. Many of the practices that | have mentioned are not in line with trends in the best business and industrial organizations in the country or with the best state and federal civil service regulations All of us recognize that there are problems in the rural areas which certainly warrant a differentiation in the professional preparation of our rural teachers To appreciate and to understand the problems of a social, cultural, and economic background and to apply this knowledge to the needs of the rural community should require a professional education and work experiences directed toward this end. I understand that only a few teacher training institutions recognize rural education as.a distinctive field. The problem seems to involve satisfactory procedures that we should follow in encouraging state departments, college administrators, and deans of education to recognize the importance and the place of rural education in the total educational picture While our interests in this conference are of rural nature, | am sure all of us are quite concerned by the whole educational outlook especially as it applies to obtaining an adequate number of competent teachers for both rural and urban S¢ hools Last year more than 60,000 teachers left the profession for one reason or another, many to take higher paying jobs in other fields. I know of no other profession where this mass exodus has occurred, where people have left a field in which they are highly trained to move into other jobs where they are essen- 240 RURAL EDUCATION——A FORWARD LOOK tially untrained. If this condition or exodus of workers prevails in any business or any industry, we would have to conclude that there must be something wrong with both management and the company, the wages were not high enough and that other conditions within the company were not too good. What are we going to do to retain the many thousands of good teachers who are leaving the ranks each year? Among the women’s professions, our surveys show that teaching is the highest paid. How can we impress our young women with this fact? Many bright and capable high school girls have heard so much about low salaries in the teaching profession that they often take jobs in a retail store or office at half the salary that is paid the teacher : Whether we agree with the principle or not, many states are unable to pay men teachers more than women teachers. The exodus of men to higher paying jobs is a startling condition brought about mainly because the maximum salaries in teaching are not sufficient to meet the needs of men with families and are considerably out of line with those paid by business and industry. In order to keep a fair balance of men and women in the profession, how are we going to solve this problem ? There is a considerable variation of salaries throughout the Nation, resulting in stiff competition among communities and among states for teachers. As citi zens we must make every effort to see that conditions are right within our own boundaries if we are to survive this great struggle for human services. No state is solving its teacher shortage by merely recruiting teachers from states that pay low salaries. Every state should see that it is preparing enough teachers to meet its individual needs, If a community needs an average of 12 new teachers each year, the community should take immediate steps to see that at least 12 of its high school graduates enter college to prepare for a teaching career. It seems unreasonable that some communities should draw so heavily from the pool of available’ teachers without making an all-out effort to put back into that pool the same number of teachers that it withdraws. This does not mean that these teachers must return to their home communities, but it does mean that schools should make an all-out effort to perpetuate themselves Education should draw heavily on the practices used in business in providing personnel directors or counselors who can solve the individual grievances of teachers within the school system. Every industry knows that a dissatisfied worker can damage the morale of a whole department. Many minor grievances and annoyances in the high school system, if left unsolved, often lead to poor work on the part of the teacher not to mention frustration and discouragement of the individual involved Part of the answer in the future may be found in assigning to our teachers the primary duties of teaching and to others of less skill and less experience the ordinary duties that are not a part of the daily classroom routine. Doctors and nurses have learned that others in the hospital can perform some of the tasks that do not require any special training or skill Another problem facing us is how can we encourage the most outstanding men in the community to serve on school boards. We do not want men and women THE NATION S STAKE IN SOLVING THE TEACHER SHORTAGE CRISIS 4) on school boards who have an ax to grind or who are intent on beating down school taxes for needed school improvements. There is a very great obligation on the part of every school board member to learn at an early stage the need for communicating to the citizens the most pressing needs of the schools, and also communicating clearly to the teachers the school policies and areas in which they need cooperation of the teaching personnel. Citizens will support school projects when they understand fully the problems that are involved and have the necessary confidence in the individuals at the helm With the critical shortage of teachers and the need for more and better school buildings, we cannot afford to take short-cuts in education or to adopt the methods of business in mass producing our product. In other words we do not want push-button education. We do not want to see our young people coming off the assembly line of education lacking the proper seasoning or unprepared for life's market. With the schools trying to educate all the children of all the people, there is a greater need today for better trained teachers than at any he history of our Nation. If we fail to individualize our instruction time in t to meet the wide differences prevailing in children, if we do not insist on maintaining high standards of instruction as well as high certification standards, we face the danger of allowing our schools to deteriorate, and in the end the product of the schools will be inferior In our effort to recruit young people for teaching, we must find some way to change the negative thinking of many teachers to that of positive thinking I believe that too many teachers are too critical of their profession Many high school and college boys and girls have been discouraged from entering the profession because of critical or disparaging remarks, often made innocently, by those in the profession. Teachers should and could be good salesmen. Busi nessmen do not dare to be too critical of their own product or they soon would be out of business. It takes good salesmanship in business to maintain good standards. The same anmplies to education. If our teachers colleges can graduate individuals with fine professional attitudes, I believe the greatest part of our problem would be solved The task ahead requires a true and tried leadership and a desire on the part of every individual to pitch in and do the job that needs to be done. Our own state department of education last year mailed out questionnaires to the 47 other states asking if an organized program were under way in their states to recruit teachers. More than 90 percent indicated that there was no such program in effect and that little was being done in this field. We cannot complain of inactivity at the state or local level if nothing is being done to inspire leadership or if we fail to call on citizens in every walk of life to answer the summons to duty. Business men are joining hands in mutual understanding in this great crusade for better schools and better teachers. Call on us for help! You will be surprised how well businessmen everywhere will respond Education is our greatest resource and our greatest defense against the common enemies of a free world. If it is worth saving and worth strengthening, it is worth fighting for. We cannot allow our system of public education to deterior ate because of a lack of determination or indifference on the part of any indi 242 RURAL EDUCATION——A FORWARD LOOK vidual or groups of individuals. Let us mobilize for greater effort, nation-wide, state-wide, and’ community-wide. As our ultimate goal, let us give to rural edu- cation the rightful place it deserves in our American way of life so that rural America, too, may have equal educational opportunities for both its children and its teachers TEACHERS FOR RURAL COMMUNITIES GLENN KENDALI President, Chico State College, Chico, California Until the last half century the rural areas of the earth have held a majority of its people. It was generally conceded that the values and customs of the rural people were more stable than those of city folks and that the rural regions usually have had better reserves, both psychological and physical. While rural culture through the generations has had its “ups and downs,” these generally have been less violent than its city counterpart Today, rural life does not seem to fit this traditional pattern. In the first place the rural areas have considerably less population than the cities. In the second place, the rural areas now are so impregnated by urban customs and ideas as to make the former inner coherence and consistency of rural culture lost With the advent of many modern conveniences-——automobiles, modern roads, radio, television, etc., active community life has been made more possible, but these opportunities have brought with them new problems. Many a rural com munity in America today can bear witness that the new freedom of rural people, new educational concentrations, new marketing procedures, and new interests have left high and dry their chances at what Baker Brownell calls “human com- munity life.”” At the same time some authorities believe this new pattern brings about a “common center of interest’ for those living in an area which can support the institutions desired. They hold this type of integration inevitable as well as desirable Certainly the new technologies and instruments of living have renewed some communities. Many believe that large scale operation and contemporary urban culture can provide adequate substitutes for the values which they destroy. But there is still a long road to travel to where a wholesome and stable environment is provided for the ordinary human being in the ordinary community. All this sharpens up the question under discussion. Specifically, amidst the shifting and conflicting positions for the well-being of the rural community, what should the teacher education program—in the broad sense-——be for those who are to teach in these communities of America? A by-product question is what influences can be fairly presented to help young people want to teach in rural communities when currently they overwhelmingly feel that their opportunities, both profes sional and otherwise, are best in urban communities ? Before attempting to give some points of view on these two questions it seems desirable to discuss the basic philosophy which should be before us as the TEACHERS FOR RURAL COMMUNITIES 243 education of teachers tn rural communities is considered. Schools in rural com munities as well as tn other communities should be concerned with the basic problem of helping people make the community a better place in which to live and a better place in which to make a living. The program which seems to best typify this educational philosophy is that which is known today as “The Community School.’” We like to think of this community school as a center of an educational program serving children, youth, and adults, a point of view that education is a continuous process which includes all age groups. We think of the facilities of the plant being utilized from early morning until late evening We think of the curriculum of the school as being built upon the discovery, the development, and the use of all community resources and problems. We think of the curriculum as a growing one evolving out of the cooperative effort of all the participants as it involves resources and problems of the community and as the aspirations of the people develop. We also like to think that all who t« share in the program have a hand in its planning, in its execution, and in its evaluation We like to think of the community school in terms of 1. A center of learning for the entire community and involving all age groups A center where facilities are utilized from early morning until late eve- ning, fifty-two weeks per year Where the educational plant--small or large-—serves as a demonstration of a well-planned and well-kept physical environment. Gardens, play grounds, etc, give evidence of the school’s interest and stimulate the com munity to simular improvement Where the school program is flexible and the curriculum is never static, since it reflects thoughtful attention to ways in which the community resources may be used Where the curriculum evolves out of the cooperative effort of the partict pants as they study their problems and ambitions Where the neighborhood serves as a living laboratory for study in various subject matter areas Where teachers work with other community agencies to improve the pro gram of living for all the people Where the teachers live in the community, participating in community life ind the community accepts responsibility in helping provide suitable liv ing conditions for its teachers For the kinds of responsibilities involved in such an undertaking in rural communities teachers need— and in generous quantities--a rich understanding of people, with emphasis upon rural folks and their aspirations; a deep respect for individuals: a vision of what can be accomplished through education; tech niques for teaching and working with others; interest in and understandings of rural life; and “dedication” to the job to be done in rural communities Successful teachers in rural communities have an understanding of each pupil, the kind of abilities he has, including the ability to learn, his physical condition, his interests, his emotional and social development, and his home and neighbor 244 RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK hood environment. Successful teachers in rural communities have understand- ings and skills in developing and conserving natural resources. They know the cost of wasted lands, of absence of home gardens, of inferior livestock, of non- creative use of leisure time. They have a “feeling” of the practical problems of community living and they develop skills in ways in which the community becomes the laboratory for learning Successful teachers in rural communities have learned good ways of helping people work together in a spirit of harmony and cooperation. While good human relationships are the foundation of satisfying life in either rural or urban communities, this is basic in rural community life, since without them, projects fall apart, sooner or later, because of the limited number of people who may be drawn tog cher Too few such teachers have been available to the rural communities of America throughout its history. It would be a happy experience for me this after- noon to give you the program which should be followed in providing such teachers. In order to get some “specifics” before us, I'm using an example— the one I know most about. It is, of course, our own college—Chico State ( ollege Let me say a word about its service area~-the eight-county area of North- eastern California. This is roughly one-sixth the area of the entire state and lacks only a few square miles of equaling in size the combined areas of Vermont, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts. I* is the only degree-granting college within a region of 26,936 square miles. The population is approximately 213,558. The largest community is approximately 25,000. Most of the people live in very small communities or country areas It follows that if the college is to serve its region well, it must concern itself with rural education problems. This, we are attempting to do. For example, one of the sociology professors was Ghosen especially for his training and com- peterce in the rural field. The staff member in economics likewise has his doctorate study in rural economics. Such specialists teach not only in their appropriate fields but come into the classes in professional education to assist in the program there After the student has completed his General Education courses-—many with emphasis upon the rural and small communities—and also his major theory courses in education—with opportunities for first-hand observation and study of conditions, some of which are especially in the rural communities—the student is given a full semester of student-teaching under the most competent teacher available and under the general supervision of a college staff member. For this experience we are extending the geographic area. Some students are sent as far away as 150 miles. They live in the community and participate fully in community life and experiences It should be emphasized that this experience in the local communities is some times a great opportunity for the citizens there to study anew the needs and opportunities of the community. The college will not send a student-teacher into the local communities until the local people have made plans for reasonable liv- CEACHERS FOR RURAL COMMUNITIES 245 ing and social conditions. We want to be fully satisfied that the community itself realizes that they have an obligation. There are more community requests than we can service for these student-teachers Along with the preservice education program there is a major need to work with teachers who are on the job. Many of the schools of the region are manned by teachers who took their study programs several years ago. A major portion of these are married, live in the community, and have family responsi bilities. Cooperative programs are being developed with a majority of the eight counties whereby college staff members and specialists in certain areas of work needed in the counties are being released from a part of their loads on campus to serve as consultants in county services. This is done by contractual arrange ment between the county and the college. One example will suffice A special study last year by officials in the State Department of Education revealed certain needed services in psychological work and counseling and guid ance services in a number of counties in this area. Full-time specialists in these areas are not appropriate in these counties at the present tyme Four of the eight counties will have service from the college with supporting help from State Department of Education officials These cooperative arrangements are built on the thesis that all the agencies local. college. and state—are involved in the educatioral program and that specialists should be identified and, insofar as possible, used where the need is greatest. They sut plement, too, the usual workshops, extension centers, etc Vhreading through this presentation 1s, | hope, the idea that the people of the communities must share fully in developing better teachers for our rural com munities. These people want to do something constructive, Sometimes help and encouragement need to be given to the lay group. This short example may be i indicative. The counties and college cooperated in one-day work sessions for lay people to be held in each county in the area. Two national leaders in rural education problems came to the area and served as resource persons along with the college staff. The central theme of each work session was How Can Our Communities Get and Keep Gor xd Teachers?’ Plans are projected for a “repeat” conference periodically Some of the problems in coming to “grips” with how to do a better job of educating teachers for rural communities are 1. The general pattern of education for college teachers does not usually concern itself with community service experience Working with community people in projects 1s exhausting and college teaching loads are heavy Many community groups do not see clearly the need for change from traditional programs in education 1. Young people tend to seck opportunities in urban rather than rural areas Such problems are not impossible of solution. The potentials of education in rural communities can be realized. But now, as in the past, both the lay and professional people need to make it a higher priority than is generally done RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK THE TASK AHEAD IN ACHIEVING EQUAL OPPORTUNITY FOR ALL FRANCIS S. CHASI Chairman, Department of Education University of Chicago Over half of the school-age children in the United States are growing up on the farms and in the villages of rural America. The kind of education received by this large proportion of our citizenry is of vital importance to the Nation, especially at a time when policy for education, as it is put into effect in America and the rest of the free world, may well determine the course of world history for the next thousand years. I am not going to attempt to document that state ment, but I think any orderly review of the forces and factors that are playing upon the world today will document it sufficiently I shall make no pretense of covering the topic assigned, but I want to talk with you about four tasks, all of which seem to me urgent, all of which seem to me possible for a considerable measure of accomplishment. Those four tasks are as follows: First, to give a fair start to the disadvantaged children of America; second, to keep an open road for the talented, third, to provide special facilities and services to enrich life; and fourth, to offer education adequate to sustain our freedoms A FAIR START FOR THE DISADVANTAGED With regard to the first task, the best source I can suggest for this problem is the chapter on the disadvantaged in Butterworth and Dawson's new book on the modern rural school.* Among the disadvantaged are the low-income agri cultural workers, especially the migratory workers, the rural workers in mining and manufacturing, the Negroes, the Indians, the Spanish Americans, and other foreign-language groups Butterworth and Dawson point out that the disadvantages consist o. low income; lack of ownership of property; effective, if not legal, disfranchisement, segregation; discriminations in facilities and opportunities; and the effective operation of a caste system where none is supposed to exist. They make it clear that there are many doors closed to those who are born into families of low income, into families of meager culture, into families to whom for one reason or another many kinds of opportunities are not available I think we all recognize that one of the best means of opening more doors for the disadvantaged children of America is to provide a level of education which will enable them to acquire the culture that is prized in this Nation, to acquire the skills for vocational effectiveness, to acquire the ability to participate effectively in the making of public policy decisions. It is only through education that these children can hope to improve their lot in life. Providing a fair start for these children is only a matter of elementary humanity, of simple justice * Butterworth, Julian E., and Dawson, Howard A., with chapters by others. The Modern Rural School. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1952. 494 p. $5.00. THE TASK AHEAD IN ACHIEVING EQUAL OPPORTUNITY FOR ALI 247 Whatever for-es need to be mobilized in state and Nation to provide this fair start for chilc ren should be mobilized without undue delay With regard to migratory workers, Cushman in a recent article in The Phi Delta Kappan has pointed out that provision for them is in some cases as serious a burden to the states and the local school units as are impacted areas for which Federal aid is available. Yet there is no help with this problem, The burden may be an impossible one for local units to carry and in many cases little attempt is made to carry it. Opportunities are simply denied to these children This is a concern not only to the locai community; it is a concern to the United States that there should be such a denial of opportunity. The children of migratory workers enter school late. They drop behind at an alarming rate By the second year, one-third of them are retarded. By the ninth year, three fourths are retarded about one to five years. They drop out of school as soon as they are released by the compulsory attendance laws, and in many cases earlier because there is no attempt to enforce the laws in many of these localities So this the first task: To provide a decent minimum of education for the seriously disadvantaged children of low income, low soctal status groups. | place this task first not necessarily because it ts of greater importance than the others, but because it is a matter of simple justice to help overcome the dis advantages suffered by so large a number of our citizens Unless America pro vides a fair chance to these children, all of the vaunted heritage of liberty and Opportunity has no meaning for them AN OPEN ROAD FOR THE TALENTED Task number two ts what 1 have called an open road for the talented. To illustrate graphically what I mean I have taken a page from yesterdays Neu York Herald Tribune. \t has two articles that I think are of some concern to The first one tells us, on the basis of studies made by reputable institutions in this country, that Russia 1s rapidly overtaking and passing the United States in the field of enpineering This year Russia ts graduating $0,000 engineer America 19,000 Now with the initihl handicap that Russia had, an achievement such as that does represent a kine of lifting by the educational bootstraps. It meant reaching into populations which were largely illiterate and in a very few years bringing this large number of people up through this technical engineering training I know it 1s heresy, in Washington particularly, to suggest that Soviet Russia has been successful in inything, but if it 1s heresy to open our eyes and our minds to the facts, then the witchhunters must make the most of it, because this country can only be safe by facing up realistically to the task that confronts it and by doing what is necessary to become equal to that task. What ts necessary is first and foremost the full development of its human resources through ade quate education for all The second article deals with our need for science students, It tells us that in the United States there is a tremendous shortage of students in chemistry and physics and the other sciences. It tells us the reason for this ts the shortage of teachers in these fields. Again when we look into the educational oppor 248 RURAL EDUCATION--A FORWARD LOOK tunities in rural America, what do we find? We find that in the rural areas a smaller proportion of students are enrolled in high school than in the urban areas. We find that a much smaller proportion of students go to college In other words, there is a waste of talented manpower in the rural areas Many who might become teachers, scientists, or teachers of sctentists, or enter other learned professions, fail to do so for lack of educational opportunities This waste is great wherever poverty, sparsity of population, and inadequate cultural facilities place their blight upon the growing children he states with the highest proportion of rural population are the states with the lowest proportion of the total school enrollment in high school, This means especially the Southern states because in the Northeast only two-fifths of the population is rural; in the North Central states a little more than a third; in the West about three-tenths; but in the South the proportion ts a little over one-half Again we find a combination of factors, all adding up to a denial of equal opportunity and adding up most importantly to the failure to develop our man power, Particularly here | want to emphasize a failure to identify and to provide advanced training for the talented, for the upper 15-20 percent of ability who are found among all groups in the population, but who do not always become identified because of the paucity of the cultural resources and opportunities for learning that are offered to the people in these groups PROVIDING FOR THE ENRICHMENT OF LIFI Task number three is that of providing special facilities and services to enrich life. Look at the situation in rural America. It has about one percent of the elementary enrollment in kindergartens. In urban communities five and six tenths percent are in kindergartens. A reasonable standard might be ten percent in kindergartens. So as far as this is a valuable part of education, of the so ial ization process of children, it is denied again to those groups who are already most disadvantaged in opportunities for learning and developing their full potential Or look at the provisions for adult education. Three and a half million are enrolled in adult education courses in urban areas, only about one million in rural areas. Less than two percent of the rural population is enrolled while nearly three times as large a proportion of the urban population is enrolled The proportion of high schools providing adult education is much lower in rural than in urban areas. According to one study, only fourteen percent of 390 rural high schools in Michigan have general adult education, whereas seventy-seven percent of the high schools in urban areas have general adult education Or look at the opportunities to develop talents in music and art. Consider the provisions for libraries; examine the preparation of teachers in rural and urban areas: observe the provisions——or lack of them-——-for community colleges, museums, and other community educational agencies. It is clear that here again i large segment of our population is denied the opportunity for the enrichment THE TASK AHEAD IN ACHIEVING EQUAL OPPORTUNITY FOR ALI 249 of life that adds so much to the fulfillment of the individual to which our society supposedly is committed EDUCATION TO INSURE OUR FREEDOMS Task number four in some ways 15 the most urgent. It is to offer education adequate to sustain our freedoms and to attain our aspirations Here we move from the concept of equality to one of adequacy. Even if we were to make an equal division of the educational opportunities currently available, this would be far less than adequate for our present needs. Therefore, to the familiar idea of equality of opportunity, we must add the concept of adequacy of opportunity I mean adequacy along several dimensions. The first dimension is adequacy in the sense of enabling the individual to develop his full powers so that he may make, in his own way, his special contribution to our society We are cutting ourselves off from the contributions of hundreds of thousands of our citizens because of inadequa‘e educational opportunity The second dimension in regard to adequacy is that of developing the Nation's full potential manpower, its human resources. We cannot afford a continued neglect of these resources in the face of the threats to our freedoms that are posed by the rise of the totalitarian regimes in their sweep across a considrable portion of the earth's surface A third dimension of adequacy has to do with providing citizens who can make wise choices. The one fact that more than any other differentiates our kind of society from Communist society is precisely the wide latitude that is given for individual freedom of choice-—-our belief, only partially achieved, that the individual should be enabled to choose not only his own ends but to make his views count in the shaping of public policy If you will look at the foreign policy of the United States today and instead of blaming the current Secretary of State or the current administration, consider the kind of policy that the American Legion will support, you will understand why American foreign policy does not change much from one administration to another. A new set of slogans, perhaps, but essentially the same kind of policy emerges My reference to the American Legion was not intended in any sense as a slur I might equally have said the Kiwanians, the Rotarians, or the businessmen, the farmers, or the school teachers of America, if you like. All I mean to imply is that our foreign policy and our domestic policy cannot sustain any higher level than the enlightenment of the people will permit, if indeed our policy is to be made through free choices of individuals. Public policy and the education of the people are so closely linked in the bor.ds of democracy that one cannot rise far, or remain long, above the level of the other. If we expect a wiser public policy for this country, we must have a better education. But we must have a wiser public policy in order to get a better public education. Unravel that one and we will get somewhere I think this dilemma can be dissolved only through a process in which political and educational leaders join with the whole American people in hammering RURAL BOUCATION A FORWARD LOOK out a conscidus public policy that will produce a clarification of values and goals, and a redefinition of the issues involved in attaining the goals. This requires the participation of the great body of citizens in discussion of the issues in small groups, neighborhood by neighborhood, and community by community Let us hope that this conference and others like it, as well as the coming state and White House conferences on education may he Ip to actual ize this great publ debate on the real tissues of education If what I have said about the differentiation between our society and slave societies 1s true, this kind of freedom for the individual can be sustained only if somehow the resultant of these free individual choices adds up on the side of wisdom and the general welfare. A series of bad guesses today can be so quickly catastrophic that we may lose all of our liberties while we are de iding how to safeguard them. We can lose them as quickly from within as from without if we are not aware of what is involved in this process which enables the individual to make important decisions And so the task of providing an education adequate to sustain our freedoms is in a sense the over-all task which confronts all of us in rural and urban areas alike. It is of special concern to rural areas, because while the loss of potential human resources is great in all areas, it is greatest in the rural areas It is greatest of all among the disadvantaged groups A REVOLUTION IN QUALITY IS NEEDED nust face up to the task and move toward P oviding the quality revo in education that will take us nearer to our goals. This means that we must discard the mass production model of education that has served us well, and that when created was pe thaps as good as the economy could support, But this mass production method which moves learners along through standardized learning ex penences at uniform rates 1s not good enough to meet the needs of today It does not provide enough stimulation and opportunity for growth for the gifted. It is equally unfair to the slow learners who often are people with great potentialities, even though slow starters. We must have a quality produc tion in education brought about by a stepping up in the quality of teaching and 1 reduction in the pupil-teac her ratio. Then, learners may be rouped on flexible bases for different kinds of experiences and so there may be sequence and con tinuity in the learning experiences provided for the individual learner, and not simy| ly something called sequence ind continuity existing chiefly on paper This means that one experience for the individual must be built on other expereences so there is a sequential deve lopment for each individual The provisions for exceptional children must be stepped up, also remembering that all children are in some degree, or im sore aspect, exceptional and deserv ing, therefore, of exceptional teachers. To get thede good teachers in sufficient numbers we must exercise a quality of imagination we have not yet applied to the problem. We must find ways of identifying the people who are like the second teacher that Claude Reavis had and like the teacher that brought about iHE DISTINCTIVE EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF RURAL PEOPLE 251 his great intellectual awakening in his twelfth year. We must give these teachers a better preparation than we have yet done. We must make their education more exciting, more meaningful, and we must prepare them, among other things, to be able to make full use of the rural environment as a laboratory for some of the richest learning experiences that can come to our children THE DISTINCTIVE EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF RURAL PEOPLI MRS. HAVEN SMITH Associated Women of the American Farm Bureau Federation Chappell. Nebraska Jama farm woman from the western Nebraska wheat belt and farming ts ri job. My remarks will be in the nature of observations from a layman's point oO, VICw For many years we have been told that rural America is the training ground for the Nation's leaders. Many things have changed, but I believe that this has not. This morning Dr. Brownell told us that half of our rural young people migrate to the city to earn a livelihood. In response to a recent survey made by Mark A. May, forty-one Senators out of fifty eight, thirty-five of the present Governors, all but one of the active members of the Supreme Court, and all but three of the Presidents of the United States, were rural born. Further, it has been estimated that eighty percent of the ministry, seventy-five to eighty percent of the successful business and professional men of our cities, and eighty five percent of those listed in Who's Who im America have come from rural areas So because you educators are training the children of rural America, you have a great responsibility, and because I am a farm woman, I, too, have a great responsibility. It is my obligation to stand by your side, to see that you are adequately paid, to see that your problems are understood and that you have the things you need to do a good job Better days are coming. Rural people are in the process of a great awakening We are developing an awareness of the problems of rural education. We are using united power through our organizations in working toward their solution And we farmers today are just as resourceful as our ancestors were more than a century ago when with their rifles by their sides they penetrated the wilderness, built homes for their children, cleared lands for their fields, and settled America We are as willing as they to work for all the good things that America needs Farm organizations are making a frontal attack against the many obstacles to equality of educational opportunity in rural America. We are working for good roads, better libraries, more equitable tax systems, the school lunch program, raising standards of teachers, and school reorganization. We have promoted the school program of vocational agriculture. We urge our members to inform RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK themselves and take an active interest in the school and its problems. We have worked for years for a fair share of the Nation's income for farm people-——-not just so there would be more money in the bank or more money to jingle in the pocket, but so there would be more money for better hemes, for better schools, for better health, for better living in rural America I heard Mrs. Raymond Sayre—-and by the way, she is in ow audience today say years ago that when she tackled a problem she thought tue first thing to do was to make an inventory-—to see where we are, what we have, and whither we are poing. And $0 1 propose first to ake a quick survey of what we have in rural America What do we have’? While city people and country people are basically much alike, we find in rural America certain human characteristics and advantageous environments which make it a particularly rich field in which to live and in which to work Rural peor le are distinguished by their stability and basi cultural traditions. They are self-reliant Even the children are trained to shoulder responsibility. They have something, which Dr. Frank Cyr said recently 1s an objective of a), educators, the spirit of neighborly helpfulness which 1s a part of the understanding and good will so sorely needed in America today As we travel the long trail since the days of the pioneers, we are losing many things while we are gaining other things. But if we lose our tradition of neighborly good will, we will have lost a priceless heritage ne will challenge my conviction that the best place to develop the elemental traits of neighborliness, courtesy, tolerance, and fair play, which are the roots of civilization, is in the rural community. It is the best place for children to pet primary experience in real living so they will really know the natural world in which they grow up. The child who has never experienced the thrill of wading in the brook, of climbing a tree, of petting acquainted with Bossy” and her calf, of feeding the chickens, or gathering eggs from the nest, has missed something very precious Arthur Morgan says, ‘I have met countless people who are active in various health, h spital, welfare, and hygiene societies but who had never seen a chicken killed or a kitten born. They have crossed the Atlantic but they cannot swim [hey have slept in hotels in Cairo and Bombay but never in the woods They have climbed to the top of Pikes Peak but they have never shinnied a tree or climbed a cliff They install automatic he ating plants in their homes and air conditioning im their offices but they could not be trusted to burn the trash in the back yard Phey make ice in their kitchens but they have never skated or snowshoed. They eat all their lives and wear carnations and orchids but they have never planted a seed or raised a croy Again, the rural educator surely must take pride in her position in the com munity. Next to the minister she is the most important public worker. She is respected, honored, and revered. And how she must cherish the rich under standing between herself and her pupils. She knows that Johnnie its one of 1 children and that his father is in jail for drunkenness. She knows he probably did not have enough to eat for breakfast that morning. She knows THE DISTINCTIVE EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF RURAL PEOPLE 253 that Paula is the spoiled child of over indulgent parents. She knows Laura has 2 good mind but so far she has failed to learn to use it. She knows about the domestic difficulties in Dora's home and understands her need of love and security If she needs to talk problems over with parents, it is so easy. They are her friends. She visits them often. She sits beside them in church. These oppor tunities for human understanding and service are opportunities which are par ticularly rural. During the summer, one of the fine teachers in my home town, a man by the way, was offered a position in a large city system at a substantial increase in salary. Everyone thought sorrowfully that of course he would take it. But he didn't. He went to the city, looked the situation over, and came back to us. He said he did not like the factory atmosphere. He did not like the red tape of the city system. He would rather work in our little town among friends where he felt he could do more good Now as I list these assets, I do not mean to minimize in any way the great differences between opportunity in rural and urban areas, But I just want to say that we can make rural America a laboratory for the richest learning ¢ xperi ences in this Nation. We have preat assets. I think sometimes we become so concerned with our problems thet perhaps we forget to look at the rich blessings we do have I have been thinking that if I should ask you educators to state the greatest thing that we, the farm people, could give you, I believe you would ask us for greater participation. You would tell us that our interest and action and under standing are needed along with your professional expertness and leadership to get the job done. You would ask us to realize that our investment in education an investment in human resources, in hay piness, freedom, and security Mr. Brownell told us this morning that the solution lies with the people, that the quality and amount of education we have depen Is upon the attitude of the i peor le and that when we know the facts, we will work for good education You have just heard Dr. Francis S Chase point out that our standards will be no higher thar the en! ghtenment of the people will permit How true those statements are. and | want to you that rural America is fast be ming Just the aay 5 d with on my neighbors She said w, | now realize that what poe mn in that hool there is the most important thing in this world to me hose te children more hours of the day than I have Then she bepan to talk to me about the school She told me how the kince rgarten teacher sends home her little girl has learned to write manu cript ty! The teacher tel | ! style is and how the parents can hely She told me about 4and Mothers’ Club and how the mother to understand and appreciate what 1s being done through the band that when Ruthy came home and said she was studying “Problems in Demox racy Dad said What is it?” and they got the book and read and they found out. She had been studying the reading books along with her children She knew about room mothers. She was becoming interested and informed and you folks were making this possible. She had developed an awareness of I »S4 RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK educational problems and needs and she is not alone Many mothers in my community have just such an awareness as that mother has, and ten thousand mothers like that can be a mighty force. A million such mothers own little can be invincible If you folks should ask me what we the rural people most desire from your professions, | would answer “more teachers of quality and consecration.” There are many wonderful teachers, but there are a few who are not so wonderful and very often they settle in rural schools. As | look back over my school years, one teacher stands out in my memory. She was my sixth grade teachet I do not remember anything about the building or the equipment, both probably poor. | know we sat two in a seat. But I do remember the teacher——old, angular, homely in face but not in spirit. She left her imprint on the life of every child with whom she came in contact. There was no fooling, no coddling, but she She made us want to do our best. She instilled in us the an in 7 iration principles of neighborliness, honesty, thrift, and fair play. None of us will ever forget Miss Blakley. We need more teachers like her How are we to pet these quality teachers? Of course, it involves salaries that will attract the most able people. 't might also involve making teaching a career that need not end in marriage 1 wonder if our colleges could not do a better job of giving young people a larger vision of the teacher's contribution to civilization, of her creative opportunities, of the dignity and nobility of her profession. Couldn't they do a better job of making consecrated teachers ? I think if I had a child tn school today I would tell him that it was more important for him t understand and lis harmoniously with the shy son of the washer woman on one si of him, the arrogant son of the plutocrat on the other, and the blustering bully up the aisle than it was for him to get high te I would place first things first--first his human relations, and second cholar hij An do not underrate scholar hi The President of Sarah Lawrence College said, “The aim of schools and colleges should be to teach human understanding.” Dr. Albert Wiggam adds, ition that fails to teach young peor; le how to live hapy ily together and what keeps people apart 1s a failure, even a danver bursting wi nowledye of art, science, literature, and ybscure int | r hanger who understood human {1 them into barbarism if | were a teacher, | would ask mys Am I turning out students freedom, who will not be willing to trade it for false promises of security or material gains? Am I turning out students who feel a responsibility rovernment, who know about gvovernmer ind will not be taken in by : Am [| turning out students who will do their own thinking, who heresy, hysteria propaganda, or on what out students who realize that prejudice is Am I turning out students who will earnestly strive to nd their fellowmen, remembering if they cannot understand the folks around thern they can never hope to understand their neighbors across the sea? MAKING THE PROVISIONS NECESSARY Am | turning out students who place their sacred honor above all else, remem bering that when the morality of a nation sinks, the hour of its doom ar proaches / | Am I turning out students who have faith. not faith that right will prevail but faith that they can work with their fellowmen to make right prevail 7 MAKING THE PROVISIONS NECESSARY TO IMPLEMENT AN ADEQUATE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAD FRANK W. CYR Professor rf Education lumbia University America 1s committed to the great ideal of universal education for its children It is committed to an educational program which will develop the individual and improve community life. We know that the future of the Nation depends upon an intelligent well-trained citizenry. We recognize that education is the most powerful force for the perpetuation of American democracy and use to human ends of the fruits of modern technology We know, too, that as the problems of civilization become more complex, the demand for more and better educatior will become rreater The va lucational program now needed to serve the needs of each child cannot b cnt untle idequate provisions ire made to carry if on effectively uughout the Nation where children live. Today we face the orporate organization, the physical facilits financing necessary to make the needed educational irly thirty-six million childre 1on teachers, a quarter of a million non venty thousand administrative and supery plant having an estimated capital value ! annual budget of seven billion dollar courage to set up a publi school their day. They organized school ployed teachers to make the edu catio they d if po i ) ( time men have struggled to change ida yt f I and improve the irly ovisions for education as the deznands for more edu technology has changed our ways of living change in An can fe has multiplied the need for re 100! systems, constr ig new buildings, and refinancing our acturer i sitat O scrap an expensive manutacturing made obsolete by a new manufacturing process be equally courageous in adapting our public school systern to meet in education RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK THREE GUIDING PRINCIPLES The following three guiding principles are proposed for use in developing adequate provisions for education Ligu lity of Educational Opportunity The first principle which must guide the development of all provisions for education in rural areas is equality of educational opportunity This does not mean absolute equality of opportunity which can never be achieved even with rigid centralized control. It does mean elimination of the gross inequalities which now exist among local school districts and among states—-inequalities which penalize the children of economically poor districts and at the same time j vent wealthier dj tricts from making maximum progress The principle of equality of educational opportunity ts unive rsally advocated in theory but sadly neglected in practice, One of the great objectives during this next decade must be the implementation of this principle by educational and lay leaders alike. Local, state, and national policy must be directed to this end. We can no longer ignore the gross inequalities between rural and urban education in the financing of schools, the level of teachers salaries, and the provision of physical facilities. Rural and urban leaders must recognize this problem and work out solutions together which serve the common welfare Democratic Control if the most precious assets of our smaller communities is the oppor they naturally afford all citizens fur a voice in the policy and operation hool. One of the greatest assets of the small community is the natural it affords all citizens to participate in the work of the school, initiate Im pre nents in the quality and scope of educaticn, and exercise control in school affairs Some of our larpe cities are recognizing the fundamental worth this asset and making intensive efforts to de clop it into their large, central perations. Democratic control requires intelligent, active and constructive ition by the people within a structure which ts ¢ ipable of putting their for good education if effect It is an asset which our small com munities must guard and foster idapted To The Small Community Situation f size are basically alike. They are alike in their com iding the cope ind quality of education each child needs improving community life They are alike in conforming to the basic of learning and general princsy les of school administration. in their need buildings, finance, and a corporate organization. However, a design adapted to the small school situation must be developed on the foundation of these general similarities - Small ties lize the educat 4 quired les: STiai Communities ¢ not reaiize tre Cqucationa } royram requires uNnicss ovisions for plementing the educational program are functionally i designed for small school operation They can no more function effectively by merely imitating large city school systerns than automotive engineers can design ) / y ) MAKING THE PROVISIONS NECESSARY an automobile for transporting small groups by merely imitating a railroad train which is designed to transport large groups. In considering provisions for implementing the educational program in small communities, we must recognize the size of the group to be served and approach the problems with open minds i and creative imagination. The factors of sparsity of population and the size of the group to be served cannot be ignored In the light of these principles, let us look at one of the most important changes now in progress, the reorganization of the corporate structure of our nool system from local districts to state education departments SCHOOL REORGANIZATION ported by its corporate structure just a skys er iS SUy ported by its steel framework Like the steel frame The public school system in America 1s suf work of a skyscraper, the corporate structure of the school system is hidden from view. This corporate structure is the laws, court decisions, and official regula tions which give life and direction to the school and make it a being which can carry on the work of education. This corporate structure was set up in colonial days to carry on a relatively simple educational operation designed to meet the educational needs of that time and adapted to the community pattern of that day Over the generations since our forefathers passed the first laws authorizing the yperation of publ ie schools, men have struggled by trial and error and in the light of democratic principles to adapt and reshape school organization to he dernands made upon it by the increase in our national poy ulation, the sire for a fuller, richer educationa: program, and the changes in community brought about by the impact of modern technolog These pre ‘ ve brought about rapid changes in school organization since the close of World War Il. The number of local school districts has been reduced nearly by one-half, the intermediate unit is being widely developed, and seven state educational departments ha \ d from an elective chief state school off ) appointm by a board of education, The rapidity with which change 1 cing place increases the need for careful study and sound prin iples ve loy ment of a sound corporate structure of school organization ind ate, which 1s Cal ible of sur porting the school system of fess im reorganization of the iministrative structure has reorganization of local school districts. In three-fourths of the states the development of local community school districts as the basic istration. In the remain ng state princi f South the county as the basi administrative Organization 1s not yet comy leted In over half all the school districts same time the county satisfactory high school 258 RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK We are in the midst of a program of school district reorganization which will affect the pattern of school organization and the quality of education in rural areas for decades, It is vitally important that the new structure developed out of the old be based on sound principles of administration, adequate provi sions for financial support, and careful surveys of the factors involved. It is important that the local people and the state education department participate together in making major decisions. Most important of all is the development of districts which (1) are capable of providing an adequate educational program, ind’ (2) are adapted to the emerging socio-economic, community pattern The Intermediate Unut One of the most vital movements in school organization since the close of World War II is the development of a new concept of the intermediate super intendency. This office is between the local district and the state education department Typically, it functions throughout a county or similar area between the local district which ts the primary unit of school operation and the state education dey irtment which has statewide responsibilities for education Its objective is service, not control. Its great purpose is to assist local districts and the state education department in the provision of better educational oppor tunities for all the children Its principal functions are helping schools grow, providing consultative serv ices, coordinating mutual activities of local districts and the state education department, participating in certain administrative procedures, and providing the cooperative shared-services which can be most effectively provided to a group of communities working together over a large area. California and New York have led in the provision of special services from the intermediate offices as desired by local districts We now have emerging in the de veloy ment of this office the opportunity to fhe children in each school district, regardless of size, the specialized f curriculum consultants, guidance and psychological services, special provision for education of the handicapped, health services, library services, library and audio-visual educational aids, adult education coordinators camping education, circuit te ichers, and special idmunistrative services essential in a ial program. The intermediate superintendency is an essential total educational structure. We face the responsibility of reorganizing intermediate unit with idequate structure and financial support to perform ns effectively, just as certainly as we face the problem of reorpanizing State kducation Department The state education department is an integral part of the school system. Its responsibilities are growing as modern communication brings us all closer to gether and makes coordination of purpose and program within states and among states more and more essential. The state education department should be gov erned by the state board of education composed of outstanding lay citizens. Its major functions are: (1) Leadership ind service in the develoy ment of state MAKING Pil PROV 2 59 nd ind { 5) the entorce € ofganizational structure ization 15 too often carried on ranized struc ; i ropery tt 1 Well oft ch our American form inization. Following tate will be assigned rere | robler i‘ fac ing truct 1} mon to irthrate RURAL PDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK physical facilities to house an effective educational program This is a problem of national security and must be faced as a problem of national concern. It is a national problem which we can and must solve. It can be solved by adequate Federal appropriations to supy lernent local and state funds. The Congress and the Administration have a responsibility and a moral obligation to provide the hool building funds necessary to the educational welfare of our children ite shortage of school building facilities in rural areas is due largely to nigration, reore on of school districts, and financial problems is decreasing the number of puy ils in some areas Technological changes in agriculture are resulting nethods of farming which affect the need for school ireé moving to the country and small towns to live, commuting to work in factory, office, or research les from home try into the open country ind small COMMUN ities es to increase according to industrial leaders ill industry which electrical power now makes nization of school districts has made many r new construction The burden has delayed essential rogram for school does not provide \imerica with equality of AREA mnportant to con nn It 15 imitating on the character {1 Y) tinle ) mul ipl and { 1) suit school build uilding is to be It must be de them nple, a large general of shop activities from ind repair of farm machinery ifi a small high wotk. A general MAKING THE PROVISIONS NECESSARY 26) laboratory classroom for all the sciences taught is more functional than separate laboratories for each science with a separate lecture room adjoining The National Survey of Secondary Fducation found that the school library was used nearly twice as often by pupils when library and study hall were pro vided for in the same room, instead of in separate rooms. Elementary classrooms with space and equipment for activities such as supplementary reading, art work, and elementary science provide a more favorable situation for child development than when these activities are limited to Sf ecialized rooms Planning for multiple use of space also includes planning for the integrated of adjacent rooms. The use of glass partitions in business education facili tie ind for small conference rooms have already demonstrated the functional value of space which pives small groups fre edom to meet their own needs with out the handicap of complete isolation from their fellows and their teacher Folding j rtitions | m us of the ime a | ict for both large group and small grou activitte The same princy if multiple use applies to the school building as a com munity nter Lunchroom and he me economics fac ilities can serve both pupils and « mmunity organizations The sammie i true of the iuditorium gymnasium, and conference rooms. The same room, proj erly planned, can be used by pupils ind serve as a Legion Hall, Boy Scout and Girl Scout room, and place for other community organizations outside of school hours by ple expedient of providing adequate closet space where each organization ent when not in use i und should be, a closely knit inteyrate | whole in which teachers of the entire school work closely together in common building « mn should foster this community of spirit A of ssolated comy irtments cannot realize the rural community school building be flexible, to accom ram which must be rn ide from litate the alterna iddition of new courses, and the modification of those which The building should be so constructed that old walls can easily wall rected as changing educatior umunity life in a hool activities form es a wider Variety ct ‘sible ify orpan rm nsibility chool building has a RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK chool building facilities are uday ted to effective use by farm organi zations, service clubs, women’s clubs, youth organizations, dramatic clubs, and the like. it multiy lies its value, replaces the need for other ¢ upensive facilities in the community, and strengthens the organizations served The same is true when © houses such agencies as the public library and the peaks ve health service sion and maintenance of satisfactory space ina wing of the chool building means important financial savings which can be used more profit ibly for other community PUrpPOSsEs ld be should rn the atmosphi a home than a factory The use of c decoration ind thting shoul | : 1 healthy and favorable situation in ina , { chitectural style should be m of nal life it j ; community life it serve Its design should idapted to the climate, weather temperature, and topography but of the rural community itself A building irchitecturally appro urrounding § populated city and surrounded ually would ; suited to the rural con rrvauinity the city { ‘ to stand out among other | ‘ intry. its need is to pive the nding countrysice m chil and pains erat How through h the MAKING THE PROVISIONS NECPSSARY 2645 The transportation program as a whole and in every aspect, must be sternly evaluated in terms of the children’s welfare. This consideration must Lb. upper respon ible for all decisions. state or local which most mm the minds of those affect the proporti f the educational dollar which shail be diverted from education itself te 6 Per Ce The hoard mber re nistrators throughout the United States who portation form a large prour This makes there igreement upon basi which ¢ ork tog de ing poly y and prac Such objectives should be the portation service Safety paramount consideration. It means that rotected against he ilth and accident hazards during the } nomy % sup r*lementary to safety and requires that ' | sintained. consistent with safety. The value received for nsportation mu weighed again he returns it refers to the amount ting needs ()ver imong the states of transportat equate j RURAL EDUCATIO?T A FORWARD LOOK sources of wealth which now represent most of the taxable wealth in the United State state funds on an equalization basis are essential to support education victe equality of school support and pr The ammount which is needed to finance e ber of children of school age willing to le vote to edu won ducation will depend upon the num the amount of our total national income we are ind the amount of wealth which is produced that can be taxed for school Purposes Norton estimates that the school budget of current expenditures must be increased from seven to twelve billion dollars to f rovide an a lequate educational ( that four-fifths of the present national shortage 000 qualified teachers is in rural areas, which have 45 percent of the che hildren and only 38 percent of available school 1unds. An estimated $500,000,000 1s necessary just to bring rural teachers’ salaries up to the level of teacher This equalization of salaries is lu ishman estimates essential to the provision of itional opportunity in America ite ‘o increase the proportion of state aid without regard to the wealth of the local quality of school support and penalizes cannot adequately finance schools in tate and Federal aid distributed on an rural and urbs must work tovether for the port throu, ‘ Federal aid if ; we ife to ucational of rural areas will « ind scope of mimunity struc per ntenden y will made tilable to transportats f and i small community fo its mut ils ed alike in their that the sr school in ize laws of learning facilities and small lors call RURAL EDUCATION PROBLEMS: PAST AND PRESENT 265 network of informal human relationships. The small school ts dependent on outside sources for certain types of services which can properly be provided within the large school system. The small school itself is a closely-integrated organism which provides greater opportunity for pupil initiative and pupil responsibility in carrying on the learning process The work of the traditional classroom as we have known it must be thoroughly analyzed and methods adapted to small group learning developed Designed oroperly the small school can provide just as broad a variety of educational Op] ortunities for its children as the large school, and do it at comparable cost just as the automobile provides transportation for small groups equal in quality to that of the railroad train which transports large groups We must apply the same imagination and persistence to designing small schools as Henry Ford and his conternporaries applied to the invention of the automobile The ce veloy ment of adequate provisions for education in rural areas 15 a tre mendous task. It requires the inteiligent planning and effective action of lay and professional leaders throughout the United State. RAL EDUCATION PROBLEMS: PAST AND PRESENT JOHN K. COX Secretary (ye neral Serurce [ Illinois Agricultural Association worked with school reorganization especially appreciate Howard A. Dawson whose vision of what a school should of some of our leaders. He appeared on several of the reorganization period ind when he became yne trip, he spent his recuperation period assisting the ormmittee in that county with its report to the people later a teacher and superintendent of schools in ruaal more recently associated with the largest state farm nizati in America, my background and experience has been of a pre dominantly rural nature. | speak, therefore, from the point of view of a farm boy wh | it 16 years as a school teacher and administrato: ind who for the few years | wen close to the policy making process of a state agricultural i ! ? linois had 11,955 school districts. Over listricts. Believing that we could provide better youngsters in fewer districts, we set about ranize inte i A local survey preceded action and especially after it was once s arted we had only 2,607 school districts remaining—-a percent ind this number has been further reduced have been enriched, school housing improved 266 RURAL EDUCATION--A FORWARD LOOK spread more widely to offer greater school opportunities broadened, tax rates Stability to school financing. Most people are happy with the change An additional task that Illinois had was to get the grade school and high school under the same school board and supervision and still have a large enough administrative and taxing unit to provide a good high school education at a reasonable cost per pupil We found that while a particular one-room school might be a good school, verage one-room school found it difficult to attract good teachers, to offer in the prog.am, to ifford adequate competition between students on i prade les and, in many cases, to proj erly finance the school. Alse, the teacher could pre id her attention over one or two prade: better than over six onclusion was that a two-room school was generally better than i three-room better than a two, and so on. If it became necessary because of roads, d‘stance to another school, or Jack of housing space elsewhere to leave some of the pupils in a one-room school, we recommended leaving only the lower six grades, or perhaps the lower four Experience with reorganization problems indicated that we should attempt ip an administrative and taxing unit involving both grade and high school and su iciently large for the economical and efficient operation of one high school within the district. In these larger districts we preferred to have several grade schools located nearer to the homes of the youngsters. This lareer dis trict could be orpanized and enjoy certain advantages of the larger district, with housing problerns * worked out later Some discussion at the « d local Jevels centered around the loss of rural value: So many people differed about what ‘‘rural values’’ were that U entually the rural values irvument was largely SUP} lanted with a discussion of what kind of program youngsters need—urban as well as rural. This latter line of thought was based on the idea that rural and urban people must co operate, since few rural communities can provide by themselves an acceptable program of education f urticularly in the high school It was also based on the knowledge that at least half the boys and perhaps three-fourths of the girls leave the farm and should have the benefit of some training in the sciences, manual skills (as in wood shop and metal shop courses), as well as secretarial ourses, public speaking, and others. We strongly recommended that agriculture and home economics be taught In trying to pet several small high schools enrolling 10 to 60 puy ils, to co- operate in setting up an administrative unit large enough for one pood 150 to 400 pupil high school, we naturally ran into local prejudices, as well as the tendency of some people to consider business or a basketball team more impor- tant than a good educational program. While some small 50 pupil high schools lacked sufficient vision to recognize the poor job they were doing, one extremely wealthy area with 400 high school pupils voted out of a 2,800 pupil high school district. This school had maintained over the years an extraordinarily good course of study. Two years later, after calculating the cost of an equivalent program tn a smaller 400 pupil high school, this area voted three to one to re- annex to the larger district. RURAL EDUCATION PROBLEM PAST AND PRESENT 267 Many people in small communities who stood by when the local bank closed its doors and had watched local people drive off six, ten, or twenty miles down the hard road to shop at the chain store in the larger town felt impelled when the school issue arose to do something to save the small town. Loss of the small high school as the result of a school reorganization program seemed to be another big step toward reducing the village to a ghost town. Loss of business, lower property values and the lonely feeling of being “passed by’ inJamed the imagination On the other hand, sound reasoning indicated that the village would go down hill faster w.th a small inadequately staffed high school and a mediocre program It would be . better neighborhood if the few remaining people there, or who might be attracted there, could be assured that their children could have access to a good high school a few miles down the road. Local people were urged to consider the idea that while the small neighborhood could serve well as an ele mentary attendance center, they look to the larger community for adequate high school training. They were reminded that they could not depend on the local neighborhood to sell them their clothes, or to furnish most of their commercial amusement, or even, in many cases, banking facilities. They were encouraged to believe that instead of a smal! mediocre high school helping to hold the town up, its glaring limitations added to the depressing atmosphere of the place Although rural children no doubt pained the most from the school reorgan: zation program, rural people in a way also had most to lose. They lost the little school house. They had to make new ties, have community meetings further frorn home, see their youngsters taken aboard school buses to be transported to a new attendance center. In many cases farmers paid higher taxes in the new school district and often paid substantially more taxes per capita than the average urban taxpayer In view of these considerations and in order to assure the farmer that he would have his share of responsibility of “‘running’’ the new school district the school reorganization law under which most of the reorganization took place was written so that if the newly formed school district contained more than two townships, or 72 square miles, no more than three members of a seven-member school board could come from any one township. To further safeguard rural people from being voted into a district by urban majorities, or vice versa, the law also called for a separate vote in both rural and urban territory. The vote in each area had to receive a simple majority before the new district was declared established One of the main difficulties encountered in efforts to combine rural territory with the larger populated centers grows out of a weakness in our local tax structure. Everyone pays the Federal) income tax, gas tax, excise taxes, often sales and other taxes. Unless a person owns real estate or personal property, he may have a substantial income but pay little to the support of the local government units including schools. Many school districts are unable to finance a good school if they must depend entirely on the local property tax To level out the inequalities in local taxation and guarantee the poor school districts an opportunity to provide a reasonably high standard of education RURAL EDUCATION—-A FORWARD LOOK its youngsters, financial aid from the state should be distributed to the school districts on the basis of need. The state should guarantee to each district that makes the required levy to qualify for state aid an amount per pupi! approxi mately equivalent to the average cost of educating youngsters throughout the state Local taxation is often made ineffective by poor assessing. So many powerful individuals and concerns profit from a poor assessment that it is often difficult to improve iocal assessment machinery. However, several school districts have come up with surprising results and considerably more income locally by making 1 detailed study of the assessments on individua! pieces of property within the school district. One school district of about 1,200 homes found 320 pieces of improved property listed as vacant lots. Another school board jected the initial assessment of $2,000,000 on a new automobile plant in the district and the next assessment listed it at $7,000,000. This particular district was able by a lau a ink Wii dae piupcily to provide additional school housing space for its increasing enrollment and reduce taxes at the same time Our biggest problem at present is providing school housing in some of the hat have exhausted their bonding power and fapids bCVCS il itvali filets I y Pr *e are forced to cheapen their school program and put some of the pupils on half day shifts. We are considering setting up a state revolving fund for needy communities that mect certain Conditions > / the farmers own, including a of its own, distinguishing ele religious, educational, political ana recreati y enduring. But today modern technology and centralized management have made it possible to withdraw one after another functions from the community, and have progressively , j withdrawn them, until the norma! life of the comn ity munity is greatly restricted and impo" i f uncc simon for the family of a farmer or a rural worker ispersed during the day, at work, school, recreation, or wor THE SCHOOL MUST DISCOVER THE COMMUNITY d ) ship, while knowing few if any neighbors at home. Yet both children and lults have vital need for the cormmunity as an area of life in which the intimate Through the Middle West there are many localities where in days past the community school was the center of community life. With the school moved away by consolidation, or yntrolled without reference to the community many or most of these have larvely ceased to be communities. With the children leav ing hor ery early and returning very late, the family also ts partially daisinte prratiy Today, the ignificance of the mall community 1s being re liscovered, and it is being f{ en recognition in educational! planning That process must be car ried further. We must build a new and fuller understanding of the significance ' »f the small community, of its place in a changing world, and of what 1s its place y ) ' A oe 2B ays , = the mnt ‘. th ; 11¢f in the education, of childrer We cannot work on 1¢ assu prion vat just any kind and size cf social group 1% a community without doing vi ence to a vital ! ' ment 3 iif arc ecitic re }rement oO 1 if if¢ lo irvive, the mmunity mu be cared for and loved for its own ike, as the family or the Nat loved and cared for It cannot irvive and prosper imply as the location of largely unrelated activities and institutior such a chool. church ind busine The community must he a self respecting elf existing institution manaping its own lon a! affairs in its OWN way a‘ does a mature family. The gradual destruction of the community, by taking away its tural functions of education, local administration, intimate associations, and occasions for working together for common ends, will have serious effects on national character and destiny Through many thousands of years of primitive community life, education of children was a natural result of | g in the community. As more formal education developed, that for yo » children continued to be primarily a family und small community responsibility, In the modern age a great change took place at about the time of the French Revolutior The policy of the Revolution I was to destroy intermediate human associations as far as possible, leaving only the individual and the over-all state. As the French school system developed after the Re lution, the child wa as far aS pos: ble taken away from other assOciatio4r and made a creature of the state contr ylled from the center It was highly improper for a parent to visit the school or to have any influence on tt It vy the boast of the French Minister of Education that he could look at his watcn at any minute f the chool day and tell what every chool child in France was studyir The aim was to make over the nd of the child according to the ideas of the state This totalitarian pattern spread over much of Europe, and from there invaded nistaken y n ustration of American lower education, and those who promote tt seldom are aware of its origin It has been a specific doctrine of some State Departments of Education that the state is supreme over its me wers and communities, that education is a function of the state, and that local communities have no rights or functions in 276 RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK education except those delegated by the state. In the very practical politics of education this doctrine has been vigorously pressed with the deliberate intent of taking away power from the local communities and vesting it in State Educa tion Det artrnents The authors of the Department of Rural Education's Yearbook on the com munity school have not ventured a cleat challenge to this totalitarian doctrine There is a rernnant of the old confusion of power with rights. Because the state has ultimate power there remains the issumption that all rights originate in the state and only by permission or allocation may be exercised by individuals or communities, For instance, in that report we read Since the central responsibility rests with the state, a brief consideration of the need ind basis for allocating functions for different state governmental activities may have pertinence-—a function should be allocated to that unit losest to the people where it can be carried out with comy leteness equity and efhciency—-in other words, functions should be allocated from the bottom up, not from the top down Here we have sound intuition and practical judgment confused by the theory which has been carried over from authoritative regimes from across the ocean the theory that power and rights are identical. The age-long experience of man kind and the inherent nature of the community reveal that the rights and functions of the community as to con munity iffairs are indigenous in the com munity by its very nature The state with its greater power is under obligation to recognize and to protect and maintain those rights. Explicit recognition of 1 make a preat and wholesome change in the atmosphere of com munity ¢ cation 1s to determine how the underlying life of the smal! community is to find expression in a world of large governmental and economic affaizs, nobility and interrelatedness of pcoT le, of po} ulation centers The first requisites of community life are neighborliness intimate acquain tance, mutual trust, solidarity, love, sympathy, and mutual endeavor, and re sponsibility. But these are not qualities that live and grow on a mass scale Unless there is developed an enduring intimate responsible group, these rela , tionships cannot send out their delicate roots which must precede hardy growth into the strength of confirmed personality and character. This is but one of the many functions of the small community, but it is central to all others. It is such relationships which hold society together and make life worth living Not only do children require the small community, but the small community requires the children. It is largely the presence of children that creates and preserves a community The people of a community become as quainted with each other through their children more than in any other way. In acting in the interest of their children they become aware of the community Take the chil dren out of the community for their education, and the community usually dies Another service which the intimate relations of family and smal! community must perform is to develop that informal social order—-inner character, and THE SCHOOL MUST DISCOVER THE COMMUNITY 277 self-discipline--upon which all society rests, and without which it cannot exist No amount of police power, leadership, and discipline can keep order and har mony among peo le in whorn those qualities are not ingrown and they can grow into the fiber of people only through living in social groups that are at once whole enough and intimate enough to insure that this order becomes established in their lives somewhat as second nature It 1s beginning to be obs: rved that much of mob action, isolation, delinquency and personality disorders are characteristic effects of instability or disappearance of small community relationshiy C - prominent criminologist declared that the community or the lack of it was the whole story in regard to delinquenc y. And Judge Samuel Leibowitz, discussing sex crimes, says For example, take Chinatown in the City of New York. It is stil! a com mumnit Chinatown has the lowest crime rate in the entire city. Why? Be cause it 1s still a neighborhood where neighbor knows neighbor, where there is a certain inhibition against the commission of crime because of the share that the criminal would share The vast, and in some cases indiscriminating, programs of routine school consolidations, with the resulting destruction of small comunity life, never were justine / Now with ce eloy ment of wide pre id pr rar of auxiliary services prov led t local mimunify chools from central pool the so-called inter mediate un the ty il arbitrary consolidation programs have no further ex cuse. Of course, there will always be needed a degree of reorganization and consolidat where existing chools do not and cannot serve existing com i" tye r where even small high schools or junior colleges are beyond com r ’ ¥ a ‘ if / ¢ r yt ment 1} f r have t t rously and routinely prot ioted school consolidation during the past several decades believed they had the answer to the most crucial proble mn rural American educatior With prowing sense of power and ureer th have pre 1 for consolidation. The 1954 Rural Education Year box K relerred t ree re t nat nev de reactior ivainst the policies | shall ti 1 ey iff ert from if ft } trate Kt rdie { the urt { er Y f led. the community is a basi nit for democratic processe it hievement of social action, The school t ape for deveiopu R 4 re effective cor nity r¢ ind ever 4e¢? IDLe Winianliy hould have a } P ye) | ling hool if ever lentifiable f inity means that there will be many all school he I I } €a nteprai irt f the cor nit ; ww dew one i possible without coordinat f the main ed t i ind econor orpanizat which are respon ( ( ) ] he ementar hox itfendance nit ind the econdary-schoo! attend ance nit hye lid be organized arour } the natural so iol 1 ne ghborh od ind corr ty are (| ) Every dec n made at the intermediate level must be in keeping with the w aware of the 278 RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK historical bases of American education and the American community to insure against implementing a program of intermediate services from the top down The community school is the most important unit of school operation.” These expressions indicate how great is the change of attitude which is com ing over the country with respect to community schools. However, the momen tum of the consolidation movement is not yet spent The process of mass depersonalizing education is still being taken by some State Departments of Education as the type to impose on rural education, with the near complete destruction of many small communities by taking their children away from them for their education We know it is not possible all at once to master the stubborn problems of depersonalization, increased crime and delinquency rates, and the lack of stable personal adjustment which tend to follow urban congestion and stresses. At least we can refrain from further carrying over to our small communities the habits of educational administration which derived from those urban conditions, and have contributed to depersonalization Education of children and adults was once an integral part of community life As formal schooling became an increasingly specialized activity, it has tended to nstitutionalize education away from direct relationship with the because formal schooling took a minor part of the child's life. As Dr. Lange, former head of the Department of Education at the University of California put it, since as i a boy he had only three month a ye of chooling he had nine months in the yee yet community For a time this did not seem to matter much an 1. But formal schooling, including organized extra- a activities, has more ind wore to monot ize ¢ lif ind interest of boys ind girls educ atior | sibility of administrators and teachers, ind almost not at ail of the community but that year disappearance of many of our small preat shifts of i and the national need for higher itandards, created a situation needing ywrection. The fault has lain in trying to solve that problern as though schooling was a world of its own, j | } . j It } j | organic relations with society a whole t has been assumec +s could not exerci di sely, none of them le have had standardized, mass-production state control. The lead { 4 except by ing jue a whole, and by treating edu t, but as of of the interwea gy threads in , ' ' ' ‘ neaithy relati [ y communities can become 1 wi a cooperating prout THE SCHOOL MUST DISCOVER THE COMMUNITY munities. The principle of relatively small-scale local autonomy, with the cooperation of small groups into larger units, combined with auxiliary counsel or services from the large reorganizations, is not an abstract theory about demox racy, but has worked out successfully in many relationships In the case of community schools there has not existed until recently any general source of auxiliary services, except in a few fields. By the provision of auxiliary services through what has been called intermediate units, the chief handicap of small community s hools can be largely removed. Democracy, like any other form of social activity, can survive at.’ flourish only by the constant exercise of creative ability to keep in adjustment with reality. It requires seme what more creative ability to develop auxiliary services than to spend money in consolidating schools and building massive school buildings The developments we anticipate in rural education and in community living can be harmed by our seeking to impose them. People resent being pressed to novel action. However, given a clear example of ,uccessful action, they are eager to rey at it lown manager povernment waited for a cent ry in our country, but once given a successful demonstration in a small city, st spread like wildfire, until now several hundreds of municipalities have adopted it of their own initiative. That is the fundamental process of democratic action Leadership should consist in creating, facilitating, and reporting progress, not in propa ganda and coercion Participation adds interest and tends to increase competence Such policy of 1 com participation leads to creative advance. One small school, honestly anc petently and creatively administered, will be an inspiration to many others It is possi for a group of parents and neighbors to organize and administer neighborhood school, as did our ancestors, putting into practice the st educational methods now available. Pacific Ackworth School in California uch an undertaking. It has high standards and a fine morale, and has been knitting parents te gether aS in piving the children the best schooling to be had j yncerned people realize what they can do with their iative, they will go all out »+ building and supporting schools for their chil dren f for themselves. But it must be truly their own enterprise W itt. such enterprise there is almost no shortage of teachers, or limitation of finance, or problem of morale that cannot be overcome The community school and community initiative 1M education are not nostrums is and all communities. Perhaps only a minority of mature enough, or care enough, to bring about a ement in school affairs. Some may be so mort in community, and even family interest that the school trusteeshiy by 4 higher authority reaching a passable relatively smal } cormmunities which or hope. ~ y 5! ld be encouraged to exer should not be coerced into standardization There should be wide tolerance effective operation. The danger of I / aare Searcc FORWARD LOOK Thrwgheut the wore ther & Gemre for umproy i. Deociec - TE 2 come my appear velhoods Astiacers are the m2 whom Amen: whose labor was eferson s mund betweer the the Ppecu } ec Sor Temer? was Dorm movement crow Gemocracy come Amem: s X S S prouc farmers who know CATION FROM THE VIEWROENT OF LABOR le emobesee thee Sifereecss beowess cy aod socal bee I oo ot umg 22 podge betweee he owo ss 2 wey of fe =| am oot sore bow oe matesss whether poopie grow =p and iwe @ Ge of of @ 2 cor! ome amt Camsoees of the wabess for growth and matercty thet csalt from bweg m cer farm acess aod small cows. Fooody meoobess ace frogecetiy Goer © each other ao Soch Ghee work and ther pee Chek grow Seer where hore becweee Ghee owe bewss aod het of thee cee Bet octal claeeeme Gan pesseswe some mect of ths Goseesss ower 2 the cot Aod seer memes che geeater perce and che grester wanety of expemesce whack are possible the ctr mar make o> for whet we oe @ Goseesss aod eet am were sere. bowewer, Ghat of and cocel Geddes shoeid grow @ ss aeughbess. After all = ofeescal tees, hese are oo longer the Goss of soir farm boeses Dee! Booee mug Goose © more whee be cowkd a Oe souk from bes oeughher’s Ghameey, bet Ghat peeiege oo loeger cass ewes for tho woo cnet weet ¢ Todas, wither a= bowers dowe from bs farm, the fammer oy haw bss Choe of two oc thew metreceliter acess, woth Ghee sttrecmoess aad ew orobiess. Whee we se De same TY stows. coed Se some cecwsmapess, pevrbess ciect he same Congressmen. and seod cer soss of > the seme wars, whee cor ieg standards mse together and che same ccomomma decheess beg ctestropbe 2 bork of ws. cer attitedes toward cach other omgbrt to cefiect the Goseeess of cer bwss eather than cresfe ac afiioal soistior. Cer fares saffer comlly and @ Oe same wass from coos ssc seen sacesss showseng what farm famdes buwe bed © ere @ ss form bas Groceed ower Ghe Last two reess. Oter neooie bee bad © rewse ew oew cofmurertoss and cow cass pest ss poor femmes baw had before aboot the closemess of famuby umes of cGoseness that comes wth beng mg cs acother of the peobiesss whad we hid alike : aleeedy been sued aboet the shortage of Glssvooms, ewen dangeroes condhoe of mummy of the Cisssrooms we db Say teachers substandard pay and ss 2 result a laree S muadequsted trac 3 all ¢ suffers fram senmous ¢ ts peoblem, and the other peotlesss of bong, camact be soived ¢f both off and coral Amen cy bas the me_ss and Oe spsoeros. Ow pooes t> grow, to the amazement of siepens both bere efocss to the dewelooment of the nod of under bat onghbess cought to have of each other. sw that we may work to make cer acughborhood mcede all of Amerca and mcuke ¢ the the cleanest. the best that cur bores cam pactere Let ss bong © bear SOUS Dour, sou exe oo = Sak on a Dey fepresent b " > Vircvamer -——LNCUCILg SCRICULTUR the Nahon has America for a ve csaacvicmsss ~ sady actage therms +s “=. ~err the £TOWU) Peer POPULATION TRENDS 4N We bebewe Tale I to be remsomably comservatve Even a cotesdle marma of ermoc would mot invalidate the mecture ther oresent of the Leree increas an azes 6 throagh be 1960 ower 1953, and facing rears of ccemt greater ceach a peak shortiy after 1960 and then slowly recede—antil mm the 1940's bee: to have children of ther own Enrolic hegh ages will cootimee fo wmecress: beyond 1965 17 wears will probad’y imcrease GO percent acrease at hagh school a.2es stems from the M coral pooth who seck a hough schoo edecstion s grow While the smemtic protien nosed by these figures places unprecedented press hes, the pemera.dzatom to be ouace from the hestoc of the deoression ss that & OS very responsive to soczal Clamate. For the last 15 years we have lived to muaurrmace and family formation. Should the mn the comung vears long enough for people to lose the berth rate mucht casily be once again ~ berth produces many stramms an the * ot os a pattern that we shall probally have o live with, a the pears to come. unless ecomomex ovcies are dimmated rural areas have an educa do urban areas. It should he educational load has rate has been ereatest m was preousiy low Before the war, families were largest among people with small incomes, poor education, and unskilled occupations. High xd college graduates as a class were not bearing enough idren even to replace themselves. But with culdbearmng rose principally upper classes where it had previously been most severely id lementary schools today come in oportion from the well-educated segments of the population than eee as farmilies hed been rather small as farm families go The large faculy whack hed been common ot many farm areas so hecomung less Comore coder The 1950 Census indicates there is oo clear coomection between farm family ecomormux class Nord d Well-todo farmers average almost as pany children as do farmers of low income Io the South however there ss 4 sharp progressaon of famuely size with declining value of farm peoducts peoduced. Prosperous southern farmers average fewer chikdren than peospercus aocthern and westen farmers Bet. small-ccale souwtherm farmess have Anger farules than sma le fas e Thess m the Nocth and West whoo children im fas : $ ar fy to x Q forcessentahve prooorhons from the vamos ccomommc classes. In the South children from farms are more beavily weighted with those from | es. it will be imteresnag 0 see whether the cattern of famuly sare arnong Southern farm fam m the fotore os c¢ has im the Nocth vocational oreraratons of uldren ss meapOoe PCI Of the SCHOOES, o> the queshen of what raral people ceosus data that the occupsthonal distnbehon Some accupehens have exmanded, place. and others are damuinshune im frequency shown in Table I! e ranked from top to hes cankin Teulerate amounts RTOS cCOmtamung af x kites WOCke©rs farm workers were directiv eninged z A bout here were alo © ZTOUP Were ope|»©r 304 RURAL EDUCATION—A FORWARD LOOK mation as hale between 19 1950, and it seems probable that they have grown at similar or greater rates among rural workers In the professional class: accountants, and auditors, college teachers, drafts- men, technical engineers of all types. Managers, officials and proprietors in construction, manufacturing, wholesale trade, and eating and drinking places. In the clerical field, and among women only: bookkeepers and cashiers, secretarial help, and telephone operators. Sales positions have grown rapidly for women but only moderately for men Among crafstmen: masons, carpenters, electricians, cramemen, and road machinery operators, factory foremen, public utility linemen and servicemen, utomobile, ofhce machine, radio and television chanics, , phambers, sheet metal workers, and tool and Among operatives: laundry and dry cleaning work, welders, and operatives engaged in saw milling, metal industries, and the manufacturing of machi- nery, transportation equipment, food products (except meat), paper, and ch nes mong service workers: bartenders and waitresses, female cooks & in relative importance, some exper- renang a net chit he num! F workers, others bare ly maintaining thei numbers: Lawyers, farmers and farm managers, filli station proprietors and agers, male bookkeepers and cashiers, if wn Sllir in attendant nmiiine Carron atrencant etai Moiae;rs, mine workers, tobacco manufacturing operatives, domestic household men Service workers, Farm laborers and fore Laborers, except farm and Occupation not reported POPULATION TRENDS AND DISTRIBUTION IN RURAI R $ 305 workers, barbers, beauticians, male waiters and fountain workers, male farm laborers, and common laborers in almost all phases of manufacturing local conditions may vary. The demand “9p many occupations a. and occupational tren ds must be kept abreast of the school curricula is increased =* rural workers; and one-fourt rral een 20 e in the labor force A new pattern fees +h spaustary itself is the practice substantial nur s of wor re-enterin their late 50's an ; when the children no longer requi un More than half of king rural women are m fied women living with their husbands. Barring an economic situation that places oe in th t of married women, their present large-scale labor f tion ap pears | to be here to stay The employment trend in the farm population is worthy of special note the decline in the number cf people living on farms, one mig zht presu ppose that the remaining farm population was a somewhat “purer” one in the sense of being the hard core of people whose economic —_ is almost solely concerned with agriculture This is not the case. Non- agricultural employment and part-time farming are on the increase. A survey recently completed by the Census Bureau and the Agricultural Marketing Service shows that between April 1950 and April 1954, the number of farm people engaged principally in agriculture dropped by one and two-thirds million while the number working primarily outside of agriculture rose over 100,000. In these four years, the proportion of farm people working primarily outside of agriculture rose from 30 percent to 38 percent. One seldom finds a characteristic of the national population chang- ing as rapidly as this ~ 1k ; 4 ww To persons with a rural philosophy of life, the decline in the farm population, and its increasing dependence on traditionally urban modes of employment, may be cause for lament But there seems to be no prospect in the foreseeable future of a reversal in the current trend. Agricultural ecénomists agree that further mechanization of farming operations, consc dlidation of farms, and the resulting resistable trend that will see leave agrict course, especially likely that in 10 vears from 1 the tutal population Peessadie, about half of the farm children leave the farm upon reaching maturity. Even if the size of the farm population should stabilize, the farm birth rate is sufficiently high at its current level that only about three-fourths of the farm boys would be needed to replace farmers who die or retire. The obvious conclusion is that for many farm youth, their ability to enter the labor force in a skilled and remunerative job is dependent upon the preparation ihey CULTUR iologi soc “The organi importance zation errort ion has anvation mnovati 1 has and of the Nition which, ! Pe te Uit ie oward orrentation ts AL CHANGES than the fo x 2 ch Magni in the rural popul Wk trends AtvIN L. BER among the membe Ualll Tohn innovat novations, 74 phenomenon ticular y the number of n part see fy their wants their social shaping ontinue to chang n turn, will necessitate m “rural” is interpreted between rural farm the former rs F. Cuber 1 re ixiore 0 — | ees RAND of a society culture can be IN AMERICAN RURAL LIFE tion thar are the learned s—which said n human association ch support su eas mec “hanic | piallivai amiebe orrentate cu encom- The otton be complex but com- ersons and r rea - ; bonds sPOLUDS adjustment rather loosely non -Tarm, No attem lthon ithougis In pt 1s AMERICAN RUR DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGES the last decade and a half significant changes in the number, distri- td Composition of the rural population have taken place. These changes Deen casually related to cultural factors associated with technology, war, economic well-b An absolute as well as a tot in the total farm population A long-term decline in the national birthrate, with the differential between rural A slow but steady decline in the rural mortality rate. with infant mortality declining than general mortality rates A marked reduction in the number of non-white families in rural areas Extensive out-migration of rural youth of both sexes from 15 to 35 years of age Aging of the rural population Changes in regional distribution of farm population INSTITUTIONAL CHANGES Social institutions are generally defined as well-established patterns for meet- ing various human needs. The major institutions center around certain funda- mental human needs such as economic. nily, government, education, and Important changes studied in eact thes s of human activity The rural dwellers struggle for existence is essentially carried on within th k of nomic As a consequence the economic rey : he mos sp influence in rural life areas of the United States than with any significant trends of an economic nature tion and tenure includin; the size of farms the productivity of the farm worker Increased specialization of farm workers An increase in owner-operated farms. A decrease in the number of sharecroppers and unskilled laborers Increased commercialization of farms increase in total values of farm products produced ; iN certain regions ical innovations in farm production increasing and improving production of ncreased dependence Il. Changes in capital requirements and credit institutions including: rons sccru- late! automobiles ; ; im radios and ¢ ; 4 mare AS . . iiecontia au peMmodicais ana MK economic, on to other institu tendency for rurai people to mental hospitals, homes for i long wit important chan; been noted that family ‘ pattern and that the rol niy, the family unit is n evious The above demonstr areas. N > fer n litical apparentiy, represent efforts to oome exampies LIM TOAD! , , | iocai county admit i KL i Oli “onnection with water rigits, sub-s Norne Yy OCing = . £ ~ ate Lory atures for settien Increasing technology has and mide it necessary for t t and enforce of beh ivior, such as in the tenants mimecrams programs DUIS nature can be There are indications traditional autonomous being sought , , >i 7 their distinctly recreation C At least — mass picnics and cues are not as apparent as a few years eke CHANGES IN RuRAL EDUCATION The major trends in American catior recent years seem to be t ward the equal zation of education i f rural and urban pirhed ; : above connection one finds training make more use of Today 92.6 percent < homes are equipped oming as fast as new stations make their appear- newspapers, and books in rural homes has also CHANGES IN RURAL RELIGION has from the founding of the country been one of the major social rural areas of the Uni ted States. Recent trends indicate a decline of decline in the number of rural churches reported, down No doubt these changes are related to the le, however, that other factors are in- phistication of rural dwellers has affected their religious life. It is certain that many persons ave shifted their church member- ke adv antage of better facilities and a better : Oniy iS a CHANGES IN NEIGHBORHOOD AND COMMUNTTY PATTERNS Another place where cultural change in rural areas may be noted is in neigh- borhood and community patterns Lowry Nelson has defined the rural com- f munity as “that form of association maintained between the people and their institutions in a local area in which they live on dispersed farmsteads and in a village which usually forms the center of their common activities.” Within the EDUCATION-——A FORWARD LOOK community areas there are smaller groupings of farm families holding social activities, social control, and to maintain church and school These lesser entities are identified as neighborhoods ges have been brought about in community and neighborhood pattems -_ + ~ Pane - be. a } sri! . eo - 5 1 by the innovations already mentioned. The cumulative effect has been to make id neighborhoud, as traditionally defined, tend to lose connection, it is significant that several rural sociologists suggested that perhaps rural-urban differences represent a con- nuum rather than a dichotomy. The direction of change has been observed and by a great many researchers, working in many states. On the basis clusions, two general areas of change may be isolated as of major im- portance The first is the increasing centralization of social institutions. Without ex- ception social scientists studying inter-actional patterns in rural society have concluded that such institutions as the church, education, family, economics, and government are being concentrated in the larger urban centers The second well-documented change in rural community organization is found in the increasing multiplicity of special-interest groups. The tendency observed in this connection is for individuals to give more and more attention to specialized group associations but to decrease the intensity of participation in each group. Said another way, many more formal clubs, societies, and organi- zations are to be found in rural communities. These groups are recruiting their membership from persons who heretofore limited their participation ro informal gatherings for the most part. Documentation for the above trends can be found in a dozen Experiment Station bulletins on the subject of rural social Organization throughout the country CHANGES IN RURAL SOCIAL PROCESSES Here are a few observations relative to changes in rural social processes. In the first place, the basic social process of opposition (competition and conflict) is being modified and redirected and becoming less personal. The second basic process, cooperation, is also experiencing a change in nature. For example, many small farmers are working and acting cooperatively to form machinery pools in mee‘ ag the competition of large mechanized units. Rural social differ- entiation and stratification is changing, with new groups being joined and formed as mention sd and new definitions of status symbols coming into play. By way of illustration the mechanization of farms is helping introduce a new type of class structure based on specialization. The demographic changes previously mentioned have certainly brought changes in the accommodative and assimilative processes in rural areas. All in all, many changes in the structure and functioning of rural society have been brought about by changes in the inter-actional patterns in rural society Socio-PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGES In the final analysis social behavior is to a large extent determined by the mentality of members of a particular society or gtoup at a given time. Character- CULTURAL CHANGES IN AMERICAN RURAL LIFE istics of this nature are classified as socio- psychological and involve values and attitudes as well as od serpast traits Although studies of values in rural society have been scarce, it is interesting to note that at least two conclusions are in evidence. Rural people feel: (1) That the rural environment has a great advantage as a place for healthful living, for obtaining the facilities for a good life, and for rearing children; (2) that the possibility of wating a well-rounded educational and social life is limited and for economic advancement are limited. The Ae reasons are “aimee unanimously ad - rural youth for leaving the farm and shed light on motivation factors in urban migration Personality-wise, the rural dweller of today is less conservative and orthodox and less of an individualist than his forebear. Contact with more outsiders has also made him less suspicious of strangers at the same time that it has made him less out robes and frank. In other words his personality is assuming the characteristics of his city cousin who is dependent on keeping a careful tongue if he ts to survive economically and politically SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Rural organization is developing into a more and more complex pattern of groups, many of which meet only highly specialized needs. In the terminology of Durkheim, the organization of socety is more along an organic than a me chanistic basis. Thus groups are held together or maintain cohesion because of a division of labor and a specialization of tasks rather than because of homo- geneity of character In the terminology of Tonnies, the transition taking place is from Gemem- schaft relations (those ieedasion unconsciously or sub-consciously) to Gesell scbaft relations (those entered into deliberately for the achievement of recog- nized ends). The followers of Cooley might describe the phenomenon as changing group relationships from the primary type (that based on intimate face-to-face contact) to the secondary type (that based on special interests) Whatever the terminology, recent cultural changes in rural areas boil down to the fact that human relationships are becoming less personal and more im- personal. The transition is more or less traumatic and this has led my fellow tural sociologist, Sam Blizzard to suggest the term Cu/twralectomy to describe the removal of old culture patterns. Whether or not the patient survives will depend a great deal on the rural educators of the Nation EDUCATION—A FORWARD LOOK THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE COMMUNITY SCHOOL CONCEPT FOR EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION L . , iaceia the devel leadership process There ts an intimate, almost indefhnable the board of educaiion, the superintendent of schools ; nowhere on the board of education to keep clo yatact with the school. This means that the administrator of the rural commu: must secure iia in terms of a demonstrated, recognized, The administrator and his staff will secure what they wan need, by persuasion locumentary evidence, and position alone The function of such —— both local ana community schools into concret itv. We are have been told that our wor wrot hether thi the w wee wi part of the United States is w moment. Most of the world is rural scene. The reason the audience :s watching the is that the ma portion of hin audience ts, itself, consisting omething like one and one-half billion rural people, two-thir of the total world population They are the ones who want to know the come of the action of the play. The community school occupres a large portion of this scene. The people of the wo tld, and the rural people of the United States particularly, have had enough experience in watching and participating in this community school to realize that it might be the hope the world. The reason for this hope is the fact that on this stage the rural people of this country are dressed as business men, pscanivige democratic, enterprising, free, citizen farmers, and not clothed in the ra: it of peasants as 1s the case in other lands. They demonstrate through the mae education they have received the difference. be achie' JNOMIC CHANGES IN AMERICAN RURAI RANT DUNCAN verse America Seeing that whatever is important to agricultu of American life, this paper employs the adjective “rural ECONOMIC CHANGES IN AMERICAN RURAL LIF 317 marily to farm life and secondarily to these modes of life existing in direct adjacence to and in immediate dependence upon agriculture. This is for the sake of clarity alone, aad not to proliferate an academic do gma. The thesis of the discussion is a all economic changes occurnng in agri culture either are converging upon 2 four-point objective, or that they must do order to insure national survival, or indeed the preservation of rural life This objective may be resolved as a system of agriculture which will Maintain the family in a state of good mental and physical health ¢ the youth with edecetionsl and social equipment commensurate needs of their time surplus eri current living sufficient to care for parents in Unless such a goal animates 2 .ricultural policy in America, the prospect for both rural life in particular an catia welfare in general is one of gloom Failure to achieve this goal will mean (1) the end of the farm family as the germ of American life, (2) the end of free democratic institutions in this country, (3) actual mass hunger and want, and (4) ultimate success for Com- munism on American soil. The purpose of the paper is, therefore, to show that while this goal has not always been spelled out carefully, it has been the under- lying objective of American agricultural policy, espeaally since World War I, when it first became an imperious need One of the grawsst dangers Irkely to thwart the realization of the goals for agriculture is that */:e cultural, t.c.- -ogical, and economic revolutions now in process may occur with such speed a to be frustrating Before 1800, American farmer: used practically the same technolegies as did the Romans in the sixth century, B. C During the nineteenth century agricul- tural technology changed more than it had since the beginning of time. Between 1900 and 1930 there was more change than occurred during the 19th century, and since 1940 change has been more radical than during all the preceding years of the 20th century. Little wonder that former President Harry S. Truman stated before the National Democratic Convention of 1952 that one cannot contem- plate the potentials of the future because they are too far*astic Now it is proposed to examine in some detail certain fundamental changes in American agriculture on a national scale in order to gain a perspective of their enormity. What they mean for the future of rural education should become apparent as they are sketched CHANGES iN THE SIZE OF 1 ARM UNITS For at least fifty years, one of the basic problems in American agriculture has been the smallness of farm units. There grew up in this country an arbi- trary notiou ihat a 160 acre farm is sufficient. The Ordinances of 1785 and 1787 wave impetus to this standard in the old Northwest Territoiy. it was given an even greater stimulus by the Homestead Act of 1862. Then further promulgated RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK by the opening of the Oklahoma-Indian Territories to white settlement in 1889- 1893. Throughout the South, especially just after the Civil War, there was the lever eal of ‘40 acres and a mule It was only in the Corn Belt that a section of land approximated an economic unit, and it did so there by a avorable conspiracy of matural climatic, soil, and market factors. In many places it was too large a unit to be managed under the technology of the 19th century, while in other regions, the Great Plains in particular, it has always been far too small a unit to provide stable economic base upon which rural life could depend with safety. As a result, the trend in size of farms has been generally upward since 1920, although the proportion of less than ten acres has tisen even more rapidly than that of farms exceeding 100 acres in size Table 1 Percentage Distribution of Farms of the United States by Size for Different Census Years, 1920-1950 Census Year 1940 1925 1920 100.0 100.0 100.0 8.4 4.5 41.1 , 31.2 , 22.9 38.1 2.3 According to the distribution shown in Table 1, farms under 10 acres in size increased in numerical proportion from 4.5 percent in 1920 to 9.0 percent of the total farms in 1950. Farms of 10 to 49 acres decreased from $4.1 percent of the 1920, to 47.0 percent in 1950. That means a decline of nearly 13.0 the 1920 proportion. Farms of 100 to 499 acres remained almost proportion between 1920 and 1950, allowing for chance errors of rms of 500 acres, of over, comprised 3.3 percent of all farms und 5.6 percent in 1950, an increase of 69.7 percent from 1920 of less than 10 acres, regardless of a large relative increase in num- bers, include a practically constant proportion, only two-tenths of one percent ot all land in farms. They are mostly specialty farms, such as poultry, dairy, small animal, truck farms, or part-time farms. On the other hand, farms with 100 acres or more cluded 33.7 percent of all land in farms in 1920, and 50.7 percent in 1950, an increase of 50.4 percent from 1920 ECONOMIC CHANGES IN AMERICAN RURAL LIF! Table 2 Changes in Average Acreage Per Farm of All Land in Farms, 1850 to 1950 (Source: U. S. Census of Agriculture, Vol Il, 1945, p. 73) 1950 Vol II, p. 4 Average Acreage in Farms Census Year United The The States South 1950 215.3 1945 194.8 1940 174.0 1935 154.8 1930 156.9 1925 145.1 . 1920 148.2 é 2 362 1910 138.1 296.9 1900 146.2 2 : 396 1890 136 7 324 1880 133 y 412.9 1870 153 4 4364 1860 199.2 2 366.9 1850 2076 1277.1 ? 694.9 The shift to larger farm operation units is shown again by figures on the average size of farms (Table 2). From 1850, when the average size of farms was over 200 acres in most parts of the country, there was a general decrease in size until about 1880, when the average size had shrunk from 202.6 acres to 143.7 acres for the nation as a whole During that cycle, the South reached its minimum size of farms, 139.2 acres, in 1890. In 1900, it seerned that the trend would be reversed for most of the country, but by 1910 it again moved in a downward course until 1925. Actually, it would be logical to say that the 75- year period (1850 to 1925) was one during which farm units grew generally smaller except when their average size was temporarily heightened by the opening of new lands in Oklahoma in 1889-93, and in other western areas around the same time. Since 1925, the avcrage size of farms has increased in the North, South and West. Except in the South, where farm units are still less than half as large as in 1850, the average size of farms in 1950 had slightly exceeded the corresponding figures for 1850. In other words, the country is only now returning to the point in the agricultural cycle which it had attained 100 years ago We now have over eight times as many people to fe.d as in 1850. Much of the land available in 1850 was in the virgin state. Since 1890, bringing new land into cultivation has required much reclamation work, and expense. In 1850 320 RURAL EDUCATION-—A FORWARD LOOK men and animals were the sources of farm power, while in the 1950's machines do the work on farms. Farming was then a pioneer occupation, but now it is a commercial and industrial undertaking. In 1850 farming was done in order that men might live, while in the 1950's it is done to make money. In 1850, farming was an occupation of young men, but in the 1950's it has become a near monopoly of old men. In 1850, the problem was “How can we build rural schools?” while 100 years later it has become “How can we get rid of the rural schools our grandfathers built for us?” CHANGES IN LAND TENURE Land tenure, i.e, the rights of use conveyed by a given contractual relation- ship with reference to land constitute one of the most important economic ar- rangements in agriculture. Not only does tenure status imply a social position, but it provides also a method of division of labor, fixed and operative costs, and risks, as well as of apportionment of proceeds. It imputes managerial responsi- bility, determines obligations, and defines rights, all of which are ‘‘vectors’’ of the economic pattern. Farm tenancy has been credited with more evil and less benefit to mankind than any other socio-economic arrangement, with the possible exception of prostitution, the use of alcoholic beverages, and the opium trade. Not the least fierce of the allegations against the farm tenure system has been that it is destructive to rural education. Yet, every person who uses land in any way has an inescapable tenure relation to it The first agricultural census which took account of farm tenure was that of 1880, but it was not until the census of 1900 that the tenure data enumerated had analytical value. The data which permit consistent comparisons are sum- marized for the country as a whole in Table 3 Table 3 Number of Farms and Tenure Distribution by Census Years, United States 1900-1950 (Source: Stats pp. 581-582) Percent of Farm Operators in Tenure Class Number of Census : Farms Full Owner Part Owner) Manager Tenant 1950 5.382.162 } 3 26.8 1945 5,859,169 3 7 41.7 1940 6,096,799 1( 49 7 1935 6,812,350 { 42.1 1930 6,288,648 1975S 6,371,640 1920 6,448,343 1910 : 502 1900 ECONOMIC CHANGES IN AMERICAN RURAL LIFI 421 A larger percentage of farmers owned farms in 1950 than in any previous census year of this century. Moreover, ownership deflined from 1900 to 1930, when it reached its smallest proportion, and has rib steadily through 1950 Meanwhile, part owners have increased proportionally. For practical purposes a part owner is a farmer who owns some land which he farms and farms some land which he does not own. The part owner in 1950 had gained prominence as a factor in agriculture. Whereas in 1940 and earlier, he accounted for only one farm unit out of ten or twelve, he held one farm oui of each six or seven in 1950. This is one of the mast obvious proofs that effort to adjust farms to economic size is of growing importance The farm manager, on the other hand, is statistically insignificant. Socially, he represents a connecting link between an absentee owner, an unsettled trustee ship, or a corporation of some kind and the farm. While he is often a manager cf a large farm business, he is ‘‘a rare statistic,’ and seems to be of dwindling importance In 1950 farm tenancy was at its lowest point of the century. In 1900, they accounted for 35.3 percent of all operators, 42.4 percent in 1930, and only 26.8 percent in 1950. The immediate prospect seems to be for further diminution in this class of farmers, but with rigorous economic selection eliminating from that tank those without means for becoming self-sufficient. In may parts of the West, the most highly capitalistic farmers are tenants, especially cash tenants They rent land to free their investments for current operation, or to shift the fixed costs of taxes, interest, and depreciation, as weil as the high risks of climatic factors and pests, cnto other shoulders. They exploit land mercilessly and carry on a highly competitive, commercial, and specialized cash farming enterprise With their tractors, combines, six-ton-per-hour hay balers, and similar machinery, they literally put to flight the weak single-handed tenant farmer. What is more, they are a growing breed, especially in economic power, in the Southwest and the Wheat Belt CHANGES IN LAND USE A division of land according to use is, at best, a crude way of forming a picture of the agriculture economy. Besides, the distribution of uses is largely a guess. Yet, in principle, this would be a sound and necessary procedure, if it were only possible to develop reliable measurements, which has not been done. Even with these limitations, the data available are significant The total land in the United States is fairly constant, about 1,905 million acres. The 1950 Census shows that this has been reduced slightly to 1,904 million acres, in recent years, presumably by the impounding of streams into lakes and reservoirs. Since the figure is fairly stable, one can deal in percentage almost entirely. Table 4 shows the percentages of land devoted to various uses from 1880 through 1950 One of the most significant land-use trends in the United States has been the proportional increase in farm pasture land from 6.4 percent in 1880 to 25.5 percent in 1950. This trend has not been reversed once during that time. It RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK Table 4 Land Use Trends in the United States 1880-1950 tical Abstract of the United States, 74th Ed. 1953, Percent of Land tn Use at Census Year 1950 1940 1930 | 19201910 | 1900 | 1890 | 1880 100 100 100.0 100.0 100.0 |100.0 |100.0 Farm Pasture 25 . : 14.9; 14.5 Cropland Idle-Failure 3 3 1.3 1.3 Cropland Harvested 16.9} 15.5 Farmsteads, Lanes, et¢ , 3 2. 5. 4.0 2.8 Forests, Cut-Over ‘3 8.2 10.0 10.0 Pastures not in Farms' : , 22 31.5; 32.8 Other Forest Land’ ; 7 s 15.8; 16.7 Other Land’ ( Fa ) 6.7 6.6 6.4 6.2 ' Includes arid woodland, brushland, and desert, about 100,000,000 acres of which are used for grazing * Largely commercial forest land, about 110,000,000 acres of which are used to some extent for grazing ® Estimates by the U. S. Bureau of the Census and the U. S. Bureau of Agri- cultural Economics. Includes cities, parks, roads, railroads, ungrazed desert, and waste land indicates that farmers are increasingly letting livestock do the work which was once done by human labor The proportion of land in harvested crops rose from 9.3 percent in 1880 to 19.0 percent in 1920; since then it has shown a tendency to decline. In 1940, harvested cropland comprised 16.9 percent of the total, but in 1950 it made up 18.1 percent, having recovered some of the decline since 1920. There has been also a small but irregular decline in the proportion of all land in non-farm forests, from 19.3 percent in 1880 to 16.3 percent in 1950 If current population estimates are accurate, the per capita acreage in har- vested crops will decline shortly. In 1920, there were 4.3 acres in harvested crops per person, while in 1950, the figure had declined to only 2.3 acres per capita. Meanwhile, there were 11.0 acres in harvested crops per person on farms in 1920 as compared to 14.8 acres in 1950, although in 1920 there were 362 million acres in harvested crops compared to 345 million in 1950. More and more people are leaving the land, and the population is being agglomerated in- creasingly in cities. Americans are familiar with statements that great city popu- lations, like those in New York and Chicago, would begin to perish in a matter of thirty-six hours, if cut off from their food supply lines. Hence, putting land ECONOMIC CHANGES IN AMERICAN RURAL LIF to its optimum use is one of the most crucial problems facing this Nation Fortunately, we have had to wrestle with surpluses all our lives. That day may be over soon, unless some real “head-work" is done on the land question. The consumption of commercial fertilizer is symptomatic of the increasing effort which must be expanded to make land produce. In 1880, American farmers used 1,150 tons of commercial fertlizer, 5,453 tons in 1910, 8,222 tons in 1930, 17,984 tons in 1950, and 18,666 tons in 1951. This has, to some extent, assuaged the population pressure on land. Prior to 1900, the corn yield averaged about 25 bushels per acre, wheat about 13 bushels, oats about 27 bushels, cotton about 175 pounds (lint), and Irish potatoes about 83 bushels Since 1945, the corn yield has reached 37 bushels per acre, and a maximum of 42.5 bushels in 1948, wheat has averaged 16 bushels per acre, oats about 35 bushels, cotton about 275 pounds (lint), and Irish potatoes have averaged about 250 bushels per acre. Before 1900, the average yield of tobacco was around 750 pounds per acre, while it has not been less than 1,100 pounds per acre since 1944, and it averaged 1,307 pounds per acre in 1951. These sketches are typical of trends in farm production, but the obvious point is that by introducing the high producing hybrids, which as well as fertlizer account for increased yields, the farmers are merely taking out of the land now its potential productivity and are converting it into surpluses, for which the American consumer and taxpayer are being taxed, only to bedevil the national political administration. What ts not so obvious is how much longer it can go on with endangering future na- tional security MiCHANIZATION OF AGRICULTURE The number of tractors per 100 farms is the best single index to agricultural mechanization. It has been found that as mechanization increases, farm popula > tion under 25 years of age decreases, manpower on farms declines, there is a reduction in the aggregate and in the per-farm demand for hired labor, off-farm and part-time farm work decrease, non-white decreases more rapidly than white labor on farms, and wage labor is more affected (reduced) by machines than other tenure groups Of course, the grain combine is a complementary machine to the tractor, and it has grown in geometric proportions since 1920. In 1920, less than 5 percent of the wheat crop was harvested with combines, but in 1938 a7 proximately 50 percent was “‘combined.”” By 1950, it was probable that 75 pe ‘cent or more of the wheat crop was harvested by combines. By 1940, over 800 patents had been taken out for cotton picking machines, which are still in the development pro- cess, although they are being used on farms. Corn pickers, power irrigation, new processes of tobacco-curing, and hay balers capable of keeping four trucks busy with hauling are only some of the newer developments in farm machinery. Most of these machines also are tractor-powered In 1950, Kansas had about 10 percent of all combines in the United States In the same proportion, there would have been 140 combines in 1917, 200,000 in 1928, and 250,000 in 1930. There were 373,687 in 1945 and 714,633 in 1950. The Farm Journal, March, 1952, pp. 89-93, shows a single-unit tractor- RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK combine outfit capable of harvesting five acres of wheat per hour, on which one man does the work of three nine-horse rigs run by five men each. That means one man now does the work of fifteen men and that one tractor does that of twenty-seven horses. With the 713,633 combines in use in 1950, and there are still more in 1954, 713,633 men now can do the work formerly done by 10,704,495 men, and that many combines can do the work of 19,380,091 horses. It has been shown that the average size of farms is increasing. The use of combines varies directly with the size of farms. In 1950, only 5.6 percent of farms of 70 to 99 acres used combines, while 48.4 percent of those having 500 to 999 acres had them. For the North, the corresponding figures were 8.7 percent and 60.0 percent. The North is the part of the country where the “hired man” is an old tradition. His fate does not look too promising, in the light of what the combine does to labor. Even more precarious is the prospect of the migra- tory ‘harvest hand,” whether in cotton, corn, or wheat These trends eloquently explain why, especially in the Great Central Plains, rural schools are on the verge of extinction while city schools must have two half- day sessions. They tell why Stockton, Missouri, for example, has consolidated 43 school districts and why many districts must run 20 or more school busses. CHANGES IN LEVELS OF LIVING OF RURAL AMERICA The foregoing changes in the economic pattern of the Nation's agriculture would present a frightening spectacle, if there were no way to measure their impacts upon levels of living. Happily, students have been at work on this for a number of years. The results of the chief research carried on nationally are sum marized in Table 5 Using the national average for 1945 as a base of 100, all sections of the United States have shown marked rises in levels of living since 1930, or even since 1945. While most sections of the South fall behind other parts of the country, that area, too, has shown a strong tendency toward improvement The poorer areas of the country have shown even greater relative improvement than the wealthier areas Trends significantly correlated with the rising levels of living of the farm population include changes in proportions of farms with tractors, size of farms, proportion of farm income from livestock, and farms with sales of over $1,000 Also positively correlated with the Index are commercialization of farming, pro- portion of farmers hiring machines and labor, percent of farm land in harvested crops, and the percent of the adult farm population with education above the eighth grade. Factors negatively correlated with the Index are percent of farmers with outside incomes greater than farm sales, ratio of expenses to farm sales, old age and child dependency ratios, and farm population per 1,000 acres in farms he indications are that various economic changes now proceeding rapidly in agriculture have meant improvement in levels of living of farm people every- where. Nothing brought into the farm home since the invention of the wheel can have a more profound effect on the character of rural living than electricity, with its improved lighting, television, radio, and the scores of labor saving ECONOMIC CHANGES IN AMERICAN RURAL LIFE 425 devices which it makes possible. Its increased use of running water, bathrooms, and indoor toilets, if it had nothing else, would more than justify its costs Table § Average County Index of Farm-Operator Levels of Living by Geographic Divisions of the United States, 1930-1950 (US 1945 a. 100) (Source: Margaret Jarman Hagood, Farm-Operator Levels-of-Living In dexes, ‘Washington: U. S. Dept. of Agr. BAE mimeo. Bull. May, 1952, p. 5) Genera Index of Level of Living worgrann Division 1940 United States New England Middle Atlant: East North Central West North Central South Atlant East South Central West South Central Mountain Pacific 1 This index is based on four weighted factors percent of farms with electri city, percent of farm homes with telephones, percent of farms with automobiles, and the mean value in hundreds of dollars of farm products sold or traded CONCLUSION To give a comprehensive review of economic trends in American rural life is } a task too great for completion within a short discussion. Hence, it has been necessary to choose certain basic phases of the rural economy and to leave others to inference—-to education, the size of farm units, the land tenure pattern, land use, mechanization, and levels of living are vital and fundamental. These five economic factors lay the ground sills of the economic system from which the educational machinery must derive both its human and its material support. They determine largely the need for education and the means by which it must be achieved From the outset, this paper maintains the position that contemporary trends in the agricultural system have been in the direction of finding and achieving an economic farm unit. The trends themselves prove this thesis. These evidences imply that the new economic pattern being molded for agriculture is not only in the direction of improving levels of living on farms but it is inherently antithet: 326 RURAL EDUCATION—-A FORWARD LOOK cal also with the ideal of peasantry which exists in many agrarian philosophies For agriculture apologists to expect farm families to subsist on a cow, a sow, a hen, a single-barrel shot gun, two hound dogs, a mule and a Georgia stock plow i ymibs puts ft mn to flight. Neither in an age of hydrogen and cobalt bi people themselves nor the other 8% percent of th pulation can | gauche juxtaposition of economic machinery What these new trends mean in terms of education is that the “Little Red Schoolhouse” cannot survive much longer. As the ox-cart, the horse wagon, and the steam locomotive have bowed out before improved methods of transportation, more economical and more effective agents of education will close the one-room school, and maybe others with several rooms. This is more of history than of prophecy Larger machine-operated farm units will not produce as many children as t -ere once were in country districts. Hence, the need for rural schools will become less urgent than formerly. Moreover, with the growing complexity of life, with augmented economic power, and with such concomitant cultural improvements as television, aviation, and rising literary levels, farmers will not be content with an outmoded educational system for their children Among many other economic changes, agriculture has become a specialized business. In so doing, it has waxed distinctly commercial, highly capitalistic, and intensely mercenary. This has led farmers, themselves, to eradicate most of the barriers which once differentiated the country from the city. Almost four decades ago, Dr. Charles ] Galpin pointed out that there cannot be two separate societies, rural and urban, but only one, a ‘‘rurban’’ society, in which each segment is a part of a complex division of labor in carrying on the total collective life. Whether one likes it or not, that time is here. This is the ‘“rurban epoch.” It ts not an age in which farmers and city people have agreed merely to leave each other alone, but it 1s one in winch each complements the other in a nal economy in a sense never before realized The children of both farmer and urban businessmen will be taught in the same school and teachers will scarcely know who is the father of either. The forces which have wrought these changes are cosmic and are too gigantic to be subject to the will or wish of any individual. Teachers have no choice but to learn the ways of both country and city, for both will be housed in the same school - old “rural-urban” dichotomy has spent its For the future, the prospects are disconcerting, not for impending evil, but because they will necessitate adjustment to a new and unfamiliar way of life Already, one-fourth of the farms produce three-fourths of the marketable farm products. This means that the processes of elimination will be at work on the three-fourths of the farms which are inefficient. They will b consolidated into larger units, and the people on them will join the industrial proletariat. Roads, schools, churches, and dwelling houses will be closed. Even cemeteries will be abandoned, as is now under way This does not mean the end of rural life, but only of an era under which this nation no longer can continue. It may bring some heartaches to see old home- steads demolished, little farms swallowed up by big ones, and to hear the braying SCHOOL DISTRICT REORGANIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES 427 of mules suppla~ted by the puffing of tractors. Yet, the pain experienced at the demise of the old regime in agriculture is but the travail of a new era throbbing to be born in its stead. The reddish tint in its caboose lamps as it disappears around the curve are but reflections of the headlights of the first “golden age” which agriculture has even known, and of a prosperity the like of which the world at large has never seen. SCHOOL DISTRICT REORGANIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES WILLIAM J. ELLENA Department of Rural Education National Education Association Few educational responsibilities have greater far-reaching importance to the people of a state than the establishment of a sound local district structure for administering the schools. Keeping that structure adapted to changing condi- tions in our society by reorganization of small ineffective districts into larger administrative units more capable of providing needed educational services has for many years been a persistent problem in American education. It is also one in which much progress has been made, especially during the past 10 years when the total number of local school districts in the Nation has been reduced by more than one-third Results of school district reorganization may be viewed in a number of ways. Frequently it is measured in terms of the number of local districts eliminated by incorporating their territory into larger units. Results may like- wise be measured by increases in the number of new districts having certain characteristics of size or other features commonly associated with adequate local administrative units. Such methods have obvious practical values in looking at the results of reorganization and assessing its progress. Their val- idity rests on the conviction that larger districts are more capable of providing the scope and quality of services required in a modern program of education than can be provided effectively and economically by districts of very small size. The number of school districts in the United States steadily increased up to some time between 1920-1930. Since 1932 the number of schooi districts has undergone a continuous reduction. In some states, as a result of leadership and legislation, the trend has been spasmodically downward. Within the past few years the reduction in the number of school districts has occurred at such an accelerated rate that it may well be expected that the next decade will witness a further reduction of 50 per cent or more of the number of districts existing in 1950 As a result of reorganization, the number of school districts in the United States has undergone a rather remarkable reduction: from 127,529 in 1932; to 98,312 in 1948; to 66,472 in 1953. This is a reduction of almost half 328 RURAL EDUCATION-~A FORWARD LOOK since 1932. The cate of reduction during the three year period 1947-1950 was 21.5 percent, and during the next three years almost as great, 18.6 per cent. The number of school districts is really, in a sense, less than it seems In 1952-53 only $5,335 school districts actually operated schools. There were 11,137 (one out of every six) legally constituted districts that did not operate a school. These districts either did not have any pupils of sent their pupils to school in another district, usually on some contractual or tuitional basis Approximately 64 percent of these non-operating districts are located in five states: Nebraska, Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Mississipps These non-operating districts are remnants of a somewhat obsolete system of school organization. The reasons for the continuance of these districts vary They are sometimes retained as tax islands to enable some persons and/or corporations to keep down or avoid the payment of local school taxes. In other instances they represent the last attempt of local people to hold on to the local school to which a loyalty out of a long past is attached. But gradu ally, such districts are on the way out. Their number was 2,802 fewer in 1953 than six years previously. Some states, notably Wisconsin, Illinois, and Kansas, have recently enacted legislation for abolishing non-operating dis tricts within a specified time period In some states the extent of reorganization has been considerable. In the State of Illinois, for example, the number of school districts was reduced from nearly 12,000 in 1947 to about 2,500 at the present time. In Missouri, the number of school districts has been reduced by 48.3 percent in five years Minnesota, under a statute with excellent provisions for planning by local citizens and officials of the State Department of Education, but with extremely vulnerable provisions for enabling a majority of popular votes from be coming effective has made steady advancement, having experienced a 40 pet cent reduction in the number of school districts in five years. In the Nation as a whole, 1,088 school district reorganization proposals werg voted upon during the school year 1952-53; only 93 were defeated. Other bright spots as well as many cumbersome state statutes and procedures could be cited In a recent study made by the Department of Rural Education, the following facts were uncovered. Eight states—-Nebraska, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michi gan, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas and South Dakota—have 37,757 of 56.8 per cent of the 66,472 school districts in the Nation. The same eight states have 9,332 or 83.8 percent of all the school districts that no longer operate schools They have 24,822 of 61.3 percent of the school districts that operate only elementary schools, that is, school districts which are not designed for and not attempting to provide even the 12 years of schooling which are commonly accepted as desirable. They also have 26,476 or 54.3 percent of the Nation's 18,735 one-teacher schools. While the Nation as a whole has experienced a 41.3 percent reduction in the number of school districts in the last five vears, 7 the reduction in these eight states range from .7 percent to 13.7 percent In spite of the extent to which reorganization has taken place, most school districts continue to be relatively small. Last year about 30 percent of all SCHOOL DISTRICT REORGANIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES 329 operating districts had employed nine or fewer teachers. The trend to abolish small districts, however, is reflected in the fact that in 1947 almost twice as many operating districts had employed nine of fewer teachers. Relatively large districts continue to be the exception Tn 1953 only 6.5 percent of all operating school districts employed 40 or more teachers. If it could be assumed that the ratio of pupils to teachers was 30 to “, probably a high estimate, fewer than one out of each 10 school districts in the United States had as many as 40 teachers and 1,200 pupils in 1953. We must conclude that, even today, most schools are small! schools The number of one-teacher schools is also of persistent concern. In 1948 there were overt 75,000 one-teacher schools in operation, though there were almost twice that mary in 1930. By July 1953, there were only 48,735 one teacher schools. One-teacher schools have disappeared most rapidly in the least rural states and in the states with larger school districts. Within the next decade this number will prouably be reduced to approximately 25,000 to 30,000 The process of reorranizing school districts requires a hanging legal struc ture which results in the establishment of districts appropriate for meeting the needs of all children and communities. As we look at our experience in reorganizing districts certain trends can be identified. There is a trend toward the development of larger school districts. There is a tendency for the bound aries of these districts to conform to the natural boundaries of a sociological community. Another trend seems to be the combining of suburban areas with the urban areas while at the same time decentralizing the large urban centers. There also is some danger in the possibility that there may be a trend from permissive to mandatory legislation Another important but until recently neglected aspect of school district reorganization is the intermediate unit, so called because it functions between the basic school districts and the state department of education. The need for the intermediate unit arises from: the fundamental fact that a great majority of school districts, especially of the community type, are not large enough to efficiently and econornically afluvd all the services needed. Data already pre sented make quite clear the inadequacy of at least 95 percent of the existing school districts. They are small and most of them will continue to be small even with the fullest predictable reorganization. Under these conditions it becomes necessary to develop plans for strengthening and expanding inter mediate service units Whether school district reorganization in each state 1s to effectively achieve its full potential depends uy the recognition and desire of people for better schools, and ESPECIALLY the kind of educational leadership provided in our local communities, at the county son such things as basic reorganization procedure, or intermediate level, and in our State Departments of Education RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK THE ROLE OF THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT IN SCHOOL DISTRICT REORGANIZATION FRANCIS E. GrirFtn Chief, Bureau of Rural Admin: State Department of Education The State Education Department can play a very important role in district reorganization. It begins with the policy of the state itself in this regard Enabling legislation-—if there is any—cither opens the door or restricts the activities of the localities and results either in progress or inactivity. The State Education Department is in the most advantageous position to assess th> merits of existing ot proposed legislation. This is of number one importance In New York there appears always to have been enabling legislation to change school districts. We are fortunate that it is an accepted policy of state government that school districts may change. We would be handicapped in the extreme if we had no more flexibility than exists under laws for the changing of towns or counties. Several states lack any enabling legislation. Many states are solely handicapped by unworkable and poor legislation The consolidation laws in effect in New York shortly after the start of this century did not have popular support. The whole matter of consolidation was odious. especially to rural people. We might make conjectures as to why this wai true. Certainly the consolidation of districts frequently multiplied the poverty of an area. The very rich districts could not be induced to join in con solidation. As a result, only the poorer, hardpressed districts considered it Consolidation, unfortunately, brought on majer financial problems, such as trans portation of pupils, which invariably became necessary. Often the newly con solidated district faced the need to build a new school house The Commissioner of Education in New York in 1912 welcomed the new district superintendents who took ofhce that year and, among other charges, urged them to ‘go home and consolidate.” With some ten thousand districts available, the field was wide open. A survey of district organization in the next decade, indicates however, that very little consolidation took place. Most district superintendents undoubtedly would have committed professional suicide had they undertaken a broad program of consolidation at that time In America little scceeds without popular support. The consolidation laws were generally unworkable and little could be done to build effective school systems in rural areas under their provisions. Here was a major problem for a State Education Department——securing good legislation that could receive a measure of popular support Fortunately for New York State, good legislation was secured and the State Education Department played an important role in getting it. The first measure was passed in 1914 and constructively amended in 1924. This legislation took away the vested interests of individual districts so that the extraordinarily wealthy district could not by its own vote stop consolidation and thus avoid paying its THE ROLE OF THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 333 interests, unenlightened political influence, and an antagonistic press. It has striven to accept the burden of convincing—insofar as possible and on a state level—all malcontents and uninformed individuals of the merits of the law and the need for its applications. This occasions replying to thousands of letters and telegrams and meeting with delegations, large and smaii that descend on Albany Another feature of the Amendment of 1925 that has proved of great value provides for a six-six organization in all central schools. A determined effort was made to remove seventh and eighth grade children from one-teacher schools The certral school law permits the individual former districts to have a school for the first six grades if a school was maintained it: that district prior to centralization. Since 1925 the central school districts have developed a junior senior high school where adolescents are given the wicer experience and ad vantages of that type of organization. The vast rural area of New York is almost 100 per cent unaer six-six organization New York also is currently freed from the evils of *he superimposed high school district with a group of constituent but independent elementary districts The department of education long discouraged application of this law and finally saw its repeal. Only four such districts now exist in New York The State Education Department also insisted that all transportation arrange ments should be made to extend at least to the former school house of each of the districts included in the centralization. This was an important requirement The State Education Departm..ue under the Bureau of Rural Administrative Service in 1943 entered upon a somewhat different propram of assistance to communities. Since district reorganization must have the support of the people and since difficult situations remairied, it became more and more essential that all possible information concerning each proposal be assembled. The Bureau of Rural Administrative Services coordinates the activities of the various bureaus and divisions of the State Education Department to assist com- munities in exploring an approved ceritralization, or other district reorganization proposal. The Bureau recuires the proponents of a proposal to secure a local com- mittee whose responsibility will be to study the matter in great detail but with the help of Education Department specialists. This finally entails two solid days of intensive work in the State Education Department in Albany.’'A special con- ference room is available for this purpose. Some 35 to 40 such studies are made annually Each such study consists of five sessions. The first one deals with the general provisions of the law, the Department's policies in the establishment of districts and the responsibilities of the local people in securing local support as required by the Department. In this session all kinds of questions are raised and each indi vidual is encouraged to toss out his personal questions, no matter how ele mentary. Vagueness in the minds of the people about the law is cleared u> The discussion wil! include such matters as the securing of petitions, th- > -e paration of brochures, amplifying the findings of the committees, representation on the new school boards, disposal of district assets, selling of abandoned school houses 434 RURAL EDUCATION-——A FORWARD LOOK The Divisions of Secondary and Elementary Education of the State Education Department each provide a supervisor who, along with a supervisor of the Bureau of Rural Administrative Services, help the committee project educa- tional plans six years in the future. The Department's staff have become highly skilled in shifting the responsibility for decisions to the lay people. Yet they are adept in guiding deliberations to assure adequate personnel, broad curricula, and so forth. With the education planning completed, the School Buildings and Grounds Division provides help in determining the need for additional school building space. Discussions involve utilization of present plant, schoo! house design, and economies of construction. The decentralization of elementary housing is usually a topic of great concern. The estimate of building costs is made on the basis of the most recent average costs of school house construction in the category and area under consideration. Work in the field of transportation follows. Plans will be developed that de- fine various routes and result in a determination of the new equipment called for, garages and personnel needs, and total costs, including operation. The final phase of the study deals with the projection of financial plans. Super- visors from the Bureau of Field Financial Services will explain sound business accounting and budgetary practices. The groups are then called upon to plan budgets year by year to put into effect the educational plans worked out. They have the benefit of average state-wide costs for various-sized school systems for the numerous items of the budget. They will be told, for example, what the average school expense is for textbooks, supplies, library books, and so forth. Decisions as to whether or not their expenses exceed or fall below the state average in the various categories of the budget are for them to make. Teacher salary schedules are discussed and the group becomes acquainted with the state's minimum salary law. They also learn about the apportionment of state aid. Equalization formulae now apply to both transportation and building aid so that the richer central district will receive less than the poorer district measured on a valuation per pupil basis. The detailed information obtained as a result of this two-day study goes to the local superintendent of schools when completed by the State Department of Education ste. The Bureau of Rural Administrative Services stands ready to meet locally with the committee to discuss the various phases of the materials before a general dissemination of information is undertaken. The Bureau urges preparation of a brochure which will serve tc acquaint the citizens with the facts of district reorganization and edits the publication for accuracy. Last year, 614 people visited the Bureau of Rural Administrative Services for these studies. They came from all parts of the state and represented nearly all walks of life. The chief value, of course, comes in their having helped make their own plans and in their becoming fully aware that the job of school district change is a local one which will not be ordered by a bureau in Albany. This group provides a strong nucleus for the expansion of lay activities which have involved in many communities between 100 and 200 people all organized with assignments and responsibilities laid out subcommittee by subcommittee. TRENDS IN FARM AND RURAL INCOMES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION 335 This technique results in strong support for district reorganization. Note for example the votes secured in 23 districts reorganization projects successfully voted in the year ending june 30, 1954. A total of 35,164 people voted—28 206 in favor and 6,958 against. The studies, moreover, have proved to be valuable in the protection of district reorganization laws. Largely as a result of the information gathered for some 50 proposals, the state legis.ature was induced during the past decade to increase the equalization monies to central school districts by 12 percent—a notable achieve- ment at a time when competition for the tax dollar is so great. In connection with the enlarged city school law, for which the Bureau of Rural Administrative Services is responsible, the studies of the groups working with the Education Department have resulted in new legislation providing substantial increases in state support which was shown definitely to be needed when the facts were all in. TRENDS IN FARM AND RURAL INCOMES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION E. W. GRovE Agricultural Marketing Service U. §. Department of Agriculture Farm families, and probably also rural non-farm families, are, on the average, economically better off now than at any time before World War II. They are not as well off now as they were during a few war and early postwar years, when inflationary forces, both in this country and abroad, gave a strong boost to farm income. But except for this period, approximately 1943 through 1948, plus a brief post-Korean flurry in 1951, they are better off now than ever before. They are better off in the sense that their real incomes are higher than they used to be. They are better off in the sense that their incornes are higher than they used to be in relation to urban incomes. The trends in income over the past 25 years or more have been relatively favorable to farm people and to rural people in general The distribution of income—the size distribution in terms of high and low in- comes—the geographic distribution by states and counties the occupational distribution in terms of farm and nonfarm occupations—the distribution of income in all three aspects remains relatively unfavorable to the rural population. It is Jess unfavorable than it used to be—but still relatively unfavorable. INCOME OF FARM OPERATORS The last few years have produced what is known as a ‘‘cost-price squeeze” in agriculture. Stated very simply, it means that prices of farm products have been falling at the same time that farm production costs have stayed firm or have actually increased. In terms of income, it has meant that farmer’s net income has been squeezed between declining farm income, the result of falling prices, and a high and relatively inflexible cost structure. 336 RURAL EDUCATION——-A FORWARD LOOK During 1947 and 1948, net income started on its downward trend because pro- duction expenses were rising much faster than gross income. Farmers’ net in- come also rose sharply, and reached an all-time high early in 1947. Gross in- come increased somewhat further during 1947 and the first half of 1948. But farm expenses rose much more rapidly than gross income in this latter phase of the postwar inflation, so that the peak in farmers’ net income was reached more than a year earlier than the peak in their gross income, When gross income began declining in 1949, its decline was not accompanied by any significant reduction in expenses, and by the first half of 1950 farmers’ net income had lost all the gains it had made following the lapse of price con- trols Farmers’ prices and gross income recov ered rapidly in the second half of 1950, following the outbreak of hostilities in Korea—and continued upward to new record highs in 1951. With costs also rising, however, net income -egained only half of its previous loss The squeeze was resumed in-1952, and continued in 1953 and 1954. Farmers’ prices and gross income have declined, expenses have generally stayed high, and as a result net income has declined. Farmers’ net income is currently estimated at around 121/5 billion dollats, or 25 percent below the all-time high of 1947. However, the present level is just about the sarne as it was in 1950 before the Korean outbreak—and just about the same as it was before the lapse of price controls in 1946 But while farmers’ incomes have been considerably deflated, there has not been much deflation in the rest of the economy. The cost of farm family living is currently at an all-time high. Before considering farm operators’ net income any further, we need to deflate it by the index of prices paid by farmers for family living items, to determine what has happened to the purchasing power of farmers’ net income. We find that the pure hasing power of net farm income has declined 35 percent over the last 7 years as compared with a drop of only 25 percent in net farm income itself But there is still one more adjustment to be made if we want an accurate picture of the situation This adjustment has to do with the number of farms among which total income is divided During the 1920's and 1930's there were 1/, million farms in the United States. But the last 15 years have seen a decided trend toward larger and fewer farms, and their number is now not quite 5'/4, million, This decline of about 17 percent has taken place gradually, with much of it occuring during the recent postwar years. The decline in farm numbers, therefore, goes a little way toward offsetting the decline in total farm income The purchasing power of net farm income on the average farm today is down 30 pecent from the peak year 1947. But it remains higher than in any year on record prior to 1942 Average net farm income per farm in 1954 has a purchas- ing power more than 50 percent greater than the 1939 average, and more than a third greater than the 1929 average TRENDS IN FARM AND RURAL INCOMES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION TOTAL INCOME OF THE POPULATION We have been discussing only the income of farm operators from farming operations. It is time now to expand the coverage to include the total income of the whole farm population. And to do this we must first add the income of farm-operator families from off-farm sources, and second we must add the income of farm-labor families and others who live on farms, besides farm-operator families Income from non-farm sources has always been of importance in the total income of farm families, and it has become increasingly important in recent years Recent surveys have shown that those farm families who have the lowest farm incomes are, by and large, the ones who get most of their income from non-farm sources. In 1949, for example, the average farm-operator family got 60 percent of its total money income from the farm and 40 percent from other sources But if we divide all the farms in 1950 into two classes, high production and low production farms, according to whether they sold more or less than $2,500 of farm products in 1949, we find that the high production farm families received on the average four-fifths of their income from the farm while the low produc tion farm families received less than half of their income from the farms they oper ited In actual dollars, the average net farm income from high production farms in 1949 was over $3,000, or five times as large as the average of $600 for low production farms. In terms of total family income, the high production average was $4,000. only 60 percent greater than the low production iverage of $2,500 Thus, differences in the size of total farm family incomes are not nearly as great as differences in the size and productivity of farms might lead one to suspect Outside sources of income are also a stabilizing factor in the total income of farm people, since they do not fluctuate so much as farm income. The growing importance of these outside sources means the total net income of the farm population from all sources compares more favorably with some earlier periods than does the net income of farm operators from farming alone. In determining average income, the number of people living on farms is a more appropriate divisor in this case than the number of farms. And the number of people living on farms has declined much more rapidly than the number of farms, partly because of a reduction in the average size of farm families, but also because the number of people living on farms in addition to farm-operator families has been reduced Because of this big decline in the farm population tn recent years, the average per capita income from all sources remains almost as high now as it ever was. Even after adjusting the figures for increases in the cost of living, the decline from the peak year has been less than 15 percent. The purchasing power of per capita farm income is currently about 65 percent higher than in 1939. The peak year for this particular statistical series, the purchasing power of per capita farm income, happens to have been 1944 when the last Conference on 338 RURAL EDUCATION-—A FORWARD LOOK Rural Education was being held. I can find in the published record of that Conference no recognition of the unprecedented prosperity that farm people were enjoying at the time. Of course, the prosperity was of peculiar war-time sort, compounded of high farm income, reduced farm population, and artifi- cially low prices of industrial products which, however, could not be had at those prices. There was a general belief at that time that prosperity would not long survive the war itself. And there was a widespread fear that, for farmers at least, economic conditions would soon return to prewar levels after the war was over This was the atmosphere in which the last Conference was held. But it was a misapprehension. True, the artificial wartime prosperity did not last indefinitely, although it lasted many years longer than was anticipated in 1944. But there has been—and will be—no return of prewar economic conditions for farm people The average person in the farm population nowadays is 50 percent better off than he was even in the best year of the 1930's. Furthermore, this improvement is relatively much greater than the corresponding increase in real income that has taken place for the average person in the non-farm population INCOME OF THE RURAL NON-FARM POPULATION So much for the income trends of the farm population. By contrast with the farm poulation, the rural non-farm population is, statistically speaking, an underprivileged group. It has not been the particular business of any department of Government to be concerned about the size of rural non-farm incomes. And as a consequence, the available statistics on such incomes are meager indeed. The only data meriting our consideration are those collected by the Census Bureau in its annual surveys of family incomes covering the years 1944 through 1952, plus the data for 1935-36 collected in the prewar Consumer Purchases Study. The median income of rural non-farm families was $1,200 in 1935-36, $2,400 in 1944, and $3,700 in 1952. There is no cost-of-living index precisely tailored to the pattern of living of rural non-farm families—as there is for both farm and urban families. Consequently, it is impossible to say for sure what has happened to the purchasing power or real income of the rural non- farm group If we deflate the median incomes just quoted by the index of family living costs, there would appear to have been a significant increase in real incomes of rural non-farm families between 1935-36 and 1944. Between 1944 and 1952, the increase in median income seems to have been only enough to offset the in- crease in living costs. This is, however, just as well as urban families fared during that period—and better than farm families whose average real income has declined a little since 1944. Perhaps a better way to show what has happened to rural non-farm incomes is to compare them directly with urban incomes. In 1935-36, the median income of rural non-farm families was 82 percent as large as the median income of urban families. In 1944, the same ratio prevailed. But by 1952 the ratio had risen to 88 percent TRENDS IN FARM AND RURAL INCOMES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION 339 I think we may safely conclude that the trend in rural non-farm incomes over the last 15 or 20 years has, at the very least, been just as favorable as the trend in urban incomes. And the combined trend of incomes for the rural farm and rural non-farm populations has probably been considerably more favorable than the trend for the urban population. STATE AND REGIONAL TRENDS IN INCOME The discussion of trends in income would not be complete without some men- tion of how the trends in different regions and states have varied. We do not have state or regional income data specifically for the rural farm, rural non-farm, or urban populations. However, the Department of Commerce estimates of in- come payments per capita of the tota! population in each state have some bear- ing on our subject. Half of the nation’s farms, half of its farm population, and 40 percent of its rural non-farm population are in the South, which has less than a third of the total population. In other words, the South is still more rural in character than the rest of the country. Since it has also had historically low incomes, at least partly and perhaps mainly because of its rural character, it is of some interest to see how income trends in the South have compared with those in the rest of the country The Department of Commerce estimates of per capita income payments cover the period from 1929 throngh 1953. To measure trends, it secms best to com- pare 1953 directly with 1929. Average income per person in the whole United States rose by 150 percent between 1929 and 1953. By contrast, per capita income in the 11 States of the Southeast rose by 240 percent over this same 25-year period. This differential change has iseant that average income in the Southeast has risen from 50 percent of the national average in 1929 to almost 70 percent in 1953. Similarly, average income in the four States of the Southwest has risen from 65 to 85 per cent of the national average over the same period A study of these state and regional income data show: that the areas which started at the lo-vest income levels in 1929 generally showed the largest percent age increases between 1929 and 1953. South Carolina, for example, starting at 37 percent of the national average, the lowest for any state, showed a phenome nal increase of 335 percent, the largest for any state. Florida started in 1929 at the highest per capita income level for any state in the Southeast, and its per- centage increase was the smallest in that region. However, the Florida increase of 183 percent was larger than the national average increase. These data make it clear that there has been a considerable tendency toward the equalization of the geographic distribution of income over the last 25 years. Contrary to the Biblical expression, to him that had not plenty was given, on the average, during this period. And this was due in no small measure to the favorable trend in farm and rural incomes that we have already noted. THE DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME In looking through the published report of the 1944 Conference, I found that one of the subjects for group discussion was ‘Paying for Rural Education.” 340 RURAL EDUCATION—A FORWARD LOOK In our present Conteczence, Division Six, which is meeting elsewhere tonight, has for its subject ‘Financing the Education of Rural People.” Perhaps I am drawing too fine a distinction. But the phrase “paying for,” to me, has a slight note of desperation about it, as though there were some question as to whether payment could be raised. It is much more dignified to discuss the “‘financing’’ of rural education, as we are doing. Financing implies that there is no question of payment at all. It is simply a question of how, or by what method, the money is going to be raised. I hope the distinction that I have drawn is a real one. What is more im- portant, I hope that it will prove to be justified. As you may have inferred from the foregoing discussion of rising income trends, I think that the distinction may in some measure be justified on that ground alone—but not completely so by any means. Although rural people are generally better off than they used to be, they are still not as well off as city folks, there are still sizeable geographic pockets of depressed incomes in rural areas, and the rural population as a whole still includes a disproportionate number of lcw-income families. In other words, the distribution of income is still relatively unfavorable to the rural population. This, combined with the heavy and growing educational burden which the rural population will have to bear in the next few years, means that the problem of payment is still with us in its original form. CONCLUSION I have given-you enough figures to demonstrate that the distribution of income is still relatively unfavorable to rural people. On a geographic basis, it would be easy to show that incomes in the South, though remarkably improved over the last 30 years or so, are still considerably lower than the national average. And low income rural areas outside the South are not particularly hard to find. The conclusion can be restated in one sentence. Although farm and other rural incomes have improved, they remain relatively low. A few rural farm counties have very high average incomes. Others, though not so high, compare very well with average incomes of urban families in the same state. In most rural areas, however, average incomes remain low, and some means is still needed to offset or compensate for this disadvantage in providing for the educatior, of the children in those areas THE INFLUENCE OF THE RURAL ENVIRONMENT ON CHILDREN THE INFLUENCE OF THE RURAL ENVIRONMENT ON CHILDREN ANNE S. Hopprock Assistant in Elementary Education State Department of Education, Trenton, New Jersey Two children I know illustrate the first point I want to make in discussing the impact of the rural environment on children. These two ten-year-old girls are cousins. Their families live in neighboring farm houses. The fathers rent their fields to nearby farmers and make a living as mechanics. A garden, a cow, and hens add to the family resources. Both sets of parents are high school gradu- ates. They live fairly comfortably but with few luxuries. They spend a good bit of time together. The children walk a mile to the little school in the village Jane lives zestfully. She has a dog which she cares for faithfully, and with it roams the countryside. She is writing a book and consults gravely regarding her writing problems with a young teacher who lives in the neighborhood. She is in- tensely interested in plant and animal life and has a number of collections in- cluding several live items. She collects rocks and Indian artifacts. She is an in- veterate researcher into the meanings of her out-of-door experience. In pursuing her various interests, she exhausts available printed material at home and school, asks questions of everyone who might have information, and writes to the county agricultural agency in the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Jane swims, picnics, and sings in the children’s choir in the church in a nearby town. Jane's cousin Carol, also ten, is quite different in her interests and her approach to living. She is an avid comic book reader. She is interested in clothing and is beginning to experiment with cosmetics. She makes half-hearted attempts to keep up with Jane's pace, but seldom follows through on projects they start co- operatively. She evidences little curiosity. She putters around the house, spends more time indoors than out It is dangerous to generalize about the influence of the rural environment on child development. Jane and Carol seemingly live in the same rural environment, go to the same school, roam the same fields and woods and streams under the same sky, But even this superficial description indicates that the two children are learning different values and interests. Their lives are taking different directions. I cannot accurately account for this since I have not studied the children inten- sively This we do know, however. The appropriations a country child makes from the experiences available in his environment and how these appropriations affect his growth and development depend upon several factors. One of these is innate capacity. Another is his family—its climate and relationships, its values and attitudes, its guidance and example. Another is his physical status and condition, how much energy he has to give to the business of living. A second reason why it is impossible to generalize regarding the influence of the rural environment on child development is because not only do individual children and their families differ but so do rural environments. The writers 542 RURA! EDUCATION—-A FORWARD LOOK of the article in a recent issue of the Phi Delta Kappan on “Sociological Aspects of Rural Education” describe six regions in the United States, each of which has distinctive characteristics and problems which affect the lives of rural children. How different is the life of rural children in my own state, for example, from that of children in the Ozarks or the Great Plains Within each of the various regions described are to be found wide differences among segments of the population in income, in mobility, and in educational, religious, racial, and national backgrounds as well as in a variety of other re- snects. In a rural school classroom I visited last week, I saw the small son of the manager of a large industrial farm who travels to far places with his family, goes to camp, and all year long tastes to the full the joys of rural living with almost none of its responsibilities or deprivations. Beside him sat the son of a tenant farmer whose family is often on the move, who has lived all his life in ugly, unsanitary, overcrowded quarters, who takes care of himself and bears burdens too heavy for a little boy because his mother as well as his father works in the fields In discussing the influence of the rural environment on child development I would like to point up two somewhat common characteristics of rural environ- ments and raise questions regarding the potential effects, positive and negative, on children First, we can assume that rural children have unique opportunities for responsi- ble participation in the enterprises of family living, and how can we assess the effe crs these on devel ) ple nh re Usually there are several children in farm families. If the mother does not have hired help, she 1s likely to be an extremely busy person—even tf her home has labor saving devices, which not all farm homes do. If she has to help with the work of barn, garden, and fields, it becomes essential for the children to help in homemaking and child care. Particularly on family farms there are a multitude of jobs for young hands to do. A child's responsibilities may vary from none at all, as in the case of the boy cited earlier, to care of pets and young children, domestic work, weeding the garden, carrying wood, doing chores around the barn, possibly even helping in the planting, cultivating, and harvesting of Cro} S Many children of elementary school age have small business enterprises. They may own and care for a calf, a lamb, or a flock of poultry. They may gather and sell nuts or berries or trap and sell the hides of small animals. Some yo with their parents to farm markets to help sell produce. Even very young children ure often found puttering around with grown ups, thinking they are helping even tf their contributions are questionable. Although in many farm and non- farm country homes, children are no longer the economic asset they once were, large numbers of country children participate in some degree in the work associ- ated with family living and making a living What are the effects of this participation on development? Here again the inswers must be found by studying individual children. On the positivie side there is the security a child gains in feeling needed in the family, the sense of pride and personal worth which comes with doing essential work, the skills THE INFLUENCE OF THE RURAL ENVIRON -4AENT ON CHILDREN 443 which can accrue to children from participating with others, including adults, in cooperative projects. Even though the contribution a child makes is small, he can be developing practical concepts, for example, that planning is efficient, that negligence can have tragic results, that sometimes one must give up immediate satisfactions in o der to receive greater ones later. When nature, through drought or frost, cancels out the effect of hard work, as it often does, the farm child who has some share in family councils and re- sponsibilities learns the hard lesson of picking up the pieces and starting over. As he participates in his small way in such activities as the scientific feeding of animals, the employment of conservation measures, the use of powerful ma- chines, he can see that man can control, as well as adjust to his environment. But these outcomes are not necessarily realized. We have to ask about any child: Does he work too hard and too long for his physical well-being? Many tural children do. Does work deprive him of time for other experiences essential to wholesome development? Does he have a share in planning and choosing his work and can he use some ingenuity in carrying it out? Or does he do the same jobs over and over, following adult directions, until he is little better than a puppet? What is the family climate in which he works? Is it hopeful and cheerful or does he, as in a poverty-stricken home, share a family feeling of fighting a losing battle, or having no reward for effort. These are some of the factors which help to make the difference between child labor and educational work, between resentment and a sense of power and adventure, between positive and negative effects on development. Second, what is the effect on growth and development of the country child’s closeness to nature and natural phenomena? The freedom of most rural children to range widely in the out-of-doors makes available many vigorous physical activities. The best nursery schools and kinder- gartens would be hard put to it to duplicate the opportunities for running and climbing, jumping and crawling and throwing, for “messing around’ with natural materials such as sand, mud, water, and snow. Depending upon the locality, there are opportunities for swimming, fishing, hiking, camping, skiing, coasting, and adventurous exploring. It may be assumed that these vigorous, happy pursuits contribute to sturdy physical and emotional development. Rural educators point out, too, that rural children’s closeness to nature makes available to them vivid first-hand experiences which may contribute to emotional stability and the acquisition of spiritual values. The child in the country, unless over-protected, is face to face with reality. He observes that life comes from life and in turn produces life. He sees how tie strong preys constantly on the weak, but life goes on and nature’s balance is maintained unless man upsets it. The turning earth and the changing seasons have fundamental meanings to him. In his explorations of his environment he is at best very much in tune with his universe. He may be grubby and tousled of hair but he has distance in his eyes, wings on his feet, and stardust in his hair. Dr. Fannie Dunn, in her book on The Child in the Rural Environment, de- scribes the scientific and aesthetic experiences of a young rural child in one kind 344 RURAL EDUCATION-—A FORWARD LOOK of natural setting. These excerpts show him busy absorbing with eyes and nose and ears and hands—indeed with his whole self: “Springtime brings sheets of purple violets for a child to pick as much as his hands can hold. Golden buttercups held under his chin reveal if he likes butter and perhaps leaves a bit of yellow pollen on his skin. Catkins on the alders and aspens scatter clouds of pollen when the wind tossperty tax base Some states have succeeded in minimiizing this effect by one of three methods (1) authorizing the state tax commission to equalize assessment ratios among countries, (2) using an objective index of taxpaying ability to determine the state equalization payment, and (4) designing the equalization program so that only a few very poor school districts share in equalization aid, the others participating in a large fund flat-grant type of program What can be done to enlarge school taxing units so that available local taxable resources per child are more nearly equal ’ Many states are struggling with this problem. It is minimized in those states having the county unit system. In other states it is being attacked by designing new school districts with a minimum valuation per child. Another approach 1s to retain the county as a major school taxing unit while setting up smaller commu ity administrative units Have we placed too much emphasis upon “minimum in our school support programs? School leaders in Georgia are now engaged in a basic study of school finance, with extensive lay participation which is directed toward the develop ment of an ‘adequate’ program of education. Is this just a tri jal alteration in language or does it reflect a significant effort to raise the sights of the state bove the minimum concept 7 school support program a What can be done to simplify our state school support laws so that legislative cornmittees can readily understand our needs? Some states still have a dozen or more different state aid funds. Others have fewer funds but have app ortionment formulas which defy ex; lanation, The so-called minimum budget af proach, used in several southern states, has done much to clarify school needs to state legislatures. However, there 1s some ie mi that th pproach fosters the conviction that the state program is a complete and adequate program Have we become too dependent upon state aid in some states so that local initiative has disappeared? Are people saying that the state provides through the foundation provram an amount of funds determined by it to be adequate our teachers receive an annual salary which the state has determined to be enough, why should we be asked to tax ourselves locally for more funds? Are these attitudes hampering our efforts? Are we losing a healthy competition in the improvement of educational quality Will the pressing need for schuol construction cut into available current operating funds? In some states the need for state aid for school construction has sharply increased the burden on the state tax structure. Wéill local debt service levies have a similar effect upon the local s revenue sources? Is Federal aid for school construction a feasible approach to the problem ? Have we done everything possible to get maximum returns for the school dollar? Should cooperative purchasing of some of our larger standardized items be extended’? What other possibilities are there for greater economy and efh ciency ¢ A FORWARD LOOK RI RAI ppUCATION both rural and urban school leaders shortage of choo! buildings ! to We « on sore ples equit able to child and er to thes that | universally upphi lity tO study each prob state ot the question that of teachers general and T he if art sore t our inswer must shortage be corrected teacher but ther 1 Te cable t il} rs lem and point the veaity and in each tate FROM THI VIEWPOINT ry HOO! /ELOPMI Ni RBURBA N DEV Cy MacRAI THE ¢ OMMUNI OF SI L> Hic virile nd nit ducal Supe { itol there 1s at pote d the ot t wonder fron , by t Vi heet | ometimles the church 15 f ‘ ‘ wy where onc yW ul Th} 4 gracious Th int bi beautiful ch she ot rect the heart of Atiant ick ntial de yen of T church Whether thi At were impr rate The ; ac tOU essive There urches lawns 14 cf the mmnpre 1y street Ww nd the building a sto f } “ rent a} id just be yond the paint iy off ind dirty 1 ou have , ! d pew. 7 0 owed thei sed 4 chur h te are filthy stre im are of the churche Most fol led ul + mHine ti tronined downtown rut hop th They hav un f have lett the a yrea irvival But the church of which | } | ‘ } | Atlanta yunaay I | atte Church furnishe ( the be Chur h nut ; én yotners t Atlanta on Sun ind the -( there children hey have flocks, an ere They downtown | sbsolutely wet k the , me dicine d at riciaMs rom the poor FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF SURBURBAN DEVELOPMENT 461 neighborhood about the church bring their sick babie, to the clinic and the babies are healed! Last week the “linic admitted its 20,000th baby That is why the church mar mcd frm from strength to strength in a downtown area. It serves its community Now I'm supposed to be talking about schools, not churches; about suburbs, not downtown areas. But the point is this: if a church can successfully combat the sweeping movement of population away from the downtwn area by serving its community, what a wonderful opportunity the suburban school has to serve where the people are. Of course there are problems The growth of suburbs is like that of malignant cells in the body is dis organized and it is rapid. Millions of people looking for a place to live are ; peo} | running around in this country of ours and they land in masses clustered about the rim of the city, and then these masses grow During the 1940's Do ion of the United States increased 14 percent that of metropolitan ire Nett iy city id suburb 71 percent that of all other only 5.7 rt I é yrowth at the periy heral, or suburban areas imes that at the metropolitan center Now I use the analogy of malignant cells only tu indicate the way suburbs grow. The analogy is not in point to indicate the character of the people in suburbia, for generally speaking, I think, the healthiest urban tissue, the life blood, is on the rim of the cities But the growth 1s disorganized and the many dissimilar disparate elements in the suburbs mak» the community school concept difficult of realization there The administrat on also finds that school services pose a problem because of the comple xity of "ue area to be served Suburbs do not follow any definite pattern. Many of them are as confusing in their development as the streets of Atlanta or of Boston. Take almost any city with many suburbs; some are old, some are new; some have a fierce pride of their own, some have not yet weaned themselves from the city which pave thern birth: some are industrial; some are residential. some, however, are resi dential and becoming industrial, some are industrial and becoming residential some are of high s0c10-economic | ; ome of averape, some of low many of all three. One thing they have in cormmon-—they are growing Whatever the need of the community is, that need the schools must meet. If the suburb is one of culture and ivory tower tradition many suburbs are its needs must be met. Or if this element is just a part of the community, it needs must still be met. This is an articulate elernent and while often grossly unfair it 1s an intelligent one sometimes we dont meet it with equal intelligence It an be shown and it shou shown, that the fundamentals are taught more effectively now than bef ind that college bound students get better aration than eve In this connection | know of a number of suburbs that jointly sponsor an an nual College Night program. On this occasion representatives of colleges all over the country are present, meet with interested seniors and lower classmen and talk with them about opportunitiies in the colleges they represent. Scholar rt y | ships and various kinds of student services are discussed RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK ‘he joint, single meeting is a great convenience not only to the schools, but to the college as well The community may well be an industrial one Industry is nuw swveping into the South almost as fast as William Tecumseh Sherman did some years ago Again the hgure OF spe h indicates ray idity only not the character of the in dustries The implications for the suburban areas are obvious. Trades, commercial courses, hornemaking, salesmanship and other vocational sciences must be pro vided in expanding teasure if the school program is to keep ace with industria] growth And by all means lets use not only the published informational resource: available for the school program through businesses in the community, but their hurnan resources as well. The most direct way for a student to learn about business and industry is to ask the businessman to come to the school to tell him about it, and then let him have opportuniity to visit the industry Another way in which many suburban youngsters are learning about business is actually operating one of their own through the Junior Achievement program With an advisor from a local business concern to counsel them, these young people organize, form a corporation, sell stock, manufacture a product, pay costs of operation, labor, etc., declare dividends, and sometimes go broke But they learn by one of the cardinal principles of John Dewey—they learn by doing And again, they are using community resources and making school and commu- nity aware of a common identity The co-op programs made possible by the Smith-Hughes act and under which students work part time in ship or store and go part time to school for basic subjects 1s another helpful service to children and another evidence of school community partnership Still anotner evidence is the increasingly popular Business-Education Day when the businesses and stores of the community invite all the teachers to be guests. Schools close for the day and teacher goes to school at the Southern Wood Preserving Co., the Hapeville Bank, or the College Park Hardware Co She gets close to the internal organization of the business, she learns what makes it go. She stays practically all day and is entertained at lunch. The next year the schools invite the businessmen to come into the classroom and see a modern school program in operation. This plan is operable not only in big cities, but in suburbs and small towns as well As the fingers of suburban population thrust outward, towns 20 or 30 miles away become suburbs themselves and schooi services must be expanded tc meet the newly created needs, We have a high school in Fulton County 30 miles from Atlanta. Twenty years ago almost all of the boys took Agriculture and the school cannery ran almost night and day, Now very few of the boys want agriculture and the cannery is idle more often than not. The students need , Literature, Math, and Physics. They also want shopwork, typewriting, [he people in the little towns and rural areas now want the same standards of living as those of : living in the cities, and they should have them. How- CULTURE CHANGES AND EDUCATION 363 ever, there is an inevitable lag between the desire for such standards and their realization. The school must take the initiative in reducing this lag. The school can have no finer objective than to bring higher levels of living to these new suburbs 30 and 40 miles from the city—higer levels in communication skills, fine arts, healthy living, wholesome family life, and democratic participation in the community. Now lets move from services to the community and use of community re- sources to the second thing I want to say about the suburban school: it should faithfully represent its community and all of its community Admittec ly, the community school is difficult of achievement in the suburbs because of the many and diverse elements in the suburbs. Let's bring these ele- ments into the school and capitalize on them. Indeed we couldn't keep them out even if we wished, for the good school is not merely related to the community it is the commu ity, it is a center cut slice of the cornmunity, and the slice is all the way across For example, in suburban College Park, Georgia, the local Kiwanis Club has been presenting a series of panels on C itizenship for high school students. The Kiwanis Club out of the resources of its membership and contacts furnishes the panel members. The students for a week or so prior to the panel study up on the question and seek to stump the experts. On the evening the panels are held the school auditorium is jammed, not only with students, but with men and women, too. That is important, but what is more important, I think, is that the school has been a means of fitting together and giving unity to the jagged pieces of the community puzzle. For all the pieces are there. One of the panels was on the American Free Enterprise System. We had a C. I. O. man on it, a business execu- tive, a newspaper man, an industrial relations man, and others. The different interests of the community were represented there and brought together in friendly synthesis within the framework of the school program. Can the school serve a nobler purpose? CULTURE CHANGES AND EDUCATION WarYNeE C. ROHRER Associate Professor of Sociology University of Maryland This presentation brings selected sociological and anthropologica! materials to bear on contemporary American education. To introduce the subject, I should like to point out four general considerations. First, education constitutes a part of our culture. Changes in culture or education influence each other. In totali- tarian countries education was used to influence culture. In our society changes in education have tended to follow culture changes. 464 RURAL EDUCATION—A FORWARD LOOK Second, the process of education is carried on in groups of people—in a social environment. The individual learns from other individuals. Even Lincoln who has symbolized the self-educated person did not have educational experiences apart from other people or their products Third, I hold, along with many others, that rural and urban people and their interests, values, and aspirations differ more in degree than in kind. A recent article points out that cantemporary rural girls are, in fact, more ‘urbane’ than their urban sisters Finally, my remarks will be confined to the past half century. The paper has two sections. The first is on selected culture changes. The second deals with some consequences of these changes and their implications for education. The culture changes dealt with are considered apart from one another. This is because we must abstract to analyze. In real life these changes are inte .wined and in terrelated one with another CULTURE CHANGES The anthropological concept of culture often includes two classes of data- material and non-material. Concrete changes in material culture—increasing mechanization of farm and home tasks and the rapid development of mass media of communication and surface transportation changes—have been so well docu- mented it is unnecessary to discuss thern here. These changes have influenced society. Also material changes have contribut .d to lessening rural-urban differ- ences Looking at non-material culture changes we have to go beyond standard statistical collections into the publications of sociologists and anthropologists Non-material changes occurred in the less-concrete, less-observable aspects of our culture. The first aspect discussed is a combined category of specialization of work and centralization of services. You have witnessed specialization among your teaching colleagues and consolidation of schools presents an educational example of centralization of services We have fewer teachers each year who have responsibility for more than two areas of subject matter or whose students have a wide range in age. School consolidation involved moving people to a service in the interest of improved facilities, enlarged curricula, increased efficiencies, more adequate salaries. A cursory glance at rural social researches of the past two decades reveals that in the era of rural school consolidation, churches closed, open country service facilities moved to towns and villages, and other changes occurred in the social organization of rural areas. Over the long-run of this era out-migration of farm population oc curred Another case of centralization and specialization concerns the increasing im- portance of the expanded activities of non-local government agencies. Probably rural dwellers, more than city ones, have a greater awareness of the expanded activities of government agencies since each REA plant, reclamation project, and SCS or country extension office constitutes a visible symbol of non-local government activity. Many of these also symbolize the new specialized jobs needed to serve agriculture. Educators, too, have seen more state aid and super- vision in this period CULTURE CHANGES AND EDUCATION 365 The second area of non-material culture change includes the extensive develop ment and application of the social sciences. Particular reference should be made to sociology, social psychology, psychology, and anthropology and, of course, to the integrating fields such as human growth and development. Possibly no occupational group has more enthusiastically uccepted social science findings than have educators. Further, educators have elaborated on these findings in educational theory and in application-situations. However, the important factor from the cultural change reference point is the development and applic’ tion of these sciences. Our culture in the past half century constituted a climate con ducive to their use Another culture change occurring in the past fifty years is the change from production to consumption-orieintation. Leo Lowenthal reported in 1944 on his analysis of biographies appearing in The Saturday Evening Post and Colliers magazines for the years 1900, 1920, and 1940. He found the occupations of persons biographized in 1900 were more apt to be inventors, manufacturers, and financiers bent on industrial development. These were the ‘Empire Builders.” By 1920 Lowentha: noted the appearance of a number of biographies of stars of opera and the movies. By 1940 a significant number of biographies were devoted to athletes, stage, screen, and radio stars Lowenthal labels the “Empire Builders’ the “Captains of Production’ and those whose occupational callings received more space in recent magazine biographies the “Captains of Consumption.” This rather remarkable shift in culture ‘heroes’ symbolizes an extensive reorientation of many people in our society. Probably the trend Lowenthal identified has not altered in the in- tervening years CONSEQUENCES OF CULTURE CHANGES FOR EDUCATION The consequences of changes in material culture have been pervasive for our society. Margaret Mead provides us a means fur analyzing this material in one of her comparative portrayals of American and English cultures. She observed that the Englishman regards the real world as a realm to which he adapts, while the American regards the real world as something to overcome, alter, control In the English culture man is a part of nature. Margaret Mead labeled the / Englishman the “Junior Partner of God’’ in his own conception of himself In the American culture man is somewhat apart from nature and the real world constitutes fair game for manipulation. One explanation Miss Mead offers for our attitude is that it was frontier-born when resources were practically limitless Margaret Mead’s insight allows us to set in perspective the ‘‘typical”’ American culture. We control climate within our buildings and synthesize many products formerly extracted directly from the land or its products. In rural living we exer cise high control over crop and livestock production through hybridizatior. and applications of insecticides and synthetic fertilizers and artificial breeding It appears as though the farmer—the rural person—more actively and inti- mately controls nature than does the urban person who lives, relatively speaking, in a man-made environment, but whose environment——-because of its man-made ness—appears to him to be less influenced by the vagaries of nature. Perhaps we 466 RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK can say Miss Mg id's suggestion has greater relevance for rural educators than for urban educators Successful applications of science on a wide scale have consequences for culture, individual personalities, and practices of education. The highly rational attitude is not likely to include humility as a dominant characteristic. Rather the materialistic belief is likely to foster the netion that man can do anything by simply marshalling material and financial resources. Another likely conse- quence is that a man becomes falsely confident of his power and contemptuous of the real world and, in turn, of man himself Formal education agencies have the resources to deal with this attribute of our culture. The first step toward solving a problem lies in its identification which Margaret Mead accomplished for us in this case. Education concerns itself with developing in individuals the flexible quality of accepting new values and attitudes. Man-made machines can be changed. Attitudes and values also are man made d can be ri hanged One way teachers have applied a corrective to the attitude of man standing apart from the world occurs in their incorporation of maturation theory into teaching practices. I do not think this is a nebulous connection. Many tea- chers refused to abide by the attitude that all like-aged children had the same maturation experiences and the same learning abilities. Their relativistic orienta- tion recognized individual capacities and differences and dealt with each stu dent on his merits The attitude of control more nearly fit the old pedagogy wherein all students were given a set of materials on a time schedule and all were expected to con- form to an established pattern and achieve a standardized goal. This attitude tended to regard the individual student almost solely as a passive consumer of the knowledge disseminated by adults. Persons holding this attitude failed to recog- nize that students ‘‘learn’’ from their colleagues and that learning occurs n other than formal classroom situations. They also equated rote learning with retained learning One way to regard this problem of man’s relationship to the world of things lies imbedded in his relationship to other men the way he ucfines his role with reference to others and his conception of other's expectancies concerning his role. Teachers who set aside time in each school day for student-administered group discussions, group work, and study activities will contribute to democratic practices Th:ough these activities every individual has opportunities to play roles of leadership and followership and as a consequence 1s likely to develop a stable personality rooted in democratic social activities. By democratically participating in a variety of roles the individual achieves the quality of adapta- bility, a characteristic necessary to accept change. In our society we constantly are confronted with change and the quality of adaptability seems vitally neces- sary to the individual's sense of security. The secure person fears neither the future nor the present Specialization of work into a proliferation of roles and the centralization of services proceeded from assumptions nurtured in the rational attitude. One consequence of the specialization of roles was that the family lost to other agen CULTURE CHANGES AND EDUCATION 467 cies and groups some of its former responsibilities. For instance, with regard to personality development, Talcott Parsons observes that the greater opportunities girl ave to identify themselves with an adult feminine role—the mother (and I would add-—the school teacher)—-and the practice they have playing these roles is one explanation for the differences often observed in ‘‘typical”’ boy and ‘typical’ girl personalities Parsons writes: ‘It seems to be a definite fact that girls are more apt to be relatively docile, to conform in general according to ‘‘adult’’ expectatiou, to be "good", whereas boys are more apt to be recalcitrant to discipline and defiant of adult authority and expectations.” Boys not having opportunities ‘o identify themselves with a male adult role—the father being occupied away from 10ome have greater problems in developing from childhood to adulthood. To a marked degree, in this sense, the farm boy reared on a family farm who will succeed to farm operatorship has an advantage over the urban reared boy When we closed rural schools and churches we consequently withdrew support from many additional neighborhood and community institutions. This does net constitute a romantic plea to return to the “Little Red School House’’—many ought to have been closed—nor does it belabor centralization as an evil and a curse. The point is that we changed our school organization and many other aspects of our rural way of life changed due to this consolidation According to many anthropologists a change in one aspect of culture or social organization will ramify throughout a social system. Quite often many of these ramifications will be unexpected and contrary to intent because of incomplete understanding of the elements of society. Currently we hiave the job of building new social organizations in m.ay places. Community development programs, the community school movement in education, the rash of adult education ventures expressed in discussion groups, all may be considered as filling the void left by centralization. Something of possible use to cornmunity school advocates is brought out in recently reported research at the University of Maryland, (Wayne C. Rohrer and John F. Schmidt: Family Type and Social Participation). \n this study it was found that the most active adults in formal organizations of the community lived in households including younger school-age children (6-11 years). Be- fore having children or before their children reached this age-class, adults participated less with other family members and in community organizations When later stages in the farnily cycle were reached—-when there were only teen- agers or when the children had left the parental home—participation in both family and community declined. If this analysis applies to other places, community activities are shouldered by relatively few parents in the short run. Participation in community affairs then is not widely distributed. The relevance for the community school move- ment lies in its opportunity to make the community s hool a center for wide spread community activities. If educators active in this movement see all adults—not just those who are parents of school children—as its clientele, the community school movement will contribute to community integration. The movement will be, in fact, a “community” affair 468 RURAL EDUCATION——A FORWARD LOOK One of the greatest consequences of the development of specialized roles is the impairment of communication. Each speciality develops a jargon and each specialist tends to orient toward specialists of his calling. The teachers in a three-teacher school could easily work among themselves and with their neigh bors who filled the roles of board members. Intimate and informal relation ships prevailed. Communication was simple in that decisions could be reached and policies formed in the primary sroup environment In the impersonal environment of the secondary group, relationships are formal and communicative barriers develop. Highly developed specialization in the absence of inter-communication among specialists can lead to quite differ ent views of and attitudes toward a given situation. For instance, a particular student may be a poor athlete but an excellent student of history. If the two teachers involved jointly evaluate this student's abilities each can gain a more adequate judgment of his capacities. We must regard the student as a whole individual and not fragment him because our specialties form portions of a whole curriculum One of our biggest jobs is to develop communication networks between all persons concerned in a social system. In education you have to build adequate intra-education communication systems between teacher and teacher, from the local school level to the county and beyond, and between school personnel and official lay members of the social system of the school. Then you need to build an extra-education comm..uication system as well, not just to and including parents who attend PTA, but to all members of the community. As communi- cation develops participation in affairs and decision-making increases. With increasir.g participation many administrative tasks which teachers now have will be willingly accepted by lay persons. By increasing lay participation in school affairs, and considering the school an integral part of the community, the void left by centralization will be filled The community school should be more than just another meeting place for community affairs. The use of school facilities for adult forums and institutes constitutes a step forward, but let us think of student attendance and participation in these adult activities. Through such adult-child interactions when ‘‘adult’’ matters are being discussed, the young person's transition to full adulthood is gradual and he is freed from being an “apprentice” in community affairs when he reaches adulthood. The latter-——adult apprenticeship—appeared to be the case in the family type study just cited The community school movement appears to have importance in another way. It seems to constitute a reversal of the trend of bringing people to services and appears rather to bring services to people. In urban areas this trend has de ped in recent decades in the decentralization of many services. Pe:nays the community school mover.ient stands in the forefront of a significant developing rural trend The applications of the social sciences ramify throughout our society just as do technological changes. AlLo, as in technological changes, unintended conse- quences developed from these applications Industry, labor, government, and business have supported studies in training, developing. and selecting leaders. CULTURE CHANGES AND EDUCATION 469 Other studies have dealt with morale, social tensions, communication, the small group, and other areas with increasing emphasis in recent decades. Educators have applied social science findings in sociometric seating arrangement, in changing the role of the teacher from thiat of the ‘merchant of ideas” to that of the developer of learning situations and in other ways. Some educators revised their methods in the light of researches on social clirmates—autocratic, democratic, ‘laissez-faire’ environments—due to the discovered influences social environment has on social control and learning Probably the teacher's use of sociometric seating arrangements reflects the quality of flexibility in that it constitutes a change from traditional physical arrangements. However, one caution must be noted. Through this means we discover the membership of the congeniality group, but all persons are not chosen In other words sociometry identifies the socially adjusted and unadjusted. What do we do with the isolate? Is he forgotten or crudely manipulated to ‘‘join the others?" Sociometry is a means to the end of setting up situations where learn ing can occur in a congenial atmosphere. By developing congenial situations in which stude its may learn from one ancther, perhaps ire teacher will be freed to devote more attention to the isolate. The isolate may benefit from this atten tion to the « xtent that he becomes a more secure person and may become a mem ber of a ccngeniality group At this soint it would be well to discuss briefly the idea that social science applications may be used for good or ill. These applications may be used to further administrative objectives in which case we “use” people and actually treat them as means. The applications can be used in a way appropriate to democratic beliefs to contribute to the growth of an individual to the end that he fills responsible roles in a democratic society. As teachers or supervisors we must constantly assess our .-ethods and techniques. To whom does this idea contribute? To my own or to others’ objectives? Neither the ‘suggestion box’ nor the ‘‘open door policy” mean in and of themselves that democratic beliefs are being pursued or inculcated Teachers can, by their attitudes toward and actions with their students, demon- strate that people in all places have resources skills, and knowledge useful to others. Teachers who keenly observe their students, the pre-schoolers, and adults of the community will better prepare themselves fcr their complex job of teach- ing. Through their observations they will be more likely to incorporate into their inter-actions with students ideas useful to these students in adulthood One elaboration on this idea of the teacher as an observer of children and adults has reference to the PTA organization. It is my impression that PTA’s virtually exclude children from their scheduled events. How can parent and teacher better understand the child and each other if the three do not share some inter-active experiences? In the absence of common inter-active situations un- realistic segmentalized know'edy< of parent-child, teacher-child, and parent- teacher relationships is likely to develop. One virtue of the old rural practice of the teacher boarding with families had the positive characteristic that all could obtain a “whole” picture of inter-actions among child, parent, and teacher 370 RURAL EDUCATION——A FORWARD LOCK Probably the rising interest in matters of consumption was a consequence of the virtual disappearance of our Nation's physical frontier. A narrowing of land resources stemmed the westward, farmward migration. In its stead we have witnessed population concentration in urban areas. On the periphery of cities tion use, e. g., from farm changed from production to consumy land to residential sites Some aspects of our c nsumption orientation 15S interest in hobbies, the number of persons taking annual vacations, the national characteristic that women spend more money than men ind the vast array of appliances whose manufacture 1s directed toward easing burdens of the homemaker and homeowner. Another expression of this is found in the change ‘mn subject matter interest which occurred in the last three decades of Home Economics Extension in the State of Maryland. When Home Demonstration Agent work began in the 1920's subject matter included for the most part food preservation, furniture renovation, 2d making clothes. Now many Maryland homemaker's interests lie in learning to make decorative objects for the home, costume jewelry, and other iterns of consumption The increasing importance of sports in every school program illustrates the point Denis Brogan broaches the thes’; that sports activities in our schools con tribute to the Americanization of the children of immigrants since they could participate in these activities despite their parents’ cultural backgrounds. A further point on the pervasiveness of this new attitude and, in fact, of its inte- grating quality, is offered by Kimball ir his study of a rural-urban fringe area T’sis area, including residents of heter-:geneous background and community dis organization, became organized as an integrated community around the recre ational interests of the residents The orientation toward consumption may be a recognition that all our problems are not production problems The consumption-orientation found in our culcure may be ‘ncorporated into school programs by consciously directed activities in handicrafts work and in consumer education. In the area of handicrafts, and related to this, in the pursuance of hobbies, perhaps we will find a method to bridge the gap between consumption and production orientation The implications of these culture changes have relevance for education in areas of curriculum, the role of the teacher in the school and community, and in human relations. To translate these changes into action, educators should use these guide lines: School and the local society are interdependent; the indivi dual's development as a stable personality 1s not segmentalized and compartment alized but is a processual development ; rural and urban life are interdependent; yesterday's curriculum, method, and content, though successful, does not neces- sarily meet the needs of the student of today PRESENT STATUS OF PERSONNEL NEEDED PRESENT STATUS OF PERSONNEL NEEDED T. M. STINNETT Executive Secretary National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, NEA Since to the best of my knowledge no definitive data exists regarding personnel needs of rural schools, we must draw conclusions from existing overall needs As a generalized statement, it may be said that the Nation has been in a continuous period of teacher shortage since the beginning of World War II The shortage grew steadily worse during the war and ameliorated only slightly after its close. Then with the impact of a number of adverse factors—-adverse in terms of getting a balance in teacher supply and demand—the situation has rapidly deteriorated since 1950 SOME VITAL STATISTICS The shortage during the war years was, of course, a result of the general manpower shortage. But by 194 5 or 1947, the schools began to receive the first wave of children from an increased birth rate that started in 1940. Almost every year since 1940 has produced an aggregate increase in the number of births, reaching the all-time high of about 4,000,000 in 1953. Preliminary re- ports indicate that 1954 will show another increase. Thus, for several years now, the elementary schools have had increased enrollments of more than 1,000,000. In 1953-54, the increase reached 1,600,000. Between now and 1960, the annual increase will approximate 1.3 million in the elementary schools What do these increased enrcllments mean in terms of teacher needs? They mean that from 40,000 to 50,000 new teaching positions are created each year When annual replacement needs of something like 50,000 are added as well as needs to replace sub-standard teachers, to reduce overloading, and to provide ad ditional curriculum services, there is an indicated total demand for new elemen tary teachers each year of not less than 125,000. Currently, we are producing about 45,000 new elementary teachers annually, and only 35,000 of these are degree graduates. At the elementary schoo! level alone, we have for several years been piling up an annual deficit of from 50,000 to 75,000 qualified elementary teachers. The U. S. Office of Education estimates a deficit of 124,000 qualified elementary teachers for the school year 1954-55 We are just now reaching the stage of critical shortages of teachers at the high school level, because high schools are just now beginning to experience the results of the upswing in birth rates. Between now and 1965, however, the high school teacher supply problem will be just as critical—if not more so—as , shat the elementary teacher situation has been since 1948. High school enrollments will increase by 66 percent by 1965. In terms of numbers, high school enroll- ments will increase from about 7,000,000 to 12,000,000 or more. Where there are now 3 children in high schoo! .aere will be 4 in 1960, and 5 in 1965. That 472 RURAL EDUCATICN--A FORWARD LOOK is to say, where there are now 3 high school classrooms and 3 high school teachers, there must be 4 in 1960 and 5 in 1965 High school enrollments will increase on the average of about 4 million each year through 1965. In terms of the number of new teachers needed an nually, something like 25,000 will be required to man new positions which must be added because cf increased enrollments, an additional 25,000 to 50,000 will be needed for replacements, to eliminate sub-standard teachers for added cur riculum services, and to reduce overloading, making a total anual need for new high school teachers of from 50,000 to 75,000 on the average It has been estimated that the need for new high school teachers this fall was 50,000. That is almost exactly the number prepared last year but we have data which indicates that not more than 30,000 of those prepared will actually teach To summarize, the annual need for new teachers will be 1. For elernentary teachers through 1960 100,000 to 125,000 2. For high school teachers 50,000 to 75,000 Total annual need 150,000 to 200,000 Current (1953-54) production of new teachers was 1. Elementary 45,000 2. High Schoo! 50,000 Total 95,000 Thus, the annual production is running from 55,000 to 105,000 short of esti mated needs To sum up the dilemma which is in prospect, total school enrollment be I tween now and 1965 will increase frorn 3414 million to 44 million. If the in creased number of new teaching positions required approximate the enrollment increase, between 300,000 and 400,000 new teachers will be needed in the next 10 years to man new positions alone What are the basic factors involved in these alarming shortages and in the dim prospects for the future? Let’s leave for later discussion the causes of instability within the teaching profession, taking a look first at some factors which. whatever might have been done, would probably indicate serious teacher 5 ! ) shortages First, it must be recognized that we are in a period in which the demands for teaching services are at the highest level in our history. Second, we are in a period in which the pool from which such services must be drawn is at rela tively the lowest level in our history. The first is, of course, a result of the high birth rates that began ir 1940 and have continued since, resulting in enrollment increases of 6.000.000 between 1940 and 1954 and pu hing up the annual demand for the teachers from perhay ;5 75,000 to 150,000 The second factor is a result of the low birth rates of the 1930's, which are now reflected in relatively low college enrollments, The pool from which we get PRESENT STATUS OF PERSONNEL NEEDED 473 new teachers is college graduating classes. In 1950 a total of 433,000 graduated from our colleges with first degrees. By 1954 this number had dropped to 285,000, a decline of 34.3 percent. This decline has been reflected, as would be expected, in a decline in the annual production of teachers since 1950. The pro duction of high school teachers has dropped 41.7 percent since 1950, and in some fields, notably the sciences, the decline has been greater. At the ele mentary school level, the annual production since 1950 has been reduced by 26 percent. The decline last year was nearly 7 percent As distressing as the foregoing figures are, there is another aspect concerning which we now have data—from 13 states—for the first time which indicates that an alarming proportion of those completing preparation for teaching each year do not actually take teaching jobs. If the sampling data from those 13 states can be applied to the Nation as a whole, 35 percent of all persons completing preparation for teaching take jobs outside the teaching profession At the elementary level 56 percent of the men and 82 percent of the women, or 78 percent of all, actually become teachers. At the high school level, only 44 percent of the men and 66 percent of the women, 54 percent of all, actually teach. This means that of the 45,000 elementary teachers prepared last year, only 40,000 actually can be considered as supply, and of the 50,000 high school teachers, only 27,000 can be so considered. Instead of having 95,000 new teach ers available for the schools this fall, only 67,000 actually accepted teaching jobs PERSONNEL NEEDS FOR RURAL SCHOOLS As I said at the outset, to my best knowledge, we have no accurate data on the personnel needs of rural schools as such separate and apart from the over all needs of all types of schools We shall, therefore, have to draw some conclusions from comparative data These comparisons cannot be accurate because the population picture is changing so rapidly that what may be true in 1954 may not be true in 1955. However, I believe we can derive some rough approximations on the personnel needs of the rural schools from relative factors We know that the rural population approximates 40 percent of the Na tions total. We know, too, that in general there are more children in the aver age rural family than in the average urban family. Therefore, it would appear to be a reasonable assumption that about 50 percent of our school population is rural. We could say roughly, merefore, that the personnel needs of the rural schools would be at least half of the total projections listed above, or for the elernentary schools from 50,000 to 70,000 new teachers each year and for the high schools from 25,000 to 40,000. As a matter of fact, because of certain peculiar factors I shall discuss below, we know that the need will be more than this, that rural areas face a much more critical task in getting and keeping enough competent teachers than does the Nation as a whole. What are some of those factors 7 RURAL EDUCATION-—A FORWARD LOOK Factors AFFECTING SUPPLY OF TEACHERS FOR RURAL SCHOOLS 1. In boom time or bust, in periods of abundant teacher supply or in periods of teacher shortages, rural schools do not get an even break in securing qualified teachers. In times of abundant supply, urban schools will not take the begin- ning or inexperienced teacher. They siphon off the experienced rural teachers and rural schools are compelled to take those without experience. In periods of short supply, urban schools tend to take all qualified teachers, leaving the sub-standards, the cast-offs, and the incompetent for the rural schools. 2. Studies on the subject have generally revealed that newly qualified teachers preponderantly prefer urban to rural school jobs 3. The rural schools face special problems of their own with respect to teacher supply and demand, for there is evidence that teachers in rural schools are relatively poorly qualified a. In a study of teachers in rural schools in 1951-52, the NEA Research Division pointed out “Fifteen years ago 62.3 percent of the teachers in one-teacher rural schools had at least two years of college training and 10.0 percent were college graduates. Today these percents are 76.5 and 23.2 respectively the above data pertain only to teachers in one-teacher schools. There are, however, certain other possible comparisons that are enlightening. In 1938-39, 38.2 percent of the elementary teachers in city school systems had at least four years of college training; the corresponding percent for rural elementary teachers in 1951-52 was 38.1. In other words, rural teachers have just about caught up to where city teachers were 13 years ago “In rural elementary schools only 1 teacher in every 4 has a degree, and 11.2 percent still have less than 3 years of college training.” (In the Na- tion as a whole 67 percent have degrees. ) b. The above figures do not reveal the full dimensions of the problem of standards in rural elementary schools. Complete data are not available but the 1954 Teacher Supply and Demand Study revealed that in some pre- dominantly rural states where the one-room school is still common there are large numbers of teachers who have never been to college at all or who have a negligible amount of college training (1) In Nebraska in 1953-54, an analysis of the preparation of new elementary teachers showed that about 40 percent had /ess than 30 semester hours of college credit and that an additional 24 percent had no college credit whatsoever. In other words, a total of nearly 2/3 of the new elementary teachers had bees, to college for less than a year or not at all Moreover, since about 70 percent of all new elementary teachers in Nebraska were ernployed in one-room schools, we may safely assume that the rural children of Nebraska are being taught, to a large extent, by teachers who have virtually no college preparation. {Among ex perienced Nebraska elementary teachers, nearly 40 percent have less than two years of college work. ) PRESENT STATUS OF PERSONNEL NEEDED 375 (2) In North Dakota, arnong al! elementary teachers. both new and experienced, neatly 45 percent have less than two years of college pre- paration. This includes about 30 percent who have /ess than a year of college work. North Dakota also has many one-room schools. Among all mew elementary teachers employed last year, more than ¥, we employed in one-room schools We must remember, of course, that many states are doin better job in securing teachers for their schools, both rur; In Arizona, for example, 98 percent of all teachers ar lege graduates, and the other 2 percent have had three yea.s of coflege. However, it is clear that a vast » amber of rural children are ting cheated of their rizht to be taught by a weil prepared teacher: 4. The typical rural teacher has-afways received a smaller salary than the over-all average of American-téachers’ salaries and a great deal less than urban teachers. In 1951-52;the average salary of rural teachers was only $2,484 and the average Salary of rural elementary teachers was only $2,385. At that time, teachers in cities of over 500,000 were receiving an average of about $4,500— roughly twice the pay of rural teachers. In 1951-52, the average rural teacher started the school year with a personal indebtedness of about $800—about 1/3 of his annual salary 5. The low salaries of rural teachers have sometimes been dismissed with the statement that these teachers are typically young people, inexpe. ienced, liv- ing at home with their parents, and having no dependents. This is a completely erroneous idea a. During the past 15 years, the rural teaching force has changed from a group of workers that was predominantly single to one that is predomin antly married. Almost 4/4 of all rural teachers are married. The average age of elementary teachers is 42 and of secondary teachers about 34. About 1/4 are men, typically with two or three dependents b. Rural teachers typical! live four or five miles from school and do not have public transportation available. They must, therefore, own and main tain an automobile c. Rental housing is difficult to find in many rural areas. Consequently, it is not surprising that the majority of rural teachers are living in homes that they own, or rather are trying to pay for. About a fourth of these houses do not have inside toilets or bathtubs and a third of them do not have access to a telephone Professional working conditions and teacher welfare a. Teachers in relatively large rural schools typically have definite salary schedules and written contracts. However, there are still many rurai teachers in smaller schools who are not paid on a definite scale and who are not under written contract. It is still rather typical in rural areas to pay secondary teachers more than elementary teachers of equivalent education and experience FORWARD LOOK TROUSRASS OF percent Of Wachesrs im Oe TOO NDOOS CO ot Save AON | $5 percent Go oot ve 3 Wachers Acker. mor However ‘rtm controversial sswss. sspenally mimess oc politeal leaders, sparamhon of COMMIS of SOAS Program NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON RURAL EDUCATION Education for Rural America —a forward look shee ef the Uasted States Derartment of Health Edecamen, and Weitere and the oorersttier of other Natio! Orgamcanerss and Agemoes and Stare Commiteres Washington, D. C. October 46, 1954 respect wacters amd ocber schoo! perwone! ' > SAR SANMSTRO eacher Edxucanen, Wash Sct Executve Oregon Educator Associstee, Secretary, Nanenal Commussioe fessional Stindards, NEA. Washington, D on Teacher . on ~. Helena. Morteca Teachers Assocustion, Mone Washiogt MONDAY 2:0 PM ATION OF PROGRAM ~ o explore che means by wihach sdequate educacoea!l oppormeites an become avatiable to rural peocle Mas. Mazroare 5 INAU ER, County Schools, Srcamore, A Shoo! Admmistrator’s Viewpomx Somesnlle Miwackee Court Schools, Miwresee. Vixoesen feat, Stark Counter Schools, Canton, Oto Seame Sececes Divcson, Saancaccds and _~ Ofispe «=Count MONDAY 2-00 PM. ASSEMBLY FOUR THE SCHOOL IN THE COMMUNITT Te exploce the relanoesiups om HF Atves, Director, Southwestern CPEA, Uaiveenty of Tres, ot Educaton, University of Wiscoesm, Madisoe Paee D Members 1 M Lou:svill Ray L. I a Shoot Hous: kn & . oe Assocranhon, Educanon, Wasb- iogtoa, VaucHN D. Semet. Superintendent. Alameda County Schools, Oakland, Calitocasa W. A. SHANNON, Seperintendent of Schools, Morristown, Tennessee W. 7. Temry, State Superintendent of Education, Montgomery, Alabama Fostsrr G. Utaicx, Superintendent, Lebanon County Schools, Lebanon, Penasyivania Mate ?Pimaace COmumetiia 2oas Federal Parncipanon in Financing the TUESDAY 2:00 PM ec of Rural People—-scatus aod recommendations Educance Courrmens H. F. Atves Uarversty University, Talahassee Schools. Oaklaad. Californim Jackson County Schools, Independence, Pact, Roseville Avenue School, Newark, New Jersey: ommisson, NEA Professor of Education, Oklahoma A & M College. General Discussion Sesuon Summary: Watrsa C. Reussex. Deas. Adult Education and Community Service, Univeruty of Wyoming, Laramie PHYS! ‘AL FACILI ‘OR SCHOOL MMUNITIES LDI “Dew ~ cour GROUNDS, -\ NORMAN KEY, Secretar x asfungton D lay Van NUYS oity and School Related Us TUESDAY 2:00 PM Faalines Leader: MERL STONEMAN, Professor o of Nedraska. Lincoin Members JOHN Brook. Assrstant NEA, Washington. D. C T. Encasn, Director, Transportation lastroctnion, Des Moines. lowa Naytoa, D Di rechar Urs, son of School MONDAY § Schools, Fall aagtoa anonal Services Supena Department of Public Penosvivania stendent. Dallas County Dalles. Texas austrston Leach Supenatendent. Calhoun Coeaty Schools, Contras Costa County Schools. Martines, Besiness Manager. National Congress of Parents and Services to the Comarunity Schools TUESDAY 9:3 AM by the Intermediate Unit ree Loar Se CuHagiss H. Botxm, Supernatendent of Schools, Doviestown, Penosy Bucks County SMOSyY Vans Services Reading Consultant, Bucks County Schools, Doylestown, Lenter Services Superintendent, Stanislaus County Xhools, Modesto California 4 FORWARD LOOK Genera DIVISION 8 Taree. Operaniomal Proceases and Procedures TUESDAY 2:00 PM of the Incermediate Unit 4 Rosrars. Super odent, Dallas County Shools. Dallas, onships and Leadership as Functions of ¢ Intermedsate Oakland County Shools. Pontiac CRANE, Associate Albany. New York Samerset County Schools, Somerville, S. Nene Supenatendent ertown Community Schools Quakertown, Penasv! vara CLAREN A Pounp, Associate Professor and Consultant in Rural Edv- Lewis County Schools, Port Mas. Metoa C. Syren . Doylestown. Pennasy! vania ©. H. Srows, Superine UNIT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION ASvaccgees. Deve ioneene Develooment wi TENN ESS ster. Marviand Sam M eh ee tT) n < - X C. Prank NEWELL (‘adams DIVISION Sessiom Two: Unique Administratie Problems of th TUESDAY - . Coonty . ait Mas. Rut: KEPLEY WECTON tducation. Inyo County Schools. Inde pendence. Califo LOGGINS, Superintendent. Greenville County Schools, Greenville. South Baltumore County Schools Ms, Tavares, Florida son Summary: Luta B Superintendent, Montgomery County Schools, Red Oak, lows ~ LOOK DISADVANTAGED AND MINORITY GROUPS IN TUESDAY 2:00 PM McCottom Maan Teacher STOCKTON Superintendent, Kern ¥ Education Paim Beach DIVISION THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS OF ORGANIZATIONS SERVING RURAL PEOPLE C AND AGENCIES Drs “* fare s- E. W. Aro a f Pros Extension Service. U. S. Department of Agricultz ; C Sessson Owe: Adult Needs anc’, Programs to Serve Them MONDAY 8:00 PM Meeting the Needs of 4 “ult Rural Citizens Paut E. Nystrom, Director of Instruction, Coil of Agriculture, University ~ Marviand, College Park A Spenal JOSEPH Rochester, Rochester, New Yori Informal Pane placations Members C. R. Cosientz, Superintendent, Preble County Schools, Eaton, Ohio Groact H. FExn, Associate Director, Education Department ‘National Assocation of Manufacturers, New York, New York Coun D. GuNN, State Conservationist, Soil Conservation Service, Gaines ville, Flosida CONFERENCE PROCAAM DIvVistoN Sessiee Two: Youth Needs and Programs to Serve Them e Charms: NORMAN Mrnvaum. Executrve D E rector, National +H F “t. Marvisod Torman's Natoma DIVISION Session Three Cowrdimation of Schoo! and Noo-Schoo!l Programs arm ae KAat ture, Wash PANEL AND At Panei Members Mas. Ei Secretary and Director, Library beary Build Rule: North Carolina MrCat aA \seneTs OTs, Supervisor Santa Rosta County Board uction, Milton, 4 MURRAY o Publk Florida University Maryiand, College Park, Maryland TH B. Rosmnson, Adminie-itwe Assistant, Department of Town and Country Church. National Cownct! of Churches, New York. New York DIVISION !2 IMPROVEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION OF SMALL ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS (Since it is desirable that programs of elementary end secondary schools in small systems be closely wtegrated, attendance at both sesmoms rather than just ome should prove most profitable. ) TUESDAY 9: AM - EDU CATION—A FORWARD LOOK 5 PYOCTaas soc Teacher Schools soee Elementary Arzroma CHARLES ct. Pine Mountain, Kentucky Apart MAYNARD Pair Haven, Vermont RENCE TAYLO Pennsvivana Sceate State College DIVISION Sessiow Two: The High School Serving Fewer Thao One Hundred Pupils acrman- Atsext |. Otrver. Associate Professor of radia ~ Schools, Almagordo, New Mexico lohasville, intendent 1 Superintendent of Schools, Girn A. Moaarrs Board of Cooperative Services, Port Leyden. New is, Inkster, Michigan KenNetrH G. Younc, Director of Curriculum, Siskiyou County Schools, Yreka, Ca C. P. Trrus, Superintendent DESTINCTIVE IMPACT The Utilizanon of Appropriate Comazunity Resources for Learning ANNE S. HOP 4T THE COLLEGE LEVEL Aca at SR RURAL YOUTH perrwner- G Keraay Serre. Execute: Secretar son, NEA. Washimgtee. D. C robles Involved and Means of Sclbviny, Them MONDAY 8-00 PM -ahe Bar Youth Lies of Act a aRNS cocky State College. Frankfort College of Agricu Teachers Col ™ 4 Contra SPECIAL INTEREST GROUP MEETINGS Arranged by the organizatoe or agency liseed to consider a problem im which the spomsoring group has special concern or respoasibulity School and Home Closer Together to Improve the , b I. Ways of Bringing the Rur: Quality of Education for Children Two 1 Twelve VL Child Labor @ Agn _ > see cure and the Schooling weal Laborers Speaser- Nat Peeratreg: SOL MAaKorF “at 4 TUESDAY 80 PM Assestant Secretary Labor Commuttee. New Assestact Secretary. Deparcment of ise~eeac, Assstact Secretary, Department of Rural Edocenon Firena Assistant to the Executive Secretary, Department of Rural CONFERENCE PREOOEAW AND PERSONNEL Reverort Frocs . McCa RURAL EDUCATION—A FORWARD LOOK STATE COMMITTEES (Coat'd) Comeevircas, Ernest OQ. Nybakken, chairman; Andrew Ferrigno, Frank Formica, Mrs. Bernice C. Nicjadlik, Joha C. Reilly Delsware> Mrs. May B. Leasure, chairman; Calvin E. Afflerbach, Grace E. Hastings, Stanley James Florida No formal committees Georgia: W. E. Pafford and William S. Smith, co-chairmen; Reba Burnham, R. S. Clark, M. D. Collins, Mrs. Ralph Hobdds, J. Haroid Saxon, Paul D. West Iéade- Arley F. Rost, chairman; Edith E. Crowley, Gertrude Eastman, Melvin Gruwell, Amos B. Hulme iio: Marjone B. Leinauer, chairman; Dwight L. Bailey, George Deyoe, Dorothy Dixon, Mrs. Mary P. Endres, Hans C. Olsen, Robert M. Ring Isdians: Ira L. Huntington, chairman; E. J. Eberhart. George W. Gerichs, Clarence A. Pound, W. E. Wilson lows: Ralph Norris, chairman; M. L. Cushman, J. L. Davies, H. C. DeKock. W. T. Edgren Kassas> Minter E. Brown, chairman; Mrs. G. W. Bennington, Agnes Engstrand, K. O Esping, Floyd Herr, John King, Fred Meek, Adel F. Throckmorton, Carl Tjerandsen. Kestacty> D. T. Ferrell, chairman; Mitchell Davis, Lee Francis Jomes, Elizabeth Sutton, Mrs. Marie R. Turner Losisiama: Horace C. Robinson, chairman; Mrs. Altoa Kirby, F. H. Shiel, B. S. Walker, F. F. Wimberly, Roscoe H. White Maree: Edward L. McMonagle, chairman; Alfred A. Bracy, Reginald H. Dority, Asa A. Gordon, John C. MacLeod, Charles L. Puffer. Maryiewd> Samuel M. Jenness, chairman; R. Bowen Hardesty, Forbest H. Norris, Morris W. Rannels, William S. Schmidt, E. Guy Stapleton, B. Melvin Cole Massacbusetti: No formal committee. Micbigas: Mrs. Daisy E. Howard, chairman; Mrs. Ruth N. Bacon, Charles E. Brake, Mrs. Mayme M. Ross, Howard Thayer, Lyle Torrant, Clinton Whetstone. Mresescta: W. W. Salmi, chairman; C. P. Archer, T. C. Engum, Milo J. Peterson Mississippi: J. A. Travis Missoswr:> Philip J. Hickey, chairman; J. Abner Beck, Bernard Campbell, Moss Mc- Donald, Arthur L. Summers Mostasaz: Mrs. Winnafern Moore, chairman; Mrs. Agnes Cooper, P. C. Crump, Mrs. Sylvia Haight, Mr. Efhe S. Pent Nedrasésa: Merie Stoneman, chairman; Doris E. Bigelow, Nettie Clark, Rosalie Farley, O. F. Moore, Edna P. Nigh, Evangeline Waite. Newads: Mrs. Kate St. Clair, chairman; John H. Fant, Roxie Copenhaver, Flo Z. Reed, Mrs. Kathryn L. Scribner New Hampsbere: David Appleton, chairman; Lloyd P. Young. New Jersey: Sampson G. Smith, chairman; Mildred H. Harden, Frances Peterman, Thomas E. Robinson, Myrtle Townsend New Mexico: Adolfo Chavez, chairman; Eari Nunn, Wayne Owens, Haske! Smith Mrs. Mary R. Watson New Yor’: G. Howard Goold, chairman; Allan P. Bradley, Edward A. Burke, Francis E. Grifiin, Howard G. Sackett, J. Edward Smith. North Carolima: No formal committee, NCEA; W. L. Greene, NCTA. North Dakota: Mrs. Luba E. Johnson, chairman; Mrs. Clara D. Brown, Leila C. Ewen, Charles Johnson, M. F. Peterson. PROGRAM AND PERSONNEL STATE COMMITTEES (Cont'd) gF Uiaeam | Lrenre \ D. West Tackson, Flovd Manry i¢ |. White, TSAT Wallace Brockbank Max W. Barrows, Addie E. Maynard 1. Howard ummel, M. I. Shanholtz, at, VTA Breckner, G. Ira Loree. Mrs. Eva Stull Tames L. Creasy. H. Cliff Hamilton, Tohn Montgomery, Stark Wilmoth Marie Kennedy, Olga Ortum, Rosella Carson, Arthur Dugan, H. T Dorris Sander, Mrs. Florence Wogo ADVISORY COUNCIL Representing the National Education Association Waurine Walker, Texas, President Lyle W. Ashby. Assistant Secretary for Professional Relations Elizabeth Avery, American Association for Health, Physica! Education and Recreation Gerald Bavsinger, Michigan, American Industrial Arts Association Lee E. Boyer, Pennsylvania, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics John Bigger, Adult Education Service Ivan A. Booker, American Education Week Robert H. Carleton, National Science Teachers Association Lucille Carroll, Ohio, Department of Classroom Teachers Barbara Catton, Deans of Women Illinois, American Educational Research Assoctation Secondary School Princi Supervision and Cur:iculum Development William A. Early, Georgia, Junior Past Presider: Robert W. Eaves, Department of Elementary School Principals URAL EDUCATION—A FORWARD ADVISORY COUNCIL (Coar'd) Press and Radio Relations North Carolina. Board of Directors Association orn, National Council for the Social Studies ubbard, Research Division Kansas, American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education jo, Future Teachers of America Teachers of America YUM Ss10n ion On Safety Education Speech Association of America Velma Linford Tyomin t ommuttee James McCaskill, Legislation and Federal Relations Worth McClu American Association of Xhool Administrators Hilda Machling, Classroom Teachers New Mexico, Board of Trustees National Education Association Jcsread International ‘Ison, Iowa, Life Director G. Kerry Smith, Association for Higher Education Glenna E. Snow, Assistant Secretary for Lay Relations T. M. Stinnett. Teacher Education and Professional Standards Relations Rex Turner, California, Legislative Commission Charl O. Williams, Washington, D. CU., Life Director Roy K. Wilson, National School Public Relations Association Harley Z. Wooden, International Council for Exceptional Children Representing The Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, amd Welfare Samuel M. Brownell, Commissioner of Education Ethe G. Bathurst, Research, Elementary Schools Fred F. Beach, State School Administration Oliver J. Caldwell, Assistant Commissioner, International Education Ambrose Caliver, Assistant Commissioner, Program Development and Coordination Ralph Dunbar, Services to Libraries Charles O. Fitrwater, County and Rural School Administration Jane Franseth, Rural Elementary Education Walter H. Gaumnitz, Rural Secondary Education Bess Goodykoontz, Cumparative Education Rall 1. Grigsby, Assistant Commissioner, School Assistance Ray Hamon, School Housing Claude M. Hirst, School Assistance J. Dan Hull, Secondary Schools Education Clayton D. Hutchins, School Finance Gertrude M. Lewis, Elementary Education J. Kenneth Little, Deputy Commissioner Romaine P. Mackie, Exceptional Children and Youth Helen K. Mackintosh, Elementary Schools Education Berenice Mallory, Home Economics Education Leonard M. Miller, Guidance and Pupi! Personnel Alfred V. Overn, School Assistance James H. Pearson, Assistant Commissioner, Vocational Education Wayne O. Read. Assistant Commissioner, State and Local School Systems CONFERENCE PROGRAM AND PERSONNEL ADVISORY CONUCIL (Cont'd) Herbert B. Swanson, Agricultural : Frank Thomas Rua Van Hors Representing Other Agencies of the U. Department of Agriculture — > Agricultural Marketing Service rearet Jarman Hagood, (Louis H. Heckman, alternate) Federal Extension Service +-H and YMW Programs: E. W. Aiton Agricultural Programs: J. Edward Crosby, Jr Hore Economics Programs: Frances Scudder Department of Health. Education, and Welfare Childrens Bureau: Elizabeth H. Ross Public Health Service: Nell McKeever Department of the Interior Bureau of Indian Affairs: Hildegard Thompson Department of Labor of Labor Standards: Beatrice McConne!l! Special Committee on Migrants: Elizabeth Johnson Representing Cooperating National Organizations formally accepted status as cooperating of participating organ- most designated representatives to the Advisory Council. Repre of many other organizations participated Lois McCarthy, Executive Secretary, Council of Amber Arthun Warburton rsity Women: Helen D. Bragdon, General Director ti F. G. Lankford, Ir.. University of Virginia Association Bureau Federation, Associated Women: Mrs. Haven Smith, Vice American Farm Economics Association American Home Economics Association American Institu of Cooperation: J. K. Stern, President; Howard McClarren, Director of Youth Education American Library Association: Helen Clark, Library Extension, Maryland State Department of Education American Library Association, Library Extension Section: Mrs. Mary Kenan Hadley, Past President American Medical Association, Committee on Rural Health: F. §. Crockett, Chairman American Red Cross: Gwen Marshfield, Program Consultant, Junior Red Cross American Teachers Association: Elmer T. Hawkins, Vice President American Vocational Association: Mark Nichols, President; M. D. Mobley, Executive Secretary Association for Childhood Education Internationa! Frances Hamilton, Executive Secretary RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK ADVISORY COUNCIL (Cont'd) exes: Theodore A. Distler, Execut 1. Thackrey, Executi nal Director, Rur i of | dent Land-Grant Colleges; R Atwood, Secretary Cooperative League of the U.S.A. Wallace Camptell, Director, Washington Office Delta Kappa Gamma Stroh, Executive Secretary Assistant to the President of Women's Clubs: Mrs. Theodore Chapman, President Girl Scouts of S_A.: Mrs. Thomas Ford, Director of School Relations National Association of 4-H Club Agents: Sarah I. Harmon, Second Vice President National Ass xiation of High School Supervisors and Directors of Secondary Educa tion: Woodrow W. Wilkerson, President National Association of Home Demonstration Agents: Mrs Eugenia P. Van Landingham. President National Association of Manufacturers, Education Department: George Fern. Associate Director National Association of State Directors of Special Education National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification National Child Labor Committee: Mrs. Gertrude Folks Zimand, General Secretary National Citizens Commission for the Public Schools: Maurice Bement, Regional Director National Conference of Christian and Jews, Commission on Educational Organiz- tions: Herbert L. Seamans, Director Nationa! Conference of Professors of Educational Administration: Harold E. Moore, Chairman, Planning Committee National Congress of Colored Parents and Teachers: Jeanetta Chase, Secretary National Congress of Parents and Teachers: Mrs. Newton P. Leonard, President; John S. Carroll, Chairman of Rural Service National Council of Chief State School Officers: Edgar Fuller, Executive Secretary National Council of Negro Women: Mrs. Vivian Carter Mason, President National Council on Agricultural Life and Labor: Elizabeth Herring, Executive Secretary National Council on Schoolhouse Construction National 4-H Club Foundation of America: Norman Mindrum, Executive Director National Grange: E. G. Mansheid, Chairman, Committee on Education and Health National Rural Electrification Cooperative Association: Clay L. Cochran, Economist Nationa! School Boards Association: J. G. Stratton, President National Sharecroppers Fund, Inc National Society for Crippled Children and Adults: Mrs. T. Jackson Lowe, repre sentative National Society for the Study of Education: Francis §. Chase, University of Chicago National University Extension Association: Charies P. McCurdy, Executive Secretary Naticnal Vocational Guidance Association, Rural Service Section; Glyn Morris, Chairman Phi Delta Kappa: Emory Stoops, President; Paul Cook, alternate Rural Youth of the U.S.A.: Joseph Matejka, Vice President Rural Sociological Society: Robert A. Polson, Cornell University Save-the-Children Federation: Richard P. Saunders, President Society of State Directors of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation Representing State Education Associations Alabama: Mrs. Laura Gaines Sprott, President; Frank L. Grove, Executive Secretary, AEA; J. T. Gaines, President, Robert C. Hatch, Executive Secretary, ASTA CONFERENCE PROGRAM AND PERSONNEL ADVISORY COUNCIL (Cont'd) Arizona’ Wernon Hathcock, President Arkansas: Cecil Shutheld, AEA Colorado: Colbert E. Cushing n Connecticut: Frank Formica, Conference Advisory Counct! Board of Directors Florida: Gilbert L. Porter utiwe Secretary, FSTA Georgia: L. H. Cook, GEA Iiimots: Paul Street, President: Irving F. Pearson, Executive Secretary Leonard Davies, Immediate Past T. M. Dodson, Executive Secretary. KEA “lifford O. T. Wieden B. Melvin Cole, President Michigan: William Emerson Mississippi: J. T. Travis, Assistant Secretary, MEA; N urger, President. MTA Missouri: Everett Keith. Executive Secretary Montana: Mrs. Winnafern Moore Nebraska: Rosalie Farley New Jersey: Mrs. May C. Smith, President New Mexico: Charles H. Wood, Field Secretary New York: Kenneth A. Myers. President; G. Howard Goold, Executive Secretary North Carolima: Mrs. Ethel N. Meekins, President, NCEA: W. L. Greene. Execu- tive Secretary, NCTA North Dakota Ohio: W. R. Gongewer, President; Walton B. Bliss, Executive Secretary Oregon: Cecil W. Posey, Executive Secretary South Carolina: Mary Eva Hite Vermont: Ernest Codding Virginia: James B. Wocison, President; J. Rupert Picott, Executive Secretary, VTA West Virginia: Mrs. Juanita Thompson, WVEA Presitent lowa: | Representing the Chief State School Officers Alabama: W. J. Trerry, State Superintendent Arkansas: A. W. Ford, State Commissioner California: Dean E. Triggs, Superintendent, Ventura County Schools Colorado: Mrs. Allegra Saunders, State Board of Education Connecticut: Willis H. Umberger, District Superintendent Delaware: Robert C. Stewart, Assistant State Superintendent Georgia: W. E. Pafford, Director, Division of Field Services Illinois: Robert M. Ring, Assistant Superintendent Indiana: Merle Eaton, Indiana University lowa: W. T. Edgren, Director of Transportation Kansas: Agnes Engstrand, State Elementary School Supervisor Louisiana: Shelby M. Jackson, State Superintendent Maryland: W. Theodore Boston, Assistant Director of Certification and Accred- itation Michigan: Roland Strolle, Chief, School District Organization and School Plant Minnesota: T. C. Engum, Director of Elementary and Secondary Schools Missouri: Hubert Wheeler, Commissioner of Education Montana: Mary M. Condon, State Superintendent New Hampshire: Paul E. Farnum, Chief, Division of Administrative Services New Mexico: Tom Wiley, State Superintendent New York: Ralph C. S. Sutliff, Chief, Bureau of Agricultural Education RURAL EDUCATION—A FORWARD LOOK ADVISORY COUNCIL (Coat'd) North Dakota: M. F_ Peterson, State Superintendent Ohio: R. M. Eyman, Assistant State Superintendent Oregon: Rex Putnam, State Superintendent Penosyivania: John M. Lumley, Deputy Superintendent South Carolina: R. A. Durham, State Supervisor of Transportation South Dakota: Mrs. Olive S. Berg, Supervisor of Elementary Education Tennessee: F. E. Sass, Executive Secretary, Tennessee Education Association Texes: W. R. Goodson, Director, Division of Shoo! Accreditation Utah: Mark Nichols, State Director of Vocational Education Vermont: Addie Maynard, State Helping Teacher Virginia: Dowell J. Howard, State Superintendent Wisconsin: G. E. Watson, State Superintendent CONFERENCE PROGRAM AND PERSONNEL FINDINGS COMMITTEES Division I Willis Bovd, Georgia W. E. Pafford, Georgia Colbert E. Cushing, Color2do Priscilla Ransohoff, New Jersey George Devoe, Llinois Wayne C. Rohrer, Maryland J. C. Fitzgerald, Oklahoma W. Carson Ryan. North Carolina Gladys Horgan, Iowa Herbert B. Swanson, Washington, D. C J. Dan Hull, Washingtoa, D. C Frank Thomas, Washington, D. C H. B. Knapp, New York Eugene Lawler, Florida Gertrude Lewis, Washington, D. C Mrs. Helen A. Whiting, Georgia Woodrow Wilkerson, Virginia Division 2 Mrs. Ruth Bacon, Michigan Elmer T. Hawkins, Maryland Mrs. F. C. Beverley, Virginia Rees Hughes, Kansas W. E. Bishop, Colorado Richard E. Jaggers, Kentucky Martelle L. Cushman, North Dakota John M. Lumley, Pennsy!vania Mrs. C. W. Detien, Missouri Hugh B. Masters, Georgia Mrs. Lula Evanson. North Dakota Nell McKeever, Washington, D. C. ] EF SI M. Stanfield, Ohio Fred Vescolani, New York an R. Wayland, New York Division 3 Oscar R. LeBeau, Washington, D. C Otis Duncan, Oklahoma Robert A. Polson, New York Evion J. Niederfrank, Washington, D. C Frank Alexander, Tennessee Mrs. Gertrude Weiss, Washington, D. C Samuel W. Blizzard, New York Glenn E. Holmes, lowa A. G. Capps, Missouri Pau! Street, Ilionis James L. Robinson, Washington, D. C. Arthur M. Ahalt. Maryland Kenneth L. Backman, Washington, D. C Division 4 Kenneth R. McIntyre, Texas Robert C. Stewart, Delaware T. C. Engum, Minnesota Arthur L. Summers, Missouri C. O. Fitrwater, Washington, D. C S. M. Bishop, Illinois Calvin S. Frankenfield, Pennsylvania France E. Grifin, New York Burtis E. Taylor, Colorado Division 5 Johnnye Cox, Georgia T. M. Stinnett, Washington, D. C Grace Scott, West Virginia Clarence A. Newell, Maryland Ray C. Maul, Washington, D. C Harold E. Moore, Colorado N. E. Fitzgerald, Tennessee Mary Eva Hite, South Carolina Mrs. Mabe! Lane Bartlett, Illinois Florence Beardsley, Oregon Thomas E. Robinson, New Jersey Clifford O. T. Wieden, Maine G. Howard Goold, New York Wm. McKinley Robinson, Michigan Division 6 Foster G. Ulrich, Pennsylvania Allen B. Wetherington, Arkansas Errol Rees, Oregon E. L. Lindman, Tennessee LeRoy Peterson, Wisconsin Walter Reusser, Wyoming Vaughn D. Seidel, California H_ F. Alves, Texas Lester C. Winder, Missouri W. J. Terry, Alabama Cari Baker, Oregon Clayton Hutchins, Washington, D. C. Charles H. Wood, New Mexico Lee Francis Jones, Kentucky D. W. Zimmerman, Maryland Harley Fite, Tennessee Norman Frost, Tennessee C. A. Furr, North Carolina RURAL EDUCATION—A FORWARD LOOK Divisions Kansas Rarnebur LaVerne Amold Kenneth Oregon Marvi and I. E. Si mmons Sampson G Alvin E. Rhodes, Cali William Emerson, Mic Howard G. Sackett. Cali Trillingham Wisconsin fornia George H. Barnes, Tennessee Hugh G. Greer, Alabama C. A. Vaughn, Florida K. Randolph, West Virginia Alabama 7 - lackson Division 10 istion, Arkansas zabeth }cta:son, Washington, D. C Mrs. Hildegaro Thompsoa, D.C Washington Washington, D. C Arkansas Elizabeth Herring. Ralph B. Jones, Shirley Greene, Indiana Elizabeth Sutton, Virginia Ambrose Cali Washington 1. Crockett Farnell, Florida Peter Bancroft, California Harrie Selznick, North Dakota oo. & ver, Division I1 Mildred L. Batchelde:, Hltnois Agnes Engstrand, Kuasas Mrs. Thomas J. Ford, New York C. Maurice Wieting, Ohio May Hare, Kansas James Duncan, Virginia W. W. Eure, Washington D. C Ray Mu fray, Mrs. Ray Lawrence, Vermont A. D. McCall, Florida Lois McCarthy, New York EW a, Washington, D. C Mrs. Florence Low, Maryland snare) K Eby, New York G va Washing estan ton, D. C Division 12 Ethe G. Bathurst, Washington, D. C Charles Kincer, Kentucky Everett A. McDonald Pennsylvania Keneth G. Young, California Harlan Hagman, lowa Addie Maynard, Florence Taylor, Pennsylvania Walter H. Gaumnitz, Washington, D. C Albert I. Oliver, Pennsylvania W. R. Goodson, Texas M. F. Peterson, North Dakota Vermont Division 13 M. E. Yount, North Carolina Leila C. Ewen, North Dakota Olive M. Potrude, Michigan Thomas W. Pyle, Maryland Kate Houx, California Glenn C. Dildine, Maryland Jeanette Molloy, Pennsylvania Alice Drake, Wisconsin Edith L. Wellever, Michigan Harold O. Speidel, Pennsylvania Genevieve Lydick, Kansas Helen Hay Heyl, New York Anne Hoppock, New Jersey CONFERENCE PROGRAM AND PERSONNEL Dieision 14 Bess Goodykoontz, Washington, D. C 7 Archer, Minnesota Divisiow 15 Q. M. Smith, Tennessee Luther Ambrose, Kentucky RECORDERS Clara Cockerille, Pennsylvania Arsembi I: Robert Fox, Michigan Assembly Ill: Clifton B. Huff. Kansas Assembly IV: James Duncan, Virginia Division ! Division 7 Irving Chatterton, Pennsylvania Maurice Dunkle, Maryland Milton Pierce, Wisconsin E. Craig Doanan, New York 4 Mofitt. Pennsvivania dward G. Fennell. New York ullock, Georgia Division 8 loom B. Galbreath, New York Wilhelmina Hill, Washington, D. C Sheridan Elisworth, Wisconsin Rosalie Farley, Nebraska Diwisi . R. E. Harris, Texas — Howard G. Sackett, New York J. D. Boyd, Mississippi Phila Humphries, Ohio Divisiow 9 Robert R. Leeper, Washington, D. C Ear! Boggs, Virginia H. Bently Honart. New York Lynn Clark, Michigan B. Melvin Cole, Maryland Divisiow '0 Frank Philpot, Alabama Division 3 G. C. Matzner, New Jersey Bryan Heise, Illinois Reba Burnham, Georgia Division 11 Howard McClarren, Washington, D. C. Division 4 Mrs. Laurel Sabrosky, Washington, D. C John Shultz, Iowa Rowena Allen, Wisconsin Oscar T. Hawke, Ohio Norman Mindrum, Washington, D. C Roy Buck, Pennsylvania Division 12 William J. Ellena, Washingtoa, D. C Cilicia Ait: Melia Division 5 Howard Wakeheld, Ohio o . Steve Knezevich, lowa Ernest Codding, Vermont D. T. Ferreil, Kentucky Division 13 Lucille Sollenberger, Nebraska James O. Ansel, Michigan Jennie Kaufman, Michigan Evelyn Hodgdon, New York Delmer Somerville, West Virginia Division 14 Bernice Dondineau, M’*:aigan Divisies 6 W. E. Laws, Ohio Henry DeKock, Iowa Viola B. Thompson, Minnesota Divisier 15 Matt Knedie, Wisconsin Eli Mittler, Missouri PRESENTATION OF THE CHARL ORMOND WILLIAMS AWARD Howarp A. Dawson Executrve Secretary Department of Reral Education Natromal DC lacation Association Madam President, Ladies and Gentlemen, Friends of Rural Education: The cause of rural education, like other worthy enterprises of the American People, has moved forward and contributed to the national well-being through the unswerving devotion, continuous diligence, and high competence of indi- viduals. Today it is our high privilege to honor such a person, one of our century's truly great women, Doctor Charl Ormond Williams It has often been said that the times make the person, but in this case it can appropriately be said that the person made the time Miss Charl, as her many personal friends know her, has spent a life-tume career in the service of public education, particularly of rural sducation. She has received many honors and served with distinction in some of the most important positions in education and in women's organizations. In 192: she was elected President of the National Education Association, the only county superintendent of schools to be chosen for that office, the fourth woman, the youngest, and the first Southern woman to be elected to the NEA presidency In 1922 she became Field Secretary of the National Education Association, in which position she sp=nt years of tireless and effective work in the field of Federal legislation affecting education, in the promotion of NEA membership and lay relations and in promoting the profession of teaching especially among women. For twenty-seven years she thus served the teaching profession, retiring from the NEA staff December 1, 1949. In 1921 she was elected an honorary member of Phi Beta Kappa, the mother Chapter at the Coliege of William and Mary. In 1951 she was elected to Phi Beta Kappa Associates, a group of 200 distinguished persons. In 1925 she received the degree of Doctor of Literature from Southwestern- at-Memphis, Tennessee, the first woman t> seceivc that degree from that uni- versity. She is an honorary member of Chi Omega and a state founder of Delta Kappa Gamma. In 1930 Miss Williams helped to organize the International Federation of Business and Professional Women in Geneva, Switzerland. Following the First World War she was active in the Committee on International Relations of the NEA and helped to organize The World Federation of Education Associations. 413 V/4 AL a nk re was chosen ion, with the except: Normal School, As a result of her s s teacher County Superintend F Tilliams resigned from th lby County Superinten deno of the Netiona! Educati Association, the two She . Sen SOO OU cucation for ei nentary and tl sch the cause of education throughc his loving cup, as Miss Charl said, “My dearest possessim., given to the Department of Rural Education to be used in some appropriate way to recognize achievement in rural education the Charl Ormond Williams Amend In the presentation to Dr. Dawson, she pt the following suggestion £ that will, no doubt, be followed by the Department of Rural Education Department. now too small, must include every rural In the Nations! Education Association itself we more than half of the teachers in the United States. One use iams Award that is to be the permanent property of the Rura omal Fducat «a Association could | ound in the enrollment important groups Many of the rural leaders will think of other ways in which the silver cup might be used to advance rural education It is now my pleasure to present to you Dr. Charl Ormond Williams, com- patriot of rural educators everywhere, wise leader, and my personal friend Madam President,, Dr. Dawson, Mrs. Roosevelt, distinguished guests and members of the Conference I deeply appreciate the cordial and generous recognition that Dr. Dawson has accorded me on the tenth anniversary of the First White House Conference on Rural Education. It is true that the inspiration for this historic meeting CHARL ORMOND WILLIAMS AWARD 415 ’ = i SOOd af my Office Ww ‘urst White House Conference on ; 4 InGQowW ng to begin the next day— I was exate’ c the idea and put three basic the Department of aid to rural educat 1? His I should say it would with Mrs. Roosevelt Mrs. Roosevelt women 's conference began just time enough to ask her if she thought it possible a conference . rural education in the early fall. She thought it pos- promused to think it over. At the close of the meeting that day out on th: White House portico and asked me to come up to Hyde on August ‘« to talk over my proposal. After Dr. Dawson, the next person to consult was Miss Lois Clark, who was President of the Depa:tment of png! Education At the annual convention in Pittsburgh she put the ques- tion to F th partmen of Rural Edt ucaftion, id the proposal | for such a conference was ratified unanimously During my wisit to the home of President and Mrs. Roosevelt we spoke in generai terms about the co rence, how; many could be invited under the wartime conditions. and how ong it would last. Then my work was finished From ‘at point [.. "’wsoa took over the task, called to the NEA head quartres a corps of apc assistants, and planned a program that “charted course of rural education for fifty years. The full story of that historic con- ference is recorded in the volume of proceedings that was dedicated to the President and Mrs. Roosevelt. Neither of them made any suggestions of persons to be invited, speakers to address the conference, or topics to be discussed. President Roosevelt spoke to the ai the last day, and Mrs Roosevelt attended every meeting. They did everything possible to make the meeting memorable. I have poignant recollections of the closing day, for t was the last time I spoke to the Presidert. And now I want to express my deep appreciation to Dr. Dawson and the Department of Rural Education for their acceptance of my beautiful loving cup, to be used? in any feasible and desirable way toward strengthening the schools in the villages and sinall towns, and in the open country One little story will make it cles. to you that the cup was, and has been, my dearest possesion. I lived for a few months after my arrival in Washington on the fourth floor of the headquarters of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs. One cold gray morning the manager of the building waked me out of a sound sleep and told me to get together my valuable possessions and hurry down to the sidewalk. The oil furnace was on fire in the basement. I Fad previously loaned my cup to grace the table for a reception the day before, 416 RURAL EDUCATION—~A FORWARD LOOK so I ran down the stairs to the dining room to get it. The other sleepy resi denis on the sidewalk looked askance at me, since they carried suitcases, purses, and clothes on their arms. I could think of nothing to take out but that beautiful piece of silver That cup, filled with happy memories, has been a constant source of inspira tion to me in the intervening years. It has challenged me, as well, when | was faced with dithcult assignments I was always proud to be a rural teacher, and to serve eight years as the county superintendent of Shelby County schools. Those years thus spent were the happiest and most fruitful years of my life 2zad they were a sound prepara- tion for all the work that followed. I can never forget the loyal support of the teachers, white and colored, and the outstanding work of the office staff The support of the teachers and the parents, and of the children in the schools, of the two boards of education, the city ofhcials of Memphis, the newspapers, the bankers, the Memphic Chamber of Commerce, and the County Court that elected me three times to the superintendency, was largely responsible for the progress made in those years I want all teachers, especially rural teachers, to be proud of their calling. In the long ycars ahead I hope the loving cup will carry to rural teachers and officials in many parts of our country something of the inspiration and challenge and pride that I have derived from it these thirty-two years. I want my treasure to be used, and I hope you will love it and take care of it for me SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON RURAL EDUCATION The report of the 1944 White House Conference contains a selected bibli- ography on each of the problems considered by the 10 groups into which that Conference was organized. The present bibliography, prepared for the National Conference on Rural Education in October 1954, is again organized around the discussion groups—in this case 15. In this listing no material published before 1944 is included since the 1944 Conference Report appears to give a reasonably satisfactory coverage of the older materials. As selected bibliographies, both fail to include numerous items of merit. No master’s or doctor's thesis appears here unless it has been published For your information the cost of each book and pamphlet is indicated when- ever possible. Attention should be called, however, to the fact that the prices of some publications have been increased during the last few years. This listing has been prepared under the direction of Julian E. Butterworth, professor emeritus at Cornell University, with the cooperation of the chairmen of the division groups, the several departments of the National Education Association, the United States Office of Education, and certain other divisions of the federal government having a special interest in rural life and education. COMPREHENSIVE VOLUMES ON RURAL EDUCATION, RURAL SOCIOLOGY, AND RURAL ECONOMICS 1. ANDERSON, LOGAN, editor. “Current Problems in Rural Education.” The Phi Delta Kappan 36:1-67; October, 1954. Content: Perspective and a look ahead ; the reality of rural education; sociological aspects; the value of school reorganization; community schools as rural centers; for these children in this school; the earth is theirs—and its fullness; preparing teachers; rural supervision, little plans stir no minds; all we want are the facts; getting them there; cooperating for better rural schools; special problems in finance; vocational education; a blueprint for progress; signs of promise be- yond our borders 2. BUTTERWORTH, JULIAN E.; DAWSON, HOWARD A.; and OTHERS. The Modern Rural School. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1952. 494 p. $5. Contents: Part I. Rural education yesterday and tomorrow. Part II. Some social and economic backgrounds of rural education: major trends; rural income; mak- ing farming vay; the rural community; resource-use education. Part III. An educational program: purposes and progre'a; education of children and youth; vocational education in agriculture, homemaking, business, and industry; edu- cational activities outside the school; special services; education for dis- advantaged groups; the community-centered school. Part ITV. Ways and 417 418 RURAL EDUCATION—-A FORWARD LOOK means of implementing the program: ieadership; more effective districts; the intermediate district; personnel ; transportation; school plant; improving tax program; financing rural schools. List of visual aids in rural education 3, BUTTERWORTH, JULIAN B., editor. Raral Schools for Tomorrow. Year- book 1945. Department of Rural Education. Washington, D.C.: National Edu cation Association, 152 p. 50¢ Contents: Goals for rural living in America; major social problems; making agriculture pay; rural income and taxation as they affect the education program; trends in rural population; purposes of rural schools; attracting and holding competent teachers; administration and organization; coordination of com- munity activities; transportation; the school plant, equalizing educational op- portunities 1. COOPER, SHIRLEY, and FITZWATER, CHARLES 0. County School Ad- ministration. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954. 566 p. $5 Contents: The American county; county educational needs; unity in democratic control; the intermediate district; the county superintendent; the county unit; educational leadership through the county superintendent's office; providing essential educational services; the county professional staff; relation of county staff to local staff; function of county superintendent with boards of education; felations with the public; coordinating school and other educational activities and organizations ; personnel accounting; school business management; trans- portation ; evaluation and adjustment 5S. HAYES, WEYLAND J., and NETBOY, ANTHONY. The Small Community Looks Ahead. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1947. 276 p. $3 Contents: The small community in new perspective; the structure and func- tions of small communities; the process of community evaluation; community life and leadership; technics and tools of creative leadership; the planning process in Tennessee Valley communities; the university and the small com- munity; citizens workshops; small communities—whither bound ? 6. KOLB, J. H., and BRUNNER, EDMUND DE S. A Study of Rural Society. Revised edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1952. 532 p $5.50 Contents: What is rural society; cultural origins and regional distribution; changing patterns of fertility, residence and age; psychological characteristics ; the agricultural enterprise; man and his land; cooperation; agriculture adjusting to national and world economy; rural families; country neighborhoods; agri- cultural villages; rural communities; special interest groups; rural-urban rela- tionships; standards of living; education; religion and the rural church; recreation and cultural activities; rural health; rural welfare; local government; rural society and the great society 7. KREITLOW, BURTON. Rural Education: Community Backgrounds. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954. 411 p. $4. Contents: Orientation to education in rural communities; the educational level of the rural citizen; the economic basis of rural education; the sociology of the rural community; the changing rural community; the historical role of the rural school ; the educational needs of rural society; rural community schools; school SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON RURAL EDUCATION 419 district reorganization; adult education; the Agricultural Extension Service; vocational training in agriculture; the big three—Farm Bureau, Farmers Union, Grange; organizations for rural youth; the rural church; rural library service; trends in rural living 8. LANDIS, PAUL H. Rwral Life im Process. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1948. 538 p. $4 Contents: Rural life in an urban-industrial society; the structural pattern of rural society; the structure of the rural population; fertility; natural factors in farm experience ; associational life in the rural setting; traditional cultural patterns rural functions and social equality; personality traits and farm experience; rural socialization; interactive processes; mobility; migration; social differentiation and the process of stratification ; cultural change; social control ; the farm family ; the rural school; the farmer's church; rural government; economic values in the new standard of living; problems of farm youth; farm tenure; farm labor; rural pathology; rural welfare; rural health; implications of the rural trend 9. NEA DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION. The White House Confer ence on Rural Education. October 3-5, 1944. Washington, D. C.: Nacional Edu cation Association. 272 p. 50¢ Contents: Trouble at the crossroads ; building the future of rural America; better educational opportunities ; education of rural children and youth; building com- munities thru education; the rural child and the Children’s Bureau; building rural schools and communities to cope with the problems of tomorrow; reports of 10 groups on various phases of rural education. 10. NELSON, LOwRY. Rwral Sociology. New York: American Book Co., 1948. 567 p $4.75 Contents: Concepts and methods; characteristics of rural life; regional patterns of rural life; patterns of land settlement; the rural community; the rural popu lation; migration; conflict, competition, and accommodation; cooperation ; culture contact; assimilation and acculturation; stratification; social mobility; property in land; farming systems; marriage; levels of family living; the rural church; the rural school; other educational agencies; local government; farm people and the federal government. 10a. NELSON, LOWRY. American Farm Life. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1954. 192 p. $3.75. Contents: The rural heritage; a general survey of American farms and farmers; the teciinological frontier; the farm labor force; the farmer's community; the farm family; the farmer's schools; the rural church; farm organizations ; farmers’ cooperative associations; the farmer and his local government; the farmer and the federal government; the new farmer Ll. REEVES, FLOYD w., and OTHERS. Education for Rural America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1945. 213 p. $2.50. Contents; Emergency problems in rural education; economic and social factors; farm income, migration and leisure; education for the use of resources; the land-grant college; the school; what rural schools can learn from the training 420 RI ral! i Or ARD LOOK programs of the armed forces; organization and financing of rural education; library service, economic Cooperation an ‘ t education: the Michigan State } ui Farm Bureau, training rural youth for leadership: the educational program of } ’ 12. STRANG, RUTH M., chairman. Education m Rural Communities. Fitty First Yearbook, Part II. National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1952. 359 | , $3.50; paper, $2.75 Contents: Education in a changing rural life: potentialities of education in rural communities: rural education today t programs in rural education; re- organization of the administrative unit and the curriculum; improved educational I eadership the united front in rural education: evaluating rural education; first steps and a look ahead, films and other aids 13. TAYLOR, CAR! ©, and OTHERS. Raral Life in the United States. New York: Alfred A. Ka wf, 1949. $49 p. $6.75 Contents: Rural life and rural sociology, the evaluation of American rural society; the farm home; rural neighborhoods and communities; rural trade areas; the rural school; the rural church; local government; health and welfare; recreation and art, population characteristics; dynamics of rural population; occupational patterns land owners and tenants; farm laborers: standards of living; rural social differentials; rural regions; farmers in a changing world DIVISION 1 Che Needed Educational Program for Rural Children and Youth—Its Scope and Quality 14. BASS, M. REED, chairman. Vocational Education in the Years Ahead. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Vocational Division Bulietin, 1945, No. 234. Washington, D.¢ Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1945. 329 p. 50 15. BATHURST, EFFIE. Petersburg Builds A Health Program. U.S. Ofhice of Education, Federal Security Agency, Bulletin 1949, No. 9. Washington, D.¢ Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1949. 50 p. 20c. 16. FARGO, LUCILLE F. The Library in the School. Chicago: American Library Association, 1947. 405 p. $4 17. FOX, LORENE K. The Rural Community and Its School. New York King's Crown Press, 1948. 233 p. $3.25 18. FROELICH, CLIFFORD P. Guidance Services in Smaller Schools. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1950. 352 p $5.50 19. GAUMNITZ, WALTER H., and TOMPKINS, ELLSWORTH. Holding Power and Size of High Schools. Circular No. 322. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, 1950. 25 p. 20¢ 20. GILLILAND, JOHN W. School Camping: A Frontier of Curricular Im- provement. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Wash ington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1954. 64 p. 75¢ SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON RURAL EDUCATION 421 2i. HAMLIN, HERBERT M. Agricultural Education in Community Schools. Danville, Ill.: Interstate Printers and Publishers, 1949. 487 p. $3.7 22. HECKER, STANLEY E. Early School Leavers in Kentucky. Bulletin of the Bureau of School Service, Vol. 25, No. 4, June 1953. Lexington: College of Education, University of Kentucky. 78 p 23. INTERDEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE ON CHILDREN AND YOUTH. Youth-— the Nation's Richest Resource; Their Education and Employment Needs. U.S. Othce of Education, Federal Security Agency. Washington, D.¢ Super intendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1951. 54 p. 20¢ 24. KIRK, SAMUEL A., chairman. The Education of Exceptional Children. Forty-Ninth Yearbook, Part II. National Society for the Study of Education, 1950. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 350 p. Cloth, $3.50; paper, $2.75 25. MACKINTOSH, HELEN K., and OTHERS. Schools wt Work in 48 States. U.S. Ofhce of Education, Federal Security Agency, Bulletin 1952, No. 13 Washington, D.¢ Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Ofhce, 1952. 138 p. 4% 26. MARSHALL, DOUGLAS, and PETERSON, MILO. Factors Associated with Variations in School Attendance of Minnesota Farm Boys Minneapolis: Uni versity of Minnesota, 1948. 24 p .7> MC VEY, FRANK L. ‘Educational Standards for Rural People.’’ Proceed ings of the 24th American Country Life Conference, 1944. p. 72-87. Champaign, Ill.: Garrard Press 28. MORRIS, GLYN. Practical Guidance Methods for Principals and Teachers New York Harper and Brothers, 1952. 266 p. $3.75 29. NEA AND AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS, EDUCA- TIONAL POLICIES COMMISSION. Education for All American Children. Washing- ton, D.C.: National Educational Association, 1948. 292 p. $1 30. NEA AND AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS, EDUCA- TIONAL POLICIES COMMISSION. Education for\All American Youth: A Further Look. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1952. 402 p. $2 41 NEA AND AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF SCH’ -OL ADMINISTRATORS, EDUCA- TIONAL POLICIES COMMISSION. Moral and Spiritua Values in the Public Schools. Washington, D.C.: National Education Associatio 1, 1951. 100 p. $1 32. NEA AND AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS, EDUCA- TIONAL POLICIES COMMISSION. Education of the Gifted. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1950. 88 1. 35¢ 43. OBERTEUFFER, DELBERT. School Health Education. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949. 405 p. $3.25. 44. RAGSDALE, C. E., chairman. Education for Rural Wisconsin's Tomorrow. Madison: Committee on Rural Community High Schools, University of Wis- consin, 1946. 36 p. 422 RURAL EDUCATION——-A FORWARD LOOK 35. xANSOM, WILLIAM L. "How Well Does Your High School Rate on the Ten Imperative Needs of Youth?” Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary-School Principals 44:8-46; October 1949. 36. RICHMOND, LUCILLE MCGRAW, and BATHURST, EFFIE. Culloden Im- proves Its Curriculum. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Bul- letin 1951, No. 2. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Govern- ment Printing Othce, 1951. 24 p. iS¢ 24 $7. ROBERTS, ROY W., editor. On-the-Job Education in Rural Communities Yearbook 1947. Department of Rural Education. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. 139 p. 75¢ 38. SCHULLER, CHARLES F., editor. The School Administrator and His Audio-Visual Program. Yearbook 1954. Department of Audio-Visual Instruc- tional Services, Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. 367 p. $3.75 39. U.S. CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. Education: An Investment in People. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Chamber of Commerce, 1954. 45 p. $1. 40. WARBURTON, AMBER A. Guidance in a Rural Community. Yeatbook 1952. Department of Rural Education. Prepared for the Alliance for Guidance of Rural Youth and the Department. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. 156 p. $2. 41. WARBURTON, AMBER A. Guidance in a Rural-Industrial Community. A report made for the Alliance for Guidance of Rural Youth and the Department of Rural Education. 1954. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. 249 p. Cloth, $4; paper, $3. 42. WEBER, JULIA. My Country School Diary. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1946. 270 p. $2.50 43. WEINRICH, ERNEST F., and SOPER, WAYNE w. A Five-Year Study of the Adjustment of Rural Schools to the Needs of Youth. Bulletin No. 1379. New York State Education Department, 1949. Albany: State Education Depart- ment. 64 p 44. WILLIAMSON, MAUDE, and LYLE, MARY S. Homemaking Education in the High School. New York: Appleton-Century, 1941. 484 p. $3. 45. WRIGHT, GRACE S.; GAUMNITZ, WALTER H.; and MC DONALD, EVERSTT A., JR. Education Unlimited: A Community High School in Action. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Bulletin 1951, No. 5. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1951. 35 p. 15¢ xxx. See also: 1 (p. 20-24, 51-54); 2 (chapters 7-17); 3 (p. 79-105); 4 (chapter 1); 7 (chapters 7, 12, 17); 9 (p. 29-53, 61-74, 86-97, 121-28, 138- 45, 172-94); 11 (chapters 1, 6, 13); 12 (chapters 3, 5, 9) 3. 190;. 192; 199; 205: 218; 222; 240; 241; 245; 248; 250; 252; 255; 257; 260; 263; 265. SELECTED BIPFLIOGRAPHY ON RURAL EDUC DIVISION The School as a Community Institution 16, BABIN, LARRY J. “Dutchtown Develops a Community Program cational ad . Qs > . ; cational Leaders/ Ds S5-SO yruary 1951 17. BAILEY, ELIZABETH M LOTHLIN, NELL W. “A Cooperative Study at Indian Knoll ducational Leadership 7:498-401, March 1950 18. BATHURST, EFFIE G. Schools Count in Country Life. U.S. Othee of rity Agency. Bulletin 1947, No. 8. Washington, D< 6? 20¢ Education, Federal Secu Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1947 19. BROWN, CARL } A Rural Community Goes to School 7:307-11; February 1950 CLARK, LOIS M. “Together Parents and Teachers Study the Children.’ Childhood Education International, Bulletin No. 62, 1953, CYR, FRANK W., and LIPTON, JAMES H. W’Aat High Schools Are Teach ut Cooperatives. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1945, 20 p. 2% 52. FAVES, ROBERT w., chairman. Community Living and the Elementary School. Twenty-Fourth Yearbook, 1945, Department of Elementary School Prin cipals. Washington, D.« National Education Association. 351 p. $2 53. ESSERT, PAUL L. Creative Leadership of Adult Education. New York Prentice-Hall, 1951. 333 p. $5 54. FITZWATER, C. 0. “When Schools Reach Out.” Educational Leadership 8:262-66; February 1951 55. GUCKY, JOSEPH B., and corey, H. “A Community Organizes To Help Itself."’ Educational Leadership 7:488-92; March 1950 56. MC CHAREN, WILLIAM K. Selected Community School Programs in the South. Nashville, Tennessee: George Peabody College for Teachers, 1948. 216 p. $2.50 57. MC CLUSKEY, HOWARD Y. “Twelve Years of Community Councils in Michigan.” School of Education Bulletin (University of Michigan) 20:113-16; May 1949 58. NEA AND AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS, EDU- CATIONAL POLICIES COMMISSION. Strengthening Community Life: Schools Can Help. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1954. 42 p. 35 59. OGDEN, JEAN CARTER, and OGDEN, JESSE. Small Communities in Action New York: Harper and Brothers, 1946. 244 p. $3 60. OLSEN, EDWARD G., and OTHERS. School and Community. Second edition New York: Prentice-Hall, 1954. 534 p. $5.75 61. OLSEN, EDWARD G. School and Community Programs. New York: Pren- tice-Hall, 1949. 510 p, $5.65 124 RURAL EDUCATION—-A FORWARD LOOK 62. OLSON, CLARA M nd FLETCHER, NORMAN D. Learn and Live. New j York: Alfred P. Sloan Foundation (30 Rockefeller Plaza), 1946. 101 p. $1.50 63. SEAY, MAURICE F., chairman. The Community School. Fifty-Second Yearbook, Part II. National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1953. 292 p. $3.50 64. STRANG, RUTH M. ‘Planning with and for Youth in a Kural-Industrial Community.’ Nation's Schools 434:41-43, January 1949 6S. TIREMAN, L. S., and WATSON, MARY. A Community School in a Spanish- Speaking Village. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1948. 169 p. $2 sca 66. TURNER, MARIE R. “All Community Resources Help to Supplement Too Small School Staff." School Management 18:4-5; March 194¢ xxx. See also 15-19, 37-39, 43-46) ; 2 (chapters 5, 17); 3 ( p. 121- 27); 4 (chapter 8); 7 (p. 385-92); 9 (p. 75-85, 129-37); 12 (chapter 4); 159; 160; 233; 236; 238; 239; 244; 253; 257; 264 DIVISION 3 Economic and Social Trends Related to Rural Education 67. AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF COOPERATION. Youth and Cooperatives. Re- print from American Cooperation, p. 657-790. Washington, D.C.: American Institute of Cooperation, 1950. 35¢ 68. BATHURST, EFFIE G. Your Life in the Country. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1948. 399 p $2.80 69. BERGER, ROLLAND D., and OTHERS. Economic and Social Resources for Community Development. Community Development Service, Vol. 2, No. 4, Madison: University of Wisconsin, July 1949. 46 p. 70. BURCHFIELD, LAVERNE. Owr Rural Communities: A Guide to Published Materials on Rural Problems, Chicago: Public Administration Service (1313 E. 60th St.), 1947. 201 p. $2.50 71. CYR, FRANK W., and CALLAHAN, JOHN. Cooperatives in School and Community. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1947. 84 p. 72. CYR, FRANK W., and TIPTON, JAMES H. What High Schools Are Teach- ing about Cooperation. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1945. 20 P 25¢ 73. FARM CREDIT ADMINISTRATION. Mofio,. Picture Films Avaliable on Co- operation. Information and Extension Division. Miscellaneous Report 144, 1952 Washington, D.C.; Farm Credit Administration. 21 p 74. FETROW, WARD W., and ELSWORTH, R. H. Agricultural Cooperation in the United States. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farm Credit Administration, Bulletin 1947, No. 54. Washington, D.C.: Farm Credit Administration. 214 p. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON RURAL EDUCATION 425 75. FLAGG, GRACE L., and LONGMA?', T. WILSON. Trends in Rural and Urban Levels of Living. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Information Bulletin 1949, No. 11. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 75 p 76. GROVE, ERNEST W., and KOFFSKY, NATHAN M. Measuring the Income of Farm People. Washington, D.C.: U.S Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, 1949. 8 p HECKMAN, JOHN H. Guide for Teaching Farmer Cooperation. U.S Department of Agriculture, Farm Credit Administration, Circular E-34, 1950, developed in cooperation with the American Institute of Cooperation. Washing- ton, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office. 34 p. 15« 78. HITCH, EARLE. Rebuilding Rural America. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950. 273 p. $3.50 79. LE BEAU, OSCAR R., and HECKMAN, JOHN H. Cooperative Business Training for Farm Youth. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farm Credit Ad- ministration, Circular E-37, 1951. Washington, D.C.: Farm Credit Administra- tion. 53 p. 25¢ 80. LE BEAU, OSCAR R., and HECKMAN, JOHN H. Patrons Appraise Co- operative Relations. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farm Credit Administra- tion. Circular C-140, 1951. Washington, D.C.: Farm Credit Administration 46 p 20¢ 81. MC KAY, A. W. Farmer's Cooperatives in Our Community. US Depart- ment of Agriculture, Farm Credit Administration, Circular E-32, 1950. Wash- ington, D.C.: Farm Credit Administration. 37 p. 10c. 82. RAPER, ARTHUR F. A Graphic Presentation of Rural Trends. U.S. De- partment of Agriculture, Extension Service and Bureau of Agricultural Eco- nomics. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1952. 33 p. ( Mimeo. ) 83. ROBINSON, J. L. Using a Local Cooperative as Source Material For Teaching. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farm Credit Administration, Cir- cular E-25, 1950. Washington, D.C.: Farm Credit Administration. 9 p. Sc. 84. SCHULTZ, THEODORE Ww. “A Guide to Better Policy for Agriculture.” Consumer Reports 19:185-89; April 1954 85. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The Farm Income Situation. Wash- ington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1954. 56 p 86. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. BUREAU OF THE CENSUS. Family Income in the United States: 1952. Current Population Reports, Series F 50, No. 15, 1954. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office. 16 p. 10c. 87. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, BUREAU OF THE CENSUS. Farms and Farm People. Special Cooperative Report. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1953. 98 p. 50c 426 RURAL EDUCATION—A FORWARD LOOK 88. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, BUREAU OF THE CENSUS. Fertility of the Population: April 1952. Current Population Reports, Series P-20, No. 46, 1953. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office. 22 p. 15e 89. WAYLAND, SLOAN R.; BRUNNER, EDMUND DBS.; and CYR, FRANK W Farmers of the Future. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1953 85 p. $1 xxx. See also: 1 (p. 7-10); 2 (chapters 2, 3, 4, 5); 3 (p. 22-77); 4 (chap- ter 1); 5; 6; 7 (chapters 1-5); 8; 9 (p. 205-15); 10; 11 (chapters 2, 3); 12 (chapter 2); 13; 147; 148; 155 DIVISION 4 School District Reorganization 90. BOSLEY, HOWARD E. Size-Cost Relationships in Illinois Public Schools. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University, 1949. 23 p 91. BUTTERWORTH, JULIAN E. “What Research Advises on School District Reorganization.”’ Nation's Schools 48:52-55; July 1951 92. CALIFORNIA STATE COMMISSION ON SCHOOL DisTRICTS. Findings and Recommendations of the Commission on School Districts, Sacramento: the Com- mussion, 1949. 95 p. 93. CARPENTER, C. C. “Characteristics of a Satisfactory Administrative Unit.” American School Board Journal 117:27-28; December 1948 94. COOPER, SHIRLEY. “Organization and Administration of Local School Systems,” Chapter I, “District Organization.” Review of Educational Research 19:283-90; October 1949. 95. COOPER, SHIRLEY, and OTHERS. “Needed Research in School District Reorganization.” The Phi Delta Kappan 32:356-59, April 1951 96. CUSHMAN, M. L. An Analysis of Legislation for School District Re- organization in the Midwest. Ames: lowa State College, 1948. 32 p 97. CUSHMAN, M. L. “District Organization.” Review of Educational Re- search 22:356-65; October 1952. 98. DAWSON, HOWARD A., and ELLENA, WILLIAM J. “School District Re- organization” School Executive 11:39-42; July 1954 99. DAWSON, HOWARD A., and ELLENA, WILLIAM J. The Status of Schools, School Districts, and School District Reorganization. A mimeographed bulletin of the Department of Rural Education, March 15, 1954. Washington, DA. National Education Association. 8 p. 50c. 100. DAWSON, HOWARD A.; REEVES, FLOYD w.; and oTHERS. Your School District. Report of the National Commission on School District Reorganization. Department of Rural Education. Washington, D.C.; National Education Asso- ciation, 1948. 286 p. Avaliable thru library loan, NEA. 101. ESSERT, PAUL, and HOWARD, ROBERT WEST. Edwcational Planning by Neighborhoods in Centralized Districts. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1952. 132 p. $2.25. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON RURAL EDUCATION 427 102. FiTzwaTeR, C. O. Educational Change in Reorganized School Districts U.S. Departmerit of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Bul- letin 1953. No. 4. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Govern. ment Printing Office, 1953. 33 p. 20 103, FITZWATER, C. O. Selected Characteristics of Reorganized School Dis- tricts. U.S. Department of Health, Education nd Welfare, Office of Education, Bulletin 1953, No. 3. Washington, D.C.; Superintendent of Documents, Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1953. 49 p. 20c 104. GRIEDER, CALVIN. School District Reorganization for Colorado. Boulder, Colorado: University of Colorado, 1944. 30 p 105. GRIEDER, CALVIN. ‘Relation of School District Reorganization to Finance and Business Administration.” Review of Educational Research *7:167-77; April 1947 106. HAMLIN, H. w., and SUMPTION, M. R. New Community Unit School Districts. “Jniversity of Illinois Bulletin, 1951, No. 45. Urbana Jniversity of Illinois. 7.2 p. 40¢ 107. KREITLOW, BURTON w. ‘Factors Limiting School Reorganization.” Nation's Schools 51:81-84, February 1953 108. MASSANAR, KARL LOUIS, “Public Opinion as Related to the Problem of School District Reorganization in Selected Areas in Illinois.” Journal of Experi- mental Education 17:389-458 « June 1949 109. MINNESOTA STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION AND STATE ADVISORY COMMISSION ON SCHOOL REORGANIZATION. Revised Manual for County School Survey Committee. St. Paul: the Department, 1945. 82 p 110. MC INTYRE, KENNETH E. ‘State School Redistricting Continues."’ Amer ican School Board Journal 128-31-33; February 1954 111. MC INTYRE, KENNETH E. “The Progress and Problems of Redistricting "’ American School Brard Journal 128:38-40; March 1954 112, MONROE, WALTER S., editor. Encyclopedia of Educational Research “School-District Organization,” p. 1083-89. New York: Macmillan Co., 1950 113. NEA RESEARCH DIVISION AND DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION. A Model School District Reorganization Bill. Washington, D.C.: National Educa- tion Association, 1948. 16 p. (Mimeo.) 114. REUSSER, WALTER C. “Steps in Redistricting.” Nation's Schools 41:50-51; May 1948 115. SUMPTION, M. R., and BEEM, HARLAN D. A Gwide to School Reorganiza- tion in Illinois. Educational Research Circular No. 59. Urbana: Bureau of Edu- cational Research, University of Illinois, 1947. 52 p. 116. The Phi Delta Kappan. ‘School District Reorganization.” 32:297-344; March 1951 xxx. See also: 1 (p. 11-14, 55-62) ; 2 (chapter 19) ; 3 (p. 112-20); 7 (chap- ter 9, pp. 393-402); 9 (p. 153-62); 11 (chapter 8); 12 (chapter 6); 14; 15; 16; 18; 24; 28; 29; 30; 32; 33; 34; 35; 37; 38; 40; 45; 194; 195. FORWARD LOOK 1g Rural People Work. Yearbook 1al Education j Circular No Security Agency FRANSETH . What is Good Supervision Journal mn Assotta r 42:5 5; December 1953 TONES, ARTHI 1, and MILLER, LEONARD M vhe National Picture Personnel and Guidance Services in 1953. Bulletin of the National School Principals 48: 105-59: February 1954 LAMBERT, S. M. ‘Meet Today's Rural Teacher.” / yal of the National n Association 42:229-31, April 1953 NATIONAL CITIZENS COMMISSION FOR THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. How Can Get Enough Good Teacher New York: the Commission, 1953. 3: p 124. NATIONAL COMMISSION ON TEACHER EDUCATION AND PROFESSION AL STANDARDS. The Albany Conference Report—Lay-Professional Action Programs To Secure and Retain Qualified Teachers. Washington: National Education Asso ciation, 1954. $2 124. NEA RESEARCH DIVISION. “Legal Status of the School Superintendent.” Rese wvcp Bulletin 29:87-130 October 19%1 NEA RESEARCH DIVISION. “Public-School Retirement at the Half Cen earch Bulletin 28:115-75;, December 1950 NEA RESEARCH DIVISION. ‘Rural Teachers in 1951-52." Research Bul February 1953 127. NEA RESEARCH DIVISION. “Teacher Personnel Practices, 1950-51; Ap pointment and Termination of Service.” Research Bulletin 30:3-31; February 1952 128. NEA RESEARCH DIVISION. “Teacher Personne! Procedures, 1950-51; Employment Conditions in Service.” Research Bulletin 30:35-63, April 1952 129. NEA RESEARCH DIVISION Teachers in the Public Schools.” Research Bulletin 27:127-59. December 1949 130. NEA RESEARCH DIVISION. “Teaching Load in 1950." Research Bulletin 29:3-51; February 1951 131. NEA RESEARCH DIVISION. “The 1954 Teacher Supply and Demand Re- port.”” Journal of Teacher Education 5:3-52; March 1954 132. REED, HAROLD j. “An Investigation of the Relationship Between Teach- ing Effectiveness and the Teacher's Attitude of Acceptance.” Journal of Experi- mental Education 21:277-325; June 1953 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON RURAL EDUCATION $29 133. ROGERS, VIRGIL M. The American School Superintendency. Thirtieth Yearbook 1952. American Association of School Administrators. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. 663 p. $5 134. WOFFORD, KATE V., editor. Education of Teachers for Rural America Yearbook 1946 Department of Rural Education Washington, D.C National Education Association. 150 p. 50c xxx. See also: 1 (p. 29-34); 2 (chapter 21); 3 9 (p. 146-52), 12 (chapter 7) (p. 106 11); 4 (p. 464-77) ; WIVISION 6 Financing the Education of Rural People 135. BURKE, ARVID J. Fimancing Public Schools in the United States. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1951. 584 p. ,}4.50 136, CHASE, FRANCIS §$., and MORPHET, EDGAR L.: The Forty-Eight State School Systems. Chicago: The Council of State Governments, 1949. 245 p 137. CORNELL, FRANCIS G.; MCLURE, W LLIAM P.; MILLER, VAN; and WOCcCH- NER, RAYMOND E. Financing caucation in Efficient School Districts. Urbana Bureau of Research and Services, University of Illinois, 1949. 165 p $1.25; Illustrated with maps $3 138. CUSHMAN, M. L., dite..ot. The Financial Equalization of Educational Opportunity in Iv .«. A teport of the lowa Research Committee on School Finance, Des Moines: Department of Publi Instruction, State of Iowa, 1950 178 pr 139. FLORIDA CITIZENS COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION. Education and the Future of Florida. Tallahassee: the Committee, 1947. 448 p 140. HUTCHINS, CLAYTON D., and MUNSE, ALBERT R. Expenditures for Edw- cation at the Midceniury. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, 1953, Miscellaneous 18. Washington, D.C.:; Superintendent of Documents, Governmer’ Printing Office, 1953. 136 p. 65 141. JOHNS, ROE L., and MEYER, H. A. “Distributing State Funds: How To Estimate Taxpaying Ability of Local School Districts.’ Nation's Schools 49:49-.50: February 1952 142. JOHNS, ROE L., and MORPHET, EDGAR L. ‘Relation of Schoo! District Reorganization to Finance and Business Administration.” Review of Educa- tional Research 20:115-23; April 1950. Washington, D.C.: National Educa- tion Association. $1.50 143. JOHNS, ROE L.; MORPHET, EDGAR L.; and oTHERS. Problems and Issues in Public School Finance. National Conference of Professors of Educational Administration. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1952. 492 p. $4.50 144. LINDMAN, ERICK L.; HUTCHINS, CLAYTON D.; MORPHET, EDGAR L.; and RELLER, THEODORE L. State Provisions for Financing Public-School Capital Out- lay Programs. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Bulletin 1951, 440 RURAL EDUCATION——A FORWARD LOOK No. 6. Washington, D.« Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1951. 170 p. 40¢ 145. MORPHET, EDGAR L., and LINDMAN, ERICK L. Public School Finance Programs of the Forty-Eight States. Circular No. 274 Washington, D.C.: U.S. Othice of Education, Federal Security Agency, 1950. 110 p. 60. 146, MORT, PAUL &., and REUSSER, WALTER C. Public School Finance. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1951. Second edition, 639 p. $6 147. NEA COMMITTEE ON TAX EDUCATION AND SCHOOL FINANCE. Guides to the Development of State School Finance Programs. Washington, D.C.: Na- tional Education Association, 1949, 24 p. 25¢ 148. NEA COMMITTEE ON TAX EDUCATION AND SCHOOL FINANCE. New Sources of Local Revenues for Public Schools. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1950, 23 p. 25¢ 149, NEA RESEARCH DIVISION. Ability and Effort of States To Support Public Schools, Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1954. 2 p. 150. NEA RESEARCH DIVISION, ‘‘Public School Revenues, 1949-50." Research Bulletin 40: 107-67; December 1952. 151. NEA RESEARCH DIVISION, ‘‘Statutory Bases of State Foundation Programs of Education.’ Research Bulletin 26:43-99; April 1948. 152. NORTON, JOHN K., and LAWLER, EUGENE 8S. Unfinished Business in American Education. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1946. 64 p. 153, NORTON, JOHN K., and MORT, PAUL R. Still Unfinished. Washington, D.C National Education Association, 1948. 34 e. Z5¢. 154. QUATTLEBAUM, CHARLES A. Federal Aid to Elementary and Secondary Education. Chicago: Public Administration Service, 1948. 191 p. $2. 155, WAKEFIELD, HOWARD. “The Ratio Between the Labor Force and the School-Age Population as an Index of Ability to Support Education.” Rural Sociology 19:68-70; March 1954. 156. WELCH, ROBERT H. W., JR. “Our Public Schools and Their Financial Support.” NAM News (2 East 48th Street, New York) 24:1-24; August 1954. xxx. See also: 1 (p. 47-50); 2 ( chapters 24, 25); 3 (p. 141-52); 4 (chap- ter 16); 9 (p. 195-204); 85; 86. DIVISION 7 Physical Facilities for Schools Serving Rural People and Their Communities A. The School Plant 157. NEA DEPARTMENT OF AUDIO-VISUAL INSTRUCTION. Planning Schools for Use of Audio-Visual Materials: No. 1, Classrooms. 1953. 40 p. $1.; No. 2, Auditoriums. 1953. 36 p. $1.; No. 3, The Audio-Visual Instructional Materials Center. 1954. 80 p. $1. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON RURAL EDUCATION 43] 158. BEST, CLARENCE J. Music Rooms and Equipment. Music Educators Re- search Council Bulletin No. 17. Chicago: Music Educators National Conference (64 E. Jackson Boulevard), 1949. 111 p. $1.50. 159. CYR, FRANK W., and LINN, HENRY H, Planning Rural Community Si hool Buildings. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1949. 162 p. $3.75 160. ILLINOIS LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. Planning Schcol Library Quarters, Chi- cago: American Library Association, 1950. 64 p. $1.50. 161. JOHNSON, PHILIP G., chairman, and OTHERS. Science Facilities for Secondary schools. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Miscel- laneous Bulletin 1952, No. 17. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Docu- ments, Government Printing Office, 1952. 38 p. 25¢c. 162. LEE, ATA. Space and Equipment for Home Making Programs. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Miscellaneous Bulletin 1950, No. 9. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1950, 72 p. 45« 163. NATIONAL COUNCIL ON SCHOOLHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. Guide for Planning School Plants. Nashville, Tennessee: George Peabody College for Teachers (W. D. McClurkin), 1953. 179 p. $2. 164. NATIONAL FACILITIES CONFERENCE. A Guide for Planning Facilities for Athletics, Recreation, Physical and Health Education. Chicago: Athletic In- stitute, (209 S. State Street), 1947. 127 p. $1.50 165. PERKINS, LAWRENCE B., and COCKING, WALTER D. Schools. New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1949. 264 p. $11.50. 166. STONEMAN, MERLE A.; BROADY, KNUTE O.; and BRAINARD, ALANSON D. Planning and Modernizing the School Plant. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1949. 328 p. $3.50. 167. TAYLOR, JAMES M., and OTHERS. Designing Elementary Classrooms. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Special Publication No. 1, 1953. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1953. 55 p. 35¢. 168. VILES, NELSON E. Improving School Custodial Service. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Bulletin 1949, No. 13. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1949. 32 p. 15c. 169. VILES, NELSON E. School Buildings: Remodeling, Rehabilitation, Mod- ernization, Repair. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Bulletin 1950, No. 17. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1950. 37 p. 20c. 170. VILES, NELSON E. School Fire Safety. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Bulletin 1951, No. 13. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1951. 58 p. 20c. 432 RURAL EDUCATION—A FORWARD LOOK 171. WHITE, WARREN T., chairman. American School Buildings. Twenty- Seventh Yearbook 1949. American Association of Schoo! Administrators. Wash- ington, D.C.: National Education Association. 525 p. $4 xxx. See also: 1 (p. 35, 36); 2 (chapter 23); 3 (p. 135-40) ; 9 (p. 165-71) ; 242 B, Transportation 172. BELKNAP, BURTON H. The School Bus. Philadelphia: Educational Test Bureau, 1950. 212 p. $4.60 173. BUTTERWORTH, JULIAN E. “What Effect Has the Size of District on Pupil Transportation?” Nation's Schools 44:42-44; August 1949. 174. COVERT, TIMON. State Plans f oy Financing Pupil Transportation. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Pamphlet No. 99. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1946, 52 p. 175. CULP, D. P., chairman; ISENBERG, ROBERT M., editor. Pupil Transpor- tahon. Yearbook 1953. Department of Rural Education. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. 190 p. $2. 176, CYR, FRANK W., and DARLAND, D. Cc. “Growth and Deveiopment of School Transportation.”” School Executive 66:48-49; February 1947. 177. FEATHERSTON, E. GLENN. School Bus Drivers. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Pamphlet No. 100. Washington, D.C.: Superinten- dent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1946. 38 p. 10c. 178. FEATHERSTON, E. GLENN. School Bus Maintenance. U.S. Office of Edu- cation, Federal Security Agency, Bulletin 1948, No. 2. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1948. 42 p. 15c. 179. FEATHERSTON, E. GLENN, and GIBBS, ANDREW H. Records and Reports for Pupil Transportation. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Special Series No. 2. 1949, Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1949. 27 p. 20c. 180, ISENBERG, ROBERT M. “Discovering Better Education Through Ex- tended Use of Buses.’’ Nation's Schools 52:76-79; September 1953. 181. ISENBERG, ROBERT M. Guide for Analyzing a Pupil Transportation Pro- gram. Department of Rural Education. Washington, D.C.: Nationa! Education Association, 1953. 18 p. 50c. 182. MARSH, BURTON W. Training School Bus Drivers. U.S. Office of Edu- cation, Federal Security Agency, Vocational Division Bulletin 1945, No. 233. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1945. 162 p. 30c. 183. NATIONAL COMMISSION ON SAFETY EDUCATION. Minimum Standards for School Buses. Revised edition. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1949. 60 p. 35¢c. 184. NEA RESEARCH DIVISION. School Transportation Insurance. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Pamphlet No. 101. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1948. 34 p. 15c. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON RURAL EDUCATION 443 185. POPE, FARNHAM G. ‘A Comparison of Pupil Transportation Costs under District-Owned and Contract Systems.” Journal of Experimental Education 19:95-100; September 1950 186. ROBINSON, R. W. “Laying Out of Bus Routes.” School Executive 66:56-58; February 1947 xxx. See also: 1 (p. 40-43); 2 (chapter 22); 3 (p. 128-34); 4 (chapter 17) DIVISION 8 The Development of the Intermediate Unit 187. BRACKEN, JOHN L. “St. Louis County Learns To Cooperate.” School Executive 65:50-51; November 1945. 188. BUELL, W. R., chairman, and CYR, FRANK W., director. Rural Leadership and Service. A discussion guide for developing the future status of the District Superintendency in New York State. Two bulletins: a. Information leading to the statement of major function of the district superintendency; b. Structure. Albany: New York State Educational Department, 1951, 1953. 76 p. and 64 p. 189. BUTTERWORTH, JULIAN E. “A Study of the Intermediate School District in New York.” Journal of Educational Research 41:88-96;, October 1947. 190. BUTTERWORTH, JULIAN E., and OTHERS. Iaproving Educational Oppor- tunities in Rural Areas. Bulletin 1322. Albany: New York State Education De- partment, 1946. 155 p. 191. BUTTERWORTH, JULIAN E.; CRANE, EDMUND H.; and OTHERS. A New Intermediate School District for New York State. Bulletin 1336. Albany: New York State Education Department, 1947. 60 p. 192. COOPER, SHIRLEY, chairman and editor. The County Superintendent of Schools in the United States. Yearbook 1950. Department of Rural Education. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. 188 p. Cloth, $2.50; paper, $2 193. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, STATE OF CALIFORNIA. Report of the State Committee on County School Instructional Services. Working draft No. 5, September 1954. Sacramento: Department of Education. 83 p. (Mimeo.) 194. FOX, ROBERT S., chairman; ISENBERG, ROBERT M., editor. The Com- munity School and the Intermediate Unit. Yearbook 1954, Department of Rural Education. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. 259 p. Cloth, $3; paper, $2.50 195. HARDESTY, CECIL D., and OTHERS. A Survey of Services Provided by the Office of the County Superintendent of Schools. (San Diego County, Cali- fornia.) San Diego: Office of the Superintendent of County Schools (209 Civic Center), 1953. 127 p 196. HEFFERNAN, HELEN, and OTHERS. “Orange County Organization for Educational Services.” California Journal of Elementary Education 22:1-64; August 1953. 434 RURAL EDUCATION-—A FORWARD LOOK 197. LANGSTON, D. w. “Trends in County-Level School Guidance Services.” Occupations 29:579-83; May 1951. 198. MC CANNON, ROLAND. “County Superintendents in Reorganized Sys- tems."’ School Management 18:14-15, April 1949 199, MC CLURE, WILLIAM P. The Role of the Intermediate Type of County Superintendent. Urbana: College of Education, University of Illinois, 1952. 116 p. (Mimeo.) 200. MOORE, HOLLIS J. ““There’s a New Look in County School Adminis- tration.”’ Nation's Schools 52:96, 98, 100: December 1953. 201. MORRISON, J. CAYCE; BUTTERWORTH, JULIAN E.; and OTHERS. The Intermediate District in New York State: Special Studies. Bulletin 1356. Albany: New York State Education Department, 1948. 149 p. 202. POUND, CLARENCE A. Legal Responsibilities and Leadership Oppor- tunities for Indiana County Superintendents. Studies in Education, No. 4, 1953. Lafayette: Purdue University, Division of Education. 26 p. (Mimeo.) 203. RELLER, T. L. “Characteristics of a Desirable Intermediate District.”’ American School Board Journal 129:29-31; August 1954. 204, ROBERTS, L. A., and OTHERS. The County Superintendency in Texas. Austin: The Southwestern Cooperative Program in Educational Administration, University of Texas, 1954. 29 p. (Mimeo.) 205. SILVEY, H. M. ‘County-wide Guidance Program,’ Bremer County, Iowa. School and Society 71:114-16; February, 1950. 206. WALTER, ROBERT B. A Study of Educational Functions of the County Superintendents of Schools in California. Los Angeles: University of Southern California, 1951. 58 p. 207. “EST, JOSEPH S., editor. Ohio County Superintendents’ Workshop. Columbus: The School-Community Development Study, Ohio State University, 1953. (Mimeo.) xxx. See also: 2 (chapter 20); 4; 14; 18; 20; 21; 24; 28; 30; 32; 33; 34; 35; 37; 38; 40; 41; 97; 98; 99; 100; 208; 210; 212. DIVISION 9 The County Unit of School Administration 208. BALDWIN, R. D. Continuing Professional Development of School Ad- ministrators. New York: Cooperative Program in Educational Administration— Middle Atlantic Region. Teachers College, Columbia University, 1953. 59 p. $1. 209. FLINN, V. L. “Organization and Administration in Kanawha County Schools.” American School Board Journal 113:21-24; December 1946. 210. PIERCE, TRUMAN M., and WILSON, L. CRAIG. “Research in County Edu- cational Administration.’’ The School Executive 72:97-106, March 1953. 211. SPAIN, CHARLES R., director and editor. Public Education in Harlan County, Kentucky. A Survey Report. Bulletin No. 2. Lexington: Bureau of School Services, University of Kentucky, 1947. 210 p. 50c. SBLECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON RURAL EDUCATION 435 212. WEST VIRGINIA ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS. The Leader- ship Project. Progress Reports 1-6. Elkins, West Virginia: Stark Wilmoth, Superintendent of Randolph County Schools. 1950-1954. xxx. See also: 4; 14; 18; 20; 21; 24; 28; 30; 32; 33; 34; 35; 37; 38; 40; 41; 187; 192; 195; 197; 202; 205: 206: 207 DIV!SION 10 Education for the Disadvantaged and Minority Groups in Rural Areas 213. ASHMORE, HARRY S. The Negro and the Schools. Chapel Hill: Univer- sity of North Carolina Press, 228 p. $2.75. 214. BROWN, WILLIAM H. ‘Financial Support of Secondary Education for Negroes in Georgia.” Journal of Negro Education 21:478-83; Fall 1952. 215. CHICK, C. A., SR. “Recent Southern Industrialization and Its Implica- tions for Negroes Living in the South.” Journal of Negro Education 22:475-83; Fall 1953 216. GINSBERG, ELI, and BRAY, DOUGLAS w. The Uneducated. New York: Columbia University Press, 1953. 246 p. $4.50. 217. GREENE, SHIRLEY E. Children of Misfortune: A Study of Migrant Chil- dren. Washington, D.C.: National Council on Agricultural Life and Labor (1751 N Street, N.W.), 1954. 37 p. 25« 218. GREENE, SHIRLEY E., editor. The Education of Migrant Children. De- partment of Rural Education. Washington, D.C.: National Education Asso- ciation, 1954. Cloth, $3; paper, $2.50. 219. MC WILLIAMS, CAREY. North from Mexico. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippin- cott Company, 1949. 324 p. $4. 220. MARDEN, C. F, Minorities in American Society. New York: American Book Co., 1952. 493 p. $4.50. 221. SANCHEZ, GEORGE 1. ‘‘Spanish-Speaking People in the Southwest—-A Brief Historical Review.’ California Journal of Elementary Education 22:106-107; November 1953. 222. SANCHEZ, GEORGE J. The People—A Study of the Navajos. Lawrence, Kansas: U.S. Indian Service (Haskell Institute Print Shop), 1948. 223. STEWART, MAXWELL S., editor. Segregation and the Schools. Public Affairs Document No. 209, 1954. New York: Public Affairs Committee (22 East 38th Street). 28 p. 25c. 224. THOMPSON, CHARLES H. “Availability of Education in the Negro Separate School."’ Journal of Negro Education 16:263-79; Fall 1947. 225. THOMPSON, CHARLES H., editor. “Next Steps in Racial Desegregation in Education.”” Journal of Negro Education 23:201-309; Summer 1954. 226. THOMPSON, CHARLES H., editor. ‘The Relative Status of the Negro Population in the United States.” Journal of Negro Education 22:221-451; Summer 1953 227. VANCE, RUPERT V., and DANILEVSKY, NADIA. All These People. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1945. 503 p. $5. 436 RURAL EDUCATION—-A FORWARD LOOK 228. VAN HECKE, MAURICE T., chairman, Migratory Labor in American Agri- culture. Report of the President's Commission on Migratory Labor, 1951. Wash- ington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office 188 p. 75¢ 229, WILLIAMS, MARY L., chairman. Legal Status of Segregated Schools, Parts I and II. A study sponsored by the Joint Committee of the National Education Association and the American Teachers Association. 1954. Wash- ington, D.C.: National Education Association. 32 and 46 p. 25¢ each. 230. WILLIAMS, ROBIN M., JR., and RYAN, MARGARET W. Schools in Transi- tion. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1954. $3. xxx. See also: 2 (chapter 16) DIVISION 11 The Educational Programs of Organizations and Agencies Serving Rural People 231. BRUNNER, EDMUND DE S., YANG, E. HSIM PAO. Rural America and the Extension Service. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1949. 210 p. $3. 232. CHILDS, MARQUIS. The Farmer Takes a Hand: The Electric Power Revolution in Rural America. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Co., 1952. 256 p. $3.50. 233. CLAPP, ELSIE R. The Use of Resources in Education. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1952. 174 p. $4 234. KELSEY, LINCOLN D., and HEARNE, CANNON C. Cooperative Extension Work. Ithaca, N.Y.: Comstock Publishing Company, 1949. 424 p. $4. 235. KILE, ORVILLE M. The Farm Bureau Through Three Decades. Baltimore: Waverly Press, 1948. 416 p. $3.50. 236. LANDIS, BENSON G. Rural Welfare Services. New York: Columbia Uni- versity Press, 1949. 201 p. $3. 237. LINDSTROM, DAVID E. American Farmers and Rural Organizations. Cham- paign, Illinois: Garrard Press, 1948. 457 p. $4.75. 238. MOTT. FREDERICK D., and ROEMER, MILTON 1. Rural Health and Medical Care. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1948. 608 p. $6.50. 239. ZAKI, ABD-EL-HAMI'D. A Study of Child Welfare in a Rural New York County. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1947. 225 p. $2.90. xxx. See also: 2 (chapter 14); 4 (chapter 16); 7 (chapters 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16); 11 (chapters 5, 9, 10, 11). DIVISION 12 Improvement and Administration of Small Schools 240. BATHURST, EFFIE G., and FRANSETH, JANE. Modern Ways in One- and Two-Teacher Schools. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Bul- SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON RURAL EDUCATION 437 letin 1951, No. 18, Washington, D.C.; Superintendent of Documents, Govern ment Printing Ofhce, 1951. 48 p. 20 241, BOWEN, GENEVIEVE M. Living and Learning in a Rural School. New York “Macmillan Co., 1944. 324 p. $4 242. CLARK, Lots M. ‘A Schoolhouse for Oak Hill.” Journal of the National Education Association 48:192-93, March 1949 243, GAUMNITZ, WALTER H., and BLOSE, DAVID T. The One-Teacher School Its Midcentury Status, Circular No. 318. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, 1950. 30 p. 20¢c. 244, GAUMNITZ, WALTER H., and DEVILBISS, WILBUR. Cooperative Planning the Key to Improved Organization of Small High Schools. U.S. Office of Edu cation, Federal Security Agency, Pamphlet No. 102. Washington, D.C.: Super: intendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1947. 21 p. 10c. 245, GAUMNITZ, WALTER H., and WRIGHT, GRACE 8. Broadening the Services of Small High Schools. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Bul- letin 1948, No. 9. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Govern- ment Printing Office, 1948. 45 p. 20c 246, GAUMNITZ, WALTER H., and OTHERS. How Large Are Our Public High Schools? Circular No. 304. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education, Fed- eral Security Agency, 1949. 39 p. 25« 247. HILTON, ERNEST. Rural School Management. New York: American Book Co., 1949. 278 p $3.25. 248. NEA DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION AND AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF HEALTH, PHYISCAL EDUCATION, AND RECREATION. Health, Physical Educa- tion, and Recreation in Small Schools. Joint Yearbook 1948. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. 67 p. 50c. 249. PINKSTON, EVA G., editor; CLARK, LOIS M., guest editor. “The Rural Child in the Elementary School.’ The National Elementary Principal 29: No. 5; April 1950 250. SCHNEIDER, ELSA, editor. Physical Education in Small Schools. Depatt- ment of Rural Education and American Association of Health, Physical Edu- cation and Recreation. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1948. Reprinted 1954. 160 p. $1 251. SMITH, ROSE MARiE, Education in Rural and City School Systems; Some Statistical Information for 1947-48. Circular No. 329. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, 1951. 13 p. 15¢c. 252. STEVENSON, ELIZABETH. Home and Family Life Education in Elementary Schools. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1946. 309 p. $2.75. 253. WEBER, JULIA. My Country School Diary: An Adventure in Creative Teaching. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1946. 270 p. $2.50. 254. WOFFORD, KATE V., chairman. Instructional Leadership in Small Schools. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1951. 88 p. $1.25. 438 RURAL EDUCATION—A FORWARD LOOK 255. WOFFORD, KATE V. Modern Education in the Small Rural School. New York: Macmillan Co., 1947. 582 p. $4 256. WOFFORD, KATE Vv. Teaching in Small Schools. New York: Macmillan Co., 1949. 399 p. $3.75. xxx. See ales: 2; 4; 15; 17; 18; 20; 24: 27; 28:29: 31; 32: 33; 34; 35: 42; 46; 47; 48; 49: 50; 52: 56; 58; 59; 61: 62: 66. DIVISION 13 The Rural Environment's Distinctive Impact on Children and Youth 257. BATHURST, EFFIE G. How Children Use the Community for Learning. Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bul- letin 1953, No. 6, Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Govern- ment Printing Office, 1953. 46 p. 20 258. BATHURST, EFFIE G. Where Children Live Affects Curriculum. US. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Bulletin 1950, No. 7. Washing- ton, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 1950. 76 p. 30c 259. BATHURST, EFFIE G. Your Life in the Country. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1948. 399 p. $3.60 260. COMMITTEE ON SOUTHERN REGIONAL STUDIES AND EDUCATION. Edu- cation for Use of Regional Resources. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1944. 129 p. 25c. 261. DUNN, FANNIE W. The Child in the Rural Environment. Yearbook 1951. Department of Rural Education. Washington, D.C.: National Education Asso- ciation. 253 p. $3. 262. MC GLOTHLIN, W. J., chairman. Large Was Our Bounty. Yearbook 1948. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. 216 p. $2.50. 263. MORPHET, EDGAR L., editor. Building a Better Southern Region Through Education. Tallahassee, Florida: Southern States Work Confszence on Admin- istrative Problems, 1945. 418 p. $1.50. 264. OLSON, CLARA M., and FLETCHER, NORMAN D. Learn and Live. New York: Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, (30 Rockefeller Plaza), 1946, 101 p. $1.50. 265. BLOUGH, GLENN, and BLACKWOOD, PAUL E. Science Teaching in Rural and Small Town Schools. U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Bulletin 1949, No. 5. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1949. 55 p. 20c. xxx. See also: 1 (p. 25-28); 2 (chapter 6); 7 (chapter 17); 11 (chapter 4); 15; 17; 241; 242; 249. DIVISION 14 Rural Education and the World Scene 266. AGUILAR, JOSE v. “Development of Community-School Concepts in Other Countries.” Fifty-Second Yearbook, Part Il. National Society for the SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON RURAL EDUCATION 439 Study of Education, p. 212-17. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953 $3.50 267. AGUILAR, JOSE Vv. This is Our Community School. Manila, P.1.: Book- inan, 1951. 137 p 268. ARCHER, CLIFFORD P. “The Community School—A Force in Strength- ening Community Life on the World Scene.’ Developing Community Schools. Department of Rural Education. Atlantic City Reports, February 15-18, 1954, p. 29-31. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. 269. BODEMAN, P. S. ‘Educational Cooperation with Foreign Countries.” Higher Education 9:145-50; March 1, 1953 Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office. 10c. 270. BRUNNER, EDMUND DE S.; SANDERS, IRWIN T.; and FENSMINGER DOUGLAS. Farmers of the World. New York: Columbia University Press, 1945. 208 p. $2.50 271. CANNELL, CHARLES F.; WALE, FRED G.; and WITHEY, STEPHEN B., edi- tors. “Community Change; An Action Program in Puerto Rico.” Journal of Social Issues 9:1-60; No. 2, 1953. 272. HUSSEIN, AHMED. Rural Social Welfare Centres in Egypt. Cairo, Egypt: Ministry of Social Affairs, 1951. 27 p. 273. LAYA, JUAN CABREROS. Little Democracies. Revised edition. Manila, P.I.: Inang Wika Publishing Co., 1951. 241 p. 4.50 ps. 274. LAYA, JUAN CABREROS. New Schools for the Little Democracies. Manila, P.I.; Inang Wika Publishing Co., 1953. 405 p. 275. MATTHEWS, RODERIC D., and AKRAWI, MATTA. Education in Arab Coun- tries of the Near East. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1949. 584 p. $6 276. METAWEH, IBRAHIM E. “An Egyptian Experiment in Functional Educa- tion: A Rural Community School.” Social Education 17:173-75; April 1953. 277. MORGAN, ARTHUR E. Higher Education in Relation to Rural India. Sevagram, Hindustan: Talimi Sangh, 1950. 97 p. 278. NEA AND AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS, EDU- CATIONAL POLICIES COMMISSION. Point Four and Education. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1950. 27 p. 20c. 279. PHILIPPINE ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS. Adult Educa- tion in Action. Yearbook 1951. Manila, P.I.: Bookman, 1952. 250 p. 280. PHILIPPINE ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS. “The Com- munity School Program for Economic Development.” Quarterly Bulletin 2: No. 4; June 1953. Manila, P.I.: Bookman. 57 p. 281. PHILIPPINE ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS. Education in Rural Areas for Better Living. Yearbook 1950. Manila, P.I.: Bookman. 278 p. 282. PUERTO RICO, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. Morovis Plan. San Juan, P.R.: The Department, 1952. 23 p. 440 RURAL EDUCATION-——A FORWARD LOOK 283. RODRIQUEZ, ANTONIO, JR. The Second Unit and the Rural School Prob lem of Puerto Rico. San Juan, P.R.: Imprenta Venezuela, 1945. 238 p. $2.50 284. TAYLOR, CARL C. Community Development in Economically Under- developed Areas. Washington, D.C.: U.S, Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service. May 14, 1953. 11 p. (Mimeo.) 285. TURNER, HOYT J. B. ‘Education and Point IV in Iran.’ Journal of the National Education Association 43:150-52; March 1954. 286. UNITED NATIONS. Sample List of Community Welfare Centers and Community Development Projects. Department of Social Affairs of United Nations. ST/SOA/10. June 1952. New York: United Nations. 38 p. 287. UNITED NATIONS. Report of the Mission on Rural Community Organ- ization and Development in the Caribbean Area and Mexico, ST/SOA/Ser 0/7. March 1953. New York: United Nations. 45 p. xxx. See also: 1 (p. 63-66). DIVISION 15 Opportunities for Rural Youth at the College Level 288. AMERICAN COUNCIL ON EDUCATION. On Getting into College. A study made for the Committee on Discriminations in College Admissions. Washing- ton, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1949. 99 p. $1. 289. BERDIE, RALPH F. After High School—-What? Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1954. 240 p. $4.25. 290. HENDERSON, ALGO D. “What Are the Implications of the Projected In- creases in College Enrolment for Organizational Patterns of Higher Education?” Current Issues in Higher Education, 1954. Washington, D.C.: National Educa- tion Association. 321 p. $3. 291. HOLLINSHEAD, BYRON Ss. Who Should Go to College? New York: Columbia University Press, 1952. 190 p. $3 292. INGRAM, IRVIN 5S. The College in the Community. Carrollton: West Georgia College, 1953. 6 p. 293. KENNEDY, THOMAS. “Removing the Barriers to Educational Oppor- tunity.” Current Issues in Higher Education, 1950, Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. 253 p. $2. 294. PRESIDENT’S COMMISSION ON HIGHER EDUCATION. Higher Education for American Democracy—Establishing the Goals. Vol. 1. 1947. Washington, D.C: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office. 103 p. 35c. 295. PRESIDENT'S COMMISSION ON HIGHER EDUCATION. Higher Education for American Democracy—Equalizing and Expanding Individual Opportunity. Vol. II. 1947. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, Government Print- ing Office. 69 p. 35c. 296. THOMPSON, RONALD B. “Implications of Impending College Enrol- ments.” Current Issues in Higher Education, 1954. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. 321 p. $3. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON RURAL EDUCATION 441 297. VAN ZWOLL, jAMES A. “Higher Education in the United States and the Need for Physical Facilities."’ Current Issues in Higher Education, 1954. Wash ington, D.C.: National Education Association, 321 p $3 298. WARNER, W. LLOYD; HAVIGHURST, ROBERT J.; LOEB, MARTIN B. Who Shall Be Educated? New York: Harper and Brothers, 1944. 190 p $2.50 299, WELLEMEYER, J. F., JR. ‘Implications of Forthcoming Enrolment In- creases for Faculty.”” Current Issues in Higher Education, 1954. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. 321 p. $3 300. WHITE, REUEL CLYDE. These Will Go to College. Cleveland, Ohio: The Press of Western Reserve University, 1952. 108 p. $2.75 301. WOLFLE, DAEL. America’s Resources of Specialized Talent. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954. 332 p. $4 } DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION , ME / Dues: $4.00 Membership. All persons engaged or interested in rural education are eligible for membership, provided they are mem- bers of the National Education Association. The membership year is the calendar year Members are eligible to attend the annual convention meetings of the Department, to vote, to hold ofhce, and to re- ceive: The Yearbook, the NEA Research Bulletin (4 issues per year), Rural Education News, and other publications as available. Meetings. Annual meeting at the time of AASA meeting, program meeting in connection with the NEA Rep- resentative Assembly. The Department of Rural Education, which gives leadership in solv- ing distinctive problems of rural education and promotes the general advancement of rural education, grew out of the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education authorized by the NEA Board of Directors in 1907. In 1919 it was reorganized under its present name. Since 1936 the Department of Rura! Education has had the assistance of the NEA Division of Rural Service, with the same headquarters staff serv- ing both. Existing divisions as provided for under the Department Con- stitution are (a) County and Rural Superintendents, and (b) Pupil Transportation. A REVIEW OF THE 1955 PROGRAM The year 1955 promises to be especially significant for all persons concerned or interested in the educational well-being of rural people and rural communities. Many activities now under way promise much for the year ahead. The Tenth National Conference of County and Rural Area Super- intendents will be held in San Diego, California, October 9-12, 1955. Theme of the Conference is ‘Leadership and Services for Today's Schools.” The theme is indeed descriptive of the emerging role of the county superintendency. This Conference should greatly assist county superintendents in exploring the implications of this concept, leadership and service, for their respective offices. The Department continues to have committees actively working on such problems as: the recruitment and preparation of rural teachers; rural life and education on the world scene; sociological factors 443 la fy 2 shank. ) / 444 RURAL EDUCATION——A FORWARD LOOK involved in the success or failure of reorganized school districts; and the role of the intermediate unit in making services available to all children regardless of where they may live. The Department also main- tains liaison relationships with the C.P.E.A. The Department of Rural Education in cooperation with AASA has jointly sponsored three conferences for community school adminis- trators. The National Conference on Rural Education held in 1954 has pro- vided renewed interest and impetus for further positive action in suc- cessfully meeting the problems urgently before us. This Conference drew on the resources of many representative groups of lay and profes- sional people as it brought into focus the problems and accomplish- ments of a half-century of dedicated work on behalf of rural children, youth, and adults. The implementation of the findings of this con- ference is a challenge to each of us. Additional services of the Department continue to forge ahead. The theme of the Department's annual meeting held in St. Louis, Missouri, March 1, 1955, “The Preparation, Certification and Recruitment of Teachers to Serve Rural People,” again recognized the continuing con- cern for the teacher. In addition to sharing in the forthcoming NEA S.smmer meeting, the Department has participated in the three regional AASA conven- tions. The Department also participated in the Regional Instructional Conference held at Denver. The publications program continues to produce materials which assist in giving immediate and authoritative help on pertinent prob- lems. The 1954 Yearbook, The Community School and the Inter- mediate Unit, as well as the 1953 Yearbook, Pupil Transportation, were reprinted to meet the demand. Among other important publications released during the past year were: The Education of Migrant Children and a 16 page brochure prepared by the National Commission on the Intermediate Administra- tive Unit entitled, Effective Intermediate Units—A Guide for Develop- ment. This brochure has been prepared to serve as a guide for devel- oping intermediate units which both strengthen local communities and employ sound principles of educational administrative organization. Planning is already under way for the 1956 and 1957 Yearbooks. The 1956 book will deal with problems of concern to teachers in small communities while the 1957 volume will discuss administration of the twelve-year school in the small community. THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION OFFICERS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION (Terms expire in February) *President--Mrs. Lucille L. Klinge, superintendent, Lane County Schools, Eugene, Oregon President-elect——Clifton B. Huff, professor of education, Kansas State Teachers College, Emporia, Kansas *Vice President—Charles E. Brake, superintendent, Wayne County Schools, Detroit, Michigan Executive Secretary--Howard A. Dawson, director, Division of Rural Service, NEA Executive Committee President, Vice President, Presidents of Divisions, plus *M. L. Cushman, past president, dean, College of Education, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, North Dakota H. C, DeKock, coordinator of field experience, College of Education, Univer sity of lowa, low. ( ity, lowa (1956) Leila C. Ewen, Rural Department, State Teachers College, Minot, North Dakota (1957) J. C. Fitzgerald, director, Audio-Visual Education, Oklahoma A & M College, Stillwater, Oklahoma (1959) Ernest O. Nybakken, chief, Bureau of Rural Supervisory Service, State Depart- ment of Education, Hartford, Connecticut (1957) Clarence A. Pound, associate professor and consultant in rural education, Pur- due University, Lafayette, Indiana (1955) Thomas E. Robinson, president, State Teachers College, Glassboro, New Jersey (1958) Howard G. Sackett, district superintendent of schools, Port Leyden, New York (1958) R. E. Tidwell, assistant to the president, Stillman College, Tuscaloosa, Ala- bara (1956) *Mrs. Marie R. Turner, superintendent of schools, Breathitt County, Jackson, Kentucky (1955) T. M. Verdin, director of rural service, Division of Instructional-Services, Green- ville County School District, Greenville, South Carolina (1959) Division OF COUNTY AND RURAL AREA SUPERINTENDENTS (Terms expire in October) President--Ernest W. Barker, superintendent, Pottawattamie County Schools, Council Bluffs, lowa First Vice President-—Cecil D. Hardesty, superintendent, San Diego County Schools, San Diego, California Second Vice President—Ruth R. Lytle, superintendent, Otero County Schools, La Junta, Colorado Executive Secretary-—-Howard A. Dawson, director, Division of Rural Service, NEA 4AG RURAL EDUCATION—A FORWARD LOOK Executive Committee President, Vice Presidents, Plus *Cecil E. Shuffield, past president, supervisor, Howard County Schools, Nash- ville, Arkansas James E. Butts, superintendent, Blair County Schools, Hollidaysburg, Penn sylvania George E. Graff, superintendent of rural education, Rockville, Connecticut R. E. Harris, superintendent, Caldwell County Schools, Lockhart, Texas Audrey James superintendent, Murray County Schools, Slayton, Minnesota DIVISION OF PUPIL TRANSPORTATION (Terms expire in February) President—John L. Vickers, director, Division of Pupil Transportation, State Department of Education, Frankfort, Kentucky Vice President—J. F. Lautenschlager, superintendent, Coshocton County Schools, Coshocton, Ohio Executive Secretary—-Howard A. Dawson, director, Division of Rural Service, NEA Executive Committee T. Wesley Pickel, assistant director, Division of Schoolhouse Planning and Transportation, State Department of Education, Nashville, Tennessee Michael J. Haggerty, supervisor, School Transportation, State Department of Education, St. Paul, Minnesota Earl Darnell, director, School Transportation, Greenbrier County, Lewisburg, West Virginia *(Denotes members of the Department's Executive Council) ] DEPARTMENT YEARBOOKS AVAILABLE The Community School and the Intermediate Unit, Yearbook, 1954. Robert M. Isenberg, Ed. 259 p. $3.00 cloth; $2.50 paper Pupil Transportation. Yearbook 1953. Robert M. Isenberg, Ed. 196 p $2.00 paper Guidance in a Rural Community, Yearbook, 1952. By Amber Arthun Warburton. 176 p. $2.00 paper The Child in the Rural Environment. Yearbook 1951 By Fannie W. Dunn 253 p. $3.00 cloth The County Superintendent of Schools in the United States. Yeatbook, 1950 Shirley Cooper, kd. 188 p. $2.50 cloth; $2.00 paper The Rural Supervisor at Work. Yearbook, 1949. Marcia A. Everett, Ed 242 p. $1.00 paper Health, Physical Education and Recreation in Small Schools. Yearbook, 1948. Elsa Schneider, Ed. 67 p. $.50 On-the-Job Education in Rural Communities. Yearbook, 1947. Roy W Roberts, Ed. 139 p. $.75 Education of Teachers for Rural America. Yearbook, 1946, Kate V. Wof- ford, Ed. 142 p $.50 Rural Schools for Tomorrow. Yearbook, 1945. Julian E. Butterworth, Ed p $.50 Conservation Education in Rural Schools. Yearbook, 1943. Effe G. Bathurst, Ed. 114 p. $.50 Community Resources in Rural Schools. Yearbook, 1939. Kate V. Wofford, Ed. 109 p. $.50 Newer Types of Instruction in Small Rural Schools. Yearbook, 1938. Kate V Wofford, Ed. 144 p. $.50 Economical Enrichment of the Small Secondary-School Curriculum. Y eat- book, 1934. Frank W. Cyr, Ed. 94 p. $.50 447 GOALS FOR THE CENTENNIAL ACTION PROGRAM OF THE UNITED TEACHING PROFESSION Adopted by the NEA Representative Assembly at San Francisco, California, 1951 1951 -- 1957 These goals are the concern of Rural Department members as they are the concern of all teachers l An active democratic local education association in every community 2. A stronger and more effective state education association in every state 5. A larger and more effective National Education Association Unified dues—a single fee covering local, state, and national and world services—-collected by the local. 100% membership enrollment in local, state, and national professional Organizations Unified committees—the chairman of local and state committees serving as consultants to central national committees A Future Teachers of America Chapter in every institution preparing teachers A professionally prepared and competent person in every school position A strong, adequately staffed state department of education in each state and a more adequate federal education agency An adequate professional salary for all members For all educational personnel-—professional security guaranteed by tenure legislation, sabbatical and sick leave, and an adequate retirement income for old age Reasonable class size and equitable distribution of the teaching load Units of school administration large enough to provide efficient and ade quate elefnentary and secondary educational opportunities. Adequate educational opportunity for every child and youth Equalization and expansion of educational opportunity including needed state and national financing. A safe, healthful, and wholesome community environment for every child and youth Adequately informed lay support of public education An able, public spirited board of education in every community An effective world organization of the teaching profession A more effective United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (Additional goal approved by the NEA Executive Committee.) More effective cooperation between adult, higher, secondary, and elementary education with increasing participation by college and university person- nel in the work of the united profession 448 ROSTER OF MEMBERS THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION A Department of the Nationa! Education Association of the United States This roster includes the active membership of the Department for the calendar year 1964 and all additional members enrolled prior to April 1, 1966. It is arranged by states, and lista aiphabetically for each member his name, position and location. Street addresses are not given except where other information is not available. Libraries and institutional members are listed under their respective atates ALABAMA Smith, (Mre.) Eatelle 8., Supervisor of In- struction, Cherokee County Schools, Centre Booeckholdt, J H., Superintendent, Chilton Smith, G. &., Supervisor of Instruction, Cull- County Schools, Clanton man County Schools, Cullman Carroll, Thomas W Superintendent Cov Smith, O. Romaine, Youngfolks Editor, The ington County Schools, Andalusia Progressive Farmer, Birmingham Clay, J. L Principal, County High School Taylor, Hugh L., Professor in Extension and Lauderdale County Schools, Rogersville Director, Counseling and Advisory Services Coleman Hulda Superintendent, Lowndes Extension Divwion, University of Alabama, County Schools, Hayneville University Dalton, W Theo Professor of Education, Terry, W. J., Supervisor of Education, State Alabama Polytechnic Inetitute, Auburn Department of Education, Montgomery Gibson Roy Superintendent, Saint Clair Tidwell, RK x Assistant to the President, County Schools, Ashville Stillmar College, Tuscaloosa ; Executive Greer Hugh G., Superintendent, Monroe Committee of the Department; Planning County Schools Monroeville Executive Committee, Midsouth Regional Conference Committee of the Department on Rural Life and Education Gregg, Solon, Superintendent, Marion County Torrence, Andrew P Acting Head, Depart- ‘chools, Hamiiton ment of Agricultural Education, Tuskegee Harden, Preston G., Superintendent, Autauga Inatitue County Schools, Prattville Hatch, Robert C., Supervisor of Inetruction, INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER State Department of Education Mont Library, Alabama Polytechnic Inatitute, gomery Auburn Helme v C., Superintendent, Lee County Schools, Opelika ARIZONA Johnaon, Kermit A., Superintendent, Tusca loosa County Sehools, Tuscaloosa; Advisory Fleetham. Fay, Head Teacher, Douglas School, Council to the National Commission on the Douglas Intermediate Administrative Unit Haldeman, Delia M., Teacher, Ganado School, Jores, W. J., Superintendent, Wileox County Ganado Schools, Camden Johnston, Lillian, Assistant Superintenden, of Lawrence KR. J Superintendent Bullock Public Instruction, State Department of County Schools, Union Springs State Public Inetruction, Phoenix; State Director Director Planning Committee, Western Regional Con- Mellown, Flgin W Superintendent, Sumter ference on Rural Life and Education County Schools, Livingston Martin (Mra.) Mary McCollum, Teacher, Moore K EK Superintendent, Cullman Toitee School, Eloy County Schools, Cullman Smith, Harold W., Superintendent of Schools, Myer P G Superintendent of Schools, Glendale Aiexander Cit Thomas, (Mre.) Mabel Lee, Teacher, Wicken- Newell, ¢ Fra: * uperintendent, Calhoun burg School, Wickenburg County Schools, Anniston Nunnellley, N. F., Superintendent, Talladega ARKANSAS County Schools, Talladega Orr, Charla W Director of Inatruction, Albright, J. G., Supervisor of Schools, Jack- Alabama A & M College, Normal son County, Newport Phiipot, Frank, Supervisor of Resource Edu- Allen, Roy B., Professor of Education, Univer- cation State Department of Education sity of Arkansas, Fayetteville Montgomery Anderson, Homer L., Supervisor of Schools, Popejoy, W. E., Business Manager, Madison Ouachita County, Camden County Board of Education, Huntaville Armstrong. W. V., Supervisor of Schools, St Richardson, O. P., Assistant Director, Division Francia County, Forrest City of Administration and Finance, State De Arrant, (Mrs.) M. C., Supervisor of Klemen- partment of Education, Montgomery tary Education, State Department of Educa- feif, Geddes, Director of Secondary Educa- tion, Little Rock tion, State Department of Education, Mont Raker, W E., Supervisor of Schools, Cleve- womery land County, Rison Birmmons I F., Superintendent, Jefferson Bell, WN H., Supervisor of Schools, Pope County Schools, Birmingham County, Russellville 449 450 Black, Glenn W Siloam Springs Blankenship V Madison C« BRolding, G County, De Bollen k Omaha Bolien, J. D County, Conway Bradford David F Van Buren Brown, FE R stead ( Superintendent of Schools Supervisor of Huntsville jupervisor of Queen Superintendent of Schools, Schools, Sevier Schools Supervisor of Faulkner Schools, Schoola Supervisor of Clinton Supervisor of Hope Supervisor of , County Schools, Hemp yunty Law » S' pervisor Schools Murfreraboro Supervisor of Des Are Supervisor of Huren Superintendent of Schools inty Schools, Craw- \ ar Schools, Superintendent of Schowols, Stuttgart oate, Parl Superintendent ook Kimo W Perryville ooper (Mre raighead Cx ox Homer If School, Bone Dawenhart, R. S., County, Mena Ely, Wallace A., Supervisor Texarkana Fincher, Allen, Supervisor of bia County, Magnolia Forrest M. D Superintendent of Corning Foster, B. B Supervisor of ty, Mountain Home Alma Supervisor of Marianna J Suvnervisor of Bentonville ‘ Supervisor Fordyce Robert A of Schools, Alma Superintendent of Schools Opal, Supervisor of Schools nty, Jonesboro Superintendent, Bono High Supervisor of Schools, Polk of Schools, Miller County Schools, Colum- Schools, Schools, Baxter Schools Lee Schools, Benton of Schools, Dallas Superintendent of Schools, for Negro Education, Charles A., Supervisor hools, State Department of Little Rock M Superviso, of Wynne G., Supervisor of Harrison James M.. Supervisor of ounty, Lake Village Anne, Arkansas Education Little Rock Fay, Supervisor Ozark William T., Superintendent, Howard Training School, Mineral Springs Supervisor of Schools, Searcy Schools, Cross Schools, Boone Schools, Chieot ¢ Isenman tion Associa- Jacoba of Schools, Franklin County Keaton County Keeling, A County, Marshall Lee, EKugene, Supervisor County, Clarkaville Little, E. W Supervisor County. Paragould Logan, Coy, Supervisor County, Berryville Loudermilk a oe Perry County, Perryville Lyman Joe Supervisor of County, Benton McCulstion, Ed, Director, Education, State Department Little Rock McKenzie, A. R Sheridan of Schools, Johnson of Schools, Green of Schools, Carroll Supervisor of Schools, Schools, Saline Division of Negro of Education, Superintendent of Schools, RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK Martin John H Arkansas County Mayes, John, Supervisor of County, Hliytheville Middleton, W. F se ool Supervisor of Dewitt Schools, schools, Mississippi Superintendent, Acorn Mena jupervisor of Bluff Supervisor of Hates ville Supervisor of Hot Springs Greer, Assistant County Con lidated Moore unty Fred Schools, Jefferson Pine chools, Indepen Schools, Gar- yunty (Mra.) Franklin Orr Ww fb County Jearcy Parker Maurice K., Little River (C« Patterson I E Nashville Petty, Paul V Associate Professor tior University of Arkansas Polk, L. H., Supervisor of County, Marion Poteet, Custer, Supervisor of County, Morriiton Pyle H KR Executive Director, State Tenchers Retirement Department of Education, Rapp, J. C., Supervisor of County, MeGehee Rhoads, Silas Supervisor of County, Waldron Richardson, Rayburn O., Supervisor of Schools, Fulton County, Salem Ritchie, J Bryan, Supervisor of Nevada County, Prescott Roberts, O. E., Supervisor of Schools, Sebast- ian County, Greenwood Roberts, Roy W., Head, Department of Voca tional Teachers Education University of Arkansas, Fayetteville; Planning Committee, Midsouth Regional Conference on Rural Life and Education Robinson, Supervisor County, Ross County Rozzell ansaa Nichols, Schools Supervisor of Ozark Supervisor of White Schools Supervisor of Schools, unty Ashdown Superintendent, Childress School of Educa- Fayetteville Schools, Crittenden Schools, Conway Arkansas System State Little Rock Schools, Desha Schools, Scott Schools, of Schools, Clay Supervisor of Drew Monticello Forrest Executive Secretary Ark- Education Association, Little Rock Scott, Emma Arkansas Education Associa- tion, Little Rock Scott, H. O., Superintendent of Schools, Bryant Shuffield Cecil E., Supervisor of Schools, Howard County, Nashville; Executive cil of the Department President, Division of County and Rural Area Superintendents, 1958-64 State Director Advisory Council to the National Commission on the Inter- mediate Administrative Unit; Planning Committee, Southwest Regional Conference on Administrative Leadership Serving Com- munity Schools Simpson, Tom, Supervisor of County, Melbourne Smith, Earl, Supervisor County, Pocahontas Smith, T. L., Supervisor County. Harrisburg Strong, (Mrs.) Anna M P., Principal. Robert R. Moton High School, Marianna luge, B. A Supervisor of Schools, Phillips County, Helena Talbot, Ivey &., houn County, Taylor, R z., Barton Thornton, R. H., Supervisor of Schools, Grant County, Sheridan Thomasson, K B., Supervisor of Clark County, Arkadelphia Torry, Harry, Supervisor of Schools, Monroe County, Clarendon Schools, Coun- Schools, Izard of Schools, Randolph of Schools, Poinsett Supervisor of Schools, Cal- Hampton Superintendent of Schools, Schools, ROSTER OF MEMBURS Trice, (Mrs.) Grace B., Supervisor of Schools Woodruff County, Augusta Trice, J. A Supervisor of Kural Education, State Department of Education Little Rock Turner Supervisor of Schools, Bradley County, Warren Vent Alvin Superintendent School, Branch Wetherington, A BR Director of Finance, State Department of Education, Little Rock Wheat M Edward, Supervisor of Lonoke County, Lonoke Whitworth, (Mrs.) Robin H., Schools, Logan County, Booneville Williamson Horace Supervisor of Union County, El Dorado Wilson E. BH, Supervisor of County, Danville Woolsey Edgar Oxark Woolsey, John Superintendent ing School, Altus INSTITUTIONAL Library, Conway CALIFORNIA Bandy. Eleanor K., Superintendent of Schools, Yolo County, Woodland Heyer Fred { Superintendent of Stanislaus County, Modesto Clark, George W., Superintendent of Schools, Merced County, Merced Cohen, Milton S., Superintendent of Schools, Inyo County, Independence Cragen Dorothy Clora, Superintendent of Schools, Inyo County, Independence Alan M., Superintendent of Schools, Tuolumne County, Sonora Drag, Francis L., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, San Diego County, San Diego Emmerson, (Mrs.) Juanita H., Superintendent of Schools, El Dorado County, Placerville Erro Mercedes Elementary Coordinator of Schools, San Luisa Obispo County, San Luis Obispo: deceased March 1955 Ferguson, Harry L., 1108 Weacove Place, West Covina Fikes, Edith ©., Superintendent Santa Cruz County, Santa Crut Frost, (Mra.) Nellie L Consgultant in Ele- mentary Education, Santa Barbara County, Santa Harbara Gansberg, Lucille, Superintendent of Schools, Lassen County, Susanville Gerholdt, Anna F General Supervisor of Schools. Sonoma County, Santa Rosa Gibson (Mra.) Bernice, Superintendent of Ss Sutter County, Yuba City (Mre.) Carmen, Director of culum, Imperial County, El Centro Hardesty, Cecli D., Superintendent of Schools, San Diego County, San Diego First Vice President Division of County and Rural Area Superintendents, 1964-55 Hart Anna Marie, Supervisor of Weaverville Hart Leo B., Schools, Pond Hayes, John D., Jenasie County Line Schools, Supervisor of Schools Schools, Yell Superintendent of Schoctls, Altua-Denn MEMBER Torreyson Arkansas State Teachers College Schools, Denison of Schools choola Gibson Currt- Schools, District Superintendent of Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Orange County, Santa Ana Heffernan, Helen, Chief, Bureau of Elemen- tary Education, State Department of Educa- tion, Sacramento; Planning Committee, Western Regional Conference on Rural Life and Education Hill (Mrs.) Margaret F Barbara Hoffman, (Mrs.) Howardine G., Director, Division of Elementary Education, Los Angeles County, Los Angeles Teacher, Santa 151 Houx, Kate, Consultant in Elementary Educa tion, Santa Barbara County, Santa Barbare Hubbard, O. §&., Superintendent of Schools, Santa Clara County, San Jose Lloyd G., “perintendent of Schools, Colusa County, C isa Johnaon, Ray W., Superintendent of Schools, Riverside County, Riverside Kaar, Harold W., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Educational Services, Contra Costa County, Martinez Kendall, Glenn, President, Chico State College, Chico . Kepley, (Mrs.) Ruth A., Director of Education, Inyo County, Independence Martin, Walter G., Superintendent Freano County, Freano McKee Louise, Guidance Costa County, Martinez Meade, (Mra.) Agnes Weber, Supern,.tendent of Schools, Yuba County. Marysville Merrick, Nell, Guidance Consultant Costa County, Martines Morphet, Edgar L., Professor, School of Edu- cation, University of California, Berkeley Nance, (Mra.) Afton, Elementary Consultant, State Department of Education, Sacramento Overfield, Ruth, Consultant in Rural Educa- tion, Lassen County, Susanville Price, Thomas B., County and Diatrict Super- intendent, Mariposa County Unified School District, Mariposa Rhodes, Alvin E., Superintendert of Schools, San Luis Obispo County, San Luis Obispo; Co-Chairman, National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Rowers, (Mra.) Wilma S., Director, tional Materiales Center, Placer Auburn Seidel, Vaughn D., Superintendent of Schools, Alameda County, Oakland Simmons, Linton Ss Superintendent § of Schools, Orange County, Santa Ana Sollenberger, Lucille, Elementary Consultant, Stanislaus County, Modesto Spencer, (Mre.) Irene, General Supervisor of Schools, Contra Costa County, Walnut Creek Stockton, Jesse D., Superintendent of Schools, Kern County, Bakersfield Stone, Gladys, Superintendent of Monterey County, Salinas Clara, General Supervisor, County, El Centro Tierney, (Mrs.) Hallie M., Superintendent of Schools. Modoc County, Alturas Triges, Dean E., Superintendent of Schools, Ventura County, Ventura Trillingham, C. ¢ Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles County, Los Angeles Walter, R. B., Chief Deputy Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles County, San Gabriel Williams, J. Post, Superintendent of Schoois, Tulare County, Visalia Wilson, B. O., Superintendent of Schools, Contra Costa County, Martinez; State Di rector; Second Vice President, Division of County and Rural Area Superintendents, 1963-54: Committee to Work with CPEA, Advisory Council to the National Commis- sion on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Wishart, Blaine, Superintendent El Dorado County, Placerville Young, Keneth G., Director of Siskiyou County Schools, Yreka Johnson of Schools, Consultart, Contra Contra Instruc- County, Schools, Stroud Imperial of Schovis, Curriculum, INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS California State Library, Sacramento Dunbar Union Elementary School, Glen Ellen Honnold Library, Claremont College, Claremont Library, Humboldt State College, Arcata Library, University of California, Berkeley 152 brary hieo State College, Chico Abrary niversit? of California, ibrary, Fresno State College ibrary, Santa Barbara County ibrary law Angeles Mtate Angeles ibrary, University rnia, Lowe Angeles Abrary, University of Southern Califonia, Los Angeles Library, University of Redlands, Redlands Library, San Jose State College San Jose Nina Teachers Club, Doris Sallows, President Del Mar Petaluma Petaluma Davis Fresno Schools, Goleta Collewe, Loe f Calif Klementary School District COLORADO (Mrs.) M. Adella, Superintendent of Fremont ¢ Canon City ( Adminiatrative Assistant Department of Education, Denver Bishop Ww r Superintendent of Englewood Planning Mountalr Regional Conference on Life and Educatior Cushing Colbert F Direetor Division of Field Colorado Education Ansocia tion, Denver Davidson Reva Powers County Gaylord (Mre.) Madge Librarian, County High School, Pueblo (Mre.) Janet, Superintendent of Schools. Logan County, Sterling Heid Hertha juperintendent of Adama ‘ Hrigttton Kettle, Frances , Superintendent of Schools Custer County, Westeliffe Latting, (Mra.) Lucille H isor State Department of Denver Lockwood, Marian Morgan County Lodwick, Paul N., Weld County yytle, Ruth FR yunty State Schools Comm) (tee Rocky Rural Service juperintendent of BSchwvolsa Lamar Pueblo Gravuberger Schools oun" Flementary Super Education Superintendent of Schools Fort Morgan Superintendent Greeley Superintendent of Schools, Otero County Le Junta State Director Second Vice President, Division of County and Rural Ares Superintendents 1964-65 Advisory Council to Commission on the In termediate Administrative Unit McNally, Mary ‘ Superintendent of Pueblo County, Pueblo Magee (Mre.) Nada D,, Schools, Alamosa County, Martin, (Mre.) Hagel I Sehools, Bent County, Las Maxwell, (Mre) Vivian J Schools, La Plata County Gler Wildman Superintendent of Roulder County, Boulder Marthe Superintendent County, Delta Nora I! Superintendent of Gilpin County Central City Sweeney (Mra.) June Superintendent of ichoola, Moffat County, Craig Taylor, Burtie EF Assistant Commiasioner of K.ducation itate Department of Education, Denver Watson, Claire J Montezuma County, Wright (Mre.) Carolyn Schools, Hinsdale County of Schools Schools Superintendent of Alamosa Superintendent Animas Superintendent Durango of Sehook, Schools Superintendent of Schools Cortet Superintendent of Lake City INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Adame State College, Alamosa Colorado State Colllege of Education, Library Library Greeley RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK CONNECTICUT George FE Superintendent of Rural State Department of Education, Executive Committee of the Divi County and Rural Area Superin Committee to Work with CPEA Margaret, Flementary Supervisor State Department of Education, Unionville Hoctor, Cathryn RK Klementary Supervisor State Department of Education, New Haven McDonald, (Mre.) Helen B., Elementary Super visor State Department of Education, Wineted Nichols, Marjorie H Elementary State Department of Education Nybakken, Ernest O., Chief, Bureau of Rural Supervisory Service, State Department of Education, Hartford Executive Committee of the Department; State Director; Advisory Counell to the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Outlaw, Guy T Teacher, Andover School, Andover Reilly, John ¢ Superintendent of Rural Edu cation State Department of Education, Willimantic Planning Committee, New Engiand Regional Conference on Rural Life and Education Seidel, Ida E Elementary Supervisor, Department of Education, Willimantic Struits, Wilmer L., Superintendent of Education, State Department of Canaan Stoddard, Paui Ww Principal, Housatonte Valley Regional High School, Falla Village Umberger, Willie H Superintendent of Rural Education, State Department of Education, Norwich Walker, (Mre.) M. E., The blishing Company, Darien DELAWARE Afierbach, Calvin E visor, State tion, Georgetown Ralte, Austin D., Principal Flameer Caum, Jack H New aatie Cheavens, Anne EF State Department of Dover Flsenbrey, portation, atruction Hastings School, James, J Leasure School, Bear Monroe, Mary Education, Susser of Public Inatruction Moore, (Mra.) Grace ¢ Newport, Wilmington Seott, Edith I. ¢ Princip Milford Stewart, Robert ( Assistant State Superin tendent, State Department of Public Instrue- Dover Graft Education Rockville aion of tenderita (vuetin, Supervisor, Putnara Elementary State Rural Education, Educational Pu- Rural Flementars Super Department of Publi. Instruc State Directo’ O-:% Grove School, School, Principal, Cowlyeck f Supervisor, Art Education Public Instruction, of Trans. Public In Preston G State Dover Grace k Bridgeville Principal, Georgetown Teacher, New Castie County Supervisor Department of Teacher, Farmington Stanley, May B Elizabeth, Supervisor of Music County, State Department Georgetown Elementary Principal, tion (INSTITUTIONAL MEMPER Library, University oc Delaware Newark DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Aiton, E. W., Director, 4-H Club Work Federsl Extension Service, U. 8. Department of Agriculture Bathuret, Effie, Research Assistant, Elementary Schools, Instruction, Organization, and ROSTER OF MEMBERS Services Branch, Office of Education, U. 8 Department of Health, Education and Wel fare; Committee on Publications and Con structive Studies Assistant Director, Division of National Education Associa Executive Assistant lecretary of the Department Cooper, Shirley, Associate Executive Secretary American Association of School Administra tors, National Education Association (Mre.) Bertha Division of Service, National Education Dawson Howard A Director, Division of Rural Service, National Education Associa tion ; Executive Secretary of the Department Early, Anne Lola, Division of Rural Service National Education Association Eliena, William J., Assistant to the Director Division of Rural Service, National Educa tion Association Fessenden Mrs.) Jewell G., Division of Re search and Training Federal Extension Service, U. S&S. Department of Agriculture Fitewater, ( Oo County and Rural Administration Sehool Administration Branch, Office of Eduegation, U. 8. Depart- ment of Health, Edaeation and Welfare Co-Chairman Joint Committee with the Rural Sociological Society Pranseth, Jane, Rural Education, Elemen- tary Schools, Instruction, Organization, and Services Bran h, Office of Education, U. 8 Department of Health, Education and Wel fare Gaumnits, H Ww Small and Schools, Secondary Schools ganization, and Services Branch, Office of Education, U. 8. Department of Health, Education and Welfare Hess, Walter FE Managing Editor, Association of Secondary School National Education Association Isenbery, Robert M Assistant Director, Divi sior f Rural Service, National Education Association Assistant Executive Secretary of the Department James, Stephen, Director, Education and Rural Division, Automotive Safety Foundation Johneon, Elizabeth &., Chief, Division of Child Labor, Bureau of Labor Standards, U. 8 Department of Labor Lawis, Gertrude M Cornell, Rural Association School Rural High Instruction, Or- National Principal, Upper Grades, Elementary Schools. Instruction, Orwanization, and Ser vices Branch, Office of Education, Department f Health Educatior Welfare MeClure, Worth, Executive Secretary, Ameri can Association of Schoo! Administrators National Education Association MeConnell Beatrice Chief State Services Division, Bureau of Labor Standards, U. 8 mabor Assistant Chief, Put Health Health, Department of McKeever, Nell, Education Public Department of Welfare Moreland National Pope, Farnham, Dependent Schools Section, I and EF Branch, Personnel Services Division, Division of Military Personne, Air Force Hearquarters Robinson, James L Extension Federal Extension Service, U. & of Agriculture Rogers, Ire HB Jr Staff Ansociate, Rural Division, Automotive Safety Foundation Babrosky, (Mre Laurel K Analyst, Federal Extension Service, U 8. Department of Agriculture Health Service U bel Education and Division of Rural Service Association Mary L E-ducatior Economist, Department 453 Taylor, J Housing Office of School Plant Planning, School School Administration Branch, Education, U. 8S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare Thomas, Frank, Assistant to the Commissioner, Office of Education, U. S&S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER Library, Howard University FLORIDA Kathleen McGeachy, Teacher, Washington County Schools, Braxton, (Mra) Chipley School, Chipley Christian, Floyd T., Superintendent, County Schools, Clearwater Darden, Woodrow J., Superintendent County Schools, Titusville Dominick H B., Superintendent, County Schools, Wauchula Farnell, J. Crockett, Superintendent, Hilla- borough County Schools, Tampa; State Director; Advisory Council to the National Commission on the Intermediate Admin strative Unit Harden, Claude M., Sr., County Schools, Bartow Lovell Broward, Superintendent, County Schools, Ocala MeCail, Allen D General Supervisor, Rosa County Schools, Milton Milwee, R ‘Tie Superintendent County Schools, Sanford Sprinkle, (Mre.) Iva T., Superintendent, Duval County Schools, Jacksonville Sutton, Elizabeth, Supervisor of Education of Migrant Children, Palm Beach County Schools, Weat Palm Beach Vaughn, A.. Jr., Superintendent, County Sel .ols, Tavares Walker Judaa B., Superintendent, County Schools, Orlando Wofford, Kate V., Professor of Education, College of Education, University of Florida Gainesville; Committee on Rural Life and Education on the World Scene deceased November 1954 Pinellas Brevard Hardee Superintendent, Polk Marion Santa Seminole Lake Orange IN@TITUTIONAL MEMBER Roard of Publix Pensacola Inetruction, Escambia County, GEORGIA Adams, E. F., Principal, Wrens High School, Jefferson County Schools, Wrens Attaway, Eugene Sylvester School, County Schools, Sylvester Bacon (Mra.) Jordye M Liberty County Schools, Hinesville Bailey, (Mra.) Elizabeth Moss, Supervisor, Cherokee County Schools, Canton Bates Ferd B., Superintendent, County Schools, Soperton Boyd Willie M Chairman, Rural Service Committee, Georgia Congress of Parents and Teachers, Adairsville Brady, W. B., Superintendent, Bleckley County Schools, Cochran Bridges, J. E., Superintendent, Bartow County ichools, Cartersville Brookshire, J , Superintendent, County Schools, Danielsville Burnham, Reba. Director, Resource-Use Edu- cation, Department of Education, Us iversity of Georgia, Athens Cherry Jim OD., Worth Superintendent, Treulen Madison Superintendent, DeKalb County Schools, Dacatur; Advisory Council to the National Commission on the Inter- mediate Administrative Unit juperintende, Camden rintendent Troup (,ranyge superintendent Hart *. Hartwell iper wis, Dublir yhnney V ntendent, Laurens County Train Athens Whitfield Supervisor of Georgia Superintendent Director University Dalton Elizabeth J Se hools Dewar, J. L., Superintendent Supervisor Worth County Sylvester Lowndes County Superintendent Putnam ton supervisor Spalding Sch Griffin Elizabeth, Instructional Department of Education Ww A Schools PEA superintendent Brunawick Frank M schools, Adel James Ray Principal, dated School Chariton Folkaton Jones State Ker + Om Const Atlanta Chatham Committee to Superintendent Savannah with ¢ Glynn County ighes Superintendent, Cook County D Folkston County Consoli Schools, f Library Consultant, Education, Atlanta Harria County jarah I ‘h Department of Zade, Superintendent vols, Hamilton Leake, F. D., Superintendent Schools Lafayette Lott, Dan WwW Superintendent, Coun Schools, Pearson George I Director of V Department imer 7 Walker County Atkinson ocational Edu State of Education, , Superintendent Appling Baxley Library Consultant Department Education, Atlanta W. H., Superintendent, Berren Schools, Nashvy afford Ww fk Service State Atlanta lanning tic Regional Committee or Education Phillips, K Jchools Phillipa State Outlaw County ille P Director inic of Field of Education, South Atlan Life and Di Department Committee Rural N Irwin County Ocilla Ww oO County Schools Rigsby, FE. R., V tor, Camilla County Schools Rowers, N A Schools, Franklin Rolfe, (Mre.) Etnlyr Library, Eastman chool Dodge Co Fastman Saxon, J. Harold, Executive Secretary, Georgia Education Association, Atlanta Smith, J Wilkins Superintendent, County Schools, Newnan Smith, William S&S Superintendent, Chariton County Schools Folkston State Director National Commission the Intermediate Administrative Unit ’ P Superintendent, Marietta Superintendent Superintendent, Superintenient, Emanuel Swainsboro ocational Agriculture onsolidated Schools Instru Mitchell Camilla Superintendent Heard County P inty tter Schools, Coweta on Cobb Strickland of Schools, Trion Tabor, County Terry, John Fort Valley Thigpen (Mre.) Treutlen County Lewis W Houston Schools H Superintendent, Perr Blue Pird Body Company Clifford Schools, Superintendent, Soperton Rt RAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK J Ww Schools, Lakeland West, Paul D., Superintendent, ihools, Atlanta Wimberly A I Superintendent ‘ infty “ Jeffersor superintendent y Schools tatesboro Threatte Superintendent Lanier County Fulten County lwiggs ville Ww Bulloch ymack Count IN TIONAL niversity of Georgia North Bradley TIT! MEM BERS Georgia, Athens Collegeboro Dahlonega Library, Columbus Library, t Library Library Ww. ¢ College College Teachers Ceorgia Memorial IDAHO Superintendent unty, Wallace Elementary Orofino National Commmission Administrative Unit Katharine 8 Superintendent Jerome County (Mra.) Elma M., Superintendent Eimore County, Mountain Home Mel, Superintendent of Schools, Diatrict A Fremont County St Anthony Planning Committee, Conference on Administrative ing Community Schools Amos 4 Fiementary Hear Lake County, Paris Robinson L. < Superintendent Moscow Rost, Arley } tion Idaho Director Stradley, Twin Falls County, Warner, Carl W Minidoka County Williams, Homer D., Grace Radgeley Mildred Schools hoshone ( Edith E County of Crowley Supervisor, Advisory Coun the Clearwater cil to the Intermediate Eakin Schools, on of Jerome Goodman Schools Gruwell, of Northwest Leadership Ser Hulme Supervisor, of Schools, of Educa Pocatello; State Assistant Professor State College Superintendent of Twin Falls Superintendent Rupert Principal Doris Schools, of Schools Grace School, INSTITUTIONAL Idaho MEMBER State College, Pocatello ILLINOIS Apt Chris 8 Superintendent Hendersor County, Oquawka Bailey, Dwivht L Director of tion Western Illinois State lege, Macomb Battershell B Shelby County, Shelbyville Beern Harlan D Director of Research, I}linois Association of School Boards, Spring- field Black, Luther J Certification Board Public Instruction, Recruitment and Teachers Blair, Clarence D St. Clair County, Belleville Bracewell, George, Associate Professor ern Illinois University, Carbondale Hrudi, Lawrence E., Superintendent of Schools, Carroll County, Mt. Carroll Carney, Mabel, Life Member, Marseilies Chase, Francis 8., Chairman, Department Education, University of Chicago Conklin, Paul 8., Superintendent Winnebago County, Rockford Cook, Paul M., Executive Secretary, Kappa, Homewood Cox John K., Secretary, General Services, Illinois Agricultural Association, Chicago Crackel, Verne E., Superintendent of Schools, Will County Schools, Joliet Deweese, Forest L., Assistant Superintendent, Community Unit School District #2, Taylorville ibrary, of Schools, Rural Educa- Teachers Col of Schools Superintendent Secretary, State Teachers State Department of Springfield Comm ittee on Preparation of Rural Superintendent of Schools, South- of of Schools, Phi Delta ROSTER OF MEMBERS P. G Professor, Agricultural University of Urbana A Ww Superintendent of Witt County, Clinton Dorothy 1, Assistant Superintendent in of Supervision, McDonough Educa- Illinois Sec trools, County, jon Superintendent of County, Benton R H Superintendent of Vermillion County, Danville (Mra.) Mary P ichools, MeHenry County Goodrich (Mra.) Lucile BSehools Livingstone ¢ Hance Wayne Cumberland ¢ Schoola Schools, tndres Superinter W oodatock Superintendent ounty P Superintendent § of ounty ntiac Schools, Harshbarger Ernest Superintendent of S Champaign ounty Urbana Hawley Ray Superintendent of Schools inty, Ottawa AY Superintendent of y, Paxtor Heater I Superintendent of Schools, County, Winchester Royce H Director h } E ( Chicago Leffler, Har Jasper Coun (Mra ‘ Ford Schools scott Knapp sear Educational Re- ompton and Company, superintendent Newton Marjorie B Superintendent County Sycamore ; the National Intermediate of Schools, Leinauer Com Administrative Roland, Manager ircie, Lineoln } Superintendent of Schools, t,eneva William P Director ational Illinois Pupils Kane Bureau of of Education Joint Com Research, College of Illinot Urbana th the Rural Sociological Society Aasistant Superintendent of mmunity Unit District 25 Superintendent of j Petersburg Professor of Education, Schools, Univer Urbana Muelier, F Ww § gram, National Li retary, Rural Church Pro itheran Council, Chicago Rural Education, ttate Collewe, Charleston Schools, Knox Hans ¢ Faster Illinois ck rsR Olsen Director Superintendent of Galesburg Superintendent of Schools Chicago Superintendent of Jacksonville Superintendent of r i County, Watseka Rosenstill, (Mrs.) Edith E intendent of Schools, Jo Schools, Roberta Schools, Assistant Daviess Super- County, Superintendent of Galena Superintendent of W oodatock Superintendent of Dixon; State Director Vincent, Grace E., Sublette Walker, Lillias K., Superintendent of Grundy County. Morris White. Arthur L., Superintendent of Henry County, Cambridge Wilkins, George T., Superintendent of Schools, Madison County, Edwardsville Wrench, Frank, Superintendent of Piatt County, Monticello Wright, H. E., Superintendent and Principal, Newton Community High School, Newton Schools, Jo Schools, McHenry County Torrens, John A Lee County Schools, Schools, Schools, Schools, Wright, Roe M Congress of Husiness National feachers, Chicag Mmmbeastor n te Administrative Unit Manager Parenta and National ¢ ntermediate TIT TIOM AL Meme Library, Education Department Library bondale Library levwe thern bilithate astern Charbestor Library, University of Chicago, Chic Library N DeKalb sibary, National ton ibrary Northwestern University i ibrary We Macomb ibrary tate Tem rihern Illinots State llewe of Education anator College ter? Iilingia Mate tate Normal niversity Normal Jibrary, Ulineots tate College ipringfield INDIANA Superintendent of Schools Albion Superintendent of Winchester Professor of Adair, Joseph WN Noble County Beck Paul Kandolph Book walter, cation, Sch Health and Kecreatior ty ington Brannock Schools, Crawford Schools Davisson Miami Foote, Lawrence F Superintendent of Schools Allen County, Fort Wayne Gardner, Hawley A, Superintendent of Schools, Union County, Liberty Gerichs, G Ww Juperintendent of Pulaski County, Winamear Executive mittee, Division of Pupil Transportation Glacden, Robert FP Superintendent of Schools, Marion County dianapolis Guy Philip A Astiatant Superinter dent State Department of Publle Inetruction Vernon Arthur H County Thomas F County Huntington, Ira I Jasper County Behools Pirysical Fdu Physical Kducation diana University, HBicom Robert J Superintendent of Lake County, Crown Point Fidon Superintendent of Posey County, Mt John N., Buperintendent of County Vernon Bechools Peru ehoula Com juperintendent of Centerville Superintendent of Spencer Superintendent of Schools, Henseelaer Planning Com mittee, Creat Lakes Regional Conference on Rural Life and KEdueation H. Paul, Superintendent of Joseph County, South Bend Lange, Walter H Indiane State Indianapolis Mahoney, Irene McLane, Frank Marshall County Noble, Charles &., Switzerland County, Vevay O'Hara, Warren, Direetor, Education Indiana Farm Indianapolis Osborn, Haskell B., Superintendent, Community School, Nappanee Peregrine, Donald, Superintendent Starke County, Knox Pound, Clarence A., Education Be hools Sehools Schools Library, Argos High School, Superintendent of Plymouth Superintendent Argos Schools of Behools, Department of Bureau Ine Nappanee of Schools, Professor of Rurel Educa Associate and Consultant in tion, Purdue University. Lafayette; EP xecu tive Committee of the Department; State Director ; National Commission on the Inter- mediate Administrative Unit Defense aa iperintendent County, Huntingt ‘ ipe ndent anty (hove Peer Harold iperintendent rte Kourbor superintendent Martinavilie 4Aper ntendent iperintendent wier Advis Commiastor ' intrative Unit juperintendent of Lawrencehure iperinte lent y, Columbia City iperintendent of Set W ashingto L MeMern feachers Collewe, Mur tate University dianapolia a State Teachers Notre Dame Library. Indianag Indianapolis Wayne t I. G. Brow wer Superintendent E.ldora superintendent Mt. Pieasant Superintendent ttawattamie inty Couneil Committee of the Department Division of County and Rural ntendents, 1964-55 Loren O Superintendent of Arena me hools Superintendent Schools reenfield - Superintendent of Schools Roard of Pottawattamie County, Carson Assistant Professor of Educa f Education, Drake University Chairman, County llewe Des Moines Borreson KM ) heldor Superintendent of Schools Bowersox wo Superintendent of Clinton Superintendent of County Harlan (Wem) Edith, Schools Clinton County ihard, F F velhy yerley Schools Schools Superintendent of Hamilton County, Webster City happell, Hazel V. Thomas, Superintendent of Schools, Cerro Gordo County, Mason City deceased December 1964 lark, Charles ( Superintendent of Schdéols Rockford leveland, G. 8&8 Superintendent of Worth County, Northwood ven, Edwin, Superintendent of Schools, Craw ford County, Denison Davis, Floyd A Superintendent of Knoxville Schools Schools, A FORWARD LOOK perintendent f Educatior ivereity mm it tee perintende Mount Ayr superintendent ham H ation Inetructor, Rural an: Department of Cedar State Teachers College Ww ! Director Transportation, Department f Pu natruction, Des tate Dieetor A perintender iperintender juperintender ichools iperintendent y. India Leo 4 iperintendent schools, ntura : Ralph uperintendent Schools arke Cx Osceola uperintendent Schools iperintendent Schools Independence juperintendent Schools iperintendent Schools Wapello uperintendent Schools Superintendent of le, Bre Waverly Superintendent Schools Tipton Superintendent Behools Audubon Superintendent A dei Superintendent of le, Alla Waukon Superintendent of Schools flounty R J Greenfield Harrisor A. FE Superintendent of Buena Vista County, Storm Lake Hartmar Ww Harold Superintendent of Biackhawk County, Waterl« Hendrickson Abner A Superintendent of Schools, Howard County, Cresco Herring Findley mM Superintendent of Schools, Decatur County, Leon Horgen, Gladys, Elementary Supervisor Department of Public Moines Holmes State Collewe, Ames Howell, Fannie G., Superintendent of School Floyd County, Charlies City Huehn, Kermith &., Superintendent of Schools, Harden County, Eidora Hungerford, J. B Superintendent of Schools, Coton lsenberger Ww W., Superintendent, Consolidated School, Hudeon Johneon L E. Superintendent of Appanocose County, Centerville Johneon, W. F Superintendent of Spencer Keho, Clifford, Superintendent of Gehools, Coin Knetevich, S. J., Associate Professor of Educa- tion, Btate University of lowa, lowa City Konareka, ( H Superintendent of Schools, Guthrie County, Guthrie Center Schools Schools schools State Inatruction Des Glenn Extension Specialist lows Hudson Behools, School, ROSTER OF MEMBER 157 perintendent f Schools yu Job Reorganization Consultant nty, Washington te Department of Public Inetruction, Des Ethel Mae Elementary Supervisor A Superintendent of Schools, Cedar Rapides perintendent o ols, Palo superintendent of 4 t u Emmetaburg Fairfield ; oye Superintendent of Schools superintendent gf Schools n Cor Winterset Superintendent Schoola lecretary, I * o lowa City 7 Superintendent of Schools Superintendent of Schools, ity, Decorah superintendent y Schools, lle of Sehools, Win harles iperintendent of Schools superinter Schools ‘ County, Orange City Jefferson adertir J 4., Superintendent of School, juperintendent of Sehools West Uni , ., Superintendent of Schools, Rock kxecutive Secretary lowa Walton League of America, 40) R Superintendent f Schools Sheffield Superintendent of Schools, Whitney, Charles S., Superintendent of Schools Moines; Advisory Council Hancock County, Garner Commission on the Inter- Woodruff, L. I Superintendent of Schools mediate / ni » Unit Des Moines County, Burlington ort Su of Schools, Wright, J. ¢ Superintendent of Publie In struction, State Department of Publie In tley, Superintendent of Sehools, struction, Des Moines . Young (Mre Frances Superintendent of P Superintendent of Schools Schools, Pocahontas County, Pocahontas tchell County, Osage Jessie M.. Superintendent of Public , tate Department of Publie im ANSAS Des Moines . . - “7 nter st of Schox . a dn ender oole Andrews Mrs.) Della, Superintendent of Davenport . tchools, Pawnee County, Larned perintendent of Schools Arnold LaVerne B Superintendent of schools, Osborne County, Osborne: National Commission on the Intermediate Admini Parker ntendent of Schools atrative Unit Berg (Mre.) Emma Superintendent of Schools, Douglas County, Lawrence . 4 t o choonl 4 me tender f Schools Giadiola, Superintendent of Schools, gona ; : iperintendent of Schools County, Burlingtor M : Minter Director of Professional t ie id 4 en EO Ee oes Relations, Kansas State Teachers Associa Superintenden o Sc hoo | : opeka County, Red - . » 2 4 an (Mra Margaret, Superintendent of perintendent o OK « : , apert endent Boe —_ Clwoo Pottowatomie County, Westmoreland ¢ prema ar Supervisor , M Superintendent of Schools, v Jakota ity Pratt at Superintendent of Bechools : c Mabel, ntendent of Schools . Juperintendent of y, Marshalitown choola, Johneon County, Olathe I Director Extension Service Correll, Frar’ E., Superintendent of Schools, tate Teachers College, Cedar Falls Dickinson wounty. Abilene binsor J. Clare, Superintendent of Schools DeBolt Aima Superintendent of Schools Wehater ( inty Fort Dodge Lebette County Os wen: Rowley be R Superintendent Be hooks Eddington Mrs.) Olive, Superintendent of Rutier ¢ nty, Ailllisen Schools, Seward County, Liberal Rupert, Charles I Superintendent of Schools Engstrand Agnes Elementary Supervisor, State Department of Public Inetruction, P Topeka; State Director Mf Seheols, Kaping K 0 Superintendent of Schools . Council Grove Planning Committee, Mid- Sankey, Claude W Superintendent of Schools, west Regional Conference on Administrative Wright County, Clarion Leadership Serving Community Schools Schindler P Superintendent of Schools, Gahnetrom, Ruth, Superintendent of Schools, Story ounty, Nevada Saline County, Saline Schuler Superintendent of Schools Golladay (Mre.) Edne Superintendent of Atlantic nning Committee Midwest Schools, Rourbon County, Fort Seott Regional Conference on Administrative Granger Ola Superintendent of Schools, Leadership Serving Community Schools Meade County, Meade Shannon Boyd, Superintendent of Schools, Hamilton (Mre.) June, Superintendent of Monticello Schools, Greenwood County, Eureka Shepherd, Louw A Extension Service, lows Herria Edith Superintendent of Schools, State Teachers College, Cedar Falls Rooks County, Stockton Lee County, Fort Madison Sanders, Stanley G., Superintendent Poweshiek County, Montezuma Su, erintendent of Schools Certification and tate Department of Planning Com { ference t Professor of College Asasistant ‘tate Teachers Pittabure Huff Clifton i Professor of Kansas jtate Teachers College President of the Tt Homer L Kanenas Education Em porta Department 56.646 Johnna FEducati Pittaburge Jones (Mra) Frances Schools, Lyon County Kappelman, G B Superintendent of Schools Cloud County, Concordia Kelly Mrs Tresea Sehoola Republi County Kenaler Pear! Sedgwick Ce King, Eva A Sedgwick County King John Le Teachers College. Emporia Kugler Floyd Superintendent of Smith County mith Center Longnecker, (Mra.} Mamie, Su, srintendent of Schools, Kingman County, Kingman Luse, Eveene E., Superintendent of Coldwater Lydick, Genevieve Brown County McBride, Mollie Aasociate Professor of ‘tate Teachers llewe Superintendent f Emporia Superintendent of Belleville superintendent of Wichita yf, Elementary Education Wichita President Schools inty Dire« Kansas State Schools, Schools Superintendent of Schools Hiawatha Superintendent of Schools, Rawlins County, Atwood A Superintendent of Newton Plorence Behools, Harvey County Miller (Mre.) Ethel I Superintendent of Schools, Grant County, Ulysses (Mre.) Fdna Superintendent of s. Greeley County Tribune (Mra.) Winifred M., Superintendent of ola, Jackson County, Holton © Kenneth, Associate Professor of ool Administrattion, Kansas State Col lewe, Manhattan Pettey (Mra.) Leda, Schoola, Clay County Pope (Mre.) Michael Superintendent of Clay Center Myrtle M Superintendent of Allen County, lola Jane & Superintendent of Schools, Geary County, Junction City Rose! (Mra.) Leora, Superintendent of fichools, Stevens County, Hugoton Roth, Anthony F., Superintendent of Schools Eliisa County, Hays Sec rent (Mre.)} Madge I Superintendent of Schools. Riley County, Manhattan Seaton, (Mra.) Ruth Flory, Superintendent of Schools, Elk County, Howard Simmons Hazel Lee Elementary Principal Lawrence Public Schools, Lawrence Snell (Mre.) Mabel M Superintendent of Schools, Wichita County, Leoti Stevens, (Mra.) Nelle H Superintendent cf Schools, Neosho County, Erie Btonecipher, F F Life Member Locust, Pittaburg Stucky Mile, Principal Buhler Sturges ic hools Roether 1914 8 Buhler Schoollas, Mrs.) Catharine, Superintendent of Schools, Chautaugua County, Sedan Therkelsen, Marie, Superintendent of Schools Montgomery County, Independence Throckmorton Adel F Superintendent of Public Instruction State Department of Publi Topeka Vinson “ Superintendent of Behools Cottonwood Falls Inatruction, (Mre.) Ide Chase County RAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK Superintendent of Schools, Advisory Counell Inter ing, Orville ¢ Rush County La Crosse to the National Commission on the mediate Administrative Unit INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Manhatten Teachers Col- State ¢ K armas ilege State Library, Kaneas Porter Library lege, Pittaburg KENTUCKY Ambrose, Luther M Chairmain, Department of Edueation, Berea College, Berea; Com- mittee on Rural Life and Education on the World Scene Archer, M. L., Superintendent, Schools, Georgetown Bell ira Superintendent, Schools, Monticello Brown, E. D., Superintendent, County Schools, Pardinaburg Burkhead G S.. Superintendent, County Schools, Elizabethtown Burns, T. F., Superintendent, Daviess County Schools, Owensboro Carty, D. J Director, Public ern Kentucky State College Caywood J Superintendent, County Schools, Independence Chambers, Henry, Superintendent, County Sehools, Paducah Cole, Mary I Associate Professor of Educa- tion, Weatern Kentucky State College, Bowling Green Davis, Mitchell, Superintendent, Barren County Schools, Glasgow Dodeon, J. M., Executive Secretary Education Association, Louisviile Elewick, Charles R., Principal, John's Creek School, Pike County Schools, Pikeviile Ferrell D. Thomas, Head, Department of Education, Eastern Kentucky State College, Richmord Planning Committee, Midsouth Regional Conference on Rural Life and Education Kiser, H. Barton, County Schools, Hopkinsville Graham, Charles ¢ Professor of Berea College, Berea Heggan, Henry C., Head, Agriculture, Morehead State College, head Hall, Floyd Superintendent, Schools, Catlettaburg Harmon, D., Superintendent, County Schools, Whitley City Henry, Victor P., President, Lindsey Wilson College, Columble Jagwers, Richard E., Professo: Eastern Keutucky State College, Jeasee, Mabel C Supervisor, Rural Improvement Project, Beattyville Jones, Lee Fancis, Head Department of Education, Weetern Kentucky Stete Col- lewe, Bowling Green McGuire, H. H., Superintendent, Carter County Schools, Grayson Moore, W. J., Dean, College, Richmond Pirtle, John P., Voeational Agriculture In- atructor, Howevalley School, Hardin County Schools, Cecilia Pollock, Sam B., Superintendent, County Schools, Madisonville Robbins Warren, Supervisor, Beil Schools, Pineville Swearingen, Orville L., Superintendent, Pulaski County Schools, Somerset Turner, (Mre.) Marie, Superintendent, Breat- hitt County Schools, Jackson; Executive Committee of the Department Seott County Wayne County Breckinridge Hardin Relations, Eaat- Richmond Kenton McCracken Kentucky Superinterdent, Christian Education, Department of More- Boyd County McCreary of Education, Richmond School Eastern Kentucky State Hopkins County ROSTER OF MEMBERS Turpen, N. C., Superintendent, Fayette County Schools, Lexington Van Hoose, Richard, Superintendent, Jefferson County Schools, Louisville Vickers, John L., Director, Division of Pupil Transportation, State Department of Edu- eation, Frankfort Executive Committee of the Department; President of the Division of Pupil Transportation, 1964-55 Ward, (Mre.) Emma #H., Superintendent, Anderson County Schools, Lawrenceburg ; State Director, Advisory Council to the Ne- tional Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Ward, E. R., Assistant Superintendent, Fayette County &chools, Lexington Wear, Pat W., Professor of Education, Berea College, Berea Winfrey, W. R., Voeational Agriculture In- atructor, Cumberland County High School, Cumberland County Schools, Burkesville INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Lees Junior College, Jackson Library, Johnson Camden College, Morehead Library Fastern Richmond Morehead State Kentucky State Coilege, LOUISIANA Larry J., Life Member, Donaldsonville Dutch Town High Parish Schools, Dutch Babin Brunson, W. ¢ Principal School Aacension Town Daniel, J I Jr Supervisor Rouge Parish Schools, Baton Rouge Eisely Mrs.) A M Elementary Schocl Supervisor, Madison Parish Schools, Tallulah Foote, J. M., Life Member, Baton Rouge Hanchey, K. KR Superintendent, Beauregard Parish Schools, De Ridder Lavergne, Kemi, Superintendent, West Baton Rouge Pariah Schools, Port Allen Pearce, H. L., Supervisor of Schools, Livings- ton Parish Schools, Denham Springs Robertson, J. B Director, Elementary and Secondary Education, State Department of Education, Baton Rouge Terrehonne, L. P., Life Member, Plaquemine Thatcher, Fred G Executive Secretary, Louisiana School Boards Association, Baton Rouge Thomas, H. M., Superintendent, West Carroll Parish Schools, Oak Grove White Roscoe H., Superintendent, Caddo Parish Schools, Shreveport; Advisory Coun- cil to the National Commission on the Inter- mediate Administrative Unit East Baton INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Library, McNeese State Coilege, Lake Charles Materials Library, Richlend Parish, Rayville Russel] Library, Northwestern State College, Natchitoches MAINE Aikins, Frederick H., Superintendent, Super- visory Union #16, South Windham Bracy, Alfred A., Superintendent, Supervisory Union 232, Canton Gilman, Stanwood C., Superintendent, Super- visory Union 744, Sebasco Estates McMonagle, Edward L., Director, Division of Administration, State Department of Educa- tion, Augusta State Director: Planning Committee, New Engiand Regional Con- ference on Rural Life and Education Quinn, (Mrs.) Villa Hayden, Elementary Supervisor, State Department of Education, Augusta MARYLAND Ahalt, Arthur M., Professor and Head, Depart- ment of Agricultura, Education, University of Maryland, College ark Bennett, James M., Superintendent, County Schools, Salisbury Boston, W. T Division of Certification and Accreditation, State Department of Educa- tion, Baltimore Bris, William M., Superintendent, Washington County Schools, Hagerstown ; Advisory Coun- cil to the National Commission on the Inter- mediate Adminiatrative Unit srown (Mr .) Lola P Supervisor of Per- sonnel, Queen Anne's County Schools, Centreville Burdette, Eunice E Education, Hyattaville Busick, James G., Superintendent, County Schools, Cambridge Carlson, C. Allen, Superintendent, County Schools, Princess Anne Claxton, P. P., Life Member, Silver Spring Cooper, Paul D., Superintendent, Worcester County Schools, Snow Hill Corr, Reade W., Superintendent, Kent County Schools, Chestertown Davis, J Wiilard, County Schools, Dent, Lettie M., County Schools, Leonardtown Dunkle, Maurice A., Superintendent, County Schools, Prinee Frederick Fitzgerald, W. Stewart, Superintendent, Caro- line County Schools, Denton Gordon, Walter M., Suservisor of Transporta- tion, Baltimore County Schools, Towson Hadesty, R. Bowen, President, Maryland State Teachers College, Frostburg Hauver, Herman A., Supervisor of Schools, Calvet County Schools Frederick Hawkins, Elmer T., Principal, Garnett High School, Kent County Schools, Chestertown Hawkins, Willard L., Superintendent, Garrett County Schools, Oakland Hobbs, (Mre.) Pauline V., Elementary Super- visor, Baltimore County Schools, Baltimore Hoffmaster, Paul L., Supervisor of Transporta- tion, Frederick County Schools, Frederick Jenkins, David 8. Superintendent, Anne Arundel County Schools, Annapolis Jenness, Sari Superintendent, County Schools, Westminster Martin, T. C., Superintendent, Charles County Schools, La Plata Monk, Louis 8., Principal, Lincoln Junior High School, Montgomery County Schols, Rockville Murray, Ray A.,Associate Professor of Agri- cultural Education and Rural Life, Univer- sity of Maryland, College Park Norris, Forbes H., Superintendent, gomery County Schools, Rockville Oliver, J. A., Maryland State College, Princess Anne Pruitt, Eugene W., Superintendent, Frederick County Schools, Frederick Rannels, Morris W., Superintendent, County Schools, Elkton Rhodes, Harry C., Superintendent, Annes County Schools, Centreville Schmidt, William 8., Superintendent, Prince George's County Schools, Upper Marlboro; Planning Committee, South Atlantic Re- gional Conference on Rural Life and Educa- tion Stapleton, Edward G., Superintendent, Balti- more County Schools, Towson; State Direc- Wicomico Supervisor of Elementary Prince George's County Schools, Dorchester Somerset Superintendent, Talbot Faston Superintendent, St. Marys Calvert High Prince Carroll Mont- Cecil Queen Firat of County 1953-54 Webster County tor the Divisior Superintendents President of Rural Area Vice and Ralph R Schools Superintendent Cumberland Ww Superintendent, Bel Air Cc if aroline, Allegany Charles Harford Schools (Mrs.) mentary Schools Oakland Yingling, John FE County Schools, of Ele- Schools, Supervisor Garrett County Superintendent, Howard Ellicott City INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER County Library Prince Memoria! Hyattsville MASSACHUSETTS Dougias School STITUTION AL Department Amherst MICHIGAN Bery! H., Benzie County Ansel, James ©., cation Georges Superintendent, Union, Townsend Dopp R Ashby Townsend IN MEM KEK Education chusetts University of Massa- Abbott Superintendent Frankfort Associate Professor Department of Rural cation, Western Michigan tior Kalamazoo Atkinson, Fred, M Manchester Bacon, (Mre.) Ruth WN., Superintendent Schools, St. Clair County, Port Huron Bickford, Fern E., Life Member, Coldwater Borst, Russell L Superintendent of Schools, Mecosta County, Big Rapids Brake, Charles E., Superintendent Wayne County, Detroit, the Department, 1954-55 Brumbaugh, Donald §&., High School, Detour Clayton, C Wesley, Superintendent, North Branch Township Rural Agricultural School North Branch Crofoot, Bees L., Schools, Donaldson, Harry B., Superintendent, lock Rural Agricuitural School, Hemlock Dondineau, (Mrs.) Bernice, Supervising Teach- er, Wayne County Schools. Detroit; Com- mittee on Rural Life and Education on the of Schools, of Edu- Life and Edu- College of Educa- Superintendent of Schools, of of Vice President Schools of Principal, Detour Supervisor of Elementary Fowlerville Hem- Superintendent of Schools, Emerson, William, Oakiand County, sion on the Unit Eng, William J., Superintendent Midiand County, Midland Fischer, Fred C., Life Member, Belleville Fox, Robert 8., Principal, University Elemen- tary School, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor ; Chairman, Committee on Publications and Constructive Studies Francis, John R., Superintendent of Schools, Sanilac County Schcols, Sandusky Highiund, E. C., Superintendent, Homer Com- munity School, Homer Holmquist, BE. O., Superintendent Missaukee County, Lake City Howard, (Mre.) Daisy E., Superintendent of Schools, Genessee County, Flint Jaffe, Abraham, Superintendent St. Joseph County, Centreville Jakead, William, Superintendent Cheboygan County, Cheboygan Jameson, Mary S., Supervising Teacher, Wayne County Bchools, Dearborn Superintendent of School, Pontiac ; National Commis- Intermediate Administrative of Schools, of Schools, of Behools, of Schools, RI RAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK Kaufman, Schools Lathrop Schools, Le Jennie M., Ottawa County, Arthur Ww. Barry County, Hastings Harold E., Superintendent Macomb County, Mount Clemens ohn, Associate Executive Secretary, YMCA, Detroit lum, Gladys, Superintendent Livingston Howell Nelson, Alex M Superintendent Community School, Hesperia Owen, J. Willis, Superintendent, School trict 4, Dearborn Township, Dearborn Potrude, Olive M., Superintendent of Schools, Wexford County, Cadillac Reed, (Mra.) Alice P., Superintendent Schools, Gratiot County, Ithaca Rice, ¢ Alfred, Superintendent of Branch County, Coldwater Hichardson, (if4rs.) Delia, Superintendent Schools, Ogemaw County, West Branch Robinson, William McKinley, Director, Depart- of Rural Life and Education, Western Michigan College of Education, Kalamazoo Chairman, Committee on Recruitment and Preparation of Rural Teachers Rollin, Russell) A., Superintendent of Schools, losco County, Tawas City Sanders, Lucille E., Western of Education, Kalamazoo Seay, Maurice F., Director, Division of Educa- tion, W. C. Kellogg Foundation, Battle Creek Simmons, W. T., Superintendent of Schools, Montcalm County, Stanton Sixma, 8. I Executive Secretary, Michigan Association of School Boards, Michigan State College, East Lansing Slavens, Opal, Rural Supervisor Shiawassee County, Corunna Squire, Fred, Superintendent of land County, Midland Stearns, Troy L., Head, mentary Education, Michigan East Lansing Stroud, Alton J., Superintendent Ingham County, Mason Taylor, William H., Superintendent of Vicksburg Temple, Ben L., Superintendent Huron County, Gad Axe Thayer, Howard C., Deputy Superintendent of Schools, Washtenaw County, Ann Arbor; Planning Committee, Great Lakes Regional Conference on Rural Life and Education Torrant, Lyle A., Superintendent of Schools, Jackson County, Jackson; State Director Whetstone, Clinton F., Superintendent of Schools, Calhoun County, Marshall; Advisory Council to the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Wooster, Glenn, Superintendent of Schools, Vermontville INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Detroit Public Library, Detroit Library, Central Michigan College of Eduea- tion, Mount Pleasant Library, Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti Library, Western Michigan College of Educa- tion, Kalamazoo MINNESOTA Aakbus, ©. G., Superintendent Willow River Andersen, Douglas, Superintendent of Schools, Koochiching County, International Falls Anderson, Harriette, Superintendent of Education, Schools, Meeker County, Litebfield University of Minnesota, Minneapolis ; Chair- Superintendent of Grand Haven Superintendent of Fevre of of Schools, County, Hesperia Dis- of Schools, of ment Michigan College of Bchools, Schools, Mid- of Ele- College, Department State of Schools, Schools, of Schools, of School, Archer, Clifford P., Professor of TER ¢ MEMBERS Committee n the W Mankat Borker Her Meadowland Bornemar Elementary Princi idies, McGregor ntendent Advis mmissior Unit perintendent ambridge Principal, College Ele ry School, State Teachers Superintendent of Schools iperintendent Independence York Mills iperintendent of Schools, Mi aca perintender ‘ Schools rict #4 New hool Teacher Training, Paul ; Sociological cation Rural perintendent Alexandria state Supervisor of State Department of Executive i Transportation intendent of Com- Schools Superintendent Morris East Grand School Dis State Consultant Reorganization, ication, St. Paul of Schools, Department Horapat f Superintendent Kenyor Howe Car § McLeod Cx Ingberg, Albert perintendent of Schools, Glencoe Superintendent of Schools, intendent of Schools, Executive Com yunty and Rural Area Superintendent of Schools Schools, Superintendent of eacher, Esko Public Schools, Superintendent of Schools, ;, International Falls Superintendent of Schools ounty, Caledonia Larter (Mrs.) Myrtle K., Superintendent of ‘ Pine County. Pine City Imquist, M. L., Superintendent of Schools, Grand Rapids Malmrose, (Mrs Addie N., Superintendent of Schools, Watonwan County, St. James Matejka, (Mre.) Myr Superintendent Schools, Clay County, Moorhead Lapham Houstor chools 61 Mathews ad Superintendent of id ¢ ty, Long Prairie Maryaret erintendent of Schools, nt Schools, Middle River yrdica Superin' ‘ndent of school hisago County, Center City Meyer Director, Elementary Schools, tate Department of Education, St. Paul Mickelson, Irwin 1., Superintendent of Schools, Le Sueur Milbratt Vocational Agriculture Instructor re High School, Proctor talph Associate Professor, School niversity of Minnesota, St sugene Murphy, Edna fe Member, Grand Rapids Murray, Hazel G.. Teacher, Austin | Agnes Superintendent of Schools, ne ¢ nty, Ortonville Professor of Sociology, Paul superintendent, Fisk Nuernberg Superintendent of Schools, Rice ou ait Parker Uni- Lowry, f Minnesota, St William J Thomson Superintendent of Superintendent of Schools Detroit Lakes , Superintendent of schools, Peterson, Milo J Department, Head, Agriculture Education University of Minnesota, St nning Committee, Midwest Regional fe and Education Jniversity of Minnesota, luth Elizabeth, Superintendent of wols, L the Woods County, Baudette Ww Superintendent of Schools, St County, Duluth; State Director Harlan A Superintendent of Rapidan Helen R., Superintendent of Schools, Brown County, New Ulm Scott, Robert F Superintendent of Schools, Hennepin County, Minneapolis; deceased October 1954 Skogg, Meiville Hermar Smythe, W Sherburn Stapleton, C. L Superintendent of teitrami County, Bemidji Swanson, Gordon I., Assistant Agricitural Education, University nesota, St. Paul Swenson, Louise, Superintendent Carlton County, Cariton Thompson, Viola, Superintendent Hennepin County, Minnespolis Thorpe Clara Superintendent of Schools, Yellow Medicine County, Granite Falls Thorson. (Mrs.) Dorothy, Superintendent of Schools, Kandiyohi County, Willmar Thorson, Lieyd E., Superintendent of Schoois, Lake Benton Tollefson, Dora L., Superintendent of Schools, Mower County, Austin A. M., Superintendent of Schools, Free- born County, Albert Lea Wallien, (Mrs.) Valborg, Schools, Montevideo Webster, Jerome 0O., Schools, Winnebago Weitgenant, (Mrs.) Blanda C., Superintendent of Schools, Nobles County, Worthington Williarns, Beatrice, Rural Supervisor, State Teachers College, St. Cloud Schroeder, Superintendent of Schools, Superintendent of Schools, Schools, Professor of of Min- of Schools, of Se hools, Superintendent of Superintendent of 462 Wylie, John W., Frazee Youngeren, Kittson County, Licafoose Lawrence, Consolidated B« hool, Superintendent of Schools, Ruth L., Superintendent of Schools, Hallock Superinter dent, Borup Borup INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Library, State Teachers College, Moorhead Library, State Teachers College, St. Cloud Library, State Teachers College, Winona Minneapolis Public Library, Minneapolis MISSISSIPPI Elementary Pascagoula Superintendent, Petal Fort, County, Supervisor, Jackson County Coulter High Daniel Schools, Marsha!! Davis, Junior Johmeaon, Coahoma County, Clarksdale Mayo, Robert M., Superintendent of Schools, Hinds County, Jackson; State Director; Advisory to the National Commis- sior in the Intermediate Administrative Unit McMillan, W. W.. Manager, Bus Sales, Supe- rior Coach Corporation, Kosciusko Middieton, Ben F.. Executive Secretary, Mis- sissippi State Textbook Purchasing Board, Jackson Montgomery, (Mre.) Annie Teucher, Yalobusha County, Moor jjuford L., Superintendent Oktibbeha County, Starkville Rawson, E. P., Supervisor, State Department of Education, Jackson Rogers L ¢, Superir tendent of Lefore County, Greenwood Travis, J. A Assistant Secretary in Field Service, State Education Jackson; Planning Committee, Mid- Regional Conference on Rural Life cation MISSOURI Atkinson, J L Super’ itendent of Lafayette County, Lexington Beck J Abner, Superintendent Mississippi County Charleston Bist Josephine, Superintendent of Schools, County, Linn Brand, J Superintendent of Crawford County, Steelville Brandt, Viola Supervisor of Schools State Department of Jefferson City Bucher Vincent W House, Gladden Burnside, J. A Superintendent of School Carroll County, ¢ arrollton ; deceased Novem- ber 1964 Campbell, Eest Forrest Superintendent of Holly Springs President, Sait. Teacher, Council Kelly, Jeanes Water Valley of Schools, Schools, Charge tion, eoutr and Ed Schools, of Schools, Schools, Elementary Education, Shennandale Community ; perintendent of Lee's Summit Pianning Committee, Conference on Administrative Leadership Serving Community Schools Capps, A. G.. Professor of Education, Univer sity of Missouri, Columbia Clements, Homer M., Superintendent of Schools, Jackson County Independence Dillinger, (Mre.) Hinda J., Hazelwood Schoo) District 1 St. Louis County, St. Louls Eubanks Don L Superintendent of Schools, Bates County, Butler Evans, Ray T., Elementary School Supervisor, Osceola Graves, Mary F Superintendent of Macon County, Macon Bernard C Schools Midwest Schools, RURAI EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK Guth (Mre.) Ora N., Superintendent of chools, Perry County, Perryville Hamlett, Floyd E., Superintendent of Schools, Pemiscot County, aruthersville Henry, W K Superintendent of Camden County, amdenton Hill, Robert R., Professor of Education South- east Missouri State ‘ ollege, Cape Girardeau Hills, (Mra.) Stella Superintendent of Schools, Adair County Kirkeville Hinote, Edgar A., Superintendent Br. Clwir County Osceola Hudson, Bessie, Superintendent of Knox ounty, Edina Jinkens, (Mrs.) Nannie Schools, Hickory County Hermitage Jones Leonard, Superintendent of Buchanan County, 5t Joseph Lloyd, Alfred W s iperintendent Moniteau County California Mallory, D Superintendent of Buffalo McDonald, Moss Superintendent of Bchoow, Morya: County Versnilies ;; State Director Advisory Council to the National Commission ine Intermediate Administrative Unit BE. F., Head, Division otf Extended Northeast Missour! State Teachers Kirksville ) W. Leslie, Clinton County, Platteburg Oliver ; Cc Professor of Education, South west Missour! State ( ollege, Springfield John, Superintendent of Schools, Benton County, Warsaw Pattinson, Sallie, Assistant Professor of Rural Education, Northeast Missouri State Teachers College, Kirkavilie Ridings, G. H., Superintendent of Dunklin County Kennett Riley, George A., Superintendent, Reorganized School District 1, Monitean County, Call- fornia Rinehart (Mrs) Schools, Linn County Roberts, Raymond A., Education, State Department Jefferson City Scheer, (Mre.) Schools, Lincoln Seotten, ¢ ¥ Pettis County Shultz, Lewis Ww Hickman Mills Skelton, §& Superintendent of Atchison County, Rockport Smart, John m, afi Superintendent of Schools, Glasgow Smith, (Mrs.) Callie C., Schools, Scotland County, Snarr, (Mre.) Ruth G., Schools, Monteomery County, City Summers, Arthur L., Director of Reorganizea- tion of School Districts, State Department of Education Jefferson City; Planning Com- mittee, Midwest Regional Conference on Rural Life and Education Wells, Nellie F Superintendent of Johnson County, Warrensburg Winder, Lester ©., Director of Transportation, Normar dy Consolidated School, Bt. Lou Wright, Jolm A., Superintendent of Schools, Btodd.rd County, Bloom field Young, Gertrude, Superintendent Mercer County, Princeton Schools, of Schools, Schools, Superintendent of Schools, of Schools, Schools, Superintendent of Ower Schools, Vera, Superintendent of Brookfield Director of Flementary of Education, Cleo L., Superintendent of County, Troy Superintendent of Sedalia Superintendent Schools, of Schools, Schools, Superintendent of Memphis Superintendent of Montgomery Schools, of Schools, INSTITU TION AL MEMBERS Inman E. Page Library. Lincoln University, Jefferson City Kent Library, Southeast Missouri State College, Cape Girardeau ROSTER OF MEMSERS Library Centra! Missouri State Warrensburg Library, Drury College College, Spingfield MONTANA Barnard Lulu, iperintendent of Scho Flathead County, Kalispell Committee o Publications and Constructive Studies; Ad visory Council to the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Bartron (Mre.) Adeline, Superintendent of Schools, Missoula County, Missoula Bay (Mrs.) Theo Ff Superintendent of Bchools, Beaverhead County, Dillon Campbell Elsie, Superintendent of Pondera County, Conrad Cole, Arden B Superintendent of Missoula County, Missoula Condon, Mary M Superintendent of Public Instruction State Department of Public Instruectior Helena; Executive Committee of the Department Cooper, (Mra.) Agnes Hannon, Superintendent Schools, Ravalli County, Hamilton (Mrs.) Alice, Superintendent of Roosevelt ounty, Wolf Point Green tlizabeth F. Harsnesas, Superintendent of Schools, Fergus County, Lewistown Haight, (Mra.) Sylvia, Director, State res pondence State Department of Public Instruction, Missoula; State Director Hamman, Muriel, Superintendent of Schools, Lake County, Polson Haynes (Mre.} Martha, Superintendent of Schools, Gallatin County, Bozeman Herigstad, Audrey, Superintendent of Schools, Miles City Superintendent of Deer Lodge Head, Department of Educa- Paychology Northern Montana Havre Wallace Ww Clinton (Mre.) Marie, Teacher (Mra.) Agnes, Superintendent of Jefferson City, Boulder Mrs.) Winnafern H Supervinor of Schools, State Department of Public Instruction, Helena Murphy, (Mrs.) Anna J Superintendent of Schools, Mineral County, Superior Naugie, ¢ E Superintendent of Bigfork Patersor Schools, Peterson, Kalispell Rosean, Florence Stillwater County Sherie, (Mre.) Opal Superintendent of Schools, Hill County, Havre Spearin, (Mre.) May Y., Superintendent of Schools, Golden Valley County, Ryegate Squire usnevieve Deputy Superintendent, Stsce Department of Public Instruction, Helena Taft, Laura Jane, Superintendent of Schools, Giscier County, Cut Bank Ternstrom, Alice H., Superintendent of Schools, Liberty County, Chester Thorsen, Mildred, Buperintendent Richland County, Sidney Turner, (Mre.) Thelma B., Superintendent of Schools, Blaine County, Chinook Wright, (Mre.) Margaret M., Superintendent of Schools, Dawson County, Glendive NEBRASKA Andersen, Olga, Superintendent of Sarpy County, Papillion Schools, Schools, Cor- School, an} Schools, Superintendent of Garrison Mikkelson e j Schools, Hilfred B Park County, (Mrs.) Lilian L Superintendent of Livingston Life Member, perintendent of School, Columbus of Schools, Bchools, 463 Baldridge, Chieo C Lincoln Bennett Jennie, Superintendent of Sheridan County, Kuathvile Bigelow Dorie, Superintendent of Schools, Gosper County, Elwood; State Director Htoone, G ye Superintendent of Schools, Jefferson County, Fairbury Bratten, (Mra.) Edna Superintendent of Schools, Red Willow County, MeCook Bugbee, H D., Superintendent of Nemaha County, Auburn Calvert A B., Superintendent of Saline County, Wilber Canaday, Golda, Superintendent of Kearney County, Minden Cormetock, (Mre.) Hazel, Schoola, York County, Cunningham Eldon, P., Schools, Hall County Day, (Mre.) Myrtle V chools, Dixon County, Ponca Dutton, (Mrea.} Margaret H Superintendent of Schools, Deuel County, Chappell Eckard, Bessie F., Superintendent of Schools, Pawnee County, Pawnee City Ellison, (Mre.) Elizabeth A., Superintendent of Schools, Saunders County, Wahoo Extrom, Paul E., Superintendent of Schools, Lincoln County, North Platte Farley, Rosalie W., Coordinator, Education, Teachers College Nebraska, Lincoln French, Alice L Superintendent Hoit County, O'Neill Gilman, (Mre.) Musetta, Superintendent of Schools, Madison County, Madison Gilmore Mary, Superintendent of Custer County, Broken Bow Gorman, Frank H., Dean, College of Educa- tion University of Omaha, Omaha; Com- mittee on Recruitment and Preparation of Rural Teachers (Mre.) Irma, Superintendent of Kimball County, Kimball Emma Superintendent of Frontier County, Stockville (Mre.) Greece A., Superintendent of trown County, Ainsworth (Mre.) R A., Superintendent of Richardson County, Falle City (Mre.) Ada, Superintendent of Hayes County, Hayes Center Wenona, Superitendent of Schools, Aduma County, Hastings Hauser, W J Wellington Hayward, (Mra.) Willard, Schools, Grant County Jesser, David i. Sioux County, Harrison Konegni, (Mra.) Virginia, Superintendent of Schools, Dakota County, Dakota City Kreidler, Jessie G., Superintendent of Schools, Nance County, Fullerton Larson, Lillian, Supervisor of Education, Fremont Lawson, (Mrs.) Minnie D., Superintendent of Schools, Wheeler County, Bartlett McBeth, Olive M., Superintendent of Schools, Polk County, Osceola Oldershaw., Edith, Superintendent of Schools, Cheyenne County, Sioceys Otteman, Clara, Superintendent Thurston County, Pender Phillips, Joe, Superintendent of Schools, Dodge County, Fremont Quick, Robert A., Superintendent of Schools, Platte County, Columbus; Advisory Council to the National Commission on the Inter- mediate Administrative Unit Renken, Emma, Superintendent Fillmore County, Geneva Schools, Schools, Schools, 8chools, Superintendent of York Superintendent of Grand Island Superintendent of In-Service University of of Schools, Schools, Grosshans Schools, Gugelman Schools Hamaker Schools, Hanika Schools, Hotel, Omaha Superintendent of Hyannis Superintendent of Schools, Elementary of Schools, of Schools, 464 Ripa, Evelyn D Business Edu eation Teacher, Wilber High School, Wilber Rippeteau, (Mrs.) Mary W Superintendent of Schools, Clay County, Clay Center Stoneman, Merle A Professor of School Ad- ministration, Teachers College, University of Nebraska Lincoln Planning Committee, Midwest Reyvional Conference on Rural Life and Education Smith, Leon O Superintendent of Douglas County, Omaha Tate, Zetta C Superintendent of Cherry County, Valentine Theiss, H. Jeannette, Assistant Professor of Rural Education, Nebraska State Teachers College, Chadron Vig, A. Clarence, Superintendent of Washington County, Waite Evangeline, City; formerly Supervisor of Elementary Education Public Instruction Principal and Schools, Schools, Schools, State Department of Company, Publishing Merritt Nebraska Superintendent of Schools, City 4TITUTIONAL MEMBERS Fremont Teachers i College State College Nebraska Teachers liege, Nebraska State Teachers College, ersity f Omaha, Omaha NEVADA Talwe Zephyr Library Ini Dis State Gaw. Robert B Teacher School trict, Douglas Co Director inty, Cove; NEW Appletor David Union 29. Cor ing HAMPSHIRE Superintendent, Supervisory State Director; Planr Committee, New England Regional Con- Rural Life and Education B., Superintendent, Supervisory Peterboro igh A Superintendent , Woodsville Doe, Chester W Superintendent, Union #44, Northwood Hastings, Henry J Superintendent visory Union 7, Hudson Osgood, Jonathan A., Superintendent, visory Union 255, Salem Arthur E Superintendent Union 256, Somersworth NEW JERSEY Will G., County, Carl M., Ocean County Bakken E M., Seouting, Boy Srunswick Jean, Albert M Camden County, Eby Harry K., Relations, Boy Brunswick Everett, Marcia A., Life Hoppock, Anne, Assistant in cation State Department of Trenton Knipe, (Mrs.) Gloucester County, way Supervisory Supervisory Super- Super Toll Supervisory Superintendent of Schools Belvidere Superintendent of Toma River National Scouts of Schools Rural! New Director, America, Superintendent of Schools, Camden National Scouts of School New Director, America, Member, Belvidere Elementary Edu- Education, Edythe M., Pitrran Helping Teacher, RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK Lawrence, Clifton Superintendent, Watap- Consolidated School, Matthews, W. B., Superintendent of Schools, Cape May County, Cape May C.urt House Matzner, ., Assistant Professor of Educa- Education, Rutgers Univer- Sussex Helping Teacher, Salem Mongon, Burlington Morris, Howard, S-) Salem Harry M tjureau Insurance Ransohoff (Mrs.) Rehabilitation Long Branch Sobinson, Thomas E Teachers Superintendent of Mt. Holly Jr., Superintendent of County, Salem Director of Safety, Company, Columbus Priscilla B., Director of Monmouth Memorial Hos pital, Schools, County, ols Por titus Farm President College, New Jersey Glassboro; Execu- tive Committee of the Department Rodgers, J. Harvey, Superintendent of Schools, Gloucester County, Woodbury; State Direc- Advisory Council to the National Com- mission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit; deceased December 1954 Sickler, Edna F Helping Teacher, Gloucester County, Pitman Smith, Sampson G., Somerest ( ‘ ate tor Superintendent of Schools, Somerville ; Executive Division of County and Rural Superintendents; Committee to Work with CPEA Planning Committee, North Atlantic Regional Confernce on Rural Life and Education strattor Mason A., Atlantic County, ounty, Committee, Area Superintendent of Schools, Mays Landing State Harold, if ounty, Superintendent &wic Paterson Washington, (Mra.) A. C Elementary Supervisor NEW MEXICO Diego, ( v,ordinator, Spanish Public Schools, Carlsbad Digneo (Mra.) Ellen Hartnett, Director, Konementary and Adult Education, State Department of Education, Santa Fe Dorar Mrs.) Ruby Superintendent, County Schools, Clovis Espinosa A G Supervisor, County Schools, Tierra Amarilla Foster Fred W., Superintendent Silver City Superintendent, Otero County Alamogordo (Mre.) J. R., Schools of Schools, Piainfield Culpeper formerly Virginia DeVargas gram, Carlsbad Pro- Curry Rio Arri-s Grant County Schools Haile, George T Schools, Hughes Superintendent, County Clayton Kosko, Stephen, Superintendent, Catron County Schools, Reserve Lucero (Mre.) Mary B., Superintendent, Guadalupe County Schools, Santa Rosa McWhirter, Corona, Superintendent, Torrance County Schools, Estancia Melendez, Canuto, Superintendent, County Schools, Mora Nunn, Earl, Superintendent of Schools, Springer; Planning Committee, Southwest Regional Conference on Administrative Leadership Serving Community Schools Ortiz, Romeo A., Superintendent, Sar.doval County Schools, Bernalillo Owen, Wayne, Superintendent, County Schools, Portales Pierson, maude, Supervisor, Schools, Clovis Samuelson, (Mrs.) Lorine, Superintendent, Lincoln County Schools, Hollywood Singinger, W. H., Director, Teacher Education, ew Mexico Highlands U-versity, Vegas Union Mora Roosevelt Curry County ROSTER OF MEMBERS Smith, Haskel B., Superintendent, solidated School, Bayard ; Cobre Con- Advisory Couneil to Intermediate the National Commission on the Administrative Unit Sotel Lillian County Schools Tunnell Hall F'stancia Watson, (Mre.) Mary K., Supervisor, Consolidated School, Bayard Planning Rocky gional Conference mn Rurs Life Education White George Artesia W ood (Mrsa.) Alice C Schoola, Wagon Mound (Mra) supervise ; ternalillo Superintendent of Sate Committee P Director of Instruction, Superintendent INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Library, Eastern New Portales ‘versity of New Mexico, Albuquerque Mexico University, NEW YORK Everest T., District Superintendent of la, Clinton County, Peru Leonard, District Superintendent of Schools, Lawrence County, Star Lake Barber District Superintendent of Schools, ounty, Hatavia Jartholomew ) Helen B., District Super intendent « Washington County, Whitehall Belknap, B. H., Life Member, Pupil Transpor tation Consultant, Delmar Bilderback, Nao , Disirict Superintendent Hartwick LD «strict Superintendent of County, Attica Superintendent of Delmar Superintendent of Montgomery County, Fort Plain own, Clayton H., District Superintendent of saratoga County, Greenfield Center Edmund deS Professor of Rural Teachers College, Columbia Uni- New York City Bernard L Director, Educational Service, R Distict Superintendent of Erie County, East Aurora Pauline G., District Schools, Chemung Ailen Schools School t ) anty werman, chools Schools inner Sociology versity Board of Co- White Plains Superin- County, Horseheads tterworth, J. E., Life of Educational Cornell Member, Professor Administration Emeritus, University, Ithaca; National Com- mission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Carter, G J., District Schools, Steuben County Chapman, Mernette L of Schools, Seneca County, Ovid Clark, Claude R., District Superintendent of Schools, Essex County, Bloomingdale Clark, F B., District Superintendent of Schools, Greene County, Athens Codding, James W., District Superintendent of Schools, Clinton County, Chazy Craib, (Mrsa.) Mildred Hull, District Super- intendent of Schools, Rensselaer County, Berlin Crist, tendent gomery Cyr Frank W., Professor of Education, Teachers College, Cc ‘umbia University, New York City Daulton, George R., District Superintendent of Schools, Steuben County, Bath Superintendent of Avoca District Superintendent Bull, District Orange County, Superin- Mont- (Mrs.) Amy of Schools, 465 Craig, District Superintendent of fompkina County, Newfield (Mre.) Theresa, 4758 Park Avenue, York City Lloyd H., Associate Professor of Rural Education, Cornell University, Ithaca Fahrenholz Francia J., District Superin tendent of Schools, Washington County, Aryyle Fennell, Edward G., Supervising Newfield Central School, Newfield Ford, (Mra.} Thomas J Director of School Relations, Girl Seouts of the United States of America, New York City Foreman, Lester, B., District Superintendent of Schools, Menroe County, Pitteford Foster, Fred P District Superintendent of Schools, Chenango County, Afton French, Harold, Life Member, Loudonville Gibbin, Kenneth E., District Superintendent of Schools, Cattaraugus County, East Randolph Green, Edward T., yervising Principal, New Berlin Central School, New Berlin Griffin, Francis E., Chief, Bureau of Rural Administrative Services, State Education Department, Albany; State Director: Plan- ning Committee, North Atlantic Regional Conference on Rural Life and Education Gross, Harry W., District Superintendent of Schools, Nassau County, Mineola Hakes, Elton J., District Superintendent of Schools, Rensselaer County, Troy Hakes, W. Gaylord, District Superintendent of Schools, Dutchess County, Poughkeepsie Hamilton, Leon W District Superintendent of Schools, Madison County, Morrisville Harkness, Archie W District Superintendent of Schools, Erie County, Williamsville Harrold, John W District Superintendent of Schools, Clinton County, Ellenburg Depot Hausner, Harold 3., District Superintendent of Schools, Herkimer County, Mohaw Hayes, Dale K., Director of Research, Ameri- can School Publishing Corporation, New York City Hirst, Erie A., Principal, Suffolk County, Wyandanch Hitcheock, Elwood, District Superintendent of Schools, Greene County. Fast Jewett Hodgdon, Evelyn R., Professor of Education, State Teachers College, Oneonta; Committee on Reeruitment and Preparation of Rural Teachers Hoeldtke, Ernest H., District Superintendent of Schools, Erie County, Buffalo Hoffman, M. Gazelle, District Superintendent of Schools, Niagara County, Lewiston Hoffmann, Stanley B., District Superintendent of Schools, Putnam County, Carmel Holmes, Harold W., District Superintendent of Schools, Columbia County, Copake Hopf, John F, Jr., District Superintendent of Schools, Rockland County, New City Hutchins, Margaret, Professor of Home Economics, Corr «u University, Ithaca Jackson, Carlton J., District Superintendent of Schools, Chemung County, Elmira Johnson, Howard R., District Superintendent of Schools, Broome County, Deposit Johnson, Ralph H., District Superintendent of Schools, Ulster County, New Paltz Keenan, Joseph M., Dist ict Superintendent of Schools, Warren County, Bolton Landing Kreutziger, A. C., President, Coach and Epuip- ment Sales Corporation, Penn Yan Lacy, C A., District Superintendent of Schools, Cortland County, Marathon Livingston, M. J., District Superintendent of Schools, Wayne County, Williamson Loveless, John E., District Superintendent of Schools, Ontario County, Clifton Springs Principal, Wyandanch 29, 166 Me Wr f , May Sch Miller Health mmittee, Ar Association New York City Morey Julia M Oneonta Morse, Frances ( Girl beou ve (I States of America, New York ¢ Muehe District Schools, Ontario Co Munson, J. Paul, District schools, Tompkins Murphy, John F School, Woodhul Myers, F Donald, Diatrict Schools, Saratoga County Leon A District Tompkina C« Wallace D Schools, Erie or, John J Teacher, Sewanhaha School, Floral Park orn, Harold R District Schools County Prinee, J District Jamestown Radiey, Arthur A Schools, Oneida Rathbun (Mra) tendent of Cineinnatua (Mra) ‘ rter, (Mrs.) M Ale Member, Pine 7 harles G Distriet ingston ¢ perintendent ole, Li Marian ¥V Cr ar iral t Heart ersice State Teachers College nited ity Superintendent of Staley Superintendent -; County, Groton Principal, Woodhull nty, High Superintendent of Wilton Superintendent of inty, [thace District Superintndent of punty, North hools shy Collins High Superintendent of Kendall State Health Orieana Officer, District County noy E., Schools, ( Superintendent of Waterville District Superiin ortlanc County, Mabelle L ichoola, Cayuga Pioravia District Superinterdent of County Ridge Superintendent Port Leyden; Department District County, Superin- Schools Stone Sackett, District af schools County, Executive Committee of the Saunders, Richard P., President, Save the Children Federation, New York City Schmidt A ‘ Assistant Commissioner, Finance and Schoul Administration Services, State Education Department, Albany Sears, Clinton T District Superintendent of Schools, Ontario County, Honeoye Shoemaker, Elwin S. District Superintendent “ Schools, Oneida County, Yorkville; Ad- visory Council to the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Slater, Glenn A., District Superintendent of Schools, Broome County, Binghamton Sloan De Villo, District Superintendent of Schools, Onondaga County, Elbridge Smith, Calvin U., District Superintendent of Schoola, Steuben County, Painted Post Smith, De Alton, District Superintendent of Schools, Onondaga County, Manlius Smith, Dorothy D., The Judson, New York City Smith, J E District Schools, Delaware County, Smith, Orrin M District Schools, Wayne County Southwortt Nathan C tendent of Schools, Springfield Strang, Ruth, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City Tyson, Harold Canfield, District Superintendent of Schools, Otsego County, Unadilla Underwood Stephen L District Superin- tendent of Schools, Yates County, Branch- port Vannacier, Harold Oswego County vices, Pulaski Vrooman, Raymond C tendent of Schools, Superintendent of Deposit Superintendent of Woleott District ; Superin- Oswego County, Fast H., Director of Inatruction, Board of Cooperati Ser- District Superin- Oneida County, Camden RURAL EDUCA “ A FORWARD LOOK Walrath Grant District superintendent of Schools, Cattaraugus County Ward, Harry B District Superintendent of chools, Suffolk County, Riverhead x q u 4 Pring tral ! ‘ Salamanca ipal, Candor rmmittee on lieatior ‘ ' ve studies FE. J., Supervising Principa! rt Central School erport Rodney iperintendent Schools aratoua Round Lake ch, Ruth B., District Superintendent of chools, Chautaugua ( nty, Westfield hester, Milo F District Superintendent Schools, Dutchese County, Millerton Youmans, Ernest G., District Superintendent Schools, Chenango ( inty, Sherburne Alfred G District Superintendent of Madison Co Oneida Spencer Olir Zeller Schools inty, INATITUTIONAL MEMBERS Board of Missions Church Butler Foreign New York City Library, New York feachers, Huffalo Glass Dome ‘Tours, Library, New York Cortiand Teachers Presbyterian State College for Inc., New York City State College for Teachers, College, Columbia Univer Library, University, Square, New York City Library, New (ok State College Washington ‘~~ Teachers, Oswero Turkish basay Cit Attache, Turkish Building, New Em- York Educa.ional Empire state y NORTH Brimley, Ralph F. W., County Schools, Hanes Chewning, Charles H., ham County Schools, Cooke, Anna M., Supervisor of Schools, State Department of struction, Raleigh Duncan, 8S. E., Supervisor of State Department of Public Raleigh Erwin, Charles C Superintendent, County Schools, Salisbury; Advisory Council to the National Commission on the Inter- mediate Administrative Unit Evans, Paul F Superintendent, County Schools, Lexington Furr, C. A., Superfateadent, Cabarrus County Schools, Concord Guy, ° Ward, Superintendent, County Schools, Whiteville Inscoe, L. 8., Superintendent, Schools, Nashville Lentz Jd J., Superintendent, Schools, Sanford Mite: =i, H L., Gatesville Morrill, Maurice B., Associate Education, Western Cullowhee Proctor, R Schools, Robertson, CAROLINA Superintendent, “’orsyth Superintendent, Dur- Durham Elementary Public In- High Schools, Instruction, Rowan Davidson Columbus Nash County Lee County Minister-County Agent, Professor of Carolina College, 8., Superintendent, Wayne County Goldsboro Glenn, Principal, Beulah High School, Surry County Schools, Mount Airy Ryan W. Carson, Professor of Education, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Shelton Nollie W., Superintenent, Hyde County Schools, Swan Quarter Tomberlin, R. A., District Superintendent of Schools, Buncombe County, Weaverville Turner, N. L., Superintendent, Northampton County Schools, Jackson MEMBERS Alamar itate Directo Atlanti erence j I Life ntendent ol Graham ommittee soutr MEMBER orth Carolina State Carolina College at Durham DAKOTA fessor of Elementary lege, Mayville perintendent of NORTH y. Bowmar intendent if Schools, mmittee, Midwest Con I ve Leadership Serv Professor, College of of North Dakota, Glau ade, Superintendent of Lowbe lla Burke Superintendent of Amidon Collewe of Education North Dakota Forks; ommittee of the Departmert A Executive Secretary, North Dakota Education Association, Bismarck Danicourt Mrs.) John, Teacher, Mooreton District 21 Mooreton Evanson, (Mrs.) Lulu i Dakota Farmers Union, Caroline J Superintendent of is County, Fargo State Teachers College, Minot Department Supervisor « Grand Dalaver, Paul Director Education, Jamestown ommittee of the Rural Super. ntender of Rolla State irec tor Advisory inzil to the Nationa! mission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Kramer, Elsie M., Superintendent of Schools, McHenry County, Towner Lynne, Helen G Superintendent of McLean County, Washburr Miller (Mrs.) Eaether A Schools [raill County, G. B., Director, State Department of Bismarck B Superintendent f Schools, Minot Superintendent of Public I State Department of Public Inatruction tiamarck; Planning Committee, Midwest Regional Conferen-e on Rural Life and Education Schmoker, Jessie z., Superintendent of Schools, La Moure County, La Moure Thompson, Julia M., Superintendent of Schools, McKenzie County, Watford City Wallace, (Mrs.) Ruth, Superintendent Schools, Eddy County, New Rockford Well Alice C Superintendent of Pembina County, Cavalier Schools Com Schools, Superintendent of Hillsboro School Construction Public Instruc- Nordrum Peterson natruction, Schools, INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Library, State Teachers College Mayville Library, State Teachers College, Minot OHIO Barnes, Vernon W., Superintendent of Schools, Jackson County, Jackson 467 perintendent of Schools, Columbus ; State Director CPEA f Schools, Pauld superintendent ¢ superintendent hools, Van Van Wert iperintenden ) Fator iperinter iyahoga Superintendent of f Schools, Schools, Sum- Schools, Cincinnati Superintendent of Schools, Logan Superintendent f Dayton Superintendent of Schools Wooster M., Superintendent of State Department of Education, Planning Committee, Great Lakes nfere n Rural) Life and Schools, ounty Wayne Public In- ( M Superintendent of Schools, County, Jeffersor A Superintendent of yunty, Mt. Gilead Superintendent of Elyria Assistant Superintendent of County, Norwalk Superintendent of unty, Mt. Vernon taymon F Superintendent of Schools, Warren County, Lebanon Hawke, Oscar T Superintendent of Schools, Clark County, Springfield Humphreys, Phila A Supervisor of Elemen- Education, State Department of Educa- Schools, Schools Schools, Superintendent of Schools, ounty, Findley B Superintendent of County, Mansfield Kirkpatrick, Ellis L., Professor of Sociology, Marietta College, Marietta Knapp 2 Cc Superintencent of Schools, Stark County, Canton; Advisory Council! to the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Lautenschlager J F., Superintendent of Schools, Coshocton County, Coshocton; Ex- ecutive Committee of the Department President, Division of Pupil Transportation, 1956-56 Laws, W E., Superintendent of Schools, Tuscarawas County, New Philadelphia Loudenback, H. M., Superintendent of Schools, Champaign County, Urbana Martin, Samuel E., Superintendent of Schools, Seneca County, Tiffin McBride, James L., Superintendent of Schools, Columbiana Couvity, Lisbon McCowen, E. * Ruperintendent of Scioto Coum, ' ortamouth McKibben, R. M Vuperintendent of Schools, Putnam County \ttawe Neeley, (Mre.) [d. Marie, Teacher, Lancaster High School, M) lleraport Oman, D W., Superintendent of Wyandot Count Upper Sandusky Pollock, Frank I Superintendent of Schools, Monroe Cover’ ,, Woodsfield Ranedell, ~ -ank C., Superintendent of Schools, Hard’., County, Kenton Rasor, Floyd, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Montgomery County, Dayton chools, Schools, Schools, Redma Harr Roshor Hershel W s. Preble : hools. fontaine superintenden f Schools ordinator, mbus Pike hools iperintendent of Schools, lusky Director of Research Company, Worthington superintendent of Celina Schools, Superintendent of Schools, inty, Medina William A Sandusxy yunty Superintendent Fremont TITUTIONAL IN MEMEER Miami University, Oxford OKLAHOMA Mrs.) Leona Okfuskee County Superintendent of Okemah L Superintendent of Schools, Balko Wesley L., Director of Transportation Department of Educatior Oklahoma Ferguson, Superintendent of Schools, Tul Tulsa Fitzgerald, sistant Director of College Extension lahoma A & M College, Still- water: State Director; Executive Committee of the Department Planning Committee, Midwest Rewional Conference on Rural Life and Education Foster, W. E Superintendent of Craig Co y, Vinita Franklin , ‘ Superintendent of Kay County Golder Neal V Canadiar Good, Schools Scheols, Newkirk Superintendent of Schools, County, El Reno Charles, Superintendent of Lincoln ¢ inty, Chandler Grady ( F Superintendent of Oklahoma County, Oklahoma City Hester (Mre.) Angie Superintendent of Schools, McClain County, Purcell Jimerson, Fred Superintendent of Ottawa County, Miami McCollom Walter W., Superintendent of Schools, Glencoe Morgan, G. G., Assistant Director Elementary Educatio Muskogee Mustain, C T Superintendent of Cleora Obuch, W A Antiers Schools, Schools Schools, Rural and Schools, Schools, Superintendent of D LOOK Principal, Hillside Con Cushing Superintendent if Ardmore Schools, perintendent, Straight School, suyn schools, r, Rural and Department of Clementary sducation Awssociate Dean, College Oklahoma A & M Coalleve, Depart- Oklahoma sociate Professor Kural Life * Morris 8 Professor of Education, oma A & M ¢ Charles F llege Stillwater Superintendent of Schools, Theo, S iymor OREGON Helen FP superintendent of County, Corvaliis eth F Superintendent of County, Roseburg ce E Supervisor of Elemen State Department of Educa- iperintendent f Schools, Superintendent of jalem Superintens anyon City Velma G,. Superintendent jutes Cor , ond nty. ¢ Reedway, supervising Teacher, of Education, La Superintendent of Schools, 5 Hood River veda E Superintendent of County, La Grande , Superintendent of inty, Madras Superintendent of Schools, Schools, ; Superintendent of yunty, Grants Pass iperintendent of Schools, Heppner ) Frances L., Principal, Howard Mitchel! Star Route, Prineville Ruth, Elementary Consultant, Jugene , Superintendent, School District, Heppner Gubser Lynn Superintendent of Yamhill County, McMinnville (Mra.) Lois D Superintendent of Columbia County, St. Helens Mre.) Lucille L Superintendent of Schools, Lane Eugene; President, Department of Rural Education, 1954-65; Advisory Council to the National Commission on the Intermeciate Administrative Unit; Committee to Work with CPEA Knighten, Wily W., Superintendent of Schools, Sherman County, Moro Langton Superintendent of Tillamook County, Tillamook ; January 1965 Lee, (Mrse.) Myrtle E., Superintendent of Baker County, Baker Longfellow, J. T., District Superintendent of Schools, Lincoln County, Newport Mekvold, Alf B., Superintend of Schools, Jackson County, Medford; State Director Morrow Schools, County, Schools, deceased oy 1 Scnoois ROSTER OF MEMBERS Director of Teacher Edu Oregon College of Education, Milier, John M tion, Eastern La Grande Moffitt I Assistar School : wfield Executive Secretary nm Association Port) Rex, Superintendent f lic In Education Superintendent Oregon " State Department @ Rees M fY Errol} Superintendent of Schools, Port ‘ Elementary tnomah ounty Schweppe Cx ynsultant, Lane Superviso Department of Eleme itary State Educatior Superintendent o Schools, Prineville Anne County Superintendent Lakeview Superintendent of Clatsop County, Astoria Voelker, Cliff H., Superintendent Curry County, Gold Beach mbe, Florence, Supervisor of Elemen- Washington County, Hillsboro Director of Special inty, Coquille superintendent of Schools Oregon ( ity Schools, of Schools, NAI MEMEBERS Eastern Oregon College of Education, ication, inty School Super- State Library, Salem PENNSYLVANIA Akeley, A Superintendent of Potter County, Coudersport Ammerman, Wayne County App, I. D County, Barnett Schools, superintendent of Schools, Honesdale Superintendent of Harrisbu Ralph Schools, Dauphin Superintendent Somerset of Schools, iperintendent of Schools, estown "lanning Regional Conference Education ( on the Com- o-Chairman, Intermediate Supervisor of Special n County, Washington perintendent of Schools, imberland inty, Carlisle Burkholder Superintendent of Schools Lewistown iperintendent of Mifflin ¢ James E S County, Hollidaysburg Division of Superintendents erintendent Schools, State Director County ve Committee S Schools if Lawrence County, New Castle Thomas E., Cherry Tree W. H., Superintendent of Schools, Washington Teacher, Honesdale Superintendent of Schools, County M ifflinte } F., Assistant Superintendent of McKean County, Smethport Lyall J Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Dauphin County, Harrisburg Seaver 169 mas huperintendent of Schools ty jeranton Superintendent of Schools, Faet Berlin visor of Special Middlebury Agriculture In- lippery rice fk iperintendent of Erie superintendent of Bellwood Member, Greensburg Superintendent of Williamsport t Superin- tendent Westmoreland County Creer Meyer catior Head, Department of Edu- Teachers College East Assistant Superintendent of inty, Meadville I Assistant Adama County Superir CGettys Chief, Consolidation State Department of Harrisburg Genevieve Kower Pebble Hills Committee on Rural Life the World Scene Training Teacher hippensburg Raymond pervising Prin Williamsburg ”v inity Bchools, State Teachers Sollenberwger D cipal Williamsburg Glenr Z Associate Agriculture Education University University Speidel, Harol 0 Assistant § of Sev chuylkill County Stock F ‘ Assistant Scho Centre ¢ nty Counelil ¢t the Stevens Professor of Pennsylvania State Park perintendent Pine Grove iperintendent of Rellefonte; Advisory National Comminssion on the Administrative Unit superintendent of York Superintendent of Lebanon Intermediate Swartz H York County Ulrich, Foater G Lebanon County Weuder, W. Michrel, Assistant Superintendent School Snyder County, MeClure 7 Assistant Superintendent of ntre County Centre Assistant Superintendent iools, Westmoreland County, Greenaburg Wilmer FE Agriculture In Oxford Oxford William A Educational Adminiatratior Pittaburgh Pittsburgh Zetler, (Mra.)} Paul A greve of Parents and Schools, Schools, Vincent, Vocational Arena Professor of University of Schools Unit Teachers President, Con- Altoona IN@TITUTIONAL MEMBERS Library f Middle District Free West State Philadelphia City Philadelphia Vest Chester Teachers College RHODE ISLAND Mark ¢ 4 Jr College of Arta and iences, University of Rhode Island, Kings- 1 State Director Planning Committee, New England Regional Conference on Rural Life and Education Potter, Ivy F Teacher Pratt Edward &., Wickford Saylesville Principal, High S¢hool, SOUTH CAROLINA Principal, Greenville Schools, Greenville Chastain f Supervising Principal ol, Mauldin Dunn F Superintendent of Greenwood County, Greenwood Edwards, Katharine, Consultant, School Health, Greenville County Schools, Greenville Green Aibert, Superintendent of Georgetown ounty Georgetown Loggins Ww F Superintendent Schools, Greenville Superintendent of Lancaster Supervisor of Department of Bruce Greeny School, Schools, Schools, Greenville Schools Trane ication, Rowland, Minnie and Elementary ment of Education Rutland A J Superintendent of Aiken County, Aiker Advisory ¢ the National Commission on Administrative Verdin, T. M Jr Creer Lee, Supervisor of Education State Columbia Primary Depart Schools, ouncil to the Intermediate Unit Director ille ¢ j Schools thre Committee, Conference on of Rurai Service Greenville Ex Department; State South At- Rural Life ecutive (x Director Planning lanti Regional and Edu Ward, W University mmitt of Director Sout? Extension Carolina Division, Columbia TITUTIONAL MEMKER rnelia A Library. ¢ liege, ¢ Graham, Librariar IUTH DAKOTA Superintendent of Hayti Superintendent of Schools, Superintendent of ty, Redfield Dean, School of South Dagota Committee, Midwest Regional Con Rural Life and Education Superintendent of Gann Valley perintendent »ward of Education, Vermillion Ae nty, H Superintendent of y, Rapid City iperintendent of Schools, Advisory Schools, Minnehaha Couneil to the Intermediate Harry, Lake Preston , Ruth V Superi ‘ t Aberdeer Helen Superintendent of Milbank of Schools, County ; of Schools, Superintendent Schools, Roberta nw Marwaret, Superintendent of Beadle County, Huror State Director (Mra.) Winifred, juperintendent f Sch ' 0 y, Miller MeGinnis Superintendent f Bison juperintendent of Hot Springs Superintendent y, Sturgis eintendent of Schools, Lorentson Beha Martin Schools Middlebro« Schools, RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK Rajewich, Schools, Simmons (Mrs.) Zona, Mellette County, (Mre.) Helen, Schools, Brookings Strobel, Otto, Superintendent of Schools McPherson County, Leola Titus, Edna M Superintendent of Sanborn County, Woonsocket Weiszharr, Nellie, Superintendent Edmunds County, Ipswich Wells (Mra.) Hilda, Superintendent of Schools, Lawrence County, Deadwood White oS f Superintendent of Schools, Canton; Planning Committee, Midwest Con- ference on Administrative Leadership Serv- ing Community Schools Woodall, F Cc Superintendent of Aurora Plankinton Superintendent of White Kiver Superintendent of County, Brookings Schools, of Schools, Schools, County INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Library, General Beadle State lege, Madison Library Northern Aberdeen Teachers Col- State Teachers College, TENNESSEE Armour, Quinnie, Bolivar Avery, ¢ K Principal, Central gomery County Schools, Cunningham Barnes George H Superintendent, County Schools, Memphia Biack, RK. E., Superintendent Schools, Alamo Braue William County Schools, Woodbury Brown Glennon Superintendent, County Schools, Gree~eville Connelly Ww M., Superintendent, County Schools, Lewisburg Dailey, B. C Principal, Parsons High School, Decatur County Schools, Parsons Dossett, Burgin E President, East State College, Johnson City Doyle Mildred b County Schools, Faulkner, County School, Mont- Shelby Crockett County Superintendent, Cannon Greene Marshall Tennessee Superintendent, Knoxville Shannon D., Superintendent, Tipton Schools, Covington Fitzgerald, N. E., Dean, College of Education, University of Tennessee, Knoxville Frost Norman, Life Memoer, Rural Educa- tior American Institute of Cooperation, Nashville Gray, E. A., Vocational Agriculture Instructor, Sumner County ocnew. Gallatin Human, Ww ens Superintendent, County Schoola, Wartburg Director State Knox Morgan Hyder, Gretchen, Kast Tennessee of Field Service, College, Johnson City Moore, H Claude, Superintendent, Dyer County Schools, Dyersburg; State Director; Advisory Council to the National Commiasion on the Intermediate Administrative Unit Moss, J. E., Superintendent, Davidson County Schools, Nashville Pease, Clarke D., Route 2, Fairview Perkins, Billy M Vocational Agriculture In structor, Dyer County Schools, Newbern Picke T Wesley, Co-Director, Division of Schoolhouse Planning and Transportation, State Department of Education, Nastrville; Executive Committee, Division of School Transportation Pickens H. D College, Jefferson Pierce, Truman M George Peabody Nashville Powers, Sue, Memphis Professor, Carson-Newman ( ity Professor College of Education, for Teachers, Life Member, The Gilmore, ROSTER OF MEMBERS Assistant Professor of Tennessee State College Smotherman Bealer Education, Middle Murfreesboro Southall, May eation, Georwe Nashville Jack sssor of Elementary Edu vody College for Teachers, Superintendent Perry Elementary Education Director of State Department of Divisio Department Director tate ~~ % Schools Superintendent, Jackson Williamaor County Gainesboro INSTITUTIONAL! MEMBER Library. East Tennessee State College, Johnson City Library Middle Tennessee State College Murfreesboro Library, George Peabody ( y Nashville ilewe for Teachers TEXAS Alves, H. F Director, Southwestern Coopera- tive Program in Educational Administration, Texas, Avuatin Superintendent pring Superintendent of inty, Edinburg Superintendent Lubbock Pl Conference Serving Community Schools B Superintendent of Schools, inty, Cleburne Schools, Schools Schools, Lubbock ing Committee Administrative went Leadership I Superintendent of Schools Bunting Superintendent of Schools Brazos County Campbell, Leoma Bryar perintendent f Schools Gatesville Supervisor «¢ Elementary ibbock County Lubbock Fieid Representative, Office of J 8. Department of Health Welfare, Dallas Head, Department of Educa- Technological College, Lubbock ommittee on Rural Life and Education on the World Chalmers Cooke Cou Conoley, Gilt Williamson juperintendent of Schools, Mea Vine uperintendent of Schools, snty Georgetowr Superintendent yunty, Liberty D Superintendent yvunty, Uvalde id Assistant Superintendent of ubbock County, Lubbock E Superintendent of County, Ballenger Mary Superintendent of y, Memphia juperintendent Boston (Mre.) Schools, Tor Schools, Schools, ichools of Schools Bowie Elizabeth A Supervisor of q Greer County San Willie M., Plainview of Schools (Mrs.) Superintendent Hale ¢ Hancock, W. F Syperintendent Dewitt County, Cuero Harris, R Ek Caldwell Ce« Lockhart; Executive Com Division of County and Rurel Ares Plannir Committee, Mid Haitheock of Schools ounty Schools Superintendent of inty mittee Superintendents ; 171 south Regional Conference on Rural Life and Edu j ormittee to Work with CPEA Herndon, (} j Eller 9 Elementary leacher Angelo Hughes 8.) Roy } Wilbarger County Frank M fom Greer County San Director; Advisory C Commission on the Intermediate tive Unit Johnson, K H Sup ntendent of Anderson County, Palestine Malia«b William, Superintendent of Superintendent of Vernon iperintendent of Schools Anvyvelo State ouneil to the National Administra- Schools Jacksor Schools, Schools, Arnulf S Superintendent of Starr County, Rio Grande City Marcus, Superintendent of Schools, yunty, Crockett Kenneth F Associate Professor, Educational Administration, College of Education, University of Texas, stir Joint with the Rural Sociological Society Neal, Connally, Superintendent of Schools, Bell County, Beltor Nuckols i R ( Department of Committee Superintendent of Schools, ay Pampa Ramaey } ( Superintendent of Schools {ill Coun Hillsboro Richerson, M., Superintendent of Schools, Donley County, Clarendon Roberta, L A Superintendent of Schools, Dallas County, Dallas; Executive Committee of the Department anders, Mary Shipp, Life Smith, Curtie W Principal Tankersley Smitt Mort Harrison County, Marshall Stoepler George Principal High School, Blackwell jtowe oO H Superintendent of Tarrant County, Fort Worth Watson, J c Superintendent of Navarro County, Corsicana Wentz Ce inty Member, Cleburne Twin Mountain School superintendent of Schools, Blackwell Rural Schools, Schools, George Superintendent of Hays County, San Marcos Whittington, Charles W., Superintendent of Schools, Potter County, Amarillo q J Superintende of nty Lufkin Superintendent of inty, Richmond Schools, Schools Schools, INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Library, Sam Houston State Teachers College, Huntaville Library Stephen F Nocogdoches Library, University of Houston, Houston Library, University of Texas Austir Library, West Texas State College, Canyon Memorial Library, Howard Payne Brownwood UTAH Chipman, R. S., Superintendent, North Summit Schoo! District, Coalville Frye, Clifford L., Superintendent, County School District, Huntington Gourley, David, Superintendent, Granite School District, Salt Lake City Nicholas, Mark, Director of Agricultural Education State Department of Public Instruction, Salt Lake City; Plan- Committee, Rocky Mountain Regional t Rural Life and Education Theure~ M Superitendent Cache Coun_y School District, Logan; State Direc- tor; Advisory Council to the National Com- Austin State College, Emery Vocational end N 'y Ri ckingham-Westminater District the Intermediate Administrative TITEL Tiot MEMHEH VERMONT hard, Superintendent of Schools Windham of ‘ inty ntendent Schools, Bristol to the Intermediate ineil the Educa ation, Schools Sartor Barton iperintendent of School Washing 1s County iperintendent of Set Ai) rv VIRGINIA Dar rettred, tme apm §6Life wherintendent iperinte Stauntor | ndenta Director tendent mory the iperintendent ntendent Heights War Fro Super Madisor perintendent ; sior Maric Superintendent, RURAL EDUCATION A FORWARD LOOK Meliwaine T ee Edward hich, '« s Monroe, ( mentary Sch burg (Mra.j Alexandrina Kurt { Division and Superintendent, Prsnee Cumberland County armville Prin Lo harles vol Leesburg Ele County Schools, ipal idoun Lees Hattie G Bchoola nley Ath Grade Coordina- Alexandria Division Superintendent, Grayson County Schools, Independence Rutter, T Edward, Division Superintendent, Arlington ¢ Schools, Arlington Thweatt Theodore O Vocational Agriculture Inst Disputanta Training Sctrool, Prince Georges County Schools, Disputanta whar Ww Division Sup ‘rintendent, Caroune ¢ Schools, Ii wlir,, Green Wart Amber A.thun, Executive Secretary, Alliance for Guidance of Rural Youth, McLean Will, Ed vin Division County Warm vunty ructor Va irton Bath Superintendent Springs Schouls, INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS John Lib ary College ton Memorial Petersburg Radford College, Radford Virginia State Library WASHINGTON Superintendent of Yakima Allen A Yatima Co y Haker, (Mra Helen A Schools, Island County, Pennett, (Mra.) Dorothy J ; Snohomish County, Everett (Mrs.) Ruth, Superintendent Pierce County, Tacoma De Fore Superintendent Kitsap County, Port Orchard (Mrs.) Lydia F., Superintendent hools, ¢ tz County, Kelso Superintendent of Schools, Superintendent Coupeville Superintendent chools sethel Ser Cramblitt, role Schools Crost, om Ow Dahike, Florence Douglas County, Waterville Dubois, (Mra) Ruby K S f Stevens County, liftor sUperinter Schools, perintendent of ichools Colville Hussey, ( Mead Kinkade Chelan Loree G Skagit tor dent of Schools, Superintendent of Wenatchee Superintendent of Schools Mount Vernon; State Direc the National Com Administrative Schools, Advisory meil to Intermediate iperintendent Ellensburg Superintendenc Ritzyv Schools, of ille MEMEEM of ollewe Education, Washington, Pullman VIRGINIA Professor of FE West Virginia | lucational niversity, perintendent Lewis Herkeley Planning Com- Regional Conference cati f Tranes- Lewis Pupil Jupervisor inty Division Schools, of rransportati Fields Far! Kanawha Assistant Schools, { Superintendent harleston Miscou xon. tamumg acd ces amg of 116 . ¢ SSooi pemocse!) Comumner atcac (Cera ess “orre Lowers TOUTS ee of Wine SUres Couets Agocuitcs Ages ts Depectment of Agnouituce lout seweces oer Loteemectiae ane County supemotendencs ew Sepecom.- deems, county ens Sa perms ~ EET naa et Rural eur oe Coxe SUAS OF See ace Ca at Commmcty ésrxs. Seal sxdovis Cultural Gunge. 63-7O_ “47S ant Summer ecpescmenr, 32) msumer onemtahoe = S “S75 mpacnest of Commute peace amencesoc oc. 74 cSamce © astucal aro at. MIT. 32- ——+ peowcing services See aw Comme peagrem . Scoot anc Comatensty Sotee aes fe lees of commmansty shoot, secmcss foc Gewetggment of ow School See ace Edmcsperal program} Commenty soo Sst Casts Pubiisiumg Company. 136 Cores ~ BE ~~ Le SSeai persorre: Lestersne. sctecate Sautg seciosoogs fcr SAE goads, KEE measles TF | O low-E pootiers of oessexc eeg cs Desa 2 ee : ; — on — eierstacy 31-33, * SS. S cas = a . 3 supe anc Guacty of. it IPCI = Secasses SP LV oro nce. peer. *e. Bag Eicance oe Pulao =A! Ca c ¢ Ti sramoes, i2. 30, 206 Sacgess ma +S. 45-t@. 55 SSCA Casco age * aor Baddieg, ace Se Umted Sess. SS See: SSeS Orc, . - > . aSSSEaus of ~~ Sa Sees Teachers College 26, Diasacvamere grouts este SOS owes Sotews Sow Imax Set Mucor a St te teak be FG pee segt eae’ muctacy¥ Samal oz Smal < oes, Pike seats tae vent -) Saat as Rulwet SCO as 4{ocu_actsans Disscvaccage QR CALS «> on G Los eQud ‘ “—* ~~ >at Dey eee Ty sperciauzec $s tv et Teacher ‘oe x - oa ech XM ese ‘ 7 *3 : 4 : * =e x 2 - . act es Cuve use ce, 38 ce, 96-98 % foc no teaching, preparation tature ‘ ~ o o iw Gt FORWARD LOOK = ecucahon. 74-75, 83, 95, 144 beosder offerings, SO. $4 55 opg -unrtes, availebility © youth, 73-74 ~~ Disadvanraged s Amer“ 10@. 101. 129. 187 ‘ xvu. 3, 6 8 11, 4, 79, Charter of Edwcamoe for Rural Children, xv, 15, 72, GB Department of Agr t . nee 4 cpa Wises, & 44 WO t, 126 Servoce .s tTa, 18 Agncultural Extension Young Cowperators, gar Scdee! Deserves sath outh orgacutanhons.