Th Community School \y ; and the Intermediate Unit » setae ~\ See at , “ea ’ ; = - | fe or seaste —— . theo naicated, Dut if 8 Quite OOVIOUS, TO The ex .% . . } : are Pres nakblie rhar a armen acleseats ! are reasonadie, that aimerent educational > 3 : ferent numoders Of Pups for an r . : : ; eoriit - nein > — . ehan wenn LHoOr ror ¢ Services Caled, til mur 1h 4 + 7 > ¢ 7) > eerve rance ram Y te Could oe served ranees rom 6 AP mes 4 ; . ear | } lewdeat rhart ar “> cal se" 4ate Tea. ta rent: > > mo yy = r Services naicated, i mukcnt rentativeivy Bde conciuded tnat 32 os + sraut Hho no sr oa re. . } . i) >. service imit na ! Pproxirmatei\ TO ov scnoo: age , 1j - , . } AAT AAR at EF yeh arvicesc pc . population woud Or otMner services, economicai : 1 | ieninistrative VRer tits vat eauh1t1ee Bet or . seth seroer >> seorr Pe ta Operatic; would require ner 2a muci iarger administrative ’ . r : =) tre » — + 2 ar » ot we * . r > wes rec. unit or the »oint or cooperative efrorts of Two or mo aagmiunis ec £ } trative or crvice nait ehar > trative or service unitS OT tnat ae. " : fc.) 1 " ee ral itself Lat a. -— = Fs ’ >» , e rr ; The ot the school age population is not in itself an sien} t. +> Wr, for Jeter ining the Jesirable size >f the AULQUALE it aSUTE AU Ggelermining iit UTlSsit ic ize & 3 Ye} : } : q d L > _- ot a . - syet > mo noctere » >- = Other factors which must be considered have pre j ter SiS’ n indicated— , Ae eis ae seer OVNI numbder or Mi ean ; > expected to . . A iS CoOor jinat ; teachers teacners | oth thal a COUNSI ~ahve SPECIAUZEC hesive- Ti ui Tunction e a : ‘ OT schooi population epends atone s } such as a } hose special personn 1 Or, or others W ’ , 5 os ss - y related to the cause of an emo- : rare ee c eeding psychological help. The number of ot the bases tor determining the optimum size O NUMBER ~ m of scnoot .¢ community rr bile 170 opment Does e tewer ie e unit which has major responsi- program is the county or parish. The lity for education which is exercised sepa- , ’ . communities within these larger adminis- deal among the states and also among tain of the states. For the most part, one of providing educational services to community schools » the central administrative agency. Even with this pattern of organization, a considerable number of county school dis too small, acting alone, to afford services needed in a comprehensive program. In Ses Cooperative arrangements of some type among adopted to make possible the offering of all type of administrative organization " NAVE : tiny Continuo ’ ; . , yer COTM min: Sty I omm L c j ; 7 ~~ Ty pros Kie S&\ 1 ; SCNOOIS Wer Tae ae aa) Wa Skat j i ee century ! general de- efforts , the common school of organization.’ The greatest move- however, has been much tO an extent p: fective programs IZatic gan in New York in and in Arkansas Washington began an extensive program in 1941, and Kansas in and Idaho, Minnesota, and Missouri rade rs W Ons ranging ryt OMmMmMunitys sted ‘ I ich are pre- a dentist ‘* ee uppar 4 reconn recone THE ADMINISTRATIVE PRAMEWORK Experience indicates that when the boundaries of a newly reorganized school district coincide closely to the boundaries of the natural or sociological community—a village, town, or city together with the tributary trade and service area of smaller population centers and open-country—the district is almost always successful. Because patterns for association and lines of communication are already established, the school district established on the natural community basis has the advantage of benetits from all of the existing factors contribut- ing to social cohesion. The relationship of the natural community to school admin istration was emphasized by the National Commission on School District Reorganization as tollows: 5 ; } | j by] j The administrative structure tor the support and control of public schools ‘ j ' should be ldjusted to the natural processes Cf community living in order ; ; ; ; to have the spirit ind vigor essential to providing 4 good educational pro ‘ | gram Basic administrative units should not be smaller than the area : ; , included within the boundar of the natural sociological community.'* When the boundaries of school districts or school attendance centers are limited to straight lines or contained within county boundaries, the organization of natural community schools does not necessarily result. It is significant that many of the recently reorganized community districts have almost com- pletely disregarded political boundary lines, taking advantage , ‘ : 1s of the existing boundaries ot social interaction, The impact of school district reorganization upon commu- nity life and community solidarity has not yet been determined. There are many who believe that nearly all reorganization proposals are likely to “destroy” the community. Others believe that the reorganization of school districts is more likely to contribute to a stronger community. There is little doubt that school district reorganization has some effect upon com- reg t ssfu even he natural community However, have failed to gain approval tf reorganization Flovd W.; and others, op. cil., p. 72 ri fed Characteristi f Reorganized School Districts Department of Health lucation, and Welfare, Bulletin 1953, Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Ofhce, 1983 +4 { ity : AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT MUNITY associatiot he grams of nonschool agencies are intluenced, for mpl hat happens to 4-H Clubs, to Scout reorganized? Are their programs given new impetus , moire lsWe!l question regarding the impa t reorganization pro ’ ; i i j j _ fT ’ ‘ +1) fT *? } ; , rat . A study 14 un [ ‘ Wa i ‘ yar i 1 CUUCATOLS ANG SOCIO of communitV case <4 Ls significant t no appr al resent reorganizat and wa guide tor planning future dist reorganiza THE COMMUNITY SCHOO! community school has been detined as “a school that is connected with the life of the community, serving as a center for many community activities, and utilizing com munity ; ys in improving the education program.” Among the many other definitions is one which defines the community school as “a school that has two distinctive em phases (a) service to the entire community, not merely to the children oft school Age, and (b discov ery, development, and use of the resources of the community as part of the educa tional facilities of the school.” '* A full chapter in the recent yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education bas been devoted to definition.'” Our purpose here is not to elaborate upon or review these and other definitions but to call ittention to three distinctly separate but closely related aspects of the community school concept. ttee of the Department of Rural Edu- Good edit Dictiona f ducatio New York: McGraw-Hill Book 1945 Seay, Maurice School Emphasis in Postwar Education.” Ameri- Fducation i f tod culum Recontiruction Forty-Fourth Yearbook, Natronal ‘ c the Stud Educ at 1 hreago: | tv of ¢ cago Press Chancer * Hanna, Paul d Naslund, Robert A ‘The Community School Defined.” { mmunify Nol tt s econd Yearbook, Part UH, National Society for the Struc Fducation Chie oe niversuty of Chicago Press, 19535 ( hapter 4, p. 49-63 THE ADMINISTRATIVE PRAMEWORK mrmrunity receding discussion concerning the relation- 1 ] ’ sociological community to the development j | mn, the tirst spect of the commu ; | j y nity school pt tated brietlv. Prima | } } } : Chat there Oe a scnool in the community munities Ca identified, it is often dithcult to detine com- munity Pie hr clearly. The high des of mobility of people and the ever broadening of interests, particularly in the fringe areas of a community, makes identification increas ingly complex. A number of the tactors which are frequently used tor determining the natural or sociological community have already been indicated. It is recognized that the specific services made available through the community will vary from place to place and from time to time. But regardless of the particular services provided, the community is a basic unit for democratic processes and the achievement of social action. The school is an important ageney for developing a more effec tive community life, and every identifiable community should have a school. This does not mean that there should be separate school district for every community. It is important that school organization be close enough to the people SO that thes can develop a strong personal interest in its Welfare and actively participate in its program. Pro- viding a school in every identifiable community means that there will be many small schools. These schools will often be too small to provide the variety of educational services and experiences necessary in a comprehensive program of education Some suggestions as to how community programs can be sup plemented and enriched are discussed in other sections of this vearbook. The Community School Program The second aspect of the community school concept has to do with the nature of the educational program. This concern demands that the school be an integral part of the community. Its program is built upon educational needs and it serves adults 46 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNTI as well as children and its buildings, facilities, and equipment are used by the entire community. Community problems be come “classroom problems.” All resources are made available and used when they have pertinence to learning. Efforts are made to bring the reciprocal influences of the school and the community into desirable balance Much has been written about this aspect of the community school concept. Descriptions, case studies, and lists of objec tives, basic and guiding principles, characteristics, and criteria have been developed by educators and educational groups Each has been an attempt to convey the character and potenti ality of an educative process which relates the school to the community. The purpose and limitations of this discussion exclude even a brief summary of the available literature, assum ing such a summary were possible. Because of its straight forv ard simplicity, the following statement will illustrate what is here referred to tentatively as the “program aspect” of the community school: Any school is a community school ¢t exten rh it seeks to realize such objectives as the following: lucates vouth by and for participation mn the full range of basic lite uMmAN needs, areas of living persistent problems ete ». Seeks increasingly to democratize life in school and outside 4. Uses community resources in all aspects of its program. + Actively cooperates with other social igenecies ind KrOUpS IN Improving community life ) Functions as a service center tor vouth and adult Kroups The School and Community Life The third aspect of the community school is its concern with leadership toward a more desirable community life. Com munity development 1s impossible W ithout coordination of the man social, educational, and economic organizations which specially New York; Appleton yclopedia of Educational Research 1941 p THE ADMINISTRATIVE PRAMPWORK responsible Aichough sever ot the hus . | , 4 | j ; ; of the community school rh f Ace he scnool in the , COMMUNITY Uevelopime ‘ ry itl » «A More real concerned Nn this appre 1th hool is associated with c munity change through a core of community leaders of which school people are but a part. Thus, the leadership the school exerts is not that of a public institution setting its own inde pendent goals for community change Rather it is that of an institution arriving at its community development goals with the understanding and support of other agencies. It also places the SK hool in a much better position to cooperate for certain community Jevelonment activities. It is only through this nterrelationship among organizations and agencies that the community school can become an integral part of the com munity in both planning and process.” Interrelationships—The School and the Community These three distinct aspects of the community school con cept have some important relationships which should be indi cated. Lhe first or “organizational aspect” calls for a school in what has been termed the natural sociological community. It does not necessarily follow that the fulfillment of reorgani zation on this basis assures the development of the “program aspect” of a community school The communi human persona hig he st wait there b ' nehir it , ‘ In contrast, 1 18 pointed Out that 1 community school may exist in any kind of social, economic, or political setting.” Ww Rweral Education Publheation anticipated , s8 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT It is very possible that a school district could be organized so that its boundaries are coterminous with those of the natural sociological community and still remain somewhat isolated from and have a program unrelated to this stream of interac- tion. Likewise a school could be organized without relationship to other patterns of community association but through its program so relate problems and resources that in certain re spects it becomes a community school. Under most circum- stances the school itself can contribute greatly in the develop- ment of the requisite social and economic conditions. This is most likely to result when the school is an integral part of the community's leadership core. It is possible for any of the three aspects of the community school described above to be present in part without the others. However, the total development of the program can be realized to the extent that the first aspect of this concept is achieved and the third aspect accepted. THE INTERMEDIATE UNIT OF CRGANIZATION An intermediate unit of educational organization is “inter- mediate” in the sense that in the organizational framework it is between the local administrative unit and the state education department. An intermediate unit has been defined as: an organization within the legally established structure of school administra tion which includes the territory of two or more basic administrative units It serves as the intermediary between the state department of education and the quasi corporate units having immediate responsibility for maintaining schools. It may have a board or officer, or both, responsible for performing stipulated services for the basic administrative units and for exerting leadership in their fiscal, adminiv.rative, and educational functions. Through a ; leadership and services the intermediate unit promotes and strengthens local control and responsibility l ASSISTS lox 1} districts and the state education department ir finding and meting more effectively the educational needs of children and communities by performing functions which can best be , . . : : 25 administered by an intermediate type of organization Because of its posit'on in the structure for administering the *® National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit “Tentative Statement of Purpose of the National Commission on the Intermediate Unit.” Developed at the first meeting of the Commission, Washington, oa €. September 198% (Mimeo. ) THE ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORA 49 educational program, the intermediate unit has responsibility 1 to both the tocal community and the state. The concept of an intermediate unit of organization is not new in American education. As indicated in the first section of this chapter, most state legislatures became aware ot the necessity for a representative of the state close enough to the many schools which had been established to supervise and give guidance to local officials. The experience of these states was carried into the extension of the frontier, and, as the new states were created, provision was made for an intermediate school officer. Some form of intermediate unit now exists in 34 states. The county has been the area for which this intermediate officer has had responsibility in most states. In New York the intermediate area is called a supervisory district, each county having from one to several such districts. In the New England states these areas are usually designated as supervisory unions or supervisory districts. In New York and the New England states, however, where the intermediate area is not the county, the supervisory districts or supervisory unions do include the territory of two or more basic administrative units in the same wavy as in those states where the county is the intermediate area Beyond the fact that an intermediate type of organization exists in most states there are many differences among them. In some instances where the county is the intermediate unit, it is required or empowered to levy taxes. Some others have no such authority. In some states the intermediate officer is a field member of the staff of the state education department while in others he is a county official. In some states there is provision for a county board of education while others have no such provision. Some states require the highest type of ad- ministrative credentials for their intermediate officers while in other states not even a teaching certificate is required. In some states the intermediate officer is elected by popular vote in the : regular politica! election, sometimes in a special nonpolitical election, while in other states he may be appointed by a county board, by the chief state school officer, or by a state board of education. In some instances his term is two years while in others it is continuous unless removed. In some states the 40 COMMUNITY SCHIOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNTT salaries paid the intermediate ofhcer are comparable to the paid the superintendents of large urban school systems while in others they are less than that of a beginning teacher. In some states the intermediate officer works out of his home, hav ine no ofh RY eric wsistance of anv kind. while in others he has a large staff of professional workers. Many of these | differences CNISt within states as well as 42MmMong them \ithough most intermediate ut ntermediate superin veo seinen’ tae 5 omeeeien the differenc tendents are somewnere between ti extremes of the differences ' x ; , indicated, tne Wierenees make eeneranZations Concerning | j intermediate units soinewhat difficult. In spite of this difhculty , ind with recognition of their limitations, a few generalizations can be indicated. Original Purpose of the Intermediate Unit [he mayor surpose of the intermediate unit at the time it was first established was to assist the state education department by visiting the schools in the intermediate area and supervising toth the educational program and local school authorities. The duties of the intermediate superintendent included record ng changes in district boundary lines, apportioning state funds to the districts, ascertaining that teachers employed possessed iticates, collecting data on « xpenditures ind attendance for each of the districts, and reporting this information to state ofthc ials, To 1 lat gC de eree the earlic St intermediate school ofhicer in most states was a clerk and statistical recorder, serving as a means of Communication betw een the State ind local distric Se ( hall Nee j Pur pos of thy litt ron diate Level The purpose and functions of the intermediate level of or ganization have been continually challenged | irly Opposition came trom lo« i school iuthorities who had previously had little or no state supervision. “Local trustees and town com missioners were not pleased to find their former independence interfered with oe In a survey of the legal status of intermediate school officers, THE ADMINISTRATIVE PRAMEWORK 4! Newsom indicated that the “educational literature dealing with , , school idministration reveals much criticism of the county superintendency and its personnel in many states.” ° Some attempts to abolish the intermedi ite of nization have trom time to time developed in several of the states. Most recently these ettorts have been i partial outgrowtl ot the program for the reorganization of school districts Although the intermediate unit has 1 continuing relationship to reor ganized districts Most tes, In some the reorganization procedure severs i relationships when the new district 1s formed. Under such circumstances the leg: sponsibility of the intermediate superintendent is largely removed as soon as the reorganization of all or a large portion of the intermediate area has been accomplished. It is somewhat ironical that in many of these particular instances the leadership stimulating reorganization has been provided by the intermediate officer On the grounds that the functions of the intermediate unit should be limited to the routine and clerical duties tradition lly required, it has sometimes been argued that the intermediate organization should be abolished. This is not to say that, even in these instances, the intermediate unit has divested itself of educational usefulness. The answer as to whether an inter medi ite unit i needed is NOt sO simply determined. The answer is to be found from the question as to what essential functions ind services needed by reorganized administrative units can better be performed by the intermediate unit. That question 7 ! | 4 “ il] be dealt with in later sections of this vearbook ittle Adaptation to Changing Conditions Conditions in the rut 1 areas of the country for which the | intermediate units Of Organization have responsibility have ; j i , . changed greatly in a relatively short period of years. Electricity, S farm machinery, scientific planting and breeding, and the miny othe r technological advance s have become an evervday part of rural living ‘ulcural production and the size of a? hs oes ’ i] we of th unty Superintendent. US. Depart ‘ No. 7 Washington, D. C 1932. p. 4+ it SCHIOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT ve rations have increased. A smaller number number of rural nontarm people has increa al level of living has been raised greatly and ditterences between rural and urban 7 } ] . 1 wvVe Decome tess Mit With improved transportation and communication, the broadening of interests of rural people, and the increasing desire for better educational opportunities for rural children, schools have been reorganized and curricular offerings expanded. Many states have accepted greater responsibility for the support ot schools, and great strides have been made toward the apportion ment of funds on an equalization basis. The changes in the interests and needs of people and the consequent adaptations in educational organization and en phasis have not generally resulted in any change in the struc tural design of the intermediate unit. In many instances it continues to be geared to a system of schools which, except for a few sparsely populated areas, is largely obsolete or which already may have disappeared. Despite the many social and economic changes indicated, the structure of the intermediate unit of organization, its functions, and its personnel, have a striking similarity in a number of states to that first established more than 100 years ago. In some states much progress in adaptation has been made. In almost every state there are instances where strong inter- mediate leadership has developed a means for making important contributions to the scnools in the intermediate area. This was pointed out in a previous yearbook of the Department of Rural Fducation: In states where conditions are favorable for strong dynamic county edu cational leadership, superintendents have been able to achieve a status fully comparable in every respect to that found in the most progressive and on forward-looking urban systems." Intermediate units as presently organized in a number of states have many limitations for meeting the demands for edu- ooper, Shirley, editor The County Suberintendent t Schools in the United State Yearbook 1950. Washington, D. C.: Department of Rural Education, National Education Aswciation, 1950 p. 29 THE ADMINISTRATIVE PRAMEWORK 44 ’ ' | cational services. In a few states, legislation has provided a means tO overcome some instances they have been partial of the intermediate superintendent & PT PINUTINL N eet ror Strenethenin ’ the Iuferm diat gy " ter ” rey t ‘ rar yor TY ly eld Ty } ! he intermediate unit of organization Has selaom approaches its potential in serving educational needs Limitations in the } en) : } organizational structure, inadequate definition of duties and " | | functions, or an absence ot professional leadership with suf | ] j heient Vigor and imsiaht »develop new uNnctions and pri vice new services have often impeded development Because ot these tre quent inade quacies disc ussions of educa tional administration and studies of educational structure have repeatedly called attention to the need tor strengthening the intermediate unit. Reports have emphasized the importance of some form of intermediate organization and have given sugges tions for Improving the quality ot educ itional services offered The following examples will illustrate In discussing the need for an intermediate unit better equipped tO serve its constituent %&¢ hool districts, Lf ubberley wrote: Evervwhere our rural and small-town schools leadership and for professional leadersh ) ot come, in most Cases, until there : county educational ofhce At about the same time a review of the status of rural educa tion reported the following conclusion: Except where the county or other area comparable to it in size and influence is the loc al district, an intermediate unit Appears to be desirable Such a unit may: (a) provide a better type of leadership than can ordinarily be secured in the constituent districts, (b) perform certain functions of control not practicable in the local unit that yet need not be referred to the state, (c) assist in equalizing the burdens and opportunities of educa tion when adequate state financing is not in effect, (d) perform certain special forms of service not possible in the conscituent districts In very Cubberley, Ellwood P 44 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNTT , few statrs is any one of these Na in the manner to be desires e » | The need for some type of intermediate level of organization Was indicated in am ‘recent discussion of the status of rural educ wion: community supe rii™ However inadequate many of the n:ter mediate organizations have bec min assisting lox 1 communities to identity and mect their educational needs, there has been a continuing recognition of the need to strengthen the intermediate organization—its structure, its Tunctions, and its leadership Within the past several years, efforts to Improve the quality of leadership of intermediate units have yielded a number of significant results. Most of these efforts have been initiated by groups ot intermediate superintendents In some mstances thes rdministr 1wo;rs have sought the wsistance of other groups ind organizations while in others they have carried on projects for improvement completely by themselves The results of these ettorts wd the professional enthusiasm which has devel eed are an encouraging challenge to existing inadequacies \ brief review of a few recent developments indicates to some extent the current efforts of intermediate superintendents ) improve the quality of their educational! service . ( ' ' One of the developments which refiects the growing aware ' ness by intermediate superintendents for the Cc to work } | together more closely nas been the renewed interest in the The Status of Rural Ode Iy f Fducation Blom THE ADMINISTRATIN! PRAME WORK ° ? Division of County and Rural though this group had been organized since until 1946 that it organized at | conterence. Since 1 national conference has dd annually with tnereasing participation, and quality of prograt L his series of conferences has conterence type with much attention being given to a sharing of experi ences and the seeking of solutions to common proble ns With the appropriation of funds by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation for the Cooperative Program in Educational Ad ' ministration, the Division of County and Rural Area Superin | | ; 1 tendents established a Liaison Committee to work with each of ‘ ft : the regional centers of that program Motivated by the knowl edge that nearly h ilf the children of the country are under 4 | administration of rut i county of village superintendents schools, this committee has attempted to be certain that each of the CPEA centers has been kept aware of » prep j ! needs ot administrators for the county, intermed ite, village 1 arational ‘ | and small city superintendencs The work of this commiuiltes oft superintendents has been resp mnsible in part for the mount t of attention given by these centers to the problems ind con ' } | cerns of intermediate superintendents ind community sch ve) a idministrators Another development of the Division of County and Rural Area Superintendents WAS the establishment in 1953 of a Na tional Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Un.t This Commission, made up largely of county and intermediat superintendents, has at this writing just begun to function ; ‘ . 1 i The purposes of the Commission as outlined at its first meeting are } ‘ d at Omaha, Nebe in Oh in October 1952 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNTI strun yroMmM u promoting nmendations The work ot this Commission and its reports, recommendations, and proposals will undoubtedly be of special sigaiacance to rural educators as they ire developed. Many ot the county and intermediate superintendents’ ettorts to IMpProve their status and adjust their functions to more adequately meet the changing concept of the educational needs of rural areas have been carried on through their state associations. One of the more significant developments has been a study of their jobs in an effort to determine adaptations and adjustments necessary to meet the conditions in thei stores, Several of these state studies have been a part of the Crt A projects indicated above In a number of states, often with the assistance of the state education department and colleges or universities, superintendents have attempted to improve their own abilities and understanding of their job through workshops and study groups. Recognition of the need to rase their own professional standards has resulted in pro posals for higher certincation requirements in a few states. In some instances county superintendents groups have been working cooperatively with other administrative groups to clarify and define their functions, improve their working rela tionships, and increase their opportunities for services to pupils, schools, and communities. Aside from these efforts of superintendents, and to some extent both cause and effect of their renewed f- ofessional concerns and enthusiasm, certain othe actions and achieve ments have resulted in stronger intermediate leadership. The establishment of the County School Service Fund in 1947 has ” National Commission on the termediate Administrative Unit, op cit THE ADMINISTRATIVE PRAMEWORK 47 made possible the provision of many new services to the?schools in each of the California counties. Since 1948 the Boards of Cooperative Educational Services developed in New York have peen extending many services to schools w hich otherwise would not be possible, Even without special financial assistance, however, inter mediate superintendents have in mny instances developed insight into their possibilities for Servings the schools in. their area. A number of examples of the service programs which have been developed ire included in ¢ hapters , 4, and : The variety of services provided gives some indication of the possible range of services which might be developed by many inter mediate units. In each of the intermediate areas where pro grams of service have been developed, the community schools are participating in their management and sharing in their benefits. THE COUNTY-UNIT TYPE OF ORGANIZATION [n a number of states the county has always been the basic unit for local rural governmeut. Although the early public schools in these states began as local neighborhood affairs just as in most other states, a more highly consolidated control on a county basis was developed. There are at present 12 states in which the county is the basic unit for school administration ~Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, New Mexico, North Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, and West Virginia. In addition to these 12 states there are a few instances where the county-unit district exists in other states. Most of these county districts have resulted from recent programs of district reorganization. In Idaho, for example, there are 14 newly reorganized districts which include all the territory of an entire county. Thus 14 of the 44 counties in Idaho have become county districts. In Minnesota there are two reorganized dis- tricts which are county districts and, at this writing, a third is under considerations A few others are found in Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, and Oregon. The county-wide type of organization is an important aspect 48 COMMUNTIELY sCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNTI of the general theme of this yearbook—the interrelationships of intermediate units and community schools. The primary basis for special consideration of this type of organization is the fact that it 1s an exception to a general discussion. In those states where the county is the basic unit for the adminis tration of schools, there are no intermediate units.’ But this fact does not necessarily preclude relationships to community schools and the provision of educational services similar in many respects to those of intermediate units. These relation ships will be indicated. Nature of County-Unit Organization Just as for those states in which some type of intermediate unit exists, there are many variations among the county-unit organizations. An identification of these differences does not have particular significance to this discussion.”” Ir may be sufhcient to point out that, in general, there are two types of county-unit districts: (a) the entire county is a school district; or (b) the territory of the county outside independent districts, usually cities or other incorporated places of a specified size, constitutes a s¢hool district. The general nature of the county-unit type of organization can best be seen\ in terms of those aspects which distinguish them from other types of districts.” Cooper and Fitz water have recently ‘outlined certain characteristics common to all county-unit districts: 1. The county-unit is centrally controlled by a single representative lay hoard There are no subordinate boards within its limits that have general administr itive power. have n iter diate type of organization In these states, Delaware and sdimiuinistrative and supervisory functions whic h are not provided by local units are furnished directly by the state education departments. a CONctise and compl t¢ general desc nption of the county-untt organization in each as well | discussion of the problems and advantages ot this type of organization, ooper, Shirley, and Pitzwater, ¢ harles O. County School Administration New York: ind Brothers, 1954 p. 173-208 major differences between county-unit and intermediate unit organization are com Butterworth Julian F.. and Dawson, Howard A The Modern Rural School ork: MeGraw-Fill Book Co 19§2 p. 380-52 THE ADMINISTRATIVE PRAMEWORK 49 ye The board operates through A] superintendent who is the chiet educa tional ofhcer in the county-unit district. ai There is but one general school budget in the county unit 4. Educational programs are maintained that extend through both clemen tary and secondary grades §. Administrative authorities of the county unit are directly responsible to the people in the local communities for the operation of the schools 6. Lines of communication between the county-unit district and the state department of education are direct There is no intermediats idmunistea tive Organization. ~ nye ' ' ‘ There are a number of local attendance areas within each county-unit district. 8. The boundaries of the county-unit district coincide with or are ApPpronri mately the same as the boundaries of the civil county.” As indicated in the characteristics above, under the county- unit system each county has a board of education and a super- intendent of schools. It should be pointed out, however, that the administration of schools is not a function of the general county government. In most instances the county sc..ool systems are fiscally independent, i.e., not dependent on the county government for setting school tax rates or for the appropriation of funds. Usually, however, certain county ofh- cials are assigned duties in connection with the administration of the county schools. The county treasurer, for example, may be made the custodian of school funds and the county collector may be assigned the duty of collecting school taxes. The county-unit district is most like the local school district of other states in the sense that it is the unit for operating schools. Because these county districts usually operate a num- ber of both elementary schools and secondary schools, they are perhaps most comparable to an urban school system. In states where this type of organization has been established it has been quite successful, Since it 1s a relatively large unit for school administration, having a wide tax base and a relatively large number of pupils, the county-unit establishes conditions more favorable for equalizing educational opportunity in the area and for making effective use of educational resources. The experience of country units can generally be characterized in Cooper Shirley and Ficvwater, Charles O., op 50 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNTI terms of efhcient administration and better schools than might otherwise have been provided. But the county-unit type of organization cannot be regarded as a panacea for all educational problems. A few of the disad vantages should be recognized. Although certain of the dis- advantages indicated are not entirely unique to county-unit districts, they are often likely to be greater in degree. County districts are large and are usually made up of a number of separate and identifiable communities. When administration and control is removed to the larger unit, certain real problems must be considered. The “distance” between the people and the administration of school is increased and their relations to administration less personal. Means must be found for providing the citizens in local communities opportunities for accepting responsibility and for participating in the develop- ment of school policies. Without such opportunities, the asso- ciations of people to their schools are apt to be lessened. Safe- guards must be established against standardization and the inhibition of local creativity. Since the county is not a natural sociological unit, there are many instances under the county-unit system where the interests of a community area surrounding a village located near the county boundary are divided as regards schools. The selection of superintendents through political election, low salaries, low qualification require- ments, and other problems characteristic of many intermediate superintendents also exist in a few county-unit states. The few difficulties indicated and others which often develop can be overcome. Effective educational leadership has done sO in many instances. But some county-units experience a difficulty of a different nature. The general philosophy which undergirds the county-unit district is that the basic unit of school administration should be sufficiently large to provide all the administrative and instructional services needed for a com- prehensive program of education. In a number of instances the county is not large enough in terms of either population or resources to make this possible. Under such circumstances the need for combining two or more smaller counties into a single administrative unit for school purposes is indicated HE ADMINISTRATIVE PRAMEWORK County-Unit Relationship to Community Schools The very nature of the county-unit type district, by remov ing the control of schools outside of local communities to a larger admunistratrs e unit, lessens tO some ertent the mdi idual community's relationship to the educational organization. But this does not prevent the development of community schools as they have been described in an earlier section of this chapter. The purpose of every unit of educational organization is to make available, to the extent of its ability, a comprehensive program of educational opportunities. When the ability of any given unit is short of achieving this purpose, there is need for supplementing the program from some other source. The larger county district is often better able to provide the oppor- tunities specified in the preceding chapter than many other types of districts. ‘Lhe individuality of local communities should be protected, however. Individual differences often tend to receive less attention in a large scale operation. But this result can be avoided; it is not inevitable. Community individuality can be preserved and strengthened if the educational program devel- oped relates the people in each of the communities to their own problems and concerns, if it contributes to community cohesion, and if through education it accomplishes a more satis- factory quality of community living. Establishing a general blueprint for developing community schools within county-unit districts is not possible. The nature of communities with their cross-currents of interests and activ- ities and their traditions and methods of working makes any such proposal inappropriate. Our plea is rather thar this type of organization be sensitive to the importance of community individuality. Certain procedures for carrying out this responsibility are obvious. For example, the elementary-school attendance units and the secondary-school attendance units should be organized around the natural sociological neighborhood and community areas. It may occasionally be both desirable and possible to include in such attendance units parts of adjacent districts §2 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT so that the natural community area is not artificially divided for school purposes. The educational program itself should be sufficiently flexible to take advantage of specific community resources and con cerns. Equalization should not result in standardization, With in the limits of the administrative organization, eaca commu- nity should be given a maximum of responsibility for the policies which determine the program of its own school. Indi- vidual community efforts above the level of the basic county program should be stimulated and encouraged. The characteristics of local communities within a county- unit type of organizacon are no different from those of local communities where schools are organized on a community dis- trict basis. They have the same kinds of resources, the same kinds of problems, and the same kinds of educational needs. If the community is an important unit of social organization in a state organized on 4 community unit basis, it is important in a county-unit state. The school in the community should exercise a similar influence upon community life. The differ- ences of the county-unit type of educational organization are real, however. The history of successful operation on the part of county-units is evidence that there is little probability that they either will or should be materially altered. Their responsi- bility to individual communities is the same as that of any type of school district; their difficulties are somewhat magnified. Among the presently operating county-unit districts are some which have made genuine attempts to develop “commu- nity schools” with a great deal of success. The extent to which these efforts have been successful appears to depend upon (a) leadership which understands the importance of community, and (b) the method of operation, i.c., whether educational services are provided for communities or whether a program of educational services is developed by the community with the assistance of the county organization. EMERGING PATTERNS AND RELATIONS The preceding sections of this chapter have described the development of administrative organization for education. THE ADMINISTRATIVE PRAMEWORK 53 A system of schools, as a type of social organization, is dynamic, eve) changing In response CO the desires and needs of people and communities and of the administrative organization itself. Even now, these changes continue. It is somewhat dithcult for educators to stand outside their situation in hope that they might get a fuller perspective of education on the national scene, identify the changes, observe the trends, and come away with a better understanding of the problems which confront them. To add confusion to such an attempt are the many differences among schools and among states—in their patterns of organization, in their directions and rates of change, in their stazes of development, in their abili- ties to support education, and in their expectations from and understanding of the educational process. From such a position apart from the immediate problems and pressures which are demanding attention, a number of emerging patterns and relations might be observed. Some are much more clearly identifiable than others. Some are just in the beginning stages. A first observation is that the general quality of education is better than it has ever been. Teachers are better prepared. They know more about children and how children learn. They know more about teaching. How this quality will be further improved or even maintained in the face of increasing enroll- ments and a decreasing supply of teachers cannot yet be deter- mined. Inservice improvement programs for all types of school personnel are increasing and may hold considerable promise. The various groups of people who are actively involved in the educational program are working more closely together than ever before. The distance between “teachers” and “‘ad- ministrators” has been reduced; teachers participate more in the administrative process. Boards of education are becoming more concerned about good education and are looking farther beyond the “how” of administration to some of the “why.” More use is being made of advisory groups and study commit- tees. The role of such groups is becoming better defined and understood. There is a continuous program of school district reorganiza 54 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT tion which is changing the many small school districts existing in many states into community units able to provide a broader range of opportunities. They can be expected to continue for several years; programs are just beginning in some states, There is a growing recognition that most reorganized districts cannot become large enough to alone provide a comprehensive pro gram of educational opportunity. The trend toward larger and larger reorganizations may soon be checked in part. More attention may be given to the relation of the reorganized dis- trict to the natural sociological community and less to the number of pupils which can be included. Community dis- tricts are likely to depend more upon the intermediate unit to assist them in providing on a cooperative basis special per- sonnel and special progra ns which they can share. County-unit districts ire tending to provide greater oppor- tunities for individual community variation. County adminis- trators and boards are increasingly recognizing the need for conimunity committees and citizen identification to the com- munity schools. Educational programs are becoming more varied with the development of additional opportunities. The number of specialized services are increasing. Some of the smaller counties are beginning to have difficulty in providing the educational program demanded. Intermediate units are beginning to experience their greatest change in the more than 100 years of their existence. The changes developing can be expected to make at least as great a contribution to the educational program of small commu ities and rural areas as the development of school district re organization. Some aspects of this change are already evident. The professional level of intermediate administrators is being raised very rapidly. An enthusiasm for the potentialities of the intermediate unit has developed and is increasing its momentum. The emphasis upon clerical and inspecting duties is being replaced by a variety of efforts to provide a program of educational services. The intermediate unit is rapidly coming to be regarded as a “service center” for schools, a center which can coordinate specialized services which two or more schools can share, a center which can supplement the educational pro- THE ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK 5§ gram of community schools without encroaching upon their local autonomy. Although an understanding of this kind of relationship is not yet widespread, it is increasing rapidly. Many details are yet to be detined, but the possibilities are great. The relationships of community schools and intermediate units are changing as a result of the development of more ade quate community-unit districts and the changing concept of intermediate functions. Administrators of both types of units are working together more closely. Mutual understanding and confidence are on the increase. Also increasing are the evidence Of cooperation programs of educational services, adminis- tered by the intermediate unit to supplement the educational programs of community schools. Many examples of currently operating programs of this kind are included in Chapters 3, 4, and §. Some are well established, some just beginning to de- velop, and others as yet largely experimental. CHAPTER 3 Services Focused on the Needs of Pupils HEN the Spartans were ordered to give up 5() children W.. hostages, they replied that they would rather relinquish twice as many grown men—so much faith did they place in their children. Over the years a “conscience toward children” and faith in the future have been the high marks of our American civilization. It is this faith that has stimulated the development of our system of public schools. It ts this faith that is responsible for our belief that a high level of education is necessary and desirable for everyone. But many communities are small and their abilities and re- sources to. provide a comprehensive program of educational opportunities are limited. Without supplemental assistance, these children and communities are deprived of many needed educational services. Where the desire to meet the existing needs for services has been sufficient to stimulate the industry, inventiveness, and leadership of the persons involved in the program of community education, they have cast about for means CO supplement their own efforts. In many mstances the intermediate unit has been willing and able to help. Pro grams of educational services have been developed through the cooperative efforts of the intermediate unit and the several { MmmMunities and maller schools in its area. These programs are making available many opportunities which were previously impossible. In general, these programs of services have been developed to meet two types of needs. They have been established to meet needs which has C existed in the several communities for a long time but which have been neglected largely because the local communily schools have not been able Co provide the service needed. In addition, they have been established to 66/57 / Ltn i LA ok t ttt : / hel r 58 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT meet new needs coming partially as out-growths of expanding Community school curricular offerings, Lhe educational as pirations of parents and school staff members have in some instances tended to Outstrip the resources of the local com munity school districts. The development of intermediate unit services has come about in response to these needs and as a result of the growing awareness on the part of both intermediate units and community schools of the possibilities of this means of supplementing the educational efforts of the local commun itv schools. Because many different types of educational service pro grams have been developed, an arbitrary classification has been established to facilitate a description of a few of the presently Operating programs. The purpose of this chapter is to identify and briefly describe programs of services which focus directly upon the needs of pupils. Other types of educational services —those directed primarily to helping teachers meet pupil needs and those related to administration—and descriptions of opera ting programs are included in succeeding chapters. Many of the programs included have much broader implications than the particular classification indicates or than the brief descrip tion included can convey. One of the significant characteristics of the programs de scribed is that they are all relatively new. Although many are already well established, others are in but their second and third year of operation. The realization that the programs of community schools can be greatly enhanced and their limita tions overcome when they cooperatively share in the support and benefits of specialized educational services administered by the intermediate unit is growing rapidly. Because many of the programs described are new, they are being evaluated and adapted so that the assistance given to the various community schools in an intermediate area can be made even more effec tive. There is considerable variation among the programs developed. The extent to which the services of intermediate units focus directly upon the needs of pupils, the types of services provided, the methods by which they are financed, and the other details of administration necessarily vary in accord SERVICES TO PUPILS SY ance to the local conditions and circumstances within each intermediate unit ind the needs and demands of the several COMMUNITY schools im its intermediate area Among the services included in this chapter as primarily directed to the needs of pupils are the provision of library and resource materials, instruction im spec alized fields, health sery ICES, SPCK ial educational programs for different ty pes of excep tional children, and the range ot what May be consid red pupil personnel services guidance, testing, psychologic il services, and attendance supervision and accounting. The programs of Services desc ribed are almost CX lusively those ot intermediate unit-community school cooperation, but, in a few instances, the programs of county-unitt school districts are also described Although the 1dministrative structure for these programs dif fers, the services are developed tO serve the s¢ eral COM MuUunities iy the administrative area in much the sans way as those by intermediate units. LIBRARY SERVICES Library ser IC IS adaptable to many kinds of local conditions, is a type of service which can easily serve large populations, and requires the attention of persons specially trained in library management. It is one of the services which involves a rela- tively large capital investment. An adequate library to serve pupils ind teachers (and the community in the absence of other facilities) is often beyond the ability of community schools to provide, Depending on the comprehensiveness of its mate rials, it can achieve excellence in either very large or very small situations. It is one of the services which many community schools share through the assistance of the intermediate unit. Chere are a large number of small rural schools in Osborne County (Kansas) and, because of the small enrollments and limited funds, a cooperative central library was started several years ago, more as a traveling reading library project. This phase of the central library has grown until today there are approximatels 10,000 books to supplement the individual school reading libraries. In order to enrich the reading pro gram, much attention is given to the selection of the books. 60 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT Teachers using the library may find reading materiat on various levels and types. Under proper guidance every child in every participating school will read stories classified as literature, Bible stories, stories Of Atomic energy and jel planes, biographies, poetry, tray el, science, stories of music by the masters, materials on art and artists, ind books on many other subjects. In addition to the reading materials, the central library also j , ' includes filmstrips and records which are chosen for the put pose ot enriching the curriculum of the participating schools. In order to facilitate this phase of the program in the smaller schools, the projection equipment, sereens, recorders, etc., are wWailable from the library and are checked out to the teachers ona short time basis. The program is administered and supervised by the county superintendent with the assistance of the office secretary. Each participating school is assessed a small amount each year for financing the program. County funds are used to purchase the necessary equipment. Since the library service has no addi tional staff, the method of checking materials “out and in” is a very simple number method with individual cards for each teacher. Teachers are encouraged to become familiar with the materials available through the library so that they can easily find those items which they may want to use.’ When the program of library services was beginning in Wayne County (North Carolina), one teacher from each elementary school and each high school agreed to serve as teacher-librarian. This group met at regular intervals with the library supervisor and were given instruction in teaching their pupils how to use the library facilities. Each in turn instructed the other teachers in their schools, and in this way at least 10 lessons were taught to the pupils in all the schools the iirst year. Regular library periods were scheduled for each grade, begin ning with the first. To help the teachers with these periods, a committee com posed of the classroom teachers, the county superintendent, the county library supervisor, and the library adviser from the state education department developed a check list of library activities. This proved especially helpful in determining Contributed by LaVerne B. Arnold, superintendent, Osborne County Schools, Osborne, Kansas SERVICES TO PUPILS 61 whether or not a well-rounded library experience was being provided for the children in each school. It included items of specific instruction on the use of library materials, teachers’ in troduction ot books, pupils’ book reviews, tree reading periods, and research for library materials on classroom topics, as well as exchange of books. The library supervisor checked these lists each time she visited a school and in this way kept in close touch with the kind of library periods being held. Where there was a sign of weakness in any group's library program, the teacher of that particular group was given special help and supervision in broadening the scope of her work.” Since this beginning, the library program has in the five years of its operation made great strides, largely because of the enthusiasm and wholehearted support of all those involved. Central purchasing of books, materials, supplies, and equip ment through the county library supervisor's office has effected great savings All of the beoks are processed in the central ofhce and are ready for immediate circulation when taken to the schools. A thorough MN ataloguing of each of the high school libraries is now in process. A section on “Teaching the Use of the Library” has been developed and is included ©. the teacher's handbook. During the past three years “career” materials have been collected for all the high school libraries and files set up for them, and a filmstrip library has been established in the county office. A catalog of these filmstrips has been placed in all of the schools. The results of this program have given additional encourage ment to the entire county staff. At the present time all of the high schools in Wayne County, both white and Negro, are accredited, the library service, Of course, having contributed to the accreditation. Several libraries have been enlarged and others have been built to meet the growing needs, The average 1s about ever books per child for the entire county.” Adequate and attractive school library quarters have been ¢ since been adopted by other counties in i lf-addressed envelope North Carolina former supervisor 62 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT developed in all of the permanent school centers in Fulton County (Georgia), 34 elementary schools and seven high schools. Che clementary schools share the servicers of 2i libra rians who have been successful teachers and have at least the library science training necessary for state certification of teacher librarians The high schocs are served by nine full time professionally trained librarians. The service given in ] these libraries ZO’S far beyond the acquisition, Organization, ind cire ulation of mate rials. It permeates the total S¢ how | pro gram ind its influence is felt not only in che classroom but also reflects the individual interests ' the children. Books and ocher mate rials ire selec ted coor atively by children, teachers, ind librarians. These materials are ordered through the central library office in order to secure maximum discounts. Printed catalog cards are purchased through the state cataloguing service and from other sources to free the librarians from time consuming routines, Working closely Loge ther, the librarians and the county co ordinator have recognized their responsibility for “orowth on the job” and have shared experiences and ideas. The librarians participate in all local school activities as members of the faculty They stimulate broader and better “reading for fun” through story hours, book reviews, the use of films and record ings, and individual reading guidance; they work closely with teacher by Suggesting and providing a variety of books and materials to extend and enrich the classroom work; they assist in remedial teaching of retarded readers; in many ways they help in interpreting the modern concept of library service to the local community; and thev cooperate with the public library and encourage the use of the Fulton County Book mobile service. The success of this part of the school program Cannot be measured by tt ndan¢ c ind cir ulation Stalistics The ippre ciation of the importance of this service in the total school program by children teachers, administrators. ind the com munities, is evidence of its success. Its growth and develop ment has come about through enthusiastic, sympathetic, and understanding teamwork Efforts are now being directed SERVICES TO PUPILS 63 * toward better financial support, more professionally trained librarians, and broader use of library facilities and services.‘ The program of reorganiz7zion of school districts in McDonough County (Illinois; was reduced the total number of districts to seven. Prior to reorganization, a county elemen tary library project had been in operation with each of the common school districts participating. A large and useful library was built up and was used quite extensively by the many small schools since their resources were often quite limited. With reorganization, many districts were able to bring together the library materials and have a much better collection than had previously been possible. New books and library materials are pur¢ hased through the county superin tendent’s ofhce which also maintains a supplementary and reference library and employs a full-time librarian. An evaluation of special services in the county revealed that, while many audio-visual aids including maps, globes, pictures, and filmstrips were available in each of the community schools, there was a definite need for films. This service was not being provided by any of the local community schools, largely because of the high COSTS which films involve. Asa result ot the Cco- operation of the county superintendent and the administrators and boards of education of each of the school districts in the county, a Cooperative Film Library has been developed. Ad ministered by the county superintendent’s office, the library now has 156 films which are available for use as teaching aids in any classroom or for educational programs throughout the county at mothers’ clubs, PTA’s, or local community meet ings. And the library is still growing.” A similar program has been developed in Morgan County (Illinois). A county-wide film coordinator assists the teachers in each of the community school districts in the county in the selection and use of pictures, maps, tape recorders, filmstrips, and opaque projectors. At the present time 230 films are *Contributed by Mcfenkin, director ultor ounty School Li ries, Fulton Atlanta Cr,eorgia I Dixon assistant superintendent in charge of supervision, Macomb, [linois 64 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNTI available and the purchase of 70 more films is contemplated. A somewhat unique feature of this program 1s the possibility for teachers to improve their ability in the use of visual mate rials by enrolling in a visual-aids course which has been offered in the county for the past three years in cooperation with the Western Illinois State Teachers College.’ A library of over 5000 books has been developed in Russell County (Kansas) by the cooperative efforts of the schools in the county and the county superintendent's ofhece. Among the m iterials ivailable for the use Of teag hers and the pupils in the participating schools inl the County are supplementary reack rs, preprimers, reference books, fiction, classics, and filmstrips. A simple method of checking out books and materials and a catalog of the books have been des cloped. \lthough services often begin very simply ind progress seems it first to be very slow, they usually develop with remarkable rapidity, The program of library service in Kent County (Michigan) in 1935 was a WPA project and consisted of about 200 donated books on Saw horses and planks and housed my a vacant room in the YMCA. Today the library is fully ac credited, has a building of its own, and has 12 full-time and 1§ part-time staff members, 61,000 volumes, two bookmobiles ind 1 book truc¢ k, ind i2 branch libraries.” INSTRUCTION IN SPECIALIZED FIELDS Many of the smaller schools are unable to provide full-time instruction in spec ialized fields music, art, physical educ ation, homemaking, wriculture, and industrial education In many instances they are able to make instruction available to their pupils by sharing an itinerant or circuit teacher with other schools in their rea Schools which ire ible to provide full time instruction often find advantage in sharing teacher con sultants for certain ispects oF these curricular areas—-a reading wls, Grand Rapids SERVICES TO PUPILS 65 consultant to coordinate and assist teachers, a remedial teacher a music coordinator, or other specialist to work with individual children and teachers. As a result of a survey in Milwaukee Count Wisconsin 37 school boards agreed to contribute to a COOPCrAlive MUSK program idministered by the intermediate superintendent ofhce. Nine special music teachers are employed At othe request of many parents and SOT chool board member ind with the approval ind support of most tea hers ina idmini trators, emphasis has been On Vin il ind rhythm itivil His 1s rapidly growing to include singing, rhythmic a instrumental music, listening, and « itive Work This veas 41 of the 46 schools in the county are offering a program of formal musi Mystruction. Ac the Inception of th program, only one of the elementary school had a well developed msatru . , i i ment i proyram, This year 13 schools in the county are offer Ing instrumental instruction to thei pupils in addition to the vocal program ill through Cooperative action A cooperative program of music instruction has been de veloped in Waukesha County (Wisconsin). Any school in the county may join the music program. Music teachers are em ploved on a county-wide basis, and thes together with a sper ial committee of « lassroom teachers, de vi lop 1 gener il curr ulum plan for music at the beginning of each year. Plans are adjusted throughout the year to the immediate and changing need of each individual school and classroom, } , i | Ing school proposes an , , . Personnel, and cooperative the proposal wit! 19S4 DU¢ TION AL PROGRAMS ly have opportunities for activat and community groups and problems 1 lating the educa- in the mav make the | _ wWiional resources, Co k cl init work closely and | “ ] . — | . : continuous! educational Personnel and lay groups of upon to assist in any phase of the ; ae | IS Necessary so that common under can be identified and problems can be reached There are hese goals can be accomplished. -Ation programs tor teachers. ot education, and other development blic publicat Of Cooperative 1 services, 4 ber of illuser eS, and services. A number: Of illustrations of , ; | “nh Invoive coordination ot the local conimunity na sel en “4 “tp ricts Nave previousiyv Deen reported. gislation g of a survey & required n e county boards ot education 1 nization ' rction Of These ci cal boards of educat Oups ot citizens gh referendum elections school districts make the the proposed reorganization 21 on the part of the local school districts ion proposal, the intermediate unit, | i COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE dissemin won pre POS, ganization, ; ; ot educating the publi assure a favorable vote, but to develop an adequate underst the tull meanins of the improved program. Although school districts, the intermediate unit, the responsibility o intermediate unit Has a kev Importance. state education department is necessarily too far removed be sensitive to the peculiar local problems and issues; at same time, the smaller local districts are seldom able to vie the proposal in terms of its over-all effect on the educari: opportunities tor the boys and girls in the total area involved Examples of the services performed by intermediate units In programs otf reorganization could be cited in almost every area where reorganization bay caken place. These programs have also affected the other kinds of educational services made available by intermediate units to the newly formed cormmunits school distniets. A report from McDonough County (1 the changing emphasis. In that countv—as in counties in the state—the reorganization of school districts has been a major educational concern for several vears. \s a resutt, many changes have occurred in the oTxanization ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICES ’ j ; ‘ vt the school program and in the curricular opportunities pro ; ; ' i 1 ! vided the pups tn the various schools in the county. Pupils now attend school in more concentrated groups where they profit trom participation in an enriched curriculum which ’ 1 ludes, among many other ads intages, a hot ] lunch program, eal and instrumental music, physical education, transporta tion, and special education programs. Instead of reducing the responsibilities of the intermediate ofhee, reorganization has in reality increased them. Improving educational opportunities tor the pupils in community schools is rapidly coming into focus through strengthening and increasing the intermediate unit services which can be made available for the schools Emphasis is now mainly upon the development of cooperative educational services ind eCivilies Among the Services which have been developed and in which the reorganized community school districts share is a large cooperative film library. his chapter has ittempted to indicate some of the different types of administrative services and coordination that the in termediate unit can provide tor local community schools ind school districts Any examination of the kinds of leadership ind services which provide retlects { many intermediate units are beginning tO he emerging character of the intermediate superintendency in 1 dynamic and changing sociery The " hanging demands tor educational services have caused « hanges in idminestrative responsibilities Instead of mere} CXCTCIISINE legal vuthority for educational control, efforts are being in creasingly directed toward those activities which will enable the lox il COMMUNITY school districts to continuously improve educational programs CHAPTER 6 The Search for Direction— A Review of Current Studies til outlook for better education in the Veal ahead is en couraging. Individuals, organized groups, institutions, and have been increasing their efforts to examine educa tional Organization, tO yustify iS eXistence and Its demands, ind to develop appreciation and comprehension of its ends and Its means When uncertainty, unrest, and dissatisfaction Rive nd experimentation, the outlook is indeed en couraging his chapte: tempts to review some of the recent studies and projects which have bearing on the community school and the trite rimy diate unit The studies included are only a small part of those related to the two concepts with which this year book is concerned. The purpose is mainly to give some indica tion of the extent and nature of current studies, not to report 1 detailed summary or synthesis Attention is directed primarily upon indications of trends, recommendations, and conclusions rather than to the specific data or empirical generalization which support them In stances only a portion of the complete study is re ported. It should be emphasized, therefore, that reference be made to original studies and reports if there is a desire to follow-up the suggestions and conclusions reported or implied in) this review ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE AND PRAMPEWORK Behind the question of how to provide the best educational program obt unable tor children ind COMMUNITICS and behind such problems as bond issues, budgets, and boundaries lie con ssitutional provisions, statutes, court decisions, ind state edu on department policies They provide the framework 46 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT within which schools operate. They determine the relation ships ot educational administrative units to the state. They establish the degree to whica responsibility for education is shared. ] 1° A few areas related to administratiy ett unework Ww hich hav e ree eived particular tention and some ot the recent studies and tindings related to them are reported. we Ie } . r % Ocd NY POMM Distri rs A result of changing economic and social conditions has been a distinct trend toward developing larger local units of school administration, The problems associated with the very many small districts have been recognized for many years and reorganization programs have made considerable progress in a number OT States. Especially within the past decade has the move to reorganize local school districts become widespread. The "National Commission on School District Reorganiza tion, in one of its earliest reports, called attention to the in- etfectiveness and Ww istefulness ot the Many small school districts. The tollowing facts were outlined: Most f our people peciili ur rural boys and girls need broader education ( thousands of school districts education offered is not good sponsibility for giving suitable education borders sound American practice to give citizer 1 Opportunity to share P ' , , 3 : itv for education through local school districts; but 1 duty to see that school icts are satisfactory and to Are not : : oniv when » provide education comprehensive enou t the rea served , , , They rit heient and economical school administration Chev e¢ t:vens an active share in shaping the policies of schools serving their communities.” In its final report this Commission again called attention to | . et the number of sé hool districts in terms of too many and too CURRENT STUDIES 137 small.” Pointing out specihe inadequacies and deficiencies ina large proportion of the eCNISTING districts, desirable charac teristics of attendance centers and administrative units were outlined on a basis of the enrollment required to support an program otf educational services The report con hat CoO perform the SETVICe?S essential im a Satisfactory administrative unit, the enrollment should be at ¢ 1200 pupils and, if possible, as many as 10,000, Follow a recommendation oft procedures W hich might be followed ny state CoO implement the desirable reorganization of s¢ hool a detailed report ot reorganization programs in a selected States Was included determine certain characteristics of recently reorganized districts, hitzwater, in a study conducted by the U.S. Otice of Education, surveved 552 districts in 8 selected States Most of the districts included in the study were re- organized in 1947 or later. The sample for which usable data were reported revealed that more than 90 percent of the orig- inal districts included in these reorganiZ actions had previously made no provision for education above the elementary level. At the time the reorganized districts were formed, one-third had not been operating any school. The area included in these newly reorganized districts showed wide variation, although three-fourths continued to be less than 144 square miles. The study reported that 40 percent of these reorganized districts had territory in more than one county, showing little regard for county boundary lines. Less than 2 percent had areas that covered an entire county. Although a small number of the reorganized districts included in the sample were in densely populated metropolitan suburbs, most had largely a rural area which surrounded and included a trading center such as a illage Or small City In some instances the districts had more than one such center. Only slightly more than 7 percent ot 1 District Report ot 1, ¢ Depart Othee of Wiast yovernment Printing Oflee, 19515 49 COMMU NSTITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNTIT ts tor which usable data was available, however, ; a population center of YO00 oF larger The median nt of the new districts was 626 pupils. One-fourth nrollments of ‘r than 380 pupils while an equal | ' 1 | ‘ nt Of local school cist ric reorganization 1s shown ‘ & / ; : survey of il] types of wool districts.’ The total number t school districts for specine vears since 1932 are as | follows 66,472 al number ot districts has been reduced to 21-year period included in this study, most eduction has occurred since 1948 The number of operating one-teacher schools has been reduced from 148,711 in 1930 to 75,105 by 1948 and to 48,814 during the 1952-53 school year. The study reported that more than 1000 reorgan ized districts were formed during the school year 1952-53. Despite the great extent of reorganization revealed by this study, there is little evidence to indicate that the movement has as yet run its course. The evidence is actually to the con trary During the school year 1952-53 there were 11,113 independent school administrative units which did not operate a school of any kind. An additional 40,172 districts operated schools tor elementary pupils only and depended entirely upon other distri fs tO pros ide education tor their secondary pupils. There are still many school districts and many of them are still unnecessarily small. In some states, programs for the reorganization of local school districts are just beginning. The following report from Kansas is by no means atypical of the sicuation which can be found in a number of states: At one intersection in Doniphan County there are three high schools i radius ot three miles These three plus inother high school are so Sfatu hools a chool Districts ral bducatior thor di on Asso CURRENT STUDIES fy ad One aspect of educational structure which is beginning to receive much thoughtful consideration is the intermediate administrative unit. The major stimulus is easily understood. Che interrelationships of autonomous local school districts, intermediate units, and the state education department are such that any major changes which take place at one point in the structure compel adjustments at the others. The reorgan- ization of local administrative units indicated in the preceding section of this chapter has been accompanied with very little change in the intermediate superintendency. The same social and economic forces—with the accom- panying increase in the demands made of education—which have been responsible for the reorganization of local units have also affected the intermediate units. But without substantial adjustment, the intermediat: administrative unit is generally operating at a low level of effectiveness in meeting these in creased and changing demands. In most instances the struc- tural design tay the intermediate unit continues to be for a system of schools which, except for a few very sparsely popu lated areas, is largely obsolete or may already have disappeared. One of the first studies of the intermediate unit and prob- Kansas State Depar it Tus mn , rool 2; September 19535 140 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT ably the most comprehensive yet undertaken was made in New York.” The study began with a pilot project in a single county in which about half of the local school districts had been re- organized into central school districts. Enrollment in these re- organized districts (elementary and secondary combined) ranged trom 175 pupils in the smallest school to 660 in the largest.’ Many deficiencies were reported. It was discovered that a much larger proportion of those who enrolled in the smaller rural high schools dropped out before graduation than was the case in the larger rural high schools and the one city school system in the county. While the city schools provided speech correction work, lip reading instruction, special work for the mentally slow, sight conservation, and special work for the physically handicapped, only 8 percent of the handicapped children in the rural sections of the county received special in- struction. Vocational opportunities, guidance counseling, and health services were also extremely meager in the rural high schools. One of the early reports of this pilot project reported the following conclusions after comparing the rural and city programs: ; 1 - 1. Rural children have less educational opportunity 2. There are whole segments of educational needs that are not being met § ! rural communities 3. Many of the educational opportunities now available in rural com munities are being provided on a very uneconomical basis. 4. In view of existing conditions, a careful study ts needed to determine whether or not a new type of intermediate unit ts desirable and, if so, to indicate what should be its function, size, and organization.® The larger study of the entire state was continued with major attention being given to (a) the tentative laying out of pro- posed intermediate districts, (b) the possibilities of area schools tor special purposes, (c) the possibility of including in the f t i York Stat Tt udy financed by che state, carried on through sponsor vil on Rural Fducation under the general supervision of the Fducation Department, and with the cooperation of advisory stron of District Superintendents, the State Associa rcil of Cityw and Village Superintendents We Giving Them the Opportunity ‘ URRENT STUDIES 141 ; of + ‘ . intermediate districts the “independent” school systems of | 1] i larger Villages, (ad the financing of the intermediate districts, and (e¢) suggestions as to means of extending educational facil ities in areas not yet ready to accept the new type of inter : mediate district organization proposed One of the unique approaches of the New York study was its attempt to determine the size and boundaries of the pro posed intermediate districts The socio-economic theory of local school districts—that local districts should be defined by the area within which peor!s cooperate for social and economic purposes, i.e., the natural sociological community—was used as a guide Similar techniques were applied to determine the ‘tertiary’ community —a larger socio-economic area made up of a cluster of communities surrounding a small city or large village The result of the application of such techniques was the Suxrgestion that to take the place ot the 18] Supervisory districts then cxIStING, 6) intermediate districts should be created The boundaries ot the proposed Areas showed little over-all relationship to politic il boundaries. In 16 out of the 6§ intermediate areas proposed, the boundaries corresponded roughly to those ot the county; m seven areas they corre sponded roughly to the existing supervisory districts. Even without the inclusion ot the “independent” village school systems, these proposed intermediate districts had at the time of the study a median enrollment of 5551 pupils Legislation permitting the establishment of intermediate dis tricts of the type proposed by the study was passed in 1948 ind modified to provide additional state support in 1953," Che law provides for the appointment of an intermediate dis trict board of education by an intermediate district council The intermediate district council, made up of all the trustees and school board members in the area, would serve as a liaison group bet ween the intermediate district board and the con stituent local school districts. ‘The responsibilities of the inter medi ite distric ts were limited in the bast law to certain speci 142 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDI!IatEeE UNTT hed services—provision of industrial education, the education of handicapped children, adult education, and the administra tion of attend ince and transportation Provision was also made for the transfer of other functions to the intermediate district when they could be performed more effectively and econom ically than by the constituent districts. A study directed by McLure included an intensive observa tion of a few county intermediate units in {linots where local districts had been reorganize d The purpose of the study was to identify certain assumptions and hyp heses regarding changes in the nature of the t le ot the intermediate super intendent Also included was a preliminary test of two propositions: (a) some type ot intermediate administrative unit is needed tO proy ide Spee ialized Services and leadership, (b) the intermediatk Lintit has 1 unique function of leadership to per form even attest the reorganization ot local districts. The con- clusions reached were regarded as tentative because of certain limitations of the study but were regarded As sufhic iently marked to warrant further study and verification. Among he tentative conclusions were several which pointed out that lox 1 district reorganization had created a distinct need for the modification ot the formal (legal) structure of the inter mediate office In rddition to needed changes in the pattern of administrative functions, attention was called to a number ot changes in the pattern of communication and in the inter- personal relationships between the intermediate office and the personnel of local districts—fears of encroac hment, uncertainty is to who should be doing what, and other psvchological diffi culties. The opinions of a representative sample of superin- tendents in all ty pes of positions in [ilinots suggested a number of other conclusions including the following: rdministrative unit 4s needed to provide can be idministered best ind at most ministrative units Most appropriate area tne inter too mall ind in others it 1 unit uuty Suberinten deme y Mimeo. ) CURRENT STUDIES 143 An attempt to determine the functions most appropriate to the intermediate unit in Washington was the purpose of a study carried on by Loree. Surveying all types of school districts in terms of the services being provided by the interme- diate unit, the need for additional services, and the relationship of the intermediate unit to the additional services desired, the report concluded: It the office ot the county intermediate ) superintendent is to fulfill che sponsibilities placed upon it by the state; if it is to provide the educational services which are needed by the school districts as reported in this study; if it is co play its part as it responds to and participates in the expanding role ot education, then the othee of the county superintendent must be re shaped ind reoriented to the emerging needs in educ ation. One of the significant findings of this study in Washington was a much more substantial expression of need for inter- mediate unit services on the part of the larger districts than was the case for the smaller districts. A study of the intermediate superintendency in Indiana by Pound included a similar attempt to determine the functions and services being performed by the intermediate districts in that state and, to the extent possible, (a) the functions and services that should be provided, (b) the personne! necessary to perform these functions and services adequately, (c) the budget required for financing the intermediate district, and {d) the school population needed to provide the required budget at a reasonable cost."* A number of structural handi- caps were reported. The relationship of the intermediate unit to county government was such that, although the entire county was called upon to heip support the county office, cer- tain school districts in the county received only occasional intermediate unit services. A number of the counties had limited pupil populations which resulted in much higher costs than counties with larger populations. The study concluded that if intermediate districts were increased in size to a mini mum of 3000 resident pupils, and preferably to from 4000 to Washington? Mount Superintendency in Indiana Typewritten) 144 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNTI SOOO, needed Services TO local school administrative units could be proy ided more ettectiv ely and CCONOTTIIN ally | his criterion for the desirable size of intermediate units would entail the combin ion Of COUNTIES IN some instances Ingraham’s sti of the intermediate superintendency in f alifornia reported the need ror 4 redefinition ot their role in , the rapidly expanding program of education in that state."' A series Of structured interviews revealed a variety of practices which exist in spite of a single code of law ippli ible to all of Calitornia’s 58 counties. These differences which have resulted in certain inequalities oft educational Opportunity among the counties Were attributed largely to the individuality of the county superintendent ot schools and the environment within which he operated, Further variations of practice were attrib uted to ignorance of the law, interpretation of the law, dis regard of the law, and combinations of these three factors. Che study reported that the replies to questions of the struc tured mMNterview expressed | ditterent ind emerking Concept of the intermediate superintendent in California Phe develop ing emphasis is on professional training, competence, ind leader ship, and the development of county wide pProweramns of edu cut ional Service An analvsis of the factors which have resulted in changes in the structure of the intermediate unit in Idaho was made by Clem."” Reporting the adoption by the Idaho legislature in 1947 of most of the recommendations of a state-wide survey in 1945, the study indicated a period of transition that brought about Many changes in the State Phis Was coupled with the reorganization of many of the sm il] lon il S4 I ol districts. Considerable unrest and confusion resulted In 14 Idaho counties, tor example, the entire COUNTY Was reorganized mto 1 county-unit district There was a duplication of superin tendencies OVE! the Same area. In such CiIrcumslances either another function was found for the COUNTY superintendent or CURRENT STUDIES 14) he W AS dismissed and the district superintendent became both county and district superintendent The study reports a num ber of tactors including (a 1 lack of adequate interpretation ot the 1947 statute creating county boards of education, (b the dithcult interretats s of intert rat units and re organized districts, and (4 the remoy i oft certain educational services previously rendered by the intermediate units as re sponsible Toor the ituation which resulted in the abolishment y | ‘ ft in 1983 of the intermediate Structure in all Trlty reorganized counties, The Texas County Superintendents Asm ciation through a survey of its membesship indicated that in some instances the county was not suthcie: tly adequate is an cffective intermediate unit and in such instan ‘es should be replaced by another and | larger one Sparsity o. population was the primary factor A workshop tor county superintendents in Oregon in 1952 reported a number of conclusions regarding the Structure of the office."* They recognizec that the status of the intermediate superintendent in that state had been altered considerably as i result ot loc al district reor raniZation They concluded that they must look increasingly to the State legislature for the strengthening of the office A study ot the intermediate superintendency in New York, undertaken jointly by the State Association of District Super inte dents, the State Education Department, and the CPEA Middle Atlantic Region, included among its conclusions the existence of a continued need for an intermediate administra tive unit in that state and made a number of specific recom mendations tor its structure: i i intermediat listrict must take account of social j reauty of 1 community is of nore mp wtaner CONEMU NITY SC RIOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNTI | | } \lso included in the report Were specific suggestions tor organ vation, tor tunctions and duties, for hnancing, ind tor de | velopment \ seminar tor intermediate superintendents held at Syracuse (New York) in 1952 endeavored to clarify the emerging func tions and char wWeteristics of the superintendency ind their im plications for changing the administrative framework within which they work i Chis group concluded that five to ranized districts of moderate size (not defined) wou stitute an intermediate district of desi ible si7e Phe further concluded that the Compelencs ot individual intermediate superintendents Was a wreater factor 1n the development of etlective intermediate units than the structure of their office Recognizing that Varying conditions in different parts of the country would cause somewhat different patterns of inter mediate units to be developed, the 1950 Yearbook of the De partment of Rural Education, NEA, desertbed severs! general guides for the organizational structure stablished to of the educational educational ervice ducation should have taxin duc tional pProuramn ta supplement As indicated in most of the studies cited, the inteenmiediate unit has been greatly iffected by the increasing reorganizacjon ot low al school districts \ hil this has brought about a nee d for the reorientation of intermediate functions, the structural changes required have not yet come about fo any appreciable extent The results are strains in the interpersonal relations betw een intermediate and loc al district personnel, curtailment of certain functions in some states, and a high degree of stimu lation on the part of groups of intermediate superintendents CO CAAMING ther status and functions and recommend changes tor strengthening their position CO serve education. mate rela tionships between local school district organization and the structure of the intermediate unit are still in need oft careful study and clarification. Financins the I ducational Program Financial planning in terms of both ummediate and long range educational needs is ing reasingly necessary. Fiscal policy must be clear-cut and understood. Many of the old “rules-of thumb” are no longer applicable. All public service institu tions, including the public schools, must be sensitive to the relationship bet ween the level of expenditures and the quality ot their services. When the Public Education Finance Committee of the Na tional Citizens Commission for the Public Schools began in 1950 to plan materials on finance appsor sate for lay under 148 COMMUNITY SCHIOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNTI standing, it became apparent that a summary of research find ines afr d of significant experiences was needed. The National Conterence of Professors of Educational Administration under took this project through 1 special COMMIT’ A few general conclusions included in the report ot this committee are indi cated here: j , ood publi chool re essentia ‘ torily functioning demo form of vovernment my that Mayor icy decisions must be made by | i) who tnust be 1 ( W 4 val i ear f to make sound | erous finaneral st Or lon will not sure satisfactory chools yood choo! ire not likely to by provided unless rdequat financial Lappe is 1 sured ’ hinancial UpPpPoOrl is rot likely to be satisfactory unless (a) the people who yyuist upport th chools believe in the edug itional proxyram ind par ticipate im its formulation, ind (b) the entire program educational and } MNANC LAL, 1s based on the best evidence ind soundest concepts vailabl and i con tantly improved 1s the need ina opportunity for such improvement becornn ipparent Implications and recommendations for financing the educa tional program have been Ih luded in the reports ofa number of studies. The National Commission on School District Re Organization reported: The state should either provide ill the funds necessary to pay the cost of a iusfactory minoimum educational program or it should guarantee funds to supplement local resources to the extent necessary to maintain such a pro gram Some states have found it expedient to combine these two types ot hnancing Pointing out that many communities, especially in rural areas, do not have the financial resources necessary tO maintain an idequate program of educational opportunities, the Commis sion called for state support for schools on an equalization basis, .e., in inverse proportion to the local community’s ability to support a desirable educational program. Phe differences which exist among states and among com i : munities within any state in their ability to support education Problems and tones in Public School Finance onterence of Prof ors of Educational Adminis : : : ' , College, Columbia University 1952 CURRENT STUDIES 149 Ire wreat. In review ing some of the Implications ot educational finance at the close of 1953, Morphet called attention to this situation: ites are Approx nately three tim i ible, ona per capita basis, upport education and other vovernmental services as others The differ mony districts in ability to Support schools in the small district states everal hundred to one; « in the large district states they are seven or more to one In his study of recently reorganized school districts, Fitz water discovered this wide range in the local ability of school districts to finance their educational program. Using the valuation of real property as a measure of tocal ability, and making allowances tor varying assessment practices, he re ported wide differences in per pupil valuations among both the districts and states included in the study. The median per pupil valuation in Hlinois, for example, was “more than eleven times greater than Minnesota's median, four times greater than the medians in Michigan and Missouri, and nearly three and one-half times that of New York.” The range of per pupil valuations amony the reorganized districts in the eight states included in the study were even greater. Of the 116 districts in} Hlinois for which data were reported, the ratio between the most and least able districts was 10 to 1. Differences were even in others oft the States, In addition to ability to support a program of education, one of the significant considerations ts cost. Costs vary widely. In rural areas where the transportation of pupils is required, a cost is added which communities not providing transporta tion do not have. For districts providing transportation, costs vary considerably depending upon the density of population, the type ot roads, and many other factors. One oft the studies which takes into account the necessary extra costs resulting from sparse population was made by Mclure.” He developed 150 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNTI a “sparsity correction factor” which was adopted and included in the recommendation of the Intermediate District Study in New York.”’ An analysis of financial ability for the support of education has recently been completed by Wakefield.” Selecting eight counties in four states which ranged from high-percentage rural to high-percentage urban, he related economic potential (as measured by the size ot the labor torce) to educational need (as measured by the school-age population). He found an inverse relationship between the size of the labor force and the school-age population (ages 5-17 inclusive) in the counties studied, i.e., when one is larger the other is smaller. The report also indicated a significant ratio for the size of the labor force to the degree of rurality with lower ratios in rural counties and states, ie., as the degree of rurality increased, the number of children also increased, but the size of the labor force de- creased—fewer persons working to support an educational program for more children. In his study of intermediate units in Indiana, Pound found wide cost differences and indicated population as one of the important factors.” He reported that counties with limited resident pupil populations spend three times as much per resi- dent pupil as do other counties with a larger pupil transporta- tion. Factors other than population often cause cost differentials. Inefficient districts and schools tend to result ina system which is relatively expensive. The study in Tompkins County (New York) reported excessive costs due to small classes." In spite of the fact that approximately half of the county had been ‘ P | . reorganized, more than 25 percent of all classes in the rural high schools in the county had at the time of the study enroll- ments of fewer than 10 pupils. The report concluded that Morrison, J. Cayce, and others, op. cit wat Unpublished Study Columbus, Ohio: the Author, School-Com udy. Ohio State University, 1954 on Rural Pducation CURRENT STUDIES 151 “some plan must be found to reduce the number of small classes or there is grave danger that some courses will be discontinued because of high cost.” While the reorganization of school districts often permits some reduction of high costs due to small classes, it does not offer a panacea for financial problems. Most reorganized school districts depend upon a system of pupil transportation and the cost of this service is in addition to the costs of the other aspects of the educational program. Often they depend upon the provision of new school-plant facilities. Fitzwater reported that 72.3 percent of the reorganized districts included in his study had either constructed new school buildings or had re- modeled Or enlarged one Or more of the existing school build- ings. The National Commission on School District Reorgan- ivation, in recommending that each state should establish budget provisions for the transportation service and assist its local units either in new building programs or in servicing the debt necessary to finance such programs, recommended: In providing funds for the general program or for transportation and buildings, the state should be sure that its method wl Apportionment does not place i penalty upon the reorganization of local school units. Not only should the State ivoid penalizing changes in school district structure; it should endeavor to place premiums and rewards upen proper reorganiza- tion The changing times create additional problems in finance which are becoming more clearly recognized. In his review of certain continuing financial problems, Morphet pointed out that in some communities the number of children to be edu- cated is increasing more rapidly than the resources of the com- munity. This fact is particularly true in communities where new housing des clopments have caused substantial population growth while as yet only limited business and industrial de- velopment has taken place. In addition, he reports, the de- mands for other BON ernmental services and the Costs for such Reorganized School Districts, Othee of Fdu ind Welfare, Bulletin 1995. No, 4. Wash Government Printing Othee, 195% p. $0 ind 152 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT services are still INereasinyg, Phe competition for tax funds is likely to become more serious and to continue so for some time. Obtainine Need d Li vislation Although most examinations of educational structure have indicated some inadequacies and have recommended changes in the legal framework within which community schools and intermediate units function, specific legislative programs or the establishment of principles to guide legislative development have seldom been included. In only a few instances has legisla- tive action been proposed as an outgrowth of a particular study or project. The single case reported here 18 illustrative. Phroughout the Intermediate District Study in New York a strong conviction was held by all those participating that, if and when the final conclusions were suggested to the state legis- lature for enactment into law, they would insist that the accept ance of such legislation for use in anv given community should be entirely on an optional basis. This recommendation for bermissive legislation was included in the tinal report of the study"! and incorporated into the legislation adopted.” The law provides considerable freedom of action on the part of each new intermediate district established as regards providing edu- cational services. The intermediate district board may contract for any or all services with a nearby city or village; it may contract with one or more of the constituent districts for any or all Services; or it may establish an area school or schools. The flexibility provided in the law was developed from the find ings of a particular part of the total study that probably no 7 - : ° 86 Onc method at providing Services would always be preferred.® A study completed by Wakefield explored the possibilities of developing broad understanding of the emerging concept of the intermediate unit through adapting the medium of mass communication known as picture continuity—a technique tor “Morrison, J ce, and other op, cil Method ft Implementing the Educational Program in Different Inter Intermediate Dastrict in New YorkR Stat Special Studu Bulletin York State Education Department, 1948. p. 43-78 CURRENT STUDIES 153 presenting ideas through a series of reiated pictures.”’ The de- velopment of general understanding will, of course, be neces- sary for really effective operation. Legislative understanding will be necessary for appropriate modifications of the inter- mediate unit structure. Changes in the administrative structure is ultimately the re- sponsibility of the state legislature. Whether school organiza- tion is revised through mandate or through permissive legisla- tion often reflects the basic philosophy of future operation. The degree to which the legislature participates in developing changes which will provide community schools and interme- diate units adequate to meet present and developing educational needs might also have some long range significance. The frequent tendency of legislators not to separate support and control of education handicaps educational improvement in the area where it counts most——the local community. IMPROVING THE CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION An adequate program of education in rural areas must serve a wide range of needs. It must reach those in remote and isolated areas as well as those in larger towns and villages. It must serve equally well those who will spend their lives in the communities in which they were born and those who must seek occupational opportunity in cities or other areas. Extensive research in the way children grow and develop and in the way they learn has given many teachers and school administrators the task of gaining new knowledge and greater understanding. More and more school systems have tried to establish programs that really’ help children learn to live better. The number of clinics, workshops, institutes, and other types of inservice improvement programs is increasing. Teaching generally is of higher quality than it has ever been. Some of the findings of a few recent studies which deal with more adequate curricular offerings and better teaching methods are reported briefly in this summary. The particular studies Wakefield. bloward lun Picture Continuity To Diffuse Ideas about a Major Func tion of the Intermediate Superinten lency Doctor's thesis New York Teachers College, Columbia University, 1953 (Typewritten) 154 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT ind the areas included are limited to those which have a definite relationship to the development of community schools and intermediate units and their interrelations. Only these aspects of the studies are identified. Better Teachers and Teaching The teacher is to a large extent the key to the quality of education. Good schools have good teachers; they cannot be good if teachers are inferior. There is some evidence to indicate that good community schools and effective intermediate units can through their cooperative efforts improve both the com- petence of their teachers and their service to their community. One of the measures of performance is the teacher’s degree of satisfaction with the job. A recent study by Grimm in Illinois surveyed the opinions of a number of teachers in 30 Illinois counties.”” All of the teachers included had formerly taught in One-room or small village schools and were at the time of the study employed in community unit districts. The median total years of teaching experience of the teachers surveyed was 23. Considerable advantage in favor of the community unit was shown in terms of better salary opportunities, more helpful supervision, and opportunity for professional advancement and growth. Although the teachers indicated new problems such as transportation, crowded classes, and difficulties in communi- cation and public relations, they also reported (in their opinion) better curricular offerings, better school buildings and environ- ment, and much more adequate instructional supplies and equipment. The teaching of fundamental subjects (reading, writing, arithmetic, spelling, language) was believed by 76 per- cent to be better in the community unit districts than had been the case in the smaller schools. In his study of reorganized school districts, Fitzwater re- ported that the college preparation of teachers employed in the area before and after reorganization was one of the most widespread of all the educational changes revealed in the entire “Grimm, Lester R ‘Teachers Prefer Community Units.” Ulinois Education 41: $6-57; October 1952 CURRENT STUDIES 155 study.” (It might be assumed that this resulted from higher standards for employment.) Of the districts reporting, 88.2 percent had a teaching staff with a higher level of college preparation than that held by the teachers employed by the old districts at the time of reorganization, This increase in the amount of college preparation of teachers in the reorganized districts was shown in each of the eight states included in the study. An evaluation of an inservice education program provided by the intermediate unit in Douglas County (Nebraska) is somewhat unique from most studies of its kind in that many of the rural elementary teachers participating in the program had little college preparation, and were generally young teachers with limited teaching experience.” The program evaluated had been operating for six vears and included a variety of activities: teachers meetings, study groups, institutes, and work- shops; college credit classes; classroom visitation by a helping teacher: individual conferences; demonstration teaching; and professional materials and bulletins. Teachers met together frequently in both small and large groups. One of the signifi- cant findings was that the particular inservice activities re- garded most helpful by younger teachers differed somewhat from those considered most helpful by more experienced teachers. Teacher rating of the effectiveness of the different types of activities also varied with the number of years of col- lege preparation. Substantial percentages of all teachers reported improvement in each of the nine major areas covered by the program. The teachers’ appraisal of the program revealed most value when they understood the purposes to be achieved. The study con- cluded that teacher improvement was in direct proportion to the interest and enthusiasm of the administrators and super- VISOFS. A study in Pennsylvania reported by Prestwood concluded that the school administrator should encourage his staff to grow ” Ficvwater, C. O h cil Sollenberger, Lucill Evaluation of In-Service Education of Douglas County Master's thesis Omaha, Nebr University of Omaha, 19513 (Typewritten) 156 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT protessionally by setting an excellent example." He must find time to improve his own professional competence. Ey panding and Improving the Curriculum Che limitations of educational programs provided in many rural schools tends to place the children of these districts at a serious disadvantage. Numerous studies and school surveys have pointed up specific services needed but not provided. Some of the implications of these curricular shortcomings are included in the reports of studies in earlier sections of this chapter. Che study made in Tompkins County (New York) called attention to the fact that the rural high schools in that county offered so few programs of a vocational nature that rural youth had lictle opportunity to become familiar with a variety of vocational fields.” Comparing these rural schools with the one city school system in the county, the study reported that 60 percent of the pupils who enroll in the four smallest rural high schools in the area leave school before graduation, 37 per- cent in the four largest rural high schools, and 33 percent in the city schools. The study concluded that the desire of youth to stay in school is influenced by the school’s ability to meet VOC athe nal needs. A comprehensive study of those who drop out of school be- fore graduation has recently been completed in Kentucky and a number of curricular implications reported.” The early school leavers included in the study were reanested to indicate changes in their local school program which might have pro- longed their enrollment in the secondary school. While the reason most frequently given for leaving school was “Preferred work to school,” the two changes most frequently suggested were the provision of work experience and the desire for spe- cific vocational instruction. Business subjects (which included f the District Superintendent of Schools in’ Pennsyl lea ' ( lhe ( lumbia tlm rsity Rural Education, op. cit | Jvarers im Kentucky Bulletin « he Bureau of ition, University of Kentucky 9 78 p. CURRENT STUDIES 157 typing, shorthand, bookkeeping, office machines, accounting, and salesmanship) were listed by 45 percent as the subject or type of training most needed or desired since leaving school and which Were not obtainable while they were enrolled. Another study reported by Miller pointed out that business subjects were listed by more than 9000 Virginia graduates and early school leavers and more than 1500 business and industrial employers as the leading response in what they considered the “fundamentals” of public secondary education."' Included among the recommendations of the Kentucky study were the following: 1. Local school systems should provide the services of one full-time trainer counselor to each $00 pupils >. The school curriculum should be diversified in order to provide expe riences that meet the general ind special needs, interests, ind abilities of ll pupils 5. The xtracurricular program should be extended to provide experiences tor vl] pupils 4 \ work experience program related to the needs ot the pupil, business and the lon i COMMUNILY should b« organized mn those communities in which such a program is feasible. Most of the reorganized school districts included in the study by Fitzwater had either added new courses and instructional services or had definite plans to do so." Analyzing the courses added in terms of enrollment, the study reports that the range of courses added by schools in the different size-groups did not vary as greatly as might have been expected. Except for specialized shop courses and diversified occupations programs reported by some of the larger districts, courses in all of the subject fields included were reported by one or more smaller districts. The most common additions by the smaller dis- tricts, however, were in the fields of homemaking and indus- trial arts as compared to the larger districts where courses or complete programs were added in other subject fields such as commercial or business, physical education, driver education, music, and art. Virginia.” School Life 44:94; 158 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT The use of community resources in the curricular program ag “. 46 was explored by a group of county superintendents in Ohio. They recommended that (a) lay persons should be encouraged to lend time and talents to advising on phases of the school program, and (b) efforts should be made to integrate the edu- cational program with the established institutions in the com- munities—helping to build community schools. Similar recom mendations grew out of a study in Pennsylvania as school super- intendents considered how community resources might be used not only to enrich the educational program itself but also to promote citizens’ interest in their schools.’ Emphasizing the interrelationship of school and community, the study described how objectives of improved relations might be reached through such activities as work experience prograrns, Creative programs of adult education, and followup and placement services. F\ panding Educational Services Part of the emphasis of the studies reported in this section is on particular educational services, but attention is also given to! how these services might be provided. Numerous studies, surveys, and empirical observations have pointed up the smallness of most schools and the limitations of their resources. The increasing complexity of our technical civilization has created new social problems (migratory work- ers, mobility, occupational specialization, etc.) and has accented others which previously had not been considered sufficiently serious to warrant organized attention (unemployables, delin- quents, etc.). Schools have undertaken the meeting of certain of these problems, but many small schools are very inadequate for the task. Even after consolidations and reorganizations, many community schools are not equipped to provide special educational services for handicapped children where these are needed, adequate school health services, guidance and counsel- ing, psychological and psychiatric services, vocational educa- st, Joseph § 1 Study of the Firt Obi County Superintendents’ Workshop. Master's Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, 19 (Typewritten) "Haring, Roy J The Role of 1 Superinten lent in the Interrelationship of School und Community New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Univer- 64 $? p CURRENT STUDIES 1$9 tion, adult education, and the many other services needed for a comprehensive program of education. A number of recent studies have sought to determine how these services might be provided, particularly in smaller communities and rural areas. Several of the studies reported in the section on Reorganiza tion of Intermediate Units include conclusions and recom- mendations regarding the provision of particular services. The law passed by the New York Legislature in 1948, an outgrowth of the Intermediate District Study and permitting the reorgan ization of intermediate units, indicated that certain specified services could and should be provided to constituent school districts—the education of handicapped children, industrial education, adult education, supervision, the administration of attendance, and the administration of transportation.” A later study of the District Superintendency in New York describes five functions of the intermediate unit—aday tation, general consultant, coordination, special cooperative services, and ad ministrative procedures.” The function of “special coopera tive services” is defined specifically as curricular related services which enrich local community school programs. Since the philosophy of service was dominant throughout the study, the other functions are also primarily xirvices——both to com munities and community schools. In Pennsylvania during 1952-53 18 area meetings were held at which lay and professional persons exchanged views about the intermediate unit—its potentialities, its values, the existing needs, and ways of working to strengthen it. From these dis cussions, a series of pamphlets was developed to describe actual and needed services and suggest ways for implementing and improving programs. The titles of the first four pamphlets in this series indicate the concerns: 1. Providing Improved Educational Opportunities for Rural and Sub urban Children and Physically and Mentally Handicapped Children Through County Boards of Schoo! Directors 2, Has the Time Come for a Further Reorganization of the County Superintendency in. Pennsylvania? “TLaus of New York op. cit *BRucll, W. RR. chairman, op. cit COMMU "SITLY SCHIOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNE Consultant and for the Corrective Spr monty Superintendents’ Offices The four states ot the Pacifie Northwest (Idaho, Montana, Oregon, \ ashington) have joined ettorts in looking at the broader problems of prov iding services. The following recom mendations tor a proposed action program grew out of work shop deliberations in Oregon: ; te [he establishment of a county ervice fund or i Verage daily at dan V bass ymmewhat after the P ttern of the pres tlifornia County bund The enactment of COOPET ATIVE very 1Ce legislate n, permitting local di 0 upport led ervi ; cooperatively litional rs earch ind study mito the effectivenes of phases ot the cry is proxram In West Virginia, a rather extensive study of the county- unit is underway and current progress reports show that certain of the service functions appear to be more effective on a county-wide basis."' The study also directs attention to the school-community concept and to the importance of public interest in, and understanding of, education. Reports have not yet indicated attempts to reconcile these conflicting factors local interest and wider Operation, In many states, groups and state associations of county and intermediate superintendents have been exploring the pos- sibilities of providing needed educational services to their con stituent Community schools services which cannot be pro vided economically or effectively by the communities alone. Some of these efforts are as yet not more than informal inquiry, however enthusiastically undertaken. Some are organized studies, The findings of the studies which have been made indicate that the intermediate superintendency is in stare of transition. Many of its newer operations are only beginning to emerge. It is somewnat difhcult to characterize, a fact which may, in large part, explain the great interest the office is generating. Both in 1952 and 1953 the programs of the Marshall College, 1952 CURRENT STUDIES 161 national conference of the Division of County and Rural Area Superintendents of the Department of Rural Education, NEA, have been devoted to developing an understanding of the changing role of the intermediate unit. The primary emphasis of these conference programs, of the various state studies, and of the less formal! explorations is that of assisting local com munity schools by making available those educational services which otherwise are not likely to be provided. Much progress has been made during the past few years. More and more intermediate superintendents are finding ways to develop the educational services desired by constituent districts, despite the often severe limitations in resources and personnel and the im pediments of the legal structure within which they function.” In all regions where the intermediate unit exists, superintend ents are building on the patterns which exist, developing what they have. This is significant; the various patterns of develop ment are increasinely providing experience which can give guidance to further achievement. Studies which might be helpful in establishing desirable stand- ards for each of the various educational services which should be available for every school are yet to be undert-ken. Expe rience in providing many of the possible services 1s very limited, and reports of this limited experience are not generally avail able Only recently have studies been undertaken which con sider the intermediate unit as a possible source of services to community schools. This relationship might be illustrated by citing a few recent studies which concern a partic ular educa tional Service. One of the educational services which seems to huid great promise for the future of rural schools is chat of instructional SUPCs visiON, A study by Vuannatter re emphasizes tne belief that to be most valuable, provision must be made to furnish and administer supervisory services (a) at a level close to the teachers on the job, (b) in keeping with the needs of the area served, and (¢) in a manner designed especially for the par- namber of examples of current programs of educational services are included in : ££. end’ 9 The Texas County Superintendents’ Association is now collecting ful incermediat*-level practices carried on in 30 different states, and will sules later in 1954 162 COMMUNITLY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT tic ular COMMUNITY To measure the adequacy of direct su pervision for t¢ ichers, the study involved a nation wide Survey which included an appr isal of the number of supervisors em ployed as well as the corre ponding oumber of. teachers and 4 hools for w hic ly cle h W Als responst’dle. Dat 1 were see ured for 428 (71.2 percent oi ll) county or other intermediate units having rural areas. Only 38.6 percent employed persons could definitely be classified AS instruc tional supervisors available to rural teachers In some cases their help was likewise given to nonrural schools Intcermediat units providing supervisory ervice had an average of 2.1 ervisors, although 61.4 per cent had none. Regional dit.erences were reported both in terms of the provision of supervision and in the number of teachers for whom a supervisor had responsibility. The Jeanes Teachers, for example, have by administrative policy been con sidered too heavily burdened when the count of teachers supe! vised went above the 40 mark: 30 has been held to be a more satisfactory number In 40 states the study reported that a typical elementary -school supervisor s load was 84.7 teachers in 27.5 schools. The study indicated (a) the need to determine the objectives of rural supervision in terms of meeting com munity needs, and (b) the mportance of intermediate unit leadership as the key to progress in the promotion and success of rural supervision. wi study by Farley included an evaluation of the supervisory services available to rural elementary 4 hools in Nebraska ” Nebraska had 6268 school districts in 1953. The study re ported that rural elementary teachers in Nebraska are permit ted to secure regular teac hing certificates without any college training and that individuals serving as elementary supervisors in rural areas are required to have at least two years of college education, Supervisory services must, therefore, give consid eration to raising the professional status of both teachers and supervisors Pointing out that instructional supervision could 1 Study of the Organization and Administration of the Super Rural Teachers in the United States Doctor's thesis. New dumbia University, 1952 Study of Rural Supervisory Services for Elementary Schools in ed Program for Improvement of Supervision Dector’s thesis Nebraska, 1953 CURRENT STUDIES 163 be more adequately provided if consideration were given to reorganization of responsibilities, reorganization of school dis tricts, and provisions for cooperative ICtIVITICS with teacher education MNStiItUlions, thi study concluded that some Ne braska counties were too large to provide adequate supervision under prevailing conditions while others were too small to en- courage and maintain a well-planned supervisory program. A suggested program for rural schools was developed as a part of the study. Che findings of this study in Nebraska are closely associated with that of Sollenbs rye previously reported,” The latter was confined to an appraisal of the inservice education pro- gram of one Nebraska county (Douglas County). The absence of definitive studies concerning the provision ot specific educational services makes necessary the wide range of experimentation evident in. the experiences reported in Chapters 3, 4 and 5. This experimentation 1s desirable. How ever, it will be important that studies be undertaken to deter- mine the desirable nature and scope of each of the particular services needed and to establish desirable standards to guide in the provision of programs. Attention must also be given to how these educational services can be provided. Since the needs of children and communities exist regardless of the ad- ministrative organization of the schools, programs of educa- tional services to small communities and rural areas will to a large extent depend upon an effective means of providing them. Encouraging, indeed, is the increasing experience. IMPROVING EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP Educational leadership involves many people; it frequently shifts from individual to individual. It involves pupils, parents, teachers, administrators, members of boards of edu- cation and of state education departments, and many others. In particular, it involves those who have some responsibility for carrying out the functions of the educational program. This summary has been limited to focus upon administra- 164 COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNITI tive leadership only. Many findings of the studies reported have application to leadership im its broadest scnse, however. The basis upon which the studies reported were selected as illustrative of thi area has been that the quality of adminis trative leadership in education is not so much determined by the or ganizational structure as it is by its sensitivity to chang Ing needs, its ability to bring about social change, and its re lations to both the community and the profession asa whole. Thy Leadership bane fion The functions of educational administration have been given a great deal of attention in recent years in almost every section of the country and by Various groups on a national basis. Much of this attention has followed a pattern of studies ot the present duties of administrators in an effort to discover clues as to proper functions and responsibilities the “proper” ones often presumed to be those the majority are performing, though ina number of instances projections of “what ought to be” have been considered. One of the ever present func- tions. however difficult it has been to identify, has been that of leadership. Che dependence of any state sy°tem of education upon de centralized leadership has long been recognized, As was stated by the National Council of Chief State School Officers, state leadership, however good, can accomplish little unless there is a chain of leadership reaching into every community ind every classroom.” Defining leadership as an interplay among persons in such 1 way that common direction is given to their efforts, the National Conference of Professors of Educational Admin istration unde rtook a study of the im plic ations of leadership in the preparation of school administrators.’ An analysis of the elements of what is termed “democratic leadership,” with particular emphasis upon the rural educa i Office: Annual Meeting of the ouncil held nal Administration Educational Leaders the Second Work Conference Madison, Columbia University 1948 ie CURRENT STUDIES 16S tional leader, was made by Butterworth and Dawson. Dhey reported the problems ot educational leader hip im a com munity as follow ia £24 3 know what cduc iwion can do to . o | | ] | improve the quatity of living, (b Li isualize the pecine elements in a program that will enable a school to do what it ought, tc} to seek thi contribution from as many as possible ot the thought ful me mbers of the Community mn dex iding upon 1 wise Course Of action, and (d) to yet the community as a whole to accept the course Of action that Cems Most promis Ing ind to participate mn making it effective | his process ot demvc ratte leader hip with spec jal refi rence tO COUNTY superintendents was discussed in the 1950 Yearbook of the Department of Rural Education.” h has imposed many and handicaps. But in spite of the obstacles, pro- service have developed. They should be encour- \ sAct accle l, ld he pers ~d. ar j j eat eneres OOsTACTeS sNOUld De removed, and additional serv- ; | . | doe begun in accordance with the particular needs a ~} sacl rp schools mm eacn area. - The evidence of the present programs of intermediate unit ges re i ne to the possibility that development will depend adership than upon legislative action and struc- amization ot the present operational frame- in many states. The key to develop- however, il remain in the leadership provided. ‘rmediate superintendents who sit back and wait for a new type of intermediate unit to be legislated will seldom see its potentialities in their own intermediate area. The present zeal of most intermediate superintendents indicates that this will dom be the case. COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND Sresent nN teermey: oS See S| proposed i . ~dnced ode res eu ts has be ; ) ? } . rt .* - 45% | is deveiopmen le m graquai. splacing any individual. Where inter rancres Nave occurred, ee a ntermec late area A ag i was desirable. Wher -ancies have been filled as takes considerable time but is accomplished withou cratic decree, without general structural upheaval, and best interests of professional relations. But, however gra j bas Mens hae = > , ns the progiess lias deen definite as regarc 1s the objec tive desir CONCLUSION This vearbook is being concluded with questions, not answers ii definite answers exist, they have escaped the committee which has assumed responsibility for a consideration of community school and intermediate unit relationships. We look to the which we hope this yearbook will stimul the guidance of the continued experience ts as they serve local community schools in ing programs of community education. And we encouragement, appreciation, and enthusiasm for those who yioneer in the development of new educational horizons for communities and rural areas of America. CONVICTIONS ’ “4% irr y should nave access ¢ prehensive program of that control and responsib the TED BIBLIOGRAPHY setr . v LTRs Major emphasis mmittee aace a . : int Committee with “WIN country ; and concerned j ; - r produced DEPARTMENT OF at Ce } ead > Sampson & New Department’s Executive DEPARTMENT YEARBOOKS THAT ARE AV AILABLE Cc ; Cawcsli Wofford, Ed Rural Schools Ed., 152 p. Conservation Bathurst, Ed Community Ri Wof ord, Ed i yDes OF 1 fruces Kate V. Wofford, E Economical Enrich: Yearbook, 1934. Fr Or ganization urricuinm for One-1 Fannie W. Dunn, Ed. 44 p. GOALS FOR THE CENTENNIAL ACTION PROGRAM OF THE UNITED TEACHING PROFESSION ARIZONA HOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNII ARKANSAS ROSTER OF MEMBERS ALTRPORKNIA } et Journal of Arkansas ‘ » Anseo tics Education ‘ ‘ itie Ma inter Ana Flementa f Falu ommittes on Rural Los Ange Flementary rintendent? mata County emen edu MEMBER tat State COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNTI MI MBERS DELAWARE n I Ru ROSTE} GEORGIA Wire DISTRICT OF INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Memorial re OMIMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT amore trnent TIONAL ME Hender fent, McLean f Rural Edu State lreachers "I by ¢ Teachers ‘partment of Committee f Rura ambridge 'warday CONMAUNTEY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT HOOL AND INTERMEDIATI LOUISIANA MASSACHUSETTS lonald Har 1 Grad MARYLAND INSTITUTIONAT MEMHER Mw H f f Massact Amherst ROSTER OF MEMBERS MICHIGAN MEMBERS ion, mmittee, Divi mentary i-Mont \ HISSISSIVI : f M VI ISSOU RI ‘ NEBRASKA SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE NEW HAMPSHIRE NEW JERSEY ROSTER OF MEMBERS NEW YORK Ovid ntendent mingdal ender of Divi n ‘tate Department resident of ' , imbia Director t Superinten tent Rath Superinte ident inty New field Direet Ameri Schoo! sew nt Afton ife Member Loud f Rural ducation tor Vian Regional dueation Bhuperintendent of Mineola District Super Oswego County, intemdent of Superintendent Poughkeepsie Superinter Morrisville t Superintend sulfalo Superintendent inty Ellenburg dent uperintendent Mohawk md Street Weat, superintendent Kast Jewett Kdueation, Com Preparation of Superintendent ton rintendent White Lewi Ship County HOOT AND INTERMEDIATE UNTI Meche ent of h nat iminit ife Member, William rit perintend superintendent Walia i ! Harold adr i ‘ i ner I Lawrert "rate ” rf Midduecation Cornell Unive Ithaca larke Market ) Mabel School the Representative, Region 2, U York City mimittes rf Department man E. A., Field Operations Branch of Education, New hmidt \ W Ass ad Seheol Bducation dyvar KR Di Salt tant Commi Administrati Depa trict init Finance nt State tment superin Middletows: ict Supertotendes Honeoye ‘ triet Super ida Count Yor he National Ce Admini ints ntene kville ntermediate trati District vorme rants Binghamton Villo, Db et Superi Onondaga County fk i superintendent Painted Post iperintendent Sel ' Fi ity Mantiu Smith rict Superintendent Deposit intendent Glenn A ; Superintendent ¢ itendent bridge i Schoo! e County Smith Field Olic sshoner t mmis if of cipal Che Chenang intendent if ROSTER OF MEMBERS t District wols, Oneida County, Camden rant District Superintendent of V rooman taymond ¢ Superinterd Schools, Cattaraugua County Salamanca Ward, Harry B District Superintendent of Sehool Suffolk Count Riverhead Wileaox, Jobe Supervising Principal, Candor Central School Candor Committe on Publication and Constructive Studies Superintendent of Westfield Winch, Ruth B District Schools, Chautauqua County, Winchester, Milo F District Superintendent if howl Dutches inty, Millerton W kof Philip . H. Hill Colleye, Raleizh ollege at Durham, Libr. North Carolina ¢ Durham NORTH DAKOTA Director of fenchers ( Klementary ilewe, May Superintendent towman tfowman iate Professor, School of North Dakota, Education l'niversity of 247 Danicourt Mrs John Teacher, Mooreton Special No. 1, Riehland County, Mooreton (Mrs.) Lulu, Director of Education, Evanson North Dakota Farmers Union, Jamestown Evingson, Caroline J Superintendent, Cass County Schools, Fargo Ewen, Leiia ¢ Rural Training, State Teach- ers College Minot Executive Committee of the Department George W Superintendent, Renville Schou Mohall Johnson, Charles A Rural Supervisor, Dick- Inson Johnaor (Mra.) Luba FE Rolette County Schools, Rolla Advisory Council to the Commission on the Intermediate trative Unit Superintendent, State Di- National Adminis- rector Lynne Helen G Superintendent, MelLean County Schools, Washburn Miller (Mra.) Eather A Superintendent, rraill County Schools, Hillsboro State Superintendent of State Department of Bismarck ; Planning Committee, Midwest Kegional Conference on Rural Life and Education Shanks Gladys Superintendent, eterson, M k Publie Instruction Public lostruection, Cavatier County Sehools, Langdon Sprouse, Mrs.) Helen, Superintendent, Dickey County School Wlilendale Thompson Julian ™M Superintendent, Me Kenzie County Schools, Watford City W ade Claudia R Superintendent Burke County Schools r Mrs bred Walford Bow bells Teacher, School, Rural INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Mayville Minot Library, State Teachers College I Library, State Teachers College OHTO Baden, ¢ \ Superintendent, Schools, Greenville Karnes, Vernon W County Schools, Beery, George C., County Schools, Darke County Superintendent, Jackson Jackson Superintendent, Franklin Columbus; Committee of County and Rural Area Superintendents to Work with CPEA; State Director Superintendent, Paulding County K Assistant County Schools, Louisville Ralph R Superintendent, County Schools, Norwalk Coblentz, C i, Superintendent County Schools, Eaton Superintendent, Huron Preble Coffeen, Carl, Superintendent, Summit County Sehools, Cuyahoga Falls Crou s, Charles B., Superintendent, Harnii- Cincinnati Superintendent, ton County Sebooals, Driseoll, W A Schools, Dayton Superintendent, Montgomery County Ely, Ralph, onoola, Wooster Eyman, R. M Assistant Superintendent of Public Instruction, State Department of Education Columbus Planning Commit tee, Great Lakes Reyional Conference os Rural Life and Education Finley I M Superintendent, Wayne County Ashtabula Count Schools, Jeffersor Gantz T Ray Superintendent, Morrow County Schoola, Mt. Gilead Gibbens & A Superintendent, Lorain County Schools, Elyria Goodrich Ivan Assistant Superintendent, Huron County Schools, Norwalk Superintendent, Warren Lebanon Hatfield R k County Schoots, Hawke Oscar r Superintendent Springtield Clark Superintendent, Clermont County Schools, Batavia Humphreys Phila Elementary Supervisor. State Department of Edueation, Columbus Toone $ Lewi wrintendent Gallia ‘ int School lis Joseph t j intendent Hancock County Sehoo Kirby, Theresa K ‘sistant Superintendent, Hamilton ¢ inty School Cincinnati Kirkpatrick, Ellis I Professor of Sociologs Marietta Colley Marietta Superintendent, Stark County School Canton Ailviso Couneil to the National Commission on the Intermediate \dministrative Unit tlensehlager J fk Superintendent Co locton County Schools, ‘ shocton Vice-President, Division of School Trans rortation Law Ww } tendent Tusearawa County Schoo I Philadelphia L.cudenback, H. M Superintendent, Cham { paign County Sehoola, Urbana Martin, Samuel + Superintendent, Seneca County Sehoots, Tiffin MeBride, James 1 Superintendent. Colum biana County sSehool., Lishon MeCowen, kK tuperintendent, Setoto County S | Portsmouth Mills, D perintendent, Marion Counts Schools, Marion Oman I) Ww County Se superintendent, W yandot thools, Upper Sandusky Superintendent, County Schools, Woodstield Pond, Millard Projeet Coordinator, CPEA, State University, Columbus Frank ¢ Superintendent, Monroe Hardin Schools, Kenton ‘ Floyd Assistant Superintendent, Montgomery County Schools, Dayton Kausch, Calvin County Sehools Roshon, Ray HB County School Ryder, H. F Superintendent Schools, Toleds Sanders, Hershel W Histant ent, Preble County Schools, Schlegel E.. £ Assistant Superintendent Stark County Schools, Fast Sparta Shanks Carl H., Superintendent, County Wilmington Shuman, W is County Schools, Superintendent, Portage Ravenna Superintendent, Steubenville Jefferson Lucas County Superintend Eaton Clinton Schools Superintendent, Cleveland Cuyahoga Superintendent, Crawford Sollara, $8 ; Bucyrus ( inty Specht Clarence W Jennings T Schools Fort Jennings Superintendent cal Schools, Fort Stanfield, John M Superintendent, County Schools, Rellefontaine Thowapsaon ‘ Vv County Wakefield, He Loyar Superintendent, Miami Schools Trey ward F CPEA, jumbus Ohio State Welshimer Earl ¢ Director of Research arpenter Body Company, Worthington W ent Glen ( superintendent Mercer County Schools, Celina West, H. D., Schools Whitman lusky ¢ Superintendent, Brown County Georgetown William A,, ounty Schools Superintendent, San- Fremont INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER Library, Miami University, Oxford COMMUNITY SCHOO! AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT OKLAHOMA Abshier iMrs Leona, Superintendent, Ok- tuskee County Sebv Oketuah Boyer Te Superintendent of Schools, Balko Burris, Ted, State Department of Education, Oklahoma City Carrie I Su Payne Count Sehool Sti L\dvisory Council to the Netional Commission on the Intermediate Administeative Unit Ferguson, Leslie Guy, Superintendent, Tulsa county Sechools, Tulsa Fitzgerald J Ce Assistant Director in Charve of Audio-Visual Center, Oklahoma \ & M Coilewe, Stillwater; State Direetor Planning Committees Midwest Regional Conference on Rural Life and Education Executive Committee of the Department Foster W Supe Schools, Vinita rintendent, Craig County Golden, Neal V Superintendent, Canadian County Schools, El Reno Good Charl Superintendent, Lineoln County Sehools, Chandler Grady Cc EK Superintendent Okli homa County Sehools, Oklahoma Citys Hester Mrs A ngrie Superintendent, Me- Clain County Schools, Purcell Jimerson Pred Superintendent, Ottowa Schools Kimberling iMrs.) Jefferson County Knezevich, § j Associate Professor of Education, University of Tulsa, Tulsa Knowles, S. J., Superintendent, Eilis County Schools, Arnett Morwan, GG. G., Assistant and Elementary Education, ior College, Muskaee Kowe, Omer, Superintendent, Schools Ardmore Sadler Steven, Superintendent, School District No. 86, Shoop, William E., County Schools, Smart, Jake, Director, Education, State Oklahoma City Sorenson, Helmer E., Professor of Educatior Oklahoma A & M College, Stillwater Toon, "aul, Superintendent, MeiIntosh County Schools, Eufaula Counts Miami Mabel Schools, Superintendent, Waurika Director, Rural Muskogee Jun- Carter County Straight Guymen Superintendent, Noble Rural and Klementary Department of Education, Yarbrough, Theo, Superintendent, Texas County Schools, Guymon OREGON Baker Helen P Superintendent, Benton County Schools, Corvallis Beardsley, Florence FE Supervisor of Ele- mentary Education, State Education, Salem Kooth, (Mrs.) Avnes ©€ Marion County Schools, Beyer, Estella ¢ County Schools. C (Mrs.) Department of Superintendent, Salem Superintendent anyon City Velma G., Grant Huckingham Supverintend- ent, Deschutes County Schools, Bend Casiday, (Mrs.) Lois S., Teacher, Bend Clem, (Mrs.) Beryl E., Eastern Oregon Col lege of Education, La Grande Corwir George A Superintendent Hood River County Schools, Hood River Couzens Veda FE... Superintendent, Union County Schools, La Grande Doimyer, Ww H Superintendent, Linn Albany Schools, q Superintendent, Raton, Asa , County Schools, Madras Farley, Lillian, Superintendent, Coos County Schools, Coquille Jefferson ROSTER OF MEMBERS W Superintendent Schools, Elme ysunty Fleming Grants Pass Principal, How onsultant Lane igene superintendent, Morri Heppner supermtendent Me Minnville Yamhill Jackson Columbia mre M ' ! endent Schools the Department, 1054 to the National ¢ Administrative ne County mm rriectint Sup rin Baker Superintendent Jackson Iford ‘encher, Portland einige field itive Secretary Oregon ' Po intendent Dey tland f Public In uwtment of Publis Consultant, Elementary Educa Department of tendent County Superintende Connty Lakeview tichard W County itendent, ¢ Sprague Schools Woodcock Director of Special Schools, Coquille urry Coliity ducation Voelker, Cliff per Schools, Gold Bea Woodworth } \ Super County hola ovr ntendent, Clacka ma egon City INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Collese of Education, Mon Oregon State Library, Salem PENNSYLVANIA ley VP Potter County | Coudersport Schowl H. Schools, Fionesdale Superintendent Ammerman Superintendent, Wayne County App, I. Dp Supe Schools, Harr Harnett talph F Assi Somerset Schoots, rintendent, Dauphin County isburg tant Superintendent County Somerset Surtwe Newton 1 County S 4, Lock uttee Superintendent, Clinton Haven , Superintendent Schools, Pittaburgh President, Millersville Millersville ar Alle wheny tiemesderfer State Teachers College, Boehm, Char Superintend ee tm pb re National the Intermediate Adminis { im é wn t ommi North Rural tanning Committee, onference on trative Atlanti Life Hotel County Schools, “tional ind Education Reading Consuitant, Doylestown Bucks Consultant, Curriculum Inatruction, Bucks County Committee on Rural the World Scene Rowen, Genevieve Elementary Doylestown ; Education on and Se he Life ols and igins J Supervisor Washington County ‘aul, Superintendent, Cumber Schoois, Carlisle Clay, Superintendent ol Lewistown Superioftenden Conway K I rintendent Lawrences Cananty Sup New Caatle Tear he r Schools Wesiey C : Honesdale Fa Hew ‘ County Schools, Fink, Lyall J \ Dauphin County Schools, Hat Francis Th Superintendent wanna County Schools Hess, Walter I Teacher riculture, Slippery Rock Kol Maurice & Superintendent County Schools, Erie Kurt Pau Assistant Superintend.n Blair County schol Bellwood MeConnel Clarence H., Superintendent, H Schools, Williamaport Member, Greens Honesdale High Fastman Superintendent Juniata Mifflintown Superintendent er _ 4sistant tsburg Lacka mas, Scranton of Voeational Ag pien, Kirie Lveoming County Maxwell, Charles F., Life hurg Department of Finat Teachers Nathan G ation State College nudsburg Virginia FP Dean of Women College, Wilkes-Barre Raffensperger, Charles L., tendent, Adama County Robinson, Kaymond W and Transportation Publie Instruction Small, Thelma EF Feachers College Ralph ¢ Lycoming County Speidel, Harold O., A Schuylkill County Wilke Assistant Supertr Schools, Gettysburg Chief, Consolidatior State Depart Harrisburg Training Teacher, Shippensburg Assistant Superintendent Schools, Williamsport sistant Superintendent, Schools, Pine Grove Stock kar h Assistant Superintendent, Centre County Schools, Bellefonte; Ad- Couneil to the National Commission mediate Administrative Unit Superintendent, York County ment of State Smith visors of Secor Collewe, Wildrick, . Jr Supervisor dary State Teachers Fast Stroudsburg INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS olleve, Clarion Philadelphia Chester State Teachers Library of Philadelphia, College, West RHODE ISLAND Mark College of Sciences J y of Khode Kingastot cnt: Planning New England Regional i Life and Fduecation fk Te ne he r pay lewy Arts Island Com Noble and mittee, Conference on Rura Patter, { ile CAROLINA State Hill Superintendent On Walhalla Mauldin SOUTH Alroan rwemics, Rock 1 V Schools Chastain Ww H Mauldin Kdwards Katha ‘ ( Health, Greenvill Home Supervisor of Hich School onsultant school 250 Green Albert Superintendent County Sehools, Georwetown ' Holladay I Georgetown Supervising Principal , oF Superintendent, Beau Distriet No. 1, Beaufort Mitchum, Floy O Teacher, Inman Verd Director of Vo Department of Jeanes Pine Haven : i! Education, Stat Fiducation (retired) Kawlinson, Lan Supervisor of Transapor tat Department of Edueation, Peterson ation George town Stackhouse Eather, Superintendent, Marion County Marion Verdin, T Director of Rural Service Divisio istructional School Diatrict Greenville County, Greenville State Director Planning Committee, South antic Revional Rural and Education; Executive Committee the Department Director, Extension Division f South Carolina, Columbia Services, Conference = on INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER Library Clemson Graham, I Cornelia \ College, ¢/o ibrarian, Clemson SOUTH Hondwine Doris DAKOTA Superintendent Hayti Superintendent Clark Superintendent ‘uster Hamiin County Schools Bohr Florence School Nellie, County Schoola, C Bymers (Mra Spink County Redfield Delzel! Dean, School { . ‘ wuth Dakota, Vermillion; ‘ommittee Midwest Regional Conference on Rural Life and Education earle I Superintendent, Buffalo Schools, Gann Valley rin Mrs Ada, Superintendent, Schools, Howard roethe Ame Superintendent County Schools, Rapid City Hervig () dwar Superintendent, Minne haha County Sehools, Sioux Falls Advisory Couneil to the Na mal Commission on the Intermedi Administrative Unit Lake Preston tendent Clark County Bridges iater Gladys, Superintendent, Schools, if Education Planning ctinty ‘ Miner County Pennington superir Brown Aberdeer Helen Superintendent, ounty Milbank Norma Superintendent School De Smet School Kingsbury Superintendent Robert County Sisseton Margaret Bend le inty Sehools, Huron Director Lorentser (Mrsa.) Winifred, Superintendent Hand County $ Willer MeGinnis, Trene G Superintendent, County Superintendent State hacreran Perkins Schools, Bison iMrs.) June. Superintendent, Fall School Hot Springs Superintendent, Hutchinson Schools, Olivet Hazel G Box F, Ww vom, Charlotte M Teacher, South Dakota, Vermillion Opliger fk ( Superintendent, Day Webster i(Mrs.) Zona, Superintendent, Mel Schools, White River County Clara Effiagton University County Sehools Rajewich lette County Moody Selma Superintendent, Flandreau Severson County Schools COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT Simmona, iMrs.} Helen Superintendent, Brookings County Schools, Brookings | Otto, Superintendent McPherson County Schools, Leola Titus Kdna ™M Superiatendent County Schools, Woonsocket Wells i(Mrs.) Hilde nee County Schools Sanborn Superintendent, Law Dendwood INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER General Headle Teachers Madison TENNESSEE Quinnie, Superintendent, Bolivar Superintendent, Memphis K K-. Superintendent, Crockett Schools, Alma William Superintendent, Library State Collewe Armour County Schools George H Schools Hardeman barnes Shelby County County Brave Cannon County Schools, Darden, Byrns, Assoc . rof or of Educa tion, Austin State ¢ larkesville Davis, Mack P., Head, Department of Edu ition Hust Tennessee State College Johnson City Doyle Mildred Ff Superintendent, County Schools, Knoxvi'le Shannon D ton County Se role, 4 Fitzgerald, N. Denn tion, University of Knox Faulkner, Superintendent, ‘Tip ovingtton Educa fennessee, Knoxville Profeasor of Rural Educa George College Planning Commit College of at, Norman tio Emeritus, Peabody for Teachers, Nashville tee Midsouth tegional Rural Life and Education Human Ww oF Conference on Superintendent Wartbure Principal, Morgan County chools, Bartlett Hunt Ralph High School Hyder hinst City Keathley, Belt, A Middle Murfreest Kennedy i s ataugr County MeCharen Bartlett Gretchen, Director of State Collewe, Servics Tennessee Johnson Professor of Edu State College, ociate cation rennessee Demon- College ; abody stration S§ ol, George Peabody for "e 4, Nashville Mowre Claude (« sunty Schools Dyer Direc National Adminis Superintendent, Dyersburg State tor Advisory Couneil te the Commission on the trative Unit Moss, J. | Superintendent School Nashville Pickens, H. D ‘rofessor, Jefferson Truman M I f ollege Intermediate Davidson County Carson-Newman College Pierce body ¢ Powers Memphis d Matney, County Schools, Shannon, W. A., Superintendent, City Schools, Morristown .wotherman, Bealer, Superintendent ford County Schools, Murfreesboro Story, Bascom H., Director, School of Educa- tion, Memphis State College, Memphis Turner WwW. F Director, Division of Negro Education, State Department of Education, Nashville Professor, George Pena Teachers, Nashville Member, The Gilmore Superintendent, MeMinn Athens Morristown Ruther- INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Library, East Tennessee State Co!lege, son City John ROSTER OF MEMBERS Library, George Peabody College for Teach ers, Nashville Library Middle Murfreesboro Tennessee State Colleve, TEXAS Director, Southwestern f Texa Austin Superintendent rokee Rusk Superintendent County Schools, Edinburg ekett. M. 1 Superintendent, Hill County Schou! Hillsboro Runting Ww D Superintendent, County Schools, Bryan Emmett F., Health ¢ North Texas State College Campbell County Beane Hidalgo Brazos Cambron wordinator Denton Superintendent, Schools, Gatesville Carlile, Shelma, Supervisor Schools, Lubbex Jonn S., Head, Department of Edu- on Texas Teehnolowical College, Lub- Committee on Rural Life and Edu- ion on the World Scene Division of ounty ana Rural Aren Superintendents ommittee on Rural Scouting m r D Morris Schools Leoma Coryell Lubbock County arroll Supervisor, Daingerfield onoley Gilbert County Superintendent, William- Schools Crawley Ww ( County Sehools Elkins Ww t County Sehools, Ballinger Faulds Jack Superintendent, County School Caldwell Foreman, Mary, Superintendent, Hall County Schools, Memphis Fort Ber Superintendent Schools, Boston (jaston Mrs Elizabeth A ipal, Carlsbad James W Superintendent, Schools, Longview ‘(Mrs.) Willie M Schools aon County Georgetown Superintendent, Liberty Liberty juperintendent, Runnels Burleson Bowie County Flementa ry CGrewg Superintendent, Plainview Superintendent, Caldwell ockhart Planning Com- Regional Conference on and Edueation; Committee of and Rural Area Superintendents » Ww with CPE Haskew, f.. D ollege of University of Texas, Austin Herndon, Ellen O., Elementary Teacher, San Dean Education, Superintendent, Austin Be tiville superintendent, Wilbar Vernon Superintendent, Tom San Anyelo State cuncil to the National Adminis- Commin or Intermedi tr ' ‘ Sup. rintendent, Anderson Counts Palestine Kennamer » H Mason, J County Wall Houston Principal Superintendent Schools, Crockett acd yre Kenneth FE Associate Professor, liniversity f Texas Austin Joint Com mittee with the Rural Sociological Society Neal, Connally, Superintendent, Bell County Schools, Belton Peek Haske} Superintendent Red River County Schools, Clarksville Pickett RK County Superintendent Victoria Victorta Ruth M Superintendent Schools, Clarendon Schools, Richerson Donley County ast Roberts Ll, \ County Schools, Dates Rodgers, John ©O Assistant of Schools, Midland Sanders Mary Shipp, Box Life Member Smith, (Mrs.) Bernice W Kleeberg County Sehools, Kingsville Smith, ¢ Principal, Tankersley Superintendent Farrant County & vols, Fort Worth Watson ; Superintendent, County Watters Miles Whittington Charles W Potter County Schools Wilroy F County Superintendent, Dallas Superintendent Cleburne ; Superintendent, Stowe Navarro Schools, Corsicana Mrs.) Ruth C., Teaching Principal, Superintendent, Amarillo J Superintendent, Schools, Lufkin Angelina INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS still Library, Sam Houston State Teachers Huntaville University of Houston, Houston Stephen F Austin State Teachers Necogdoc hes Library, University of Texas, Waiker Memorial Library College, Brownwood West Texas State Teachers College, ¢/o Li- brarian, Tennessee Malone College ibraries Jibrary, College, Austin Howard Payne Canyon UTAH Chipman, R. S., Superintendent, North Sum- mit School District, Coalville Frye, Clifford 1, Superintendent, County School District, Huntington Gourley David Superintendent, Granite School District, Salt Lake City Knight, Helen ™M Superintendent, School Distriet, Moab Theurer, Lloyd M Superinten tent Cache County School District, Logan: Advisory Council to the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit; State Director Emery Grand INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER library, University of Utah, Salt Lake City VERMONT N. Richard, Superintendent, Rocking- Westminster District Schools, Bellows Thomas J Superintendent, Windsor County Southeast District Schools, Windsor Codding Ernest M Superintendent, Addi- son Northeast District isristol State Director Advisory Council to the National Commission on the Intermediate AGuunistrative Unit Dopp, Kaymond D., Superintendent, Rutland District Schools, Pittsford Holden, A. John, Jr., Commissioner of Edu cation, State Department of Education Montpelier Keniston, Harry A Superintendent, Central District Schools, Barton Maynard, Addie E State Helping Teacher, Fairhaven Perrin, J. Newton, 179 South Main, Sawyer Charica D Superintendent, ington Northeast Distriet Schools, fleld Vannatter Schools Northenst Orleans Barre W ash- Plain- Harold H Castleton Teachers Caatleton COMMUNITY INSTITUTIONA!. MEMBER Lyndon Lyndon Center VIRGINIA Assistant Professor of Virswinia Teachers College Karl R University Bow M Superintendent unty Schools, Warrenton Buckland, Roscoe V Superintendent, and County Schools, Monterey KBurtor George W Superintendent, Clarke County Sehools. Berryville Camden \ Superintendent munt Sehools Amherst H kK Superintendent Schools, Staunt mittee Division of \rea Superintendents; State Director Kdwin W Superintendent, Norfolk Schools, Norfolk; Advisory Couneil to the National Commission on the Inter medinte Administrative Unit rasque, Q D Division Superintendent Warren-Rappahannock District Schools, Front Roya Alonze B Superintendent, County Sehools Boydton Paul Superintendent, Culpeper mu tinet High- Amherst Augusta Executive Com- (aunty ’ County and Rural ( hittum County Mecklen Culpeper ‘rintendent, Carroll County onard, Superintendent, Marion Superintendent, Imyth Prince imberland County Schools Farmville Rhudy Kurt County Schools, Vaughan, W A., County Schools, Bowling Green Warburten Amber Arthun, Executive Secrets: an for Guidance of Rural routh Webb, David County Seho« W ise Henry Superintendent, County Sch Accomuc Washington 8 M4 Rox 608 Superintendent Grayson Independence Superintendent, Caroline Superintendent Hanover Ashland Accomac Culpeper INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Memorial Petersburg Longwood Coliewe, Farmville Kadford College, Radford Library Virwinia State tbrary WASHINGTON n, A. W., Superintendent, School Yakima Hennett, (Mrs Dorothy J Superintendent, Snohomish Count Schools, Fv (Mrs.) Ruth. Superintendent County Sehools, Tacoma ramblitt De Foee, Superintendent, Kitsap County Schools, Port C=" 4 ; 5 (Mrs Lydia F Cowlitz Yakima County erett Pierce rt 5 County Schools Dahtke County Hussey founty Kinkade County Superintendent, Douglas Waterville Superintendent, Spokane Spokane Superintendent, Wenatchee Loree, G Superintendent, Skagit County Schoola, Mount Vernon State director; Advisory Couneil to the National Com mission on the Intermediate Administrative t'nit Miles, J. F Sehool Sehools Clifton A Schools Chelan Superintendent, Kittitas County Ellensburg SCHOO! AND INTEXRMEDIATI Pierce (Mrs.} Adams C Shields, J Pasco Thompson, (Mrs Benton County Schools Mary C., Superintendent, Schools, Ritzville West yrunty ad 231 Bonneville Street Margaret, Superintendent, x ‘rosser INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Centenl Washington College of Education, Ellensburg State (« re of Pull- Library Washington man WEsi! Archer, ( ae Mercer County Baldwin, Robert D Administration, Morgantown Billups, Ceeil W Bonar Martha Program, State Charleston Brovies, Maud Elementary Education, Charleston Crawford, Robert T Superintendent, County Schools, Weston Creasy, James L rintendent, Berkeley County Schools Martinsburg; Planning Committee, South Atlantic Regional Con ference on Rural Life and Education Darnell, William Earl, Supervisor of portation Greenbrier County Lewisburg Executive Committee, of School Transportation Fields, Earl W Assistant intendent Kanawha County Charleston Harrah, BD. D Assistant ( VIRGINIA Princeton Superintendent, Schools (retired) Professer of Educational West Virginia University, Madison Lunch Department of Education, Supervise Superviser, School Assistant State Supervisor. Schools, State Department of Lewis Supe lrans- Schools, Division County Super- Schools, Superintendent, Lewisburg Harvey Beatrice Burns, Visiting Teacher, Greenbrier County Schools Lewisburg Hupp, James L., West Virginia Wesleyan College Buckhannon Idleman, H L., Superintendent, County Schools, Keyser Jones, Daniel M., Assistant Superintendent, Berkeley County Schools, Martinsburg Kennedy Eiddie C., Rt i, Box 54, Morgan- town Lambert, Relington Marple, Clora woods MeGuffie, Jeannette, Genersl Mineral County Schools, Keyser Montgomery, John F., Superintendent, Green- brier County Schools, Lewisburg; Advisory Council to the National Commission on the Intermediate Administrative Unit; Committee on Rurei Lite and Education in the World Seene Mvers, Clifford S Elk view Oates, H. Brown, 140 Potomae Drive Robinette, Randolph, Director of tion, Prineeten Shipe, Frank, Assistant Superintendent, Fay- ette County Schools, Oak Hill Snyder Ver! W Superintendent County Seluwis, Berkeley Springs inompaon, (Mrs Juanita B., Rural Education, Kanawha Cor State Director Greenbrier ounty Schools, Mineral (Mrs Audra G Supervisor, Reading Supervisor, Flat Supervisor, Principal Keyser lransaporta- Morgan Virector of *: Schoola, Charleston rrent, W. W., State Superintendent of Free Schools, State Department of Education, Charleston Arthur V. G., Superintendent, Harri- Schools, Clarksburg; Division Rural Area Superintend- Rural Scouting Upton, son County of Cownty and ents Committee on ROSTER OF MEMBERS 253 Siaper oainskt lane Superintendent Dane Morwantown inty Sehool Horeb Myrtle 4 Rural Supervising ieee wal Teacher, Grantsburg Pierce Milton Supervising Teacher, Mil hiTUTIONAL MEMBER County Schools, Milwaukee Of, mc) eke aaheasd “Gahan ‘ " t {Mire Trem . tg * 7 nat ia Oneida County Assis Superintendent WIS¢ ONSIN *hyll Principal Dodwe j Mayville «tor, Rural Educatt . s College, Ste eT Po Rohling " : wrintendent, Central perintendent, Sauk rt Superintendent Tierce County Schools Sheski y Superintendent Washington vd intendent, May- worth Polk ¢ inty ville Superintendent Superintendent Huffalo chool Marinette nt 5 ’ vl min ; wrintendent Dodge t \ Director of Transporta f Publik Inatruction Committee, Great rintendent Kenosha rence on Rural Life ‘ Rural Education La Crosse rintendent, Clark County conain State College, Superintendent, Fond du Is, Fond du Lace Superintendent I’rice rurnell hidith Klementary Supervisor, Phillips a Lillies superintendent Iowa Poplar Pwohig Lauri May Rural Supervising schools, Dodgeville : - 4 Teacher Fond du La County Schools, Sheridan Superintendent, Wal ' Schools, Elkhorn Fond du ba ‘ . Le acum : Principal Polk County Van Straten, H. J., Superintendent, Outa- Falls vyamie County Schools, Appleton Garnett ‘ rector, Rural Education Webb, Grace Blementary SUDErVIROT of Inte River Falls ‘ rrat ty pe College, River Falls grated District : 1D rat eunie i? f Kd seation Webster Jennie | Superintendent Kau j etter eel Wis onsin, Madison Claire County Sehool hau Claire Hake. F. H Superintendent, Barron County Weix Frank Principal Bonduel Commu Normal hoot Riee Lake nity School, Bonduel Hornback,. Charles A., Director, Rural Educa- Wilhelmine, Sister M., Saint Rose Convent, on ar Claire State College et . a Crosse I acct Robe rt I Supe ot gy Bs Winther, Adolph L., Director of Rural and %. Croi ounty, Baldwin Klementary Education Wisconsin State lone Se Superintendent Grant Collese, Whitewater; State Director Ce " ehools. Lencastet Yuhas Theodore Frank 1900 State Street, : - Clair Junge Principal, Dunn County Nor Bau lnire | Menomonie Superintendent, Milwaukee Milwaukee Advisory Library Wisconsin State Collewze, Stevens ‘ ‘ Wormrn , aint Crom INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Council to t National Commission on the Point Intermediate Administrative Unit Chair Library Wisconsin State College, White man, Committee of County ond Rural Arena water Superintendents to Work with CPEA; Di Publie Library, Milwaukee ion of County and Rural Aren Supe: in State Collewe, Eau Claire intendents Committee on BReral Scouting mee S.ate College, La Crosse K nedle Matt i pe rintendent, W ood Wisconsin State Collese, Milwaukee Count howls Wisconsin Rapids Wisconsin State Collewe, Superior Roland A Principal, Richland Norma! Sehool, Kichland WYOMING teston stant Professo f Rural F : , rans. Was hecintant z nh he Uni. Ackerley, (Mra.) Violet M., Teacher, Sheridan ersity VNisconsin, Madison Committees Alleman Effie Superintendent Lincoln t ications and Conatructive Studies County School Kemmerer Larmber ronld A Jupervising Principal Carson (Mra.) Rosella, Superintendent, Public chools Joint District No, 11, Hoi Laramie County Schools, Cheyenne combe Emmett H k Superintendent, Washakie Lee, | Principal, Glenwood City County Schools, Worland Leiwht ( t Hazel Superintendent La Hockett Rosalie EF Superintendent, Sub- Crosse ‘ y Schools, La Crosse lette County Schools, Pinedale Lindow omi ; Supervising Principal Nelson Helen J Superintendent, Albany Gillett Public hoola, Gillett County Schools, Laramie Advisory Coun- Loagbotham, G. 7 Principal, Lineoln Nor cil to the National Commission on the mal Schoo Merrill Intermediate Administrative Unit 254 Professor, Rural Wyoming, Olson Huzes Education Laramie Reusser, Walter Education and versity f Wyoming, Direetor Sander, Dorris I Director cation arid Fdu Department of Assistant University of of Adult Uni- State Dean, Division Community Service, Laramie; Elementary Edu Handicapped Education ation for Unildren Cheyenne Watters, Edith W cation, Cheyenne Wariow i(Mra.) Viola W Superintendent, Campbell County Schools, Gillette State Department of Edu- INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER W voming Mary FE Laramie Marks, University of Librarian ALASKA Silliam ivan ™M Elementary and School Teacher, Box 164, Kenai High BRAZIL Paulo Annes, Inatituto de nt Alegre, Rio de Janeiro Goncaly ea Arroz CANADA Gilbert D., Saskatchewan Teachers ederation, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan Flower, G. E., Direetor, CEA Kelloxg Project, Toronto, Ontario Seance, Muriel, Director, Education Reference and School Service, Department of Educa- tion, Victoria, British Columbia Fame COSTA RICA Edwin, Professor, Turrialba COMMUNITY SCHOO! Smith, Dorothy D., ¢/o AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT EQU ADOR American Embasay, Quito Nordrum, G. 8B tute of Inter can Embassy Education Division, Insti American Affairs, ¢/o Ameri- Quite INDIA Dean, Faculty of Educa- Baroda University, Menon, T. K. N tion and Psychology Baroda JAPAN International Ouwa, Mitska-shi, Christian Tokyo Lindstrom DD b University 1560 PHILIPPINES Boqguiren, T. N., 47 Old Luchan, Baquio City De Gastro, Tluminado G Jivision Superin- tendent of Schools Bureau of Public Schools, Manila Santos, Roman L., Division Superinte Division of Quezon, Bureau of Schools, Lucena ident, Public INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER Women's Manila Philippine University, President PUERTO RICO Ramon, Superintendent of Schools Department of Education, Rio Piedras Irizarry, Jose I Superintendent of Schools, Gurabo Mendez, Juana A Superior Education Coun- cil, Uni ity of Puerto Rieo, Rio Piedras Garcia INSTITUTIONAL MEMBER Catholic University of Puerte, Mary Dolores, Ponce Librarian, Rica, ¢/o Sister INDEX Administrative interrelationships, 139, 142, 147, 166, 179, 183. 185, 191, 193, 194. 198 Administrative process, citizen par 130, 136, 168 teacher participation, 53, 60, 92, 100, 104 ticipation, 53, Administrative responsibility (See Educational program ) Administrative structure, 25, 153, 197 180, allocation of func tions, decentralization of functions. 27, 182; 198 types, 180 Administrative unit (See School dis trict) Administrator, preparation, 171, 174, 175 qualifications, 168, 175 | 168, 178 serection, Adult education, 9, 79, Area school, 140, 152 Art, instruction, 6, 66 Attendance center, ‘3, SE. BF Attendance supervision, $9; 76, 68. 445, 142 Audio-visual services, 10, 108, 121 distribution, 93, 96, 10! production, 73, 87, 508 Backward children (See handic apped ) Mentally Soard of 3. 329 education, responsibility, 5 ag EO, aed Book mobile, 10, Budget preparation, 12, 113, 115 (See S« hool Bus route (See Pupil transportation ) Bus driver bus driver) Business education, S$, 32; 156 Business services, 12, 111, 186 Centralized purchasing, 61, 118, 194 hildren of migratory workers, 128 ircuit teacher, 10 itizenship education, 6, 101 ommunity, autonomy, 27, 55, 207 boundaries, 22, 30, 31, 141 boundaries, and school district, 22 41, 35, 38, 60 coordination, 36, 189, 191, 212 educational leadership, 37, 57, 165, 210 educational needs, 163, 179, 195 identification, 31, ’ 14, 37,5 F348, improvement, 9, individuality, 51, leadership, 36, 214 ommunity needs, 163, 179 Variation in, 186, 190, 196 ommunity pressures, 21 ommunity 151 in school program, 5, 34, 129, 158 resources, ommunity school, defined, 34 development, 13, 34, 231 needs, 143, 156, program, 34, 35, 179, 190, 219 192, 206 ompulsory attendance law, 28, 75, RO onservation education, 6, 101 onsolidation of schools, 30 (See also School district reorganization ) ontractual arrangements, 18, 152, 199, 203, 206 ooperative purchasing (See Purchas } } u ing proc edures ) ounseling (See Guidance services) ounty, as an administrative unit (See County-unit ) 256 County type of 27, 47, 144 advantages, 49 unit, organization, characteristics, 48, 160 cooperative arrangements, 20 limitations, 50 relation to community schools, 50, § | Cooperative purchasing Cen tralized purchasing) Curriculum, adjustment, coordination, 12, 88 development, 12, 101, enrichment, 58, 74, 159 related to OS GPs Or community, Democratic |e idership, 164 process, 6 ey, Y ane Demonstration teaching, 106, 155 Dental hygiene 84 program, 9, 16, Drop outs, &. 140, 156 Early childhood education, Education, responsibility, 136 State state support, rey, 232, 348 200 | duc ition il 104, 09 le ider ship Educational changing Educa’ ona Opportunity, improve 180, 203 inequalities, 140, 144, 184 Educational org: vation (See Ad ministrative ment, SS OE 7 TH tructure) Educational policies, community pat 136, 148, 165 7 ticipation, 130, community responsibility, 4, $i), idministrative responsibility, 14, 169, 195, 198 Ln | 9 I duc rion | program community participation, $0, 72, 106, 124, 158, 193): 232 COMMUNITY SCHOOT AND INTERMEDIATE UNITII community coordination, 13, 54, 90, 99, 1053, 235: They kame support, 21, 148 evaluation, 13, 90, 127, 155 financing, 94, 147 tlexibility, Ps a9 improvement, J, 156 population is a factor, 149 quality, §3, 144, 153, 158, 169 related to community, 5, 34 ay. 336; 28 specifications, ) \4 responsibility es utilizing community resources, ), 44, 46, 7%, 129. 158 lementary education, 5, 138 qualization, finance (See Financial equalization ) qualization opportunities (See Edu cational opportunities (See gram, evaluation) valuation Educational pro xceptional children, incidence, 19, 1] services for, 7, 10, 16, 69, 140, 158 types, Il, 69 Extension classes, 173 Federal aid to education, 114, 202 Film library, 91, (See also Audio-visual services) ( See A udio Films and filmscrips visual servic es) Financial, equalization, 42, 149, 150, SS. 203 services, 113, 122 149, support of schools, 25, 53, 150 Fiscal independenc e, 49, 202 Guidance services, 3, 9, 16, 75, 157 Handicapped children (See Excep tional children) Health education, 9, 82, 99 INDEX | ‘ Health MTVICEeS, ‘ limitations, Helping bol, , need tor, 26, 39, 43, 142, 145 High-school edication (See Second relation politic il units 142, iry euUu tion) 143. 19] x0) , 1.4 ‘ tlivh schools, establishment, reorganization, 15% " responsibility 215 Hlomebound children, 2, 1 ; size (S Intermediate unit area) = biome teaching ) { 7 , se ‘ ‘tate support tor, 147, » 205 strengthening, 43, 44, | r Indu trial education, * Fé structure, +8, 41, 46, ‘ 4 , y education, ¢ idmunistra 0), 19 215 tors. 129. 17 Variations, 39, 144, 146 tor teachers hs ’ , ST, Intermediate unit services, 100, 103, 129, § 5 ‘ cade BED truction, improv: 183-90, 196 l ' idministration, 193 structional materials, expansion, Til structional supervision, TT, 88, Lol flexibilicy, 195. 197 | + 9] 5 § vals ron ] '- , ‘ evaluatio 7 Variations, 162, 186, 190, 215 termediate area (See Intermediate Intermediate unit staff, 143, 192, unit ifea) ni 194, 196, 209, 214 Intermediate district (See Intermed: selecting, 207 ite unit area) » itinerant teacher, 10, 64, 6 146 : Kindergarten, 5, 100 duties, 40, 45, 54, LIL, 166 Intermediate superintendent 26, 42, preparation, 144 qualifications, 39, 46, 147, 169 selection, 39, 147, 169, 197 Leadership (See Educational leader } ship) > , — *y ‘ - 4 KE Intermediate unit, 38, 54, 146 Legal services, 112, 186 idapt iwion, 42, 143, 144, 146, 179, Lewislaction, permissive, Library services, 9, 10, 46 oy) 19 146, 191, 198 91-98 board of edu ition, 141, 146, 197, ee supervision, 10, 61 2ti boundaries, 140, 142, 20] changing nature, 133, 142, 161 coordination imonyz, 198 Maladjusted pupils, 70, Local districts (See School districts) coordination of community serv Mental health clinic, 17, 77, 105 ices, 189, T9T, 212 letined, t8. 144, 146 developm« Ot. 20 335 144. 252 183, 214-18 Mooile units, 10, 62, financing, 143, : , 199-206 functions, 40, 43, 143, 147, 166, 167, 182, 189, 200 leadership, a : ee Te a 144, 162, 184, 206-14 Nurse-teacher, 16, 17, 81, 83, 84 Mentally handicapped children, 70), 74 Music education, 6, Neighborhood associations, 29 COMM) i s | he-job training (Sec Work ex perience Teac her S4 hools, 28 fucation Parent study xg oups, Parent-teacher relations, Partially sighted children, Permissive legislation, 25, Per onnel services, id, Physic Physically handic ipped children, 17, 69, 73 ! ii educ ation, 6 Population, centers, . 323538 change, 13, distribution, 13 effect on educational costs, 149 mobility, 184 Professional library services, 12, 9? Psychiatric services, 17 Psychological services, 16, 17, 70, 76, —_ Public with school 9. Public « oordination 10, 62 library SeTVICeS, relations, 103, 116, 130, P | o y $9 upil accounting, 9, ; Pupil needs, 58, . 163 Pupil personnel services, 59, 75 Pupil, physical examination for, 81, 83. 84 dey clopment ot, Pupil responsibility, ge Puypal satety, 124 Pupil transportation, 121, 142, 196 ext nded use, 135 idmunistration, planning of bus routes, 13, 123 (See School bus chool bus driver driver) Purchasing procedures 118-21 Reading, instruction, 6, 59, 6 74 NITY SCHOO AND INTERMEDIATE UNIT Re iding clinte, 638 Re iding consultant, 6 SN Recreation services, 9, 12, 67, 82 Reorgamization of school districts (See School district reorganiza tion) Reorgamzed school districts, bound ries, 137 characteristics, 31, limitations, 18§ ve, 19, 137 Research needed, 192, £93, 197 Research services, Rural community (See Community) Rural deficiencies, 184 Rural isolation, 29 Rural life r hanging character, 41 Safety education, 82, 124 School building, community use, 34, 16 & maintenance, 13, 82, 115 planning, 13, 115, 127 School bus driver, training, 13, 123 School bus maintenance, 16, 122 School community interrelationships, es School-community Sc hool schools, 53, program, 8, 131 ibility to 149, 150 boundaries, 13, 26, 49 district, support establishment, 25, 28 not operating schools, 18, 138 number, 18, i9, 31, 138 size, 1), 18, 157 tax base, 49, 114, 185 types, 19, 32 School district, small district, advan tages, 29 limitations, 28, 136, 140, 150, 158 School district reorganization, 13, 19, ru, 38) 132i ES, THE, 168, 1 effects, 41, 1352, 144, 151, 154 Pek. F939 incentives, INDEX planning, 34, 1 Supervision of instruction programs, 50, I 46, 144 structional supervision ) oe , : trends 0, 156 Surplus commodities, 114 School enrollment, ini reasing, 1? Teacher, certification, 90, 106 ‘ i « ‘ onentation, 90, 106 School lunch program, phy sic il examinations, 114, 120 preparation, 53, 108, School lunch workers, training pro recruitment, 125 gram, 117 selection, 12, 112, 125, ‘ } ’ 7 School nurses (See Nurse teacher ) supply, 55, 125, 12 ' _ Teacher-consultant, 88, School study council, 173 ; : ug ne Teacher-librarsan, 60, 62 Secondary education, 7, 30, 13 y Telephone, school-to-home, use, 70, , 17.77 Met il w“ orkers, cial education (See Exceptional Testing program, 67, 75, 80, 90 children ) Speech correction, 17, 70, 73, 91 Visual education (See Audio-visual services) state ad (See State support of : ‘i ceil Visiting teacher, 17, 70, 73 Sc PVOMOTS “er ee Vocational education, State support of schools, 69, . ep ‘ 114, 140, 156 132, 148, 151, 200, 205 ere itional opportunities, State svstem of schools, 28, . 136 Summer activities, 9 Work experience,