ae Se ee a a a aE re TE PET ee OE ee ee ee Pe DOCUMENT RESUME ED 328 372 RC 017 786 AUTHOR Dunn, Fannie W., Ed. =. ~ TITLE Guidance in Rural Schools. Yearbook. February 1942. INSTITUTION National Education Association, Washington, D.C. Dept. of Rural Education. PUB DATE Feb 42 NOTE 119p. PUB TYPE Historical Materials (060) EDRS PRICE MFO1/PCO5 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Dropouts; Elementary Secondary Education; Guidance Objectives; *Guidance Programs; Rural Education; Rural Environment; *Rural Schools; Rural Urban Differences; School Community Programs; *School Counseling; Student Development; Student Evaluation; Student Needs; *Teacher Role ABSTRACT This book is a 1942 compilation of solicited information on rural education trends and guidance programs in the United States. Chapter 1 emphasizes the necessity of good educational guidance for rural children and discusses factors which determine child development, including the rural environment and standards of living. Chapter 2 discusses preschool child development, comparing parenting and guidance problems in urban and rural areas. Rural children's health and education services are described, as are problems relating to educational access. Chapter 3 describes the teacher's guidance role, using anecdotes to describe good teaching and guidance practices. Also discussed is the effective use of children's leisure or play time. Chapter 4 describes ways in which rural educators observe children, make evaluations, and report on their developmental progress. The use and availability of evaluation tools for rural teachers is discussed. Chapter 5 uses anecdotal material to describe some special guidance needs and problems of rural adolescents and youth. Among the topics are problems relating to sex, family problems, and the incidence of school dropouts. Chapter 6 describes several guidance programs dealing with the following issues: the supervisor's role; elementary guidance counseling; curriculum; school-community cooperation; and local resources. Chapter 7 discusses guidance conferences and clinics. Chapter 8 describes various youth-guidance services provided by volunteer agencies. Chapter 9 describes state and federal rural guidance agencies and programs. Chapter 10 concludes with a call for leadership. The document includes a list of 41 references. (TES) REEKKKRKEKKKKKKEKKEKKKKKEKKKEEKEKEKKKKEKEKKEKEKEKEKEKKREERKEKKAREEAARAREKARKRAREKEKERAER x Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * x from the original document. * KREEKKEKKKKKEKKKKKKKKKEKKEKKKEKEKRKEERAKEKKKEKKKERKEKKEAEKEARKEAREKEKAARKKKRRRARKEKKEREE ED3 28372 2c017786 GUIDANCE in Rural Schools BEST COPY AVAILABLE Edited by FANNIE W. DUNN Professor of Rural Education, Teachers College Columbia University, New York, New York YEARBOOK THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES February 1942 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION “PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS Office of Educational Research and improvement MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY “ae This document has been reproduced leo nore. So from the Aaa enen o onmaatien onginating it e ‘ © Minor ch nave be ' bins meen ch en made to improve : @ Ponts of vew or opinions stated in this docu: TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES humenm, a INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC).” 2 Yearbook of The Department of Rural Education FEBRUARY 1942 Published by the Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association of the United States and sent free of charge to all active members. Executive and editorial offices, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Northwest, Washing- ton, D.C. \ Sale price per copy, 50¢. Discounts: 2-9 copies, 10° 5; 10-99 copies, 25°5; 100 or more, 33 1/3°.. Copyright, 1942, by National Education Association of the United States All Rights Reserved HISTORICAL NOTE The Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association was organized at the Chicago meeting in February 191g. It was an outgrowth of the former Department of Rural and Agricultural Education, authorized by the Board of Directors in 1907. Its chief purpose is “to promote the general ad- vancement of rural education thruout the United States.” The Department meets twice a year, in February and in June, and welcomes all persons inter- ested in rural education. COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS AND CONSTRUCTIVE STUDIES Kate V. Worrorp, Chairman J. E. Burrerwortu Director of Rural Education Professor of Rural Education State Teachers College Cornell University Buffalo, N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y. Francis L. Bairey, President Carottn® Evincson Western State Normal School County Superintendent of Schools Gorham, Maine Fargo, N. Dak. L. S. TrrEMAN College of Education University of New Mexico Albuquerque, N. Mex. [3] 3 iia iia nen DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION Officers 1941-42: PRESIDENT VICEPRESIDENT Mrs. Datsy E. Howarp Barton Morcan County School Commissioner Director of Teacher Education Genessee County Iowa State College Flint, Mich. Ames, Iowa SECRETARIES Recording Executive Lots M. Crark, Adviser Howarp A. Dawson Early Childhood and Elementary Education —_ Director of Rural Service Department of Public Instruction National Education Association Harrisburg, Pa. Washington, D. C. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Dwicutr L. Baitey, Director, Rural Education, Western Illinois State ‘Teach ers College, Macomb, Ill.; Cutor C. Batprincr, Director, Rural Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Lincoln, Nebr.; R. D. Batpwin, Pro- fessor of Education, West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va.; Lots M. Crark, Adviser, Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.; A. F. Evsea, Director of Rural Education, State Department of Education, Jefferson City, Mo.; Eowin R. Emprer, Presi- dent, Julius Rosenwald Fund, 4901 Ellis Ave., Chicago, IIl.; Marcta Everett, Helping Teacher, Warren County Schools, Belvidere, N. J.; Norman Frost, Professor of Rural Education, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nash- ville, Tenn.; Frank C. Ranspevt, Superintendent, Hardin County Schools, Kenton, Ohio; L. P. Terresonne, Superintendent, Iberville Parish Schools, Plaquemine, La.; President, Vicepresident, and Retiring President (Frank W. Cyr, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.), ex officio members. MEMBERSHIP Eligibility—All persons engaged in rural education work and others inter- ested in this field are eligible for membership, provided they are members of the National Education Association. Benefits—Attendance at the biannual convention meetings of the Depart- ment. The right to vote and hold office and have a voice in shaping departmental policies. Opportunity for service to rural children thru active participation in a na- tional organization. Membership (dues $2) entitles you to receive the following publications: . The 1942 Yearbook, Guidance in Rural Schools . Official Proceedings of the Department . Research Bulletin of the NEA (five issues a year ) . Other publications as available. [4] >wnre 4 COLLABORATORS (Members of the Department Who Furnished Names of Persons Known to Them as Active in Guidance) Cook, Mrs. Katherine, Chief, Division of Special Problems, U. S$. Othee of Education, Washington, D. C. Cromwell, R. Floyd, Supervisor of Educational and Vocational Guidance, 111 Lexington Building, Baltimore, Md. Darlington, Meredith W., Department of School Administration, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. Dawson, Howard A., Director, Rural Service, National Fducation Associa tion, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. English, Mildred, Georgia State College for Women, Milledgeville, Ga. Evingson, Caroline J., Superintendent of Schools, Cass County, Fargo, N. Dak. Frost, Norman, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. Grout, Ruth E., Senior Supervisor of Health Education, Tennessee Valley Authority, Chattanooga, Tenn. Heffernan, Helen, Chief, Division of Elementary Education, State Depart- ment of Education, Sacramento, Calif. Heyl, Helen H., State Department of Education, Albany, N. Y. Otto, Henry J., W. K. Kellogg Foundation, Battle Creek, Mich. Schatzmann, Iman E., Executive Secretary, Committee on Rural Education, 5835 Kimbark Avenue, Chicago, Ill. Wallace, Maude E., Extension Service, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacks- burg, Va. Wofford, Kate V., Director, Rural Department, State Teachers College, But- falo, N. Y. Young, Sarah L., Principal, Parker School, Oakland, Calif. (Those Persons Reported as Active in Gutdance) Adams, Ethel, Principal, Moultrie High School, Moultrie, Ga. Adams, Mrs. Mary L., County Supervisor of Schools, Fayette, Ala. Allen, Rowena L., Supervising Teacher, Stevens Point, Wis. Appleby, Lucille, Part-Time Counselor, Sherwood High School, Sandy Spring, Md. *Arny, Malcolm, Student Counselor, Pine Mountain Settlement School, Harlan County, Ky. *Bailey, Mrs. Helen, Rural Teacher, Allamuchy School, Allamuchy, N, J. Baker, Donald L., County Superintendent of Schools, Gratiot County, Ithaca, Mich. *Bean, Mrs. Elsie, Rural Teacher, East Hardwick, Vt. Beattie, Willard W., U. S. Office of Indian Affairs, Washington, D. C. *Bowen, Genevieve, Director of Rural Education, State Teachers College, Duluth, Minn. *Persons replying to requests for material. [5] t *Brent, Katherine R., Home Demonstration Agent, Powhatan, Va. Brewster, Royce E., Specialist, Consultation and Field Service, Occupational Information and Guidance Service, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Brouillette, J. W., Mississippi State College, State College, Miss. Caldwell, Sallie, State Teachers College tor Women, Milledgeville, Ga. *Carr, L. J., Director, Michigan Child Guidance Institute, Ann Arbor, Mich. *Cawood, James, County Superintendent, Harlan County, Harlan, Ky. Chrietzburg, James, Superintendent, Holtville School, Deatsville, Ala. *Clarke, Morris, Principal, Sabillasville School, Sabillasville, Md. Claxton, Porter, West Georgia College, Carrollton, Ga. Collinson, Leslie, Principal, Norris School, Norris, Tenn. Cox, Johnnye V., County Superintendent of Schools, Hawkinsville, Ga. Dennis, L. H., Executive Secretary, American Vocational Association, 1010 Vermont Avenue, Washington, D. C. Dill, Rose, State Teachers College, Mt. Pleasant, Mich. Donovan, Elizabeth, High School, Ogeechee, Ga. Eckels, Marion, Visiting Teacher, Madison Public School, Madison, N. J. Edmands, Mrs. Ruth, General Supervisor, ¢ o County School Superintendent, Colusa, Calif. Eggert, C. L., State Teachers College, River Falls, Wis. Everett, Marcia, Helping Teacher, 319 Market Street, Belvidere, N. J. Fite, D. Harley, Head, Rural Demonstration School at New Providence, Aus- tin Peay Normal, Clarksville, Tenn. Franseth, Jane, State Teachers College, Collegeboro, Ga. French, Mrs. Lois Meredith, State Teachers College, Newark, N. J. Frier, Ernest’ A., Jr.. Principal, Newark Valley Central School, New York *Galbraith, Milton A., Counselor, Harlan County, Harlan, Ky. Gofl, Howard L., Principal, West Winfield Central School, New York Greer, Mr.. Edith S., County Superintendent of Schools, Falls City, Nebr. Hamilton, Milton, County Superintendent, Union City, Tenn. Hamilton, Persis, Director of Rural Education, ¢/o County School Super- intendent, Ventura, Calif. *Hatcher, O. Latham, President, Alliance for Guidance of Rural Youth, 401- 402 Grace American Building, Richmond, Va. Haux, Kate, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga. *Henderson, Ruth, Supervisor of Elementary Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Richmond, Va. *Holman, Earle B., County Superintendent of Schools, Houghton, Mich. *Hoppock, Anne, Assistant in Elementary Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Trenton, N. J. Horn, Carl, Chief, Occupational Information and Guidance, State Depart- ment of Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich. *Hughes, Susan, Home Demonstration Agent, Spotsylvania, Va. *Jackson, Mrs. Gladys, Teacher, Mt. Zion School, Ashland City, Tenn. *Persons replying to requests tor material. [6 | 6 James, Virginia W., Principal, Wilson Dam Schoo!, Tennessee Valley Author- ity, Sheffield, Ala. Jasper, Marvin D., Consultant in Health Education, District Health Office. Athens, Ala. *Johnston, Mrs. Eula A., Elementary Supervisor, Hamilton County, Chatta- nooga, Tenn. Jordan, Floyd, Head, University Demonstration School, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga. Joy, Barnard, Division of Studies and Teaching, Cooperative Extension Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Justice, S. Marion, State Supervisor of Occupational Information and Guid ance, Raleigh, N. C. Keech, Vera, Rural School Supervisor, Tuscumbia, Ala. Kent, Mrs. Rosemary, Health Education Coordinator, Norris, Tenn. *Lauderbach, Mrs. Elizabeth M., Home Demonstration Agent, Hamilton County, Tenn. *Laue, Mrs. Fred, Rural Mother, 439 Ringwood Avenue, Midvale, N. J. McCormack, Henry J., Principal, High School, Kite, Ga. *Mathis, C. W., Principal, Hall High School, Grays Knob, Ky. *Miller, Judge L. D., County Judge of Juvenile Court, Chattanooga, Tenn. *Miller, Leonard, Director of Guidance, Rockland County, N. Y. Moore, V. D., In Charge of Guidance Program, Silver Hill, Ala. Moorer, Sam H., Principal, Dixie County High School, Cross City, Fla. *Morris, Glyn, Pine Mountain Settlement School, Pine Mountain, Ky. *Morrison, J. Cayce, Assistant Commissioner for Research, State Education Department, Albany, N. Y. Mosher, Frank K., Principal, Marion Central School, New York *Munro, Mary, Principal, Cazenovia Central School, Cazenovia, N. Y. *Nemec, Mrs. Lois G., Elementary-School Supervisor, State Department of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. Neubert, Elizabeth, Public Health Nurse, Williamson County Health De- partment, Franklin, Tenn. Paul, Beulah, Director, Rural Education, ¢ 0 County School Superintendent, San Bernardino, Calif. *Pence, Wilbur S., Principal, North River High School, Augusta County, Va. Reed, Wayne ©., County Superintendent of Schools, Nebraska City, Nebr. Sands, Lester B., Professor of Education, DePauw University, Greencastle, Ind. Severns, Mrs. Barbara D., Helping Teacher, 108 Dayton Avenue, Colling- wood, N. J. *Stewart, Jeffrey, Superintendent, Lewis Consolidated School, Monument, Colo. *Strang, Ruth, Protessor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia Univer- sity, New York, N. Y. *Taggart, Lelia A., Director of Education, c/o County School Superintendent, Santa Barbara, Calif. *Persons replying to requests for material. EO *Telfer, Vera, Helping Teacher, 620 Third Street, Belvidere, N. J. Mr. Tucker, NYA School, Clarksville, Ga. *Tudor, Alice R., Home Demonstration Agent, Martinsville, Va. *Turner, Mrs. Marie R., County Superintendent, Breathitt County Schools, Jackson, Ky. *Valentine, Ada, Rural Teacher, Spring Hope, N.C. VanWie, Raymond, Principal, Randolph Central School, New York City *Walters, Violet, Guidance Counselor for Elementary Schools, Harlan County, Ky. Way, Nora, Visiting Teacher, Summit Public School, Summit, N. J. *Wieder, Mrs. V. E., Rural Mother, Naches, Wash. Willett, H. 1., Director of Instruction, Augusta County, Va. *Wilson, Ethel, Teacher, Flintstone Elementary School, Flintstone, Md. Yaple, Grayson W., Principal, Hamilton Central School, New York City Ziegler, F. Helen, Dean, School of Nursing, Vanderbilt University, Nash- ville, Tenn. *Persons replying to requests for material. [8] CONTENTS Page Introduction 11 CHAPTER I Guidance: What and Why 13 CHAPTER II Guidance of Preschool Children 25 CHAPTER III The Teacher's Part in the Guidance of School Children 35 CHAPTER IV Important Tools and Technics of Guidance—Strang 49 CHAPTER V Special Guidance Needs of Adolescents and Youth 61 CHAPTER VI Reinforcements of the Teacher's Guidance 75 CHAPTER VII Conferences and Clinics as Means to Guidance a) CHAPTER VIII Guidance Service for Youth as Promoted by a Volunteer Agency 9 CHAPTER IX State and Federal Agencies and Programs for Furthering Guidance 111 CHAPTER X Summary and Conclusions 121 References 123 Helpful Books and References 124 Bibliographies of Vocational Guidance Materials 127 [9] INTRODUCTION HIS YEARBOOK is an effort to bring together, in form available to rural ¢ povtinesnan workers, trends and programs of guidance thruout the United States. It represents such a sampling of present practice as time and space have permitted. Steps in assembling the materials of the yearbook were as tollows: 1. Thru letters addressed to a number of rural educational leaders in the acquaintance of the Publications Committee, the names were secured of persons believed to be doing guidance worthy of note. Certainly not all the rural educational leaders in this country were included; had they been, the list of those active in guidance would unquestionably have been pro- portionately extended. 2. The editor set up a tentative plan for the vearbook and sent requests for appropriate contributions to some of those persons named in the list obtained by the first step. Not nearly all those who had been suggested were circularized, because it was evident from the first that space would not permit inclusion of contributions from all. Selection of those to be called upon was based upon no consistent principle. Personal acquaint- anceship was as large a factor as any. Nearly all the contributions received have been utilized, at least in part. Very few could be incorporated with- out abridgment. 3. The final yearbook is a weaving together of the various strands, so that in only a few cases is it possible to attribute any part of it to a single author. For the information of those who desire to know as much as we dis- covered of persons now active in rural guidance, the list of collaborators, pages 5 to 8, includes the names suggested in Step 1. For acknowledge- ment of their valuable contributions, those who replied to requests for material are starred. A few names have been omitted by request, because of the intimate nature of the contributions, and, where the names are given, such confidential contributions are disguised to prevent identifica- tion. One of the findings of this project is that more constructive attention is being given to rural guidance than its projectors anticipated. Whatever the yearbook may bring to its readers, it has for its editor been a hearten- ing learning experience. Its materials justify a hope for advances in guid- ance-directed rural education in the next thirty-five years far greater than during those just past. Fannie W. Dewy, Editor [11] “a Chapter I GUIDANCE: WHAT AND WHY THE NATURE OF GUIDANCE “As the twig is bent, the tree’s inclined.” “Bring up a child in the way he should go, and when he 1s old he will not depart from it.” “Children are travelers newly arrived in a strange land. We should therefore make conscience how we mislead them.” These three quotations, hundreds, and one of them at least thousands, of years old, indicate that guidance is not a new idea. They express, also, three different concepts of what guidance is. The first is the type of direction which a gardener gives to a plant. He is conceived as making the plant develop in the direction which he wills for it. A tree may be used in various ways to serve the gardener’s needs. If left to itself, to grow wild, it would follow its own nature, provided it Were in an open space without competition from other trees. If the gardener desires a tree of just this type, he will give it such an open space and such conditions of soil and water as serve its needs best. He will re- move its interfering, broken, or dead limbs, thus protecting it from dis- ease and, as it were, from its own indiscretions. He may lift a young tree, biown over by the wind, and, by supplying it a support for awhile, restore it to its natural straightness. The gardener thus may so direct and pro- mote the growth of the tree as to attain the potentialities made possible by its nature. On the other hand, the gardener may in various ways distort or maim the young tree for his own purposes. He may shear it continually so that it never achieves treehood at all but, together with other similarly trimmed trees, becomes a hedge. He may prune away part of its limbs and fasten the remainder against a wall or trellis so that to all intents it becomes a vine. He may by root pruning or other devices so dwarf its growth that a mature pine is small enough for a table ornament and twisted into a shape far different from what it would have assumed thru a process of normal growth. The tree thus becomes almost another being because of the gar- dener’s art. Yet whatever it becomes was in the beginning potential within its nature. The guidance which the gardener gave it served Ais purpose, realized its potentialities which were most valuable to Aim. The tree is his property. It, however, suffers nothing from his treatment. It has no mind or purpose of its own. The second quotation illustrates the training which a “dumb animal,” such as a dog or an ox, receives. Simple habit formation is the type of [ 13] 1] learning which characterizes the lower animals. The master guides the animal to form those habits which it is convenient or pleasing to him that it shall have. So a dog learns to heel, to open a door, to sleep in a desig- nated spot, to perform amusing tricks at command; the ox to respond to “gee” and “haw.” The fundamental condition of the life of such an animal is dependence upon a master for food, drink, shelter, and protection from its natural enemies. Captive in a world where the instruments and prod- ucts of civilization have displaced the resources upon which in a wild state it might have subsisted, it has no capacity adequate for adjustment to the new situation it must meet, excepting thru obedience to a master’s will. Independent self-direction is impossible to it. In the third quotation, however, a new element appears. A traveler in a strange land is more than a passive agent in his own course. He has an end in view. He calls upon a guide for help or accepts the guidance ten- dered, according to its promise of serving his own ends. His ends may be mistaken; in his ignorance of the land he may have overlooked its great- est values for himself. A guide may serve him by helping him reach the goal he has in mind or may better serve him by bringing to his attention more worthy goals and directing his footsteps toward them. Only a false guide will mislead him, setting his feet in paths whose ends hold harm for him for the sake of another's gain. No one of these analogies is a perfect representation of the part which guidance, good or ill, plays in the life of a human being. Each, however, suggests some element which inevitably enters into guidance. First, there is the factor of individual potentialities. A tree may be shaped into a variety of forms; an animal may acquire numerous useful skills and good or bad habits; the traveler's journey may be pursued by many routes toward many different goals. The developmental possibilities of a human being, however, are infinitely greater and more varied than any of these. Second, there is the factor of environmental conditions. The limitations of the natural environment, or the modifications and enrichment which may be effected in it by artificial means, largely determine how many and what capacities of the individual can be realized, and to what extent. Third, there is the guide himself, his wisdom and his motives. What he can do for the child depends upon his knowledge of the nature and needs of children in general and of the individual child in particular; of the range of courses which that child’s life may take; and of the resources, present or potential, which may be drawn upon for that child's best de- velopment. What he will do is determined by his purposes and the values he holds. As a gardener may shape a tree according as he values its natural form or prefers one to which he may convert it, so those who guide him maydirect the child’s development. As a false guide may lead a traveler in a strange land into the hands of those who would rob him of his birth- [14] 12 right, so may those who have charge of a child during the period when his ignorance of life makes him helpless. A clear illustration of the way in which the guide's values or life philos- ophy may affect the education of youth is found in the totalitarian coun- tries, where the state is held as the supreme end and all its members merely means thereto. In such a state as this, the type of guidance and education which the animal trainer affords his charges, or that in which the gardener shapes a tree to an unnatural form, is closely analogous to that which the youth receive. Obedience to those in command is the high- est virtue for them, and the habits and skills most serviceable to their masters are selected by these latter to be developed. Under the democratic concept of a good society as one in which each member is regarded as an end in himself and enabled to achieve a life satisfying to him, there is released and made supreme a factor of guidance which under a totalitarian regime is impotent and indeed unacknowl- edged. This is the unique quality of each human being, consciously or unconsciously striving to realize his own selfhood, and by consequent interaction with all the other factors, determining the eventual outcome. His purposes, impulses, and drives are to be cherished; his capacities to be sought for and nourished; his growth directed; and his footstéps guided to protect him from hurtful consequences of his own unwitting acts. Most analogous to desirable guidance, democratically conceived, is that which the gardener affords the tree which he wishes to cultivate in its natural form, and that which the faithful guide provides for the traveler. The essential distinction between these and guidance of the child's de- velopment hes in the fact that the child not only is an active agent in his own experiences but that the nature of his reactions is continually chang- ing as the result of ongoing experiences. His purposes are modified; he develops new interests; his expanding abilities make possible a greater range of behaviors. He is a sentient, dynamic factor in his own growth. Democratic guidance, then, means taking the child where and as he is and giving such direction to his experiences as will preserve and enhance his powers of independent self-activity and will aid him to select those lines of action which are for him best to follow. It involves two essential elements —the child, a bundle of potentialities, ignorant both of himself and of the resources, responsibilities, and opportunities his environment offers him now and hereafter; and the guide, desirous of serving the child's best in- terests, aware of that child’s nature and needs, and understanding better than the child the nature of the world and the society into which he has been born and in which he must make his place. More than guidance, however, is essential if the child is to achieve opumal development. To know the desirable directions of his growth or the resources which may contribute to it is not enough. Resources that are available or can be made available must be utilized, and experiences [15 | 13 must be thus afforded thru which growth can take place. A gatdance- directed curriculum is essential if guidance is to bear fruit. This means simply that the materials and modes of experience provided in the home, and the activities, studies, and conduct of the school, must be selected on the basis of their contribution to child growth in the directions which guidance indicates. To set up a program of guidance in a school while retaining a course of study inherited from a prior gencration or organized primarily for convenience in dealing with children en masse, or in any other way dominated by the needs of others than those who will pursue the course, is sheer wastefulness. “What has already been said is true for every child from birth. Two aspects of guidance, however, serve the special needs of certain children or of all children of a certain age range. These are guidance of remedial or therapeutic type for children who, because of untoward experiences in earlier years, have become mentally or emotionally ill, and vocational guidance for youth from about the beginning of the adolescent period. Both of these types require a degree of specialized knowledge on the part of the guide which cannot be expected of the average parent or teacher; the former, especially, often involves extensive use of clinical means and measures. Both are developments of the present century and, because of their novelty and essential specialization, tend to be regarded with a degree of respect not commonly accorded to the general guidance which is essential in all education. All three types are important. Vocational guidance is, as a matter of fact, a “general” need at its appropriate age level; it is, indeed, as essential a feature of secondary education as are the commonly accepted vocational courses Which are an important part of the guidance-directed curriculum of the high-school level. Remedial, clinical, or psychiatric guidance, how- ever, bears the same relation to general or so-called educational guidance as curative medicine does to preventive. It is of first importance to keep a child sound and well, emotionally as well as physically. When he has be- come ill, however, diagnostic and remedial measures are necessary, for mind as well as for body. THE RURAL CHILD'S NEED FOR GUIDANCE Rural children need guidance in the same way and for the same reason that children do anywhere. They share the human nature and the com- mon needs of all children—for nourishment of body and mind, for shel- ter and security, for educational opportunity appropriate to their distinc- live Capacities. The scope of the rural child’s development, like that of any other child, is determined by three factors: (1) his inborn capacities, (2) the resources available for his physical and mental nourishment, and (3) the guidance he receives in the appropriation of those resources. [ 16 ] 14 1. There is a commonly held idea that, because of selective migration from the farm to the city, rural children are mentally inferior to urban children. This is, however, an unsettled question. It has been authorita- tively disputed on various bases: that the tests employed are not equally valid for both groups; that the intelligence supposedly measured is not truly native intelligence but the product of native intelligence and in- ferior cultural opportunities in home and school; that a thorogoing sum- mary of all investigations does not support the conclusion of rural in- feriority; that selective migration, while perhaps drawing the highest abilities from the country, has also drawn a major proportion of the lower, leaving the average unchanged, tho the range of abilities has prob ably been decreased. Whatever the final conclusion of this much-mooted question may be, it is Not important to guidance. For guidance is not concerned with averages or human beings as a group; it deals with individuals, and among rural children are found, even by the far from adequate samplings which have been studied, very high as well as very low abilities and capacities for al- most every field of human endeavor. 2. The second factor, of environmental resources, is unquestionably far more influential than is any general mental level in determining the ulu- mate development of rural children. This factor is both negative and posi- tive in value. On the one hand there are the advantages commonly at- tributed to country living; on the other, the disadvantages due to the relatively low economic status of the agricultural occupation. Intimate association with the whole family group in work and recrea- tion as well; the experience of responsibility tor significant labor; close contact. with agricultural production, in which the farmer must plan, initiate, adapt, adjust, and think thru the entire productive process— these have been stated by Lewis (g:26-35) as desirable character-forming influences of the farm home. From them he believes there are developed in the farm child loyalues to family and to home ideals, a sense of respon- sibility and duty, the ability to wait for deferred rewards, and a clearer conception than the urban child has of the cause and effect relations be- tween “work, responsibility, persistence, and intelligent effort” and “the good and desirable things of life.” Others have mentioned the advantages of uncrowded spaces, open air and sunshine, natural facilities tor outdoor play and sports, and contact with the scientific and esthetic aspects of plant and animal life and of hills, woods, and fields. The advantages which Lewis and others point out, however, assume a relatively substantial farm home where, altho rewards are deferred, they usually come in time, where there are home ideals, where the farmer 1s a responsible and intelligent director of his own destiny, and where there is provision, even tho simple, for recreation, outdoor play and sport, and [17] 15 esthetic experiences of some type. A degree of economic competency above a bare subsistence level and character and intelligence, even tho un- lettered, on the part of the parents, most probably characterize such a home as this. A study of rural families in Minnesota (11:63-64), as affected by the depression, indicates that the contributions of farm living to family unity may persist even in the face of serious economic handicap. Two statements are cited to illustrate this fact: Because the depression made it impossible for my father-in-law to give us any more help financially, we have been forced to learn self-reliance, thrift, and industry. There is so much work to be done on the farm that none of us have time or energy for mischief. Farm life has drawn us closer together as a family unit and has given the boys a better opportunity to work and play with their father. On the whole I feel that the depression has taught us some very val- uable lessons, even tho we have not enjoyed it. It has brought the family into conference and discussion as to matters of nec- essary economy and understanding of various family practices where the spend- ing of money was a factor. This has given the children a broader vision of life in general, of money in particular, and has tended, I think, to make them more appreciative of many things. It has led to a really closer understanding of dif- ferent ones in the family group with the result that each is becoming more willing to do his full share for the group, in so far as he is able, Another mother, however, reported “nervous tension and constant scolding” as an effect and concluded, “A definite and assured income that would cover the mere necessities of living would remake the entire family mentally and physically.” From the wording of these statements, it is obvious that those who made them were persons of intelligence and edu- cation. There are in the United States many farm homes and families which have never known security or decent standards of living. According to the 1930 Census: In 1929 approximately one-half of all farmers in the country had gross yearly farm incomes less than $1000, while more than one-fourth had gross farm in- comes below $600. Taeuber has estimated that the average gross farm income of the 50 percent of farmers with incomes under $1000 was $615, of which ap- proximately $200 represented products consumed at home, leaving $415 as average gross cash income; and that corresponding figures for the farmers in the below $600 group were $375 average gross total, $180 in products con- sumed at home, and $195 as average gross cash income... . Farm operating expenses had to be met first out of these amounts of gross cash income. The remainder, if there was any, was available for the purchase of food, clothing, household furnishings, medical care and hospitalization, educa- tion of the children, radios—in fact, to support an “American standard of liv- ing’ and to provide security for the future. In addition to farm operators, there [18] 16 were about 2,750,000 farm laborers in 1929, a large portion of whom were in the very low income groups. Thus it appears that there is a class that can be termed a poverty class in American agriculture. . . . If slum conditions mean poor housing, lack of house- hold facilities and sanitation, ill health, insufficient income to buy even the physical necessities of life, and few or no opportunities to participate in the consumption of cultural goods and services, then rural slums are a reality in many sections; and in these rural slums, persons and families are denied some things which even great masses of people who live in city slums take for granted, Such standards as these, tho concentrated in the Appalachian-Ozark area, the Lake states cut-over area, the short-grass spring wheat area, the short-grass winter wheat area, the eastern Cotton Belt and the western Cotton Belt, are found to a certain extent in every state in the Union, The disadvantaged classes include some owner-operators as well as many tenants and the greater portion of the share-croppers and farm laborers. Particularly handicapped are migratory laborers. The schooling of their children is neglected, and the conditions under which they are forced to live, often with no housing whatever, are deplorable. (Abridged from 14:816-17.) Even in somewhat better than average rural homes the environment may be lacking in essential conditions for a child’s best development. The homes in the two rural communities in Iowa which Baldwin (1) studied were almost surely economically above the national average, because Iowa is the richest agricultural state in the nation. The average education of adults in these counties ranged from the eighth grade in one community to the tenth in another, with parents in each community having slightly less education than childless couples. This was a high average in 1930, when Baldwin's study was reported. Indeed, according to the most recent statistical summary of education in the United States (18:40), it is above our national median of education for adults today. The economic and educational status of Baldwin’s communities, how- ever, appeared inadequate to afford farm children conditions needed for their development. “Lack of companionship and scarcity of toys and play equipment seemed typical of the play life of the young farm children... . Few provisions were made for outdoor diversions. ... In the homes... there were almost no playthings in sight. ... In some instances the reason given for the child having nothing to play with, such as blocks, was that the mother did not have time to pick up such things. From observation it was inferred that young farm children had to create their diversions un- assisted by adults or by conventional toys.” Lack of pictures and poverty of reading material in the homes were also noted. Baldwin mentioned as particular defects among the rural children of these communities, limited vocabulary, poor speech habits, and inarticu- lateness along inventive and descriptive lines, conditions easily accounted for by the cultural shortages of the homes. He was careful to point out, [ 19 ] a 17 however, that the conditions are not inevitable in rural situations. “Typigal rural children,” he reported, “were not found. The individuality of com- munities, parents, and children is one of the main factors shown by this study of rural children in Iowa” (1:52, §3, 140, 141, 161, 246). The defects which Baldwin discovered among rural children in Towa are to be found in many widely separated regions of this country, as evi- denced by the reports of contributors to this yearbook and statements gathered by the editor over a period of years from representative rural educational leaders. Again and again appear reiterations of detective vo- cabularies, inarticulateness, inability to express oneself thru any creative medium, inability to meet and talk with strangers. Additional shortages reported include indifference to beauty in the nat- ural environment; defective health practices and ideals, both personal and social; need for higher standards in many aspects of living: attitudes of cooperation and civic responsibility; control and enjoyment of wholesome forms of recreation; Knowledge of occupations other than farming, teach- ing, and nursing: respect for public property and for law; sluggishness in mental and physical reactions. “One of the most tragic needs of rural children,” writes one contributor, “is to learn to enjoy living. They need fun, humor, a realization that there are pleasant things to do.” The environmental factors to which the observed shortages have been attributed include those mentioned by Baldwin as well as others: dearth of magazines, newspapers, or reading material of any kind in the homes; instability in tenant homes, together with lack of incentive for improving their surroundings; the superstition, feelings of inferiority, and fear of organized effort manifested by many rural adults; adult ridicule of cor- rect speech or esthetic activities: isolation from contact with professions and industrial occupations; resignation of ;ural folk to the “ills which the Lord has inflicted” on them, their fear of “the knife” and “the needle,” and hesitance to make use of medical facilities; and limited recreational facilities. 3. In view of the limited resources available to children of average and below average rural homes, the third factor, that of guidance, is especially important for them. In almost any rural environment there are materials and experiences which, if wisely appropriated, would greatly improve the rural child’s physical and mental development. Some of the health de- ficiencies of rural children which were pointed out by the White House Conference in 1932 might at least partially be overcome by guiding chil- dren to make the best uses of the resources about them. For example: Rural children lack proper nutrition, as evidenced by the absence of a bal- anced diet whose lacks included the very assets with which nature blesses rural people—milk, fruits, and vegetables. [ 20] 18 Rural children need to develop regular habits of eating and sleeping. Rural children do not develop proper posture. (Cited in 23:47.) Children, for example, may learn which of the available foods are best for them and why. In a large one-teacher school, practically every child stated that frying was the most digestible way of cooking eggs. During the first years of life, liking for a wide variety of foods can be established, and it is important that farm children develop a taste for the wholesome food which can be produced at home. On the contrary, however, children on dairy farms often refuse to drink milk. Thru_guidance rural children can be helped to find much interest and pleasure in the natural environment, which commonly goes quite un- obseryed. A rural teacher tells of walking home across the pasture one night with a dozen children. All over the fields were tiny evergreen trees, and the children, as they went along, stepped deliberately on each one they passed, absent-mindedly watching them bend down and oftentimes break. The teacher said nothing till presently they came to one about eighteen inches high in the midst of a wild-rose bush. The bright red hips of the rose seemed hung upon the little Christmas tree. She called the children’s attention to it. “Already trimmed for Santa,” she said. In telling of the incident the teacher said, “I think they saw the beauty of it a little. I was thrilled by it, and I think that such a thrill can be catching.” From the same teacher! comes the next illustration: Children go home from school and throw wood from wagon to shed for two whole tours. The wood has a lovely sme!l—some is birch, some is rock maple; the textures are interesting. The wood can be thrown with a delightfully satis fying rhythm. But the little boys don’t smell of the wood, unless the guider does and speaks of its pleasantness. More likely a cross, tired voice says, “Hurry up—get that in or you won't get your supper.” Little arms are weary, little backs are tired, and the experience of “wood” ts only “a hard job to do.” That experience (a hard job to do) is not to be thought of as valueless. But the experience could be twenty-five times as big with guid ance. Often thru the misguidance they receive, rural children regard the phe- nomena about them with superstitious fear instead of pleasure and curious interest. Toads they believe give warts; snakes milk cows; the bite of a bat will kill you; “devils-darning-needles” sew up your lips; all insects, except honeybees, are enemies; a thunderstorm is overpoweringly fright- ening. Guidance is needed also by many rural children to protect them from the effects of the frustrations of their starved lives. Daniel C. is a case in point. His story comes from a supervising teacher? in a county where a ' Contributed by Elsie Bean. * Contributed by Ada Valentine. [ 21 | 19 summer institute in guidance has been carried on in rural elementary schools: Like many other fifteen-year-old boys who are at the cross roads, Daniel seemed to me and his teacher almost impossible. He was unhappy, cross, con- tentious, and discourteous to both of us and very resentful of my presence in the school at first. For several days he followed me about over the room and out on the play ground, mumbling something which I could not quite understand. I did hear him say several times to other boys, “We have too many bosses, This is a one-teacher school, not a two-teacher school.” After talking at length with the teacher, she asked me to talk to Daniel and see if I could find out what the trouble was. Not once during the conterence did [ reter io his behavior. I told him that the following week would be a very difficult week for all of us with perhaps one hundred visitors. When I asked him to help, in a nervous, hysterical manner he began to giggle. At times it was almost a cry. In a very abrupt manner he said, “There isn’t anything I can do to help and you know it.” I asked him to think for a minute and see if he could not mention one way he could help. “I could help keep some of the little children busy. I could take charge of a group if they would listen to me.” He made several other suggestions that were ac- ceptable. Toward the last of the conference he said, “But what's the use of my trying to help build up this school, improve the grounds, working like a dog, and having to move away in January? We move every year—can’t make a liv- ing any place. I have done my best at every school and I don’t see the good in it. PIL just stop school; that’s what I'll do.” “After you stop school what are you going to do?” “Work,” came the reply. “Haven’t you been working since you were old enough?” I inquired. “Yes.” “Then what will you gain by stopping school?” “I don’t know.” I shall remember his expression for a long time as he, for the hundredth time, no doubt, came face to face with a blank wall, one that he could neither go over, under, thru, nor around—face to face with the seemingly impossible. There are nine in the family, including himself. His major responsibilities are working in the fields, getting and chopping wood, looking after the younger children. They live in a three-room house. Next year Daniel will join the more than five thousand unemployed in the county. The following morning when I passed Daniel's house he was on the wood pile cutting wood and chewing tobacco. I slowed up to speak to him. Instead of speaking he threw his head back and spit a mouthful of amber at me. I threw on my brakes, got out of my car, and asked him if he would ride with me to school. He said abruptly, “No. I am not going to school any more.” I said, “We are alone out here. You have something in your heart you want to say. Now say it. I shall not report you to any officer. If you dislike me, tell me so. You will feel better when you have talked it out to someone.” He dropped his axe, which he had on his shoulder when I stopped my car. He said nothing. Then I said, “Why did I come out and come to speak to you?” He said, “I don’t know.” I said, “Yes, you do know very well. I came back because I am interested in you, because you are suffering and disappointed in someone or something. I can help you if you will let me. I can help you to [22] 20 go to the Settlement School next year if you will let me. I can, perhaps, help you to get some work. Soon I shall return to my home but I shall not forget you. I shall always wish for you the best of everything in life. It’s time for me to go now. I may not get to see you again if you do not come back to school.” I offered my hand. His cold, bony hand tightened when I said, “Give me a real handshake.” I drove away, watching him in the mirror of my car; as long as I could see he was looking at the car. About 10:30 he walked into the school, took his place in his group, and I have never seen a boy work harder or more coop- eratively than Daniel did. He was our strong right arm during the demonstra- tion work for the Institute. Early in the fall I had a letter from him. He wrote: I am enjoying school very much. I have been missing school for about a month. I had to work in the corn field. But I am thru now. I am going to try to go to school every day from now on. I am getting me a job. My work will be sweeping the school house and building fires. | would like to have you to come back about Christmas. I would like to be up there. Maybe I can have an oppor- tunity to be there some day. I hope you are having a good time. Are you still teaching? Write soon. Finally, guidance _is necessary to enable rural children_to find their place in the world of work. Rural sociologists have estimated that with our present demand for agricultural products and the present potentiality of machine production in agriculture not more than 25 percent of children born on farms can hope to make a living there; that perhaps another 25 percent can continue to be farm dwellers by pursuing a combination of subsistence agriculture and seasonal work in small, decentralized indus- trial plants; but that 50 percent can hope to live on an American standard only by moving to industrial areas. The country is the seedbed of the nation, for cities do not produce chil- dren enough to replace themselves. It is of greatest importance, however, that both those who yo and those who stay should do so, not blindly or fortuitously, but because thus each will achieve the highest satisfactions and make the best social contribution of which he is capable. Today there are special conditions which make the need for guidance of youth more acute than ever in our history. Rural adolescents are flock- ing into defense industries; others hardly older are enlisting or being drafted “for the duration.” It is hard to foresee what the social and eco- nomic conditions will be into which they will be mustered out. To aid them in finding their best place and realizing their best capacities will require statesmanlike vision of a good life for all men, accumulation of a vast amount of information as to existing and evolving work opportu- nities and the preparation they require, and a program of youth education and reeducation far more intelligent and extensive than any we have heretofore put into practice. { 23 ] 21 Chapter II GUIDANCE OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN N PRESCHOOL YEARS it is the rural parent, or other responsible members I of the rural family, upon whom the child must chiefly depend for guidance. Obviously, the quality of this guidance will range widely be- tween that afforded in the “poverty group” and that available in homes of substantiality and culture, both of which, as Baldwin has pointec out, characterize the rural population. In the former group, ground down by biting poverty, illiterate or nearly so because of the meager educational opportunities of their own youth, equipped at the best only with what their own experience has taught them and at the worst with a heritage of superstition and an accumulated hopelessness, the parents have neither the standards, the skill, nor the material facilities for the physical or mental care of their offspring. If the children in these homes, which are more prolific of children than any other in our nation, are to be enabled to achieve whatever potentialities they may have, there must be help from outside the home, even during the first few years of life. Even in highly advantaged rural homes, parents find themselves unable to cope entirely unaided with all the problems which guidance might pre- vent. Some of the assistance which they feel the need of, they are able to secure by private expenditure or thru reading; often, however, they find themselves at a loss as to where to turn for aid. Two reports from well- educated mothers in advantaged rural homes illustrate this point: Fortunately for me as a mother T have a boy who seems to have an excellent consutution and who has never really offered any serious problems. Ot course coming home trom the hospital and having to assume the care of a baby in addition to one’s regular housework and duties is really the crucial time, When one can satistactorily adjust the two, then it is just a question of seeing that both are done as well as possible. There should be some reliable and authoritative person who can act as a starter, as it were, Ot course the new mother is always besieged with well- meant advice and information and, much more usetully, the hospital statt offers suggestions on how to properly care tor the baby. However, it is some- thing else again to attempt the actual doing of these things. I appreciate no end that my sister, who is a trained nurse, was with me at home to demonstrate and teach me how to bathe the baby, dress him, fix his bed, feed him, mix his formula, and properly sterilize his eating utensils. She was with me just five days, but during that time she gave me gradual control of the necessary physi- cal care. From her I learned these three things pertaining to the proper care ot [ 25 ] 2p a baby: extreme cleanliness, a liberal use of common sense, and no hesitancy in asking questions of authoritative persons. - After my sister left, the United States Department of Labor (15,16) took over. This department publishes a number of free booklets on child care. The one on Infant Care deals with the child from birth to one year of age. In it is all the authentic information that one could desire—weight charts and food schedules for the different months, symptoms of illnesses and advice, sun baths, and naps. The first year of my baby’s life was practically controlled and governed by this little book. Of course I had to set up his and my own sched- ules and routine. I have always expected him to spend a certain amount of time by himself, and I have expected obedience. One can't ask for much more. After Infant Care comes The Child from One to Six, Altho | am not follow- ing this one so religiously I use it a great deal. It has to do with greater food complexities, various bad habits that might arise and how to deal with them, and goes more into the psychological approach. The guidance which this rural baby had received up to his eighteenth month was almost ideal. His mother was a university graduate in physical education, which she had taught before her marriage, so that she had a sound understanding of the physical and physiological factors of child development. She had had medical supervision during pregnancy, assur- ing that the baby’s health would be cared for from the beginning. The nurse in the hospital where he was born initiated him into a desirable routine of physical and physiological behavior, the most important aspect of development during at least the first year of life. The assistance of the sister who was a trained nurse facilitated the transfer of the child’s habits to the home without a break, and the mother’s education assured on her part the attitudes and abilities involved in using the printed helps to his further guidance. It is small wonder that she could say that he had never offered her any serious problem. As the child grows older his developing iNtelligence and powers of locomotion and of language rapidly complicate his behavior. Psychologi- cal, as well as physical, guidance and nourishment become important. No great psychological problems are likely to appear in the first year and a half of life, but a few aspects and factors of psychological adjustment which early become significant are foreshadowed in this mother’s account. Obedience, truth telling, and reasoning are Concepts beyond a young child’s comprehension, yet even in the second year of life it may be led into adjustments from which problems will arise in years to come. The second account shows some of the problems of guidance which perplex even the most intelligent and devoted of parents: My husband and I hope that our small son, Roy, now five years old, may grow into a reasonably well-adjusted adult who finds living an interesting and enjoyable experience. Family conferences, the reading of books and articles on child care and growth, the consulting of other mothers and friends, and our [26]. R3 own thoro study of our son have gone into the effort to make Roy grow into the adult we want him to be. We have provided for Roy's physical development thru proper diet, cleanli- ness, fresh air, sunshine, vitamin capsules, a jungle gym, and trees to climb. We have tried to provide for adequate rest, since we are told the five-year-old ta tigues readily, but this has been and still is a problem, since Roy does not like resting. Roy has a room of his own, in which he carries on many activities by him- self. He is supplied with an abundance of equipment including art and con- struction materials, music, and a fine group of colorful children’s books. We have made an effort to create a calm and serene home atmosphere that will not excite a small child, and we have tried to make our home an attractive and interesting place where our son will want to bring his playmates now and as he grows older. We believe we have knit a strong family group by sharing our recreation, The three of us read, play, talk, and write together, We took a western trip this summer and Roy was included in the party, as he is in journeys to the zoo, a picnic, camping, the rodeo, or an Indian relic search, Roy is accustomed to meeting people in our home and visiting in other homes. Ele can carry on an intelligent telephone conversation, We gladly and patiently answer his many questions, Our finest offering to our son is a love security that he can always depend upon, Praise, encouragement, and family companionship are a part ot his daily life. We have tried to teach Roy a child's interest in God, a patriotic attitude to- ward his country, and the simple meanings ot holidays. We have never asked Roy to submit to unquestioned authority, We talk over a situation with him and between us we arrive at a satisfactory solution, There are certain responsibilities that Roy now realizes he must assume. He knows that boys and girls of five years of age are expected to do the following: (a) put away play materials after using them; (b) use materials and facilities without waste; (c) dress and undress, take care of clothes, and personal habits; (d) observe simple health rules; and (e) practice kindness toward others. Roy sees the fairness of these rules, so they are reasonably well kept. Bringing up Roy is not all harmony, But when we read that child behaviorists declare that the kind of treatment we deal our children in early childhood goes a long way to determine the kind of adults they will be, we proceed with caution, I become so confused with the problem of being defensively constructive in child rearing that I am fully convinced that it is | who am the problem and not my son. I feel that I have too little patience, too little knowledge and under- standing of my child, and am too emotionally unstable and involved to make the best kind of a parent. Among other characteristics, Roy has a sense of humor, is highly imagina- tive, is determined, resourceful, and full of initiative and courage. These char- acteristics are fine but they present the difficult problem of preserving the spirit of the characteristic and still maintaining a parent's control and tempering over the situation. The following incidents will illustrate this: [ 27 ] 24 IT was tired, had an arm paining with the weight of bundles, and in a hurry to enter my kitchen and get dinner started. Roy chose this occasion to scurry into the house and play his favorite joke of bolting the door so | could not enter, and giggling at my efforts to gain admittance. This past summer, he hid a tomato under the slip seat of a living room chair, and the results are not hard to imagine, Roy lett home one morning with a perfectly good umbrella, which | later found outside the house near the door. It was in tatters. He had not mentioned the matter to me when he came home from kindergarten so I asked for an ex- planation. He said he had stopped a fight between two boys with it. “I blocked them with the umbrella, and boy, you should see them run!” [ admire Roy's courage and initiative but T cannot allow him to be so officious with other children, Roy's imagination is highly developed. He told me this story at breaktast: “Jack, the Giant Killer, came to my room last night. Do you want to know what he did that was funny? He thought the sofa and the bed were giants and he tried to kill them, | help Jack kill giants. We kill them and TI scoop them up with a shovel. I'm scooping up giants now,” said Roy, as he made motions with his cereal spoon, The war has tired Roy's imagination and he dwells on aspects of this more than on any other topic. He looks tor pictures of war in magazines and news papers. He asks endless questions about the war. He has had nightmares, awakening and erying that he can’t breathe because gas is in the air. | discovered that he was going to sleep with the bed covers over his head so that if there was war during the might he would not breathe the gas. He recently told me that it the Army and Navy can’t protect us, he will go trom building to build- ing, so he can be sate, We have tried to keep his interest and excitement about war under control, but it has been very ditheult. Another matter which is causing us concern is Roy's lack of proper play- mates. The children of his age in our neighborhood are girls. This situation is most unsatistactory. There are older boys but they consider Roy too little, and play with them often ends unhappily. There are but four other boys in the public-school kindergarten which Roy attends. The problem ot sex in children causes parents as much anguish as any, yet itis one in which mothers and tathers seem to get the least help. My husband thinks parents are apt to make mountains out of mole hills in this regard. Stages which a child goes thru are confusing to a mere mother, who accepts obnoxious treatment trom her child because he is going thru a stage in child: hood in which this behavior is natural. Miss Biber, in the October issue of Childhood Education, says ot tive- to eight-year old children: “Resistance is likely to be expressed not only in the particular of refusing to do what he is told but in the more general torm of accusing the adult of being too bossy or too strict or just not fair.” I've tried to make allowances for Roy's being “five years old” but I find it sometimes difficult to decide whether an offense should be tolerated “like measles” or whether Roy is becoming an unpleasant child. Parents want the best for their children and “the best” is not always available in the small town, My son has just returned from the hospital, so the need for the best medical care in rural areas is foremost in my mind. I feel strongly [ 28 ] 25 about this, for it doesn’t seem right that expert medical care is not readily avail able to everyone. I'd like more articles, simply written but authoritative, on all phases of child care and growth. I'd like to have access to a psychiatrist that I could consult with confidence as often as I tound it necessary. These two letters suggest many of the aspects of child guidance which present problems for the mother of a young child—how best to care tor him physically; how to protect him from fears; how to afford him a sense of security; how to help him make necessary social adjustments; how to preserve his imagination, initiative, and other dynamic qualities; how to arouse in him desirable interests; how to build sound character; how to provide adequately for the growth of intelligence; and how to keep him wholesome in every way. Is the child developing and behaving as is ap propriate for his age? What is “adequate rest” for Roy? What makes a small child concerned with the war? Should he be? How can he be pro tected from disintegrating fears? How much “consideration tor others” is a young child capable of? What are the limits of “reasoning” with a two-vear-old? A. five-year-old? Should unquestioning obedience be ex pected? Exacted? Always? Ever? When? Problems such as the foregoing face all mothers—whether rural or ur ban, intelligent or dull, educated or illiterate. OF most of them the ignorant mother is unaware. She rests secure in the belief that the fact of mother hood endows a woman with instinctive knowledge of child rearing, or she turns confidently for help, in her years of inexperience, to older and more experienced women as unlettered as she. Her child needs a wiser guide than she can possibly be, but not knowing this she is untroubled, It is the intelligent mothers of good education who recognize the nature of the assistance that all of them need, Sometimes these latter are sadly confused by conflicting advice from the numerous magazines, bulletins, and books from which they seek help but which they are unable to evaluate. “Their confusion, uncertainty, and overanxiety often arouse reactions of inse curity and resultant fear in their children, so that it may be that they themselves, not the children, are the problem, But how are they to know unless there is someone more adequately grounded in child psychology than they to whom they can turn for help in specific problems ? The difference between child guidance in city and country consists not in the distinctive natures and fundamental needs of rural and urban chil dren and parents, for these, like Judy O'Grady and the captain's lady, are basally the same, but in the different institutional services available in the two situations. That certain factors or conditions, favorable or unfavorable to child development, distinctively characterize rural and urban areas, and that, as a result, certain types of need are particularly found among rural children, have already been pointed out. These must be duly con- sidered in rural guidance and particularly in the guidance-directed expe- [ 29 | 26 rience afforded rural children. It is nevertheless true that the distinctive general problem of rural guidance is that of devising and affording agencies, tax-supported or maintained by cooperative, voluntary effort, which can make the types of assistance that are needed available under the conditions existing in rural areas. The provision of public services tor young rural children has lagged far behind that for urban children and is today largely in an experimental state. The Extension Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, thru its county home agents; state or county departments or boards of health; and public health nurses are at present the public agencies best situated to help rural mothers in the guidance of the preschool child. Their agents, in carrying out the work for which they were primarily set up, come into direct contact with mothers in homes, and their work em- bodies many of the factors essential to child development, especially in its physical aspects. The following account’ deals with services available for mothers of pre- school children thru the public health nurse: Perhaps the most valuable service rendered by the rural public health nurse is the individual instruction given in the home. Here the nurse has an oppor- tunity to teach the mother what good health habits are, what constitutes a well- balanced diet, and guide the social development of the child. All the organized counties in Tennessee have child health conferences avail- able during the year, the amount of this service depending on how well staffed the health departments are. At these conferences the child receives a physical examination, the findings being discussed and suggestions made as to further care. Immunizations are given where indicated if the parent wishes them. The tollowing case histories from Hamilton County might give a picture of what the public health nurse does and what type of problems arise over a period of time. The parents of H«len Louise have had few opportunities but are fairly in- telligent and are interested in the development of their children. The public health nurse has been instructing the mother regarding Helen’s growth and development since she was three days old. When Helen was about two another baby arrived. Helen had not been prepared for this jolt and showed definite jealous tendencies. She began developing temper tantrums which have become more frequent, and her dislike for the baby seems more apparent. Questions such as the tollowing are asked by the mother: Should I punish her each time she behaves like this? Should I give in to either child or ignore both of them? Would it be better it 1 separated them and let each have her own play things or should T encourage them to share what they have? The public health nurse teels the need here of a child guidance clinic to which she can refer mothers with such problems. Helen is well developed physically, alert, and friendly toward most people. John's father and mother have about an eighth-grade education. They are ' Contnbuted by Elizabeth M. Lauderbach. [ 30 ] 27 quite intelligent and have been most cooperative. John was first visited by the nurse when he was twenty-four days old. On regular inspection he was found to have something wrong with his right foot. The mother was given an ap- pointment to the orthopedic clinic and on examination the orthopedist found that there was an absence of the right fibula, fourth and fifth toes including the metatarsals. A cast was applied and the mother was instructed to return in one month. This mother has carried out all instructions not only regarding the deformity but in advice as to diet and general care. Finances are very limited and the nurse was instrumental in getting Crippled Children’s Service for this child. John is now three and one-half years old; he is wearing a brace with a built up shoe. Routine supervision is given to see that the brace and shoe are in good repair. When John reaches the age of sixteen the orthopedist thinks some surgery will give a better correction, so John will remain under the super- vision of the nurse until this is accomplished. It is to be noted that three supplementary agencies are mentioned in this account: the Child Guidance Clinic, the Orthopedic Clinic, and the Crip- pled Children’s Service. Apparently two of these are available to the rural children of this county, situated contiguous to the city of Chattanooga, but the third is not. The two clinics mentioned are agencies which are in a position to discover the underlying causes of the child’s behavior, physical and emotional, and to offer expert advice with respect to remedial proce- dure, while the third service affords the material resources necessary to carry out the advice. The next report? is from the Extension Service work under the Depart- ment of Agriculture: In Powhatan County, Virginia, the home demonstration clubs have carried as a part of their program for several years a child guidance and child care program. Guidance and help in carrying out this program were received from Nancy Vance of the State Board of Health, Bureau of Maternal and Child Care. We enrolled in this project babies from birth to one year, and from one year to three years. The mother and father were also enrolled as cooperators, since they really had to develop the program in child care and training. The rules _ for the parents to keep for their babies were: 1. Feed the baby every day. 2. Bathe the baby every day. Let the baby sleep in a separate bed. Feed the baby after six months by doctor’s directions or by the Baby Bulletin given each mother, 5. Give toxin at from six to twelve months (to prevent diphtheria ). 6. Do not give baby a pacifier. > WwW The babies whose parents kept these simple rules for them up to the first 2 Contributed by Katherine R. Brent. [31] 28 birthday got a “Blue Ribbon Badge” from Miss Vance. Each home demon- stration club had a “Blue Ribbon Baby” chairman whose first duty it was to see that the babies in her community were enrolled, at birth or even before. We gave the expectant mother literature and instructions regarding care of herself during pregnancy. At the time of our Home Demonstration Achievement Day in October 1939, there were eight babies who had received the badge and so were eligible to be in the technicolor motion picture made by Miss Vance, showing the babies playing with toys, balloons, etc., out on the lawn. This motion picture was shown later by Miss Vance in the various club meetings and was a means of giving added interest and impetus to the program which we were continuing IN 1940. In 1940 one meeting in every club was devoted to the subject ot child care and training and all mothers of young children in the communities were espe- cially invited to attend. Prepared talks and demonstrations were given at these meetings and graded literature was given to mothers. If the mothers could not attend, the club chairman took it to them. This literature was graded ac- cording to the educational advantages of the mother, and the collection was prepared by Miss Vance, in cooperation with other health bureaus. In addition to this, literature was obtained from the Children’s Bureau, Department of Labor, Washington, D. C., and from some life insurance companies. At the Achievement Day in 1940 a second picture was made of the “Blue Ribbon Babies.” There were twenty-six who, having received the badge, were eligible for this picture, This “One-Year Program” was followed with what we called the “Optimal Three-Year Old,” the added rules for this being that the child continue to drink a quart of milk a day, take a nap every day, and be taken to the dentist betore the third birthday. Both of these programs have stressed adult education in child development and parent education and promoted study along these lines. ‘Twenty-one women reported they had read a recommended book, magazine article, or bul- letin on child care and training, or attended at least one meeting devoted te this study. Another home agent* reported that during the preceding year nothing definite was done especially to aid and guide mothers in caring for pre- school children, the major work of that year having centered around the topic of family relationship. Approximately 200 county women of all ages had heard discussions on the effects of heredity and environment, mental and physical health, personality improvement, and adjustments in family diving. As a result of this program, 26 women read 38 books on family lite, 16 subscribed to Parents’ Magazine, and 62 reported improved family relations. Altho not specifically focused on child guidance, this program dealt with a field as important in developing sound mental health in young children as was that of the preceding report in its contribution to their physical well-being. * Contributed by Alice Tudor, The following quotations from other contributors* indicate additional aspects of guidatice of preschool children to which home demonstration agents and public health nurses are giving attention: The public health nurse teaches home hygiene, care of the sick, and pre- vention of, as well as care for, accidents. The mother of a preschool child most often needs guidance in gentle but kind firmness with her child. Her methods of punishment are somewhat like those of a mother cat, snapping and snarling while still loving the child but with not a constructive idea of how to keep him from repeating his acts which bring disfavor. Demonstrations of foods are given, showing mothers how to strain and cook vegetables and fruits raised in their own gardens. Preparation of dishes using milk and eggs from the home supply are also demonstrated and recipes are given. In response to requests from mothers in home demonstration clubs and other groups, we have at meetings shown exhibits of garments for preschool children and for those in lower grades. Garments which have been made at home and found satisfactory when actually worn by children are displayed. Paper and scissors are available and those present receive help in cutting pat- terns of their choice and needs. What these several agents are doing may be somewhat above the aver- age for their respective organizations, since these were recommended by those in a position to know as especially likely to be making contributions to child guidance. That more is needed than they are able to do is certain, and that they are not able to meet all the needs is inevitable. The total area that each one covers is approximately five hundred square miles; the needs to be met are more varied than the scope of these two agencies covers and, consequently, the preparation required for these fields has not always included study of the facts and problems of child development. Courses to this end are beginning to be included in the preparation of public health nurses and commonly in that of extension agents. The most serious inadequacy, however, lies not in the abilities of the agents to render the essential services but in the difficulty of reaching the homes which most need such help. Because of the large number of homes and of children of preschool age in a county, the education of parents with respect to child guidance must be conducted in the main by mass methods, thru meetings of various kinds, supplemented by “graded literature.” Par- ents from the more disadvantaged farm groups are induced with difficulty to attend meetings. Frequently their homes are remote from centers of assembly, transportation facilities are lacking for them and road condi tions are bad, workenecessities occupy their waking hours, and their poor clothing and the shyness or embarrassment which their isolation agd + Contributed by Susan Hughes and Elizabeth Lauderbach. [ 33 |] 30 frustrations have developed make them unwilling to join groups of the more fortunate residents of their neighborhoods. The idea of “graded literature” is a happy one. Altho it cannot serve the practically illiterate parent, it has much promise for the average, particu- larly when interpreted by the discussions and demonstrations of the group meetings. The possibility of the parent-teacher association as an instru- ment for increased understanding of the developmental needs of young children, as well as those of school age, is also worth further exploita- tion. With such expert or specialized assistance as a good county guidance program might make available, this organization might well take its place with public agencies of health and adult education as a means of reach- ing parents on all levels with assistance in the guidance of young children. [ 34] 34 Chapter III THE TEACHER’S PART IN THE GUIDANCE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN ROM THE DAY THE CHILD ENTERS SCHOOL, all the developmental problems Fina have faced the rural parent now confront the teacher. During the hours the child is in her charge, it becomes her responsibility to safeguard his physical health and promote his physical development; protect him from fears; help him make necessary social adjustments; preserve and develop his imagination, initiative, and creativity; arouse in him desirable interests; and build in him sound character and wholesome personality as Well as promote his intellectual growth. In actual fact the teacher cannot, like Solomon, halve the child and deal with the in-school half. The child is a unit and his in-school life is inextricably bound to his current out-of-school life as well as to the years before school days began. The teacher cannot guide him unless she under- stands him, and she cannot understand him if she knows only half of him. His problems of behavior, as manifested in the school, are often rooted in the prior or present conditions of the home. As a result of these conditions he may be suffering from lacks which must be made up or maladjustments which must be remedied before the ongoing experiences of the school can be appropriated by him. On the other hand, the child in his out-of-school life may have always had the advantages of security, affection, appropriate nutrition, and exer- cise; a wide variety of active experiences; play material suitable to his years to stimulate his manipulative and creative activities; stories, pictures, and music. The development of such a child is far advanced beyond that of one, born with like capacities, whose life has been physically and men- tally deprived. To assure that his wholesome growth shall continue unde- flected and unretarded is often a more difficult problem for the teacher than making up the shortages of an underprivileged child. Yet it is his right, equally with all his fellows, to realize his fullest potentialities. There are often special needs to be met for the child from a privileged home. He may not be fully accepted as a member of his group, especially if he is younger and of a higher native capacity. He may be overpressed by the ambition of his proud parents. He may be an only child, with less practice than his classmates in working and playing with those near his own age. All these children the teacher must know better than mere in-school contacts make possible for her. For such intimate acquaintance there is no better situation than the rural school affords. Where else so much as in [35] 32 good rural elementary schools does the teacher walk to and from school with her pupils, accept their help for starting the day, teach them “in all things,” work with them, play with them, eat lunch with them, and go home at night with them? Where else does the teacher have an equal op- portunity to know her pupils’ parents, their brothers and sisters, their social and economic status, their pride and joys, and their hopes and despairs ? It is often said that guidance in the elementary school is nothing more than good teaching. A more accurate statement would be that guidance has always been implicit in good teaching. Its fundamental essence is in- deed a child study program based on two questions: What do I know about this child? What am I doing with this knowledge? An alert, intelligent, young rural teacher was smiling encouragingly at an awkward twelve-year-old: “I'm so proud of you, Tim,” she was saying. “You certainly handled that playground trouble well. And only last month you thought you weren't good enough for the team. No wonder the boys want you tor their captain!” And as the youngster straightened up, smiled more con- tidently and walked proudly away, the teacher turned to her visitor. “All that boy needed was some self-confidence,” she said. “When he came here he was unhappy and almost timid. His home is not secure and he felt defeated and ashamed. So I talked to some of the boys about making a point of including him in their games, and they have done wonders, bless their hearts.” “But you asked me about a guidance program. I'm sorry that I haven't any. You see we can’t afford special counselors and guidance directors, so I suppose the youngsters will just have to wait until they go to the city to high school in order to get that service!”"! The sort of guidance this young teacher was assuredly giving her boys and girls, even if she was not aware of it, good teachers have always given their pupils. Read Jean Mitchell's School, or Jessie Field's Corn Lady, or Goodbye, Mr. Chips. The case of Daniel C. (pages 21 to 23), already re- lated, is another illustration. It is to be noted that the teachers in all these cases were good teachers. Others might have felt the same interest in children and concern for their welfare and as a result might have sought to become acquainted with the circumstances of their pupils’ lives yet not have been capable of good guidance. For guidance involves wisdom on the part of the guide. It is not enough that teachers be acquainted with their pupils; they must understand them also. Knowledge of child nature and development in general is a major element in understanding the individual child. A background of such knowledge derived at least in part from friendly living with children in everyday situations and extended thru literature or ! Contributed by Lois M. Nemec. [ 36 | 33 course instruction is an invaluable basis for the classroom teacher's guid- ance of her pupils. Without it she cannot interpret well what she sees, for she does not know whether their behavior is that of normal childhood; expresses perversions, distortions, or stunting of personality; or indicates rare capacities lying dormant, to be brought into flowering. A third essential feature of good teaching, based upon guidance | is the provision for each child of opportunities for his best growth and develop- ment. This calls for knowledge on the teacher's part of available resources for realizing the child’s. purposes and meeting his needs: activities possi ble and desirable for him in the school and community; material pro visions, such as tools, books, or mediums of expression appropriate to his needs and purposes; technics useful for him to control; and persons whe can and will help and advise him. It demands of the teacher also a sound sense of values based upon insight into the essential elements of whole some community life, both in the neighborhood and in the wider society. The application of knowledge and insights such as these in making a program of fruitful experiencing for children is the essence of a guidance directed curriculum. What would be features most noticeable in a school or classroom with such a curriculum as this? It would surely be a place in which children were physically active most of the time, for such it is the nature of a child to be. This activity, while serving the needs and realizing the purposes of each individual child, would be adjusted or progressively adjusting to the needs and purposes of each other child and of the group as a whole. The guidance of the teacher would consist of purposing and planning, co- operating with others, formulating judgments of value, and determining skills needed for desired ends according to the abilities and necessities of each child on his level of maturity. Many activities would be mental rather than purely physical, as in planning, evaluating, intently listening to a story, or waiting one’s opportunity to participate in a conference. There would, however, be some periods when activities would cease, so that the children might take the rest they need as much as activity. Especially would the activity be diverse. Children would be engaged in many different enterprises, working, playing, or studying alone or in small groups, and for only a relatively small portion of each day would they all be together. The quality of the products of different children would vary also, for how could it be otherwise if each were realizing his unique capacities? No child's achievements would be measured against another's any more than a rose’s perfume or the fruit of a peach tree would be measured against the song of a robin or the brightness of the morning star. Not all the activities of the children would be confined within the schoo! or the classroom. Firsthand experiences to supplement what the home had supplied or was supplying would be sought in the neighborhood or [ 37 | 34 might be found on the schoolgrounds. Possibilities of experiences in the homes would be canvassed and perhaps realized. Many examples of active experiences being afforded in rural schools which seek to know and serve their pupils’ needs have been reported for this yearbook by rural teachers. One especially suggestive report, from a small, one-teacher school in an isolated situation, is too long to include here in full. It has already been published in a New Jersey State Bulletin on Character Emphasis in Education (13:88-98), to which some readers may have access. It seems worthwhile to repeat here, however, the state- ment of the needs which the teacher, after her first three months in this school, felt were of major importance in her children’s lives: 1. The children need to develop attitudes and habits of personal cleanliness. They need to desire to have order and attractiveness in their surroundings. 2. The children need to develop social habits and attitudes which will en- able them to get along with those about them and to meet new situations with confidence and poise. * 3. These children need many and abundant interests in order that their lives may be enriched and their time spent worthily. 4. These children need to have experience in expressing themselves crea- tively in many different ways. 5. Many of the children need to develop greater skill in the tool subjects, not only because of their usefulness in living but because of emotional problems resulting from continued failure. 6. These children need to help initiate and plan their activities, because in- terest and purpose are essential to the integration of personality, >. The children need to be conscious of a spirit of friendliness and coopera- tion between teacher and parents, because, when this feeling does not exist, dis- integrating elements are at work on the child’s character. The growth which the teacher and her supervisor felt had eventuated from her efforts to meet these needs was stated as follows: There has been a shift from a formal teacher-controlled school to a place where children are largely self-controlled and self-directed. There is no abuse ot freedom, however. There has been a considerable shift irom teacher-initiated and planned ac tivities to child initiating and planning. The children are enthusiastic and in terested. They look upon the work as their own and are purposeful and busy. There is a growing consciousness on the part of the children of their indi- vidual and group problems and an increasing skill in handling these problems. There has been an emerging of the personalities of the children, together with a developing of each individual’s respect for every other individual. Each child is coming to have a unique place in his group and is gradually develop- ing the desirable characteristics which are potentially strong in him. There has been a complete shift from the teaching of subjects alone to em phasis on the character development of boys and girls. [ 38] 35 The next report® is from the principal and teacher of the seventh and eighth grades in a four-teacher school in Tennessee. Space limitations permit using only a few extracts from her interesting account. Broadening Our Experience In our school we try to do as many things as possible to give us new experi ences, Some of these things that have made “red letter days” for us are: 1. A trip last year to the night session of the state legislature with time tor a movie before the legislature opened. Community people furnished their cars to help convey the children to town which is about twenty miles away. 2. A broadcast over WSIX on Saturday during the school term, Twenty- three children sang songs we had learned in our regular glee club work. Par- ents who didn’t help convey the children and those children who didn’t go to take part listened in. The children gave reports at school the following week. 3. Singing at the graduation program of two other schools in the county. Our school was invited to sing there. The children discussed the programs and evaluated them, even borrowing ideas that we liked to use in our own program which followed later. 4. Building a built-in cabinet from scrap lumber, We took scrap lumber from our new building, a $2 secondhand sink and a little tin tor bins to build a cabinet for our lunch room. Several people in the community have asked tor help in designing one for their own homes. 5. Our study of hog raising. In the late fall during “hog killing time” we made a study of hogs. One boy made the statement that they killed that day and made only two stands of lard from ten hogs. This led to a further study of breeds, care, and other topics concerning hogs. We were aided in this study by a man in the community who was a successful hog raiser, A survey was made of how much meat was consumed annually by each family and the ways they cured their meat. This provided the children many experiences in investigating as well as in expressing themselves. Boys who had sat tongue-tied were now found discussing the amount of salt Dad used and his success in curing meat. By the time this subject had been gone into thoroly, it was time to plan the garden, and again we took in home experiences. An interesting feature of the report of this teacher is the number and variety of assistants she was able to secure in enriching the experiences of her pupils: fathers and mothers who furnished transportation for children to places worth visiting; the nearby broadcasting station; a representative of the state conservation department; WPA workers who took care of the school garden in the summer; the men of the neighborhood who spent a week leveling the schoolgrounds and building a basketball court; the county officials who lent trucks to haul dirt; the county agent who helped the pupils build a hotbed; the extension service of the state university which sent the school an agriculturalist to help develop the school garden. Perhaps most interesting of all, the pupils of the school copied, in beauti- fully legible penmanship, the report which their teacher sent to the editor * Contributed by Gladys Jackson. [ 39 | 36 of the yearbook. The values of this experience to these children is worth contemplating. The account which follows, from a third-grade* teacher in the elemen- tary school serving the children of a federal resettlement project in North Carolina, shows some of the means which the teacher used to know her pupils and their environment, and the type of curriculum experiences she provided them in order to guide them toward their best possible develop- ment: In many respects my work in this situation more nearly approached the real- ization of my dreams than any school and community experience I have had up to now. I worked closely with both the child and the parent. Many mothers and fathers not only visited my room but actually sat in the circle, discussed, planned, and helped to execute plans regarding school, home, and community problems. We worked and played together, neither dominated by the other. The children chose books from our room library for themselves and for their parents. The books were catalogued by the children, and two children acted as librarians for a week until every child had shared this pleasure and responsi- bility. The children and the parents in the combined communities which the school served read 1945 books during the year from our room library, which was In our classroom. Many of the parents went with us on excursions and upon our return joined in the class discussion and final reports with us. I visited every home from one to four times during the year and in most cases ate with them when invited regardless of circumstances. | always ar ranged to take the children with me if I drove or walked to their homes, Some were so tar away I could not get more than one visit in an afternoon, while others were near enough that | could take three or four children with me, I have in my files a copy of every letter to parents and the parents’ reply, | used these letters as a part of my cumulative records, and did not use the tra ditional report cards. In tact | have not used such cards for years. ‘The visit and letter in my file are of infinitely greater value in’ scientifically studying the child. There were forty-seven children enrolled in my group. Every child had a home project which he chose; then the child, the Parent, and I went over the plans very carefully. (1 used the state-adopted texts when they could serve a purpose and far more than met the requirements of our state course of study which, in my work, is an excellent guide. ) In school the children carried on group projects, which were chosen from a suggested list. Many preliminary discussions were held to determine the inter- ests of the various children in the projects suggested, The class was then di- vided according to the interests shown. Each unit group reported on either Tuesday or Thursday. I always arranged to meet With each group, either dur- ing the lunch hour or after three o'clock for those who lived within walking distance of school. Some projects were engaged in by the whole class. Among the group projects were a rhythm orchestra, holiday observation, the | 40 | 37 tion clubs, and the newspaper. Every child had a musical instrument of some kind, and four hours a week were given to the rhythm orchestra. On the basis of this, seven children having definite talent were discovered and given instruc- tion in the wind instrument. All holidays were observed. Some afforded excel- lent opportunities for experiences in preparing, serving, and decorating, and in choosing color schemes, music, pictures, poetry, and stories. Others were used for the study of great men and events of yesterday and today. The children had access to quite a number of library books in the classroom, and twice a week we visited the large library. These children read in the ag- yregate more than a thousand books during the year, including poetry, stories, and information for carrying on the various projects. Excursions were numer- ous—to a bulb grower’s to get bulbs for our propagating bed; to the nearby village to see “The Wizard of Oz"; to a nearby city, in which there were visits to the library, the park, the mayor's office, and a tour over the city in the police cars; a short trip on the train; and all thru the year exploring trips to various points of interest in the local community. In visual education many films on health, plant and.animal life, and geography were shown—at least one picture being shown each week. The machine was always in the hands of the children, In the social class each child learned to set a table and serve our lunches. Day after day we had a host or hostess, the honor being passed around. Boys and girls alike participated. The health and sanitation project centered around personal cleanliness and a cooking and serving project. The children prepared cocoa, potato salad, soup, pumpkin pies, corn bread, devilled eggs, and candy, Cooking utensils and dishes were regularly sterilized, the dish cloth and towels kept clean at all times. Every child gained some weight. Children came to class with clean nails, clean clothing, haircuts, clean teeth, and shined shoes, There were four clubs in which every child participated: a book club, “Good Words Booster Club,” health club, and science club, Each club met once a month, The children seemed to feel definitely that they needed a newspaper, if it were no more than one page, Every child prepared a story or poem for the paper, Which, however, was not able to give space to all the children in the room during the year, Other school projects included a propagating bed, campus beautitying, breeding rabbits, indoor plant growing, an aquarium, sewing, shopwork, con- ferences on all matters concerning the group, and acquaintance with foreign lands, Among individual home projects were a nursery propagating bed, pig growing, raising a purebred calf, raising a brood ot ducks, growing vegetables for home or market use, wild life and game preservation, and growing flowers for home or market. The teacher’ of a group of French-Canadian children in’ a poorly equipped one-teacher school in Vermont who wrote (see page 20) of the need of her pupils for fun and a realization of pleasant things to do, told of her efforts to meet this need. She said in part: I feel that teachers should do something besides “make them work” trom 9 to 4. | have not done much with them yet (she had been teaching the schoo! ' Contributed by Elsie Bean. [41] 38 only a few months) but [ have a few plans in mind. The picture of my room one morning is a small beginning of what I mean, The children started coming at 7:30 a. M. Two boys hurried to the workbench and worked an hour. With the coping saw, hammer, and nails they made a small house, complete with steps, in the time before school, They brought their boards from home but the tools were in school. At the same time two girls started tying crepe paper around some tin cans with small Christmas trees set out in them. Other chil- dren were cutting rags in strips and weaving on looms of cardboard, while still others were drawing on large pieces of brown paper. There are several who can and do draw unusually well, These children were six to cleven years in age. The twelve-, thirteen-, and fourteen-year old boys just stood around poking one another and bothering the others, showing necd of knowing what it means to do something for fun, not because they have to. | think they will get interested in something. I am still thinking, watching, and trying to find what would give them pleasure in these hefore-school hours, If we can get lumber and the right kind of wood-work they will come in some morning and start at something, This need for enjoyment and pleasure | try to meet during school at times. | read tunny poems to them. I don’t make them learn poetry. I take the atti- tude that we are all doing it just for fun, | have a good time myself and I know they do for the minutes spent. After reading the “Raggedy Man” one day, I heard a sigh as twenty breaths let out at once—"Gee,” was all they said. It was enough, | wish I knew more poems for fun than I do. Another thing we do for fun is sing—not learn to read notes, not drill for pertect harmony, just sing. I find that the rhythm and swing of music gives pleasure to the group—to be a part of a group so enjoying itself is enough. It is a curious fact that the ©, portunity for “fun and pleasure” which the before-school, noon hour, and recess periods afford is inadequately realized in rural schools. In the preadolescent’s world, play with his group is the most absorbing business of life. In spite of home tasks and the long tramp to school, boys of ten and twelve are usually the first arrivals on the schoolyard, often as much as an hour before the required time. Nig- gardly provision of play space, the pressure of a mutiplicity of tasks upon the teacher, the lick of rural recognition of play as a component element of well-rounded living these are some of the reasons for the fact. As a result of it, the child's need for motor and physical play finds outlet in crude punching, poking, jostling, running, and tussling, which are of lit- tle developmental value, While the rural teacher has more kinds of responsibilities than she ean meet effectively, she cannot afford to regard the play periods as an unim- portant phase of her work even if the children will carry them on without her, They offer her one of her finest opportunities for intimate acquaint. ance with each child’s uninhibited personality. Her observations on the playground will supply her with the key to many problems of adjustment which arise in schoolroom activities, 39 Rural children need organized group play under adult leadership. Modern life has torn down the solidarity of the small neighborhood and as yet has provided no satisfactory substitute. Children in school today can become leaders in a new type of rural recreation only if they learn the attitudes and technics of group play in school. Such leadership will con tribute to their own social adjustment and will develop in their commu nities the ability to enjoy leisure constructively, which is the need of all American communities in modern times. Other experiences which have been used to serve the recognized needs of children in rural schools are described in the New Jersey bulletin al ready cited (13). The daily hot lunch at school has been utilized not only to improve the nutrition of pupils and their attitudes, habits, and know! edge with respect lo food but also to ck velop sochal qualities and needed skills. Thru it the children have greatly increased their ability to meet people in a poised and friendly way; they have grown in self-control, de pendability, initiative, resourcefulness, cooperation, and critical judgment; they have acquired needed skills in English, arithmetic, and manual ac tivity; and their interest and happiness in their successful handling of this enterprise has positively contributed to ther mental health (13 :106- 109). Classroom clubs of many kinds give children practice in good citizen ship. Meetings are held once a week, or whenever necessary, and are con- ducted by pupils, according to parliamentary procedure, from the fourth grade on, the teacher helping only when needed (1 3:113-16), The school newspaper has been found to be of value ia developing teamwork and cooperative spirit, and has also offered opportunity for meeting the dith culties of individual children thru exercise of their special interests and abilities. Thus restless, inattentive, joke-playing twelve-vear-old boys learn responsibility thru editing the joke column, and the ability of a foreign child to illustrate the paper overcomes his timidity and gives him a sense of belonging in his group (13:121-23). Puppet shows have proved valuable in rural schools, overcoming: self consciousness, developing helpfulness and cooperation, and atfording op portunity for imitiative and creative expression (13215153). A program of noontime activities in a liurge consolidated school, with both elementary and secondary grades, has included football, baseball, volleyball, table tennis, and quoits: access to the library; tree movies; a story hour for the younger children conducted by the high-school girls; luncheons for teachers served by girls of the home economies classes; and meetings and rehearsals of such groups as orchestras, class committees, student council, and journalism club. Four-fifths of the school staff are on duty during the forty-five minute noon hour. Thru this busy period the school attempts to provide setting and activities influencing the child to accept and practice increasingly worthy standards (13:110-12), { 43 ] 40 Such guidance directed activities as those heretofore described are di rected chiefly toward needs common to all or most of the pupils, the special values for meeting those of individuals were mentioned in respect to the school newspaper. Other examples of experiences planned to serve the especial needs of a single child are the following, abridged from the same bulletin: i. Etfective Use of Leisure Time for the Bright Child. Jane, an unusually intelligent eighth-grade girl, not having enough work to occupy her ume, was unhappy, lost interest in school, annoyed other children, wasted time. As Jane had a keen interest in little children it was suggested that she tind and prepare suitable stories tor telling the children in primary grades. Ihis led her to make an anthology of stories and poems. A portfolio was needed tor this collection, so she became interested in art—both constructing ind designing. Her interest in selecting stories for little children inspired her to tind stories which would be of interest to her own class in social studies, and in this way Jane gained a rich background in history and geography. Some of the stories suggested dramatization so she revamped them, finding suitable music and rhythmic dances to be used with them. One interest led to another and ina short tme Jane’s leisure time was filled with worthwhile interesting experiences (13:25). » Use of a Narrow Interest To Develop a Broader Outlook. \be, fitteen, in the seventh grade, worked about eight hours daily outside of sheol hours on his tather’s tarm, He had no interest in anything except the in, Het even listening to the radio unless the program dealt with farm life. Beginning with his immediate interest Abe was asked to be leader of a group rnterested in improving the schoolgrounds. The planting of flowers and rubs necessitated some reading of catalogs and gardening books, so Abe ished tor help with reading, Elis eye span was found to be short, and Abe was willing to stay atter school tor remedial exercises. With definite help he grew two years in reading ability during the term. In addition, Abe learned for the est time what st meant to be a member ot his group and began to take inter- est in other activities which his classmates were engaging in, such as stamp- collecting or corresponding with toreign children, and in the geography and bnglish study to which these led (13:29). Hobbies and the Hobby Fair also give opportunity for the expression of individuality, Painting, sketching, soap carving, carpentering, raising all kinds of pets, shells, stones, insects, Indian relics, crocheting, sewing, bird study, Hower and vegetable culture, writing verse, candy making, and canning—there is no telling what direction hobbies may take. One boy's hobby for five years was collecting clean cardboards for the use of any of his schoolmates who had need of them (13:125-27). All these are examples of guidance-directed curriculums, showing the experiences rural teachers selected to meet what they believed to be the | 44 | 41 ' needs of their children. How teachers have achieved the needful ac- quaintance with their children is suggested in the few items which follow. This is from the Vermont teacher :* How the children in the third grade, who were studying wool, beamed when I showed them a picture of a spinning wheel and tried to explain it! | knew by their faces something was coming so I stopped talking to listen. Do teachers and parents listen enough? They told me, “Sure, Ma spins—We got one—It’s just like it only, here (pointing) it’s high up.” They enjoyed telling me. I said, “Can I come over and see her spin?” How pleased they were! They came back at noon and said, “Ma says come anytime and she'll show you how to spin.” I went that mght. The mother couldn't talk English. The children, tourteen of them, interpreted between us. There was one married and a baby of seven months. The mother was only four years older than I. How she beamed as she showed me how to spin; showed me the skeins of wool, the bag of raw wool, the baby’s stockings dyed pink, the tather’s great socks in grey she had knitted, all after spinning yarn the size she wanted, They all seemed to enjoy my visit. They gave me leeks and cabbage. They said they never had callers, never went anywhere, liked to visit, and hoped I'd come again. Was it a waste of time to teach wool? Oh, no. The interest was high—much higher than about something they couldn't have any experience with. I believe they enjoyed it because they felt they could give something. There is a need. They want to share, not always accept; it is more fun to do the giving sometimes. | must find things that they can give to me and to each other, They give me more than they know. But they must know they give sometimes, Some excerpts from the diary of a New Jersey teacher” record her vaca- tion activities between mid-July and the beginning of school in September. July 14-22—Visited H. in Memorial Hospital. Helped can string beans. We had 27 quarts. Mrs. M., R., L., and I went to Mrs. H.'s and picked a bushel of beans. Visited H. and L. in the hospital at night. Helped can beans for school at the home of B. We had 20 quarts. July 26—Took five girls to the movies—H., A., J., A. and S. We saw “The Slave Ship.” There was a terrible shower. We stopped at Guard Lock and ate our picnic supper. | had intended to take the girls for a boat ride but it was too wet. Findings—This was the second time A. had ever been to the movies, She had forgotten entirely about the first trip. Of the five girls, three said that they had never been in a row boat and only one of the group knew how to row. 5 Contributed by Elsie Bean. * Contributed by Helen Bailey [ 45] 42 July 30—Took Mrs. K. to solicit for the P.T.A. supper. Homes visited: (Nine were mentioned.) Findings—H. was exceptionally interested in his surroundings. He was cleaning his chicken coop. He had a lovely lot of heavyweight chickens. He had a fine looking garden for a boy. The A. children seemed to have very little activity. V. had not carried on any hobby, altho he had signed up for picture taking. He hesitated when I asked him about going to Ralph Spaces’ Wild Animal Farm, There seemed to be a lack of interest. Called at the S, home. I talked with P., J., F., and A. The older brothers promised me carrots and celery to can for hot lunches, They seemed glad to see me and willingly consented to let me take A. on a trip. August 2—I1 took six boys to Ralph Spaces’ Wild Animal Farm and to High Point, Things we saw: all kinds of Indian relics, including Indian skulls; many mounted animals; stuffed reptiles; mastodon bones; many live wild ani- mals. At High Point we visited the monument and observed the beautiful landscape. Saw Lake Marcia, the highest lake in New Jersey. Ate our picnic supper in the park. Visited the bear pen and watched them perform, We saw an Indian totem pole on our way home. Findings—H. had never been as far as Newton, 20 miles away, so the trip was an entirely new experience for him. He was especially interested in the work of the glacier as I pointed out various things to him. V. was in- clined to mischief. His chief delight seemed to be in teasing the various animals. W. was very quiet but seemed to look for interesting things. He and H. told me a little about their trip to the Boy Scouts Jamboree. I had the pleasure of meeting his mother for the first time. W. had the dirtiest teeth of any individual that I have ever seen. This is one case in which the health work has not carried over. K. was very much interested in the Indian collection. He told me about some of his fishing trips and the way in which he had earned some money for himself during the vacation. August 31—At 10:30 this morning H., R., M., S., O., and I started for Child’s Park. This park is located in Pennsylvania just a few miles from the Ferry. Findings—None of the group had ever been any farther than Ross’s Corner, which is a short distance above Newton, S. had never been as far as Newton. Along the way I showed them evidences of the glacier—round- ing hills and natural lakes. At Branchville they were very much interested in the Selected Risks’ Insurance Building. This, of course, was due to the contact we have had with the company. Above Culvers Lake I showed them a little old red house that at one time was a toll station for an old turnpike road. Crossing the toll bridge at the Ferry was of interest to everyone of them. At the park we were interested in the falls and the gorges. We saw evidences of erosion in different forms, the wearing away of the rocks by water, the splitting of rocks by trees, and the work of lichens. September 9—With the help of the canning club and a few other girls we canned 41 quarts of tomatoes today. [ 46 ] 43 So the story goes on—fishing trips, hot dog roasts, a watermelon feast, movies. This teacher's vacation activities include not only developing ac- quaintance with her children and their homes, the basis for guidance, but also the experiences which really constitute a curriculum. Probably few teachers spend themselves so unstintingly, but in lesser degree many rural teachers are using similar means to learn and to serve their pupils’ needs. It is evident that there must be friendly relationships and close coopera- tion between home and school if the teacher is to know the child well enough to promote his all-round development. The teacher needs to understand the child’s home conditions and life, the parents need to understand the teacher and the school, and both need to understand the child. In many homes sympathetic understanding of the child is possible only with the assistance of someone better informed than the parents are, and in the rural school the teacher must be the chief reliance for this aid. In the rural school it is perhaps more important that the teacher recog- nize and fulfil her responsibility for the right kind of guidance than in any other type of school. Special teachers are rare, and the child’s whole day is spent with one teacher. Indeed, in one-teacher schools a child’s whole ele- mentary-school life may be guided by a single teacher. It is fortunate that the conditions of rural-school teaching are especially favorable for close contact between home and school, teacher and child, school and commu- nity, and that the organization and curriculum of the school may, more easily than in large school systems, be adjusted in harmony with a program of thoughtful guidance. [47] | 44 Chapter IV IMPORTANT TOOLS AND TECHNICS OF GUIDANCE Ruth Strang, Teachers College, Columbia University HE RURAL TREACHER has certain advantages in the study of children. Usually she knows intimately the homes from which they come and the community in which these homes are located. Frequently she has grown up in a large family containing children younger than herself, where she has had the opportunity to think and feel with children and to learn something about the antecedents of their behavior. In one group of rural teachers with which the writer has worked, the average size of the families from which they came was twelve. This kind of contact with children during the twenty-four hour day is being advocated as part of the professional education of elementary-school teachers; it has long been a part of the preparation of rural teachers in certain sections of the coun- try. The inherent individua!ization in the rural-school organization like- wise facilitates child study. In the one-room rural school the teacher of necessity works with individuals ard small groups. This necessity pro- vides opportunities for learning how individual boys and girls are think- ing and feeling and what is giving rise to their observed behavior. While recognizing these advantages for child study, we must also ad- mit certain handicaps under which the rural teacher labors. Altho she has a great deal of information about individual children, she often does not know what it means. In other words, she does not have the necessary psy- chological and sociological background to interpret the behavior which she daily observes. Another serious handicap to child study in rural schools is the high rate of turnover among teachers. Because of this con- stant moving out of the staff from rural schools, continuity of guidance is difficult. On what is usually a meager basis of information left by the former teacher, the new teacher is confronted by the problem of building up an understanding of each pupil early enough in the semester to help him get off to a good start. Still another handicap to her work in many schools is the unfortunate idea of “teacher” which pupils have acquired. In that kind of situation the new teacher comes to the school pre-cast in the role of the child’s natural enemy. Until this role has been exchanged for a more humane one, the teacher’s efforts to understand and help indi- vidual pupils will be seriously impeded by the attitudes of the children themselves. The study of pupils and their effective guidance is a coopera- tive enterprise in which teachers, pupils, and parents share responsibility. | 49 | 45 Even under the most unfavorable conditions, however, a beginning can be made. Fortunately, the core of guidance is not a specialized service added to the teacher's professional day. Rather, it is an intrinsic part of her daily contact with children. Their activities, their recitations, their written work, their personal conversation with the teacher, all offer oppor- tunities for understanding them better and for providing them with the experiences, information, and counsel they need for their best develop- ment. The most fundamental method of child study is observation. This is a technic that can be used to good advantage in every situation. In a con- versation with a child or his parent the alert teacher observes facial ex- pression, changes in voice, and expressive movements of hands or other parts of the body in order to gain clues as to how the other person is feel- ing about the matter under discussion. For example, the attention of a teacher visiting a parent in his home was caught by a framed photograph on the mantel. Noting that her glance rested on the photograph, the father said in a softened voice: “That was Jim’s mother. She died two years ago. Jim was very fond of his mother and a man never had a better wife than I did.” That one observation gave the teacher a deeper under- standing of the home situation and served as an entering wedge in help- ing the father to develop sympathy and insight toward his son's behavior in school. With children, likewise, the teacher can use her observation to sense whether the conversation is increasing or reducing tension or an- tagonism. Observation of individual children during a testing situation is equally valuable. In such a situation the teacher can gain some information about the child’s methods of solving an arithmetic problem, reading a difficult passage, or writing a composition. If the child occasionally thinks out loud while he is working, still more valuable information about the way his mind works will be obtained. In this way one investigator learned that children were using all sorts of roundabout methods of computation, and another found that they could frequently give the right words to answer the questions on a reading passage without knowing what the words really meant. The informal testing situation is only one of many daily activities in the school from which the teacher may learn a great deal about why children behave as they do and how individual children are growing. Van Alstyne! has developed rating scales which direct the teacher’s observation to chil- dren’s behavior in a number of common classroom situations. A few ex- ‘Van Alstyne, Dorothy, and Winnetka Public School Faculty, Winnetha Scale for Rating School Behavior and Attitudes. Winnetka, Ill.: Winnetka Educational Press, 1935. €Van Alstyne, Dorothy, and Francis W. Parker School Faculty. Record for Desenhing Atntudes and Behavior in High School. (330 Webster Ave., Chicago, Il.) [ 50 ] 46 amples will illustrate the range of responses which may be observed in any schoolroom: VII. When Faced with Failure Ist ] 2nd] 3rd Sees causes of failure and corrects it (10) Tries to get help to overcome difheulty (9) Recovers quickly and plans new activity (7) Shows disappoint- ment but continues activity (6) Is apparently indif- ferent to failure (3) Becomes discouraged easily—must suc- ceed in order to con- tinue activity (2) Becomes irritable or angry, or cries (0) Items from some other sections of the same scale show the range of re- sponses to other typical situations. For example: IX. When Child Has Opportunity To Take Responsibility for a Group Task Directs task and carries it to completion for group benefit. (10) Takes responsibility for a task without being reminded. (9) Takes task but does not complete it. (7) Takes responsibility for task only when especially asked by teacher. (6) Takes responsibility for a task only when special interest is involved. (4) Rarely wants to take charge of task. (3) Cannot take responsibility for a group task. (2) XI. When He Has Finished Studying a Subject Has time so planned that he knows what work to do next. (10) Starts new work without reminder. (9) [51 | 47 Starts new work but needs help of teacher in planning it. (6) Starts new work but gets other children to help him. (4) Begins something other than what he should do. (3) Wanders around aimlessly or sits in seat daydreaming. (2) Wanders around room annoying other children, or sits in seat bother- ing others. (1) Such a scale is particularly useful to teachers because it is based upon situations with which they are daily confronted. More difficult is the employment of observation to the end of the de- velopment of certain personality trends. Yet rating scales constructed along this line also have value in directing a teacher's attention toward the kinds of behavior that are most significant for child development. Too often the teacher quite naturally notes only the behavior that attracts her attention because of its disturbing nature—rudeness, sulking, fighting, and other forms of aggression and disobedience. The best rating scales now in use direct the teacher’s observation to ways of acting that are most sig- nificant from the standpoint of character and personality development. Altho well-constructed rating scales have the value of directing a teacher's attention toward the kinds of behavior that are most significant from the standpoint of the child’s development, the ratings made are no better than the observation on which they are based. For this reason it is usually better for the rural teacher to begin by observing the specific be- havior of individual children and by trying to understand what it means to the child. She may act directly upon these observations or record them in temporary or permanent form. The great bulk of a teacher's observa- tion of children will never be recorded. It will be used in the informal way in which the following observation was employed by an understand- ing teacher: Paul was described by the teacher as a charming boy with a fine sensitive face. However, he could be most disagreeable. Passing down the aisle one afternoon inspecting the children’s writing, she had paused by Paul's side and casually asked if that were the best that he could do. When he replied that it was, Miss M. had remarked that his writing was fit for nothing but the waste- paper basket. She knew he could do better. Whereupon Paul tore his paper up and sat sulking until dismissal. As she thought it over, Miss M. recalled how a few weeks before, at the beginning of the school term, she had allowed the children to select their own seats so that they might sit near friends, Paul had chosen a seat in the front of the room where he was surrounded by girls. She thought that he might not be pleased with his seat and recently had asked him if he would not like to take a vacant seat toward the back of the room. He had done so, but later had asked her why he had to change his seat, and when she told him that he didn’t have to, he had said that he preferred to keep the seat he had at first selected. The contrast between this apparent timidity and need for protection, and the surly defiance of his attitude towatd her criticism, struck her sharply. [ 52 | 48 Two very important items of information were in the teacher's hands at this moment. She realized that Paul was in special need of understanding and help, for the contrast between these two types of behavior must have had its source in some very disturbed state of mind, and that perhaps a casual talk alone with him would help her to understand more. The quality of all his work except handwork was superior in an unusual degree. She therefore be- gan at that point. We quote from her report: Paul feels that his handwriting is very inferior to that of other chil- dren of his age, and he resents his mother’s nightly insistence that he make his homework papers look well—it means that he often has had to copy one paper over several times. He feels, too, that all the other chil- dren draw better than he does. He spoke of the things his brother makes at shop and said he would not have any idea as to how to go about mak- ing anything. He decided that he didn’t really care for painting, either, except for painting things that need to be painted, like a fence, as it seems so difficult to reproduce the things that he feels he would like to paint. Again he talked about how inferior he feels to the other children because his writing is so poor. It worries him that he can’t do better no matter how hard he tries. He spoke, too, of what a bad temper he has, but Ae thinks he is not going to have so much trouble with it, because he is learning a little self-control. Here was important iniormation which could be put to immediate use. The thing which struck the teacher most forcibly was that Paul was worried, so worried that he spread it over everything—his temper, his handwriting, his painting, his feeling about his brother's ability, his inferiority to other children of his age. In the very act of finding this out, Miss M. was able to start doing something about it. Her friendliness put him at ease with her, and her recog- nition of his really superior achievement in academic subjects reassured him so that he forgot for a little while his feeling of inferiority to the other children. The temper spell was accepted along with all the rest as a part of himself—a hoy whom the teacher liked because there was something to be admired and liked about him. The teacher recognized as a possible contributing factor to Paul’s worry that his mother was overanxious about his schoolwork and that in making him recopy his homework papers she was taking a responsibility which should be placed upon Aim, a fact which he resented. This was something which, for the time being at least, the teacher could do nothing about, and she was wise enough to devote her attention to thinking of ways in which she could be of immediate help to him.* All thru the day this kind of opportunity for observation and interviews arises. The rural teacher who is sensitive to children’s all-round develop- ment will improve the quality of her observation and conversational con- tacts thru reading, practice, and evaluation of her daily work. * Everett, Edith M. “Information Needed in a Case Study.” The National Elementary Principal. Pitteenth Yearbook. XV, No. 6 (July 1936), 485-93. [53] 49 When observations of children in specific situations are put in written form, they are called anecdotal records. These are snapshots of behavior which, when dated and studied in connection with all the other infor- mation avai‘able, may reveal important developments in_ personality. Anecdotal records are concrete and vivid. They add reality to any cumu- lative record system. All rural teachers, however, encounter a number of dithculties in writ- ing anecdotal records, First, they do not know where to find time in which to record their observations. Second, they have difficulty in deciding which incidents are most significant to record. Third, they tend to mix observa- tion with their interpretation. Fourth, they are not sure what these iso- lated incidents in the life of a child mean. It is particularly dithcult for a rural teacher to find time to record her observation. She has no free periods. Altho many of the children in the room may be working independently, there is always some group that needs her attention. Her only resort is to jot down a few reminders at the time of observation and to fill in the details after school hours. This method likewise presents a difficulty, for the rural teacher carries a heavy burden of out-of-school preparation for the next day's work. However, if she is convinced of the importance of a permanent record of some specific behavior which is either typical or exceptional for a particular child, she will substitute the writing of these records for some aspect of preparation that can be omitted. The second difficulty, that of deciding which incidents are most sig- nificant to record, has been briefly discussed in connection with rating scales. At first, teachers include many trivial incidents among their anec- dotal records. At this point they need help thru independent reading,* from a county supervisor of guidance, the staff of a traveling clinic, or an extension or summer course in which they can discuss and evaluate the records they have been keeping. An example of the last-named aid is the June course for teachers held for several years in Breathitt County, Ken- tucky. Altho the significance of certain behavior will vary for individual chil- dren, there are certain areas of observation that are likely to be generally important. Among these are the following: The first impression the child makes on people His relations to other children; how he gets along with them His influence on other children 3 Garrett, Annette. Case Work Treatment of a Child. Pamphlet. New York: Welfare Asso- ciation of America (122 East 22d St.), 1rog1. CHartwell, S. W. Fifty-Five Bad Boys. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1931. “Howard, Frank E., and Patry, Frederick L. Mental Health, Its Principles and Practice. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1935. €Strang, Ruth, An Intro- duction to Child Study. New York: Macmillan Co., 1938. Thom, Douglas A. Everyday Problems of the Everyday Child. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1927 [ 54] 20 His relation to adults; to the teacher and to parents His cooperation and willingness to accept and fulfil responsibility His reaction to failure, thwarting, or criticism His emotional responsiveness His attitude toward schoolwork His ability in the tool subjects His special interests and abilities His creativeness and originality His goals or purposes. With the exception of the parent-child relationship, observation on all these aspects may be made in any school on any day. Even in the case of parent-child relationships, the rural teacher has occasional opportunities for observation, as, for instance, when the parent brings the child to school or comes to a meeting at school, or when the teacher visits the home. The follow:eg incident which the writer observed, brief tho it was, revealed a good deal about father-son relationship in one rural home: The father, telling the visitor about his children, said of the twelve-year-old son who was on the porch with him, “He's a good little fellow, only he doesn’t want to work on the farm.” “You wouldn't neither, if you didn’t have to.” the youngster replied with a grin. “L guess you're right,” the father agreed. This good-natured acceptance of the boy’s point of view and lack of autocratic or dominating attitude on the part of the father indicated a wholesome parent-child relationship in that home which was corroborated by further contacts with the family. Probably no aspect of child life is more important than the emotional relations in the home. Lack of atfee- tion, lack of confidence and trust, severe discipline, lack of supervision and guidance, and overprotection, all may adversely affect the child in school, Rural boys and girls have complained bitterly about the long hours of heavy work on the farm and around the house which their par ents demand of them. Many parents try to realize thru their children their own unfulfilled hopes and ambitions. This is a source of conflict of which the teacher must be aware if she is to understand the pressures im pinging on the child. The third difficulty, that of mixing observation with interpretation, .p- resents a natural tendency on the part of most people to find meaning in everything they see. From the standpoint of a permanent record, how- ever, it would be better to make, as nearly as possible, a photographic picture of the occurrence and to separate this from the interpretation or recommendation which might be made under the circumstances. Interpretation is most difficult of all the steps mentioned, even for the person who is in direct contact with the child. How much more difficult [55] 21 is interpretation for the person who only reads the anecdotal record! He must remember that the anecdote records only one of many incidents in the life of the child; it is only a sample of his total behavior. It may not represent either his typical or exceptional behavior. Moreover, it may rep- resent the bias or the prejudice of the person who wrote it. Anecdotal records frequently tell more about the teacher than they do about the child. The teacher who interprets a child's refusal to obey a classroom rule as “just mean,” “defiant,” or “disrespectful” is revealing her own lack of objectivity with respect to the child’s action. Either she is taking his behavior personally or she has no appreciation of the complexity of the situations that may give rise to certain responses on the part of children, Identical acts may have diverse causes and diverse meanings, For that rea- son the anecdotal record must be supplemented by interviews and other sources of information. In fact, no single item of information has any significance in itself. Only as it is seen to be related to trends in the child's behavior and to environmental factors does it take on significance. Much space in this chapter has been given to the technic of observation because it is the basis of child study, especially for the rural teacher. Next in importance are the personal contacts which the teacher finds time to have with children and parents. Altho the teacher in rural schools has many contacts with individual children, they are not of a kind that invite confidence or a thoro study of the problem. Because the rural teacher is constantly at the demand of many small groups during the day and be- cause home duties often require the children to go home directly after school, she must learn to make the most of her short contacts. If her ob- servation has been keen, a question or two may give her the interpretation of the behavior which she needs. A word of encouragement or a sugges- tion at the psychological moment often makes up in opportuneness what it lacks in duration. This is guidance in ongoing activities, the most effec- tive form of guidance. In the interview, however brief it may be, the teacher may gain in- sight into attitudes and, still more important, lay the basis for a construc- tive, friendly relation, She can convey to the child that she really likes him and has confidence in him, even tho she may disapprove something he has done. ‘Thus the interview may be made to fulfil its most important function of revealing attitudes and establishing a pupil-teacher relativn- ship of mutual respect and confidence. The interview is an excellent op- portunity for the teacher to listen and learn. Altho the technics of observation and of the interview may be used by the rural teacher as, or even more, effectively than by the teacher in city systems, other technics of guidance are not so readily available to her. The testing program, especially the individual testing by trained psychologists, is entirely lacking in many rural schools. Valuable as is the systematic survey of achievement and the estimate of abstract verbal ability fur- | 56 ] OZ nished by standardized tests, the resourceful rural teacher need not be seriously handicapped in her guidance work by the lack of these instru- ments. In almost every part of the country, even the most isolated, some sources of expert assistance are available to her. Attention to a child’s vocabulary, conversational ability, keenness in seeing relationships, and ability to grasp new ideas and to remember facts tell a teacher a great deal about the way in which his mental ability is functioning in his par- ticular environment. The small child's drawing of a man appraised by the Goodenough technic,* and the use of a simple group intelligence test such as the Kuhlmann-Anderson Tests, Educational Test Bureau, Inc., Minne- apolis, Minnesota; California Test of Mental Maturity, Southern Cali- fornia School Book Depository, Ltd.; Otis Self-Administering Intelli- gence Tests, World Book Company, will give the rural teacher a check on her own estimate of a child’s mental ability. Perhaps the observational and interview approach to the appraisal of a child’s mental ability may be sounder than the widespread use of stand- ardized tests which are so often misused and misinterpreted. To be sure, the informal study of mental ability and achievement requires psycho logical background even more than does the interpretation of standardized tests, but the closer the teacher is to the child's daily living, the less likely she will be to make judgments that are detrimental to him. At least, ob servation of a child's use of vocabulary and intelligent grasp of practical problems is not so likely to be misinterpreted by rural teachers as is a mysterious and generalized IQ, More and more, pupils should participate in the study of their own de velopment. Beginning in the first or second grade, the skilful teacher can encourage children to appraise their own progress. The appraisal is first made as part of a group discussion, then individual children dictate their evaluation of their conduct to the teacher, and finally, as they get older, they write the records themselves. Older students may analyze their own conduct, guided by such ques- tions as: What happened? What, if anything, was wrong about it? What are you going to do about it? The pupils’ analysis of errors and appraisal of progress in school sub- jects is as rewarding to them as is their evaluation of social behavior and conduct. Boys and girls in the upper grades of elementary school can be interested in keeping records of their voluntary reading, in identifying and drilling on misspelled words and grammatical errors in their com positions or other written work, and in reporting voluntary reading and handwork or other special pieces of work they have completed. The filling out of questionnaires has been the most common form ot pupil participation in the making of their own records. When the ques oa Florence L. Measurement of Intelligence by Drawings. Vonkers-on-Hudson N. Y.: World Book Co., 1926. tions relate to important phases of child development such as home-school relationships, recreation, part-time work, and further educational and vo- cational plans, and when the questionnaire is introduced in such a way as to enlist the interest and cooperation of pupils and parents, valuable assistance in the study of pupils may be obtained. These two conditions were fulfilled when the questionnaire, described in Dr. Hatcher's book (see references on page 125) and called an autobiography, was given to the children in the rural schools of Breathitt County. (See Chapter VILL.) It was administered by a trained person and used by the teachers to help them understand the children better. Many of the teachers said that the ques- tionnaire revealed to them heavy home duties, lack of companionship, and other conditions of which they had not been aware. The questionnaire has a place in the study of pupils but it is a mistake to believe that a guid- ance program has been established once a questionnaire has been given. In fact, an inappropriate and poorly introduced questionnaire may arouse antagonism on the part of parents and pupils. By such a procedure, guid- ance will be defeated rather than aided, for no information is worth ob- taining at the expense of a friendly relationship. One of the most rewarding uses of the questionnaire and the interview is in follow-up studies. By means of a few simple questions the vocational and avocational histories of pupils who have left school may be obtained. Teachers should know what kind of work these boys and girls are doing, how they spend the time on their hands,’ and what further educational and recreational opportunities they would like to have. A few case studies of some of these boys and girls would help to give pupils now in school a realistic view of the world beyond school. Thru follow-up studies, teachers may ascertain the effectiveness of their guidance services. They may also render further service to boys and girls who are having difh culty in making the transition from school to community life. Technics of work with groups are as important as are the technics of work with individuals which have just been described. “Classes, clubs, in- formal discussion groups, and social events are the training grounds for true democracy. They provide us with a laboratory in which to work out the problems of the democratic way of life. By means of them we shall encounter and attempt to overcome obstacles to cooperation and to dis- cover desirable psychological substitutes for competition.”* Group activ- ities also offer opportunities for studying individuals—their social ability, poise, resourcefulness, consideration of others, and many other charac- teristics. * Wrenn, Gilbert, and Harley, D. L. Time on Their Hands. Washington, D. C.: American Council on Fducation, 1941. ® Strang, Ruth, Group Aetieities in College and Secondary School. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1941. p. 1 [58] 24 How much of all this information about individuals and groups should be recorded? To a certain extent each teacher must answer this question for herself. If she begins with a folder for each child, she can add infor- mation as she finds it useful. The simple cumulative record of marks, absence, and tardiness may be expanded to include samples of the pupil's work, items relating to health, mental ability, achievement on standard- ized as well as informal tests, recreation, work experiences, family con- ditions and relationships, personality trends, and educational and voca- tional plans. These and other items will be included in the cumulative record tolder as the fuller understanding of individual pupils demands them and as the teacher becomes more competent in their collection, inter- pretation, and use. Several important trends are discernible in the form and use of pupil cumulative records: i. The trend toward a flexible expanding record folder rather than a rigid record card. 2 The trend toward a unihed descriptive account of the child's develop- ment rather than the sum of a number of separate items. s The trend toward greater responsibility and cooperation on the part of parent and child tor the keeping and use of records. 3. The trend toward more emphasis on the education of the person who keeps and uses the records.’ Pupil cumulative records keep pace with methods of child study. They change and expand as the teacher becomes aware of the need to study children more adequately. Finally, the child must be protected from his own records. As long as teachers and others who have access to pupil records are prejudiced by the recorded information, and as long as they do not realize that the child is changing and developing and that the recorded information represents only a small sample of his total behavior, it is wise not to record social and emotional items that may affect his future plans and activities un- favorably. Moreover, the way in which information is collected may influence a child or his parents. He may be encouraged to make a false impression or he may be discouraged by too much attention to negative aspects of his behavior. Whether we intend it or not, the items recorded serve as goals for parents and child. Even his knowledge that certain characteristics are being studied may have an influence on him. For all these reasons, the study of children and the recording of information about them is as diff- cult as it is important; it is the basis of effective guidance. Strang, Ruth. Pupil Personnel and Guidance. New York: Macmillan Co., 1941. p. 64. [ 59 | 595 Chapter V SPECIAL GUIDANCE NEEDS OF ADOLESCENTS AND YOUTH LTHO ADOLESCENTS share the general needs for guidance which are A found among all children from early infancy, they have also distine- tive problems. Some of these problems are the outcome of prior misedu- cation at home or school; others are characteristic of their stage of matur- ity; and still others are due to economic or social maladjustments of our society. A common inadequacy of teen-age youth, found in city and country, but more general in the latter, is znability to use books as tools of learning. An excellent illustration of this is reported from a wealthy midwestern state, from a farm family which, altho it has since the depression been reduced to financial stringency, is within a level of intelligence and so- cial status much above average. The cases of four children from this home are presented ; Henry, the oldest boy, eighteen years of age, is a senior in high school. He has always seemed slow, but has in terms of his school standing turned out to be a little above average. He is a slow reader. For a while this was attributed to his general slowness, Now it appears more likely due to poor reading habits, the result of poor teaching. Henry reads one word at a time. He was surprised when the observer men- tioned reading for ideas, He said he says every word to himself, even tho he does not move his lips. Helen, the second child, sixteen years old, is a junior. She took one of her grades twice. She has always found it hard to learn, usually making C’s. Sur- prisingly, she is the best reader of the older ones. She loves to read, Yet she reads word by word too. Anna, the third child, now fifteen and in the tenth grade, has always seemed so bright that her friends thought she could probably do anything she wanted to. She is responsive, alert, and full of fun. She has social qualities which may have made her teachers and parents somewhat overestimate her intelligence. She was an honor student in seventh and eighth grades and now suddenly finds that she cannot get her lessons on time. She, too, is a slow reader, but never has discovered it before. The reading difficulties which Anna is now meeting in high school are spoiling her confidence as well as her grades. She does not know what it means to read for certain pieces of information and skim until she finds them; instead, she plows thru every word. Allen, the youngest child, is in the second grade. He started to read a sec- ond reader for the observer and struggled bravely, pointing hard with his finger at every word. Why doesn’t his teacher see that finger? Allen appears to [ 61 | 56 be developing habits which will slow his reading as that of his older sisters and brother has been slowed. There are two other girls between Anna and Allen. Both seem brighter than the oldest two, and one of them is greedy for reading material. Does the same discouragement lie ahead for them that Anna is meeting now? How can they be protected against it? The contributor of this account, a close friend of the family, concludes with the following general comment on the school which these children attend: As far as I can see, they are receiving, both in high school and grade school, about the same kind of education I had when life was very different. The high school ought to offer something more practical than an algebra that means only signs and marks; modern history that never touches the war and consists of reading the textbook and memorizing as much as possible in the period al- lotted to it; English literature in textbook form; American literature of Long- fellow and Whittier; typewriting without accompanying shorthand. Sewing, cooking, and farm accounting are offered, and I am glad for those. Economics is given, but it, too, is unapplied. If the elementary school failed to teach Henry to read, I think the high school should have made it its business to do so. Perhaps if there were a high-school teacher assigned to find students’ spe cial problems and have something done about them, Henry and Anna would not have been handicapped as they are now. The rural home is often envisioned as ideally adapted to realize whole- some child development. Rural homes, however, like homes anywhere, range widely. That they may be most unwholesome, especially for adoles- cent girls, is illustrated in two cases described by the judge of a county juvenile court." Jane, aged fourteen, came to me alone. She stated that her mother and her married sister, Kate, all living together, were not living the right kind of lite and that she wanted me to help her. I had the home investigated and learned that the mother, in the absence of her husband, Jane’s stepfather, would receive men in her bedroom. Also, that Kate, who was living apart from her husband, regularly went out with and entertained married men as well as single men. It was also established that the married sister had been pressing Jane lately, insisting on her filling dates with men for money. Jane’s school record was reasonably good up until a short time before she came to me. She stated that the reason she had stayed out of school was the embarrassing immorality in her home and her mother’s seeming indifference as to her welfare. As the result of this investigation we brought all the parties into court and after a hearing where the facts above were all established by proof, | com- mitted Jane to one of our state institutions. 1 Contributed by Judge L. D. Miller. [62 ] 7 Della, thirteen, whose sister [ had previously sent to a home for delinquent girls, came to me personally, complaining of her home life and asking for help. The investigation established that Della’s mother had been married twice, the first husband being the father of four girls. The father had been convicted of a felony and she divorced him while he was in the penitentiary. In the meantime she had been living in open adultery with the man she later married when her divorce was obtained. The mother was slovenly, loud-mouthed, and frequently used profane, vulgar language betore her children. Besides the delinquent girl I had already dealt with, there was another girl at home, the mother of an illegitimate child. The other sister had gone thru a marriage ceremony with a married man. They did not live together long be- fore the husband's real wite had him arrested for bigamy. The home was in a constant uproar. The new stepfather was a drunkard and frequently, in the absence of the mother, made advances toward the girls. The mother noticed this, especially with reference to Della. Della explained that without any bad or immoral intentions on her part she had accepted favors and gifts from her stepfather. From this her mother drew incorrect in- ferences, for several weeks had refused to send her to school, and was threaten- ing to send her to join her sister at the delinquent girls’ school. On physical examination we found that Della was not delinquent. Under the circumstances we thought that she deserved a better environment and sent her to an industrial school. Both girls are doing well. Problems related to sex, tho not always as acute as in these two cases, are encountered from early childhood, as pointed out in the section on the preschool child. That they become particularly conspicuous in adolescence is natural, Often they are aggravated by home conditions, which, tho not actually vicious, are undesirable. Such, for example, was the case of an eighth-grade girl, who was found to be disseminating improper sex in- formation among her acquaintances. Upon investigation it was found that she was sharing a bedroom with her father and grown brothers. An intelligent rural teacher of upper elementary grades mentioned sex education as an important need for many children as early as the sixth elementary-school grade. She had found it necessary as early as this to be frank and to “force the children to open class discussion to combat the in- fluence of nasty notes and furtive attempts at intercourse.” Other groups, however, “are so well taught at home that undesirable situations involv- ing more than a few children have not arisen.” The need of sex education at some time, somewhere, is generally recog- nized today. Responsibility for giving it wholesomely is almost forced upon the school when parents are ignorant, with low standards of living or conduct, as is true in numerous rural homes. Where children are seri- ously retarded, as in many rural schools, because of short school terms, frequent moving of tenant families, and intellectual or cultural inade- quacies, guidance in this area may be acutely needed in the intermediate grades, as reported by the teacher just cited. Rural schools, with their bio [ 63 ] 58 logical resources of plant and animal life with which children are in close contact, so that they early have acquaintance with processes of reproduc- tion, are unusually well situated to guide their observation and to develop sound and wholesome understanding of sex. This is an aspect of guidance- directed curriculum especially important for constructive development by rural educators. An outstanding need of rural adolescents is the opportunity for aole- some social and recreational experiences outside of school. Scattered homes afford meager opportunity for friendly companionship with one’s own age level, and, for various reasons well known to rural teachers, means of social entertainment are very limited. Rural youth, and adults as well, hungry for recreation, often get it on low levels. A rural teacher writes: A couple of years ago there was a Walk-a-Thon nearby. People who could not pay their grocery bill paid admission five or six nights a week to watch the walking contests. They took the whole family. School didn’t amount to much for dozens of children during those weeks. Similar excess occasionally characterizes a series of revival meetings. Another idea of a good time is a “big feed.” Saturday night is a time of many brawls or shopping trips in which the children of adolescent or early adolescent level run around the streets alone, meet others in alley ways or in parked cars, causing sex tragedies. How this need was constructively and cooperatively dealt with by a rural teacher * is described below: The story of the way some guidance was provided for the young people of our neighborhood began five years ago. It cannot be told without including all the people in the neighborhood as well as the young people. At that time there were no agencies outside the small one-teacher school. There were about thirteen families represented by the thirty children in the school. These and four other families made up the small neighborhood group. Their homes were in poor condition in practically every case. Standards of living were low. Most of the men found work in the community wherever they could, often on WPA projects, for the hilly land did not make tor profitable farming. The fourteen young people ot the neighborhood created small but persistent problems both in school and in the community. They had little respect for the school or the children in it. The young people and the school children wan- dered aimlessly over the roads on Sundays, fooling crudely with each other. In the past they had disrupted school box socials by throwing food around and by shouting and loud laughing. There were no recreation centers in the neighbor- hood and these young people had never learned to use their leisure time profit- ably, nor had they learned how to have a good time together. The following needs of the people in the neighborhood were apparent: (a) the need for greater economic security; (b) the need for better health prac- tices; (¢) the need tor improved family living; and (d) the need for social, recreational, and creative experiences. Some of these needs were being met for Contrbuted by Julia Weber, [ 64 | 99 the elementary-school children but the young people were entirely left out. I was a new teacher in the school that year and I soon learned that | would have to do something about the young people; that | would have to try to raise their level of living as well as that of the whole neighborhood if I expected my work with the children in the elementary school to be effective. The first opportunity to reach the young people came late in October when the school children were to give a dramatization in order to raise money to buy equipment for the school. Some of the parents suggested that I have state troopers at the schoolhouse to keep order. I rejected this plan, however, as I did not want to lose the confidence of these young people. Just before the enter- tainment [ talked with the leader of the group and explained to him that since this was the first dramatization these children had ever given, it meant much to them and they were anxious to have it go well. [ suggested to him that ut would be fine if he would organize the young people to help keep order, The nlan worked and the young people were too busy to hoot and stamp their feet. The next step was to invite the group to join the two Four-H Clubs, one in sewing and one in forestry, which T held after school. T felt that this would begin to fill the need for wholesome recreation as well as to tielp them to look to the school with a teeling of belonging. For the girls, the sewing would also have an economic value. Seven of the young people who were still in high school did join these groups. The other seven, all young men who worked at home, did not feel that they could take the time to attend. Two other drama tizations were given that year by the children of the school, and the changed attitude of the young people was the subject of conversation of the adults for a long time afterward. One of the young men even consented te be Santa Claus tor the children at their Christmas entertainment. During the second year we organized a young people's club or the “Thurs- day Night Club,” as it came to be called. All the young people above the elementary-school level were eligible to become members. Since nine of this group were now going to high school they wanted most of all to learn to dance. From this beginning the program of the club grew to include folk dancing, reading together of plays and stories, making Christmas gitts, play- ing games, and giving parties. This young people’s club continued to function for the next three years. As the elementary-school children went on to high school they joined the club and thus the membership grew not only in size but in quality, as the elementary-school children already had a background of in- terest. In the meantime the Four-H Club program grew until tt included all the phases ot better living. A community Four-H Club was formed which in- cluded the older girls homemaking club, the younger girls sewing club, the various dairy, gardening, and woodworking projects of the boys, and also an adult group. The groups met independently tor regular meetings and together at other times. Children, young people, and adults were working together to raise the level of their living. In the spring of the third year the community club, with the help of the county club agent, the home demonstration agent, the state nutrition specialist, and the state garden specialist, undertook to study the tood needs ot their families and to plan their gardens accordingly. More ot the children and young people helped their parents with their gardens that | 65 | 60 summer. Late in the summer the older girls and their mothers met at the schoolhouse with the teacher and the home demonstration agent to learn better ways of canning what they had raised. The whole group met again in the early fall with the state garden specialist to learn how to make an outdoor vegetable storing pit and various other ways of storing fruits and vegetables that would not be canned. In between times, meetings were held to test soils and to discuss soil care and to see motion pictures on conservation, nutrition, and the like. Other teachers afford their pupils experiences which give them poise and a sense of adequacy in social groups, so that they do not avoid recrea- tional association with their neighbors of more favored economic status. A professor of agriculture in a great university once remarked that it was as important for a country boy to know how to wear a boiled shirt as to know how to cultivate corn. One rural teacher made a special point of teaching her upper-grade Polish pupils to order and eat a meal in a res- taurant. Another* tells the following story: At the time “Heidi” was being shown in the nearby town, I took at least tive different groups to see it. | had taught them a tew things about their con- duet. One night in the party there was a boy whose social standards were the lowest in the group. He was dressed better than | had seen him, Just before we reached the theater he said something like this, “Listen, John, if there is an usher in this theater, don’t forget that the girls go first and we follow, If there isn’t an usher we must find seats for the girls.” There was an usher and the boys followed the girls up the aisle. Finally, vocational information and gwidance are greatly needed by rural youth. This statement requires relatively little elaboration, since it is probably more generally recognized than is any other aspect of the school’s responsibilit for guidance. A typical situation, together with an approach which is possible in any rural high school where there is a realization of the need for guidance, is the following :* Our program comes out of a need of our pupils to prepare themselves for the occupations not found in the community. A great number of our patrons work outside the community or in occupations in the community where the income is small. Our program is in the initial stage as we have as yet no or- ganized follow-up or testing program. However, we plan soon to include a vocational aptitude testing. To date we have kept the following purposes in mind: 1. Make the faculty guidance-conscious. Much valuable guidance which is not always recognized as guidance may be done informally. 2. As tar as we are able to, steer pupils into courses in school which will fit them physically, mentally, and emotionally. This gets them better acquainted with things in which they can succeed. ®* Contributed by Helen Bailey. * Contributed by Jeffrey Stewart. [ 66 ] 61 3. Follow up with suggestions, encouragement, and contacts with outside agencies to help pupils get into occupational or educational activities in which they may succeed, 4. Revise our curriculum to meet needs. 5. Improve teacher-pupil relationships. 6. Supplement our personnel records to include a complete picture of the individual interests and accomplishments. The mechanics of the program are carried out by the principal and class sponsors. Some faculty meetings are devoted to discussion of guidance, and faculty members are urged to study about guidance. Thru individual conterences and group discussions, pupil interests are found, and thru the library, school courses, and a film program, pupils be- come acquainted with vocations, Since ours is a rural consolidated school we lack opportunity to give pupils practical acquaintance with many vocations which they are interested in, Compare this with the high school from which reading deficiencies were reported. Henry and his sisters in the latter school were apparently as ill prepared to face the problem of selecting and pursuing a vocation as they were in reading. Henry, eighteen years old, has large responsibility for the home farm, because of his father’s illness. Last summer he went away for two months in the height of the tarm season, leaving the farm to his mother and sick father. He said at first he was going away for two weeks’ vacation. When Henry changed his mind and remained away longer, nothing could be done. Part of the time he was working by the day, but more days he was looking for jobs. The tact that due to his family’s financial situation Henry had little or no spending money probably was an important factor in his behavior. Meanwhile, at home the weeds grew; fences that needed repair went down. Neighbors helped the father put up the hay. They shelled and sold the corn. When Henry returned in August his father helped him with a small patch of hay and casually mentioned the Canadian thistles. Henry said, “I am going to plow that land next spring. That will kill the thistles. I won't need to cut them now.” His father said, “Mr. Brown (the landlord) is working with the AAA and he will probably not be allowed to plow that land.” Henry said, “Can't I plow it if I want to?” His father said, “It depends on the way your contract reads.” Henry did not know how it read, so they got out the lease and read it. Henry said he had not read any of it, yet it had been signed for more than six months. He was surprised to learn that he was supposed to cut the weeds and farm with the AAA. He was supposed also to repair the fences, a job which he was expecting the owner to do. His father says you cannot ex pect a boy to learn so many things at once; school itself is a full-time job. Yet his father apparently assumed that Henry was responsible for the farm man. agement and labor, as well as his school work. Whether he should make farming his life-work seems an important question which this boy needs help in answering. Can he make a living at it, with his [ 67] 62 resources, interests, and abilities? Does he like it well enough to stick to it? He has some fine hogs but does not seem as enthusiastic about them as | am. He has the prettiest strawberry roan colt that I ever saw, really well bred; but 1 can see that he takes the colt as a matter of course, while he is quite thrilled with his dog. He was more interested in my interest in the furniture he had made than he was in my deeper interest in the colt and hogs. I wish the school gave him a chance to consider many possibilities for jobs, Perhaps he would make a better carpenter than a farmer. | wish the school taught him that when one undertakes a job one should stay by that job until it is completed in the best possible way. Perhaps his father should have given Henry more re- sponsibility while he was growing up. Perhaps his father carried too much himself until he became ill. Helen loves to work with hair. | have thought she would be either a secre- tary or a worker in a beauty shop, maybe having her own shop sometime if she doesn't marry. However, she seems afraid of anything, says she could not learn shorthand to become a secretary, that she could not do hair well enough to look really stylish. As we talked, she and her sister and I, I said, “What had you thought you would do after you finish high school?” She said, “I thought maybe I would go to Minnesota and work in a canning factory.” She had visited her mother’s sister in Minnesota and become acquainted with some neighbor girls who work in a canning factory. I said, “Could you work all year in the canning faciory?” She said, “No, it is open only in summer.” | said, “Could you make enough during the summer to keep you during the winter?” She said she could not. I told her that I thought it would be a good experience to work in the canning factory some summer; maybe more than one summer. If she did not like it she could save her money to take vocational training later, as a beautician, a business worker, or in some kind of work with children. She says she loves to take care of little children, Her mother and a neighbor also have remarked on her ability in that line. She thought, however, that teaching would be too hard for her; she could not do it. Her sister Anna, too, in spite of her honor record from elementary school and her attractive personal qualities, ig afraid of teaching. She thinks she would like to be a nurse, altho-she does not know how hard she might find that life. Clearly, all these children need guidance to discover what work there is in the world appropriate and pror. ising satisfactions for them, Why isn’t the school giving it to them? The problems of the rural teacher and the rural school, facing the cumu- lative needs of adolescents, are difficult indeed. But what of the great numbers of teen-age rural boys and girls who are out of school, with the same needs for help, perhaps in aggravated form, of their contemporaries under the school’s care? The type of curriculum which Henry, Helen, and Anna are experiencing has proved so impossible or uncongenial for many rural young people that, with the assistance of inadequate school attend- ance legislation, they have dropped out in the earlier months or years of the high-school course, if not before reaching high school. Now and then a devoted teacher, like the one whose program was described here, adds [ 68 | 63 her guidance to the already heavy task of her one-teacher school. The Four-H Clubs reach some of them, but only a few. They are no one’s special responsibility except their homes’, and upon most of them their homes have already laid adult burdens of labor, without regard to their aptitudes or thought for needs which characterize their level of maturity. The problem of these young people must be faced on two levels. Some definitely organized provision, suited to their range of abilities and needs, should be made now for those who are already in the situation described. Under responsible agents employed for the specific purpose, a program should be set up and put into execution which will coordinate all the agencies now making any contribution to their guidance, and supplement this, thru public financing, as their numbers and needs require. Such a program should be recognized as temporary and emergency in nature and should include from the beginning plans for its gradual discontinuance or absorption as the present need, the outcome of twenty years of neglect, is met. The other attack on the problem should be one of prevention, thru modification and extension of the educational provision now made for adolescents. The traditional high-school curriculuny as pointed out in the case of Henry, is wicked waste of the precious years of youth, certainly for rural children, with whose needs this yearbook deals. Exactly what cur- riculum should take its place we may not yet know, but we know so much more than we practice that in any aspect of the program great improve ments are waiting to be put into effect. Indeed, curriculum revision for numerous rural adolescents should begin in the upper elementary grades. Today, in spite of real advances in rural education, many retarded ru_al boys and girls never reach high school at all. In the upper elementary grades their over-ageness presents a definite problem, What can the school and the teacher do to serve their needs for vocational guidance and train- ing which are beginning to be met for other adolescents in rural high schools ? The whole problem of adolescent rural youth, in school and out, is critical today as it has never been before. The tremendous pressure of our defense activities is demanding unprecedented mobilization of youth. Rural boys and girls are flocking into defense industries, volunteering or being drafted for active military service, so that in rural communities near industrial centers the whole population of their age group is migrating. The opportunities for contact with, and training for, industrial or me- chanical vocations are, however, not available to rural youth remote from defense centers. These youthful emigrants are, both thru the work into which they go and educational programs set up in connection therewith, securing vocational experience and training heretofore unavailable to them. Its appropriateness for their individual needs and capacities is sec- ondary to the production demands of war industry. Great pressure is mean- [ 6 ] 64 while being brought to bear to use children and youth still residing on farms to fill the gaps in the farm labor ranks. From the Connecticut tobacco fields came word last summer that conditions existing ten and fifteen years ago had returned. The state labor commissioner estimated that 3000 children were employed on tobacco plantations, some as young as eight years, and a great many only nine and ten years old. Among them were 1200 children of nine to fourteen years transported daily from Massachusetts to work on Connecticut farms, In New Jersey and California, strong efforts, fortunately unsuccessful, were made to suspend or eliminate existing provisions regarding child labor in in- dustrialized agriculture. As harvesting and likewise school opening time came around, “legalized” absences of school children for farm work became the rule in many commu- nities. Newspapers all over the country reported postponement of school open- ings, school closings atter the term had begun, one session schedules so that children could begin work in the fields at 1 p.m., and plans to permit children to stay out of school for farm work without being counted as absent when school attendance was computed for purposes of state aid. As yet no appreciable body of data is available to indicate how many chil- dren, or of what ages, were out of school for work under these various plans, how much schooling they missed, whether they were permitted to undertake too great a load of work for their years, whether the time lost by school clos- ings will be made up, or what the effect of “legalized” absences has been both upon the children who were excused from school and upon the general work in classrooms which have had to adjust their programs to a considerable num- ber of pupils who entered late or were absent for considerable periods. Nor is it known whether there was actually an acute shortage of labor in all the communities where children were released from school or whether children were in demand primarily because they were a source of “cheap” labor, News- papers in New York mentioned complaints by boys excused from a Rochester school for farm work who soon returned to their classes because they were dissatishied with pay, hours, and treatment. No one, in this time of emergency, would be willing to see crops go un- harvested, and the release of high-school students tor a week or so is not neces: sarily to be condemned. But certainly the following items indicate a tendency that may become dangerous and one which must be watched with extreme care: In the Aroostook section of Maine, g out of to potato pickers were school children, aged ten to seventeen years, released from school to save the crops. It was estimated that 20,000 children were picking. (Boston Post, September 28, 1941). The school superintendent of Wenatchee, Washington, explained that instead of dismissing school outright, classes would continue and the school would serve as a central agency for employment for students want- ing to help in the apple harvest. Every morning a representative of the employment service would bring a list of growers who needed help to the school and students could be referred directly to the jobs. It was be- [70] 65 lieved this would be more effective than to close the school for then the boys would be scattered. Already 1oo excuses had been issued for farm work. (Wenatchee, Washington, World, October 10, 1941) (3:2, 3). In the agricultural labor situation as described there is educational po- tentiality as well as tremendous danger. To guard against the danger, preadolescent children and young adolescents need renewed and strength- ened protection against employment in commercialized agriculture. “The National Child Labor Committee is resisting all efforts to relax child labor standards for children under sixteen years, and intensifying its ef- forts, during this emergency period, to establish in all states a sixteen-year age minimum for employment during school hours, and a fourteen-year age minimum for employment outside of school hours” (3:3). For minors of sixteen and seventeen years no hard and fast rules can be laid down. Young people of these ages are legally free to leave school, and in many cases work experience seems to offer them more than continued attendance in the classroom. With respect to these young people, the Na- tional Child Labor Committee urges that two things be done: 1. Every high-school student who is contemplating leaving school should be advised to take a long-range view of education versus employment. Whether he is motivated by a patriotic impulse or is influenced by the lure of a high pay envelope, he should be urged to consider not only the immediate choice but the years which lie ahead. Help should be given him in making a decision as to whether he, individually, can contribute more to the welfare of the coun- try, as well as to his own personal future, by going into industry or by com- pleting his high-school work. The answer will be determined in the light of the mental capacity, physical condition, academic progress, background, and disposition of the individual. 2. For those who do go into industry, whether defense or nondefense jobs, proper safeguards must be provided to guard against their entering too haz- ardous occupations, or working under conditions that will undermine their health. .. . The nation needs to keep its young people at their highest point of physical strength (3:4). To realize the educational potentialities of the emergency situation, the highest quality of constructive guidance is demanded from educators. It is widely recognized today that responsible participation in significant social work has great educational value. That which must be forfended is child labor and undevelopmental routine drudgery, dominated by the interest and purpose of another, masked under the cloak of educative social par- ticipation. A patriotically purposeful share in the national war effort un- doubtedly is responsible participation in significant social work. The qual- ifying words in these statements, however, are important: purposeful, patriotically purposeful, responstble participation. These imply more than using young people as Aands to do the nation’s work. Their hearts and their Aeads as well must participate. The quality of the motive which (70 | 66 pu impels them, of the intelligence which they apply, is the essential measure of the educational value of the work. Upon the schools lies the responsibility for developing in their pupils the social attitudes and the intelligent evaluation as well as the essential information which will make the decisions and undertakings of these voung people in responding to this opportunity perhaps the most valuable educational experience of their lives. “Whether the time lost by school closings will be made up” and “the effect of legalized absences upon the general work in classrooms which have had to adjust their programs”— these clauses in the long citation above reflect the conventional attitude that education under the school’s guidance can go on only in the class- rooms and according to a predetermined pregram. The type of education which grows out of guidance will make use of the opportunities of the pupils’ twenty-four-hour experiences and wil! continually reshape its program to promote thru these the best growth possible for each child. Schools must aid pupils to make intelligently purposeful choices and to fulhl according to their several capacities the responsibilities they choose. School programs will inevitably be modified as a result. Absence from school will not necessarily imply loss of education, to be “made up”; the out-of-school experiences will, for children who undertake them under guidance, be the curriculum, selected for them because it was the most valuable possible education. And what of the future? It moves upon us faster than we can plan. An Institute for Rural Youth Guidance was held less than a year ago in Washington under the joint sponsorship of the president of the Alliance for Guidance of Rural Youth (see page 99 of this yearbook), the director of rural service of the National Education Association, and the associate director of the American Youth Commission, with the cooperation of va- rious federal government departments and national nongovernmental vouth serving agencies, and with consultant aid from Mrs. Eleanor Roose- velt, George F. Zook, president of the American Council on Education, and M. L. Wilson, director of the Extension Service of the Department of Agriculture. The excellent analysis of the problem which this Institute published and disseminated was based upon the idea of “enlistment for a year of military service.” Two paragraphs from this report describe the future as then envisaged: It is diffcult to forecast what the post-emergency situation may be, because it is impossible to predict how soon the current emergency may end. At all events, however, it is believed that the period of sharply increased industrial activity will eventually be followed by a reaction, marked at least for a time by considerably reduced activity. It is also possible that at about the same time large numbers of young men will be discharged from military service, If it transpires that the present emergency is not greatly accentuated, the time will soon arrive when communities will be faced with the problem of the reabsorp- [72 | / 67 tion of young men returning home after a year of compulsory military service, Thus the post-emergency period may be viewed as presenting anything from the gradual readjustment of moderate numbers of ex-service men to the reabsorption of a huge army of discharged soldiers coincident “in a great slump in industrial activity. The latter prospect is so serious as to be almost terrifying (7:19). If forecast was difficult then, what of now? The dislocation of rural youth, without the service which guidance could render, is indeed terri fying. For what future will they be ready? What relationship wall thei preparation have to their individual capacities and needs, as well as to the needs of the nation for a citizenry qualified to meet the intinitely complex necessities of our democracy in its worldwide relationships? Will we be able to produce the raw materials which our soil, climate, forests, and mineral resources are capable of supplying; transform them as our science makes possible; use them to realize the potentialities of all our boys and girls, men and women; and thru thus conserving and developing all our resources bring to a war-torn world our due share of the leadership and aid it will desperately need? The answer largely depends upon the guid ance and educational provisions we make available to rural youth now. In the light of this need, the “Suggested Plan of Action” (8) recom mended by the Institute for Rural Youth Guidance, mentioned hereto fore, assumes enormous importance. The plan is especially directed toward coordinating all existing agencies to meet the needs of rural adoles cents, and particularly rural youth out of school. It suggests guiding prin- ciples for community action and makes recommendations for the part each agency might play in a concerted program. Copies of the plan may be had from the U. S. Office of Education, the National Education Asso ciation, or the Alliance for Guidance of Rural Youth, Every one interested in the rural youth group should read it carefully. It is the outcome of care- ful deliberation by representatives of all agencies interested in rural boys and girls. It is the most comprehensive body of suggestions yet offered for serving the unmet guidance needs of rural youth thru coordinated action in community, county, district, and state. 68 Chapter VI REINFORCEMENTS OF THE TEACHER’S GUIDANCE I. THE SUPERVISOR'S PART IN THE TEACHER'S GUIDANCE! on & THE PREPARATION OF MANY, if not most, rural teachers has hereto- tore not included adequate courses in child development and guidance, rural supervisors, including county superintendents, county supervisors, and consolidated school principals must be relied upon to promote in- service teacher growth in this field. Supervisors and teachers in any case must work together endlessly to know each child and to provide all ap- propriate experiences and a physical and social environment in which these experiences can be carried out. If and when teachers are lacking in qualifications essential to good guidance, the supervisor has a dual respon- sibility: (a) to supplement the teacher with direct help, especially in the case of the more ill-adjusted children, and encourage the type of school- room procedure which is favorable to child growth in general; and (b) to provide opportunity for the teacher in service to acquire the fundamental understandings and attitudes which her pre-service preparation failed to afford. In another factor of effective guidance, the teacher's own personality and mental health, the supervisor has a most important share. Teachers who feel insecure, uncertain of their ability to do the job adequately, who are worried, afraid, resentful, or discouraged, cannot help children to be- come better adjusted; rather, the contrary. Teachers who are stern, sar- castic, intolerant of children may be so because of pressures which life is putting upon them. Difficulties in managing children may arise because an insecure teacher sees children’s behavior as an affront to her dignity or authority or because her lack of self-confidence shows in her manner of dealing with them. Basic to the provision of security and a sense of adequacy for the teacher is the demonstrated belief on the part of the supervisor that the teacher, who has continuous direct contact with the children, is the most impor- tant person in the school system. The teacher is not working for the super- visor nor is the supervisor trying to teach the teacher. Teacher and super- visor are working together to improve the quality of child guidance. Once this fundamental idea is established, the teacher's job takes on dignity and significance, and reactions such as fear and resentment have no breeding place. 69 In this working partnership the teacher should have an appropriate share in making policies and in planning procedures. She should feel that her thinking and judgment are used and valued. It is becoming in- creasingly apparent that a detailed program rigidly imposed upon the teacher, leaving her no opportunity to experiment and to think creatively, does not make for effective child guidance. The teacher stops growing. She is a mechanic, hired to carry out the supervisor's orders. She cannot bring to children the influence of an alive, growing personality, nor can she guide them intelligently when she is not able to apply her own think- ing to the specific situations which arise. On the other hand, unlimited freedom to make her own program, with- out constructive help in doing so, may have a decidedly negative effect on teacher personality. There is danger that the supervisor may independently arrive at a point of view about education thru thinking, studying, and ex- perimenting, and, feeling confident that this philosophy of education at which he has arrived will make the school more effective, may attempt to transmit it, ready made, to the teacher. As a result, the latter may lose confidence in her own procedures, feel that she must change her ways, yet not find clear guidance in the somewhat general and perhaps vague ob- jectives to which the supervisor subscribes. Unless the teacher has shared in the study, thought, and experimentation put of which the new philos- ophy has developed, and unless she is given much help in implementing it, she is certain to suffer a sense of frustration. She lacks a feeling of direc- tion; she has no self-developed set of values. She is insecure. In a word, to guide children effectively the teacher must have a developing conviction as to what the school should do for children; she should know increas- ingly how to arrive at her objectives: and she should feel satisfaction that some progress is being made, that she is succeeding to some extent in this greatest of all undertakings. Altho these intrinsic satisfactions are the basic ones, the teacher needs recognition by the supervisor and her fellow teachers. The supervisor may satisfy this need by being sure to show appreciation for good work. In its best form, this recognition is in terms of growth in children observed by the supervisor which has been brought about by the teacher's guidance. Further, the teacher needs the security of belonging to a cooperating group which recognizes and values her contributions. For this reason the supervisor should encourage group activity and see that every teacher has an Opportunity to stand out. Small group meetings, in which every one participates, are superior in this respect to large meetings to which only a few outstanding teachers contribute. Care is necessary to develop and preserve good feeling in the teacher group. Any supervisory practice which tends to develop in teachers a spirit of competition or feeling of jealousy indirectly hurts the children. For example, the group feeling [ 76 | 70 among the teachers in one school was destroyed when public comparison was made of the results of achievement tests. Teachers sometimes come to the school with maladjustments arising from situations outside their work which are too deep seated for the supervisor to be of direct help. However, the supervisor can be careful to avoid increasing the strains under which the teacher is laboring and can try to offer extra satisfactions from work which may to some extent offset the lacks in the teacher's out-of-school life. The friendly understanding and even advice of the supervisor may sometimes help teachers thru per- sonal difficulties. In a word, the psychology underlying the desirable supervisor-teacher relationship is identically that of the good teacher's relations with her pupils. Both represent the guidance point of view in the educational pro- gram. Both necessitate sympathetic understanding of human nature and needs on the maturity level dealt with. Both are essentially democratic. 2. A GUIDANCE COUNSELOR WITH RURAL ELEMENTARY TEACHERS ~ A report from the guidance counselor for elementary schools in Harlan County, Kentucky, appointed in the summer of 1941, shows clearly the comparability of her work with that of the rural elementary supervisor or helping teacher. The points which the guidance counselor has stressed in conferences with elementary teachers were those recommended by the elementary teachers sec- tion of the 1941 Pine Mountain Guidance Institute, as follows: 1. Keeping of pupil records—Some teachers needed help in making auto- biographical and home and parent records for the first time; a few others had not found the place of record keeping in the guidance program. 2. Use of materials other than textbooks—Booklists and sources of free and inexpensive materials were suggested to the teachers. 3. Provisions for improvement of health—These included a checkup on sanitation about the school, encouragement for teachers attempting to secure physical examinations for the children, promotion of the hot lunch program. Arrangements were made for » ©.< teachers beginning hot lunch programs to see other teachers who had already begun such activities. 4. Parent-teacher relationships—The counselor discussed with the teacher her plans for P.T.A., parent visits to the school, and interviews with parents. 5. Seating facilities and arrangements—Teachers were encouraged to use the less formal type of seating, and to provide, if possible, reading tables and book shelves. Much of this could be made by the children. 6. Recreation—The counselor and teacher tried to find ways of providing playground equipment. Here again the emphasis was on such things as could be made by the pupils and the teacher. The play periods in each school were spent teaching group games to the children. * Contributed by Violet Walters 71 Other problems were brought into the conferences by the counselor or by the teachers. Often these were special community needs. In one case, plans were made with the teacher for teaching health during an epidemic of whooping cough. A few conferences were held with individual pupils in an attempt to determine intelligence level or determine special interests of the pupil. These conferences with teachers were held after the counselor had visited in the schools. The length of these visits varied from two hours to three days. The technics of making and keeping pupil records are relatively new and may not yet be controlled by all rural supervisors. The chapter by Professor Strang in this yearbook is a contribution of great value to both rural teachers and rural supervisors not familiar with simple instruments and means of evaluation and record-keeping, or not having yet developed the educational point of view which is an essential basis for guidance- directed testing and recording. Testing and recording may be negative or positive as well as may curriculum, according to the concept of education underlying each. The guidance point of view, as has already been pointed out, has been held by good teachers at least from the time of Christ on- ward. The tools and materials, however, are of more recent date. Both should be part of the professional equipment of all rural teachers and supervisors today. The rural teacher raay be reinforced, however, in other ways than by a special agent of the school system, whose function it is to promote the growth of children indirectly, by promoting the teacher's growth and adjustment. Teachers in a school system, with common interest and con- cern for their pupils’ welfare, may reinforce each other. A case of this kind follows, in which the teaching staff of a single school bent their com- bined efforts to serve better an atypical group of children. 3. THE SCHOOL STAFF: REINFORCEMENT THRU COOPERATIVE CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT FOR A PARTICULAR Grour® In the Cazenovia Central School, as in all others, there is a small per- cent of children who develop physically and socially but who are unable to learn school subjects. Formerly, these children would have repeated each grade until they were old enough to leave, an arrangement which did not cure the ill and which caused disciplinary and other problems. We believe that such ggctors as age, size, social maturity, and the like should be considered in seit children, Consequently, such boys and girls are promoted when we are convinced that repeating their grade will not be a benefit to them. At the end of the elementary school they are placed in a class, called 7B, in which they remain until ready to re-enter a Contributed by Mary Munro. [78] 72 regular grade or until they leave school. The curriculum in this class has consisted largely of subjectmatter adapted to the level of the children, to- gether with some homemaking and shop. While this has been more satis- factory than retention in grades, it has not met the needs of the children as well as we should like to have it do. In order that there may be a more adequate program, we are now working on a different type of curriculum for this class, In starting this program we tried to decide what was best for each in- dividual case. Teachers, our principal, grade supervisor, and the children themselves conferred in answering questions about each child: What ts his age? His ability as shown by past performance, 1Q, and achievement tests? His temperament? His interests? His special ability or disability? His home background? What does he lack that we can supply? What is his probable future ? We found that the fathers of eleven boys are farmers, two are garage mechanics, three are day laborers, one is a mail carrier, and one a doctor. Of the eight girls, three are county charges, one comes from a very good home, one from a destitute home. IQ's range from 64 to 100, ages from eleven to fifteen, and they average about fourth grade in ability. Assum- ing a normal future, probably most of the boys will work on farms or go into garages. Probably all the girls will marry and will have children. It has seemed to us, then, that our program should consist of fundamental backgrounds in shop, agriculture, and homemaking, as a center, giving the children an opportunity to practice those skills which will be of benefit to them now and later. The difficult part of this program, of course, is fitting it into an already filled schedule. However, the high-school teachers have responded gra- ciously. The agriculture teacher is taking the boys two periods weekly. The shop teacher is taking the boys daily with his regular classes in three groups of six each. The homemaking teachers are planning with the classroom teacher and the girls themselves to make over their classroom into a living room. This has great possibilities. In addition, the home- making rooms can be used to some extent. Good grooming is to be em- phasized, too. School subjects will be continued as necessary. Just how far we can go with our plans remains to be seen. We realize that we must not overhit the mark, but we do feel that we are on the road to really help these boys and girls. The cooperating group, however, need not be limited to the staff of a single school but may include all the teachers of a school system which is sufficiently small to permit face-to-face conference and planning among them. Such is the case which follows, in which teachers, principals, and supervisors all participate, with the teacher regarded as “the key person,” because it is she who works face to face with the children. [79 ] 73 4. THE TOTAL ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL STAFF COOPERATING IN A COUNTY GUIDANCE PROGRAM * Hamilton County, Tennessee, of which Chattanooga is the county seat, has undertaken a guidance program to meet the needs of all the children in its elementary system, Grades I thru VI. This program is a definite part of our curriculum development and furnishes goals for teaching and for supervision. It is a long-time program, with goals toward which we are approaching more effectively each year. It is also a means of in-service growth for our teachers out of which our philosophy may emerge and thru which our philosophy may change as we step forward and approach the goals we have set for ourselves. The program has developed only as fast as we have defined our needs and outlined technics for solving our problems. In setting up our goals for a guidance program we have kept in mind the ultimate goals as well as the more specific and immediate goals. It is our desire to understand the individual child and to help him to achieve a happy, well-integrated personality. We recognize that the school has obligations other than those of developing the fundamental skills. The school must share with the home and other community agencies in promoting all desirable aspects of growth. To this end we have set up as goals evidences of desirable per- sonal, intellectual, social, and emotional traits; of desirable physical char- acteristics; of basic understandings, information, generalizations, and concepts; of desirable basic skilis, technics, and aititudes; of appreciations, atutudes, and interests; and of growth in all. Using these objectives the faculty of each school, under the direction of its principal, has developed technics for measuring and studying the child and his development. Supervisors act as counselors and meet with faculties and committees representing faculties. Reports of the work are compiled by supervisors and sent to each school twice a year. These reports show plans, procedures, and accomplishments of each school. The teacher is considered the key person in such a program, She keeps synthesized por- traits of each child; she sets up standards with children and devises tests, questionnaires, and so forth, She keeps significant anecdotes. She con- siders this not an extra duty or obligation but knows that it is an inte- grated part of all that she does. The synthesized portrait makes a compre- hensive picture of the “whole child” and is kept as part of his cumulative record. All data gathered serves one purpose—that of guidance of the individual child. Each school is gradually getting the cooperation and par- ticipation of the home in this guidance program. We emphasize the impor- tance of child participation in his own development, for without this guid- ance is impossible. * Contributed by Eula Johnston. [ 80 ] 74 As the program just described has stated, “The school must share with the home and other community agencies in promoting «ll desirable aspects of growth.” Only a share of the elementary-school staff, however, was there selected for presentation. The account which follows elaborates the quoted statement, showing elementary- and secondary-school staffs, the parent-teacher associations, pupils, business firms, factories, colleges, fed- eral agencies, and others concerned with the youth of the community—all sharing in the cooperative enterprise. 5. A CONSOLIDATED SCHIOOL COMMUNITY COOPERATING IN A GUIDANCE PROGRAM , This report concerns a rural community in Augusta County, Virginia, in which 95 percent of the people are engaged in agrarian pursuits. There is one consolidated high school which serves approximately 3500 people living in a community of 200 square miles. The high school is located in the population and geographical center of this community. There are three elementary schools, located from three to six miles from the high schocl, which act as feeder schools for the central high school. Ninety per- cent of the elementary pupils and too percent of the high-school pupils are transported by bus. The same buses serve the elementary schools and high school. One of our first problems of guidance was presented by the fact that our elementary schools and high school were separated. In order to inte- grate and make our educational program a continuous one, we have held monthly meetings of the secondary and elementary schools, rotated among the four schools. These are some specific examples of what we have been able to accomplish in these meetings. We have developed cooperatively a cumulative pupil record and guidance information card which is used thru the entire eleven years of our school system. In order to assist in guiding the children from the elementary schools to the high school we provided an opportunity for the seventh grades of the elementary schools to spend part of the day in visiting the high school that they might see what is going on. They are given an opportunity to observe, to ask ques- tions, and to see that the instructional methods are similar to those of their own classroom. It is pointed out to the children that in high school there will be other communities represented and consequently more problems, varied interests, and new friends. We have discussed elaborate commencement programs for the second- ary and elementary schools. As a result of these discussions, all the schools now have simple commencement programs presented entirely by the boys and girls. In some cases, high-school pupils have made brief talks at the seventh-grade commencement exercises. 5 Contributed by Wilbur S. Pence [ 81 ] 79 We have been concerned with the question of home and school visita- tions. All the schools have increased the number of visits to homes and schools. In one of our elementary schools the teachers have visited the homes of every school parent. The value of these visits to the guidance program of the schools cannot be overestimated. All the schools of our community have active parent-teacher associations which hold monthly meetings. A number of meetings in the elementary and high schools have been devoted entirely to the discussion of such problems as personal and social guidance, new type reports, evaluation, and the revised curriculum program being used in our schools. These discussions are led and participated in by pupils, teachers, and parents. These discussion groups have proved to be invaluable. The homeroom period in the high school is an important phase of our guidance program. Individual and group counseling is done in the home- room period. Pupil discussion of individual, group, and school problems is one of the activities of this period. Much of the work of the student council begins and ends in the homeroom period in the form of suggested room and school problems to be presented to the student council and re- ports from the student council to each homeroom. Guidance information records, accumulative records, pupil and parent information cards, anecdotal records, permanent records, and samples of pupils’ work are kept on file in each homeroom and in the principal's office to facilitate the guidance program. In the high school we have as one phase of our guidance program a personality progress card. In order to assemble and determine what in- formation the factories, colleges, and business firms desired concerning our graduates and nongraduates other than academic marks, we had several NYA workers make a brief survey to determine the business firms and institutions to which our students went for employment and further educational training. Forty-five such institutions and firms were selected on the basis of this survey. All the above received a letter from the high school asking them to list ten or more items or factors other than academic marks that they would wish prospective employees and students to possess. There were twenty-four replies, The student body and faculty became so interested in these suggested personality traits that we were able to de- velop from their suggestions a personality progress card for each pupil in North River High School. These cards are marked cooperatively by pupils, teachers, and parents four times during the schoolyear. The re- sults of this card have been a marked attempt on the part of the vast ma- jority of the pupils to improve and concern themselves about their indi- vidual characteristics as listed on the card, The interest horizon of the individual teacher for his pupils has been immeasurably extended. Many parents have manifested for the first time an interest and concern in the [ 82 ] 76 school and what it is attempting to do for their boys and girls. It has been a definite help in the promotion of our guidance program. We have for the first time this year published a 25-page guidance issue of our school paper. The issue contained several articles devoted to the various phases and needs of guidance. All subjects to be offered for 1941-42 were listed with brief suggestions concerning each. Each club and organ- ization which will operate next session was listed with requirements for membership and objectives. Information concerning employment oppor- tunities was secured from practically all local business firms and factories. This information was tabulated and published in this issue. A self-inven- tory and analysis chart was provided. The NYA program and work op- portunities for our school for next session were made available and all the vocational material in our library was listed in this paper. There will be a revised edition of this issue published annually. This brief statement suggests a few of our attempts to provide better guidance for the youth under our supervision. It is not a simple problem but a problem as broad as life itself. It demands the study and active co- operation of thé home, church, and school. It is a challenge which none of the above institutions can refuse to accept. All the preceding illustrations of this chapter have dealt with guidance programs or means practicable to some extent in almost any rural county. The account which follows sets forth a program which has been in effect for a decade in a situation where funds, tho not unlimited, have made practicable a more adequate special staff than could be afforded in typical rural situations on today’s general level of financing. It is given to show the scope of a program which should be looked forward to in any rural county as soon as the nation comes to value its children as what they are, its greatest resource. 6. COORDINATION OF GUIDANCE IN A WELL-STAFFED COUNTY WITH THE AID OF A COUNTY BOARD® Rockland County, New York, is a small, mountainous county covering an area of 183 square miles. There are within the county incorporated villages and suburban areas equipped with every modern convenience, with elementary and high schools reputed by the state education depart- ment as among the best of the state. Then there are mountain districts where life goes on much as it did when the county was first settled. The largest community of the county has 6000 inhabitants. The Vocational Education and Extension Board of Rockland County consists of nine members who serve for a period of nine years each. Three members of this Board are appointed by the Farm and Home Bureau of ® Contributed by Leonard M. Miller. [ 83 ] 17 the County, three by the district superintendent of schools, and three by the County Board of Supervisors. All appointments must receive the final approval of the County Board of Supervisors. Under the provision of the law, state aid is apportioned amounting to one-half of the salary paid each teacher, director, assistant, and supervisor, not to exceed $1000 on account of the employment of each teacher, direc- tor, assistant, or supervisor, The schools pay the balance of the salaries on a cost basis of operation apportioned among the schools, which contract with the County Board for the services of one or more of the specialists on its staff. June 1941 completed ten years of service to the County by the County Vocational Education and Extension Board. There were several basic concepts which the board formulated from the very start to which they have held rather closely during the evolution of the program. Among these it was decided: 1. That guidance must be a cooperative enterprise; to serve youth effectively, all teachers, specialists, and service agencies must work together to help youth make their own adjustments. 2. That guidance must serve all youth. 3. That guidance must help youth acquire sufficient information about themselves, society, and the workaday world, so that they can make intelli- gent decisions all along the line. 4. That guidance services must be made available at the minimum of cost. 5. That among the first essentials in guidance one needs to know: (a) what services in the community are available to youth; (b) what the occupational needs of the community are; (c) what is happening to youth after they leave school; (d) what the trends of employment are within and without the com- munity; and (¢) how to use follow-up information to improve the guidance service. 6. That in-service training in guidance technics for counselors and teachers is an essential part of making guidance effective. 7. That the technical phases of guidance should be under the close super- vision of the principal and trained counselors or other specialists. 8. That the expansion of guidance services should grow out of a felt need for these in the respective schools. Agencies and Services Afforded by the County The services of all agencies serving youth are closely integrated ir the county program. The following account briefly indicates the nature of these aids and how they function: 1. The county director of guidance—The county director of guidance super- vises the programs of guidance, assists teachers and counselors, directs surveys, and coordinates the services of specialists. 2. Junior Employment Service—The Junior Employment Service in Rock- land County specializes in the registration and placement of young men and [ 84] 78 women under twenty-one years of age as well as inexperienced applicants be- tween twenty-one and twenty-five years of age. In July 1934 the New York State Employment Service established a Rock- land County office for juniors in cooperation with the Vocational Education and Extension Board. The counselor assigned to employment organization maintained a central office in the county court house and used the high schools in the seven largest villages as suboffices with a regular weekly schedule tor interviewing applicants. Nearly all the to-be graduates who intended to work on completion of their high-school course are registered with the counselor. Starting in March of each year this procedure of registering seniors has been followed since 1934. F Every month a school placement report is sent to each principal. This gives the high school an up-to-date check on work of former students. One impor- tant function of the junior counselor is to cooperate with the guidance coun- selors in giving courses in “How To Go about Getting a Job,” given to the high-school seniors who intend to work after graduation. 3. Psychiatric service—Thru the aid of the state mental hygiene association and the personal interest of the superintendent of a state hospital in the county, an average of fifteen monthly psychiatric clinics has been maintained in the county ever since the guidance work was started ten years ago. 4. Services of the psychologist—Growing out of the psychiatric service, there came an evergrowing need for a full-time psychologist on the staff. Two full- time psychologists are now employed by county schools. The psychological program is planned to give to each child the type of education best suited to his own individual needs for mental growth, social, and personality develop- ment. It is also planned to detect any aberrations or maladjustments that may occur so that remedial measures may be given before these result in more serious problems. The essential information is secured by means of an inter- view with the child, various psychological tests, and conferences with the teachers and parents. Considerable emphasis is placed on reading thruout the entire elementary school. In the fall, the new pupils in the first grade are given readiness tests and individual mental examinations so that complete records of each child's reading needs and expectancy are available. A pre-reading program is then worked out with the teachers of the lower divisions to meet these individual needs, A complete study of the seventh-grade reading tests is made in the tall, with a view to planning a remedial program for retarded readers in this grade. Provision is made for a special remedial class for this group and a program is mapped out. Another part of the program includes diagnostic arithmetic tests for re tarded pupils in this subject and conferences with various teachers in an at tempt to discover and correct pupil weaknesses and needs. Psychological services in the high school are devoted chiefly to the individual cases or problems referred by any individual staff member or by the teacher conference groups which acted as a clearing-house in separating major and minor adjustment difficulties, referring only the former for special interview and study. 5. Conference clinics—When the county guidance program began, Dr. [ 85] 79 Frank ‘Tallman, the psychiatrist, had already started several mental hygiene clinics in the county, The service has been gradually extended till now most of the larger school systems in the county make use of it. There are weekly con- ference clinics with subject teachers in the elementary and junior and senior high schools tor each ot the grade groups. The elementary teachers meet one hour a week before school opens in the morning. The junior and senior high- school teachers meet one hour after school each week. This procedure has made it possible for every student to be carefully studied, and any weakness in relation to subjectmatter difficulties, emotional adjustment, home or parental difficulties, or social problems is referred to the proper agency or individual for corrective work or careful study. 6. County physical education program—In order to make it possible for some of the smaller schools to employ a qualified physical education instructor, the county vocational board contracted with schools on a similar basis as other specialized services were offered. Each school has a school physician and it is his duty to discover any organic or physical defects and recommend that they be treated by the family physician or be cared for in an adjustive physical education program. Provision is made by the physical education instructor to meet the needs and interests of every student in the school. Outdoor and indoor work is included; team and individual sports offered; corrective work given; opportunities to participate in intramural games given. 7. 4 county vocational guidance and personnel association—In October 1938 the teachers, social workers, and placement directors in industry were organized into a County Guidance and Personnel Association. This organiza- tion is affliated with the New York State Guidance Association and the Na- tional Vocational Guidance Association. 8. Classes in occupational information—For one semester, in both seventh and eighth grades, orientation and occupational information are afforded, the latter in connection with the social studies. Special trips are planned to indus- tries both in and out of the county, Only those students who express an interest to learn more about occupational fields are taken on the occupational trips. In some cases where the industry permits larger groups to attend, whole classes are taken with the view of orienting them to the kind of conditions they may expect to find in the workaday world. 9. Educational conferences and trips—In all the high schools in the county, special educational programs are arranged during which movies are shown illustrating certain types of training programs ranging from specialized indus- tries to courses offered in college and on the university level. Following these larger conferences the eleventh- and twelfth-grade students are invited to con- fer with invited representatives from colleges and universities and also from trade schools. Trips are conducted to schools offering specialized types of train- ing such as schools in dietetics, beauty culture, office training, and nursing. For instance, all the girls and boys interested in nursing spend a day trailing the nurses in one of the large hospitals of the county in which there is an approved nurses’ training course. Occasionally, two-day college trips are planned for students who want to go to college but do not have any idea what type of college they want to enter. These students pay their own expenses and visit [ 86 ] 80 a different types of institutions within a radius of two hundred miles from the county. 10. New services to be added in the near future—Several schools have asked the County Board to provide a specialist in corrective speech and remedial reading, also a coordinator in distributive education, These services will be added in the near future. Some Important General Features and Principles 1. Guidance serves all youth—As indicated by the cooperative eflorts ot all the agencies working with youth, the guidance services in the county seek to serve the needs of all youth whether in school or out of school, Guidance be- gins in the preschool clinics and follow-up service is afforded to young people after they leave school. Special guidance services are arranged for NYA youth and special courses offered. 2. Guidance services must be made available at a minimum of cost—For those who supervise guidance programs in rural or small communities, one of the first items to consider is that of costs. All materials and specialized services that are made available must be as inexpensive as possible. One way in which specialized services are made available in the county is by having the schools share salaries. In many cases schools pay as low as $150 a year for a portion of the time of the specialist's services. The same is true in regard to guidance ma- terials. In place of expensive cumulative record forms, the school has a folder for each pupil and in it are kept all data on test results, attendance, class records, citizenship, extracurriculum activities, self-rating forms, and guidance clinic reports, These data are summarized on an Yndividual evaluation record form devised by a county committee of teachers and guidance specialists. In order to conserve costs on filing for each school, a county source file on occupational and educational information is maintained at the county court house in the county superintendent's office. Wherever possible, these files are duplicated in the local libraries for free and inexpensive pamphlets and articles. Frequent meetings are planned with the teachers of social studies who meet at the court house to acquaint themselves with the information that is available in this central file. 3. Surveys and follow-up studies are essential in a guidance program—The program in Rockland County has included surveys or studies of county agencies serving youth, of occupational opportunities for county youth, of sub- sequent history of graduates of some of our schools, and of employment trends within and without the county. Utihzing Follow-Up Information To Improve Gutdance Service Based on the occupational trends and studies of individual pupils certaia curriculum needs became evident. Courses of study were constantly revised. Having discovered, for example, that there was a large demand for landscape gardening in the county, and also for laboratory technicians, the school author- ities in some high schools set up courses to train students in these specific fields. Many group activities were added in a number of schools in order that [ 87] 81 many more students might participate in social and civic activities, One junior senior high school of nine hundred pupils has forty-four diflerent club groups. In order to help teachers improve the guidance service, many aids have been developed. Coordinated with teachers’ conterence clinics, the teachers meet one period a month with the psychiatrist. In addition, nearly three-fourths of all the teachers have taken special courses in guidance, A telt need among the teachers for help on planning the homeroom pro- grams has led to definite periods of training for working out guidance pro- grams and developing discussion technics. Subject teachers have been helped to draw out the guidance implications of their subjectmatter, Class advisers have been provided with special help on source material about training centers, costs, and so forth. As a result of this in-service training, some excellent teach- ers who have a natural bent for counseling have been discovered. These teachers have been encouraged to go on with their training toward certification as counselors, and several of these have been assigned more time for counseling. The guidance program in the county has been under the direct supervision ot the local principals or superintendents, the county district superintendent, and the county director of guidance. Faculty guidance committees, each in- cluding a representative student, have been set up to help plan guidance pro- grams for the respective grade groups. The guidance program, as far as possible, has not been imposed. It has grown out of a sense of need. Therefore, the supervision has not been in the nature of dictating services but of directing and of improving services that were needed. [ 88 ] 82 Chapter VII CONFERENCES AND CLINICS AS MEANS TO GUIDANCE YOUTH GUIDANCE CONFERENCE ALL THE PRECEDING CHAPTERS, discussion has centered upon what indi- | viduals and communities can do for youth. Here and there, however, mention has been made of the democratic necessity that youth shall share in the programs for its guidance. The Youth Guidance Conference brings young people together to discuss their own problems, discover their needs, ind suggest plans for meeting them. \ Community Guidance Conference’ was held in Houghton, Michigan, in the tall of rag, under the co-sponsorship of the Copper Country's Superin- tendents’ Round Table and the Copper Country Youth Planning Commission. he purposes of the Conference were two: (a) to encourage the development ot new and the expansion of present programs of vocational and educational guidance tor in-school and out-of-school youth, and (b) to coordinate the activities of governmental agencies, schools, service clubs, civic groups, churches, and other community organizations in order that this area be better served The Conterence consisted of parallel panel discussions on vocational train- ing, health, recreation, and community coordination. It was largely attended by high-school seniors, out-of-school youth, schoolmen, and many other inter ested persons. In the recreation panel, dancing and other forms of social recreation were declared to be greatly needed. In some communities there was said to be a lack of tacilities, and in others, where facilities were present, they were for some reason not made available to youth. It was decided that the youth in each community should organize them- selves into local youth recreation planning councils or groups and appoint a member to act with the recreation committee of the Youth Planning Commis- sion. These recreation planning groups should then survey local needs and facilities with a view to establishing activities. The initiative, it was felt, should come from the youth of the community, and local agencies should be asked for cooperation and assistance in providing facilities. The help of a few adults was considered desirable. That specialized service was thought valuable was indicated by the question as to whether high-school teachers of physical training might not be employed on a twelve-month basis. The list of lite problems made by the members of one panel were very sug- yestive. Marriage, handling money, personal recognition, social lite, and mili ' Contributed by Earle B. Holman [ 89] 83 tary service were all listed as needs. The problems of marriage were said to be home planning, money, religion, children, careers, social life, personal habits and disposition, varying educational levels, and differing social standings (eco- nomic background). The general conclusion was that no one agency in the average community was openly aiming to train citizens for marriage, and that all young people knew of it was gained indirectly from observation and from associating with fellow students in and out of school. The remedy suggested was the organization in small groups of youth of like age and common inter- ests. Support, sponsorship, authoritative guidance, but not interference were desired of the adult group. Free discussion was recommended. These representative excerpts indicate the earnest desire of youth for help and also the possibilities in the use of conferences to bring to bear on their own problems the seriousness and intelligence of which youth is capable. CLINICS The Biennial Report (17) of the Federal Commissioner of Education in 1936 pointed out that clinics had become recognized agencies for the adjustment of personality : At the present time psychiatric clinics, or child-guidance clinics, have be- come recognized agencies for the adjustment of problem cases of behavior and personality. Clinics in general are community agencies, not officially connected with any other community organization, However, their functional relation ship to the public schools and to the child-caring institutions of the community is necessarily close. In some cases the child-guidance clinics are directly con- nected with the school system. It is the intention of the clinic to study the child thru the cooperation of all agencies interested in child life. A full clinic consists, therefore, of specialists in medicine, psychology, psychiatry, and sociological research. In smaller clinics, one person may attempt to cover more than one of these fields. It has been found that the clinic is of most value when problem cases can be reached early. For this reason child-guidance clinics have widened their scope beyond juvenile court cases to take in delinquent children before any legal hand has been laid upon them. As is the case with many improved educational practices that require a con- siderable sum of money to initiate, child-guidance clinics had their origin in and are now largely confined to cities and large administrative units. However, schools in the smaller places, seeing the good results accruing from the work of the clinics, began to think of ways and means whereby their services might be carried to smaller places. As a result, visiting or tra: -iing clinics more or less adequately equipped for service have been provided by a number of states, including Massachusetts, Illinois, Rhode Island, Delaware, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, South Carolina, and California. The visiting child-guidance clinic of the California Bureau of Juvenile Re- search, organized in 1929 (4), provides a complete clinic where services are available to the smaller communities in the state that meet necessary require ments, Thus the cooperation of local public schools, doctors, and social wel- [ 90 ] 84. a ; fare agencies is made possible. The children studied and examined may have been suggested by any one of a number of agencies, suc! as schools, juvenile courts, welfare organizations, or physicians. However, children of school age are given preference, and from the names suggested, the clinic selects those cases which seem to indicate that the trouble is not merely a physical condition (17:8, 9). With the development of guidance as a special function of education, attention has been given to the qualifications of workers in this field. It is now a rather general practice to stipulate that persons rendering guidance services Meet special requirements. In New York State, for example, “A teacher or other staff member who devotes at least 50 percent of his time to counseling shall hold a certifi- cate valid for such service in the public schools. This applies to advisers, counselors, deans, and others performing the duties prescribed.” In order to make sure that no member of a school staff is performing such functions unclassified as guidance activities, the state department de- fines the following duties as guidance functions: Subject to the direction and supervision of the superintendent of schools, to plan, organize, and direct the guidance program of the school; confer with parents, community agencies, teachers, and specialists on the educational, health, social, moral, tamily, and vocational problems of pupils; confer with pupils on curriculum and extracurriculum problems, school policies, and re- lated problems; give instruction covering educational and occupational op- portunities and related topics; prepare and maintain cumulative pupils’ rec- ords; secure reliable information about higher education, special training, and occupational opportunities; organize and administer pupil placement and tollow-up service; advise the superintendent of schools and principal with re- gard to all matters relating to counseling; and to do related work as required (17:5-10). California Child Guidance Clinic The following account of the operation of the California Child Guid- ance Clinic in a county of that state has been furnished by Lelia A. Tag- gart, director of rural education, Santa Barbara County. The fundamental concern of teachers and administrators is to foster the development of the whole child. This purpose can be accomplished effec- tively in a community where expert help and guidance are obtainable. Conse- quently, in Santa Barbara County the services of the county health department, general hospital, sunshine cottage, coordinating councils, probation department, Dr. Norman Fenton and staff, welfare department, and the county council of social agencies are obtainable whenever a serious problem of health and wel- fare arises. Quite often the psychological aspects of a child's growth require even more careful consideration than his physical well-being. Behavior problems of chil- dren in school are usually the result of emotional disturbances or tensions that go on unobserved, until at a time of extreme irritation from social or educa tional pressure these children behave in an unconventional manner. There is [91] 85 ee no one way to redirect children when they become unadjusted. The child’s atutudes and the causes must first be given due consideration before correc- tional steps are taken, Santa Barbara County is assisted in this respect by the supervisor of child welfare and attendance, two coordinating councils, the county probation department, and by the services of Dr. Norman Fenton's psy- chological staff. Supervisor of child welfare and attendance—-All supervisors and teachers working with children are concerned with their guidance, but the Supervisor of Child Welfare and Attendance is in a better position to study further their home and school relations. In addition to enforcing the compulsory education law, this supervisor is continually gathering facts concerning the child, his home, his school, and his social environment. He learns who the child's companions are, what his wishes and desires are, and is able to determine how these facts are related to the situation in which he finds the child who has been reported to him. His next step is to consult the other supervisors and study carefully any data they have. Then he contacts any or all the cooperating agencies in Santa Barbara County which deal with the welfare and adjustment of children. In this sys- tem ot child guidance, adjustment takes the place of discipline in most in- stances. Coordinating councils—The coordinating councils represent an interesting type of lay participation in school activities. This movement was introduced in the county in 1931 by a person who was then an assistant probation officer. The tollowing statement explains the function of these councils: In the Santa Maria and Santa Ynez sections of Santa Barbara County, rep resentatives of all publicly supported departments dealing with the welfare and adjustment of children are organized to study their problems. These mixed groups of educators and lay people, who have the best interests of children at heart, are known as coordinating councils. At the regular monthly meetings of these councils, all discussions and plans for research and study are directed by an elected chairman of cach council. During this hour specific problems are discussed. The chief of any department is privileged to present a problem to the council and benefit by the judgment and discussion of all other representatives. By means of this interchange of ideas the members become mutually conscious. of the problems and_ policies peculiar to each department and of those that may be common to two or more of the departments. These people consider and coordinate their findings. Their aim is to discuss and carry forward any actions legally or socially teasible in their respective areas. If a school adjustenent is involved, the author- ity tor action is there. When problems of this type arise, the child’s teacher is invited to the particular council meeting when his case will be considered. If it is a problem of law enforcement, the responsible head is present to carry out recommendations. The police department chief is called in only when, in the opinion of the group, he can be of service. The groups represented in these councils are rural elementary schools, city clementary schools, high schools, health department, welfare department, pro- bation department, recreation department, sheriff's office, police department, and lay people upon request. [ 92 | alg) Probation department—Cooperation with the probation department in meet- ing the needs of individual children whose behavior tends toward habitual or ultimate delinquency has been most successful. Referral of such children is made thru the county school department whose responsibility is to collect data from other interested agencies. This cooperation is unofficial in terms of the juvenile court laws of California, but it does give the probation department an opportunity to know all the facts in the case and to help a child and his parents make adjustments before the child officially becomes a court case. Services of Dr. Norman Fenton and staf}—The services of Dr. Norman Fenton of Stanford University were given thru the California Psychological Clinic, which he brought into the county once a year. The supervision depart- ment took cases to Dr. Fenton for study. These were concerned with individual problems of child behavior. Dr. Fenton and his staff analyzed these cases and then held conferences with the teacher and parent. In the solution of these problems the county health department gave continued cooperation. The serv- ices of Dr. Fenton and his staff were available during the curriculum develop- ment program. Conclusion—With all these agencies cooperating to foster the complete de- velopment of the children of Santa Barbara County, the teacher should be able to give wise guidance to individual children who present serious problems of health or emotional stress. By utilizing the various resources of the com munity it should be possible to promote the mental, physical, emotional, and social growth of the child. The child guidance clinic, as developed in Santa Barbara County, wealthy, thickly populated, and adjacent to an important city, May seem to the rural school worker utopian beyond his wildest dreams. For the great majority of rural situations it is, of course, quite impossible with the funds available at present. An adaptation of the service, in the form of a school child guidance conference, has been developed in both California and Michigan. The plan as developed in Michigan has been described in most useful practical detail in a bulletin with that title (10). Since this valuable publication is not available in sufficient quantities to serve all who may read this yearbook, permission has been sought and re ceived from L. J. Carr, director, Michigan Child Guidance Institute, to include here an extensive digest of the plan it sets forth for developing and conducting a school child guidance clinic in any school where there is in terest in child welfare and leadership for developing the cooperation ot whatever agencies exist. Michigan School Child Guidance Conference The most effective cultural device which has been evolved tor determining the causal conditions underlying a child’s deviant behavior is the child guid ance clinic. In the clinic, physicians determine what the child’s physical con- dition is; social workers construct a picture of his home, his play-lifé, his so- cial world; psychologists study his mental capacities and aptitudes; psychiatrists [ 93 | ~ determine his emotional condition; and on the basis of all this information the clinic is usually able to say that back of such and such abnormal behavior there are such and such specific abnormal conditions. In other words, change those conditions and, if the maladjustment has not gone too deep or been too long continued, improvement in behavior may be expected. Unfortunately, clinical service for schools in Michigan is severely limited. It is probable that all the clinics together outside Wayne County can examine not over 3000 new child cases a year, and the number that can be treated is some fraction of that total, Contrast this with the 30,000 to 50,000 maladjusted in the state to get some idea of the pitiful inadequacy of present (1940) clinical services for children in Michigan. There is little likelihood of this inadequacy being remedied for a long Ume to come, The question for the average school teacher and executive, then, is this: Shall the schools, facing the growing need for controlling juvenile delinquency and crime, wait helplessly for the slow growth of expert services or shall they seek actively to assist in the adjustment of deviant children with what resources they already have? What resources do the schools have? At least two that are receiving more at- tention than was customary a few years ago are (a) readjustment of the cur- riculum and (b) readjustment of the child—the child guidance conference. “The child guidance conference is essentially the gathering together of a group of school officials for the systematic and thoughtful study of a malad- justed child. It follows the general form of the child guidance clinic but it is adapted to the facilities of each particular school or institution” (5:83). The school child guidance conference has been demonstrated in more than two hundred California schools and has been adopted as regular practice in many of them. In Michigan, the Michigan Child Guidance Institute is pre- pared to the limit of its resources to assist in introducing the conference tech- nic to any school system whose officials are interested. The introduction of the school child guidance conference technic into any school system involves four separate considerations: (a) the stages which must be passed thru in the process of introducing it; (b) the personnel and facilities needed; (c) the procedures which experience has showp are most likely to suc- ceed in actual practice; and (d) what to do for difficult cases. Stages in the Introduction of the Conference Technic There are four distinct periods in the introduction and acceptance of the conference technic: the preparatory period; the demonstration period; the period of improvement of technics; and the period of routine use. 1. Preparatory period—The average school has carried on a long time with- out any systematic consideration of trouble cases—hence the need of moving slowly. California experience indicates that from six months to a year must ordinarily be allowed for any school system to move from its first contact with the idea to the period of improvement of technics, Usually the preparatory period may be expected to go thru four phases: (a) The school’s interest in aiding problem cases should be discussed | 94 | 88 with the executives of other agencies—the juvenile court, the police, the local case and group work agencies. (b) The problem and certain suggestions for meeting it (child guidance conference technics) must be described for teachers and administrators. This is usually done either by a visiting speaker and a follow-up educa- tional campaign using literature on delinquency and maladjustment and the school’s function in the premises or by an educational campaign ot literature alone. (c) The next step is for the superintendent (or the principal, if only one building is involved) to present the plan in person to his administrators and teachers, He can now go into some detail as to how it might work in that system. But he should be careful to make it clear that he is not demanding that the plan be adopted. He is merely presenting it for consideration as the most immediately feasible way of meeting the school’s obligation to further the social adjustment of its pupils. The question of adopting it or not should be left absolutely to the free decision of the teachers. (d) The next step at this point might logically be, therefore, the appoint- ment of a teacher committee to examine the plan and discuss details of its administration and operation. A period of several weeks or months should be allowed for full discussion by all the teachers as well as the committee. This is the period of discussion and objection. If the ultimate decision is favorable or at least not definitely hostile, the next step is to arrange for a demonstration conference. When the preceding steps have been completed, the Michigan Child Guidance Institute will be glad to assist in conducting the demonstration conference [in Michigan }. 2. The demonstration period—This begins with the decision to hold a demonstration conference and ends with the actual holding of the conference. Several weeks will normally elapse between the decision and the actual con- ference. This time is needed to complete preparations for the conference. Five definite steps constitute the demonstration period: (a) Principal and teachers select a small committee to manage the con- ference. The chairman of this committee is to be the conference manager and arrange preliminary details, but he is not to preside. The presiding ofh- cer of the demonstration conference should be someone with previous ex- perience in such conferences. (b) Managing committee asks teachers to nominate cases for the demon- stration conference, and from the list of nominees the committee selects a case. This case should not be a completely hopeless one nor one that has al- ready baffled the juvenile court. In general, children who are obviously feeble-minded and children who have committed serious court offenses should not be chosen for demonstration subjects. After all, this is not a highly expert guidance clinic and its untrained members are making their first start. Choose ordinary behavior cases, the younger the better. (c) The managing committee arranges with the teacher whose case has been chosen and with the school administration to collect six kinds of evi- dence for the conference. [95] 89 (1) A statement of the child’s trouble as seen by the referring teacher. (2) A report from the school physician, the school nurse, or from the family physician on the child's health and physical condition. (3) A report from the teacher on the child’s home. This will necessi- tate a visit by the teacher to the home, some careful observation by the teacher and the asking of questions concerning the child, relations with brothers and sisters, etc. (See “Personnel and Facilities Needed.” ) (4) A report on the child’s mental capacities and aptitudes. If the school has a psychological testing program of individual tests by a com- petent psychologist these records are, of course, easily available. If no such tests have been given, whatever evidence the school may have on the subject should be brought to the conference. (5) A report on the child’s social adjustment in the classroom, on the playground, and in the community. The child’s scholastic record and such other records as the school may have. A cumulative record would be particularly useful. (6) A report on what social agencies, churches, etc., have been in con tact with the family. (d) The managing committee arranges for the Wouierence meeting. This means that a time is set at which all the interested persons can be present in a place large enough to enable a few administrators and teachers to look on. Because of the confidential nature of much of the information that must be discussed on ordinary behavior cases, the number of onlookers should be strictly limited to those who may have some responsibility for future con- ferences. The total number present should seldom exceed seven or eight. The conference is a confidential relationship and nothing said there or dis- cussed there 1s to be mentioned outside that room. Because teachers lack the tradition of the confidential relationship, which physicians and social workers acquire as a matter of course, there is great danger in this technic unless every teacher admitted to the conference is a mature person who can be trusted to keep silent. A typical conference should include the principal, the child’s teacher, the school nurse or physician, a representative from the social agency or organ- ization, if any, that is most active with the family, and the minister of the family church. (e) The demonstration conterence is held. An experienced conference chairman ts the first essential for this demonstration. The conference itself will naturally begin with a brief statement by the chairman of its purpose and the method of procedure. The conference then proceeds to consider the child's problem and the tacts about his difficulties. Under the headings “Physical Conditions,” “Home Conditions,” “Mental Factors,” “Emotional Factors,” and “Community Factors,” brief statements are jotted down by the conference secretary, and the conference then takes up suggestions for (a) changing the causal conditions, (b) removing the child from them, or (c) changing the child's attitude toward them. Such suggestions may con- veniently be summarized under the headings “Medical Treatment,” “Home Treatment,” “School Treatment,” and “Community Treatment.” [ 96 ] 30 Definite responsibility by some person must be assumed for executing cach recommendation agreed upon, and the secretary keeps a record of this. All this should not take over an hour or an hour and a quarter. At the end of the conference, participants and observers must be given an opportunity to discuss the whole thing and make suggestions and criticisms. 3. Period of improvement of technics—Following a successful demonstra- tion conference, the teachers and administrators may wish to begin holding their own conferences. This calls for only one additional step beyond the fixing of the date and the repetition of the arrangements by the conference manage- ment committee. Before beginning a regular series ot conferences it may be desirable to take a quick overview of the problem child situation in the school or school system, By using the Olson Behavior Rating Scale, or some similar device, which enables any teacher to rate each of her pupils on an adjustment scale at the rate of one pupil per 15 or 20 seconds, a quick picture of the “prob lem load” in the school can be obtained. The selection of trouble cases for con ferencing can then be made in the light of the school's total needs rather than on the basis of the salesmanship of some particular teacher, Given such a problem-child survey, the school 1s ready to go ahead with its conterences as rapidly as the teachers can assemble the necessary information and find the time for conterence. Some schools hold conferences every week, others every two weeks, others once a month. 4. Period of routine use—Within a few weeks after the demonstration the school child guidance conference should be a regular part ot the school. At the second or third meeting, or in some cases at the first meeting, mem bership in the conference should be extended to include representatives of the juvenile court and of the local police department. This is highly important not only for the practical assistance which they can give but tor the educational value to all concerned. With increasing experience conterees will learn what iypes of recommendations offer hope ot success and what types are imprac ticable. More important still, they will begin to recognize the type of case that needs the expert help of the trained psychiatrist and they will begin moving heaven and earth to see that such a child gets that help. Very early there will arise the need of interpreting the work otf the school child guidance conterence to the parents ot the school. There are two stand ard ways of doing this: one is to devote a meeting of the parent-teacher asso ciation to this subject and perhaps have a contact committee appointed after- wards: the other is to call in a few influential and representative parents, both fathers and mothers, and explain the project thoroly to them, ask their sug- gestions, and meet their objections. After this interpretation has had time to spread, the project-is explained to the entire P-T.A. Personnel and Facthtwes Needed The school child guidance conference can be carried on by any se hool statl. One of its advantages is that it enables the school to capitalize on the special training of any particular teacher who may have had courses in the education of exceptional children, in abnormal psychology, and the like. The only facilities needed are those available in any school system, a con venient meeting place, and a time usually at noon or after school hours when | 97 | 91 teachers can meet. In Michigan, help in the form of literature on problem chil- dren, reading lists, and the like can be obtained from the Michigan Child Guidance Institute in Ann Arbor; from the State Library at Lansing; or from the University Extension Division, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, at the cost of postage. Forms for case histories may also be obtained from the Michi- gan Child Guidance Institute. The technic of case interviewing cannot, of course, be taught in a book, much less in a few lines. However, teachers have one advantage which most case workers lack—a common ground of interest with the parent, namely, the child, One of the hardest tasks of the social worker, that of establishing rapport with the family, should thus be relatively simple for the teacher. Methods of Considering a Case Certain principles for increasing the value of case conferences can be stated very simply: 1. The contribution of each participating member—medical data, social history, mental test, emotional appraisal—should be prepared in advance. 2. The conference organizes with a chairman and a secretary. 3. The reason for taking up the case and the nature of the child’s problem should be stated briefly at the beginning. 4. Each participant makes his report. 5. The conterence chairman summarizes the reports and gives a brief inter- pretation of the case in the light of all the evidence. 6. Recommendations should then be formulated to cover four fields of diffi- culty: physical difficulties, home dithculties, school difficulties, community difh- culties. 7. With the recommendations clearly formulated, specific plans for securing the execution of each recommendation may then be discussed and formulated. 8. Definite responsibility for carrying out each recommendation is assumed by someone, and the secretary records the name and the responsibility assumed. gy. Every case should be followed until the resources of the school are ex- hausted, then the case should be turned over to some other agency if the child is stull unadjusted. 10. Perhaps one case in every five will prove too difficult for the skill of a volunteer school child guidance conference. It there is no guidance clinic in the local community to which you can turn tor help, consult your state department of public instruction for information as to adjustment services elsewhere which are available to your school. Finally, use the case conference experience, if possible, to increase coopera- tion between the schools and other local agencies. Do not let anybody get the impression that the schools, in trying to improve agency cooperation, are “try- ing to run the town.” Before presenting the case conference plan to teachers and principals, discuss the whole matter with the police, the juvenile court, and with the local case and group work agencies. Arrange to have representatives ot these agencies present early in the development of the plan. Call them in on cases in which they either are or may be interested. Be tactful. [ 98] 32 Chapter VIII GUIDANCE SERVICE FOR YOUTH AS PROMOTED BY A VOLUNTEER AGENCY urine the First World War a small group of socially-minded women D in Richmond, Virginia, tried to help rural girls, coming to the city for war work, to adjust their lives in a city which, tho of only moderate size, was totally different from the farms or mountain homes which they had left. Out of their recognition of the deep need of these girls grew the Southern. Women’s Educational Alliance, organized first to meet the guidance needs of southern country girls. Later, with branches in New York and Chicago, extending its purpose to provide and promote guid- ance service for rural boys as well as for girls, the organization changed its name to the Alliance for the Guidance of Rural Youth. Its headquarters are in Richmond. It is incorporated, is approved by the National Informa- tion Bureau, and is under the auspices of a national board which includes specialists in education, agriculture, guidance, economics, employment and related fields, and also a group of homemakers. A yearbook on rural guidance would be incomplete without an account of this unique organization, which its president, O. Latham Hatcher, was good enough to prepare. “Make sure,” she was asked, “of giving us the distinctive place which the Alliance fills, so that persons desiring to call upon it may know just the nature of the help which they might hope to receive from it.” The request should perhaps have asked also for some indication of the extent of the service available, for some bounds there must be. The service, assuredly, however, will not cease till the bounds are reached. Dr. Hatcher's account follows: ; The Alliance works directly out in rural areas with rural Jeaders and rural youth, to help develop vitally functioning programs of youth guidance. For many years it has featured as a national demonstration, one at a time, this sort of assistance to county authorities in developing countywide programs of youth guidance, involving utilization of all available local resources, human and otherwise. In such undertakings it has also been able to secure assistance from outside technicians and institutions for meeting needs which the local area could not supply, and altho this has never meant transference of money to the county, the services rendered have had high financial value. Illustrations of Alliance direction of such demonstration programs are those in Breathitt and Harlan Counties in Kentucky and in Craven County, North Carolina. Within the limits of its modest budget and according to possibilities of such aid by correspondence, the Alliance answers letters from all parts of the coun- try, asking information, counsel, or other practicable help in initiating or im- [ 99 ] 93 proving guidance practices. Such requests come from one-room school teach- ers, high-school teachers and principals, county superintendents, ministers, civic leaders, federal and state officials, colleges, universities, and organizations of many kinds. This service is free, altho postage covering replies and any litera- ture given or lent is preferred. Its books and bulletins are sold or lent. There is a small cost for its direct rural service, helping a county to appraise its re- sources for developing a guidance program and to develop such a program. It is especially interested in bringing about development of local guidance insti- tutes in which county educators and other civic leaders may be trained directly in their own areas and in connection with their own specific problems in the practice of guidance, This, of course, need not preclude study outside, and should stimulate it. Besides its more direct rural service, the Alliance devotes much attention to widening interest among other agencies and organizations, and among insti tutions and individuals as well, in provision for the guided development ot this rural halt of the nation’s youth. It is approached by numerous agencies and itself approaches many having youth welfare at heart and dominantly en grossed with urban youth but willing to do something for rural ones. It works also with national agencies concentrating upon rural youth services not yet tully adjusted to recognized guidance technics or needing tuller contact with other types of agencies. In all these contacts the Alliance secks the fusion of rural, urban, and more general agencies for helping on a problem essentially national, one of vast proportions and significance. To this end, it brings together representatives of urban and rural youth- serving agencies, emphasizes the close relation ot their tasks to each other, and furthers among them the cooperation indispensable to right solutions on either side. All the agencies help in planning the intensively studious institutes projected for analyzing situations affecting rural youth, and plan for construc- tive follow-up action in the light of such analysis. It is usually the function of the Alliance to serve as coordinator of such institutes and in the follow-up, be- sides exercising a general watchtulness over practical results from the total cooperative effort. Instances of its service of this kind are the series of Insti- tutes on Youth Migration to Cities held in New York, with interested sections of the Weltare Council of New York City; a similar one held in Washington, with inclusive cooperation from local and federal agencies; in Richmond, on a statewide basis; and more briefly at Duke University. Follow-up of several kinds has developed trom these conferences, including a small series of “Tips to Rural Young People Considering Migrating to Certain Cities for Work.” Chief concern now 1s centered upon defense aspects of youth migration. The most recent illustration of the outreaching, coordinating service of the Alliance is the Institute for Rural Youth Guidance held in Washington, Feb- ruary 27-28, 1941, for considering rural youth guidance needs now and under post-war conditions. Cooperating in this were the American Youth Commis- sion, the National Education Association, the Extension Service and Bureau of Home Economics of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, the U. S. Office of Education, the Children’s Bureau, the U. S. Employment Service, the National Youth Administration, and rural leaders. An Institute Follow-Up Council is actively at work. | 100 | 34 Of two pamphlets laying the toundation for practical follow-up, the first, Guidance for Rural Youth (7), was issued by the American Youth Commis- sion under the joint sponsorship of the Commission, the Alliance, and the National Education Association, and was introductory to the second, 1 Sug- gested Plan of Action (8), which presents somewhat in outline form specific steps to be taken by rural communities and cooperating agencies in putting the plan to work. This plan was prepared by the courtesy of the U. S. Bureau oi Employment Security and issued by the federal agencies which cooperated in the Institute, as information to those of their personnel thruout the country who contact rural youth at all for service. Encouraging implementation 1s already under way and the Couneil is occupied, at present, with the relation of its service to the Civilan Detense program. The guidance program which, with the assistance of the Alliance, has been in progress in Breathitt County, Kentucky, is especially notable be- cause of the extent of the human resources which have thru leadership been coordinated there. The inception of the program began with the vision of the new county school superintendent, Mrs. Marie &. Turner. Autending a national educational meeting she met O. Lathara Hatcher, president of the Southern Women’s Educational Alliance.' which for a number of years had been experimenting on a small scale with ways and means of serving the guidance needs of rural youth, Dr. Hatcher wanted an experimental situation for her organizavion, Mrs. Turner wanted tech- nical advice. From the union of these two needs the Breathitt County Guidance program was born. Its technical direction was undertaken by the Southern Women’s Educational Alliance, with the University of Ken tucky and the National Occupational Conterence assisting, The first step in the program was the orgamzation in the spring of 1934 of a sponsoring local county council. The process of ity formation was 4 simple one. The county superintendent telephoned ten businessmen of the county seat, Who had often helped her before, asking them to meet her wt the local hotel to advise her on a plan she was considering. They all came, heard, and approved her plan, organized themselves into a county plan ning council, and selected together twenty other people to be invited inte membership. Later, an executive committee, composed of officers and chairmen of standing committees, was given the more active steering of the Council's affairs (621065). The membership of this Council at the present time indicates the re sources of personnel which even a poor and retarded rural county may possess. Today the Council is composed of thirty-five members: the county superintendent, who is its chairman; a merchant; two physicians, one of whom is also a farmer: two local women; the district representative; the county judge; two attorneys, one of whom is state senator and another a ! This organization, has now broadened its field, It 1s now the Alliance for the Gurdance Rural Youth, operating on a nationwide basis. {101 | 95 farmer; a pharmacist; the sheriff; the county farm demonstration agent; the business manager, dean, and president of the Lees Junior College, a missionary institution situated in the county; three county school princi- pals; a rural teacher; the county health nurse; the county seat postmaster; editor of the county paper; county health director; director of the agri- cultural substation; a resident engineer; a banker; an insurance man; an accountant; a state experiment forester; the director of a rural com- munity center; and the representatives respectively of the local Business and Professional Women's Organization and the Vocational Guidance Association, the latter organization having been formed after the guidance program of the county got under way. The Council appointed committees on ten major problems, toward the resolving of which the schools, the Council, and the Kiwanis Club have been working constantly, namely: education, agriculture, health, crime, rural electrification, roads, fish and game, economic status of the county, employment, and recreation. The guidance program, thus oriented in a total program of community development, has been developed by the Council working cooperatively with the county board of education. This began in June 1934 with a guid- ance institute held for five weeks at the county seat for the county teachers. The University of Kentucky provided instruction thru its extension di- vision, granting six semester hours of credit to those in attendance. Be- sides the regular faculty of the institute, certain specialized phases of guidance were presented by representatives of the state education associa- tion, the Eastern Kentucky State Teachers College, Lees College, the Alliance, the National Occupational Conference, and the local substation of the University agricultural experiment station. Four objectives were set up for each teacher enrolled: to understand the major functions of guidance; to develop a practical minimum guidance program adapted to his school and integrated with its regular work: to gain new ideas and skills for an activity curriculum; and to develop a daily schedule allowing for such activities. Thirty-two teachers, nearly a third of all the teachers in the open-country schools of the county, attended this institute. During the year that followed, the tentative program de- veloped at the institute was fostered by four means: monthly meetings of the county teachers association, centering attention on guidance: provision of a county supervisor trained in guidance, who was also the county at- tendance officer; new means of gathering information about pupils, in- cluding pupil autobiographies and home and parent records; a demonstra- tion testing program in a few schools; and a special program of studying children and emphasizing learning-by-doing projects. During each of the next two summers a similar institute was provided, with advanced or new offerings for those who had attended from the first. In July 1934 there was begun the county survey, indispensable to the factual basis needed for counseling the young people regarding the out- [ 102 } 36 look of the county from occupational and other points of view. This sur- vey, most of it continuous thru the years, embraced ten categories: county history; human resources, school children, out-of-school youth, and adults; physical resources; occupational facts and possiblities; educational condi- tions and outlook; present economic conditions; recreational conditions and possibilities; crime and delinquency; pertinent compilations from county newspapers. Details of these elements of the fact-finding programs, which cannot be included here for lack of space, may be found in Occupa- tions, June 1936 (6), which devoted a whole issue to an account of “Breathitt County in the Southern Appalachians.”* Facts were assembled in various ways. Many were furnished by pupils, thru the administration in the county schools of a form entitled “My Autobiography,” containing blanks to be filled with specific information. A “flying squadron” of ten trained FERA workers took them to each school and aided in their administration. Authoritative information was gathered from publications of the federal Bureau of Agricultural Eco- nomics, the Bureau of the Census, the state university experiment station, the Tennessee Valley Authority, and others. The information secured thru the surveys was used in the institutes and other meetings of teachers. Another enterprise early sponsored by the County Planning Council Was a series of occupational forums in which a number of specialists dis- cussed with the older pupils and the young people of the community occu- pations and occupational programs. This opportunity was considered par- ticularly necessary for pupils outside the county seat, whose occupational contacts and experiences are mainly limited to agriculture alone. These forums, beginning in December 1934, were held in two of the county high schools for five months, during which the boys and girls of Breathitt County were afforded twice monthly a glimpse of an occupational world of which they knew littl. Speakers and leaders of these forums were drawn from several departments of the college of agriculture, the depart ment of industrial education, and the college of education of the state uni- versity. Other specialists, some from the university, participated, among them a former state forester, the state home demonstration agent, and the editor of the Lexington (Kentucky) Leader. Another early activity of the Council was the establishment, in coopera- tion with Lees College, of an art center. Two rooms were provided in the college buildings. These rooms have been used for the formal exhibition of pictures; for informal talks on art and artists and their work; for va- rious types of art instruction and aids; and as “hobby rooms” where young people might bring their hobbies and work at them, and where those who lacked hobbies might discover them. In order to reach young people liv- ing in the more remote sections of the county, an experimental project was 2 This account is largely drawn from the magazine indicated [ 103 ] 97 set up. The art instructor of the college was released by a special financial arrangement to direct art work on a part-time basis in three community centers out in the county. The experiment had to be discontinued for lack of funds, but it discovered the type of future plans needed to reach these young people. After the guidanté program had been in progress for about a year, it became clear that some rather fundamental changes in the curriculum of both the elementary and secondary schools were needed to provide for adequate pupil adjustment. In the summer of 1935, plans for needed changes were made, the planning group being composed of the technical advisers, the county superintendent of schools, the faculty of the guidance institute then in session, the rural school supervisor, the principal-elect of the county high school, the principal of a consolidated elementary school, and others. It soon was evident that if the changes were made which the planning committee believed indispensable it would be necessary to secure the cooperation of the state department of education, the state university, and perhaps other state institutions of higher education, particularly with ref erence to such matters as modification of college entrance requirements, Accordingly, on the request of the technical advisers, a meeting at the state university was arranged by its president. Other members of this con- ference, besides those at whose request it was called, were the state super- visor of public schools, the dean of the school of education, and the head of the psychology department of the university. Before this conference was laid a request, not so much for a new cur- riculum as for the right to carry on experimentation for the purpose of determining what the new curriculum should be and to make changes from time to time in the light of this experimentation. Specific factors and features of modifications to be explored included the following: recog- nition of the dual responsibility, both of serving and increasing the num- ber of students going on into college work and of providing adequate pre- vocational and vocational training for those for whom high-school grad- uation would be terminal; as means to these ends, the necessity of activ- ities and study courses related to life experiences and to the so-called prac- tical interests of boys and girls; elementary-school courses in agriculture and economics and in guidance, including next steps in education and in occupational trends in rural and especially in mountain areas; greatly en- riched experiences in social, recreational, avocational, and health education fields; the use of the radio, educational motion pictures, improved library facilities (loan and otherwise), and better laboratory equipment; and ex- perimentation with the 6-3-3 plan of organization. The request for guided freedom having been granted, there began, and is still in progress, a reconstruction of the entire offerings of the elemen tary and secondary school. The whole school offering was scrutinized [ 104 | 98 from the guidance viewpoint with a view to effecting a maximum amount of adjustment to pupil needs. Some subjects were dropped, others added, and those retained given new emphasis. Unlike the experience of schools in general, changes were more easily effected in the high school than in the elementary grades. A number of factors probably account for this, among them the scattered location and inaccessibility of the open-country schools, cut off by road and weather conditions during much of the year; the low salaries and consequently ill-trained teachers in the elementary schools to gether with the poverty level of their equipment and materials; and the less than usual pressure for traditional courses from parents who had a rustic scorn of “dude” education. Details of the modifications, some of them marked departures from tradition, which have been made in the curriculum in the several schools, are too extensive to present here. Those early initiated are described in the issue of Occupations already referred to (6). An unusual and rather striking revision was the addition of two years of English in the high school, substituting it for foreign languages because of the accumulated defects and needs of the pupils resulting from their underprivileged home situation. The marked extension, as well as adjustments of offerings in agriculture, home economics, health, and the arts, was to be expected from all the premises. Wide use was made of clubs. A striking feature was post- ponement for several years of a course m occupations, since, altho the technical advisers had for two years been collecting materials on occupa- tions, they were strongly convinced that these materials were not yet suit- able for presentation to the group, and also that the materials assembled for the nation at large were not adequately appropriate here. Available occupational information was, however, given in many related classes as well as in clubs. Careful and detailed records have been kept, both because of their es- sentiality to guidance and as a means of evaluating the experimental undertakings. Tho some achievement testing has been done, it has been markedly subordinate to recording. There are indications that available formal testing instruments are not valid for children of such atypical back- grounds as this county presents. Testing, moreover, needs a basis in edu- cation of teachers to understand the nature, technics of administering, and the use of tests. Some provision has been made for out-of-school pupils thru the estab- lishment of opportunity centers in several communities to which they may go for guidance, further education, and general recreational and cul- tural opportunities. Buildings and some equipment have been secured and persons selected for training as leaders in these centers. The program, however, is checked for lack of funds. It is not surprising that, because of the extremely low economic level of the county, the program moves slowly in many of its aspects. Its remark- [ 105 ] 99 able feature is the progress that has been made under such conditions. It is an outstanding illustration of what may be effected when cooperation and an experimental approach are brought to bear upon the resources which exist in rural America as a whole. A related program, in which the Alliance has also participated, is that in Harlan County, Kentucky. At Pine Mountain, in Harlan County, five suc cessive summer guidance institutes have been conducted. Besides the County Planning Council and beginnings by the elementary teachers of a countywide guidance program, as in Breathitt, other outcomes in Harlan have been the application of the high schools of the county for permission to develop a High-School Section in the Institute; the beginnings of a youth section, designated as the Youth Round Table; a County Trade School, its chief immediate aim defense training, but offering also sound assets for the future; the appointment of a county coordinator of voca- tional training to function in all county high schools and to exercise ad- visory powers in relation to prevocational needs in the elementary school; and a Junior Counseling Service for Harlan County, forming a part of the federal, state, and local employment service and established to co- operate with the schools, the Planning Council, and the Institute for solv- ing local problems such as vocational guidance, training, and employment. The work which this Counseling Service is performing is described by its counselor :* The Employment Service of the Kentucky Unemployment Compensation Commission established a Junior Division in its Harlan office in August 1940. The chief purpose in establishing this Division was to give to the thousands otf young people in the county assistance in choosing wisely the occupations which they enter. Unfortunately, the first junior counselor was called to another branch of gov ernment service and resigned early in 1941. In May 1941 the present counselor was appointed with Ada Cross, former school teacher in the Harlan city and county systems, as assistant to the counselor. Both members of the Junior Service served as consultants at the annual meeting of the Pine Mountain Guidance Institute held May 25-31. A period of orientation into the Employment Service was spent during June, July, and August. During that time a large number of young people came to the employment office seeking occupational information, advice, and, many of them, employment. We were able to assign some of the young men to the out-of-school youth training program which was conducted at the local trade school from Feb- ruary to September. Classes were offered in sheet metal, automobile mechanics, woodworking, and electricity. Nearly all the boys who took sheet metal work have been referred to a company in Maryland and now are. waiting replies to their applications. Many 8 Contributed by Milton A. Galbraith, junior counselor. [ 106 | 100 of the boys who took other courses already have been placed in local private employment. Approximately sixty boys were referred to the Resident Center Projects of the National Youth Administration at Vine Grove, Richmond, and Carrollton, Kentucky. Those boys are offered training in machine shop, sheet metal, ma- chine woodworking, automobile mechanics, electricity, and radio. A number of the young men assigned to those camps already have been placed in good paying jobs. One girl was placed on an NYA nursing project and was as- signed to the Good Samaritan Hospital, Lexington, Kentucky. Several other girls were assigned to local NYA projects. Employer contacts were made dur- ing the summer, and placements were made in stores, restaurants, garages, ot- fices, and mines. The program expanded when schools opened in September. A counseling and guidance program is being conducted by the high schools of the county and city systems and by the Pine Mountain Settlement School. It is the aim of the employment service counselors to work closely with school authorities in carrying out this work which is needed so much in our county. Regularly scheduled visits are made to all the cooperating schools. Round- table discussions are held with the faculties on the various phases and prob- lems of the program. Groups of students, who already have been instructed in the purpose of the program, meet in interest groups and discuss with the teach- ers and counselors the occupational problems which they have. A system of records has been set up, by means of which it is hoped a picture of every student’s background may be obtained. Those records are kept in indi- vidual folders and, thus far, will apply to students in the last four years of high school. Early in September a group of ladies was chosen to form the Advisory Coun- cil on Women’s Occupations, That group, working with Miss Cross, has inaugurated a class for young women in which solutions to problems in home making are taught. Plans have been made to conduct classes in other commu- nities in addition to those already being held in the town of Harlan. The Junior Service is working in conjunction with teachers of miscellaneous occupational groups in helping to prepare young people for employment in stores during holiday seasons. Recent surveys have shown that more than 50 percent of Harlan County's young people must leave their native county in order to find employment. It is our hope that until such time as we can provide suitable employment at home for these young people we can help them to make their occupational decisions wisely. This program ts still in its infancy. It is our opinion that at least five years will be a minimum time in which to expect appreciable results. Reference has been made to Pine Mountain Settlement School. A de- scription of its guidance-directed curriculum * is given here: Pine Mountain Settlement School, located in a narrow valley of Harlan County, Kentucky, was founded in 1913 as a boarding school where mountain 4 Contributed by Glyn Morris and Malcolm Arny, | 107 | 101 / boys and girls might have the opportunity to “work their way thru” to obtain an education, Its purpose was to give general training in the “three R’s” along with practical vocational training on its small farm in work necessary for main- tenance of the school, Students paid a $5 entrance fee and $3.50 a month for tuition, and were given room and board in return for the maintenance work done. Today at Pine Mountain there is a high school for rro students which possesses, among other things, a good shop for auto mechanics, woodwork, printing; a hospital where girls may receive preliminary nurses’ training: a farm, dairy, kitchen, and home economics building. The guidance program at Pine Mountain may best be understood it we con- sider the problems which the school faces in a rural mountain community and the attempt to evolve a curriculum to meet these factors. This shows guidance as the process whereby adjustments are made within a curriculum: structure formulated from studies of the problems facing students in the local com- munity and in the larger world outside. One of these problems is the high birth-rate. In some places the population doubles itself within one generation. \s the President’s Report on Economic Conditions of the South shows, the subsistence level is far below all other sections of the United States, Because of the high birth-rate and the low subsistence level, the majority of young people must migrate to other regions for employment. Naturally, these factors must affect the formulation ot Pine Mountain's curriculum. The majority of entering students, presumably ready for ninth grade, are actually only on the fifth-, sixth-, and seventh-grade levels. School programs have lagged considerably in meeting the needs of these youth. Poor attendance is also a factor; in some rural areas only one out of ten children goes to high school. We must also remember that many will not graduate, and those who do cannot afford to go on to college. However, the school must con- tend with the tradition of college as the ideal for all. We now describe briefly the four school years of the curriculum. The work of the first year (ninth grade), the theme of which ts “Living Together,” con sists of try-out courses in agriculture, woodwork, auto mechanics, printing, and home economics for both boys and girls. This year has as its purpose as com- plete an educational experience as possible and not preparation for further work, altho this problem is considered. There is a combination course in read ing, Bible, and history. In the civics course the students consider local prob- lems, using a textbook written and printed at the school. Also, a thoro study is made by each student of his vocational choice. The following year the students manage a cooperative store, the work of the year revolving around the theme “Man and His Physical Needs.” Here the emphasis is on the economic forces working thru life and especially on con sumer education, assuming that in an area where poverty is a relatively greater problem than elsewhere, management of one’s resources must be a primary consideration. In the third year, the emphasis is on the problems of the community, and opportunity is given the students t6 go out into the community in such helpful capacities as “home visitors,” who call at homes regularly and work with mothers in numerous ways, as well as provide them with reading material and the social benefits which come with the call itself. Some students are “nurse's [ 108 | 102 aides” who assist the doctor at clinics; others serve as teachers’ helpers in cle mentary schools in the surrounding country where they lead programs ot recreation and handwork and where they have been of considerable help in remodeling schoolhouses and adding needed equipment. Finally, in the last year the students concentrate on more specific vocational and academic training in terms of what will be necessary after they graduate. Thruout the four years, over 50 percent of the students’ time is given to practical prevocational and vocational courses; no grades or credits are given; the student helps to evaluate his own work by writing his own report in terms of specific areas of living and learning. The school has been able to work out arrangements with leading colleges and universities in the vicinity so that the students may enter college, altho this high-school program differs widely trom the traditional kind. With this statement of the problems and of the curriculum, we may now examine the manner in which guidance functions in specific ways. In the first place, in spite of the fact that the curriculum has been formulated on the basis of the problems of the area, it still contains inflexibilities due to the organiza tion necessary for eficiency and order of an institution. It is not always desir able for each student to proceed along the lines which the organization would seem to demand; and occasionally one finds that it is not desirable for a student to remain at Pine Mountain for four years. The guidance program begins formally with the visit to the student's home by the student counselor, the person whose time is devoted entirely to guidance. There he has the prospective student fill out an autobiographical form and home-parent record developed by the Alliance for the Guidance of Rural Youth. He gathers such other data as will throw light on the child's needs and resources. Upon arriving at the school, the student meets with the counselor and discusses his plans and is helped to understand his program. He indicates his preference as to jobs in the school. Achievement tests, and any other tests which seem necessary, are given. Here begins a continuous process of adjust ment, which is facilitated by the efforts of the counselor. He helps the student understand the resources of the school and the employment situation on the outside; he assists the teachers, thru regularly scheduled meetings for each group, to know the problems of the child as they come to him thru counseling. The development of guidance in these two counties indicates the small amount of supplementation or stimulation which even a retarded rural situation may need to move it ahead. Both these counties are very poor and backward. Neither of the social service agencies, the Alliance or the Pine Mountain Settlement, is wealthy or powerful. But both of them are com posed of men and women devoted to the purpose of full realization of the potentialities of rural youth. What these two counties have done with this amount of nonpublic support, it would seem that almost any county in any state could, without great drain on the public treasurer, be suth- ciently financed to match, provided only that leadership be afforded and intelligence applied. | 109 ] 103 Chapter IX STATE AND FEDERAL AGENCIES AND PROGRAMS FOR FURTHERING GUIDANCE |= STATUS AND TRENDs of state participation in guidance were sum- marized for the biennium, 1934-36, in a chapter of Developments in Educational Method, 1934-36, Bulletin 1937, No. 2, of the U. S. Office of Education, from which the following excerpts are made: Guidance programs are taking shape with more emphasis than formerly on methods used in the fields of psychiatry and personnel. The philosophy ot guidance is in harmony with the developing psychology of individual differ- ences and with the more general assumption that differences in environment and opportunities are factors which condition an individual's successful prog- ress thru the schools and his participation in social relationships, including employment. To support and to lend direction to the programs of guidance which have been developing thruout the county, and to pool the interests of those actively concerned with the guidance movement, the National Vocational Guidance Association was formed by educators and laymen, Thru the work of branch associations of this organization, the help of a national magazine,’ and the co- operative efforts of other national educational and personnel associations, many services are now offered to promote public support of guidance and to secure the participation of civic organizations in guidance work. Most of the state departments of education have held and are continuing to hold meetings including programs which are wholly or partially devoted to guidance. State courses of study rather generally include consideration of guid- ance. A number of states have issued publications for aiding and promoting it and others are outlining guidance programs for the schools. A few states have made specific provisions relative to the inclusion of studies in occupations as a part of the school program; others have guidance workers on their staffs. The New York State Education Department has taken the lead in appointing a full-time supervisor of guidance. Tho many states still remain without formal guidance programs, twenty- five states, according to information furnished the Office of Education in 1936, have made some provision for guidance on a statewide basis (17:1, 2). Examples included occupational or vocational courses and programs or plans for guidance planned or effected as aspects of curriculum in Ala- bama, California, lowa, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, North Caro- lina, Texas, and Virginia; a statewide pupil record system in Delaware and development of persennel records in Michigan; summer teacher- 1 Occupations—the Vocational Guidance Magazine. National Occupational Conference, 551 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. [ 111 | 104 training courses in Georgia; the issuance of bulletins and periodicals in Idaho, Missouri, and Minnesota; state committee work and conferences for the promotion of guidance in Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michi- gan, Vermont, and Wisconsin; and active cooperation between state ‘and local school agents in Maine and Oklahoma. On November 1, 1941, there were fifteen state departments of educa- tion, including Puerto Rico, having a state guidance agent, with such titles as Supervisor, Youth Personnel Service, in Connecticut; Director of Research and Guidance, in Arizona; Chief, Occupational Information and Guidance, in Michigan; or Supervisor, Occupational Information and Guidance, in Illinois, Kansas, Missouri, North Carolina, North Dakota, and Wyoming. Other states, with similar provision, were Maine, Marv land, Massachusetts, New York, and Vermont. All these, except New York, are paid in part from federal vocational funds. State plans for Georgia, Pennsylvania, and Washington have been approved (9). Guidance programs in rural areas, however, do not necessarily wait upon the provision of special officials, valuable and eventually necessary as these are, but may be begun by the cooperation of existing agencies, as illustrated by numerous accounts in the preceding chapters. An example* of such a cooperative program on a state basis is afforded by Virginia, where the impetus for guidance was found in a state program of curricu- lum revision which was directed toward an emphasis on child develop- ment and child as well as community welfare. As one phase of this pro- gram there was published in 1936 a Tentative Manual for Guidance in the Virginia Secondary Schools (22). Because this bulletin elaborates the aims and suggested procedures on this level, the present account will deal rather with the mere general aspects of the state’s guidance program and par- ticularly with its concern for youth who never reach high school or who leave high school before graduation—boys and girls whose needs the typical high school does not have opportunity to meet or does not meet when it has the opportunity. In 1934, When the period of the depression had brought some of youths’ most severe problems into sharp relief, the Virginia State Department of Public Instruction initiated a study of out-of-school youth. The purpose of the study was threefold: 1. To locate the youth (white, Negro; city, county ) 2. To discover their problems 3. To plan and execute a program to solve these problems. The survey was made by local teachers and principals in local commu- nities thru the office of the local division superintendent of schools. = Contributed by Ruth Henderson. [ 112 | 105 Eighty of the one hundred counties participated in the survey which, altho it located less than one-half of the number of persons who should have been included, afforded information of great value. Forty-six percent of white out-of-school rural boys and 2g percent of rural girls, it was found, had not completed the seventh grade, the corre- sponding figures for Negroes being 73 and 54 percent respectively. More children left school after completing the seventh grade, which in Virginia is the last year of the elementary school, than at any other period. Unques tionably, one factor in this was inaccessibility, for in the counties 64 per- cent of the white and 70 percent of the Negro youth lived more than two miles from a high school, the range of distance being from less than one mile to twenty-five miles. The transportation problem looms large in any educational program affecting rural people. This, however, was not the only factor, for white country girls consistently advanced further than boys, the percent finishing high school being 27 for the former against 14 for the latter. Reasons other than graduation which rural Virginia youth gave for leaving were “economic” in first place; “not interested” in second; and “sickness” and “didn’t like teacher” trailing for third and fourth places. Forty-five percent more white girls gave “got married” as a reason for leaving than “graduated.” Here begins the problem, mentioned in the second chapter, of the guidance needs of preschool children. The data secured indicated that only about 10 percent of the out-ot school youth had any vocational training, girls reporting more than boys. This latter is readily explicable by the greater proportion of girls com pleting high school and the commercial courses commonly provided. In dications were that the vocational offerings of the schools were not meet ing the interests of the out-of-school youth, especially the bovs (21:6-8). Nearly all the out-of-school rural youth were working, one-third of the employed white boys and tive-sixths of the emploved white girls at home. In a study of drop-outs from Grades V. VI. and VIE made in fifty-seven counties in 1937-38, 22 percent of the boys and 11 percent of the girls were employed for wages; of these, 60 percent of the boys and 65 percent of the girls were working in their local communities. The occupations in which they were engaged were limited. Of the emplo¥ed boys. 48 percent were working on farms and 54 percent of the girls emploved were doing house- work (20:20). During the school sessions since the drop-out study was made, records have been kept of those individuals who left school. to find the kind of work in which they are engaged, whether they are at work within or out side the community, the wages they receive, their recreational interests, their preferences for different subjects which they had while in school, and suggestions for improving the experiences offered by the school. The study will end in the spring of 1942, hence accurate information about its re [ 113 ] 106 sults is not yet available. However, visits to school divisions seem to indi- cate that some of the results of this study are: Increase in variety of activities in upper elementary grades Increased holding power of the scheol (other factors to be considered, of course ) Increased understanding by teachers, supervisors, and administrators of youth and community problems Better placement of pupils in appropriate groups at school Increased articulation of elementary and secondary schools Cooperative guidance on individual problems Older boys in the elementary school taken by high-school agricultural in- structor into agricultural shop Older girls in the elementary school taught in home economics cottage by high-school home economics teacher Cooperative experimentation in eight selected schoois. In one year of the study of drop-outs it was found that gt percent of the children who discontinued school that year had repeated one or more grades. In another year of the study there was an average over-ageness among drop-outs of about two and one-half years. This retardation, which is frequently found in rural elementary schools, has among its causes ab- sences due to distance from school, to work, and to sickness, commonly accompanied by parental indifference. With an unadjusted curriculum, schoolwork loses its interest for these over-age children. Efforts to meet their needs are illustrated in the following paragraphs from the state superintendent’s annual report in 1937-38 and 1938-39: Of great interest this year has been work with the over-age girls in several schools. In these situations a large number of girls fourteen years of age or over were found in the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades. The school life of these girls was characterized by irregular attendance, lack of interest, and person ality conflicts. They usually showed evidence of much neglect in personal hy- giene and clothing care. in every school where the home economics teacher worked with these girls they were helped to achieve better personal appearance, to make their own clothing and that of some other members of their families, and to “iron out” some of their personality conflicts. Some girls who were fail- ing were helped to go on to high school. Several girls were helped to make some money for themselves by sewing for others and by helping in homes. A special effort is being made by the entire school force to help pupils in the elementary school who have been retarded for some reason or other to advance as rapidly as possible and to make their school experiences as meaningful as possible. The large majority of these pupils are not mentally deficient but have been held back on account of poor health and for other reasons. This year the girls concerned were either taken into the regular high-school vocational classes or separate classes were organized for them where the number war- ranted. Special classes were maintained in 63 centers, with an enrolment of g50. It was found that all girls concerned made satisfactory progress. [114 ] 107 After the experience of two sessions of experimentation in the eight schools, the state staff in conference made certain tentative agreements, among which were the following: 1. The principal should be the coordinator of the experimental program. 2. Vocational teachers should serve as consultants and offer individual help rather than offer instruction for upper-grade pupils. 3. Equipment for homemaking and agricultural experiences should be made available in all elementary schools. Present vocational equipment should be used to a limited degree with elementary pupils. An interesting aspect of the experimental program has been close co- operation of the work of the home economics teacher in the high school with that of the elementary teacher. In each situation progress was made toward discovering the real needs of the elementary pupils and in plan- ning work on the basis of these needs. In one situation the teacher re- ported: While studying “The Child in the Home” we worked entirely with chil- dren from the first and second grades in order that the high-school girls might have actual experience in child care. Each girl had experience with the chil- dren, teaching them to care for their own clothing and to improve their per- sonal appearance. They also taught the children selection of proper foods and some simple methods of preparing these foods. This offers a real suggestion for in-school preparation of girls to meet their later needs for guidance of preschool children, which, as was pointed out in Chapter II, are so difficult to serve thru rural parent education be- cause of the inaccessibility of rural homes. Besides curriculum adjustments designed to serve better the needs of school pupils, considerable work has been done by home economics teach- ers with out-of-school youth. In 1935-36, classes for girls above the age of fourteen, not enrolled in school, were taught by the regular home eco- nomics teachers and six special teachers in forty-one schools. In the follow- ing year, classes in twenty-two centers in ten counties were conducted for young people who left before completing high school. Major emphasis was given to home industries and handicrafts as a means of income earn- ing. In 1938-39 programs for the out-of-school youth were carried on in 38 cen- ters, with an enrolment of 760. Four approaches were used: first, by the classes taught by the high-school home economics teacher for young people in the community not in school or at work; second,-by classes taught by the high-school home economics teacher for NYA groups at work in the commu- nity; third, by the employment of special teachers for instructional work with NYA groups in homemaking centers; and fourth, by the employment of spe- cial teachers for instructional work with NYA groups in residence centers. In all but the latter approach pupils lived in the community and came daily for instruction. It has been amazing how much these girls have grown in this type [ 115 ] 108 of education. Many of them never reached high school and the majority have an average of a fifth-grade education. Their progress is to a large extent due to the reality of the problems attacked found in their day-to-day living together and in the longer class time given to instruction. The next year there were 934 out-of-school youth in 34 centers. From the beginning the program grew out of the local needs of youth. The problems of girls which have been dealt with include personality develop- ment; health improvement; development of good posture; personal grooming, choosing clothes wisely; altering and making over garments; correct social behavior; and handicraft, such as quilt making, crocheting, and knitting. Boys’ problems treated have been nutrition; personal hy- giene and grooming; consumer problems; social relationships; skills in taking care of belongings, clothing, and the like; and learning a trade. The NYA program thruout its organization in Virginia has cooperated closely with the work of the state department of education. The NYA had funds at its disposal which state agencies had lacked. Altho a continuous attack has been made on the problem since the survey was made, it is the judgment of the staff that the surface has just been scratched. Two difh- culties have been outstanding in organizing work for this group. The first one is the problem of transportation. The youth are scattered over a broad area, and money has not been available to transport them to a cen- tral place of assembly. The second problem is one of furnishing equipment in the centers should transportation be provided to such centers. Obviously, the programs described here have not met youths’ need for information with respect to preparation for a range of vocations, outside as well as within the local environment. If only 25 percent of the children growing up on farms can hope to make a livelihood from farming, the demands and resources of the local and nearby communities need extensive exploration, and vocational prep- aration must be made available in accord with the findings. This repre- sents, of course, expenditure and facilities much beyond those at present available for this purpose. Last fall the publication of a magazine, the title of which is Work and Training, was begun. This magazine is a part of the vocational in- formation service established for the use of division superintendents, prin- cipals, school counselors, vocational teachers, certain selected homeroom teachers who devote part of their time to counseling, and librarians; for National Youth Administration officials and youth personnel assistants; and for Virginia State Employment Service officials, branch managers, in terviewers, and placement officers. This publication will afford an avenue of communication for all the facts discovered in the exploration of local and state resources and should be of great value in furnishing a sound factual basis for developing programs of guidance and training [ 116 | 109 Further, in order to demonstrate the possibilities inherent in a guidance service when adequately equipped and staffed with properly trained per- sonnel, the state department of education is sponsoring, in cooperation with the National Youth Administration and the Virginia State Employ- ment Service, a regional guidance service in Richmond. This service was started May 1, 1939, with a staff of four counselors and one psychological tester. The staff of the Richmond Consultation Service has been engaged in the following activities: 1. Staff training 2. Development of up-to-date occupational information 3. The establishment of a vocational guidance library 4. The development of an aptitude testing department 5. Building working relations with all community agencies 6. Investigating training facilities in city, state, and elsewhere >. Serving individuals with vocational guidance and occupational infor- mation 8. Furnishing occupational information to schools and other agencies. New York State* also has undertaken studies of facts and factors in the school progress of rural children similar to those made by Virginia. 4 Study of the Progress of Pupils in New York's Rural Secondary Schools (12) was published in 1941. Some of its findings are similar or identical with those of the Virginia study of drop-outs. The more retarded a child is on entering eighth grade, the last year of the elementary school in New York, the less likelihood there is of his completing high school. Percent ages of those leaving school before graduation range from Si percent ot the group who were fifteen years old in eighth grade to 13 percent of those who were eleven. The largest number left to go to work. Join ing the Army, entering the CCC, financial dithculties resulting trom death of father, and inability to maintain scholastic standard necessary to re main in school were among miscellaneous reasons for leaving, A striking fact disclosed in the study was the relative lack of records ot pupils in the school districts in which no high school was included. The study pointed out the importance of knowing not only which children drop out but also why. Two other investigations of rural-school pupils set up in the same year as the preceding were: (a) a study of the under-age and over-age pupils to discover the relation of school success to factors of home environment and personal characteristics, and (b) a study of the out-of-school experi ences of the young people selected for study in Project 1. The first report of the first project is soon to be published, and good progress has been made on the second. On the suggestion of the district superintendents, it 3Information supplied by J. Cayce Morrison, assistant commissioner for research, New York State. [117] 110 was decided to add to these a “Five-Year Study of the Adjustment of Rural Secondary Schools to the Needs of Youth.” This was initiated in April 1941, and to date nearly 30,000 returns have been received from pupils enrolled in eighth grades in 1940-41. The purpose of this study is to discover the needs of individual pupils and the adaptations in the school’s curriculum and procedures that will best serve the needs of successive classes of youth in and out of school. The form which is being employed for the investigation inquires, among other items, for the subjects in which the pupil made his best record and his poorest, his exceptional abilities or unusual strengths in designated items, his father’s vocation, the economic level, language, and unusualness (good or bad) of the home, the pupil's social acceptability to his group, and his obligations outside school hours. For each pupil it is suggested that twelve types of information be re- corded, including autobiographical records, work experiences in and out of school, anecdotal records, and various types of records of achievements. It is upon information such as the studies now under way in these two states, and others described in the preceding chapter, that the adjustment of school provision to pupils’ needs may become increasingly effective. The very interesting measures developed in California and Michigan to promote analytic study and cooperative action on the problems of mal- adjusted children have been described in Chapter VII. For several years the New York State Teachers Association has been studying the problem of serving more adequately the educational needs of youth within the state. Its special committee on youth needs this year submitted a report on “Community Programs of Action for Youth,” which was published in New York State Education (2:120-33). This re- port points out “that the problems of youth are primarily community problems,” and strongly urges that plans for meeting them be prepared and prosecuted by such already constituted community agencies as the public school, the chamber of commerce, and the social welfare, civic, science, industrial, labor, and farm groups. Pointing out that much is already being done in many communities, by one organization or another, the report recommends, as an agency for de- veloping the desired coordination, an Advisory Youth Council for such purposes as organizing to meet particular youth needs in the community; determining the facts thru a community survey; assisting in vocational guidance, vocational training, placement, and retraining services; strength- ening the morale and character-building resources of the community; and capitalizing on the interests and energies of yough itself. There follow suggestions which the report offers to aid communities in organizing and developing the activities of youth councils: Irrespective of where the impulse to action has its beginning, one of the most practical ways of setting up a council is to bring together representatives [ 118 ] 111 appointed by the organized agencies of the community such as the board of education, churches, chamber of commerce, service clubs, labor groups, farm organizations, professional men and women, social welfare agencies, and other character-forming agencies. Young people of tested leadership ability should be invited to participate. Usually the membership and program of the council is determined thru democratic processes. The council should promote action thru other agencies by clarifying issues, identifying needs, securing facts, recommending responsibilities, developing publicity, and summarizing results. It can coordinate public and private activities for youth. In many lo calities it has demonstrated the intrinsic value of community Jeaders sitting in conference to deal practically with the problems of their young people (2:132). A recent federal agency is the Occupational Information and Guidance Service of tha Office of Education, which was inaugurated in 1936. It serves as a clearing-house for occupational information especially adapted to school use. It assists local and state authorities to initiate or expand guid- ance work suited to their needs. The program of guidance which this Service recommends, the assistance it is in a position to render, and a list of its publications are set forth in a pamphlet, Occupational Informa tion and Guidance Service, 1941-42, Miscellaneous 2913, U. S. Office of Education, Vocational Division, Washington, D.C. (19). [ 119 | 112 Chapter X SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Gene CHAPTERS QF THIS YEARBOOK, as they have unfolded, have steadily revealed two iw: on the one hand, the unmet needs of rural children and youth at all age levels, with poverty, ignorance, and isolation stand- ing between them and satisfaction; on the other, heartening advances in meeting these needs where intelligence and social concern have been pur- posetully applied. The inescapable conclusion is that the problem is not insoluble, that its solution is more nearly in our grasp than we have real- ized, that we already have at work agents and agencies of demonstrated ability to effect the solution. We need more money, yes, but more can be done with the money available. We need experts, yes, but there are indi- vidual expertnesses among rural people, both lay and professional, who will respond to the call of leadership. We need organization, cooperation, coordination of efforts, yes, but all these are being achieved and made fruitful where leadership is found. We need leadership! Can we say “Yes” to that, too? The challenge is to every one who reads this yearbook, for no one with intelligence and concern for this need is incapable of some leader ship with some group. We do not need to wait until great leaders come along. So many small things as well as large are required to achieve the great end: someone to be interested enough in a boy or girl to try to understand him and afford him the security of another's friendship; a teacher to think as she plans her day's work, “These children will live this day but once. How can I make it mean most to them? How much better are they living today because of my work yesterday ?"; a supervisor to afford teachers the same sense of security their pupils need; school teachers, superintendents, boards, to consider, “If we never had had a course of study and were plan ning for the first time how to expend 15,000 hours of the time of children between the ages of six and eighteen, what would we try to buy for them that would be worth what they pay tor it?”; any interested person to find out and tell country boys and girls what kind of work there is that they can enjoy doing and make a decent living by; investigating, planning, trying out plans, and replanning. Someone somewhere is doing all these things. To this the reports in the yearbook positively testify. Many ways are being found to get over or around or thru difficulties. The value of cooperative attack, of group thinking, is being discovered and used. Even money is being spent. There never was a time when optimistic intelligence was more needed and, in [ 121 ] 113 spite of all there may appear to the contrary, when optimistic enterprise was more justified. The deep gratitude of the Department is due those contributors who have shared with us the results of their intelligence and faith in rural peo- ple and rural youth. Shall we, too, think, and have faith, and do? [ 122 } 114 Vi 6. “J REFERENCES Batpwin, Birp T., and otners. Farm Children. New York: D. Appleton- Century Co., 1930. p. 52, 53, 140, 141, 161, 246, 300. CommitreE on YoutH Neeps. “Community Programs of Action tor Youth.” New York State Education 29: 131-32; November 1941. FeperaL Councit oF THE CuurcHes oF Curist iN AMERICA, DEPARTMENT or Resgarcut AND Epvcation. “The Need for Child Labor Vigilance in Wartime.” /nformation Service. Vol. xxi, No. 2, Part 1, January 10, 1942. Fenton, Norman. Organizing a Mental Hygiene Program through Child Guidance. Sacramento: California Bureau of Juvenile Research, 1933. Fenton, Norman. State Child Guidance Service in California, Sacra- mento: California State Printing Office, 1939. p. 83. Goocn, Wirser L., and Kecver, Frankuin J. “Breathitt County in the Southern Appalachians.” Occupations—the Vocational Guidance Maga- tINe 14: 1022-25, 1065, 1067, 1075-79, 1087-95, 1099, 1104-16. “Guidance for Rural Youth.” Reprinted from Educational Record, April 1941. Washington, D. C.: American Youth Commission. . Instirure of Rurat Youtu Guipance. A Suggested Plan of Action for Rural Youth Communities. Richmond: Alliance for Guidance of Rural Youth, 1941. Mimeo. 8 p. Lewis, Cuartes D. The Rural Community and Its Schools. New York: American Book Co., 1937. p. 26-35. Micuican Curio Guipance Institute AND State Department oF Pun. tic Instruction. The School Child Guidance Conference. Lansing: In- stitute and the Department, 1940. 14 p. Morcan, Winona L. The Family Meets the Depression. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1939. p. 63, 64. Morrison, J. Cayce. 4 Study of the Progress of Pupils in New York's Rural Secondary Schools. Bulletin No. 1195, September 2, 1940. Al- bany: University of the State of New York Press, 1941. New Jersey Stare DeparTMENT oF Pustic Instruction. Character Em- phasis in Education. Trenton: the Department, 1938. p. 25, 29, 106-16, 122, 125-27, 151. U.S. Department or Acricutture. “Farmers in a Changing World.” Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1940. p. 816-17. U.S. Department oF Lapor, Cuitpren’s Bureau. Infant Care, Washing ton, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1940. U. S. DeparTMENT oF Laspor, CHILpren’s Bureau. The Child from One to Six. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1940. U. S. Feperat Security Acency, Orrice or Epucation. Development in Educational Method, 1934-36. Bulletin, 1937, No. 2. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1937. p. 1, 2, 8, 9, 10. [ 123 ] 14s 18. U. S. Feperar Securtry Acency, Orrice or Epucation. Statistical Sum- mary of Education, 1937-38. Bulletin 1940, No. 2. Chapter I. Washing- ton, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1941. p. 40. 19. U. S. Feperat Security Acency, Orrice or Epucation. Vocational Di- vision. Occupational Information and Guidance Service, 1941-42. Misc. 2913. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office. 20. Virotnta State Boarp or Epucation, Expanding Education To Meet the Needs of Rural Community Life in Virgimia. Bulletin, Vol. 21, No. 5, March 1940, Richmond: Division of Purchase and Printing, 1940. p. 20. 21. Vireinta Stare Boarp or Epucation. Out of School Youth in Virginia. Bulletin, Vol. 20, No. 1, July 1937. Richmond: Division of Purchase and Printing, 1937. p. 6-8. 22. Virointa Stare Boarp or Epucation, Tentative Manual for Guidance in the Virgimia Secondary Schools. Bulletin, Vol. 19, No. 1, July 1936. Richmond: Division of Purchase and Printing, 1936. Worrorp, Kate V. Modern Education in the Small Rural School. New York: Macmillan Co., 1938. p. 47. te nw HELPFUL BOOKS AND REFERENCES Genevieve Bowen Battey, Epona W., and oruers. Studying Children in School. New York: Mc- Graw-Hill Book Co., 1939. A plan for making studies of children; suggests types of data and means of getting and recording it; gives summaries of characteristics of age levels. Rather detailed for uses of average classroom teacher but suggestive of usable technics. Batpwin, Biro T., and orters. Farm Children. New York: D. Appleton Co., 1930. The most careful study available of the influences of the environment upon the development of rural children. It reveals the failure of the school to utilize its environmental advantages to enrich child growth. Benepict, Acnes. Children at the Crossroads, New York: Commonwealth Fund, 1930. Guidance by th visiting teacher in a rural community. Bever.y, Bert I. /n Defense of Children. New York: John Day Co., 1941. “Children are another type of human being” from adults; we expect the impossible of them; we plant the roots of conflict by forcing adult standards too early. A challenging book by an experienced pediatrician. Nontechnical, readable, recommended as a tonic for both teachers and parents. BLANTON, SMILEY, and Branton, Marcaret G. Child Guidance, New York: Century Co., 1927. One of the older books in the field but still valuable. Emphasizes infancy and preschool levels but has much good, general material. Useful suggestions for written records. [ 124 ] 116 Bios, Peter. The Adolescent Personality. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1941. Study of individual behavior, made for the Committee on Secondary School Curriculum of the Progressive Education Association, Treats adoles- cents from junior high school thru college, out-of-school youth as well as school youth, and represents a wide variety of socio-economic, cultural, and geographical backgrounds, Adolescent problems presented largely thru case studies of ordinary young people in their everyday relations, Somewhat ad- vanced but absorbing reading. Dunn, Fannie W., and Evererr, Marcia. Four Years in a Country School. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1926. Teacher and children sharing the happy, cooperative experience of living and learning in a one-room school, Excellent chapter on four years’ guid ance in self-government thru experiences in a school-club, Fievp, Jessie. The Corn Lady. Chicago: A. Flanagan Co., igtt. A “guidance” program thirty years ago, centered about developing chil- dren’s self-realization and their contribution to the social group thru helping them to utilize and enrich their own environment. Hatcuer, O, Latuam. Guiding Rural Boys and Girls. New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1930. Centers around country youths’ need for guidance as to choice of rural or urban occupations; emphasizes necessity of careful study of individual situa. tions and needs; gives several plans for setting up county programs of guid ance. One of the first books in the field but made currently pertinent by the urban-rural choices forced by the defense program. Jersitp, Artuur T. Child Psychology. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1940. Interpretation of research on child development from birth thru adoles- cence with greatest emphasis on the early years. Organized under the sev- eral aspects of growth rather than by age-levels. Suggested for both parents and teachers as accurate and understandable. Kors, Joun H., and Brunner, EpMunp peS, 4 Study of Rural Society. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1940. Comprehensive summary of economic, social, and political forces imping ing upon rural life. Careful studies of federal agencies in vocational and so- cial fields. Provides valuable foundation of knowledge and appreciation of rural people and institutions for teachers who seek to give intelligent guid- ance in rural schools. Ler, J. Murry, and Let, Dorris M. The Child and His Curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1940. Part I: Understanding the E!ementary-School Child—as a growing or- ganism, as a developing personality, as a learner. Part Il: Experiences as the Curriculum—guiding life in the school, organizing life and learning thru various types of experiences, evaluating changes in the child. Detailed one- volume library on the curriculum as an integral force in child development. [ 125 ] 117 NationaL ELEMENTARY Principa. Personality Adjustment of the Elementary- School Child. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1936. Chapters by experts in child study, on nature and needs of the child, fac- tors (in school and out) affecting adjustment, the teacher’s influence, prob- lems, and remedial measures. For teachers’ reading. NaTIonaL SocieTy FOR THE Stupy oF Epucation, Child Development and the Curriculum. Thirty-Eighth Yearbook. Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Pub- lishing Co., 1939. Discusses suitability of various parts of the curriculum to various stages of the child’s maturity. The editor says, “No one ought to be allowed to tinker with a curriculum until he has become familiar with this yearbook.” Advanced but excellent material for discussion groups. Strano, Rutn. /ntroduction to Child Study. New York: Macmillan Co., 1938. Emphasis on the service aspects of child study rather than research; ap- plies data of child development and methods of child study to guidance sit- uations. Organized by age levels—preschool thru adolescence. Very readable and practical for either teacher or parent. Stranc, Rutu. Pupil Personnel and Guidance. New York: Macmillan Co., 1940. Focuses attention on child development; gives many concrete examples of opportunities for personnel work inherent in regular school day, Centers on the larger school but has many practical suggestions for developing guidance in any school. Valuable for teacher-education and in-service programs. Tuom, Dovctas. Normal Youth and Its Everyday Problems. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1932. Selected problems considered “most significant in their bearing on the welfare of the child” by this noted psychiatrist. Illustrated by incidents from children’s lives, these analyzed and adjustments cited. Excellent for either parents or teachers. Worrorp, Kate V. Modern Education in the Small Rural School. New York: Macmillan Co., 1938. Excellent over-all view of rural education, with detailed treatments of such aspects of guidance as meeting individual needs, provision for the ex- ceptional child, school clubs, record keeping, and community and parent relations with the school. Wray, Ancettna. Jean Mitchell's School. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1924. A teacher with the guidance spirit ives with her pupils in a one-room school and they grow together in cooperation and in social understanding. Old but timeless in its basic values. [ 126 ] 118 BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE MATERIALS American Council on Education How To Make a Community Youth Survey American Vocational Association Studies in the Occupational Adjustment of Youth in Agriculture, Industry, and Home Economics. (Survey form for making community studies) Federal Security Agency, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. 1. Guidance Bibliography folders Number 1, Trends in Occupations and Vocations (1940) Number 2, Choosing a School or College (1940) Number 3, Adult Guidance (1941) Number 4, Books on Job Finding (1941) 2. A Guidance Bookshelf on Occupations ( August 1941) 3. 200 Sources of Pamphlet Materials on Occupations (1941) 4. Defense Job Training (18 x 24 inch chart showing types of training, number to be trained, fees, wages, eligibility, where to apply ) (Ask for latest list of Guidance Leaflets ) University of the State of New York, Albany, New York 1. Books and Materials on Guidance (Reprint from the Bulletin to the Schools, February 1940) 2. Guidance (An annotated list of books), 1938. | 127 | 119