Return this book on or before the Latest Date stamped below. A charge 1s made on all overdue books. U. of I. Library JULI 5 s8 ee 1/0/%" may 20 1097 Nie, re tA oy RELI + ‘ oO") JAN O86 1983 r2AGh $y (WE LISHARY Dar OF THE PAR iia aa iG tb GG cE ESSE VOL. VII, NO. 4 SEPTEMBER, 1929 Research Bulletin OF THE National Education Association SBBBDBBABBSSGSSROGSS SESS GGG5 655568 qaoncaaee ) ©) a y 7 a Vitalizing the High-School = 3 Curriculum | °: = 3 7 a Z ‘PUBLISHED BY THE RESEARCH DIVISION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 SIXTEENTH STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C. Entered as second-class matter February 10, 192 at the Post Office al Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, ise. Acceptance for ene at aecinit rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. SOGECG GGG CCCGCCCCC00C0566 55565556065 AAGoAgo Ga ooo CoS GSC SoS Soo eeoSVeeoso Research Bulletin of the National Education Association Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November by the Research Division of the National Education Association of the United States. President, E. RutH PyrtTLe Secretary, J. W. CRABTREE The payment of the $5 membership fee of the National Education Association entitles one to receive the Research Bulletin, the Journal, the Annual Volume of Ad- dresses and Proceedings, and certain other publications of the National Education Asso- ciation for one year. One dollar of each $5 membership fee is for a year’s subscription to the Research Bulletin. The Research Bulletin may be subscribed for separately at a subscription price of $1 per year. Copies may be purchased for 25 cents, and in quantities at a reduced rate. Those entitled to receive the Research Bulletin regularly are asked to report at once any change of address, giving old as well as new address. Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. Director of Research: John K. Norton. Assistant Directors: Margaret M. Alltucker; Frank W. Hubbard; William G. Carr. Executive and Editorial Offices - - - 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. Research Bulletins Previously Issued See page 275 for previously issued Research Bulletin and for information as to their availability. How to Secure Additional Copies Additional copies of this issue of the Research Bulletin may be obtained at the following prices, postpaid if remittance accompanies order: Single copies of this issue 25¢ 2 to 9 copies—10% reduction 10 to 99 copies—25% reduction 100 or more copies—33 1/3 % reduction. Orders for Research Bulletins not accompanied by remittance are subject to trans- portation charges. Make checks payable to National Education Association. Subscriptions to Research Bulletins The Research Bulletin may be received regularly through a special subscription at $1 per year. Only those holding the $5 membership (see statement at top of this page) receive the Research Bulletin without such subscription. Many of the early issues of the Research Bulletin are already out of print. The special subscription at $1 per year offers an opportunity to maintain a complete file of future Research Bulletins. Reproduction of Material in Research Bulletins Electro-mat-slide service: The National Education Association maintains a special service to aid those reproducing material appearing in its publications. Send orders or requests for further information to the Division of Publications. Tables, charts, and any other material appearing in Research Bulletins may be reproduced for the advancement of education. No authority other than this notice is needed previous to such reproduction. For further information on this subject or others affecting the work of the Division, address the Research Division, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. [ 174] ® ~_Y “2 QO) lé. ff wi Ro ch 1424 4 ~~ oc) ; : * es ee a A pe we a! at _AT Vow Gc ‘e 2 i W AsrA-OW™ \ CONTENTS Page RM ree ME ee cr nN NE ME aod we etn OR hase aoc Come OSIa his os vc ale wane dba tice 176 SPIE IONMIOTmoe TACs y aC Aylliz ations? .< cs tee ere Ae. ok a we Pees ee ek cacao ee ues 17 Will a nineteenth century school train effectively for twentieth century life?......... 177 iranteatiols.orasipnincant discoveries since 18900. 05... acdc cece co eees ecw cuaee cls 177 The secondary school’s place in the shifting American scene................e+ec0ce 179 PerpressnUaderby. theaseconu ary SCHOO Siu. oss, « < ale o Bpke ower ale wie aw ORR e cect ie Sas 179 Curriculum Building for Pupils of Different Levels of Ability Fundamental Principles for the Differentiation of Courses of Study................. 186 How Shall Course-of-Study Content and Method Be Differentiated for Pupils of How Shall Course-of-Study Content and Method be Differentiated for Dull Pupils?.. 188 Illustrations of Differentiated Courses of Study sree na ar aay hog he. Ce esta aa em ka 190 mrerneeocuction to Research in Secondary School Subjects...:...0.. 0.5. .0cc8ee weds seals 193 rE VIGGE STIs PO rei oT aN GUA SES ava ese, ies pols sna. Bev ei Sus oe Rl cn eis alone « gaunt « 195 See TPCEMITMEDTGCIOOICL ALIN f.cemeer treacle she ate aie bes baie are an We, Ld ees Rode 199 PARE RN SLYTAME LSD LA SILC Pere cP Re CT gh. GON re, Om on doh adetace eia oe + \ajRrs Wes oP MOTD eee he Pk a ee 201 SMERIUTHNIMIEOCUICICS 11 (NCt SOCIAL LOCIENCES: 5.8. 5 cic acts aia nia) W = She Zietyarelogwla hosed Cette w Gk odors 205 ia merermine. thes Content ofeoOChdl OtudieS 2. su. sar sone ook eerie ae e's 3 ca 206 Prcrnitreseanica dl ralteeO! sa eCsO0Ue CIUIZEN eae ae sca bis aes Me Oeeaee s 30s s Se 206 How Shall the Content of Social Studies Courses be Organized?................ 207 Pasee LEISLE ALTON et eam toni Met CE OULSE a7 Wt Bk. ea oe ces MEE kao le sy 36 Soke eS 208 PE PESR TO LAL ism Oils, ENE MOOCIA IT OLUCIES ccd caus n tie He's» sie ¢ Oe ile dwiea vcs cisbebie ec cae 212 Serene OMe TEP -ECNOOP IV ALLICIN AICS; Quleiee vic3 =o < 4 bicas Pale kan ss tice en slae awa ote he » atthe ZS Recent Omissions and Additions to High School Mathematics Courses............ 213 Suggested Content for the Mathematics Course in Grades 7-9................02- 215 Differentiation of Mathematics Courses for Different Levels of Ability........... 27, Pee EOLA SSC NOU VOCICNCE fay o.oo eels «Sec goad cscauw pn sm bt ace wie eikld 6 ae Sala Be ee eelnle 218 @ermenlutme studiesin the Field. of Sciencdfe. i... eck ees ee cae c sce cedaebes 219 Meanie rotuGiesiitetucshicld Of SChENCe.. .cctics.s5 . oye ds ess os emigre de aye aes 221 Pemerrase rv MESCO IMC Le IS MOL UCALION cc. sc thy oc Wo aie <8 wie «ges 51c se. « wpe a wate o lene \o 2 222 urn CCRC B Te mew eCONOUNCS an. oie riage 6 ov sss cs ee ae oo uiw ates ne ne eee. dees 229 Cerne tee tee reer e Them rid Ce CO Olari nis sod 2 ace wee oe Gm els « v oie Meme Sousa h we aes oo Cae 233 Tho Suey OG US WIEE ARN ACPA DST MUA COPS SU RRP SSM et a ee ee ge Eee iy Pee ae 235 rs erat OTEITE Nea TL ITIT DCNOO! fis occ. c Were mee 44 OR me o's vin ie gece a wien o's ns 2 oem eae 236 reise incre various. Grade. Levels! 2. ot sitic dg vn see eee ae be oe eee 238 Merrainerrenudsinstieaitn ance Physical-Education =. 0... 3 oan. & 2 5 oe cae oe 239 Helpful Books Dealing with High-School Curriculum Problems.......................... 243 Opinion as to Best General Books........... Re Pee rE eA on ae Me 243 Pyanionsasito pest) books on High-School Subjects: 02.2.5 fac. 7 Ges eh ae vce cr eee ee 244 Cot EDGR, oO pe ie es es Ree RMI Shyer ci Pane a RIA ot 245 Me RPE ECS 4 OE SCINE A TLOT or tata cetera tes, ong ie dees Geto aye Rha his «0-2 RL Poe ood bec cee 246 aot PT i mR te et. ON macnn og Be geo 247 Peete LV sia le EG UCA LON Neha ote avec. «5 dole aoa alas os MEE eee ee te noe hae 249 “sa Leaiarnte: GRU pe ui > a aR ee ee ee Sew ree 249 ear MONE Se st ey ree ee ee en ure < do Yee AU, Wis b's ca! oc olga o eeew ted 250 ee TY ee oo AR Tee be ce a hg ME oae. 2 <9 AU AN'w saree. cen aL CTS Ute ws ose Bod ai Soe Bh Zp LCE DSS STATES es GO SR SR a eRe ae Aa SR 2 nk 252 SMM MUG TCION CAN CAC CS mene oe ahaa hd ads MA. «RPM bP arqa ecke © 2 ae epee 253 aN ene cree eR ta, Vas Sins PM o's Oye Ae Malak le Sw Wanye wobla ace a(e clase, wie ¥ sce he 254 SOLON Cee a slees dees oO a at ay TR Sealey sh cud c AC RET aE ROO Par Cs Cr Pane rer ate 256 “SSE Sey APSE? Ce Rah RAIS om)” SEGA Sea CN ay one eer 256 SRM E ese OTe SeCONCATVESCHOUIS: v2) 02.5 sabes 4. sole eeel aaides ees Dosa swine eneiws 258 SEN Ts ML yl ARETE A TT Seeger IR ee UE RSs sala nls amb une N Sts ASOD alo nin te ole: s wile Sige Rows 274 bir 5: | 7938247 © FOREWORD SCHOOL which merely meets the demands of yesterday or even those of today, is A not enough in as rapidly a changing civilization as that in which we are living. An analysis of the economic, social, and industrial changes which are now in process suggests that the public school curriculum must be built for a new world, if it is to function in the lives of children today and tomorrow. The 1,279 high-school course-of-study bulletins, published since 1920 and listed in this Bulletin, are objective evidence of the tremendous effort which secondary school people are making to modernize the traditional high-school curriculum. Much credit is due them. May their efforts continue and expand until every school system in America gives thought and study to the problem of developing vital courses of study, adapted to present growth needs of children and rich in present and future social values. By marshalling some of the more significant facts as to the recent changes in everyday life, and by pointing out recent trends in secondary school development, this Bulletin furnishes in succinct form material needed as a background for those develop- ing high-school courses of study. The material relative to the differentiation of courses of study for pupils of varying levels of ability is particularly timely. The full democratization of the high school waits upon the creation of a series of courses designed to offer every high-school pupil, whatever his innate mental, physical, moral, or emotional talents may be, the particular educational opportunity which promises most in developing those talents. Those who are striving to base curriculum revision less and less upon individual whim and guess-work and more and more upon pooled experience and scientific evidence will especially appreciate the section dealing with research and trends in the various secondary school subject fields. These sections, along with selected references to other materials bearing upon the phases of curriculum construction touched upon in this issue of the Research Bulletin, make it an indispensable handbook for those engaged in the great work of vitalizing the high-school curriculum. J. W. CrastTreEE, Secretary National Education Association. [ 176 ] Education for a Changing Civilization If philosophy declines to observe and interpret the new and characteristic scene, it may erect a well equipped gymnasium wherein to engage in dialectical exercises; it may clothe itself in fine literary art. But it will not afford illumination or direction to our confused civilization. These can proceed only from the spirit that is interested in realities and that faces them frankly and sympathetically—JoHN DEwey. Will a nineteenth century school train effec- tively for twentieth century life?—The Com- mittee of T’en* in 1892 made its well known report relative to the secondary school cur- riculum. Are the recommendations of that report valid today? Or do the social and economic changes of the past forty years de- mand that new goals be set for secondary edu- cation, and that new curriculums and courses of study be developed? What answer is sug- gested by even a cursory examination of in- dustrial change? Owen D. Young, writing of the electrical industry in A Century of Industrial Progress? states that: “Where civilization was once static, it has become dynamic; so much so that our chief problem is no longer to adjust our- selves to a well-defined system but to change.”’ Since 1890 science and the machine have reconstructed our industrial life. We are spending approximately ten billions of dollars a year for automobiles, something that did not exist thirty years ago. It is estimated that the automobile industry now gives employment di- rectly or indirectly to more than 7,000,000 people. Fifty-one years ago the world’s entire tele- phone plant, the instrument Bell invented, could be held in a man’s hand. Now there are more than 17,000,000 instruments, 350- 000 employees, 25,000,000 miles of wire and a total plant investment of $2,000,000,000 in the United States. “Today the human voice can be carried over practically any terrestrial distance. The electrical industry of today, with a book value of $25,000,000,000 and a generat- ing capacity of twenty million horse-power, goes back to the single plant in Pearl Street, New York, forty-seven years ago, when Edison put into regular operation his generating sta- 1 Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies, Charles W, Eliot, Chairman. tion Association and by the World Book Company, 1894. 249 2See: A Century of Industrial Progress, edited by Frederic William Wile. “This list is illustrative. tion and distribution system, which lighted 400 lamps. Such inventions as the automobile and the telephone have also been responsible not only for profound changes in our industrial life, but also have modified social institutions such as the community and the family, and have affected far-reaching changes in social cus- toms. “Today a baby often learns the word, “airplane” before it learns the word, ‘“‘horse.”’ Below are listed a few of the important discoveries made in each year since 1890. It emphasizes the cumulative character of the advance which has taken place in science and industry in a single generation. Illustrations of Significant Discoveries Since 1890 1890—The linotype, a machine designed to do the work of both type setting and type casting, was patented by Mergenthaler. The first successful linotype machine had been com- pleted and put into the composing room of the New York Tribune in 1886. Since then it has come into general use by newspapers and printing offices throughout the world. 1891—Berliner patented his loose contact telephone transmitter or microphone. 1892—The automatic telephone was patented by Strowger. The “Hercules” rail, weighing 127 pounds to the yard, was put into service on rail- roads. 1893—The Diesel internal-combustion engine was invented. 1894—The modern steel freight car became a recog- nized unit of American railway service. Successful inoculation against typhoid fever began. Diphtheria anti-toxin was also in- troduced. 1895—Roentgen discovered X-rays. Seldon patented principles involved in the automobile, namely, the application of an internal combustion engine to the propulsion Published by the National Educa- Dp. Chapter XXII. [177] of a road vehicle. Up to 1896 automobiles were prohibited from running on the Eng- lish public roads faster than four miles an hour, and even then the law required that a man should walk in front waving a red flag. Edison produced his improved phonograph by which markings were made on the sur- face of wax by a fine steel point, 1896—A serum was prepared to prevent typhoid fever. The steam turbine was patented by Curtis and the monotype machine by Lanston, On April 27, 1896, New York had its first motion picture show. Pictures were pro- jected on a screen at a theatre on Twenty- third Street.’ 1897—The identification of diootk Thompson. 1898—Radium was discovered by the Curies. Santos Dumont equipped a small dirigible with a gasoline motor and made spectacular flights. 1899—Michael Pupin announced the theory under- lying his long distance telephone. By 1901 he had brought his system to such perfection that it was acquired by the Bell Telephone Company and by German telephone interests. Luther Burbank developed the “sugar” prune—one in his remarkable series of new plums and prunes. 1900—Walter Reed and his associates proved that yellow fever was transmitted by mosquitoes. R. E. Olds invented a type of gasoline automobile. A successful sub-marine boat was invented. 1901—Marconi flashed signals by wireless across the Atlantic. Taylor and White secured a patent on high-speed steel. 1902—Rutherford proved active emanations. The first trans-atlantic wireless message was sent.” 1903—Henry Ford produced his first Ford auto- mobile. On December 17th, at Kitty Hawk, N. C., Orville and Wilbur Wright made their first successful flight—approximately 120 feet in twelve seconds. 1904—Fessenden patented his plan of radio-wave production. 1905—Einstein took up the question as to what might properly be understood by time and space—and announced his theory of rela- tivity. 1906—A radio crystal detector was patented by Dunwoody. 1907—McCollum began studies in nutrition, which later made him one of the important con- tributors to the vitamin hypothesis. electrons by that radium gives off 1 Today 225,000 people are permanently employed in the motion picture industry. 100,000,000 people go to the movies weekly. Picture Producers and Distributors. 1908—All-steel passenger cars on railroads came into use about this time. On April 11th, Delagrange broke the European record by flying two and a half miles “without once touching ground and some distance farther with only two slight touches.” 1909—Mary Pickford took part in her first “movie.” First call for help was flashed from the ocean by a wireless operator when the steam- ship, “Republic,” met in collision with the Italian Ship, “Florida,” off Nantucket. 1910—Goiter was cured in hospitals by the use of iodine. 1911—Curtiss developed, during 1911-12, a hydro- airplane and flying boat, capable of rising from and landing on the water. During the period 1910-1921 over two and a half billion dollars were spent in road con- struction in the United States. During this same period the consumption of crude oil in the United States arose 68 percent. 1912—Edison gave a demonstration of a “kineto- phone” or talking “movie.” Adolph Zukor presented to the motion picture world the idea of “famous players in famous plays.” 1913—The tungsten filament was patented. 1914—A military tank was invented by General E. D. Swinton. Edison produced synthetic carbolic acid. In September, taxicabs and omnibuses of Paris were mobilized to carry Gallieni’s army out from the capital to drive the in- vading forces back from the Marne. 1915—On September 29, 1915, the same year in which the first continental telephone line was completed, a conversation over the wireless telephone occurred between New York and San Francisco and was heard in Panama and Honolulu. 1916—The Browning machine rifle was invented. 1917—Max Mason invented a submarine detector; and Mendenhall and Williamson an airplane compass. Radio telephony was employed as a means of signaling in military operations. 1918—On May 15th, the first air-mail route in the United States was opened between Washing- ton and New York, in cooperation with the War Department. 1919—From 1914 to 1919, the automobile industry rose from eighth to third place among American manufactures. It was first in 1925, when over four million motor vehicles were manufactured. 1920—Broadcasting was born about this time. The first radio telephone station, KDKA, for regular mass communication service, was erected at East Pittsburgh. It is estimated that in the United States Every day approximately 25,000 miles of motion pictures are handled by the Motion 2Soon it became compulsory, by international law, for all sea-going vessels carrying 50 persons or more to carry wireless facilities and competent operators. [ 178 ] 1921—Trans-continental air-mail route opened.~ In 1926 the total number of miles covered by the U. S. air mails was 2,256,000. 1922—Diabetes patients cured by insulin. 1923—-T'wo new anaesthetics—acetylene and ethy- lene—were developed. The tomb of King Tutankhamen was opened on February 18th. 1924—The “Los Angeles” made a non-stop voyage from the heart of Germany to Lakehurst covering the five thousand miles in 81 hours. 1925—Richard Evelyn Byrd and Floyd Bennett reached the North Pole via airplane. A process for sending photographs by tele- graph or telephone was invented in the Bell Telephone laboratories. 1926—The world’s fastest cable, the nineteenth to span the Atlantic, was completed in Septem- ber. ‘Through the use of permalloy it has been given a speed of 2,500 letters per minute. The world’s longest tube, running 16% miles from North to South London, and serv- ing 2,500,000 people, was opened September 13th. 1927—At 7:52 A. M. on May 20th, Charles A. Lindbergh, flying alone in a monoplane with five sandwiches and a canteen of water for refreshment, set off on a non-stop flight for Paris. He completed the 3,610 mile flight in 33% hours. During 1927, the Atlantic was crossed by four different planes and the Pacific Ocean from California to Hawaii twice. A regular trans-atlantic radio-telephone service was inaugurated. 1928—Large commercial use was made of tele- vision. 1929—Airplanes are refueled in the air, and a record of over 400 hours of continuous flight established. The German liner, Bremen, arrived in New York harbor July 22nd, after crossing the Atlantic in 4 days, 18 hours, and 17 minutes. These developments are as amazing as Aladdin secured by rubbing his copper lamp. Rather than exhausting our creative ingenuity, however, they ought to suggest the enormous possibilities which lie ahead. ‘The extent to which research has become a recognized and valued aid to industry in 40 years is indicated by the fact that the United States is now spending approximately $200,000,000 a year for industrial research. ‘This looks toward direct modification of only one phase of life, the industrial. The secondary school’s place in the shifting American scene—As civilization changes, our secondary school curriculum should strive not only to keep pace, but to lead the way. A static school in a dynamic civilization is an anachronism. He who commands the sec- ondary school to stand still while civilization moves on would relegate it to a place of in- significance. According to the Sixth Yearbook of the De- partment of Superintendence,! a school which aims to fit pupils to take their places in a static world is hopelessly inadequate. It is essential that curriculum builders realize that just as the world today in many ways differs from that of forty, or even ten years ago, so we may expect further and perhaps accelerated change in the future. The conception of edu- cation as preparation for life that is constant and unchanging is untenable. We do not know what life is to be even a few years hence. A new conception of education is needed. “The school should help the pupil to achieve poise and balance in the midst of change. Progress made by the secondary school—lIs the secondary school measuring up to its re- Is it being modified to meet the needs of our changing civilization? How does the modern high school differ from that of 1890? The chart on pages 180 and 181 is a partial answer to this question. Whether the changes within our high schools have been rapid or extensive enough to meet the new demands is doubtful. In the majority of high schools they probably have sponsibilities ? not been. Hence secondary school curriculum and course of study construction and revision is needed in most school systems. The need is for a curriculum suitable for a rapidly changing civilization, with large social, spiritual and industrial values, and sufficiently differentiated to meet the needs of adolescent youths with varying levels of ability, social and economic backgrounds, and hopes for the future. 1 Department of Superintendence, The Development of the High School Curriculum, Sixth Yearbook, Washington, D. C, National Education Association. p. 41. (e1797] Then and Now in Changes from The High Schools of 1890 Attended by: The intellectual and social elite—a homogeneous student body with parents in a | preferred economic, vocational, or social position. Purpose: To select pupils of unusual capacity and background and to prepare them through a traditional academic curriculum to exercise cultural, social, and economic leadership. Location: High schools were seldom found except in the centers of population. “There were only 2,526 public and 1,632 private or a total of 4,158 secondary schools in the whole United States. Enrolment: The high-school enrolment was but 1.6 percent of the total elementary and secondary school enrolment. In Public Schools In Private Schools Total SGV SA. es tn cee oes, SI es 85,451 47,534 132,985 rT Sidi Sees! amen abs soe ee 116,351 47,397 163,748 pL Otal eee a eee 201,802 94,931 296,733 Organization: The 8-4-4 plan with a sharp break both as to content and method between the eighth and ninth grades with heavy elimination of pupils during the ninth year. Curriculum: Offered a single curriculum composed of subjects organized on a logical basis and intended according to the Committee of Ten, of the National Education Association, for “those boys and girls economically and intellectually capable of attending the secondary school.” ‘The acquisition of this subject-matter was considered more or less an end in itself. Methods: Passive absorption of text-books—memorization of facts as ends in themselves. Teachers considered that their task had been completed when they had rigorously applied the logically organized subject-matter of a static and academic cur- riculum. According to the Committee of Ten, reporting in 1892, “Every subject taught at all in a secondary school should be taught in the same way and to the same extent to every pupil so long as he pursues it.” Results expected: A high school was successful if it succeeded in eliminating all but the intellectually elite and gave the select few who went on to higher institutions of learning the preparation which fitted them to make high marks in college or university. [ 180 ] Secondary Education 1890 to 1929 The High Schools of 1929 Attended by: All the children of all the people—a heterogeneous student body drawn from every group in the community, with corresponding diversity of background, capacity, and future prospect. Purpose: To take all pupils including those of average and limited capacity and background and to discover for each one the particular curriculum which promises most for him and for society in liberal education and preparation for practical life. Location: High schools are easy of access to all youths, except those residing in backward communities. In 1926 there were 17,710 public and 2,350 private, or a total of 20,060 high schools in the United States. Enrolment: . In 1926, the high school enrolment was 15.2 percent of the total elementary and secondary school enrolment. In Public Schools In Private Schools Total SpE)! St Me ee 1,445,886 114,617 1,560,503 [a ae ee 1,619,123 133,459 Pa 2i5s2 TE TD Ny at ee 3,065,009 : 248,076 SESH EH hele, Organization: Rapid development of the 6-3-3 plan and other modifications of the 8-4-4 plan so that the transition from the elementary to the secondary school is smoother and elimination of pupils is materially reduced. ~ Curriculum: Offers a series of curriculums, composed of subjects and activities organized on a psychological basis, which according to the Curriculum Commission of the National Education Association, should provide every child of secondary school age an opportunity to develop whatever talent he may possess. Subject-matter is a means to an end and has no place in the curriculum, except as it contributes to the realization of desirable, individual or social ends. Methods: Emphasis is placed on learning through active particrpation in life-like activities, designed to develop desirable habits, attitudes, and ideals. Instruction aims directly at achieving such major objectives as good citizenship, vocational efficiency, and ethical character. According to the Curriculum Commission, reporting in 1928, the presence or absence of a subject in a particular secondary school curriculum and the manner in which it is taught should be based upon a study of the capacities, present needs, and future plans of individual pupils. Results expected: A high school is successful if it retains children in school and discovers the particular subject-matter and activities which equip them successfully to meet the varied demands of a complex and rapidly changing civilization. [ 181 ] Curriculum Building for Pupils of Different Levels of Ability How viewpoints have shifted in the past twenty-five years—The recognition of the sig- nificance of individual differences for the sec- ondary school curriculum is almost wholly a development of the last twenty-five years. The objectives stated by the Committee of Ten? implied the acceptance of a uniform curricu- lum. This committee approached the task of curriculum construction from the point of view of the subject-matter specialist. It was particu- larly concerned with this question: What topics should be included in order to have a sys- tematized and logical treatment of the sub- ject? ‘Twenty-five years later, the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education ? approached curriculum construction from a fundamentally different point of view. It ad- vanced the principle that the larger purposes of secondary education should be the guiding criteria in the selection of materials of instruc- tion, and that these materials would vary ac- cording to the capacity of pupils. The Curriculum Commission of the Depart- ment of Superintendence * maintained that the differentiation of the high-school curriculum should be approached from two viewpoints. First, the child should be studied. The fact must be recognized that children differ greatly in capacities, interest, tastes, and future plans. Second, the child’s environment, from which the materials of instruction are drawn, also needs to be studied. Social, economic, and po- litical conditions vary widely in different com- munities. ‘These variations need to be analyzed in order that their significance for curriculum reconstruction may be discovered. Modern curriculum revision rejects the ear- lier assumption that there is one uniform, logi- cal course of study, suitable for all youths. 1 Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies. World Book Company, 1894. 249 pp. For this conception, it substitutes the principle that both pupil and community differences need to be studied as to their significance for cur- riculum construction. It assumes that not uni- formity but differentiation should characterize secondary school courses of study. The development of a secondary school cur- riculum under the modern principle of differ- entiation is a far more difficult task than that involved under the principle of uniformity. In the latter case, the one carefully prescribed course may be drafted by a committee of ex- perts, and presumably it is applicable to all children in all communities. When the principle of differentiation is ac- cepted, the task is one of drafting a series of curriculums, sufficient in number to meet the demands of the widely varying capacities and needs of individual pupils. Furthermore, this series of curriculums must vary in different communities. Hence, curriculum construction, in many of its features, becomes a local rather than a national problem. Trends in the development of differentiated curriculums and courses of study—Vhe de- velopment of differentiated secondary school opportunities inevitably requires an expansion of the number of units of work offered on the secondary school level. Ihe Committee of Ten in 1892 dealt with 40 subjects; the California Committee of Fifteen*+ in 1922 considered 147 subjects. Counts® found that the total number of units of work offered in the high schools of each of fifteen cities in eleven great divisions of subject-matter varied from 51 in Pueblo to 127% in Los Angeles. The number of units of work offered in the high schools of Los Angeles was as follows: English 9, foreign language Published by the National Education Association and by the (Charles W. Eliot, Chairman.) 2 Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1918, No. 35, pp. 8-9. (Clarence D. Kingsley, Chairman.) 3 Commission on the Curriculum of the Department of Superintendence, Fourth Yearbook, Chapter II; Sixth Yearbook, Chap- ter VIII; Seventh Yearbook, Chapters IX and XI. National Education Association, Washington, D. C 4 Report of the Committee of Fifteen of the California High School Teachers’ Association on Secondary Education in Caii- fornia, 1923. 5 Counts, George S., The Senior High School Curriculum, Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 29, February, 1926, p. 16. The University of Chicago, Chicago, IIl. [ 182 ] 12, mathematics 6, natural science 6%, social science 644, commercial subjects 16, industrial arts 30, home economics 7, music 12¥, art 12, physical education 4, and miscellaneous sub- jects 6. Types of organization of the new content— The mere expansion of the secondary school curriculum is but part of the problem. How is the decision to be made as to what particu- lar units are best suited to the needs of indi- vidual pupils? Modern high schools are soly- ing this problem along three different lines. The first is the elective plan. In its pure form, which is seldom found in actual practice, a pupil chooses, from the wide offerings of the high school, the particular units of work he de- sires. Curriculum specialists rather generally agree today that complete election of subjects by pupils brings far from ideal results. They lack judgment in selecting a well-rounded, co- herent course. Hence a core curriculum with variables is offered in many secondary schools. A second plan of meeting individual differ- ences is that of parallel curriculums. This plan seeks to develop a series of well-rounded cur- riculums designed to meet the needs of indi- viduals of varying aptitudes and interests. The degree of election varies with different schools. Usually some free choice is permitted in con- nection with all curriculums. A modification of this plan for meeting in- dividual differences has been suggested by Sned- den. He advocates the building of curriculums to fit the needs of “case groups.” As a basis for building curriculums to fit these groups he sets up these theses: ! 1. Since it is utterly impracticable to make cur- ricula for individual secondary school pupils and utterly unpedagogical to prescribe the same courses for all, the only practicable and helpful method is to offer and, if necessary, to prescribe a plurality of curricula, for determinable groups, of a size consistent with economical school administration, and reasonably homogeneous in at least-three re- spects—certain abilities, certain environing condi- tions, and certain prospects. 2. Differentiations of curricula heretofore made have rarely if ever proceeded from systematic analyses of the conditioning qualities and prospects of learners. Rather have they been based upon either traditional or fortuitous considerations. 3. Systematic study of the school history and sub- sequent life history of several generations of sec- ondary school pupils will enable us to distinguish groups of considerable size and persistence, each of which is fairly homogeneous as to its optimum educational needs, and between any two of which optimum educational needs may be widely different. A “case group” is any considerable group of pupils who resemble each other in the common possession of qualities significant to their edu- cation. In any large high school, major case groups should be studied and defined from past experience. When reasonably persistent and significantly differentiated case groups can be diagnosed, then a scheme of educational objec- tives in order of urgency or probable worth for each should be arrayed. From these can then gradually be deduced desirable prescriptions and alternative and optional electives. Variations in content of particular subjects to meet individual differences—Equality of op- portunity does not mean that all children are treated the same way. Mental diet must be varied according’ to the ability of the individual child to assimilate it. “The school must pre- sent to children of little capacity subject-matter that they can grasp, and to children of unusual capacity, subject-matter which will stimulate them to full effort. A uniform course of study for all groups is unscientific and ineffective. Homogeneous grouping, special promotions, and individual instruction all provide that indi- viduals advance at different rates of speed; but they make the mistake of presupposing that all individuals can ultimately learn the same things. [he experience of many teachers is that even when dull pupils are given more time, they do not grasp the same subject-matter as the more gifted children. ‘These pupils do not need merely a diluted form of algebra or Span- ish or Latin, nor will their needs be met by a system of electives or by decreasing the number of subjects taken. The limited pupil frequently demands a different course of study.® 1Snedden, David, ‘‘‘Case Group’ Methods of Determining Flexibility of General Curricula in High Schools,’’ School and Society, Vol. XVII, No. 429, March 17, 1923, pp. 287-92. 2 See: Dickson, Virgil E., Mental Tests and the Classroom Teacher, p. 139. Yonkers-on-Hudson, World Book Company, 1923. [183 ] Failure must not become a habit, and ex- perience shows that a certain degree of success must come to the pupil if further effort is to be carried on with fervor and whole-hearted- ness. Courses of study must be revised so that a proper amount of suitable work is required of those whose mental capacities are limited; and the course for superior minds must be so enriched that they will receive adequate stimu- lus and development. The problem of adjusting content and meth- ods of instruction to secondary school pupils of different levels of ability is extremely difficult. Its solution waits upon careful analysis of the characteristic differences of dull and bright pupils and the adaptation of subject-matter to these differences. Much experimentation. is already in progress, but further observation and extensive research must be completed before anything except highly tentative conclusions can be reached. ‘he subsequent sections of this Bulletin pool the observations and experiences of classroom teachers, as well as the findings of psychologists who have studied the differences in learning capacities of dull and superior children. What do the terms superior, normal or av- erage, and dull or limited mean?—Inasmuch as the term “gifted” is a relative designation— as there is no definite line of demarcation be- tween a normal and a superior or gifted child *—gifted children are often defined only in general terms as those of “‘rounded”’ and ac- celerated development. Such pupils constitute approximately the upper one-tenth of ordinary classes. ‘Their I. Q.’s usually range from 130 upward. It is recognized that the I. Q. alone does not measure all phases of intelligence, nev- ertheless it is objective. The normal or average child is one whose physical, mental, and social developments pro- ceed at a rate close to the average for children of his age. In terms of I. Q., normal intelli- gences ranges from 90 to 110, according to ‘Terman.? The term “limited” or dull is used in this Bulletin to designate those pupils who do not seem to have the ability to do the work of the traditional high-school curriculum. In terms of I. Q., pupils from 70 to 90 are “limited.” ? Six ways in which children differ—Various means have been suggested for determining the individual differences of children. Baldwin in his studies approached the problem of individ- ual differences from six directions. He recog- nized six phases of child development and stud- ied children as to the ages they acquired in each of these phases of growth; however, he was not able to make equal progress in the measurement of these ages. According to Baldwin, the six parallel ages are: 1. Chronological age—indicating time elapsed since birth 2. Mental age—indicating stage of mental de- velopment 3. Pedagogical age—indicating stage of develop- ment of school abilities 4. Anatomical age—indicating stage of bodily development 5. Social age—indicating stage of social develop- ment 6. Moral or religious age—indicating stage of moral or religious development. Degree of correlation of different phases of development--Terman’s studies* show that generally, where the mental is greater than the chronological age, as it is in the case of the child of superior intelligence, the pedagogical, ana- tomical, social, and moral ages are also greater than the chronological. On the other hand, the development of members of the dull group is often erratic; i. e., physical, mental, and so- cial development may each be at variance with the chronological age. A summary of opinion to date results in the following tentative statements as to the distin- guishing characteristics between superior and dull pupils. “They are presented here merely as an introduction to discussion and study by local groups of teachers and principals. 1 Baldwin, Bird T., ‘‘Methcds of Selecting Superior or Gifted Children,’’ Twenty-Third Yearbook, Pari I, p. 37, National 4, Society for the Study of Education. Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Ill., 192 *Ter man, Lewis M., The Measurement of Intelligence, p. 79. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1916. 3 Ter man, Lewis M., and others, Genetic Studies of Genius, Vol. I. Stanford University Press, Stanford University, California, 1926. Mental and Physical Traits of a Thousand Gifted Children. [ 184 ] Mental traits of gifted pupils \—Vhese are among the traits most easily recognized: 1. Ease of assimilation and, as a rule, quick reac- tion time—ability to absorb the same amount of material in a fraction of the time required by an average group. Power to learn is a distinctive characteristic of gifted children. They show marked ability to “absorb” knowledge much more quickly than average children. They read more rapidly, remember more, and with greater vivid- ness. Superior students have a greater degree of concentration, waste less time, and grasp an idea at its first presentation. 2. Voluntary power of sustained attention, men- tal endurance, and tenacity of purpose—gifted pupils have unusual power of focusing their atten- tion upon a task; and they are able to stay by a thing without fatigue longer than the average. 3. Intellectual curiosity, originality, and initia- tive—the superior student is comparatively self- directing. 4. Power of generalization—they quickly see underlying principles, relate similars, and foresee results. 5. Ability to work with abstractions—the gifted student not only learns facts, but he also delves into the principles underlying the facts and into the inferences to be derived from them. Generally speaking, the gifted pupil is superior in quickness of observation, in wealth of associated ideas, in power of discrimination, and in reasoning ability. 6. Ability “to know when they do not know’— many gifted children seem particularly competent in self-criticism. 7. Versatility and vitality of interests—closely allied to their wide range of interests is the degree of special talent found among gifted children. Mental traits of dull pupils °—According to many writers, the following traits are most easily recognized. ‘They are presented here as a basis for discussion and evaluation. 1 See also: Alltucker, Margaret M., Vol. XXXII, No. 3, March, 1924, pp. 193-202 Cox, Catharine M., Genetic Studies of Genius, Vol. II, Early Mental Traits of Three Hundred Geniuses. Press, Stanford University, California, 1926. “Is the Pedagogically Accelerated Student a Misfit in the Senior High School?’ 1. Slow in reaction time—it takes them longer to think things through than the average pupil. They are slow in getting under way and weak in transfer, and use a thing in the situation in which they learn it. They cannot transfer it out of its original setting. Hence the dull child must acquire through direct teaching much knowledge that the bright child acquires incidentally. 2. Short in span of attention—lack ability to carry a sequence of ideas long enough to reach a point off in the distance. 3. Illogical—this is partly due to their limited number of ideas. The amount of material assimi- lated and used in a given situation is limited. The dull pupil usually becomes a pattern-reaction in- dividual, for, lacking the ability to organize things for himself, he tries to live by rule of thumb. Dull pupils have little initiative. They are better able to execute than to plan. The dull pupil understands and learns general processes through situations in which specific habits and automatic responses are formed. Dull pupils are dependent upon constant guidance and sympathetic encouragement of the teacher. 4. Inability to take a body of material and out of it to draw facts which are pertinent to the problem in a given situation. 5. Inability to work with abstractions—dull pupils think most often in terms of immediate ob- jectives, and they deal largely in things concrete. With dull pupils, we must put emphasis upon de- tails, not upon broad general ideas. The dull pupil generalizes and applies processes only to problems well within his training and experience. 6. Lacking in power to evaluate their efforts, and consequently often unable to correct their failures. 7. Narrow range of interests. 8. More emotional in attitude than the superior pupil. Shall both dull and gifted children receive special training?—According to Whipple, sub- ject-matter, both as to amount and kind, must School Review, Stanford University Coy, Genevieve Lenore, The Interests, Abilities, and Achievements of a Special Class for Gifted Children, Teachers College Con- . tributions to Education, No. 131. Jensen, Dortha Williams, Columbia University, New York City, 1 Goddard, Henry Herbert, School Training of Gifted Children. Hollingworth, Leta S., Gifted Children, Their Nature and Nurture. ‘“The Gifted Child,’’ Journal of Educational Research, Vol. XV. Yonkers-on-Hudson, World Book Company, 1928. 226 pp. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1924. 339 pp. I, Educational Concepts and Practices, No. 1, January, 1927, pp. 34-45; II, Present School Provision for the Gifted Child, No. 2, February, 1927, pp. 126-33. National Society for the Study of Education, The Nineteenth Yearbook, Pari II, Classroom Problems in the Education of Gifted Children. School Publishing Company, Bloomington, IIl., 1924. Stedman, Lulu M., Education of Gifted Children. 2 See also: Alltucker, Margaret M., Vol. XXXI, No. 9, November, 1923, pp. 653-61. Baker, Harry J., Characteristic Differences in Bright and Dull Pupils. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1920. Ill., 1927. Hollingworth, Leta S., Psychology of Subnormal Children. Inskeep, Annie Dolman, Teaching Dull and Retarded Children. Whipple, Helen D., M aking Citizens of the Mentally Limited. Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, IIl., 3 Whipple, Helen Davis, Making Citizens of the Mentally Limited. Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, IIl., Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, IIl., National Society for the Study of Education, The Twenty-Third Yearbook, Ore he Education of Gifted Children. 1920. 120p Public Yonkers-on-Hudson, World Book Company, 1924. ‘‘What Can the Secondary School Do for the Student of Low I. Q.?”’ School Review, Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, New York, The Macmillan Company, 1926, See iA fe {185 ] be adjusted to the capacity of the slow-learning child. He cannot deal with the same quantity and, in many cases, with the same quality of subject-matter as the normal child. Hence, differentiation of material and special training are essential. Hollingworth! argues for special training for the gifted on these grounds: One who clearly comprehends that each advance in human usage comes through the mental work of some individual, and that only a minority can originate, will feel that those few are worth con- serving, if he believes that civilization is good. He will at least wish to be convinced by actual experi- mentation of the truth of the premise that a gifted person will perform his work without special op- portunity as well as with it. In like manner, Goddard, in his School Training of Gifted Children * states: The best results with gifted children will be ob- tained only by recognizing the gifted child, the bright child, as a new problem requiring a special type of education, and by providing that education. No better proof of this is needed than the ex- perience with the defective child in the schools. We have learned to segregate the defectives because they cannot do the work that is given to the regular children in the grades. We should seg- regate the bright children because they can do more and better work than the regular children. Justice demands that every pupil in a demo- cratic school system be judged by the best which he can do and not by the median performance of a non-selected group. Justice further de- mands that school work be provided which is commensurate with each pupil’s ability. In other words, the recognition of the special needs of dull and gifted pupils has placed upon the school the responsibility of providing ade- quately for them. ‘This means differentiated curriculums and differentiated courses of study. In providing these, one of the first steps is to set up certain fundamental principles to be used in the differentiation of all courses of study. 1 Hollingworth, Leta S., Gifted Children, Their Nature and Nurture, p. 297. A Goddard, Henry Herbert, School Training of Gifted Children, pp. 2 and 35. Yonkers-on-Hudson, World Book Company, 192 Fundamental Principles for the Differ- entiation of Courses of Study ‘These six general principles are tentatively presented for consideration by local course-of- study committees: 1. In providing for curriculum and course-of- study adaptation, intelligence tests should not be too exclusively relied upon for the proper classifi- cation of pupils. They are a valuable instrument, but not the sole means to be used in grouping chil- dren for purposes of effective instruction. The judg- ment of teachers and the past achievements, inter- ests, and future plans of pupils must also be taken into account.® 2. The differentiated subject-matter for a specific group should be elastic in content, so that it can be modified to meet individual needs as well as group needs. 3. Differentiation of courses of study does not mean that the public school should develop a series of wholly distinct courses for different groups of pupils. There will always be certain minimum essentials which all pupils should seek to acquire- The percentage of the curriculum made up of these minimum essentials will probably be greater in the elementary than in the junior and senior high school. It is important in a democracy that certain information shall be the common heritage of all. Insofar as they are able to acquire it, all children should have the best of the social heritage. 4. The aims, objectives, and outcomes of all sub- jects should be set forth for different ability groups. For the most part, there should be a common back- ground for these aims. The methods and emphasis are necessarily different, as are the immediate ob- jectives and outcomes; but the same ultimate aim of education should guide all teaching. The same philosophy of education is back of whatever differ- entiation is made. 5. The course of study should recognize that the rate of progress will not only vary between the dif- ferent ability groups, but also within each group. Even though the practice of homogeneous grouping is followed, there will be a considerable range of capacity and a variety of backgrounds and needs within each group. 6. Much study, research, and experimentation are needed to determine the amount and quality of work which may rightly be expected from pupils of differ-. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1926. 3 The theory of ‘“specificity’’ raises certain questions about homogeneous grouping by intelligence tests, which may well be the basis of thought and discussion by those working on differentiation of courses of study. [ 186 ] ent levels of ability. Whereas no amount of re- search will make it possible to mechanize education, it will offer a guide in dealing with both individuals and groups. How Shall Course-of-Study Content and Method Be Differentiated for Pupils of Superior Ability? It appears that the capacity of gifted children differs from that of mediocre both in quality and quantity.- In other words, gifted children have mental powers which are sufficiently dif- ferent from those of average children to make it probable that there should be a special adap- tation of method as well as content to their peculiar needs. According to Hollingworth,’ it is generally agreed by those who have taught groups of the gifted that certain modifications can be derived by corollary from the study of the psychology of these children as well as from the actual ex- periences of the classroom. In assembling the following tentative sug- gestions for modifying content and method to fit the needs of gifted pupils, a variety of sources have been consulted. Anything like a final answer to this question can come only after a much longer period of experimentation. 1. Course-of-study content for the gifted pu- pils should be enriched — Enrichment means something more than additional amounts of core material; it also involves the introduction of a different and higher type of material which can only be dealt with successfully by those of superior intellect. Hence, curriculum content must differ both in quantity and in quality. This involves more intensive and elaborate study of the material dealt with. 2. Method will be modified for gifted pu- pils—These suggestions grow out of the expe- rience of teachers of gifted classes: a. Greater provision should be made for int- tiative—Originality is one of the distinguish- ing characteristics of gifted pupils. “They are especially amenable to instruction by the proj- ect method because they excel in “thinking things together,” in perceiving the relations be- Hollingworth, Leta S., Gifted Children, Their Nature and Nurture, pp. 397-10. tween and among all the relevant elements in a given field of endeavor. In recitation, the method of the seminar is feasible and is much enjoyed. Gifted pupils like to impart informa- tion. They like to ask questions and to be questioned. b. Broad underlying principles should be emphasized—More abstract theory should be taught and there should be more teaching by means of principles. Evaluation and organi- zation should be emphasized. More excursions and field trips should be made for observing principles and theories in practice. The following are further illustrations of adaptations which some schools, that recognize a distinction in modes of thinking on the part of gifted children, are making: Superior pupils use more advanced books and are encouraged to find references for themselves. They learn easily how to take advantage of their knowl- edge of the organization of a book to find out what they want. They are urged to make free use of the library. Gifted pupils are given longer assignments, per- haps not including more general ideas, but an elaboration of these ideas. Superior secondary school pupils carry on many special investigations, making individual reports, some involving quite careful research. The superior pupil has great power to originate and carry through the investigation of a subject when once his interest has been enlisted. Superior pupils, in reaching generalizations through observation and inductive reasoning, will need but few primary illustrations. However, they need drilling and checking on the whole process of induction, since-they spring quickly to a generaliza- tion. Unless they are guided, this quickness makes for inaccuracy and superficial thinking. c. Drill should be modified—For superior pupils, drill materials should be treated quite differently, both as to standards of attainment and time spent, as compared with dull pupils. Many repetitions are not only unnecessary for the highly intelligent, but they are decidedly irksome. For the same reason, the amount of review should be reduced as well as the num- ber of illustrations cited to establish a particu- lar point. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1926. [ 187 ] Although drill can be reduced, it can by no means be abandoned. High standards should be set for bright students in tasks that are of a drill, memory, or routine nature. Equipped with these tools, the bright pupil has more op- portunity for the creative work of which he is capable. d. The amount and detail of explanation can be reduced—Gifted pupils usually have a quicker reaction time. They take in ideas more quickly. ‘They usually grasp an idea at its first presentation. How Shall Course-of-Study Content and Method be Differentiated for Dull Pupils? Experimentation has gone far enough to show that slower rates of progress, or strip- ping present courses to minimum essentials do not completely solve this problem. New mate- rial, different from that commonly found in the traditional secondary school curriculum, will have to be incorporated before ideal courses for slow pupils will have been devel- oped. Texts should be suited to physical and social maturity, while at the same time they contain in concrete form socially valuable ma- terials, selected through analyses of daily ac- tivities of children and adults. Methods of teaching will also need to be rad- ically altered in many cases. In teaching dull pupils, many teachers have found that abstract principles are out of place and drill by verbal methods ineffective» Subject-matter should be presented concretely, and much dependence placed upon learning by doing. Concrete, though tentative, suggestions from psychologists and from teachers engaged in teaching classes of dull pupils, follow. “They are presented here for discussion and evalua- tion: 1. Discover lines of work in which a par- ticular pupil can succeed—Nothing succeeds like success. Even the dull pupil should expe- rience the joy of accomplishment. 2. Select material on the basis of its value to the student and to society—lIt is necessary that a rigorous and careful selection be made of those materials in the academic curriculum which are most worthwhile in the student’s life and are of large social value. For example, the chief objectives in the English class of the limited pupil are: (a) reading for appreciation, and (b) self-expression in its simplest form. 3. Have subject-matter elastic in content so that it can be modified to meet individual and group needs—In working out the details of a course of study for a particular group of lim- ited pupils, the mistake should not be made of seeking for the typical dull youth, possessing a set of imagined qualities. he subject-matter should be varied according to environing con- ditions, interests, and needs of the individual pupils in a particular school. Furthermore, lo- cal course-of-study committees should be guided by what they know almost certainly is ahead of certain groups of students, rather than by custom and tradition. 4. See that the subject-matter is concrete and deals with simple actual life situations— The dull pupil does not seem to have the abil- ity to take a body of material and out of it draw facts pertinent to the problem in a given sit- uation. While superior pupils look for ultimate prin- ciples, casual explanations, and final objectives, children of limited mental capacity seldom seek beyond the immediate and the concrete. For example, some English teachers have found that dull pupils can appreciate the story of The Ancient Mariner, while the philosophy of J/ . Penseroso is beyond them. The universal ap- peal in Gray’s Elegy usually reaches limited senior high-school pupils, as do also the life situations portrayed in Captains Courageous. These illustrations may not necessarily be ap- plicable in all situations. ‘They do suggest, however, the direction which curriculum re- vision must take when pupils of limited capacity are concerned. Special text-book materials are now being worked out for dull pupils.* 1 As an illustration of the type of materials now being developed see: McEntyre, Sophia, and Voorhees, Marietta, Buried Treasure and Treasure Trove. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1929. The aim of these books as stated in the preface is as follows: It is hoped that Buried Treasure and Treasure Trove will provide enjoyment in ‘‘literature’’ classes, to pupils and teachers, and that the books will find their way into many children’s hands outside the schoolroom. The material will suggest similar, psychologically timed selections, which teachers in many places have long been using for children who do not respond to the more formal ‘‘old-time’’ ninth and tenth-year material. [ 188 ] 5. Provide large opportunity for drill work—The dull child understands and learns general processes through situations in which specific habits and automatic responses are found. Contrary to general belief, the slow thinker is not necessarily the accurate thinker. Nor does the pupil who learns slowly generally have a more retentive memory than the bright pupil. According to one teacher, “If you want to benefit dull pupils, take a short, concise, defi- nite unit of material and teach it and reteach it until they get the pattern.” It is generally conceded that the keynote in the education of a pupil of limited mental ability is the establish- ment of specific habits. It is often interesting to note the satisfac- tion and enjoyment which dull pupils get out of the things they have discovered that they are able to do well. Observation seems to indi- cate that dull pupils are prone to read over and over again the same material which is interest- ing to them and within their comprehension. 6. Avoid involved assignments — Assign- ments should be short, definite, concise, direct units of material distinctly and plainly set forth. ‘This is of special importance for dull pupils. All psychological tests show that dull pupils are almost always unable to follow complex di- rections ; they get lost in the maze. Dull pupils cannot carry a sequence of ideas long enough to reach a point off in the distance. For ex- ample, in English composition, it is better to require a few short sentences or paragraphs than to assign a three-thousand-word theme based on references which have to be acquired from many sources. An assignment for dull pupils must be deliberately made, explained, and checked up to see that it is really under- stood. 7. Consider mental age in making academic assignments—One should remember that the mental age of the limited pupil is less than his chronological age, and that in academic assign- ments it is his mental age that should be given first consideration. However, a pupil sixteen years old with a mental age of ten years should have different assignments from a normal child aged ten. 8. Dull pupils usually learn largely by rule of thumb and imitation—The limited pupil usually cannot reason out general principles or methods of attack, but has to learn largely by imitation and successive experiences. To illustrate, according to W. J. Osburn,’ a dull child who has learned 8 from 13 will probably be confused by the 48 from 53 which occurs in the exercise 534 divided by 6. To a gifted child, this presents little difficulty. Dull pupils must have direct teaching on all the important elements of in- struction, whereas gifted pupils will probably master the material after one-tenth of it has been taught. There are more than 1200 combinations in arith- metic which everyone must know in order to carry on ordinary computation with integers; yet we know gifted pupils can attain a reasonable mastery of this material by the presentation of 180 combina- tions; that is, the 45 principal combinations in each of the four processes. This is not true of the limited pupil. A successful teacher of long experience with limited pupils states that it is particularly im- portant that their work be carefully laid out for them, if they are to attack it with enthu- siasm and complete it. If left to themselves to work out a project that is at all difficult, they soon give up in despair because of bewilder- ment. Hence, the course of procedure for the limited pupil should be carefully laid down for him. A better plan is the following: Demon- strate the procedure while he observes; allow him to attempt it himself under careful super- vision, have him repeat it until by repetition the various parts of the process come to have for him a habitual relation or association. In time, the whole action becomes easy and me- chanical; then, and not until then, has the lim- ited pupil mastered it. “The more technical the subject, the more nearly one has to come to in- dividual instruction. While the “‘keynote in the education of an exceptional child of any age is to provide a wealth of stimulations of a suitable order,” the keynote in the education of the limited pupil is the establishment of efficient habits. Usually the limited child is not capable of constant ad- justments to new situations. 9. Dull pupils succeed in the manipulative work, but they have difficulty in acquiring un- 1Osburn, W. J., Corrective Arithme!.c. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1924. [ 189 J derlying principles—The dull pupil will do a piece of work over and over again in order to get the desired finish, but he is a poor person to work over a blue print. He can acquire con- siderable speed and accuracy in typing, but usually lacks ability to interpret the materials his employer has to handle, and hence finds it difficult to hold a responsible secretarial posi- tion. He can use computing machines, but does not get beyond the machine and stays with the mechanical part of office work. He cannot do the things which require understanding and where success is dependent upon ability to ma- nipulate or organize abstract ideas. 10. Dull pupils are dependent upon constant guidance and sympathetic encouragement— While it is highly important that course-of- study committees and teachers should recog- nize the fact that limited pupils do not have the ability to do successfully the work of the traditional secondary school curriculum, it is equally important that they remember that the limited high-school pupil has some ability.’ It is their privilege to cooperate with him in de- veloping the ability which he has. ‘Teachers should find at least one worth-while thing at which the limited pupil can succeed, train him in this, and let him feel honest success. “Too often the only thing the limited pupil gets from the high school is a sense of failure. To provide differentiated courses for limited pupils is not sufficient. Wise counseling and careful follow-up are necessary if the purpose of the special opportunities provided for in the curriculum is to be realized. Illustrations of Differentiated Courses Ofeotudy Many school systems report they have not differentiated their courses of study to fit pupils of different levels of ability. They explain that their courses as written are full enough to take care of pupils of high ability, and that selection of material to fit varying needs is provided for but not definitely stated. Something more fun- damental than this is necessary. Some school systems have really tackled this problem and have made promising starts in developing com- pletely differentiated outlines. The following materials are illustrative. Grading assignments in Eau Claire, Wis., to individualized ability—Mimeographed ma- terial is prepared for high-school students along what is called contract lines. ‘To illus- trate, in the social studies a minimum list of references bearing on a particular topic is given, together with questions, problems for study, and certain written assignments, such as the preparation of an outline map, biographical sketch, or abstract. Following these are the references for the B level, with this admonition to the pupil: Do not start on the work for a B until you have mastered everything up to this point. Additional and more difficult assignments are also included for A level. According to the superintendent of schools, there is nothing fixed nor set about the contract ; it is simply a method of grading the assignment a little more effec- tively, as to individualized ability. Working basis developed in Denver, Colo.— “Differentiation of Curriculum for Slow- Learning Children” ? is the title of a supple- ment to the regular course of study prepared by the Denver Elementary School Special Classes Committee. “The affirmative point of view of this Committee is expressed in its own statement of purpose: The purpose of the committee is to present the problem of the slow-learning child from the positive costructive point of view. 1. Stressing as the final goal, fullest development of the individual, through a suitable school environ- ment, to the end that he may attain maximum social adjustment. 1 For additional help relative to the meeting of individual differences of both dull and superior children, see: Corning, Hobart M., After Testing What? Chicago, Scott, Foresman and Company, 1926. 213 pp. Irwin, Elizabeth A., and Marks, Louis A., Fitting the School tothe Child. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1924. 339 pp. Mort, Paul R., The Individual Pupil in the Management of Class and School. .383 pp. New York, American Book Company, 1928. National Society for the Study of Education, The Twenty-Fourth Yearbook, Part II, Adapting the School to Individual Differ- ences. ‘Company, 1927. 223 pp. Bloomington, Ill., Public School Publishing Company, 1925. Ryan, Heber Hinds, and Crecelius, Philipine, Ability Grouping in the Junior High School. 410 pp. New York, Harcourt, Brace and 2In the Denver report, the term ‘‘slow-learning’’ refers to backward, dull, and borderline pupils who differ from normal to -such a degree as to need adjustment of subject-matter, methods, and standards suitable to their capacity. [ 190 ] 2. Stressing capacities of the slow-learning child according to mental age rather than incapacities ac- cording to intelligence quotient. 3. Stressing adjustment of the regular curricula by adapting subject-matter, methods of procedure, and standards of attainment, to the capacities of slow-learning children. 4. Stressing the fact that most children in our specia! classes are dull and borderline cases with sufficient ability to become self-supporting. A second report! prepared by the Denver Special Classes Committee supplements the regular course of study in arithmetic and sug- gests: 1. The common core which all children should acquire. 2. The limits of difficulty within which most borderline children should remain. 3. Most frequently used type process which should receive most emphasis in drill and problem solving. Principles developed in Lincoln, Neb.— These principles guide course-of-study com- mittees in Lincoln, Neb.: 1. A course of study made up of a series of units conceived of as expanding from a central idea or process. 2. The building of the units in such a way that any degree of expansion will contain prerequisites for an equal degree of expansion of the following units. 3. Provision for sufficient expansion of each unit so that the best pupils will occupy all of their time profitably. 4. Time limits for each unit so that all pupils begin each unit together. Courses of study differentiated on the bases of difficulty, range, and speed in Cleveland, Ohio ?—In the Cleveland junior high-school mathematics course of study, separate courses for X, Y, and Z groups are presented in par- allel columns. Difficulties vary with the ability groups. The range of sub-topics under each main objective is much wider for the X pupils than it is for the Y or Z pupils. Rate of learn- ing is cared for by planning the course so as to give Z pupils three years to cover the im- portant topics included in the X outline for the seventh and eighth grades. ‘This is accom- plished by building a Z course for the ninth year out of material omitted from the seventh and eighth-grade outlines, plus other material of recognized social utility, plus the most prac- tical phases of elementary algebra. Plan of work for normal, slow, wand fast classes in Lakewood, N. J.—In general, the plan is based on the theory that it is better for fast pupils to have a richer course and the slow pupils a less inclusive course in any sub- ject than is given the normal pupils. It rec- ognizes the argument that all pupils, of not too low a degree of mentality, who work faith- fully, should have the expectation of complet- ing their high-school course in four years’ time. To illustrate: Work in Algebra I and Geom- etry II is differentiated thus: While it follows the general outline of the nor- mal classes, it is made as objective as possible. A considerable fraction of class time is given to ex- planations and illustration. Only simple exercises are assigned, in order that the pupils may be suc- cessful in solving them and thus gain confidence. The fundamental processes of arithmetic are re- viewed in connection with algebra, putting the em- phasis on accuracy. The problem material is of such a nature that its usefulness is evident. Shop, home, and ordinary business problems are _ pre- ferred. The general principles laid down for teaching first-year algebra are also observed in teaching geometry. The formal proofs of about 30 theorems each semester are required of each pupil and the theorems of as many more are learned. The proofs of the latter are treated informally in class. By way of contrast in the fast classes about 60 theorems are required in Geometry I, and as many more in Geometry II. From 125 to 150 originals (a part numerical) are required each semester. Originals too difficult for the normal and slow groups are proven in the fast group. In the slow group, an effort is made to develop some power in reasoning out original exercises. Exercises that require only short proofs are selected. Whenever possible, ap- plications of theorems are made, and many numer- ical problems based on theorems are solved. More time is given to estimating distances, size of angles, and to space relationships than in the nor- mal and superior groups of pupils. Greater em- phasis is placed on the mensuration side of the subject than on the logical. 1 Differentiation of Course of Study in Arithmetic for the Borderline Child, prepared by the Special Classes Committee, Depart- ment of Curriculum, A. K. Loomis, Director, Denver Public Schools, Denver, Colo. 2 See: Tentative Course of Study in Mathematics for Junior High Schools. Cleveland Public Schools, September, 1928. 204 pp. [191] How Sioux City, Iowa, differentiates its course in plane geometry—The committee of local teachers charged with the reorganization of the geometry course reported * that experi- ence indicates that segregation is more neces- sary for demonstrative geometry than for most other high-school subjects. According to the Sioux City mathematics course: Emphasis was placed upon individual differences in the planning of three separate courses: A mini- mum course where only the most essential theorems and those necessary to make a sequence are in- cluded. This course is of a much more elementary nature than that recommended by most textbooks. After the mathematics committee selected what, by trial, was in their judgment the most desirable geometry text, it selected from this text a separate and complete list of exercises and originals for each of the courses: minimum, medium, and maxi- mum. These exercises were supplemented by ex- ercises from different texts as well as from other sources. English for Z Pupils is the title of a Los Angeles course-of-study monograph.? It as- sumes that while reading has the same general aims for Z pupils as for all pupils, it has two distinctive features: 1. Selection of material. The stories must be simple in structure and vocabulary; they must ap- peal to the pupils’ interests. Begin with “low-brow” books if necessary, and work up gradually. 2. Reading for comprehension. Drill for compre- hension as a necessary tool in independent reading and thinking. Discover and remove mechanical dif- ficulties. The simple knowing how to read is basic. Without this foundation, reading for pleasure and profit is impossible. How can one instruct children en masse and at the same time individualize?—While differ- entiating the requirements makes possible a high degree of individualization, its successful ad- ministration in the classroom presupposes on the part of the teacher: (1) Knowledge of the — educational status of his pupils as individuals, (2) organization of the materials of instruc- tion so as to permit flexible assignments, and (3) the adoption of a technic of instruction which will enable the teacher to use a large share of his teaching time in directing individ- ual work rather than hearing lessons. ‘The whole problem of meeting individual differ- ences has been but partly solved when homo- geneous grouping has been accomplished and differentiated courses developed. 1 See: Tentative Mathematics Course, Seventh to Eleventh Years Inclusive, Sioux City Public Schools, 1927-28, p. 86. 2 Los Angeles City High Schools Course of Study Monographs No. 32, June, 1923, p. 40. thee iam THAT will satisfy cravings of groups of boys and girls—infinitely different but indescribably worthy—implies radical curriculum adjustments and calls for extensive differ- entiation in courses of study. As groups appear or are discovered that require special training, varied and diversified avenues of instruction must be opened to receive them. This is the program of the Boston public schools. Replacing rigid and uniform courses of study, curriculums have been modified and reconstructed to satisfy the varying aptitudes and capacities of groups of children, all equally deserving, all endowed with equality of rights and entitled to equality of opportunity. Through this policy Boston is solving the question of why children leave school. Boston has discovered that if these varied opportunities adapted to their special needs are offered to boys and girls, then these pupils will not leave school; they prefer to remain.—Annual Report of the Superintendent, School Document No. 12—1927, Boston Public Schools. [192] An Introduction to Research in Secondary School Subjects Six lines of research of interest to all teachers and to course-of-study committees—A review of recent research studies, bearing on the sec- ondary school curriculum, shows that some- thing has been done in each of these six fields: (1) Determination of objectives of the various secondary school subjects, (2) selection of cur- riculum content on more or less objective bases, (3) discovery of pupils’ interests and methods of teaching by which they learn most easily, (4) development of various types of standard- ized tests, (5) analyses of textbooks, and (6) surveys of present conditions in secondary edu- cation. Since all these fields of investigation are illus- trated in subsequent sections of this Bulletin, only brief mention is made of them here. The most common form of research in the determination of objectives is to summarize the published statements which represent the judg- ment of frontier thinkers or committees, and noting wherein their viewpoints agree or dis- agree.? Among the research methods for the selection of curriculum content are job and activity an- alyses, tests of practicality such as frequency of use in business and social practice? and fre- quency of mention in newspapers and periodi- cals, analysis of home activities,®? and tabula- tion of interests of pupils and their parents. Studies of how children learn are a guide in the selection of methods, grade placement of materials, and in assignments.* Among the various types of standardized tests which research has developed are prog- nostic, accomplishment, and diagnostic tests. Many local school systems have found it de- sirable to develop tests to cover the content included in their new courses of study.® Analyses of textbooks are made chiefly for these two reasons: (1) To see how nearly the points covered agree with the content outlined in the course of study, and (2) to see whether the materials presented are within the range of comprehension of the pupils using them.® Status studies or surveys of present practices are often as valuable in showing weaknesses as In serving as a direct guide. An evaluation of local conditions is often a good starting point for curriculum revision. Periodic studies of current practices in a large number of school systems are valuable in showing trends.” Amount of research in each of the secondary school subject fields varies widely—This sec- tion of the Bulletin summarizes briefly some of the essential findings of selected research studies in twelve secondary school subject fields, which have a more or less direct bearing on course-of-study building. In certain fields, such as modern foreign languages, Latin, sci- ence, and social studies, numerous research studies have been made, and their findings have been summarized. Subsequent sections, dealing with these subjects, review these summaries in succinct form. In the case of the Modern For- eign Language Study, which is reported in sev- enteen volumes, space permitted only the brief- est mention here of certain phases of the study. The reader is urged to consult the original studies in this, as well as in other, subject fields. In other subjects, such as home economics, considerable research has been done, but it has not been summarized, and since it is published in more or less isolated periodicals and mono- graphs, it is difficult to locate. In certain subjects, such as art, practically no research has been carried on, so that a sum- mary of the findings makes a very meager show- ing. In subjects where few research findings are available, statements of trends are given and progressive viewpoints are cited. In a few instances, there may be better ma- terial available than here presented, for facili- ties were not adequate for making a complete collection of research studies. “The amount of research material presented here under the va- rious subject fields varies for two reasons: (1) Much more research has been carried on in some fields than in others, and (2) practically 1 See page 233 for an illustration of the rating of industrial arts objectives in junior high school and in senior high school by a jury of 58 people. 2 As an illustration of this form of research, see section on modern foreign languages, page 195. 3 See section on industrial arts, p. 233. 4 See page 221 for a review of ten learning studies in the field of science. These studies were made to determine which is better, the individual laboratory or the demonstration method of teaching physics and chemistry. 5 For an illustration, see page 199, which describes testing for achievement in the modern foreign languages. 6 An example of this type of research is given in the section dealing with research in high-school science. See page 218. 7 As an illustration, see page 197 for enrolment in modern foreign language classes, and page 199 as to what proportion of high- sch ool pupils take Latin. { 193 ] all the available research findings in some sub- jects have been collected and summarized, in other subjects this has not been done. Where the latter is the case, the material presented here may be more or less incomplete. The influences which affect the evolution of curriculums may be classified under two heads: (1) Subjective and (2) objective. Under the first may be included such factors as the pooled opinion of experienced teachers, empirical ex- perimentation, and the judgment of frontier thinkers. ‘The objective influence comes from scientific studies which seek to base their con- clusions upon definite, quantitative data. Until recently, practically all course-of-study development was based upon subjective or phil- osophical procedure. In the last decade, there has been a strong tendency to seek objective bases for course-of-study materials. The results of research in the field of the curriculum are in many cases crude and incon- clusive. The importance of many of these studies lies in the promise which they hold for the future of a more scientific basis for cur- riculum revision, perhaps even more than their actual contribution at present. In differentiating between the two bases for curriculum revision, it is not meant that they are mutually exclusive. Reflective thinking should always constitute one of the bases for curriculum change. As rapidly as the results of research permit, however, it should cease to be the sole basis. Objective data should re- place guesswork as a basis for many decisions affecting the curriculum. A good omen for the future is the amount of study, discussion, and research concerning secondary education now taking place. This section of the Bulletin seeks to indicate a few of the more important influences, both of the subjective and the objective type, which are at present affecting the evolution of the sec- ondary school curriculum. The character of the material presented for each subject differs. In some secondary school subjects, selection of both content and methods is still based almost wholly upon subjective evi- dence. In others, this type of evidence is being supplanted by research. The amount of the material of each type presented here is influenced by the limitation of space available in a bulletin of thts length. This section does not present even in part all the material which an intelligent committee on curriculum revision should consult. Rather, it seeks to mention some of the more significant lines of development and to cite materials in which more comprehensive consideration of both objective and subjective materials is pre- sented. NE OF THE chief intellectual purposes of the school is to develop understanding of the institutions, problems, and issues of contemporary life. Historically, whenever a rapid transformation of the conditions of living has taken place, the tendency has been for the curricu- lum to lag behind. Because of the great changes in modern life, there is at present a real need in certain fields of a new synthesis of knowledge and, correspondingly, for a new grouping of the materials of the school. School practice, both past and present, has conceived too generally of curriculum-revision as a task for intermittent administrative reorganization. . . . Because of the dynamic nature of mod- ern society and of the steady accumulation of truth concerning learning and child growth, school systems and colleges should make provisions for the continuous study, evaluation, and testing of the materials of the school curriculum, and the importation of new materials or the elimination of old kinds whenever this proves to be justifiable—The Twenty-Sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pp. 21-23. [ 194 ] Research in Modern Foreign Languages ' Extensive research findings available in the teaching of modern foreign languages—The Modern Foreign Language Study,2 which has just been completed, is one of the most compre- hensive ever made in the field of secondary education. It presents extensive data on nine phases of modern foreign language teaching: Course content, enrolment, organization, post- scholastic use of modern language, prognosis, reading, teacher training, testing for achieve- ment in modern languages, and transfer of training. Most frequently used words in French, Spanish, German, and English—The Word Books cited in footnote 1 below list the words most frequently used in writing in four languages. The French and Spanish lists are running werds of 1,250,000 and of 1,200,000 running words respectively, in texts widely representative of the various types of writing; the German list is based on a count of 10,910,- 777 running words. ‘Table 1 on page 196 lists the 25 most common words in the Spanish, German, and English ? Word Books. The Word Books and the Idiom Lists,* which are also based on counts of approxi- mately a million words each, give a more scien- tific starting point than did individual judg- ment for the preparation of elementary lan- guage texts, sources for drill materials, and various vocabulary studies. Idiom lists objectively selected present basic materials. “The Spanish, French, and Ger- man idiom lists,* made available through the Modern Foreign Language Study, present material which cannot be ignored by anyone interested in the making of elementary gram- mars, or the selecting and editing of texts, or, in fact, in any phase of curriculum construc- tion in these languages. 1 Local course-of-study committees charged with building high-school courses in modern foreign languages and language teachers interested in improving their teaching are urged to consult the following references, classified under seven headings: I. Course Content Buchanan, M. A., A Graded Spanish Word Book. University of Toronto Press, 1927. Tabulated for range and frequency on a count of 1,200,000 running words. Cheydleur, F. D., Editor, A French Idiom List. New York, The Macmillan Company. In Press. Tabulated for range and frequency on a count of 870,000 running words. Johnson, C. L., ‘‘ Vocabulary Difficulty and Text-Book Selection,’’ Modern Language Journal, February, 1927. Keniston, Hayward, Editor, A Spanish Idiom List. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1929. Tabulated for range and frequency on a count of 1,000,000 running words. Morgan, B. Q., and Purin, C. M., A German Word Book. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1928. Tabulated for frequency on the basis of Kaeding’s Hdufigkeitswérterbuch der deutschen Sprache, whichis derived from a count of 10,910,777 running words. Vander Beke, George, Editor, A French Word Book. New York, The Macmillan Company. In Press. Tabulated for range and frequency on a count of 850,000 and for frequency on 1,250,000 running words. Wood, Ben D., ‘‘A Comparative Study of the Vocabularies of Sixteen French Textbooks, ’’Modern Language Journal, Feb- ruary, 1927. Note: For a list of the words most frequently used in English, see: Horn, Ernest, A Basic Writing Vocabulary, 10,000 Words Most Commonly Used in Writing. College of Education, Uni- versity of Iowa, lowa City, Iowa, 1926. II. Enrolment Wheeler, C. A., and others, Enrollment in the Foreign Languages in Secondary Schools and Colleges of the United States. York, The Macmillan Company, 1928, New _ III. Post-Scholastic Use of Modern Languages O’Shea, M. V., The Reading of Modern Foreign Languages, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1927, No. 16. 42 tables. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 78 pp. and IV. Prognosis Henmon, V. A. C., Achievement Tests in the Modern Foreign Languages. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1928. V. Reading Buswell, Guy T., A Laboratory Study of the Reading of Modern Foreign Languages. 1927. 100 pp., 43 plates, 11 tables, 15 figures. New York, The Macmillan Company, = VI. Teacher Training Stuart, Hugh, Training of Modern Foreign Language Teachers for the Secondary Schools of the United States. 111 pp., 25 tables. Columbia University, New York City, 1927. Teachers College, VII. Testing for Achievement in Modern Languages Wood, Ben D., New York Experiments with New-Type Modern Language Tests. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1927. See also: Smith, Henry Lester, and Wright, Wendell William, Second Revision of the Bibliography of Educational Measure- ments. Bureau of Cooperative Research, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind., 1927, pp. 133-150. 2 An enterprise made possible by a grant from the Carnegie Corporation, by the effective collaboration of the American Council on Education and the guages. The completed study will consist of 17 volumes. U. S. Bureau of Education, and by the assistance of numerous specialists in education and in modern lan- 3 When this table was compiled, the French Word Book was not yet off the press. 4See references in footnote 1 above. [e195,| Enrolment in foreign language classes— number of high-school students enrolled in More high-school students are enrolled in modern languages was 784,352; in Latin, Latin classes than in all the modern language 794,085.1 classes combined—in 1925 the estimated total 1 See Wheeler, C. A., and others, Enrollment in the Foreign Languages in Secondary Schools and Colleges of the United States. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1928. TABLE 1.—TWENTY-FIVE MOST COMMON WORDS IN THREE LANGUAGES (Note: The Spanish list is not comparable with the German and English lists, since approximately the first 189 most common w ords in Spanish were eliminated from the count.) Spanish! German? English parte part medio half amor love tierra agua hallar nombre encontrar servir persona VOZ rey echar obra modo cielo pueblo luz fuerza gente mar recibir punto ultimo alto earth water to find name to meet to serve person voice, vote king to seek work mode, manner sky village light strong people sea to receive point last high 1 Buchanan, Milton A., A Graded Spanish Word Book, p. 18. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada, 1927, 2 Morgan, B. Q., and Purin, C. M., A German Word Book, p.1. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1928. 3 Horn, Ernest, A Basic Writing Vocabulary, College of Education, University of Iowa, lowa City, Iowa, 1926. TABLE 2.—PERCENT WHICH FOREIGN LANGUAGE ENROLMENT IS OF TOTAL HIGH-SCHOOL ENROLMENT, DISTRIBUTED ACCORDING TO SIZE OF COMMUNITIES Size of Community Foreign Language Enrolment 30,000 to 100,000 99,999 and over Less than 2,500 to 999 Latin enrolment for 1921-22, not including grades 7 and 8 of junior high |—-—-——— ——_]—_\__ | _ ]_"_§_—_— |——— school. Percent of total Latin enrolment. . : ‘ : : 6:0. 650 8 6) ee ® © © 5. Wid we a O88) ele 8 Boe Modern Foreign Language | Percent of total high-school en- enrolments for spring ses- rolments)20 2 i.cick eee. eee sion, 1925, with grades —— —-@@ ——@ ——___——_——_ 7 and 8 of junior high | Percent of modern foreign lan- school.?2 guage enroiment jaasseea eee Read table thus: In 1921-22, in communities of less than 2500 population, the number of pupils enrolled in Latin was 30.7 percent of the total high-school enrolment in these communities. Thirty-seven percent of the total Latin enrolment in the United States (in all sized communities) was found in communities of less than 2500 population. The enrolment in modern language classes, in 1925, in communities of less than 2500 population, was 15 percent of the total high-school enrolment in these communities. It wasalso 15 percent of the total modern language enrolment of all communities included in the Modern Foreign Language Study. 1 Classical Investigation, p. 276. 2 Enrolment in the Foreign Languages in Secondary Schools and Colleges of the United States, p. 82. [ 196 ] The percentage of modern language enrol- ment in secondary schools varies directly and the percentage of Latin enrolment varies in- versely with the size of the community. This same general relationship holds between for- eign language enrolments and size of school. ‘Table 2 shows that while approximately two- thirds of the Latin enrolment is in communi- ties under 30,000, 60 percent of the modern language enrolment is in communities of more than 30,000. More than one-half of the total modern foreign language enrolment is in secondary schools with over 1000 pupils. Table 3 shows that the percent of the, total high-school enrolment taking modern foreign language courses varies from 12 percent in the West Central states to 45 percent in the New Eng- land states. A larger percentage of college than high- school students take modern foreign lan- guages—Table 4 shows that, while the per- cent of the total college student body taking French or Spanish is about twice that of the high-school, for German it is about nine times as great. From these figures, some suggest that college preparatory students should take more modern language courses while in high school. In 1925 slightly over 40 percent of the students entering higher institutions brought French credits; less than 20 percent, Spanish credits; and an insignificant number, credits in German and Italian. Of those offering French, 37.7 percent offered three or more points. 1 See: O’Shea, M. V., The Reading of Modern Foreign Languages, U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1927, No. 16. ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. The reading of modern foreign languages— Is the time devoted to the study of foreign languages in high school or in college well spent? T’o answer this question, in the Mod- ern Foreign Language Study* testimony was gathered from a sampling of 6400 people who had pursued modern foreign languages for at least two years in high school or in college, or in both, and who had been out of high school or college for at least eight years. A sum- mary of this testimony showed that the per- centage of people who believe that the time devoted to a foreign language was profitably spent increases with the time devoted to the study. The combination of study both in high school and college seems to yield the best re- sults. Use of foreign language after graduation— Do those who have pursued modern foreign language in high school or in college read TABLE 4.—COMPARISON OF HIGH- SCHOOL AND COLLEGE MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGE ENROLMENT IN 19251 Percent of total college enrolment taking courses in Percent of total high-school en- rolment taking courses in 1See: Enrolment in the Foreign Languages in Secondary Schools and Colleges of the United States, by Carleton A. Wheeler and others, p. 401. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1928. Govern- TABLE 3.—PERCENT MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGE ENROLMENT IS OF TOTAL ENROLMENT, CLASSIFIED INTO EIGHT GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS! Percent modern foreign language enrolment is of total high-school enrolment Region New England Middle Atlantic 1 Based on data in Table II, Enrolment in the Foreign Languages in Secondary States, pp. 95-123. ; Percent modern foreign language enrolment is of Region total high-school enrolment West Central Southwestern Northwestern California Schools and Colleges of the United bi97"] new material in the original after graduation? The Modern Foreign Language Study shows that 69 percent of those who had pursued French for two years in the high school have not read anything in the original since gradua- tion. Sixty percent of those who studied it for three years and 37 percent of the four-year group have read nothing in the original since graduation. For German and Spanish, the situation is even less favorable. Data relative to those who began modern foreign languages in college show that only 50 percent have read varying amounts of foreign languages since graduation—and these largely for pleasure. Of what significance is the fact to modern foreign language teachers that considerably less than half of the graduates of both high school and college ever read foreign language in connection with research, travel, business communications, pursuit of occupation, or other practical purposes? These data face local course-of-study com- mittees and school administrators with such practical questions as the following: Would better educational guidance and the earlier eliminations from foreign language work of pupils not fitted for it by original ca- pacities, interests, and needs give them oppor- tunity for pursuing more useful studies? Would it result also in raising the general level of achievement in foreign language classes? In some communities, the present large enrolments call for so many teachers that a sufficient number of adequately trained lan- guage teachers is not available. If foreign language classes were restricted to pupils who would really profit from them, would there be enough good teachers to go around? How can the teaching of modern foreign languages be made more effective? What effect has the age of a beginning stu- dent on his rate of learning a foreign lan- guage?—Buswell,’ judging from the maturity of fundamental reading habits which result from two years’ study of French, states that there is no notable difference between students who begin the study of the language in high 1 Buswell, G. T., A Laboratory Study of the Reading of Modern Foreign Languages, p. 92. pany, 1927. 2 See: Wood, Ben D., New York Experiments with New-Type Modern Languages Tests, p. 8. pany, 1927. school or at the college level. On the same basis of judgment, children who begin the language in the elementary grades fall very much below the level of language maturity of the high-school and college students at the end of two years. Which produces better results, the direct or indirect method?—According to Buswell, the method of teaching a foreign language has a striking effect upon the reading habits of stu- dents. The maturity in reading which re- sults from two years’ study is decidedly greater with students taught by a direct method than with students taught by an indirect translation method. Psychologically the essence of the direct method of teaching is the direct associa- tion of foreign symbols with their meaning without the intermediary use of the verna- cular, During equal periods of time, approximately equal degrees of maturity are reached in French, German, and Spanish when these lan- guages are taught by similar methods and under similar conditions. Conditions which modern foreign language study more successful in Europe than in this country—After administering modern | foreign language tests to 25,000 junior high- school pupils in New York City, Wood ? was convinced of the stark fallacy of taking calendar-time spent “studying” a modern lan- guage, or rather attending modern language classes, as a measure of achievement in that lan- | guage. Comparison of the foreign language situation in this country with that in Europe suggested that only a small fraction of these 25,000 pupils belonged in foreign language classes. According to Wood, we have tried to put foreign language study in the common curriculum and have unjustifiably assumed it would be as successful as it has been in what Europeans call secondary education. We have failed to consider the fact that, make In Europe foreign language instruction (a) is restricted to highly selected students, who are really competent to learn a foreign language in addition to the native language, and who can reach a general New York, The Macmillan Com- New York, The Macmillan Com- [193 ] culture level high enough to make mastery of a foreign language useful in adult life activities; (b) is given by teachers of a high general culture level, whose mastery of the language itself and whose knowledge of the culture and civilization of the people that use it are above question, and who have had expert pedagogical training; and (c) is con- tinued, when once begun, long enough to make pos- sible a genuine mastery of the language itself and a real acquaintance with the culture, civilization, and history of the people that use it. What is the least number of years that a student may “take” a modern language with profit?—Individual differences are so great that no general answer will suffice. Recent surveys such as that of junior high-school pupils in New York? show that some pupils learn more foreign language in one semester than others learn in four semesters. The final answer is probably a combination of good tests of general intelligence used as prognostic de- vices and trial-periods in modern language classes in which the amount and rate of pro- gress of each individual are ascertained at least once each month, with a view to making such trial-periods as short and as effective as possi? ble. To make trial-periods short we must have accurate and comparable measurements of de- fined achievements. Testing for achievement in the modern for- eign languages °—The New York experiment with new-type modern language tests was a state-wide objective survey of student-achieve- ment. One ninety-minute examination was used for all year-classes in each language. This in- sured comparability between the measures of achievement in all year-classes on a state-wide basis. The results of this test suggest a way of escaping from the old time-serving conception of language achievement. According to the New York study, one ninety-minute examination is adequate to measure the whole range of achievement in high-school modern language work, i. e., the achievement of students in second, third, and fourth-year modern language classes. These examinations were based on carefully selected objective data, such as word-counts and inven- tories of grammars, and were further checked by experimental evidence. Each part of these new-type tests was carefully scaled in difficulty on the basis of actual responses of students, so that the whole range of achievement was covered by small and regular increments of difficulty. Research in High-School Latin * What proportion of high-school students take Latin?—According to the U. S. Bureau of Education, in 1924, 940,000 pupils, or ap- proximately 27.5 percent of the total junior 1 Wood, Ben D., op. cit. p. 100. 2 For lists of standardized modern language tests, see: Department of Superintendence, The Development of the High School Curriculum, Sixth Yearbook, pp. 362-3. D. C., National Education Association, 1928. and senior high-school enrolment, were taking Latin. This was a slightly larger number than the total number studying all other foreign lan- guages. The enrolment in Greek was about Washington, Smith, Henry Lester, and Wright, Wendell William, Second Revision of the Bibliography of Educational Measurements, pp. 133-50. Bureau of Cooperative Research, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind., 1927. Wood, Ben D., New York Experiments with New-T ype Modern Language Tests. 3 For more detailed information, those charged with building local courses of study in Latin should see: American Classical League, Advisory Committee, The Classical Investigation, Part One, General Report. sity Press, Princeton, N. J., 1924. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1927. Princeton Univer- This inquiry enlisted the aid of 48 educational experts and 8,595 teachers, and included data from over 2,000 schools and about 150,000 pupils. American Classical League, Advisory Committee, The Classical Investigation, Part II, Documentary Evidence for the General Report, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J., 1925. Broyler, Cecil R., Thorndike, E. L., and Woodyard, Ella, ‘‘A Second Study of Mental Discipline in High School Studies,” Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. XVIII, pp. 377-404, September, 1927. sedan Clyde R., ‘‘The Evolution of Latin Teaching,’’ School Review, Vol. XXXV, pp. 576-598, October, 1927. Ruch, G. M., and Stoddard, George D., Tests and Measurements in High-School Instruction, Chapter VIII, Part II, pp. 166-— 174 on Latin. World Book Company, Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York, 1927. : & Thorndike, E. L., et al., ‘‘An Inventory of English Constructions, with Measures of Their Importance,’’ Teachers College : 1, pp. 580-610, February, 1927. ; cee : OE brett beat N. A Study of the ( suality of English in Latin Translations, Teachers College Contributions to Education, No. 187. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1925. , Woody, Clifford, The Ulman-Kirby and Godsey Latin Tests, and the Carr English Vocabulary Tests, Bulletin No. 56, 1923, and Bulletin No. 64, 1924. Bureau of Educational Reference and Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Note: For a list of texts purporting to embody the results of the Classical peveetiea ton see pages 380-382, Sixth Yearbook. Department of Superintendence, National Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1928. [199 J 11,000. In the public high schools, nearly one- half of the Latin enrolment is in the ninth grade or below, while only one-fifteenth is in the twelfth grade. Of all pupils who begin Latin in the secondary schools, 69 percent study it for only one or two years. What are the valid aims in the teaching of Latin?—According to the Classical Investiga- tion, these aims are valid for the secondary course as a whole: 1. Increased ability to read and comprehend Latin. 2. Increased understanding of those elements in English which are related to Latin. 3. Increased ability to read, write, and speak English. 4. Increased ability to learn other foreign lan- guages. 5. Development of correct mental habits. 6. Development of an historical and cultural background. 7. Development of right attitudes toward social situations. 8. Development of literary appreciation. 9. Elementary knowledge of the simpler general principles of language structure. 10. Improvement in the literary quality of the pupil’s written English. Are the ultimate objectives of the teaching of Latin being realized?—Studies! based on reports from 85,000 pupils show that the aver- age amount of time spent outside of class on the preparation of Latin lessons is greater than that spent on any other subject. Even with this expenditure of time, there is ample evidence, according to the Classical In- vestigation, that really satisfactory results are not at present being secured. Cumulative evidence from many different sources indicates that this situation is largely due to con- gestion arising from introduction into the course of too many formal elements, especially during the first year, too early introduction of the first classical author to be read, failure to include in the course abundant easy reading material for the purpose of developing early the pupil’s ability to read Latin 1Uhl, Willis L., ‘“How Much Time for Latin?”’ Element in High Schools,’’ Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1928, p. 376. 3 One of the objective studies which contribute data on this point is the Thorndike-Grinstead Word Count. as Latin, prescription of too large an amount of Latin to be read intensively, lack of sufficient variety in the choice of reading material, and failure to give adequate emphasis to attainment of the ulti- mate objectives——Part One, p. 91. What should be included in the high-school Latin course?—These are the recommenda- tions made in the Classical Investigation and the Sixth Yearbook: ? Reading material should be continuous “made Latin” from the earliest possible moment; it should be well graded in difficulty, interesting, and rich and varied in details of classical life; and it should be constantly illuminated with collateral reading in English. Confinement to one author for a long period should not be made before the third semester of the four-year course. Functional learn- ing both requires and permits a much more gradual distribution of formal elements over the first three semesters than at present. The major topics which should be presented in the Latin and in the supplementary English readings include the daily life of the Romans; characteristic Roman ttraits; classical history, traditions, and government; the topography and geography of the ancient world; the political, social, and economic attainments of the Romans; the general significance of Rome, and her influence on Western civilization. The vocabulary recommended for mastery should be from 400 to 500 words for the first year; and about 500 for each succeeding year. A much larger number of words may be casually introduced, pro- vided excessive detail and confusion are avoided. The selection for mastery should be based both upon later usefulness in Latin and upon richness of con- tribution to the English vocabulary.® } What methods are most effective in teach- ing Latin?—Methods in quite general use, but strongly disapproved by the Classical Investi- gation are: (1) Attack on the Latin sentence in a non-Latin order (i. e., subject, then verb, then dependent elements) ; (2) translation as a means to comprehension, especially if it ad- heres literally to the Latin; (3) looking up word meanings as a first step in comprehen- sion; (4) in advanced work, the requirement The Classical Journal, Vol. XIX, January, 1924, pp. 215-221; ‘“‘The Time School Review, Vol. XXXII, February, 1924, pp. 105-121. 2 Department of Superintendence, The Development of the High School Curriculum, Sixth Yearbook, Chapter XVIII. National This study gives a definite list of the words derived from Latin most frequently occurring in English and a list of the Latin words most important for the interpretation of these English derivatives. tion, Part Two. } See: pre Classical League, Advisory Committee, The Classical Investiga- Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J., 192 Grinstead, Wren Jones, “‘A Report of the Latin-English Word Count of the American Classical League,’’ Teachers College Record, Vol. XXVI, No. 1, September, 1924, pp. 32-46. [ 200 ] of translation of the entire passage as the chief activity; (5) the memorization of forms and rules of syntax, in advance of actual experience of them in reading; and (6) syntactical or in- flectional dissection of a reading passage fol- lowing its comprehension or translation. On no point is the report more emphatic than on this. Sound method centers around comprehen- sion, to which syntax, inflection, and the oral and written use of Latin are auxiliary. ‘The essential of sound method in syntax and inflec- tion is to make them functional, rather than formal. Who should study Latin?—According to one writer,’ the present junior and senior high- school population consists of these three groups: (1) Those who should study Latin taught in the more or less traditional fashion; (2) those who should study a modified Latin; and (3) those who should not study Latin at all. The first class is made up of children with intelligence somewhat above the average, with an inclination for languages. Latin will be for them a vocational, a disciplinary, and a cul- tural subject. For them, both content and method will be modernized, but the essential characteristics of the old Latin course will be preserved. ‘The second class will probably study Latin only for a year or two. ‘They should have a course that will emphasize the contribution of Latin to English and that will familiarize them with the Roman character and culture. In content and method this will mean a decided change from the traditional course. ‘The interest and welfare of the third class demand that they be advised away from Latin. High-School English ° High-school graduation requirements in English—English is the most universal con- stant. Of the 41 states which have particular subject requirements for graduation, 19 require 8 semester credits or 4 years of English; and 22 require 6 semester credits or 3 years. A study of several hundred individual schools shows that the four-year requirement is general throughout eastern and southern schools, and the three-year requirement runs a close second in north central and western sec- tions. Small schools usually include four years of English among the constants.® See: Sage, Evan T., ‘‘Who Should Study Latin?” English not only a subject of instruction, but the means of communication used for teaching all the subjects—All teachers in the school should have a share in the task of teaching cor- rect and effective English expression. Only through the cooperation of all members of the staff can any school maintain the social re- quirements of good usage. Improvement in a pupil’s spoken and writ- ten English will come much faster if all the teachers in a school help by refusing to tolerate either oral or written language which is no- tably ungrammatical or slovenly. The pupil’s The Classical Journal, Vol. XX, No. 3, December, 1924, pp. 143-151. 2 Among the references which local course of study committees and teachers interested in improving their teaching of English are urged to review are the following: Department of Ee mere The Junior High School Curriculum, Fifth Yearbook, Chapter IX. National Education Association, Washington, D. C., Department of Bieaendanee The ee oeaere of the High-School Curriculum, Sixth Yearbook, Chapter XIV. National Education Association, Washington, Dace Clapp, John M., Chairman, ‘ Journal, Vol. 15, No. Zz February, 1926, pp. 110-134. “Report of ie regnrre on the Place and Function of English in American Life,”’ The English Coale, Willis Branson, The Professional Needs of Teachers of English. New York, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. Committee of aa National Education Association, Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools, U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1917, No. Gates, Arthur a Ted mprovement of Reading: A Program of Diagnostic and Remedial Methods. Company, 1927. Gray, William S., Chairman, Report of the National Committee on Reading. Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Il., Society for the Study of Education. New York, The Macmillan Part I, The Twenty-Fourth Yearbook, National 1925. Hudelson, Earl, English Composition, Its Aims, Methods, and M easurement, The Twenty-Second Yearbook, National Society for the Study of Education, Part J; Johnson, Roy Ivan, English Expression: A Study in C urriculum-Building. 1926 Willing, Matthew H., Valid Diagnosis in High-School Composition.. ‘Columbia University, 1926. Woodring, Maxie Nave, and Benson, Rachel Theresa, Enriched Teaching of English in the High School. of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927. Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, IIl., 1923. Bloomington, Ill., Public School Publishing Co., New York, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, New York, Bureau Requirements for High-School Graduation, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1928, No. 21 [ 201 ] quality of English is the school’s business quite as much as it is that of the teacher of English. The latter can properly be held responsible only for instruction in the technic; but the whole school and extra-school life affords the practice. English is a cooperative subject. No one teacher can get results alone. “The results accomplished in English are an index of what the school stands for. The Baltimore course of study? urges co- operation between the English department and other departments for even more vital reasons: Correlation between the departments shows the pupils that the knowledge gained in one depart- ment may be appropriated to advantage in another ; that the various subjects they study are not isolated things, but have relation one to the other; that all studies bear some relation to their lives; and that they all serve in some way to help them to interpret life. Three major objectives of the teaching of English—A review of recent secondary school courses in English shows that emphasis is placed, not so much upon the acquirement of facts about books and authors, as upon the cre- ation of a love for worthwhile reading and the development of facility in oral and written ex- pression. Most of the potential values in the study of English can be grouped under these three heads: (1) Facility of expression, (2) power of interpretation, and (3) appreciation. Among the factors involved in facility of ex- pression are: (1) Accuracy of statement—in- cluding the choice of appropriate words and grammatical sentence construction, (2) rapid- ity in correct oral and written expression, and (3) attractiveness or beauty of language. Power of interpretation involves skill in get- ting the thought readily, fully, and accurately from speech as well as from the printed page. 1 Baltimore Public Schools, English Course of Study for Junior and Senior High Schools. more, Md., 1924, p. 11. Literary appreciation involves good taste in the use of language, insight into and regard for literary content, and good judgment as to the merit of literary effort. How determine the content of high-school English courses?—-Among the various methods which have been used are these: 1. Survey of vocational needs—Inquiries sent to people in many occupations, asking them to list the uses which they make of language and their typical difficulties. The Clapp report ® is an illustration of this type of study. It shows the frequency of use of different language activities from 253 occu- pational groups, including 2615 people in 300 towns in 35 states. 2. Analysis of prevailing school practice— Inquiries sent to heads of English departments of high schools and representatives of colleges. Davis’s study in the September, 1926, issue of the North Central Association Quarterly cites current English requirements in junior and senior high schools as to credits, recitations per week, length of period, pupil grouping, and relative emphasis on literature, language, oral composition, argumentation, library instruc- tion, outside reading, magazine and newspaper study, and textbooks. 3. Statistical studies of children’s errors in capitalization and sentence structure— These studies * show what usages in punctuation are most important. “They assume that frequency of use is a measure of importance. Some stud- ies also show the comparative difficulty of these — various practices for public school pupils. 4. Summary of judgments of teachers and pupils—Intensive studies * have been made of children’s interests as an aid in the selection of content for courses in literature and also for building up lists for outside or parallel reading. City Board of Education, Balti-- 2‘*Report of Committee on Place and Function of English in American Life,’ English Journal, Vol. XV, pp. 110-34, Feb- ruary, 1926. 3 Ruhlen, Helen, and Pressey, S. L., ‘“A Statistical Study of Current Usage in Punctuation,’’ The English Journal, Vol. XIII,. No. 5, May, 1924, pp. 325-331. Pressey, S. L., ‘“A Statistical Study of Usage and of Children’s Errors in Capitalization,’’ The English Journal, Vol. XIII,,. No. 10, December, 1924, pp. 727-732. 4 As illustrations, see: Uhl, Willis L., The Materials of Reading, Their Selection and Organization. Washburne, Carleton, and Vogel, Mabel, Winnetka Graded Book List. New York, Silver, Burdett and Company, 1924.. Chicago, American Library Association, 1926. Note: While the findings of this study are valuable for grades 5—8, the senior high school will find them suggestive for building up similar lists for outside or parallel reading. Weiser, A. B., and Ashbaugh, E. J., ‘‘ What Books Do Junior and Senior High-School Students Read?” Educational Research: Bulletin, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, Vol. III, pp. 223-8, 250-3, and 265-6, September 17 and October 1, 1924. [ 202 ] 5. Testing pupils’ ability to comprehend cer- tain literary selections—Irion + found that (a) literary comprehension of ninth-grade pupils can be fairly accurately measured; (b) com- prehension varies with literary type—poetic type being most difficult ; and (c) literary com- prehension correlates to a considerable degree with intelligence and with scores on the Thorndike McCall Reading Scales. 6. Analysis of social and business correspond- ence—The 10,000 words most commonly used in writing, and ranked according to frequency of use, are included in Horn’s Basic Writing Vocabulary, published by the University of Iowa. 7. Arranging an environment which sets free the creative spirit of youth—Teachers who have tried this method, state that it is one of the most helpful means of discovering the ca- pacities of their pupils.’ The high school must build on the work of the lower school—The high school inherits not only the product of the elementary school, but also the responsibility of continuing the proc- esses assigned in the elementary school to the so-called language arts— reading, writing, spelling, composition, and grammar. Ideally, pupils should come well schooled in these sub- jects; as a matter of fact, many of them do not. Hence for certain pupils the first year’s work in high school often has to be modified to fit conditions and to carry these pupils forward as far as possible toward the goals of the high- school English department. No senior high-school course which ignores the partly trained minority can be considered satisfactory. Backward pupils must be given training which meets their special needs, al- though, as far as the classroom is concerned, this training must be given in a form which will impose no handicap on the more capable members of the class. Further training in the high school in read- ing, spelling, writing, and grammar is essen- tial for two reasons: (1) The primary func- tion of the high school for the many is to com- plete the training begun in the lower school; 1 Trion, Theodore W. H., Comprehension Difficulties of Ninth-Grade Students in the Study of Literature. Columbia University, New York City. 116 pp. 2 See: Mearns, Hughes, Creative Youth. cisco, Calif., 1928, p. 15. Garden City, N. Y., Doubleday, Page and Company, 1925. ' § San Francisco Public Schools, English for Special Groups, High School, Grades IX-XII. (2) this training, in many cases, is necessary in order to go forward to new work with any promise of success. Sequence and continuity in the English course should be developed through a careful articulation of the work of the elementary school with the junior high school, and the work of the junior with the senior high school. Each teacher should be familiar with the entire course of study in English for elementary and high schools. English courses adapted to different groups— The San Francisco course of study in English for Special Groups ® is illustrative of several of the newer courses which recognize individual differences and language difficulties. ‘This course suggests that, when numbers permit, classes be formed according to: 1. Retardation due to language difficulties: a. Mentally retarded and also_ retarded through language difficulties b. Retarded not by mentality but by virtue of inability to understand and use the Eng- lish language. The aim here is to advance these pupils as quickly as possible so that they_may enter already existing groups. 2. Retardation due to mentality: The work expected from a retarded group depends upon the general interest, ability to work independently or cooperatively, and skill in oral and written expression. Generally the retarded pupils are poor readers, writers, spellers, and thinkers. They sometimes learn to read more rapidly by having the teacher read to them, while they read the same selec- tion orally. They learn many things by dicta- tion. Objective tests and silent reading tests quicken their power to read intently. With a retarded group, the minimum re- quirement should be the ability to reproduce the story, either orally or in writing. Simple dramatization should be encouraged by the teacher. Poetry should be read for appreciation, for the narrative and descriptive elements, and the rhythmic swing. A course outlined for special groups should be made so flexible that the teacher may feel free to select such materials as may be used Teachers College, 234 pp. Board of Education, San Fran- [ 203 ] to advantage with a particular group, since these classes vary in ability from term to term. Relation between the literature and compo- sition of a grade—According to the Baltimore City course of study, this relationship comes largely through reading. The student must read to attain the requisite knowledge of literature; he must read aloud or silently in order to make real progress in spoken or written expression. Thus the literature studied in any year furnishes the material upon which the teacher should draw to give exercise in oral ex- pression. But the chief source for the material in composition lies elsewhere. It lies in the world out- side of books. It is in the experience of the student himself; in his observation of his environment; in his investigation of his problems. In other words, it is life itself which he should reflect in spoken and in written speech. According to some, experience shows that the best results are secured by treating compo- sition and literature as one subject, the com- position practice drawing upon the literary selections studied for models and themes. In many of the newer courses of study, com- position and literature occupy approximately equal amounts of time—composition through actual practice in speaking and writing, and literature through the actual reading of books and journals. Developing literary appreciation in the senior high school—Over-emphasis in matters of technic and literary criticism is unwarranted in the high school. While in the eleventh and twelfth grades technical details of structure should not be overlooked, the method of ap- ——~ proach should not be formal, or the structure emphasized at the expense of thought and feel- ing. A text in literature must not be regarded as a convenient means for illustrating rhetorical principles, for it is a much greater thing; it is an interpretation of life itself. A pupil should get sufficient joy from a well-selected high- school text in literature, so that in his leisure hours he will return to it of his own accord and with ever-increasing pleasure because of its human interest and content. ‘The highest use of all literature is not to fill us with facts, but to set us thinking. To illustrate, the Lansing, Mich., course of study + urges that: In the study of the novel and the drama, setting, plot, and character delineation should be empha- sized; in the short-story, the single aim of the writer and the single impression of the reader; in the one- act play, the author’s economy and art in building upon a single dramatic incident; in lyric poetry, the writer’s thought and mood. What help from tests?—It is recommended that, whatever type of test is used—achieve- ment, prognostic, or diagnostic—each be used to improve the effectiveness of individual in- struction. While group standardized tests in the mechanics of composition offer a basis of comparison with the norms of the country, and are good measures to indicate the ability of the group, they are poor measures to dis- cover the errors that individual pupils make in speaking and writing. Objective tests can be made which measure, with a fair degree of accuracy, reading ability, comprehension, and literary information.” 1 Lansing Public Schools, Course of Study in English, Grades I-XII, Board of Education, Lansing, Michigan, 1926, p. 160. 2 See: Ruch, G. M., and Stoddard, George D., Tests and Measurements in High School Instruction, Yonkers-on-Hudson, World Book Company, 1927, pp. 97-135, for a list and ‘discussion of English (language, grammar, spelling, reading, and composition) tests. [ 204 J ’ Curriculum Studies in the Social Sciences “Scientific” versus the “guessing” method in selecting content "—Until recently, courses of study for the training of pupil citizens have been compiled by a priori, ‘guessing’ methods. Often the result was a body of poorly selected and unevaluated material, far too bulky and comprehensive to permit of adequate treat- ment. Today, effort is made to determine scientifically what specific information, skills, concepts, generalizations, appreciations, atti- tudes, and ideals should be developed. ‘The chief problem is to select from the vast amount of available material those socially valuable activities of greatest relative worth to citizens. ‘Textbook writers, according to Rugg’s sum- mary of studies which analyze social science texts, have attempted to solve this problem by encyclopedic methods and have included some facts about many persons, dates, countries, cities, topics, concepts, and problems. ‘The students’ failure to learn, retain, and apply these often unrelated facts has led research workers to analyze content in terms of the actual needs of citizens and in terms of relative values. Rugg*® has summarized and_ interpreted fifty investigations of the social values of his- tory, geography, civics, economics, and soci- ology. A few of the indications of these studies are presented in subsequent paragraphs. While evidence from some studies is highly tentative, it is, nevertheless, suggestive to curriculum makers. Can the problems of citizenship be de- termined with precision?—These four ob- jective methods have been used: 1. Analysis of topics and problems discussed by newspapers and magazines 2. Judgment of lay citizens concerning problems 3. Statement of problems found in political plat- forms 4. Statements of “frontier” thinkers, specialists in the study of society. In selecting periodical literature from which to make an analysis of important issues, the basis should not be wide circulation but rather the question as to which periodicals are most “alive” to critical issues. In determining what particular problems of contemporary society are of greatest relative 1 Local course-of-study committees and teachers interested in improving their work in the social studies will need more detailed findings of research than are presented in this Bulletin. They are urged to see: American Historical Association and the National Education Association, ‘‘Reports of a Joint Committee on History and Education for Citizenship,’’ The Historical Outlook, Vol. X, pp. 273-81, May, 1919; Vol. XI, pp. 73-83, 111-5, February, March, 1920; and Vol. XII, pp. 87-98, 119-43, 165-84, and 208-18, March, April, May, and June, 1921. Bamesberger, Velda C., An Appraisal of a Social Studies Course, Contributions to Education, No. 328. Columbia University, New York City, 1928. Teachers College, Bixler, G. K., ‘‘Social Problems of the Labor Group,’’ Summary and Interpretation in: Bobbitt, Franklin, Curriculum Investi- gations, Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 31. Dawson, Edgar, The History Inquiry. University of Chicago, Chicago, IIl., 1926. The McKinley Publishing Company, Philadelphia, Pa., 1924. Department of Superintendence, ‘‘ The Social Studies,’’ Chapter VII, Third Yearbook, Research in Constructing the Elementary School Curriculum, pp. 217-78. National Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1925. Department of Superintendence, ‘‘ The Social Studies,’’ Chapter XIII, Fourth Yearbook, The Nation at Work on the Public School Curriculum, pp. 323-79. National Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1926. Department of Superintendence, ‘‘ Junior High School Social Studies,” sept Rimes Fifth Yearbook, The Junior High School Curriculum, pp. 213-91. National Education Association, Washington, D. C., 192 927. Department of Superintendence, ‘‘ Research in High School Social Studies,’’ Chapter XIII, Sixth Yearbook, The Development of the High School Curriculum, pp. 289-309. Gambrill, J. M., Experimental Curriculum Making in the Social Studies. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1924. ; : . Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York Par, 1924. 5 Harap, Henry, Education of the Consumer. Lee, Baldwin, Issues in the Social Studies. City, 1928. National Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1928. The McKinley Publishing Company, Philadelphia, Mathews, C. O., The Grade Placement of Curriculum Materials in the Social Studies, Contributions to Education, No. 241. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1926. Monroe, Walter S., and Foster, I. O., The Status of the Social Sciences in the High Schools of the North Ceniral Association, Bulletin 13. Bureau of Research, College of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, IIl., 192 National Society for the Study of Education, ‘‘The Social Studies in the Elementary and Secondary Schools,”’ Twenty-Second Yearbook, Part II. Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Ill., 1923. Osburn, W. J., Are We Making Good at Teaching History? Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Ill., 1926. Rugg, Earle U., Curriculum Studies in the Social Sciences and Citizenship, Colorado Teachers College Education Series, No. 3. Colorado State Teachers College, Greeley, Colo., 1928. Note: The subsequent pages, relative to research in the social studies, have drawn heavily on this volume, which sum- marizes 50 semi-scientific studies of pioneer students and research workers in the field of the social sciences and citizenship education. Rugg, Harold O., ‘‘ Teaching the Social Studies,’’ The Classroom Teacher, Vol. XI. Ill., 1927. The Classroom Teacher, Inc., Chicago 2 Those concerned with the building of social studies courses on a more scientific basis will be interested in following the work of two committees. Association, of which A. C. Krey of the University of Minnesota is chairman. on a cooperative basis over a period of five years. The first is the ‘‘Committee on History and Other Social Studies in the Schools’”’ of the American Historical This committee has undertaken a study conducted The appointment of a committee on social studies was also authorized by the American Council on Education on May 3, 1929. * Rugg, Earle U., Curriculum Studies in the Social Sciences and Citizenship, Chapter VI, Colorado Teachers College Education Series, No. 3. Colorado State Teachers College, Greeley, Colo., 1928. [ 205 ] worth, it would seem that dispassionate ex- perts, each stating issues in his particular field, can better enumerate these problems than can the average layman. A summary of opinion ef laymen, however, should probably not be overlooked. While political platforms do not yield a complete or critical inventory of political ques- tions, they do give the curriculum-maker a crude check on broad topics. In the judgment of many, the opinion of “frontier” thinkers, men and women trained in economics, government, and societal needs, are the best source for statements of America’s most insistent, crucial, and permanent prob- lems. How Determine the Content of Social Studies? What facts have greatest social values?— The following studies are illustrative of the objective type made to determine what facts have greatest social value. They show that the facts, topics, and problems of large social value are only a small part of the sum total of human experience and knowledge in each field ; and that the socially valuable facts are now insufficiently provided for in the school curri- culum. ‘These four criteria are used to discover facts of greatest social and civic value: 1. Occurrence in periodicals of general circula- tion. 2. Occurrence in books and encyclopedia articles dealing with modern problems. The application of the two above criteria requires the analysis of a wide range of periodicals, books, and encyclopedias and the listing of frequency of mention of topics. Rugg* summarizes nine such studies, which show the relative emphasis upon con- tinents, principal European countries, cities, char- acters in American history, economic topics, and historical and geographical topics. 3, Judgment of experts as to what are socially valuable facts. For example, one study ascertained a standard list of dates in American history by asking 150 members of the American Historical Association to rank the twenty most important dates out of a long list found in elementary school histories.” 4. Various other standards or criteria. To illustrate, one study ranks 52 countries ac- cording to their relative importance by using these criteria: (a) The area of the country in square miles, (b) population, (c) total value of imports, (d) total value of imports from the United States, (e) total value of exports, and (f) total —— of exports to the United States.° The shortcomings of the methods mentioned above for selecting course-of-study content are apparent. “The most that would be claimed for some of these technics, even by those inves- tigators who have used them, is that they rep- resent groping steps in the direction of scientific procedure in social science curriculum con- struction. They offer a better basis than pure guess-work in selecting segments of worth- while content. Activities and Traits of a Good Citizen Objective determination of desirable knowl- edge and traits required of a good citizen— Most people would agree that an essential step in developing good citizenship is a decision as to what knowledge is required and also what traits characterize good citizens. One or more efforts have been made to discover these factors, using each of the following methods: 1. Listing major classes of reading material bear- ing upon citizenship. Rugg * has reviewed three studies of this type which rest upon the assumption that analysis of reading materials will reveal broad categories which indicate “what man is thinking about, what he is dealing with, and what activities he is per- forming.” 2. Discovering the citizenship. Interviewing laymen, analyzing editorials in periodicals, and analyzing special articles on citizenship are among the methods used in discover- ing the necessary equipment of a good citizen. 3. Securing subjective judgments of desirable and undesirable citizenship traits. In applying this method, Bobbitt® secured the consensus of opinion of large groups of experienced duties and difficulties of 1 Rugg, Earle U., Curriculum Studies in the Social Sciences and Citizenship, pp. 31-52, Colorado Teachers College Education Series, No. 3. Colorado State Teachers College, Greeley, Colo., 1928. 2 See: Wooters, J. E., ‘‘Elementary American History Standards; Results of an Investigation Carried on to Determine the ee Important Dates for Memorizing in the Elementary School,”’ School and Home Education, Vol. XXXIV, pp. 152-5, Decem- r, 1914. 3 See: Branom, M. E., and Reavis, W. C., ‘‘The Determination of the Minimal Essentials of Elementary School Geography,”’ Seventeenth Yearbook, Part I, pp. 27-39, National Society for the Study of Education. Public School Publishing Company, Bloom- ington, IIll,, 1918. 4See: Rugg, Earle U., Curriculum Studies in the Social Sciences and Citizenship, Colorado Teachers College Education Series No. 3, pp. 70-77. Colorado State Teachers College, Greeley, Colo., 1928. 5 See: Bobbitt, Franklin, Curriculum-Making in Los Angeles, Supplementary Educational Monographs No. 20. University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill., 1922. [ 206 ] people as to the desirable charactertistics and abilities of the good citizen. Snedden* analyzed deficiencies of particular case groups such as “owning farmers,” girls of a poor environment, and children of Russian-Jewish immigrants, especially those aged 12-14. 4. Recording of special types of civic training demanded of lay citizens. Among the methods used are: (a) Listing the causes of litigation revealed by the records of a county clerk over a period of three years;” (b) having several classes in public schools make a record of civic transactions of members of their families;* and (c) determining standards relative to consumers’ needs and discovering extent to which these are applied.* 5. Summarizing lists of traits demanded by lay citizens. These are among the studies which have been made: (a) Several hundred people listed in Who’s Who in America, representing the fifteen occupa- tions in which the majority of the American people are engaged, were asked to list five or more traits that they considered the most essential to efficient citizenship;> (b) Citizens have been interviewed as to their duties and difficulties;° (c) Books of essays have been analyzed to determine the qualities that citizens should possess;‘ and (d) Books of etiquette and articles in magazines have been analyzed to discover what forms of conduct society has approved.® 6, Discovering how much voluntary reading of “lay” citizens pertains to the social sciences. To illustrate: The book withdrawals from the New York central and branch libraries for one year were analyzed, as was also the proportion of books of various classes published during that year. According to this study, about four out of every ten non-fiction books withdrawn deal with the social sciences and half of these, in the opinion of librarians, represent what might be called volun- tary reading. All librarians consulted, except one, tend to support the claim that there is a leisure time value or objective to be sought in the teach- ing of the social sciences.” See: Snedden, David, Civic Education. 7. Securing the judgment of “Jay citizens” con- cerning the values of school subjects and activities in life. For example: The judgments of 874 citizens in “various occupations, who were high-school grad- uates, were secured concerning the value of school subjects and activities in later life.” How Shall the Content of Social Courses Be Organized? Studies A unified course versus traditional subject- matter divisions—The content of courses in the social studies is organized at the present time along different lines. Some school systems offer the traditional courses of geography, history, civics, and economics. Others offer a unified course embodying all these subjects. In many school systems, the traditional organization prevails for two reasons: (1) Some believe that the maintenance of separate traditional sub- ject-matter divisions produces the best educa- tional results; (2) others, while accepting the unified course in theory, feel that it is imprac- ticable to put into practice at present due to lack of unified textbooks, unified courses, and teachers prepared for handling these courses. ‘Those who now organize the social subjects in a unified course feel that geography, history, civics, and economics are so intimately related that the traditional subject-matter divisions impose artificial barriers to the most effective presentation of these materials. Among those who lean toward unification, considerable difference of opinion exists as to the extent and character of the unifying pro- cess. The supporters of the “‘composite-sub- ject” policy would accept the conventional sub- ject divisions as points of departure, but World Book Company, Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York, 1922, ? Alderman, Grover H., ‘‘What the Iowa Layman Should Know about Courts and Laws,” School Review, Vol. XXX, 1922, pp. 360-4. 3 Goss, Ralph Ross, What Civic Knowledge Is Needed by an Indiana Layman? University of Indiana, Bloomington, Ind. 4Harap, Henry, Education of the Consumer. Master of Arts Thesis, unpublished. Library, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1924. 5 Breeze, Retha E., ‘‘What Constitutes Good Citizenship,”’ School Review, Vol. XXXII, September, 1924, pp. 534-6. § Mahon, T. J., Duties, Difficulties, and Oualities of Citizens, Master of Arts Thesis, unpublished. College, Greeley, Colo., 1925. Colorado State Teachers 7 Bobbitt, Franklin, Curriculum Investigations, Supplementary Educational Monographs No. 31, pp. 98-102. University of Chicago, Chicago, IIl., 1926. 8 Lorenzen, C. H., Approved Social Behavior as Revealed in Recent Literature, Master of Arts Thesis, unpublished. University of Chicago, Chicago, IIl., 1925. 9 Horn, Ernest, ‘‘A Study of Library Withdrawals and Books Published,’’ Twenty-Second Yearbook, Part II, National Society for the Study of Education, pp. 235-9. This study has been extended by Earle Rugg. Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, IIl., 1923. 10 Mort, P. R., and Devricks, R. K., ‘‘An Accounting of General Values in a Small High-School Curriculum,”’ School Review, Vol. XXIX, February, 1921, pp. 113-31. [ 207 ] through better, coordination and correlation would present them not as distinct, but as con- tributory or closely allied subjects. Most advocates of unification, however, would go farther. “They would reject the tra- ditional subject-matter divisions and much of the content associated with them—and would substitute material both old and new organized along lines radically different from the tradi- tional. This unified course may include diverse ma- terials from two or more of the following sub- jects: social problems, political and economic geography, history, civics, vocational informa- tion, economics, sociology, and current events. Some unified courses are so arranged that there are units of geography, of history, and of civics within the course. According to this plan, it is possible to have both history and civics with related geography in each grade without mak- ing any unnecessary subject divisions. History may be the major topic in one unit, civics in another, and geography in another. The sev- eral units of work may be expressed in problem form with sub-problems under each or as main topics with sub-topics. ‘The distinguishing characteristic of the unified course is that it begins with a social institution or a political or economic problem, not with a subject such as history or geography. The objective is to find and organize in thought-provoking form the data needed in dealing with these institu- tions and the problems which grow out of them. In many courses in the social studies, such as those developed in the University High School of the University of Iowa,! the organ- ization of each course is topical, and the form of phrasing is generally problematic. The Missouri state junior and senior high- school social studies courses,? prepared by a committee appointed by the Missouri State Teachers Association, represents a thought- provoking compromise between the old chron- ological and topical methods of teaching his- tory and the newer approach through modern | social problems. For many school systems, a compromise be- tween the traditional subject organization and the unified course is probably desirable—at least as a transitional step. Progress undoubt- edly needs to be made in focusing instruction on social institutions and modern problems, but we must not value too lightly the syste- matic and more complete view which was offered by the carefully refined subject-matter of geography, history, civics, and economics. An Illustration of a Unified Course The Missouri social studies courses are ex- amples of unified courses. “They consist of these six parts: I. Seventh Grade—The Background of Ameri- can Life: A. How geographical conditions influence life (Two weeks). B. Types of environment and of mankind (Two weeks). C. Our inheritance (Two weeks). D. How man learned to control natural forces (Two weeks). E. How civilization has grown (Four weeks). F. Examples of civilization from the Near East (Four weeks). G. Examples of civilization from early Europe (Four weeks). H. From the old to the new (Four weeks). I. Europe preparing for expansion (Four weeks). J. The New World the great discovery of the fifteenth century (Four weeks). K. From Europe to America (Four weeks). L. The English Colonies (Four weeks). II. Eighth Grade—The United States: A. Thirteen colonies to thirteen states, 1776- 1781 (Four weeks). B. The thirteen confederated states, “The League of Friendship,” 1781 to March 4, 1789 (Four weeks). C. The new nation, 1789-1801, Republic” (Four weeks). D. The new nation finding a place among the nations, 1801-1829 (Four weeks). E. Life in the new nation, 1800-1829 (Four weeks). F. Expansion and _ conflict, weeks). G. Reconstruction and getting together, 1865- 1900 (Eight weeks). H. Working together for our national welfare, 1900 to the present (Four weeks). “A Federal 1829-1865 (Eight 1See: Courses in the Social Studies for Junior and Senior High Schools, Extension Bulletins, College of Education Series No. 1 Series Nos. 8, 9, and 10. University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. 2 See: Courses of Study in Junior and Senior High Schools, Bulletin No. 10, 1928, Social Studies, State of Missouri, Depart- ment of Education. [ 208 ] III. Ninth Grade—The Practice of American Citi- zenship: A. Introduction: Living Together, Society and Government, and the Individual and So- ciety (Two weeks). B. The social organization of society (Three weeks). C. Economic phases of social life (Three weeks). D. The political organization of society (Twenty-four weeks). E. The vocational phases of social life (Four weeks). F. Ideals as an important phase of social life (Four weeks). IV. Tenth Grade—World History:+ A. A period of beginnings (Two weeks). B. The period of ancient oriental beginnings (Three weeks). C. The period of Graeco-Roman civilization (Eight weeks). D. The period of civilization (Four weeks). E. The period of medieval civilization (Three weeks). F. The period of discoveries, explorations, ex- pansions, and reform, 1400 to 1600 (Two weeks). G. Modern monarchial governments have their day and their wars (Four weeks). H. Industrial and political revolutions (Two weeks). I. Modern nations (Five weeks). J. Our modern world (Two weeks). K. The World War, 1914 to 1919 (Two weeks). L. Happenings of our own time (Three weeks). V. Eleventh Grade—American History: (Twelve main topics.) Twelfth Grade—American Problems: Among the problems outlined for discussion are these: Education in American democracy, the problem of the family, immigration, the VI in transition negro, crime, poverty and dependence, religion, the rural problem, the problem of the city, unemployment, women and children in indus- try, conservation and utilization of natural re- sources, large scale production and capitalistic organization of industry, transportation, com- munication, and world commerce, money, credit, banking, distribution of the national wealth and income, public opinion, interna- tional relations and world peace. The grade placement of curriculum ma- terials in the social studies—One study,? made to determine the difficulty of reading and graphic materials of the social studies by the objective responses of pupils, involved the test- ing of nearly 10,000 children in grades 4-12. The results revealed growth of comprehension ability and suggested a basis for grade place- ment of materials. Objective measures were obtained for 72 samples of curriculum materials from 45 sources. Samples were chosen from the fol- lowing types of materials: Episodes, descrip- tions, expositions, newspaper articles, bar graphs, line graphs, circular graphs, time lines, pictograms, and maps. The assumption was that by testing the ability of a large number of fourth-grade children to comprehend these ma- terials, and by repeating forms of this test year after year on the same children until they grad- uated from high school, knowledge of the growth of comprehension could be accumu- lated. Among the conclusions reached were these : 1. Ability to comprehend and interpret the read- ing and graphic selections used here increases gradually from the fourth to the twelfth grade. This is the general tendency. In a few cases the data show increases between consecutive grades. 1 The World History Course in St. Louis, Mo., (Curriculum Bulletin No. 25, Board of Education of the City of St. Louis) is somewhat similar. Its major topics are as follows: A. The Orient—Problem: What did primitive and oriental man contribute to modern civilization? B. Greece—Problem: How did the Greeks advance civilization? C. Rome—Problem: What were Rome’s chief additions to world civilization? D. The Middle Ages—Problem: What contributions of the Middle Ages paved the way to modern times? E. Modern History—Among the special objectives set up for this period are the following: 1. To gain an understanding of imperialism and the World War. 2. To see the importance of democracy since the War and its problems. The Denver Course in World History (Course of Study Monograph No. 19, Social Science, Senior High School—Grades 10-12, Public Schools, Denver, Colo., 1926) is made up of these units: I, What did primitive and oriental man bequeath to modern civilization? 13 days.) Il. How did the Greeks advance civilization? III. What were Rome’s chief additions to world civilization? About 753 B. C. to 476 A. D. IV. What contributions of the Middle Ages paved the way to modern times? About 476 A. D. to 1492 A. D. 19 days.) V. How did the period of the Protestant Revolt advance civilization? Beginning of time to 490 B. C. (About About 776 B. C. to 323 B. C. (About 16 days.) (About 14 days.) (About About 1500 to 1700 A. D. (About 15 days.) VI. How have the political, industrial, and social revolutions of the eighteenth century contributed to modern civilization? About 1700 to 1850 A. D. (About 35 days.) VII. What steps have the leading European nations taken in the nineteenth century toward democracy? 1914 A. D. (About 25 days.) About 1850 to VIII. What losses and what gains have come from the World War? (About 20 days.) 2 Mathews, C. O., The Grade Placement of Curriculum Materials in the Social Studies. College, Columbia University, New York City, 1926. Bureau of Publications, Teachers [ 209 J 2. Of the reading materials used in this investi- gation, the episodes were comprehended somewhat better than the other types in all grades except six and nine. 3. A comparison of the average degree of com- prehension of circular, bar, and lime graphs shows that, of the samples used in this study, the circular graphs are easiest, the line graphs most difhcult, and the bar graphs about midway between the two. ‘ 4. The seventy-two samples of printed and graphic materials, which were graded according to the degree to which public school children correctly responded to objective questions about them, may be used as a crude scale to aid in judging the com- prehension difficulties of similar curriculum ma- terials. A few other pioneering studies in this diff- cult field also promise greater objectivity in grading social science materials. Can social issues profitably be taken up in high-school social science classes?—QOne au- thor,? after listing 429 issues found in 15 civics textbooks and 524 issues found in 22 treatises in ten technical social fields (such as govern- ment, public finance, immigration, labor and capital), and after analyzing the replies of 508 social science teachers as to whether or not they considered in their class discussions the twenty issues most frequently mentioned in the above sources, writes as follows: It is believed that there is a place in the high school for such a consideration of issues as will encourage and foster the habit of reasoned and un- biased judgment. In a situation where the search is for the truth, where all the available data are marshaled and duly studied, where no preconceived views are imposed and each individual is urged toward a carefully deliberated conclusion of his own—this is truly to be in the atmosphere of the scientific spirit. The introduction of live issues lends vitality to the work of the school; it helps to develop intelligent opinions among pupils on the issues that perplex the society in which they live. One of the primary needs of the day from the point of view of the schools is a more scien- tific attitude in dealing with social questions. This calls for the study of live issues in a scientific spirit in the classroom—a_ study marked by impartiality, candor, and critical thinking, and in which the objective is to teach how to think, not what to think. The practical difficulties and personal dan- gers which threaten attempts to study live so- cial issues even in the most scientific spirit are fully recognized. These difficulties, however, do not justify a policy of avoiding everything that is controversial. he school can never fully realize its purpose if such a policy pre- vails. Some consider it as undesirable to shirk current questions as to promote propaganda concerning them. In their judgment, it is a good thing to make pupils feel that their educa- tion is fitting them to cope with matters about which the world is excited; it gives them a sense that scholastic teaching is not divorced from the practical world. These are among the guards which, if ob- served, should make practical the discussion of: certain live issues in the public schools: 1. Teachers should be carefully trained to dis- tinguish between the approach of the propagandist and the approach of the scientist. The importance of strict impartiality in arriving at final decisions should be clearly realized. 2. The introduction of the study of controversial issues should be made gradually. 3. The community should be taken into the con- fidence of teachers and school administrators. Class conscious groups, particularly, should under- stand the impartiality of the school’s attitude, and their constructive cooperation be enlisted in main- taining that attitude. 4. Common sense should prevail as to which live and controversial issues are discussed. ‘The school cannot cover all of them. Proper selection should result in the use of topics which are appropriate for the consideration of children, which have large social significance, and which do not arouse un- necessarily warring public emotions. 5. The pitfalls of poor teaching in this field and the danger of misunderstanding on the part of the public should be carefully evaluated, in order that difficulties may be prevented rather than cured. 6. Remember always that the objective is to de- velop a method of studying controversial issues, not to settle them in the classroom. A tactful teacher will develop a spirit of open-mindedness in pupils by seeing that both sides to controversial issues which come up for discussion are presented. That this is feasible is shown by the data pre- sented in the next paragraph, which show that of a large group of teachers consulted nearly half of them consider controversial issues. Are controversial issues avoided ?—In answer to this question, 48 percent of 508 social science 1 See: Lee, Baldwin, Issues in the Social Studies, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1928. [ 210 ] teachers answered “Yes”; 49 percent answered =O. 2 One writer? asks pupils to raise these questions in their study of each problem that arises : 1. What are the true facts in this matter? 2. Have I all the facts I need? 3. Is there another side to this question that I have not considered? 4. Are the facts I have read or have been told probably reliable? Can I depend on them as being true? Is there reason to believe that the people who gave the facts are prejudiced? 5. Which side of the question is supported by the most important facts? Training of the emotions as a means to better civic behavior—If individuals are to ‘cope successfully with our increasingly complex society, they must be trained to take intelligent attitudes regarding the more outstanding social, political, and economic issues. Observation shows that while a man’s social conduct is in- fluenced by his sober reasoning, it is also af- fected by his emotional slants—his passions, his enthusiasms, and his prejudices.* These facts face those charged with building social studies courses with such questions as these: Can the emotions be guided indirectly better than directly? Are the outcomes of the ‘“Droblem” type of teaching mainly intellectual or mainly emotional? Should the “apprecia- tion” type of teaching be one of the methods used in the social studies? In answering these questions, we should remember that the aim of our citizenship courses is to develop thinkers and doers, not reciters. The ultimate purpose of the social studies, according to Dawson, is the “development of faith in human institutions and progress—a faith that progress of the race may be ad- vanced through the social use of scientific knowledge about the character of mankind.” * “Social progress must stand on knowl- edge, understanding, and sympathy ; and knowl- edge must precede understanding and sympa- ehyowe 1 See: Lee, Baldwin, Issues in the Social Studies. City, 1928. 2See: Rugg, Harold O., Social Science Pamphlets. 3 See: Briggs, Thomas H., Curriculum Problems. Attitudes. Instead of merely evaluating instruction by oral or written examinations covering subject- matter, teachers should ask themselves ques- tions such as these: 1. Are pupils coming to have some responsibility for social progress—a desire to have a constructive part in bringing it about? 2. Is the spirit of the class such that unsocial acts are disapproved? The teaching of economics and sociology in the senior high school—Many school systems are debating whether these subjects should be introduced into the senior high school. There has been a steadily growing sentiment that in- stead of spending three or four years in the senior high school on history, more emphasis should be placed on civic, economic, and social questions. In deciding this issue, each school system should evaluate the content already offered in its social studies program, consider the caliber and development of the local high- school student body, estimate the intrinsic value of economics and sociology, and discover how well prepared the local teaching staff is to offer these subjects. A committee of Cincinnati teachers ° re- cently reported that economics should be taught in the senior high school in order: 1. To furnish a laboratory for scientific analysis of the laws and facts of our complex economic organization. 2. To create in this laboratory an informed, in- terested, critical, and socially minded citizenship for constructive handling of dynamic economic problems. ‘ 3. To appreciate the fact that industrialism has transformed the old individual order into a social one. 4. To appreciate man’s effort in obtaining wealth and using it wisely. 5. To give the students some instruments or tools of thought which will be useful vocationally. 6. To form the habit of using economic truths even when personal motives or principles must be sacrificed. 7. To enrich the students’ general reading back- ground and to train for an intelligent apprecia- tion of current literature on the affairs of the day. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1926. Chapter II, Emotionalized 4 Dawson, Edgar, Teaching the Social Studies, p. IX. New York, the Macmillan Company, 1927. 5 Jbid., p. 25. 6 See: Report of the Committee on the Status of Economics and Sociology in Senior High Schools in the United States. Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio, May, 1929. Public [erie Sociology, according to this report, should be taught in order: 1. To promote the general welfare of human soeiety, for the last century was one of material miracles and physical achievement. This century must be one of developing human and social wel- fare if we are to make social progress. 2. To realize that the study of sociology contrib- utes to the understanding of the great social prob- lem of living well together. 3. To teach the boy or girl their relations and duties toward social institutions, because good citi- zenship is of prime importance in the solution of social problems. 4. To reconcile the major conflicting ideals of our day and generation, for the three outstanding social features of our day—further development of in- dustrialism and urbanism, the new contacts of di- verse races or nationalities, and the rise of femi- nism—need adjustment to the new social order. 5. To make the potential citizen realize that social evils do not “just happen” and that every- thing has its due cause. Research technics have not as yet developed to the place where they furnish a guide in de- cisions as to whether it is desirable to add some content from the fields of economics and so- ciology to the secondary social studies course. Philosophical and subjective considerations must determine the questions for the present. The ideal should be to develop objective means to aid in arriving at such decisions. The Present Status of the Social Studies Twelve general impressions—The commit- tee responsible for the History Curricula In- 1 Dawson, Edgar, The History Inquiry. quiry of the American Historical Association * gained these twelve general impressions: 1. Ancient history as a separate course seems to be receding in popularity. 2. The tendency to stress recent history seems to be weakening the popularity of medieval history. 3. English history as a separate subject seems to be losing ground. 4. The one-year course in world history, while popular in some quarters, does not seem as yet to have made much headway. 5. American history tends to move from the senior year to the junior year of the high school. 6. There is a tendency to put into the last year of the high school a course in current problems, under some such title as Modern Problems, or Problems of Democracy, or Social Problems. 7. New York and Maryland have recently set up, for the second, third, and fourth-year high- school grades, a three-year course in history; and correspondence with trained history teachers shows that this movement has widespread support. 8. There seems to be a tendency to put into the first year of high school one or more of the new Civics courses. 9. There is considerable interest among school administrators in a junior high-school course made up of a combination of materials taken from geography, government, history, and industrial and social conditions. 10. The tendency to give a large amount of time to the socialized discussion of current events seems to be growing. 11. The teaching of government seems to be standing still, if not actually receding, under the pressure for a rather indefinite discussion of eco- nomic and social problems. 12. The training of teachers for the social stud- ies, separately or as a group, is in need of attention. The McKinley Publishing Company, Philadelphia, Pa., 1924. HE MOST fundamental teaching principle for the history teacher to keep constantly in mind is that the emphasis in all her teaching should be upon the learning process, upon the training which the pupil is getting by means of the subject rather than upon the subject itself. In other words, the subject must lose itself in becoming a part of the life of the adolescent boy or girl. The goal must be units of human development or maturing, rather than units of subject-matter completed. The function of every subject that is brought into the high-school curriculum must be to contribute definitely to some aspect of physical or mental maturing of the pupil. The main objective is to bring the pupil to as high a stage of maturity as possible by the proper adaptation of the subject-matter to his present ability to grow. The critical problem is that of determining clearly just to what extent and how the social studies may contribute to this training and development.—The Teaching of the Social Studies, Bulletin, Vol. VI, No. 4, Maryland State Department of Education, Baltimore, Md., 1924. [2124] Trends in High-School Mathematics 1 Few subjects taught in the secondary school elicit more contradictory viewpoints than does mathematics. What should be taught, how much of it, to whom, how, and why, are mat- ters of disagreement. ‘This section presents some of the trends. Modern aims in the teaching of mathemat- ics—Those interested in mathematics differ as to its principal objectives. One group em- phasizes its cultural value and regards it as a means of increasing power to think clearly and logically. ‘The other group looks upon mathe- matics as a means of providing pupils with in- formation and tools for use in ordinary pur- suits of daily life involving computation. Despite the rather general rejection of the faculty idea of psychology, some mathemati- cians still emphasize the “disciplinary” value of the study of mathematics. The following statement of the aims of mathematics was formulated by the National Committee on Mathematical Requirements: ” The primary purposes of the teaching of mathe- matics should be to develop those powers of under- standing and of analyzing relations of quantity and of space which are necessary to an insight into and control over our environment and to an apprecia- tion of the progress of civilization in its various as- pects, and to develop those habits of thought and of action which will make these powers effective in the life of the individual. Questions which face local course-of-study committees—These are among the questions which arise in planning junior and senior high- school mathematics courses: —_ How shall subject-matter be organized? Shall the traditional course in arithmetic be followed by algebra in the ninth grade, plane geometry in the tenth, and advanced algebra and solid geometry and trigonometry in the eleventh and twelfth grades? Is a general mathematics course, beginning in the seventh year and extending through the high school . with calculus as the last subject, the better plan of organization? Or would a compromise between these two plans be better? Should the seventh grade course begin with arithme- tic, which in many cases is a review, or with in- tuitive geometry? Should there be a unit of demonstrative geometry in the ninth grade? Would algebra be better understood if it were begun in the seventh grade and scattered through the eighth and ninth years? Traditionally, materials have been organ- ized in “logical units’—putting together sub- ject-matter which logically belongs together. Then, in studying the material, the pupil con- centrates intensely on one topic at a time with- out giving thought to its relation to other topics or to the course as a whole. For this reason, would it be better to organize courses in secondary school mathematics into “peda- gogical”’ rather than “logical’’ units? Recent Omissions and Additions to High- School Mathematics Courses Taking the country as a whole, the reorgani- zation of mathematics has scarcely begun. Counts,’ in his analysis of mathematics courses 1 For more detailed information, see: Department of Superintendence, The Development of the High School Curriculum, Sixth Yearbook. National Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1928. Chapter XV, ‘‘ Research in High-School Mathematics.”’ National Committee on Mathematical Requirements Under the Auspices of the Mathematical Association of America, The Reorganization of Mathematics in Secondary Education, Part I. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1927, 181 pp. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, First Yearbook, A General Survey of Progress in the Last Twenty-five Years. Charles M. Austin, Oak Park and River Forest Township School, Oak Park, IIl., 1926. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Second Yearbook, Curriculum Problems in Teaching Mathematics. of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1927. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Third Yearbook, Selected Topics in the Teaching of Mathematics. Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1928. 210 pp. Bureau 297 pp. Bureau of 276 pp. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Fourth Yearbook, Significant Changes and Trends in the Teaching of Mathe- matics Throughout the World Since 1910. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City 1929. 186 pp. Reeve, W. D., ‘‘The Mathematics of the Senior High School,’’ Teachers College Record, Vol. XXVIII, No. 4, December, 1926, pp. 374-386. The Reorganization of Mathematics in Secondary Education. matical Requirements, Bulletin, 1921, No. 32, U. S. Bureau of Education. : Woodring, Maxie Nave, and Sanford, Vera, Enriched Teaching of Mathematics in the High School. 128 pp. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1928. A Summary of the Report by the National Committee on Mathe- 73 pp. Bureau of Publications, 2 This committee was appointed by the Mathematical Association of America in 1916 and was assisted financially by the General Education Board. Thereport of the committee, The Reorganization of Mathematics in Secondary Education, was published fn 1923. pp. 13-14. 3 Counts, George S., The Senior High School Curriculum, Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 29. of Chicago Press, Chicago, IIll., 1926, pp. 57-66. The original report is out of print, but a revised edition has been issued by Houghton Mifflin Company, New York. The University atsey in fifteen selected school systems, found no striking difference between the contents of mathematics courses in many school systems and the recommendations made by the Committee of Ten or the Committee on College Entrance Requirements in the last decade of the nine- teenth century. However, according to the Fourth Yearbook of the National Council of Teachers of Math- ematics,! these are among the significant changes which have been made in certain school systems in secondary school mathematics courses In recent years: 1. Simplification of algebra—Few subjects in the high-school curriculum have undergone more changes in the last few years or have shown more progress than algebra. It is be- coming a live subject functioning in the life of the average individual. ‘To note the changes in the subject-matter of algebra: a. Compare the textbooks of a quarter of a cen- tury ago with those of the present day. b. Note the objectives set up for the teaching of algebra in modern courses of study. Among the first topics to be eliminated from elementary algebra were the highest common factor by division, cube root by the formula, the general theory of the quadratic, compli- cated brackets, complex fractions of a difficult type, simultaneous equations in more than three unknowns, the binomial theorem, and compli- cated radicals. “The old idea that “we must scientifically define all terms before they can safely be used” and develop the subject logi- cally has been replaced by a psychological de- velopment. 2. Numerical trigonometry — According to David Eugene Smith, the introduction of sim- ple numerical trigonometry in connection with the work in ninth-grade algebra is the most notable advance in the last quarter of a cen- tury in the teaching of algebra. 3. Emphasis on the meaning of graphs rather than the mere making of them—In the teaching of graphs, the fact is now recognized that the graph is not an end in itself, but it is equally important that the pupil learn to “think graphically” of relationships. A graph is a pictorial representation of an algebraic law. ‘The best approach to algebra is not by means of the equation or through the funda- mental operations, but through the study of the formula. ‘The study of the graph is a major trend today in algebra because with the formula it helps to clarify the idea of function- ality. A new type of graphic problems is find- ing its way into algebra. Problems from sci- ence, statistics, and everyday life are studied, both those that have mathematical formulas and those that do not, and the functional as- pects are emphasized. 4. Functional thinking — New meaning is being put into the teaching of algebra by re- placing the emphasis upon formal symbolism by the function concept. ‘The more progressive courses are now planned so as to bring out the dependence of variable quantities on each other at every possible opportunity. It is essential that the habit of thinking about relations be- tween quantities be established since this is needed in all activities of life. ‘To illustrate, the relation of interest to time and rate; of cost of transportation to distance and number of times materials are handled ; of accomplish- ment to speed; of the size of an angle to the amount of rotation of a line from one position to another; and of the area of a triangle to its length and base. Unfortunately, an analysis of several widely used algebras and geometries revealed that although on almost every page opportunities for training in functional think- ing are offered no systematic use of them is made.” However, some of the newer courses of study give special emphasis to this point.® 5. Changes in geometry—Geometry because of its age and its logical arrangement has re- sisted change more than other phases of math- 1 The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, The Fourth Yearbook, Significant Changes and Trends in the Teaching of Mathematics Throughout the World Since 1910. City, 1929, pp. 131-186. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York 2See: Breslich, E. R., “‘Developing Functional Thinking in Secondary School Mathematics,” in The Third Yearbook, The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. City, 1928, pp. 42-56. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York 3 To illustrate, on page 9 of the 1924 Baltimore City Mathematics Course of Study for Junior and Senior High Schools, this statement is made: The function idea which is introduced in the intuitive geometry is continued throughout the junior and senior mathematics course. [214] ematics. In many junior and senior high-school courses, the fundamental change has been the introduction of intuitive geometry in the sev- enth and eighth grades, and a short unit of demonstrative geometry in the ninth grade. Intuitive or informal geometry includes proofs by intuition or by experiment and provides a gradual and natural introduction to demon- strative geometry. According to Reeve,! the development of this idea of a definite course in informal geometry of the kind indicated above will stand as one of the notable advances of the last quarter of a century in the teaching of elementary mathematics. Emphasis is also being placed upon the fusion of plane and solid geometry. ‘The present tendency is in the direction of combining these two parts of geometry into a one-year course for the tenth grade. ‘The argument is that the important part of solid geometry for the well-educated citizen should not require a half year of study. Instead of requiring rigorous demonstra- tions of theorems whose meanings are already obvious to the pupil, postulates are given in many cases. 6. Introductory calculus as a_ high-school subject—In France, Germany, Austria, Eng- land, Russia, Italy, Spain, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Holland, and Belgium, calculus has been incorporated into the secondary school program for some years. In the United States it is offered in only a few schools. However, the National Committee on Mathematical Re- quirements recommended in 1923 that an ele- mentary course in calculus be offered as a high- school elective. 1 Reeve, William David, in The Fourth Yearbook of The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. 7. Applied problems—There is, at the pres- ent time, an apparent desire to introduce a rea- sonable number of applied problems in algebra, geometry, and trigonometry rather than to de- pend upon abstract propositions alone, and to arouse the interest of the pupil by an appeal to situations within his comprehension. ‘The re- alization is spreading that culture itself can be practical and can be acquired in conjunction with things that are practical. Suggested Content for the Mathematics Course in Grades 7-9 The junior high-school period offers oppor- tunity (1) for completing the elementary foun- dations of an education in mathematics and (2) for testing out the abilities and interests of pu- pils so that they can decide whether to drop mathematics, or to go on into technical courses which prepare for engineering, or to continue with regular college preparatory mathematics. The Committee on the Problem of Mathe- matics in Secondary Education? considered four groups of users of mathematics distin- guished as follows: a. The “general readers,” who will find their use of mathematics beyond arithmetic confined largely to the interpretative function. b. Those whose work in certain trades will make limited, but still specific demand for the “practical” use of mathematics. c. Those whose practical work as engineers or as students of certain sciences requires consider- able knowledge of mathematics. d. Those who specialize in the study of mathe- matics with a view either to research or to teaching or to the mere satisfaction of extended study in the subject. Bureau of Publica- tions, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1929, p. 163. 2 See: The Problem of Mathematics in Secondary Education, Bulletin, 1920, No. 1, U. S. Bureau of Education, for a discussion of the type of course suited to these four groups. WENTY-FIVE years ago algebra was taught, first, for the purpose of making mathematicians rather than American citizens; and second, for the purpose of developing patience and habits of persistence and of training a pupil in reasoning. In neither of these purposes did it succeed. It did not begin to do as much for the making of mathematicians as is done by the modern plan, because it presented the subject as a pure abstraction, without any contact with life. Equally did it fail in its other purpose, for it probably developed as much impatience as patience, it failed to make children persistent except as any puzzle may accomplish this end, and it was taught in such a mechanical way as to give no training in any reasoning that was worth while.—David Eugene Smith, Progress of Algebra in the Last Quarter of a Century. New York, Ginn and Company, 1925, p. 13. [ 215 ] Today mathematicians are more or less agreed that the mathematics course of the sev- enth and eighth grades should aim to: (1) Keep up a proper use of the fundamental skills in arithmetic through their application to such problems as trade, banking, insurance, and cor- porations; (2) introduce the pupil to the study of intuitive geometry; and (3) give him an un- derstanding of what algebra means—a knowl- edge of the formula, statistical and mathemati- cal graph, and the solution of simple types of equations. Some would outline the mathematics course for the ninth grade as follows: (1) The com- pletion of the course in elementary algebra; (2) a unit of numerical trigonometry based on the pupil’s previous knowledge of algebra and intuitive geometry; and (3) a short course in demonstrative geometry, which gives the pu- pil a chance to find out what it means to prove something. ‘his is done with a few axioms, postulates, and theorems, reinforced by some carefully planned work on original exercises. The following outline of topics included in the 1928 Pittsburgh course is more or less typical. The specific topics included and the time allot- ted to each will of course vary widely in dif- ferent school systems. “This outline is repro- duced here for illustrative purposes, not with the idea that it can necessarily be adopted by other school systems. TOPICS AND SUGGESTED TIME ALLOTMENTS IN PITTSBURGH SEVENTH, EIGHTH, AND NINTH-GRADE MATHEMATICS COURSES* Time? allotment in weeks Topics for low seventh grade Fundamental processes—drill min. daily Fractions—review Decimals—review Percentage Profit and loss Simple discount Commission Intuitive geometry: Construction Applied measurements Home arithmetic Equations BNWNH NNN PRE allotment in weeks Topics for low eighth grade Fundamental operations Short methods of computation Graphs Metric system Intuitive geometry Review and testing Time allotment in weeks Topics for low ninth grade Unit I—Formula Unit II—Statistical graph Unit I1I—Directed numbers Unit IV—Equations Unit V—Fundamental operations Review Time Topics for high seventh grade allotment in weeks Integers, common fractions, and decimals min. daily Percent—review Development of percents less than 1% and more than 100% Equations Accounts and simple banking FNNWENP eS allotment Stocks and bonds Mortgages, real estate, and building and loan... Insurance Sending money Review and testing NRHN WWH DH We Time allotment Topics for high ninth grade in weeks Unit VI—Fractions Unit VII—Fractional equations Unit VIII—Ratio and proportion Unit IX—Indirect measurements Unit X—Systems of linear equations Unit XI—Powers and roots Review 1 See: High-School Course of Study in Mathematics, Junior-Senior Divisions, Grades 7-12, The Board of Public Educa- tion, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1928. * The Pittsburgh Mathematics Committee makes it very plain that these time allotments are only suggestive, and that they are based on experience gained during an experimental period in the development of the local course of study, The Committee states that suggestions made by certain teachers indicated that some classes will have difficulty in doing the work in the suggested time. accorded for review. t : In some cases, administrative adjustment of the work must be made. also realizes that different situations require different treatments. The Committee This is especially true when considering the time [ 216 ] Adjustment of junior high-school with senior high-school mathematics courses—The general mathematics course of the junior high school has broken away from excessive formalism, and requires less skill and more understanding on the part of pupils. Where similar adjust- ments have not been made in beginning classes in the senior high school, maladjustment re- sults. The problem is often increased by the conflicting viewpoints of junior and _ senior high-school teachers and by textbooks which are poorly articulated. Differentiation of Mathematics Courses for Different Levels of Ability A plan for forming ability groups in high- school mathematics—The following suggested plan is similar to that found in a number of progressive school systems: All students who register for the first course in elementary mathematics are classified in Groups I, Ul, or III, according to their ratings in arithmetic based upon the eighth-grade teachers’ judgment and upon their achievement quotient sent up from the grades. If these have not been furnished, their ratings shall be determined by some mathematics test given under the direction of the head of the department. The program schedule should be ar- ranged so that a I, II, and III group can meet at the same hour. This will make it possible to have a student shift from one group to the other without disorganizing his whole program, hence errors in classification may be adjusted early and the student may be kept up to his true standard of ability in mathematics. At the close of the term, the head of the department can arrange the students in ability groups from the records of the current and previous terms. ‘The above plan illustrates only one method of sectioning students on the basis of their math- ematical ability ; each school system will want to develop the plan best suited to its needs. Some will decide that entirely new courses are necessary to meet the needs of different groups of pupils. Others will adapt to their local needs the plan found in the Baltimore and in many other courses of study: Unstarred topics constitute the minimum require- ment; all but double starred topics, the average assignment; and all topics, the maximum assign- ment. In the case of topics common to the three differentiations much drill upon examples of simple nature should be characteristic of the minimum re- quirement, while the other two, though not fore- going drill, should afford opportunity to try the more difficult. examples. ELATIVELY CONSERVATIVE position of mathematics despite the reorganization move- ment—A word should be said regarding the reluctance of the high school to abandon algebra and geometry. The case against these subjects as to the basic offerings in mathematics for the great majority of high-school pupils is clear. They reached the place which they occupy in secondary education largely by historical accident and by the grace of the doctrine of formal discipline. —They contain but little material that is related to either the present or the probable needs of the pupils. Experimentation indicates that even for that small group of individuals who possess great mathematical talent and who should be encouraged to pursue higher mathematics, some other organization of mathematics would give superior training; yet, the composite mathe- matics courses have made but little headway in these schools. . . . Undoubtedly, the intrenched position which algebra and geometry hold in the college entrance requirements have much to do with their persistence in the high-school curriculum.—George S. Counts, The Senior High School Curriculum, The University of Chicago Press, February, 1926. jeat?.] Research in High-School Science’ Science instruction in the high school as a preparation for rational, scientific living and thinking—This is one of the greatest needs of today when propaganda, frauds, fads, cults, isms, and other evidences of unscientific think- ing and living are rampant, despite the fact that the outstanding feature of modern intel- lectual leadership is the development of science and scientific method. A review of recent course-of-study bulletins in high-school science? shows that science teachers are coming to realize that science in school must be made a way of looking at the world, a way of dealing with problems, a way of enjoying life, a method of progressive ad- justment. The following statement of the general aims of science courses, prepared by a committee representing six San Francisco high schools, is illustrative: * 1. To enlarge the pupil’s vision, to stimulate his imagination and to add to his joy of living through a better understanding and appreciation of nature. 2. To enable the pupil to see how natural forces affect man’s existence and to learn that by greater knowledge and better control of these forces, man’s welfare will be enhanced. 3. To foster a love for the truth, to cultivate a desire to seek it and to aid the pupil in acquiring methods for finding it. 4. To counteract false assumptions and misappre- hensions by learning the correct interpretations and significances of natural phenomena. 5. To encourage the acquisition of knowledge by means of individual investigation and by first hand contact with the things studied. 6. To increase the pupil’s capacity for indepen- dent thinking and thus to develop his confidence and ability in attacking and solving problems of what- ever nature. 7. To establish scientific habits of thought and procedure, systematic gathering and sorting of data; the ability to recognize relationships between cause and effect and to deduce logical conclusions— thus providing the pupil with a set of tools useful in all phases of work. 8. To lay a substantial foundation in one or more of the branches of science which may be of enduring value to the individual or which may serve adequately as a stepping stone to higher learning. 9. To provide, for students not seeking a college education, certain occupational courses by means of which they may acquire something of very practical use to them in life. The scientific method demands that we ob- serve, reflect, and compare before drawing a conclusion. ‘The spirit and method of science “need to be carried over into the whole of our everyday living. Each individual pupil should be given some practice in using the scientific approach to the solution of problems. ‘The sec- ondary school’s responsibility is to bring to- gether appropriate and selected bodies of knowl- edge and experience which themselves interpret and explain different aspects of the environ- ment, and to arrange these in a form which stimulates reflection. This demands that sci- ence courses be related to the experiences, in- terests, and needs of pupils. 1 The reader is urged to consult the following references for more detailed summaries of curriculum and learning research studies in science, and investigations and suggestions on the teaching of science: Bayles, E. E., Fundamentals in High-School Science Teaching, Central Missouri State Teachers College, Bulletin, December, 1927. Warrensburg, Mo. Curtis, Francis D., A Digest of Investigations in the Teaching of Science. Philadelphia, P. Blakiston’s Son & Co., 1926. 341 pp. Department of Superintendence, The Junior High School Curriculum, Fifth Yearbook, Chapter [X, Junior High School Science. National Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1927 Department of Superintendence, The Development of the High School Curriculum, Sixth Yearbook, Chapter XVI, Research in High-School Science. National Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1928. Downing, E. R., Teaching Science in the Schools. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill., 1925. epee Charles W., Biology in the Secondary Schools. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New ork City. Frank, J. O., Teaching First Year Chemistry. Published by the Author, State Teachers College, Oshkosh, Wis., Fourth edition. Glenn, Earl R., Bibliography on Science Teaching in Secondary Schools, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 13, 1925. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Reorganization of Science in Secondary Schools, Bulletin, 1920, No. 26, U. S. Bureau of Education. Office, Washington, D. C. “‘Report of the Committee on Chemical Education of the American Chemical Society,’’ Neil E. Gordon, Chairman, Journal - iid Education, Vol. 1, May, 1924, pp. 87-93. Also reviewed in Curtis, Francis D., A Digest of Investigations in the Teaching of Science. Rusk, R. D., How to Teach Physics. J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, 1923. Twiss, G. R., Principles of Science Teaching. The Macmillan Company, New York, Revised, 1927. Woodring, Maxie Nave; Oakes, Mervin E.; and Brown, H. Emmett, Enriched Teaching of Science in the High School. of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1928. 2 See pages 271 and 272 for a list of 106 of these bulletins. 3 See page 15, Curriculum. Bulletin No. 210, Science—High School, Grades 9-12, San Francisco Public Schools, 1928 [218 ] Government Printing Bureau Curriculum Studies in the Field of Science Scientific interests of eighth and ninth-grade pupils and their parents \—An analysis of 8448 questions submitted by 1708 children and 4878 questions submitted by 1091 adults, in response to a request that they submit five questions each about the phases of science in which they were most interested, showed a great similarity be- tween the interest lists of boys and girls and of men and women, as well as a “sur- prising similarity” of the scientific interests of dwellers in urban and rural communities. About sixty percent of the questions dealt with the physical sciences and forty with the biolog- ical sciences. Ihe predominant interest, as re- vealed by the questions submitted was astron- omy in its various phases. Radio and various phases of electricity were next in importance. Other topics in which great interest was ex- pressed were: earthquakes, volcanoes, various phases of the weather, air, animals, insects, plants, birds, light, sound, and airplanes. It would be interesting to compare the find- ings of this study as to the science interests of children and adults with those which science teachers might expect them to have. Such a comparison could well be made by local com- mittees in connection with the revision of high- school science courses. Findings of this study suggest the need of frequent course-of-study revision. Radio could hardly have ranked as a subject of major in- terest a decade ago. To what extent do the principles and ele- ments of high-school physics enter into the everyday lives of people?—One investigator ” presented a list of 576 activities involving “rather definitely ascertainable principles and elements of physics’ to a group of over 100 boys and girls of high-school age and men and women from 37 occupations. “They were asked to indicate the extent to which these activities entered into their lives. The activities in- cluded things which people generally do for themselves, such as “replace burned-out fuses”’ ; things which they often have others do for them, as “take pictures with a camera of a special lens’; and things about which people think, as “wonder what makes one ‘hear the ocean’ in a seashell.’’ From the replies, the in- vestigator concluded that with the exception of sound and light, “boys are always much more affected by physics than are the girls.” He rec- ommends the following order of large topics in high-school physics: For boys, magnetism and electricity, invisible radiations, mechanics, heat, light, and sound; for girls, sound, light, heat, mechanics, magnetism and electricity, and invisible radiations. Science teachers may find it worthwhile to carry on a somewhat similar investigation in their own local schools. What about the social value of the contents of present high-school physics textbooks?—One investigator * made a line-by-line analysis of the content of three textbooks used by 94 physics teachers in 24 states. “This analysis revealed a “surprising similarity in the materials included in all three texts, with respect to general plan, amount of emphasis given various topics, and even in the choice of experimental and pictorial illustrative materials” ; 70 out of 73 topics were common to all three texts. According to this investigator, “the subject of physics in high school possesses its share of inherited tradition.” A critical study of the content of high-school physics with respect to its social value * was made through a questionnaire answered by 659 parents of Kansas high-school pupils. This questionnaire sought information as to the value to adults of each of 174 items which appear in high-school physics texts. Thirty-five of the 174 items were reported by 60 or more percent of the parents as being worthwhile for them to know about or understand. On the other hand, there were 23 items, such as ice-cream freezer and automobile radi- ator, not usually emphasized in high-school physics, which were reported by 60 or more percent of the parents as being worthwhile for them to know about and understand. 1See Sixth Yearbook, Department of Superintendence, pp. 355-6, National Education Association, Washington, D. C.; and Curtis, Francis D., A Digest of Investigations in the Teaching of Science, pp. 265-7 and 326-33, P. Blakiston’s Son & Co., Phila- delphia, Pa. 2 Herriott, M. E., ‘‘One Influence of Out-of-School Activities in Determining the High-School Physics Curriculum,’’ School Science and Mathematics, January, 1927, Vol. X XVII, pp. 56-60. 3 Hughes, J. M., “‘A Study of the Content of the Course in High-School Physics, with Suggestions of Needed Changes,”’ School Science and Mathematics, June, 1926, Vol. XXVI, pp. 619-23. 4 Title of an article by Charles Hoyt Watson, published in The School Review, Vol.X XXIV, No.9, November, 1926, pp. 688-697. [P2193] This study showed also that occupational life makes less difference than has been com- monly supposed in the selection of subject-mat- ter for high-school courses in physics. “There was a correlation of more than .90 among farmers, mechanics, professional men, mer- chants, and women in their choices of worth- while items for a course of study in physics. Distribution of emphasis —In chemistry, what is the relative stress placed upon descrip- tive matter, useful applications, equations and problems, and theory by representative text- books, teachers’ stress, and examination ques- tions? ‘Io answer this question, two investi- gators! made: (1) a page-by-page analysis of the five most widely used textbooks, (2) a de- termination of teachers’ emphasis as indicated by a compilation of 172 opinions of the rela- tive importance of things stressed; and (3) an analysis of 3609 final examination questions contributed by 83 schools in 37 states, and 41 examination questions of the College Entrance Board of the New England and Middle At- lantic States. ‘These were among their findings: 1. The most widely used textbooks are about one-half descriptive matter, one-fourth useful ap- plications, and one-fifth theory, problems, and equa- tion writing. The portion given to theory becomes slightly greater the more recent the text. 2. Very little attention is given pure theory. This fact, along with the emphasis given by teachers (as revealed by their own statements and examination questions) to descriptive matter and useful applica- tions in a proportion strikingly like that in text- books, would indicate that “the backbone of much high-school chemistry is a parrot-like repetition of textbook matter.” 3. The deviations in the content of high-school final examination questions indicate a wide diver- gence in the aims in teaching chemistry. 4. The investigators believe that “high-school chemistry is not primarily a memory subject and cannot successfully be taught as such.” Overlapping between high-school and col- lege courses in chemistry and physics—A com- parison * of the content of high-school and col- lege chemistry courses made by reviewing text- books and laboratory manuals in use in 26 high schools and 41 higher institutions showed: 1. Chemistry is taken predominantly by students in the last year of high school and the first year of college, and in both units there is identity of titles and duration of courses. 2. The similarities between high-school and col- lege texts far exceed the differences. To illustrate, the average percent of the total content devoted to definitions is 41 percent for college chemistry texts and 37 percent for high-school texts. 3. An analysis of the overlapping of laboratory manuals shows that only about one percent of the experiments are peculiar to college manuals, and 5 percent are peculiar to high-school manuals. 4. From this study, the investigator concludes that if a student takes a course in general organic chemistry in college after having had the high- school course, he is repeating a large portion of it. A second study ® relative to the duplication of college and high-school physics courses shows that, for the particular courses of study analyzed, on the average 17 percent of the high-school text material and 20.5 percent of the laboratory material is done again in col- lege; while 10.9 percent of the college text material, and 29.7 percent of the college labora- tory material is a duplication of what is taught in the high school. Some of this overlapping is justifiable. But how much? ‘Aimless and ill-balanced”’ is the charge which some investigators make relative to high-school and college texts. “The burden of proof seems to rest with those who defend the present status of affairs. What types of biological information go to the public through the newspapers?—A de- tailed classification made of 3061 biological ar- ticles appearing in seventeen full months’ issues of prominent and representative newspapers showed that 897 articles were devoted to health; 755 to animals; 660 to plants; 533 to food; 81 to organization of producers; 74 to nature; and 47 to evolution.* This study offers evidence that health should be one of the most 1 Cornog, Jacob, and Colbert, J. C., ‘‘A Quantitative Analysis of Aims in Teaching High-School Chemistry,” School Science and Mathematics, Vol. XXIV, February, 1924, pp. 168-73. 2 For a detailed account of this study see: Koos, Leonard V., The Junior College, Research Publications of the University of Minnesota, Education Series No. 5, Vol. II, pp. 387-531. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota, 1924. 3 See Osburn, W. J., Overlappings and Omissions in Our Courses of Study, Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Ill., 1928. 167 pp. 4 Finley, Charles W., and Caldwell, Otis W., Biology in the Public Press. University, New York City, 1923. The Lincoln School of Teachers College, Columbia [ 220 ] important objectives of science education; and that biology in the public press is homocentric and, therefore, differs fundamentally from most of the textbooks in elementary biology. Scientific knowledge demanded for an in- telligent reading of newspapers—According to one investigator,! an analysis of 630 newspaper articles having some relation to scientific con- tent showed the need of the broadest possible - foundation in general science since: 1. Only 13.7 percent of these articles give scien- tific information and require no scientific back- ground. 2. Only 1.2 percent of these newspaper articles actually define scientific terms as a basis for fur- ther information. Learning Studies in the Field of Science Which is better, the individual laboratory or the demonstration method of teaching chem- istry and physics?—-While further research is necessary to answer this question with finality, ten studies? with results generally favorable to the demonstration method have already been made. The following excerpts from the re- ports of investigators are more or less typical. In lecture demonstration experiments, the pupils made a final average upon all the exercises, 5 per- cent higher than the final average made by those who did individual laboratory work. The individual method took about twice as long as the demonstration method. “If the results of the demonstration work and the individual work are nearly the same, then it seems that the demonstra- tion work would not only be a time-saving device, but also a great saving in the purchase of extra laboratory individual work.” equipment necessary for The advantages in permanent knowledge were in favor of the individual method but were “so slight that it is of little consequence.” The demonstration group, when confronted with a new problem with only the apparatus given, were superior on the method of procedure before the experiment was performed and in the test after the experiment. ‘Therefore the demonstration group “has as much ability in attacking new problems as the group trained with the individual laboratory method.” The results secured through the use of the dem- onstration method were as good, if not better, in all three types of tests given—the tests for immediate knowledge, for permanent knowledge, and for knowledge of how to apply principles and technic in solving a new problem. While the advantage in favor of the demonstration method is small, it is very significant. When the demonstration method gives equal or superior results, it is.to be preferred to the indi- vidual laboratory method because it saves about one-half the time usually devoted to performing the experiments, and permits the instructor to use the time thus saved in relating the facts and prin- ciples to allied phenomena. Furthermore, the en- thusiasm of the class working together is most valuable. The individual method tended to be superior in those experiments that are especially difficult to perform or in which great care needed to be taken to see the exact procedure. Such facts suggest that the most effective method depends upon the nature of the experiments themselves and suggest the need for scientifically classifying them. While the “instructor method” has practically the same value for all types of pupils, the “pupil method” has a varying value depending upon the type of pupil; the “pupil method” is unsuited to lazy or indifferent pupils requiring constant super- vision, though well suited to ambitious pupils. Pupils of medium and low intelligence seem to profit more from demonstration than by their per- 1Curtis, Francis D., Some Values Derived from Extensive Reading of General Science, Contributions to Education, No. 163. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1924, pp. 10-27. 2 Anibel, Fred G., ‘‘Comparative Effectiveness of the Lecture-Demonstration and the Individual Laboratory Method,”’ Journal of Educational Research, May, 1926, Vol. XIII, pp. 355-365. Carpenter, William Methods of Laboratory Practice.”’ bia University, New York City, 1925. ., Certain Phases of the Administration of High-School Chemistry, Chapter IV, ‘‘A Comparison of Different Teachers College Contributions to Education, No. 191, pp. 29-46. Teachers College, Colum- Cooprider, J. L., “‘Oral Versus Written Inst ruction and Demonstration Versus Individual Work in High-School Science,”’ School Science and Mathematics, December, 1922, Vol. XXII, pp. 838-844. : . Cooprider, J. L., ‘‘Laboratory Methods in High-School Science,’’ School Science and Mathematics, June, 1923, Vol. XXIII, pp. 526-530. Cooprider, J. L., ‘‘Teacher Versus Student Demonstrations in High-School Biology,’’ School Science and Mathematics, Vol. XXVI, February, 1926, pp. 147-153. Cunningham, Harry A., ‘‘Individual Laboratory Work Versus Lecture Demonstration,’’ University of Illinois Bulletin, Dec. 6, 1920, Vol. XVIII, pp. 105-107. Cunningham, Harry A., ‘‘Laboratory Methods in Natural Science Teaching,’ School Science and Mathematics, Oct. and Nov., 1924, Vol. XXIV, pp. 709-715 and 848-851. Kiebler, E. W., and Woody, Clifford, ‘‘The Individual Versus the Demonstration Method of Teaching Physics,’’ Journal of OE alan Research, January, 1923, Vol. VII, pp. 50-58. nox, Review, May, 1927, Vol. XXXV, pp. 376-386. W. W., ‘‘The Demonstration Method Versus the Laboratory Method of Teaching High-School Chemistry,’’ School Nash, H. B., and Phillips, M. J. W., ‘‘A Study of the Relative Value of Three Methods of Teaching High-School Chemistry,” Journal of Educational Research, May, 1927, Vol. XV, pp. 371-379. [ 221 ] formance of the exercise individually. Hence, the type of classroom instruction should vary with the type of pupils in the group. Much can be gained by (1) a careful analytical study of each individual experiment to determine just what skills and abilities are necessary in mastering that particular exercise; (2) a careful testing and diagnosis on the basis of evidence ob- tained by the testing of each individual pupil to see if he has these skills and abilities; and (3) the adoption of such methods and technic for each individual as the study of both experiment and student indicates is best. Can effective training in scientific attitudes be given pupils? — According to one experi- menter,! it can. He first analyzed the litera- ture in order to secure a list of scientific atti- tudes. Deletions and additions were made to this list by 100 science teachers in high schools and universities. “To measure this recon- structed list, a ‘““Iest of Scientific Attitudes” was constructed. In one high-school science class, newspaper clippings containing false deductions, problems with insufficient or superfluous data, discussions of superstitions, incompleted demonstrations of experiments permitting prediction of possible solutions, and reports upon inventors and other scientists who were forced to struggle for their success against prejudice and narrow-minded- ness, were introduced and discussed fully by the class. “This class stood considerably higher in the ‘““Test of Scientific Attitudes” than did classes where no time was devoted to definite training in these attitudes. According to the investigator, extensive read- ing of general science apparently of itself serves to give some training in scientific attitudes; but such gains as may thus be secured are in- considerable as compared with those made when definite instruction is given. Even a small amount of such instruction pays large dividends. High-School Commercial Education ” The expanding commercial curriculum— Modern economic organization, which calls into play the commercial activities peculiar to our time and which, in turn, justifies com- mercial education, is a matter of the last few generations. Within recent years commercial education has taken on a new significance. “he term has been expanded to include all the jun- ior occupations found in offices and stores. It 1 Curtis, is no longer confined to preparation for the narrow and greatly changed field of book- keeping and stenography, but it is also con- cerned with office machine operating, retail selling, salesmanship, advertising, office organ- ization and administration, banking, foreign- trade clerical work, secretarial duties, expert filing, clerical duties, and many other kinds of business service. Each community in planning Francis D., Some Values Derived from Extensive Reading of General Science, Contributions to Education, No. 163, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1924, pp. 50-112. 2 For more detailed information, local committees charged with the building of high-school commercial courses of study and also teachers interested in improving their work are urged to consult the following: ‘ Anderson, John A., Fitting the Commerce Course of the High School and Junior College to the Needs of the Community, Educa- tional Research Bulletin, Pasadena, Calif.. May, 1926. Barnhart, Earl W., An Analysis of the Work of the Stenographer. Publishing Co., 1927. New York, Gregg Educational Monographs, The Gregg Blackstone, E. G., Research Studies in Commercial Education, University of Iowa Monographs in Education, First, Second, and Third Series. Iowa City, Iowa, 1926-29 Bureau of Public Personnel Administration, Preliminary Work on Tests for Stenographers, Washington, D. C., Public Personnel Studies, Bureau of Public Personnel Administration, Feb., 1928. Business Education in Secondary Schools, A Report of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education Appointed by the National Education gpa ee U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1919, ., Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits. Charters, W. W., and Whitley, I 1924 No. 55. Williams and Wilkins Co., Baltimore, Md., Denver Public Schools, Commerce, Senior High School, Course of Study Monograph, No. 8, Public Schools, Denver, Colo., 1925. Department of Superintendence, The Development of the High School Curriculum, Sixth Yearbook, Chapter XXIII, “ Research in High-School Commercial Studies.”’ Washington, D. C., National Education Association, 1928. Eastern Commercial Teachers’ Association, Foundations of Commercial Education, First Yearbook, Eastern Commercial Teachers’ Association, 253 Lexington Avenue, New York City, 1928. 423 pp. This volume contains an extensive bibliography. Eastern Commercial Teachers’ Association, Curriculum Making in Business Education, Second Yearbook. Eastern Com- mercial Teachers’ Association, 253 Lexington Avenue, New York City, 1929. Malott, J. O., Commercial Education, 1924-26, U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1928, No. 4. Government Printing Office, Washington, DAG Nichols, Frederick G., A New Conception of Office Practice, Harvard Bulletins in Education, No. 12. Press, Cambridge, 1927. St. Louis, Course of Study in Shorthand and Typeuriting, Bulletin, No. 37. University of Minnesota, A Pupil-Activity Curriculum in Stenography, Education Research Bulletin, Vol. 29, No. 17. of Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. West, Paul V., Changing Practice in Handwriting Instruction. Harvard University Board of Education, St. Louis, Mo. College Bloomington, Ill., Public School Publishing Co., 1927. [ 222 ] its commercial curriculum will have to select those courses which best meet its special needs and are best suited to its students. Points to be considered in the building of a commercial curriculum—Among the points which each local course-of-study committee can consider to advantage are these: 1. A study of the commercial occupational op- portunity of the community; the methods used by the community; a study of the commercial terri- tory of the community. The community and its territory are the immediate market of the school and should be as thoroughly known to members of the commercial department as is the market of any industry in the community known to workers in that industry. 2. A study of the relation of the commercial de- partment with the general educational scheme of the whole school system. 3. General coherence or organization of business courses in the junior and senior high school. The study of their relations and inter-dependence. 4. A definite statement of the purposes to be sought by each curriculum offered in the commer- cial department and by the department as a whole. At the same time a study of the unity of the com- mercial department with the other school curric- ulums. 5. A study of the application of commercial courses of study to the aptitudes of students. 6. Suggestions to teachers for enriching each com- mercial course and adapting it to fit individual students. 7. A careful inventory of the equipment of the commercial department and a study of the needs of each subject in order to make the work more efh- cient without adding commercial materials for the mere sake of having them. Personal interviews and questionnaires sent to a number of local firms will indicate the amount and kind of machine work for which school training should be offered, such as mechanical bookkeeping, comptometer, and dicta- phone work. 8. Advisability of a direct alliance with some of the commercial institutions of the city for the use of commercial students who wish to enter business upon graduation, whereby the students might find it possible to work part time in preparation for ac- tual entering into business. What should be included in the junior high- school commercial curriculum?—This curricu- lum should contribute to such broad general 1 Baltimore City illustrates this type. objectives of the junior high school as explora- tion, self-discovery, guidance, culture, high- school preparation, and pre-vocational train- ing. The last of these objectives is over-stressed in some junior high-school commercial courses, which seem to have as their objectives the prep- aration for minor messenger and clerical posi- tions, and for positions which junior high- school pupils cannot fill, the duties of which will concern those who fill them only for a short time. A course of this kind can hardly be said to be broadly exploratory, to furnish guidance for a life position in the complicated field of business, or to build a foundation for the more technical courses of the senior high school. The purposes of the junior high school are met through some commercial curriculums ! by three types of courses: (1) A general and exploratory course, the content of which is valuable to all eighth-grade pupils; (2) In schools where a considerable number of pupils drop out to go to work, a prevocational course is offered. Some junior high schools, however, see to it that continuation, evening, and cor- poration schools are used by these pupils; fur- thermore, training which can better be given on the job is not attempted in the junior high school; (3) A foundation course, upon which the more technical commercial subjects of the senior high school can be built, is offered. High-school commercial courses should train pupils for future, as well as immediate, jobs— This double responsibility rests upon the sec- ondary school commercial department, accord- ing to the Minnesota State Course of Study: We can only be satisfied with the training we give in our commercial courses when we both train our pupils to do well in the job which they will hold immediately upon leaving the schools and also give them the broader understanding and the nec- essary tools with which to advance themselves into positions of greater responsibility. We should send out boys and girls who, though trained for clerical work, have their eyes fastened upon a position on a higher economic scale and who are keenly alive to their opportunities of acquiring the knowledge which will fit them for that position. See: Commercial! Course of Study, Junior and Senior High Schools, City of Baltimore, Department of Education, Division of Vocational Education, 1925, pp. 9-10. } <4 The foreword to Curriculum Bulletin No. 39, Business Organization, of the St. Louis public schools states that: The com- mercial course in the intermediate schools are such as will meet the common needs of all pupils irrespective of vocational choice besides giving the child an opportunity to explore the commercial curriculum and acquire information which will aid in educational and vocational selection. In the high school, training of a more vocational type is given. The prevailing methods of business procedure are studied, and a scientific and appreciative attitude toward business services and management is developed. 2 Commercial Education, Bulletin No. 7, The High-School Curriculum and Syllabi of High-School Subjects, State of Min nesota, Department of Education, St. Paul, Minnesota, August, 1925, p. 8. [92235] This same point is emphasized in the Den- ver, Philadelphia, and Lansing courses of study in commercial education. According to the Lansing course of study :1 Commercial education in the senior high school has a wider purpose than the mere training of stenographers, bookkeepers, and clerks. .. . Young people trained for the broader and more profes- sional aspects of commercial life have every pros- pect of finding for themselves highly useful places in business as they demonstrate their fitness for more responsible duties. Some general business training helpful to everyone, regardless of his occupation—There is a kind of commercial education that concerns all social institutions, since there is clearly a business side of the home, church, state, or- ganized recreation, and school, as well as of business itself. Shorthand, typewriting, and bookkeeping constitute only a fraction of commercial work —A survey of commercial departments of high schools in 15 communities together with a job analysis of commercial and clerical occupations in Minnesota” was based on (1) a special census of the commercial and clerical employees found in 14 communities, (2) an analysis of the duties of over one-fourth of the commercial and clerical workers found in 13 of these com- munities, (3) a follow-up of 695 high-school commercial graduates from 15 public high schools located in representative towns and cities of Minnesota, and (4) on a special in- quiry into the general or non-vocational uses of commercial education. “This study showed that, while such subjects as typewriting, short- hand, and bookkeeping occupy the foreground in the commercial curriculum, they serve the needs of only a minority of the pupils. Courses for general business and retail merchandising workers are among those needed. A study made in Cleveland of the character of the jobs which pupils leaving high schools (during each semester from 7B to 12A, in- cluding graduates over a period of five years) get during the first five years.they are out, led to these conclusions relative to conditions in Cleveland :3 1. There is no longer any reason to train stu- dents to do both stenography and bookkeeping. 2. The vast bulk of commercial workers are re- cording and non-recording clerks, more than one- third of all being grouped into ten classes of cleri- cal workers who do some specialized kind of record keeping other than bookkeeping or typing. 3. More pupils get minor executive positions dur- ing the first five years out than secure bookkeeping positions. 4. The minor executive and bookkeeping posi- tions are, however, not attained until toward the end of the five-year period, and then only by the older and better trained persons. 5. The youngest group is the group of non- recording clerks, and next, the group of recording clerks. 6. This would indicate that we must provide training for the clerks below the grade of book- keepers and typists, who are almost half of all the workers. Each local community should consider the advisability of making a survey to see what commercial workers do and also to see who can be trained to do the work. What should be accomplished through a survey of local commercial occupations ?— These are the results suggested by one writer :* 1. Education and business should be brought into closer relationship to their mutual advantage. 2. Commercial teachers should be kept abreast of the times in business matters having a bearing on their teaching. 3. Business men should be enlisted for permanent services to the cause of business education. 4. The actual needs of local business men for trained commercial workers should be discovered. 5. The particular jobs for which school training should be given should be listed. 6. The promotional opportunities these jobs should be revealed. 7. The part that commercial education can play in helping boys and girls to take advantage of these promotional opportunities should be made inherent in clear. 8. The actual requirements of contact or stepping- stone jobs should be listed in terms of occupational 1 Course of Study in Commercial Education, Grades 7-12, Lansing, Michigan, 1925, p. 23. 2 Weersing, F. J., Commercial Education in the Public High Schools of Minnesota, 1927. Unpublished thesis, Library, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. §Connor, William L., ‘The Community Background of the Commercial Course and How to Understand It,’’ Research in Commercial Education, University of owa Monographs in Education, First Series, No. 7, July, 1926, pp. 136-144. See also: Report of the Commercial Curriculum Committee of the New Castle Public Schools, A Study in Adjusting the High School Commercial Curriculum to the Needs of the Community, New Castle, Pa., February, 1929. _ 4 Nichols, Frederick G., ‘‘What Are the Steps in the Process of Determining the Occupational Opportunities in a Given City?” First Yearbook, Eastern Commercial Teachers’ Association, 1928, p. 365. [ 224 ] skills, vocational intelligence, general business- knowledge, and social understanding. 9. Shortcomings of training already given should be revealed by a study of the occupational histories of those who had such training before entering upon employment. 10. The way should be paved for the estab- lishment or improvement of plans for dealing with the placement problem. 11. The basis for an adequate program of “pusher” or “extension” business training should be laid. Illustrations of how the subjects to be offered in a commercial curriculum were determined by a community survey—A survey of com- mercial occupations in Pasadena! was made for these reasons: (1) To determine what sub- jects should be offered in the high-school com- mercial course, and (2) to see if the vocational opportunities in the community justify the com- mercial subjects offered. One inquiry was sent to all business houses that were likely to have commercial employees. Another inquiry was sent to 50 recent grad- uates of the commerce course. To prepare the business men for their inquiry and to get as high a percentage of replies as possible, the sur- vey was announced and explained at each one of the luncheon clubs of the city. The in- quiries, together with a letter signed by the head of the commerce department and the prin- cipal of the high school, were distributed to the business firms by 20 high-school boys en- rolled in commercial classes. A few days later these same boys collected the replies, a summary of which led to these findings and conclusions. 1. Percentage distribution of commercial em- ployees. Percent | Percent | Percent of total Type of commercial work female .6 1 Secretarial Z Accounting 9 Miscellaneous administra- tive F £3 Transportation and storage. a Machine operating........ 8 Financial 3 2. More attention should be given to the teach- ing of selling, particularly retail selling. 3. An individual must prepare himself definitely to be a stenographer, a bookkeeper, or a salesman before trying to fit himself for a combined position. 4. The combined rating of business men who were asked to rate the following ten traits from 1 to 10 in the order of their importance as personal quali- fications of commercial employees was as follows: (1) Reliability, (2) accuracy, (3) industry, (4) ini- tiative, (5) cooperation, (6) quickness of thought, (7) attentiveness, (8) physical vitality, (9) reten- tiveness of memory, and (10) leadership. 5. In a community of the size of Pasadena, there is not extensive enough specialization among com- mercial workers to justify the schools in offering short-unit courses designed to prepare young people for specific positions outside of the general subdi- visions of salesmanship, secretarial, and account- ing. ‘These three groups of studies, each with its minimum of two years of required work along the special lines of salesmanship, shorthand and type- writing, and bookkeeping, coupled with the spe- cialization possible in the practical laboratory of the final year, should come as near to fitting the individual for commercial work in this community as any plan which is feasible for the schools to undertake. Many secondary school commerce depart- ments are making similar surveys of their own local situations to discover not only what com- merce courses to offer, but also what office equipment is essential. ‘To illustrate, a survey made in Point Pleasant, West Virginia,” showed that a well equipped commercial de- partment should have typewriters, adding ma- chines, cash registers, bookkeeping machines, and check writers, since these are used in al- most every business or office. A survey made in New Orleans ®* to de- termine whether the local commercial curricu- lum was so constructed as to prepare particu- larly for initial employment and subsequent promotion in the special kinds of office and store occupations led to these recommenda- tions: Since promotion bears more of a direct relation to the individual and the quality of his work than it does to the immediate position, it is necessary that 1 Anderson, John A., ‘‘ Fitting the Commerce Course of the High School and Junior”Colle ge to the Needs of the Community,” Educational Research Bulletin, Vol. IV, No. 9, Pasadena Public Schools, Pasadena, Calif., May, 1926. 2A town of 3,059 population according to the 1920 Census. October, 1927, Southwestern Publishing Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. For a more comp lete report of this survey, see: Balance Sheet, 3 Abrams, Ray, How Can the Boys’ High School of Commerce Equip Its: Students for Initial Jobs and Subsequent Promotion in Business? Unpublished Master of Arts Thesis. [ 225 ] the special aptitudes of students receive due consid- eration, so that they will be prepared to do the work which they like best. Since future promotion as well as immediate placement is kept in mind in preparation for busi- ness, specific vocational training should not be given to the exclusion of general business and academic subjects. Since the proportion of those who enter the spe- cific bookkeeping field is small, the undue amount of time given to this subject in the school curricu- lum should be reduced. The present plan of offering Spanish should be continued, and extra effort be spent in seeing to it that the proper emphasis be placed on the mastery of Commercial Spanish by those who complete the course. A recent survey of commercial education in the public high schools of Minnesota ! showed that: — The number of pupils enrolled in commercial courses was approximately 20,000, which was 35 percent of the enrolment in the 170 schools having commercial departments, and 26 percent of all the high-school pupils in the state. General business training of the sort needed by everyone irrespective of future vocation was lack- ing in most schools. Commercial subjects were administered as a group of general electives in about two-thirds of the schools which maintained commercial departments. Less than one-third of these schools had organized commercial courses, composed of an orderly se- quence of commercial subjects. Only three schools attempted to differentiate between the needs of stenographers, general business workers, and retail sales-people. Illustrations of special one-semester courses in junior business practice—The Indiana state course in junior business practice ? is more or less typical. It consists of these twenty units: Personality and decorum, thrift, common busi- ness records, cash records, simple business forms, banking and forms used in banking, in- vestments and savings accounts, insurance, fil- ing and indexing, handling mail in the office, use of directories and business reference books, telephone service, telegraph service, postal in- formation, shipments of merchandise, sending money, railroad and travel information, ele- 1 Weersing, F. J., Commercial Education in the Public High Schools of Minnesota, 1927. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.. mentary business law, types of business organi- zation, and study of occupations. The materials of each of these units are ar- ranged in tabular form under these four cap- tions: (1) Specific objectives, (2) content and suggested activities, (3) suggested method and procedure, and (4) differentiation and en- richment. The objectives of the above course are stated as follows: 1. To present the fundamentals of business cus- toms which are useful to all persons, regardless of occupation. 2. To provide for pupils who leave school early that type of business training which will best pre- pare them for junior office positions. 3. To serve as an exploratory or guidance course for pupils who may wish to survey the field of com- mercial education before electing subjects in it. 4. To furnish such basic knowledge of business forms and customs as will constitute a foundation for the more specialized commercial courses. The New Trier one-semester course,* open as an elective to all juniors and seniors and en- titled “‘Business Organization and Administra- tion,’ is illustrative of the more advanced courses offered high-school students in junior business training. “he immediate objectives laid down in the course of study are: (1) To give pupils a background of terminology and apperception of modern business. (2) To pro- vide graduates of New Trier with an understand- ing and knowledge of how a modern business is organized and how it operates. (3) To prepare the graduate, who is leaving to take a position in business, in such a way that he will have some idea of the major problems in his path of promotion. (4) To lay a broad background and foundation for prospective courses in university schools of busi- ness, which many of our students enter. The remote objectives as stated in the course of study are: (1) To develop an attitude of cooperation, loy- alty, and helpfulness toward the superior execu- tives in the job he may assume. (2) To develop a social comprehension of modern business and its responsibilities. (3) To improve individual busi- ness ethics through study of policies and their effects. Retail store training classes—Occupational and vocational surveys show that in many Unpublished thesis, Library, University 2 Tentative Course of Study in Junior Business Practice for Secondary Schools in Indiana, State Department Bulletin No. G-ib, State Department of Education, Indianapolis, Ind. 3 Commercial Course of Study, page 17 of mimeographed material, Winnetka, II. [ 226 ] cities the number of workers employed in store- selling occupations far exceeds the number em- ployed in clerical, bookkeeping, and stenogra- phic work. This had led to the introduction in some schools of courses preparing for selling and store service positions. In what grade should commercial curricu- lums begin to be highly specialized?—While pupils’ length of school expectancy and local business conditions will bring different answers to this question in different communities, most school authorities agree that specialization should not begin too early. To illustrate, in Baltimore, Md., the commercial course in the tenth grade of the senior high school is general with the exception that the students have the opportunity of electing shorthand if they desire to major in stenography. At the beginning of the eleventh grade, pupils may choose the par- ticular field of commercial training in which they desire to specialize. At present, in the Baltimore senior high schools, the pupils may select one of the following: 1. Preparation for the university school of com- merce. 2. Stenographic employment. . Accounting. . Retail selling. - General business. . Office practice and machine operation. Nn Bw According to the Los Angeles course of study: ? The study of bookkeeping should not be started earlier than the tenth year. It is even better for those specializing in bookkeeping, and expecting. to remain in high school for four years, to wait until the eleventh year to begin it, and take their second year of bookkeeping and their commercial practice concurrently in the twelfth year. A student would thus spend three or four periods a day upon his vocational subject immediately preceding the time of his going from school into the business world. In the foreword of the state course of study for the high schools of Virginia, “‘Attention is called to the fact that shorthand, typewriting, and bookkeeping are deferred to the third and fourth years. These subjects, if they are to be successfully taught, require as broad a general educational background as can be secured, and as much maturity as possible on the part of the pupil.” In St. Louis, the courses in accounting * ex- tend from the tenth through the twelfth grades; the courses in stenography * extend from the eleventh through the twelfth. What are the characteristics of a good com- mercial curriculum?—A survey of the current literature on this point leads to these tenta- tive conclusions: The commercial curriculum should be based on a survey of community needs, which shows what students are expected to know and what they will be required to do in the jobs which are open to high-school drop- outs or graduates. It should be subject to con- stant revision. Business is constantly changing and unless the schools keep pace with these changes their products will not be able to meet the Henares made upon them. The commer- cial curriculum of one community cannot be copied by another because it must meet the demands of the particular community and student body which it is to serve. According to the report of the Committee on Research in High-School Commercial Studies in the Sixth Yearbook *® of the Department of Superintendence, commercial curriculums can have no_ specific objectives except when planned: a. In connection with a definite group of pupils. b. In relation to definite commercial positions. c. In the community in which the curriculums are to be given. What quality of handwriting is needed by clerical workers?—The director of commer- cial education in the Philadelphia public schools ® secured 2000 specimens of vocational 1 See Commercial Education, Course of Study for Junior and Senior High Schools, City of Baltimore, Department of Education, Division of Vocational Education, 1925, p. 10. 2 High-School Commercial Studies, Course of Study, Los Angeles City School District, School Publication No. 114, September 1, 1925, pp. 11-12. 3 Accounting for the High School, Curriculum Bulletin No. 36, Board of Education, St. Louis, Mo., 1926. 4 See: Stenography and Typewriting for the High School, Curriculum Bulletin No.’37, Board of Education, St. Louis, Mo., 1926. 5 Department of Superintendence, The Development of the High-School Curriculum, Washington, D. C., National Education Association, 1928, p. 453. 6 Kirk, John G., ‘‘Handwriting Survey to Determine Finishing Standards for the Philadelphia Public Schools,’”’ The Journal of Educational Research, Vol. XIII, No. 4, April, 1926, pp. 259-272. he27at handwriting from the employees of 21 large concerns. The total list of vocations included was 52. Each specimen was rated twenty dif- ferent times on the Ayres Measuring Scale for Handwriting, Gettysburg Edition, in steps of 5, by 20 different judges. The average score of each specimen was secured and the occupa- tional and general averages determined and tabulated. The 20 judges agreed that while quality 60 of the Ayres Handwriting Scale is acceptable for social correspondence and non- commercial groups, quality 70 should be reached by all who wish to engage in com- mercial pursuits. Research findings for the improvement of classroom practices in stenography +—Seven types of studies are being carried on—those having to do with (1) prognostic tests, (2) diagnostic tests, (3) achievement tests, (4) analysis of the work of the stenographer, (5) measurement of difficulty of dictation material, (6) method of presentation of teaching ma- terials, and (7) vocabulary studies. Present diagnostic tests do not appear to have a sufficient degree of reliability for gen- eral school use. However, the methods of ap- proach are of interest to teachers of stenog- raphy.” Some experimentation with diagnostic tests which reveal weak spots in instruction or in the learning of pupils is under way.* ‘They show the need of making careful and detailed analyses of errors in order to improve teaching. Completion, true-false, and multiple-choice tests for measuring achievement in shorthand are also being experimented with. Further research is needed to determine what the average pupil and the average class can be expected to do in: learning shorthand in given periods of time.® In measuring the difficulty of dictation ma- terial, the word, the average number of sylla- bles to the word, and the stroke count are among the measures of writing effort.6 Fur- ther research is needed to determine which of these is the most accurate basis for measure- ment. Studies which show that approximately 1,000 words constitute not less than 85 percent of the words used by the average person, and Horn’s” study which lists the ten thousand words most frequently used in business and social correspondence offer the most reliable vocabularies from which to select words for shorthand classes. The kind of research needed to determine the words required by stenographers preparing for employment in special fields is illustrated by Horn’s compilation of words most frequently used in bankers’ letters. After tabulating the words found in 1125 letters written by bank- ers in 15 states grouped so as to represent var- ious sections of the country, the investigator reached these conclusions: This study does not show that the words used in bankers’ correspondence apply at all exclusively to the banking business, and yet the list is in a certain sense a vocational list. Training which meets the needs in one section of the country will also meet the needs in other sec- tions. 1See: First Yearbook, Eastern Commercial Teachers’ Association, 253 Lexington Avenue, New York City, Chapter XV, Research Materials for the Teacher of Shorthand, by Florence Sparks Barnhart. Contains a bibliography of 41 articles on each of the six types of research described in the subsequent paragraphs. 2 The April, 1927, issue of the Journal of Personnel Research presents a digest by Max Freyd of all tests used for discov ering aptitudes for stenography so far published. Reprinted in the Journal of Commercial Education, May, June, September, and October, 1927. 3 See: Rollinson, Ethel A., Diagnostic Shorthand Tests, New York, The Gregg Publishing Company, 1924. Method for Supervising Shorthand Classes in the Des Moines High Schools, by Clay D. Slinker, Director of Business Education. (Unpublished.) Soutter, Helen S., An Analysis of the Shorthand Errors Made by One Hundred F ‘fty Beginning Pupils as Revealed through Two Types of Tests. (Unpublished), University of Chicago, 1927. 4 See: Dush, Willa M., The Building and Use of Achievement Tests in Gregg Shorthand, Thesis, New York University, June, 1927. Nelson, Lenora M., ‘‘ Diagnostic Tests in Shorthand Theory,’ American Shorthand Teacher, November, 1927, pp. 96-97. Saphier-Smyth, Stenographic Achievement Tests. New York, Isaac Pitman & Sons, 1927. 5 For an attempt that has already been made, see: Raymond-Adams, Standards in Elementary Shorthand. New York, The Gregg Publishing Company, 1926. 6 See: Harrison, E. W., Syllable Intensity Versus Shorthand Difficulty, Unpublished study by the Vice-Principal of the Long- wood High School, Cleveland, Ohio, 1927-28. Hayes, Bertha M., An Analysis of Regents "Shorthand Examinations to Measure Difficulty of Dictation Material, by Miss Hayes, Julia Richman High School, New York City. Unpublished, 1927. p 7 Horn, Ernest, A Basic Writing Vocabulary, Iowa City, Iowa, University of lowa Monographs in Education, University of Iowa Press, 1926. 8 Horn, Ernest, ‘‘The Spelling Vocabularies of Bankers’ Letters,’";.English Journal, Vol. XII, No. 6, June, 1923. [ 228 ] Secondary School Home Economics * What is the 1929 home? And what will probably be the type of home into which our present high-school girls will go? Also what are their particular levels of development at present? What are their immediate felt needs, relationships, and outlooks? What interests are motivating their conduct and attitudes ?— The answer which a local course-of-study com- mittee gives to these questions determines largely the type of secondary school course in home economics which it develops. The president of the American Home Eco- nomics Association in 1928,? after reviewing the changes in home-making during the past two decades, outlined this viewpoint toward the modern home: We will see the home as the place of abode of per- sons bound together by ties of affection, a place where affection of parents for one another, for their children, and among all members of the family is nurtured and enjoyed, where the immature are pro- tected and guarded, a place where one may have rest and privacy, where one may keep his treasures, where one may satisfy his individual tastes, where fundamental culture, consisting of customs, lan- guage, courtesies, and traditions, is conserved and passed on to the young, a place where altruism and other worthy character traits are generated and cul- tivated; a haven, a sanctuary, a source of inspira- tion, and a place where one may enjoy his indi- vidual kind of recreation and share it with others. This viewpoint is already accepted by some home economics teachers, as shown by the fol- lowing statement of aims of one unit in a recent course of study: Family Relationships and Home Finances ® Aims: 1. To develop within the girl an appreciation of her family, and an understanding of -her part as a member of that group. 2. To help the girl develop traits which will make her a better member of her family group. 3. To lead her to think about the problems and responsibilities of home and family. 4. To give the girl an understanding of the home as an important center of economic consump- tion. 5. To give the girl a sense of responsibility of the correct expenditure of her share of the family income. 6. To help the girl develop standards for home expenditures in keeping with the income. An understanding of the problems of her home and family helps the girl to be a better member of that family. Good family life is the result of de- 1 Local course-of-study committees charged with building secondary school courses in home economics will also find the following references helpful: Bailey, Frances, The Progress of Home Economics in the Secondary Schools, 1917-27, Master’s Thesis. Economics, University of Chicago, Chicago, III. Department of Home California Home Economics Association, High School Courses in Science of the Household, Nutrition, and Citizen Home Mating. May, 1927. Crabbs, Lelah Mae, and Miller, Mabel Lawrence, A Survey of Public School Courses in Child Care for Girls. Education, Merrill-Palmer School, 71 Ferry Ave., East, Detroit, Mich., May, 1927. Department of 96 pp. Department of Superintendence, The Junior High School Curriculum, Fifth Yearbook, Chapter XVI. National Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1927 Department of Superintendence, The Development of the High-School Curriculum, Sixth Yearbook, Chapter X XI. Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1928. Dyer, Annie Robertson, The Administration of Home Economics in City Schools. Columbia University, New York City, 1928. 143% pp.- _ Dyer, Annie Robertson, The Placement of Home Economics Content in Junior and Senior High Schools. tions, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1927. Kansas State Department of Education, Course of Study for High Schools, Part IX, Home Economics. 1928. 123 pp. National Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Bureau of Publica- 112 pp. Topeka, Kansas, Lansing, Mich., Board of Education, Courses of Study in Home Economics for the Public Schools of Lansing, Michigan, Grades 6-12: Lansing, Mich., 1927. 159 pp. Missouri State Department of Education, Home Economics Syllabus, Bulletin No. 6, 1926. State Department of Education, Jefferson City, Mo., 1926. 137 pp. Richardson, Anna E., and Miller, Mabel Lawrence, Child Development and Parental Education in Home Economics. Home Economics Association, Baltimore, Md., 1928. Rose, Ella J., Analysis of Home Economics Te&%tbooks to Determine Certain Standards, Master’s Thesis. American Department of Home Economics Education, College of Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn., 1927. 100 pp. St. Louis, Board of Education, Home Economics for the High School, Curriculum Bulletin, No. 41, St. Louis, Mo., 1926. 117 pp. U. S. Bureau of Home Economics, Bibliography 1—Footwear; Bibliography 2—Selected List of Government Publications on Housing and Equipment; Bibliography 3—Selected List of Government Publications on Textiles and Clothing; Bibliography 4— Selected List of Government Publications on Foods and Nutrition; and Bibliography 5—Household Refrigeration, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, Bureau of Home Economics, Washington, D. C. Whitcomb, Emeline S., Achievements in Home Economics Education, U.S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, No. 35, 1927. Wash- ington, D. C., Government Printing Office. Whitcomb, Emeline S., Circumstances Surrounding the Election of Home Economics in the Senior and Regular High Schools, Home Economics Letter No. 4, June, 1928; and The Kind of Home Economics Needed for High-School Girls, Home Economics Letter No. 5, September, 1928. Washington, D. C., U. S. Bureau of Education. 2 Bane, Lita, ‘‘Home Economics Outward Bound,”’ Journal of Home Economics, Vol. 20, No. 10, p. 695, October, 1928. ’Course of Study for High Schools, Part IX, Home Economics Kansas State Department of Education, 1928, p. 19. [ 229 ] termined effort on the part of its members. Wise expenditure of family income requires planning. Each member of the family should share in the responsibility of planning the distribution of the income. What agreement as to content of home eco- nomics courses?—An analysis of the content of 100 representative secondary school courses published since 1920 shows that there is little or no agreement.t In these 100 courses of study, a total of 2,659 different detailed topics including 9,995 topic elements were found. Not more than 15 percent of the detailed topics can be regarded as standardized in grade place- ment. In this analysis, it was assumed that the main divisions of home economics content like food and clothing were considered as subjects; that a large topic which could be broken up into many parts was a leading topic,suchas food selection; that the many parts were detailed topics, such as where to buy food, when to buy food, and judging the quality of food. When these parts were divided further, the topics were called elements, such as how to buy food— in person, by telephone, cash and carry, or co- operative buying. In these 100 selected courses, the largest amount of content is in food subject-matter, second in clothing, and third in the house and its care. ‘Table 5 gives the distribution of content by subjects and by topics. Of the lead- ing topics, 73 percent have 50 or more occur- rences for the 100 courses, or 50 percent TABLE 5—NUMBER OF DIFFERENT TOPICS IN ONE HUNDRED HOME ECONOMICS COURSES OF STUDY Detailed Topics Subject Leading Topics Income and spending Child development Home and family relations Health and the home Art and the home Science and the home Totals Read table thus: In food subject-matter there are 27 leading topics and 841 detailed topics. 1See: Dyer, Annie Robertson, The Placement of Home Economics Content in Junior and Senior High Schools. agreement. Of the detailed topics, +2 percent have less than five occurrences. A count was made of the topics under each subject as to which aspect was emphasized, such as: producer, managerial, consumer, health, science, art, and thrift. “The three aspects on which greatest emphasis is placed are producer, managerial, and consumer. The producer phase was found in 65 percent of the topics in food, and 51 percent of the topics in clothing; while the consumer phase was found in only 36 percent of the topics in food, and only 12 percent of the topics in clothing. ‘hese findings should lead home economics course- of-study committees to ask themselves such questions as these: Does the actual study of conditions in the local community show that a large or small percentage of clothing is made in the home? If only a small percent is made in the home, should the emphasis given in home economics classes to clothing be from the consumer aspect? Is the percent of baking and canning done in the home sufficient to justify great emphasis on the producer’s aspect of these topics? Some of the more progressive secondary school home economics courses, while not min- imizing or omitting skill, do give selection of materials, plan of work, and establishment of standards the place of primary importance, as shown by the following statement from the Manual of Home Making Education for the High Schools of Alabama: The desirable outcomes to be attained by each girl are a growth and an improvement in her ability: 1. To select food in relation to her individual needs and those of the family. 2. To plan, prepare, and serve wholesome meals within the family income. 3. To develop acceptable standards of skill in all work of the home. 4. To dress suitably and becomingly, taking into consideration the family budget. 5. To plan and make the clothing which can be economically constructed in the home. 6. To select ready-made garments best suited to her individual needs. 7. To have a well-groomed appearance on all occasions. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1927. 112 pp. [ 230 ] 8. To plan and perform satisfactory units of work in the home, making those adjustments which the situation demands.* Problems in the selection of content of home economics courses— These are among the prob- lems which face local course-of-study com- mittees : 1. How can girls twelve to eighteen years of age be trained efficiently in high school for the home-making job which they will not enter un- til five to ten years later? 2. How can teachers be assisted to modify their curriculum materials to include a study of child care, social-home problems, problems of home consumption and family relations? 3. What is the relation of home economics to courses in art, biology, chemistry, physics, and the social sciences? 4. What should be the character of courses in home economics for college entrance credit? 5. Should all high-school courses in home eco- nomics have college entrance credit? 6. How should home economics courses be differ- entiated for pupils of different levels of abil- ity, for pupils living on different economic levels and in varied environments, with differ- ent interests and ambitions, and with different amounts of outside-of-school home economics learning? 7. How can pupils be trained to become intelli- gent consumers?” The need for educating the consumer is clearly shown by analyses of business con- cepts found in publications on marketing, ad- vertising, and salesmanship prepared by the producer-sales group. They include such con- cepts as these: (a) Few consumers buy on the basis of intrinsic value since they are qualified to judge only very limited lines of goods. _ (b) Merchants do not take human desires as they come, they build up new tastes and demands through advertising. (c) By means of adver- tising skillfully planned, the individual will think he has without outside suggestion de- cided to purchase. . Upon what bases shall selection of the con- tent of home economics courses be made?—To discover what pupils already know and to base instruction on the need for additional knowl- edge, studies are made concerning the actual home life, activities, and responsibilities of the junior and senior high-school girl. studies include: 1. What girls do at home. To illustrate, in Denver a study® was car- ried on by a committee of high-school teachers through questionnaires and analyses of the activities of 5106 junior and senior high-school girls, and reports through letters to or inter- views with 850 parents. The activities were tabulated with frequency of performance. Helping in house cleaning, caring for own room, laundry, and help in preparation of meals were found to be the major activities of these particular girls. 2. What they learn at home by observation or “instinctively.” ‘These 3. How they learn—by what method. 4. What they are interested in. 5. What they know before starting on a course. 6. What they should know and be able to apply at the completion of each year of work. 7. What supplementary home practices and knowledge may be acquired at home. 8. Investigation of present-day practices and ac- tivities in the home, in various types of homes and communities. Child development and parental education courses in the high school—In 1927, 48 state and 71 city supervisors of home economics re- ported child care courses as a part of their state and city programs.* These reports showed that in the majority of places child care is offered as a part of a course rather than as a separate course; that the unit is generally designated, “child care” or “child care and training,’ and that it is presented in grades 8 to 12. About half of the supervisors stated that no prere- quisites were required for the child care work. The others reported that the grade in which the unit is offered largely determines the prere- quisites. 7 The general aim is to develop the right at- titude toward child life and motherhood, and an appreciation of child development; and the more specific aim is to teach the care of chil- dren in the present environment of the girl. The average length of the course offered is about ten weeks, the class meeting five times 1Taken from the Manual of Home Making Education for High Schools, State of Alabama, Division of Vocational Education 2See also: Harap, Henry, Education of the Consumer, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1924. Harap, Henry, Economic Life and the Curriculum. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1927. 3 See: Hopkins, L. Thomas, and Kinyon, Kate W., Home Economics, Research Monograph No. 1, Public Schools, Denver ASolo.19252 971 pp. 4See: Richardson, Anna E., and Miller, Mabel Lawrence, Child Development and Parental Education in Home Economics American Home Economics Association, Baltimore, Md., 1928, p. 18. [ 231] a week for periods from 60 to 80 minutes in length. According to the reports of 34 state supervisors of home economics, contact with young children was provided in 1927 in 1,620 schools, by having young children brought to the high school, or by providing contact with primary grades or with children in the girl’s immediate environment. Home economics teachers in most cases offer the child-care course, frequently with the help of specialists, usually the school nurse, occasion- ally the doctor, a member of the health de- partment, or other teachers in the school. Training for skilled parenthood and home making has its scientific, economic, aesthetic, and social aspects—Local course-of-study com- mittees charged with building secondary school courses in home economics can no _ longer merely concern themselves with the teaching of cooking and sewing. ‘Today the home-maker must know something, not only about the feed- ing and clothing of the family, but also about the fundamental principles of health, hygiene, and home nursing; something of the economic aspects of different branches of home-making, the furnishing and management of the home, child care, including not only the physical training, but the mental and spiritual as well; something about recreation; and something about woman’s responsibility to society. The home has narrowed, in the sense that it is no longer the place where most of the food and clothing for the family are produced ; but it has widened in the sense that a larger percentage of women wage-earners are con- tributing to the economic support of the home and, for the most part, they are the spenders of the family income and are responsible for the care and development of children in an increas- ingly complex environment. The product of the home is human beings. The quality of this product will depend largely on the training given. Tentative recommendations for local course- of-study committees—Where worthy home membership is an educational objective, one writer! suggests: 1. That home economics emphasis be based on life situations. 2. That the teaching of skills in home economics be retained in the curriculum, but definitely related to the effect of those skills on family welfare. 3. That an effort be made to secure better ad- justments between parents and child and be- tween child and child by using the home eco- nomics curriculum to give right attitudes to- ward use of leisure, health, social usages and relations, appreciation of beauty, use of money, respect for other members of family, and com- munity affairs. 4. That boys as well as girls be educated for par- ticipation in home activities. 5. That facilities for adult education for home responsibilities be increased. 6. That account be taken of individual differences in the kind, quality, and quantity of assign- ments given to students. 7. That local needs and community assets or lim- itations be determined either by means of sur- veys and questionnaires or informally, and cur- riculum requirements be adjusted accordingly. 8. That definite cooperation be established with the many public and social agencies now en- deavoring to educate for better living. 9. That better living through greater understand- ing of social-home problems be the goal of in- struction. 1Coss, Millicent M., ‘‘A Study of Social-Home Problems,’’ Journal of Home Economics, Vol. 20, No. 12, December, 1928, pp. 867-68. [ 232 ] Industrial Arts in the High School? Industrial arts education defined—Accord- ing to the Pennsylvania state course of study,” industrial arts education includes that part of the practical arts field that pertains to instruc- tion based upon practice with and knowledge about tools, materials, and processes significant to industry. Industrial education is that form of voca- tional education which is designed to teach some industrial occupation or trade either in its entirety or in part. Rating of industrial arts objectives in the junior high school and in the senior high school—Shopwork has been developing as a subject in the public schools since the establish- ment in 1879 of the first manual training high school in St. Louis. ‘To determine what objectives are control- ling present policies and programs of industrial arts education, Warner * compiled fifteen spe- cific purposes which seemed to represent fairly well all points of view expressed in books, periodicals, and courses of study. A jury of 58 people interested in industrial arts educa- tion ranked these 15 objectives in the order of their importance for the junior high school and for the senior high school. For the junior high school, according to the jury ratings, the following aims are of essential importance: 1 For more detailed information see: Department of ore are The Junior High School Curriculum, Fifth Yearbook, Chapter XVII. Association, Washington, D. C., Department of Ser cies ere of the High-School Curriculum, Sixth Yearbook, Chapter XXII. Education Association, Washington, D. C., Bennett, G. Vernon, Vocational Education of Junior College Grade. Denver Public Schools, Industrial Aris, Research Monograph Number Four. Edgerton, A. H., Findings Related to Industrial Arts Instruction. New York, The Century Co., 1926. Friese, John F., Exploring the Industrial Arts. 1. Exploratory or findings values which relate to the detection, discovery, or tryout of interests and aptitudes. 2. General guidance, both educational and vo- cational, gained through broad contacts and studies of industrial vocations. 3. Household mechanics or the development of handy-man abilities about the home. 4. Avocational opportunities for the development of hobbies, or a side-line interest. 5. Formation of desirable personal and _ social habits and insights which will influence conduct. 6. Consumers’ or utilizers’ knowledge and appre- ciations of the products of industry. 7. Development of a degree of skill with tools and in tool or machine processes commensurate with the ability of the pupil and incidental to the completion of a project or activity which seems to have “educational” value. 8. Correlation or integration with other studies and interests both in and out of school. 9. Vocational purposes in the definite prepa- ration for a future industrial vocation. Applicable to from 0 to 16 percent of the average junior high- school group where .the occasional boy has to drop out of school. For the senior high school, according to the jury ratings, the following aims apply: 1. General guidance. 2. Further exploratory and avocational oppor- tunities. 3. Vocational preparation for a specific indus- trial vocation. 4. Consumers’ or utilizers’ knowledges and ap- preciations of the products of industry. ~ “ National Education National Baltimore, Warwick and York, Inc., 1928. Board of Education, Denver, Colo., 1928. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., 1928. Grant, Gordon A., Introduction to the Teaching of Industrial Aris in Secondary Schools: A Syllabus for the Guidance of Teachers in Service and Students in Teachers Colleges and Normal Schools. Lansing Public Schools, Industrial Education, Grades X-XII. New York, The Century Co., 1927. Mays, Arthur B., The Problem of Industrial Education. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1926. Board of Education, Lansing, Mich., 1927. Profitt, Maris M., Values of the Manual Arts, U. S. Bureau of Education, Industrial Education Circular No. 27, April, 1927 St. Cloud Public Schools, Manual Aris in the Junior High School. St. Louis Public Schools, Manual Arts for the H igh School, Curriculum Bulletin No. 42. 1926 Snedden, David; Warner, William E.; and others, Reconstruction of Industrial Aris Courses. College, Columbia University, New York City, 1927. Board of Education, St. Cloud, Minn., 1925. Board of Education, St. Louis, Mo., Bureau of Publications, Teachers U. S. Bureau of Education, Biennial Survey of Education, 1924-26, Bulletin, 1928, No. 25, Chapter VII, Industrial Education. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C Vaughn, Manuel J., and Mays, Arthur B., Content and Methods of Industrial Arts. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1928. Warner, William E., Policies in Industrial Aris Education. New York, The Century Company, 1924. 2 Industrial Arts Education in Grades 7, 8, and 9, Bulletin No. 4. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa., 1927 3 Woodward, C. M., The Manual Training School: Comprising a Full Statement of Its Aims, Methods, and Results. Heath & Co., 1887. 366 pp. jE Se 4Warner, William E., Policies In Industrial Arts Education, Chapter V. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1928. [ 233 ] 5. Formation of desirable personal and _ social habits. 6. Development of a degree of skill with tools and in tool or machine processes commensurate with the ability of the pupil and incidental to the completion of a project or activity which seems to have “educational” value. How determine the content of industrial arts courses?—In the past, courses of study in the industrial arts field have often been based upon the demands of trade or industry. Particular emphasis was placed upon the skills required, which were determined to a large extent by job analysis. Since practically all the skilled trades have become specialized, it does not seem reasonable to base a course of study for all pupils on the special requirements of any par- ticular trade or group of trades. Until the pupil is able to choose his vocation intelligently, his experiences should be directed along more or less general lines of social and industrial activities. An analysis of the home activities related to industrial arts of junior and senior high-school boys is an indirect means of determining the course of study. In Denver, for example, the list of activities found by the home survey did not of itself determine the content of the course. It was found preferable to base the course on the tool processes required to per- form these home jobs. To illustrate, among the frequently mentioned home activities were repairing a fence and repairing a screen door. Neither of these activities could well be used in the school shop. But the eleven tool pro- cesses involved in repairing a fence and the thirty-six involved in repairing a screen door were used along with the processes involved in other home activities in determining the suita- bility of proposed shop projects. ‘Chose shop projects which involved most nearly the same processes as the home activities most frequently mentioned were selected for the course of study. The general shop in the junior high school ” —The general shop provides for more than one 1 Denver Public Schools, Industrial Aris, Research Monograph Number Four. 2 See: Newkirk, Louis V., and Stoddard, George D., The General Shop, p. 190. 3 See: Bulletin No. C-1, The California pice of Vocational Education, p. 6. Secondary Schools, Sacramento, Calif., 1927. activity to be carried on simultaneously under the direction of one teacher. ‘The work is or- ganized, not on the basis of wood, metal, or electricity, but as a series of projects of increas- ing complexity. A project may combine sawing or planing with electrical wiring and elemen- tary metal work. The various types of general shop content include: (1) trade exploratory, (2) house- hold mechanics, (3:) farm mechanics, (4) gen- eral woodwork, (5) general metalwork, (6) arts and crafts, and (7) practical mechanics. The aims of the general shop are: develop- mental experience interpretative of the major phases of the world’s industrial work, “handy- man activities,” consumer’s knowledge and ap- preciation, guidance, hobbies, and, for a small percent, vocational preparation. A survey of the industrial arts needs of a community is probably the best means of de- termining whether a general shop or a number of specialized shops or both are needed in the junior and senior high schools of a particular school system. Industrial arts in the high school should in- clude other activities besides woodworking— According to the last U. S. Bureau of Educa- tion Biennial Survey, the variety of work offered in the great majority of schools is still so limited that the values which should accrue from this type of work cannot be realized. Woodwork is commonly the only shop activity offered, or else it receives a larger proportion of the time, relative to other activities, than its value warrants. Controlling principles relative to vocational education and the secondary school—These principles, according to the California plan of vocational education,® are: 1. Individual counseling. 2. Adapting the training program to the inter- ests, aptitudes, and capacities of the individual. 3. Linking the training program with industry. 4. Placement, follow-up, and adjustment after placement. 5. Selecting occupationally competent individuals and training them as vocational teachers. Board of Education, Denver, Colo., 1928. Peoria, Ill., The Manual Arts Press, 1929. State Department of Education, Division of City [ 234 ] Trends in High-School Music? Present status of music instruction in public high schools—Until recently, music instruc- tion, when offered in the high school, usually consisted of chorus or assembly singing once or twice a week and was not considered of sufficient importance to warrant regular school credit. A 1927 survey? of music instruction in 40 cities over 50,000 in population showed that it is no longer the mere group-singing of a past generation or the extra-curriculum activity of a few years ago, but a regular high-school sub- ject, carrying full credit and receiving sufficient time and attention to make its teaching stand out as distinctly worthwhile. In these 40 cities, the extensiveness of the offering in music is shown by 15 distinct types of work, includ- ing: Choruses (boys, girls, and mixed), ap- preciation, history, harmony, theory, orchestra, band, glee clubs (boys, girls, and mixed), piano, violin, and other instruments, and clubs such as banjo, ukulele, and operetta. Chorus work, which includes general class work in vocal music, was given in some form in all 40 cities. The tendency is to require it in the junior high school but to make it elec- tive in the senior high school. History, har- mony, and theory as separate courses and com- bined with appreciation are most often given in the senior high school, where credit is al- lowed, usually comparable to that offered for other school subjects with equal time require- ments. Orchestras were maintained in 31 of the 40 cities in the first two years of the junior high school, and in all but one city in the ninth grade; 37 of the 40 cities reported orchestras in the senior high school. Bands were main- tained in 17 cities in the seventh and eighth grades, and in 23 cities in the ninth grade; while 26 of the 40 cities reported bands in the senior high school. Class instruction in violin is increasing rapidly ; towns of 10,000 to 20,000 population frequently have one or two hundred pupils receiving such instruction. Even in 1922, one large city reported 3,100 pupils receiving class instruction in violin.? The recognition of music by the College En- trance Examination Board brought about the question of school credit. With the granting of credit, music instruction is rapidly losing its extra-curriculum character and becoming a regular subject. The plan, formulated by the educational council of the Music Supervisors National Conference, for giving high-school credit for the study of music under “outside” teacher has also been adopted by many school systems. According to the U. S. Bureau of Education, in 1922, 45.7 percent of all towns and cities of 1,000 population or over reported having spe- cial teachers or supervisors of music. At pres- ent, seven state departments of education— Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Mississippi, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania—have state supervisors of music. Vocational and avocational guidance in music—Investigations have been carried on which make it possible, with a: considerable degree of reliability, to diagnose a pupil’s mus- ical talent and to predict his probable success or failure in the realm of music.* Vocational guidance is primarily concerned with finding 1 Local course-of-study committees charged with building courses in high-school music will find these references helpful: Course of Study in Music, Bulletin 44, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa., Department of Superintendence, The Junior High School Curriculum, Fifth Yearbook, National Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1927, Chapter XIV. Department of Superintendence, The Development of the High School Curriculum, Sixth Yearbook, National Education Associa- tion, Washington, D. C., 1928, Chapter XIX. Dykema, Peter W., ‘‘Tests and Measurements in Music Education,’ Music Supervisors National Conference Proceedings. Paul J. Weaver, Chapel Hill, N. C., 1925. See also Proceedings of Music Supervisors National Conference, 1926, 1927, and 1928. High-School Course of Study in Music, Junior-Senior Divisions, Grades 7-12, Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1927. Music for the High School, Curriculum Bulletin No. 34, Board of Education, St. Louis, Mo., 1926. National Research Council of Music Education, Report, Bulletin No. 4, Music Supervisors National Conference. by Paul J. Weaver, Editor, Music Supervisors Journal, Chapel Hill, N. C., 1925. 2 Hughes, Cecil L., ‘‘ Music Instruction in Junior and Senior High Schools in Forty Representative Cities,”” The School Review, Vol. XXXV, No. 6, June, 1927, pp. 452-7. 3 Earhart, Will, and Boyd, Charles N., Recent Advances in Instruction in Music, U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1923, No. 20, p. 9. 4 A complete and critical evaluation of tests of aptitude, achievement, and appreciation of music is presented by Jacob Kwal- wasser in his Tests and Measurements in Music, Boston, C. C. Birchard & Co., 1927. [ 235] Published and training the artist, and conversely in dis- couraging the less talented. Avocational guid- ance, on the other hand, is concerned with the problem of providing everyone with some kind of intelligent instruction in music, which will utilize musical endowments, no matter how meager, and which will result in pleasure and profit. Music appreciation—In addition to a famil- larity with good music, it is entirely possible to give to the technically untrained certain in- formation of a structural character and of his- torical significance which would add immeas- urably to the intellectual interest in good music. Definite attempts are made to acquaint pupils with a wide range of the world’s best music. Mechanical instruments for reproduc- ing music, aided by an advancing musical cul- ture in the nation as a whole, have led to the inauguration of systematic instruction in ap- preciation of music in large numbers of schools. Whether the radio brings the latest jazz or symphony concerts into American homes in the future depends largely on the extent and suc- cess of our public school courses in music ap- preciation. “Io teach children to know and love good music—and this implies that they are also brought to recognize and have a distaste for vulgar, tawdry, flimsy music—is a much more difficult problem than to teach them a technic or skill, for it requires guiding the emotions and building up attitudes and ap- preciations. Nothing in modern psychology and prin- ciples of teaching is more significant than the importance assigned to the likes and dislikes de- veloped in the child during his school life. It is also a recognized fact that music can be used as a stimulant and guide to the emotional life of children. According to one writer, music is the language of the emotions. According to the Missouri state syllabus in junior and senior high-school music: * The musical progress of a nation cannot be meas- ured solely by the number of its famous artists, its symphony orchestras, or its grand opera companies. It depends also upon the opportunity of people of all classes to hear good music and to learn how to express whatever taste and talent they may have for music. The best hope for musical progress lies with the schools, which can and must provide music for every child according to his abilities. There is only one valid test of the teaching of appreciation of music. It is the extent to which those taught seek more of the same or similar kind of music. Art Education in the High-School ? What are the objectives of art education?— The Missouri State Course of Study for Junior and Senior High Schools ® illustrates the trend of newer courses toward a clear statement of objectives. General objectives for every pupil are given first; then general objectives for the talented pupil are listed. Following these general objectives are specific objectives; first for every pupil and then for the talented. In the latter division of specific objectives are given definite questions which clarify the meaning. For instance, to make clear the 1 Music Syllabus, Bulletin No. 3, 1925, State of Missouri, Department of Education, Jefferson City, Mo., p. 11. 2 For more detailed help see: Boas, Belle, Art in the School, Garden City, Doubleday, Page and Company, 1924. Cox, George J., ‘‘Shall We Have Intelligence Tests in Art?’’ pp. 690-5. Denver Public Schools, Ari Course of Study, Monograph No. 14, Board of Education, Denver, Colo., 1925. 124 pp. Teachers College Record, Vol. XXVIII, No. 7, March, 1927, 236 pp. Department of Superintendence, The Development of the High School Curriculum, Sixth Yearbook. National Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1928. Dow, Arthur W., Composition. Chapter XX. Garden City, Doubleday, Page and Company, 1924. Long Beach Public Schools, Art Course of Study for the High School, Board of Education, Long Beach, Calif., 1927. 128 pp. 77 pp. Richardson, Esther Ruble, ‘‘A General Course in Art for High Schools,’’ The School Arts Magazine, Vol. XXVIII, No. 1, September, 1928, pp. 34-36. Tannahill, Sallie B., ‘‘ Problems in Art Education,’’ Teachers College Record, Vol. XXVIII, No. 7, March, 1927, pp. 696-706. . phates oot W. G., ‘‘Curriculum-Building in Art,’’ Elementary School Journal, December, 1920, and January, 1921, pp. 281-9. Whitford, W. G., ‘‘The Problem of Differentiation and Standardization of Art Work in Modern High Schools,’’ The School Review, Vol. XXXII, Nos. 5 and 6. I, May, 1924; and II, June, 1924. 8 Courses of Study in Junior and Senior High Schools, Bulletin No. 5, 1925, Art Syllabus, State of Missouri, Department of Education, Jefferson City, Mo. [236 ] specific objective, ‘““Io have experience in an- alyzing objects for art elements (line, color, and the like),” the following questions and examples are given: “This hat is unbecoming. Is it the size, the color, or the line which is wrong?” ‘These vases are alike in color. Which shape will better suit these flowers ?”’ According to the Missouri State Course of Study: Art education should provide experiences which will make all pupils intelligent consumers of art and give those who are adapted for it an oppor- tunity to become intelligent producers. The General Objectives of Art Education Are: A. For Every Pupil—The Consumer of Art: 1. To increase his judgment and taste in re- gard to what constitutes beauty in his possessions and surroundings and arouse his desire to make these as beautiful as possible. 2. To develop his full capacity to enjoy beauty as it appears both in his daily environment and in the work of great artists and craftsmen. 3. To have such experience in creative art work and in selecting, arranging, and judging finished products that he may: a. Have the pleasure which comes from even the simplest experience of this type. b. See the vocational possibilities of art. c- Develop an interest in art processes as well as in the finished products. 4. To increase his social consciousness through: a. Acquaintance with the art of other peoples and other times. b. Participation with others in art work planned, executed, and judged by the group, and resulting in benefit to the group as a whole. B. For the Talented Pupil—The Producer of Art: 1. To have varied technical experience which will try out his talent, lay a good foundation for future specialization, and afford a basis for in- telligent choice of a field in which to specialize. 2. To acquire a knowledge of vocational op- portunities and rewards in art and related fields. 3. To develop knowledge, judgment, and ap- preciation of art products and of workmanship in various fields of art. 4. To have, when he has chosen his special field, a somewhat more intensive study of the technic, history, and evolution of that field and to develop high ideals in relation to it. Astute appreciation of fine quality in de- sign—an aid to all as consumers—According to the Sixth Yearbook, the outstanding change in the aim of art education in schools is the emphasis upon teaching appreciation of fine quality of design—particularly in those objects and materials which, now or in the future, the child will need to select, arrange, or contem- plate. In progressive schools, appreciation has almost completely superseded representative drawing. Formerly all children, whether tal- ented or not, were put through exercises in drawing. ime is now more profitably spent in learning to choose dress materials, a rug for the home, color-schemes of houses, land- scape plans, or to discover why one local build- ing is ugly and another beautiful. Methods suggested for teaching art appre- ciation and conducting the general arts course —These methods are frequently used: ? 1. Illustrated talks by the teacher on the elements of art: line, form, tone, color, and composition. 2. Notebooks in which pupils paste examples from the fine and industrial arts to illustrate art elements in things of everyday use. 3. Stereopticon lectures, the slides for which may be obtained from state universities, art museums, and supply houses. 4. Organized trips to art museums, stores, civic buildings, and other points of local interest to view objects of great beauty. 5. Exercises in technic, experience with the va- rious mediums of artistic expression, original cre- ative work, and training in the use of art principles. 6. Bulletin board to display examples of beauty collected by both teacher and pupils. 7. Map for marking points of interest in the com- munity. 8. Lectures and exhibits by representatives of stores and factories. Creative expression versus imitation—An- other significant tendency is in the direction of allowing and encouraging the child to ex- press his ideas, conceptions, and visions freely and in his own way in some art form. ‘This emphasis is gradually replacing training in drawing and lessons in perspective as taught in many schools. Progress in creative expression will come through the teaching of the principles of art structure, subordination, rhythm, repetition, apposition, and symmetry. 1 Department of Superintendence, The Development of the High School Curriculum, National Education Association, Wash- 7 ington, D. C., p. 397. 2 See: Whitford, W. G., ‘‘The Problem of Differentiation and Standardization of Art Work in Modern High Schools,’’ II, The School Review, Vol. XXXII, No. 6, June, 1924, pp. 422-3. [ 237 ] Art principles—Under wise guidance, high- school pupils may be led to abstract the same artistic principles from experiences employing widely different applications. The composi- tion of a page of type with cuts can be made to yield the opportunity for the same kind of judgments and harmonious space relations as the designing of a wall area with its subdivi- sions of space by doors, windows, and mould- ings. Hence, instead of dictating a set of problems, which logically should vary with local conditions, some courses of study stress the application of definite art principles and suggest a list of optional applications. This same thought has apparently influenced local school systems in the variety of courses which they have developed as an interpreta- tion of color, line, mass, representation, design, and applied arts. Broad scope of modern art courses—Usually two distinct kinds of courses are offered: (1) Courses of the general arts type, and (2) spe- cial arts courses of various kinds. To illustrate, St. Louis, Mo.,! offers the following art courses: (1) Basic art, 2 terms; (2) design in dress, 1 term; (3) design in the home, 1 term; (4) design in crafts, 2 terms; and (5) color, design, and drawing in commercial problems, 2 terms. The well-rounded art course today affords the pupil these four-fold educational exper- iences: drawing, the graphic experience; de- sign, the ornamental experience; construction, the motor experience; and appreciation, the mental experience. Art Teaching at Various Grade Levels?’ Art in the elementary grades—In the ele- mentary grades, the chief value of art is in the enrichment it offers to school life. Modeling clay, painting pictures, looking at pic- tures, and all sorts of manual activities are necessary for the fullest development of child life. Art here is self-expression. Appreciation grows and creative skills develop subcon- sciously. It is quite enough that the teacher simply ac- quaints the pupils with a wide range of related illustrative material and provides ample raw material for creative self-expression. The more formal the lesson in art becomes, the less it is of art value. In the fifth and sixth-grade work the develop- ment of real skill is of great importance. Skills in art that are not partially developed in child- hood rarely achieve great heights later in life. The consciousness of what the child does is in- vested in the teacher. The child’s school life is sufhcient unto itself. Art in the junior high school—In the junior high school, objectives begin to anticipate what the student must do when he leaves school. This weakens, somewhat, the whole fabric of art teaching, for the one thing that art of all subjects offers is an activity that is more or less complete in itself. The art teacher can be of real service to other teachers if he can show how life in the junior and senior high schools can become more than a “means to an end” as it so often is now. The way in which the art teacher can do this is by directly relating art to the student’s individ- ual life, to his home, and to his immediate sur- roundings. Much of the educational value of art teaching lies in the teacher’s point of view. If the teacher is academically minded, he will tend to ignore the relation of art to the student’s life, his home, and his immediate surroundings, and will try to make productive artists of all his students. Painting pictures and making designs for com- modities are not sufficient to place art work in the junior high school on an educational basis. Something must be done to show students how art in everyday life is related to them. Pointing out to a student the fine relationship that exists in a work of art is one way of going about this problem. Another way is to develop his selective judgment as a consumer of art objects. . 22 eee Summit Co., Ohio, Course of Study for H.S.. Tennessee, Manual for the County H.S..... Texas, H.S: Course ot Study. /2.9 eee Utah, State H: S. Manuals .c. 2a Utah, Course of Study for the Secondary Schools, Sr. H. S cents eeoevis vee « © = oa ow soln Vermont, Manual and Courses of Study, | Bulletin Nov 136... ..0s% oe kien eee Virginia, Manual of Administration for H.S., Bul. Vol. XyNos4..5. tues ue ee eee Washington, H. S. Manual, Bul. No. 22..... * Mimeographed or typewritten sheets. [ 260 ] GENFRAL COURSES IN STATE AND COUNTY SCHOOL SYSTEMS—Cont. ii ihe Course of Study for Jr. and te West Virginia, Organization, Administration, and Course of Study West Virginia, Organization, Administration, and Course of Study, Jr. and Sr. H.S.... oe A agin for the H.S AGRICULTURE Boston, Mass., Agriculture, Automobile, Electricity, Metal Trades, and Woodwork- ing, Course of Study Fresno, Calif., Course of Study in Agricul- ture, H.S F coe , Course of Studyin Agriculture, r Honolulu, T. H., Ventures in Progressive Education at the Kamehameha Schools— The Sugar Cane Project Honolulu, T. H., Syllabus of Courses in. Agriculture Honolulu, T. H., The Soil and Its Relation to Human Welfare, A Unit in Agricultural Instruction Indiana, Courses in Agriculture for H. S Los Angeles, Calif., Agriculture, H. S. Course of Study Mono. No. 21, June, 1923 Minnesota, Agriculture, The H. S. Cur- riculum and Syllabi of H. S. Subjects, Bul. No Missouri, General Agriculture, Courses of Study in Jr. and Sr. H.S., Bul. No. 8, 1927.. Monroe, Ga., Handbook, “Agricultural and Mechanical Schools New York City, H. S. Course of Study in Agriculture Pennsylvania, Course of Study in Agricul- ture, Gr. 7-12 Pennsylvania, eon of Study in Agricul- ture, Grades 7-12 Pennsylvania, Vocational Pennsylvania Texas, Dairying, State Course Texas, Vocational Agriculture (General In- formation) Texas, Vocational Agriculture Vermont, Course of Study in Agriculture, Agriculture in Baltimore, Md., Art Course of Study, Sr. H.S. Binghamton, N. Y., Art Courses for H.S.... pores. Mass., Special Syllabus in Art for Charleston, W. Va., Course of Study in Art. Cleveland, Ohio, Course of Study, Fine ane Applied Art, H. S Cleveland, Ohio, Course of Study, Fine and Applied Art, H.S Connecticut, Art Education for Elementary and Secondary Schools Dallas, Tex., Art—Fine and Applied Denver, Colo., Art Course of Study, Mono. No. 14 Detroit, Mich., Course of Study in Fine and Applied Arts, HS Fort Wayne, Ind., Art Course, Public Schools. Fresno, Calif., Course of Study in Fine and Applied Arts Harrisburg, Pa., Course of Study in Art, Jreangeor ti. > Hawaii, Art, High School Course of Study Series, Part 2, Section IX Honolulu, T. H., Course of Study in Art, Girls’ Dept * Mimeographed or typewritten sheets. (Continued) [ 261 ] TABLE 20.—HIGH-SCHOOL COURSES OF STUDY PUBLISHED SINCE 1920— ART—Cont. Kansas, Music and Art, Course of Study for HS: Part x Kenosha, Wis., Fine Arts, Sr. H. S Lansing, Mich., Course of Study in Fine Arts, Gr. 1-12 Lansing, Mich., Course of Study, Fine and Industrial Arts, Pub. Schs La Salle, Ill., Report on the Art Course of Study one Beach, Calif., Art Course of Study, Ss Los Angeles, Calif., Visual Art, H. S. Course of Study Mono. No. 19, June, 1923 Lynn, Mass., Freehand Drawing Lynn, Mass., Course of Study in Art Edu- cation, Sr. H.S Massachusetts, Minimum Essentials in Re- presentation, Design, Handwork Minnesota, Art, H. S. Curriculum and Syllabi of H. S. Subjects, Bul. No. 6 Missouri, Art Syllabus, Courses of Study in Jr: and Sr. H. S., Bul. No. Muncie, Ind., Art, "Music, and Foreign Lan- guage Courses of Study New York State, Syllabus for Secondary Schools, Drawing Oakland, Calif., Drawing for Jr. and Sr. H.S. Supt.’s Bul., Course of Study Series, No, 41. Pennsylvania, Course of Study in Art Edu- cation, Gr. 1-12 Pennsylvania, Course of Study in Art Edu- cation, Gr. 1-12 Pennsylvania, Course of Study in Art Edu- cation, Years 1-12 Rockford, Ill., Art Instruction, Tentative Course for Sr. H. S St. Louis, Mo., Art for the H. S., Cur. Bul. No. 35 : San Francisco, Calif., Fine Arts Course of Study in H. S., Cur. Bul. No. 212 Tacoma, Wash., Proposed Course of Study in Art, Intermediate and H.S Tulsa, Okla., Art Course, Central H. S Vermont, Courses of Study in Music and Art, Manual and Courses of Study, Part VI. CHARACTER EDUCATION AND GUIDANCE Boston, Mass., Character Education in Secondary Schools, Report of H. S. Head Masters’ Assn., School Document No. 14, 1927 Denver, Colo., A Counseling Program in the Shanes Denver, Colo., Preliminary Report on Home Room Activities in Grade 10B Denver, Colo., Preliminary Report on Home Room Activities in Grade 10A......... Denver, Colo., Preliminary Report on Home Room Activities in Grade 11B Honolulu, T. H., General Plan of a Program of Character Education Los Stee eee Calif., Character and Conduct, S. Course of Study Mono. No. 16, aa 1923 Los Angeles, Calif., H. S. Course of Study in Character and Conduct, Reprint of School Publication No. 60, 1923 New Hampshire, Program of Studies, Char- acter Education Oakland, Calif., Studies in Character Growth. Oakland, Calif., Handbook for School Coun- Pennsylvania, General Bulletin on Guidance. St. Louis, Mo., Socializing-Integrating Ac- tivities for the H. S., Curriculum Bulle- tin No. 38 Utah, Character Education, Supplement to the Utah State Course of Study for Elem, and H.S TABLE 20.—HIGH-SCHOOL COURSES OF STUDY PUBLISHED SINCE 1920— ee} eee 1928 1928 1925 1925 1926 1926 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION Aberdeen, S. D., Course of Study in Com- mercial: Hducationye- =n eee er Austin, Tex., Course of Study in Com- mercial Dept. pL eos ee. ceo ere Baltimore, Md., Course of Study, Commer- cial Education, Jr. and Sr. H. Bayonne, N. J., Course of Study in Elemen- tary Commercial Problems, Gr. 7-12.... Beaumont, Tex., Commercial Education, Gr. 7- Boston, Mass., Course of Study in Clerical Practice, Gr. 7-12 Boston, Mass., Course of Study for the H. S. of -Gommerce ee ite to eee nae ster nae Boston, Mass., Outline in Merchandising and Special Syllabus in Salesmanship....... Boston, Mass., Course of Study in Clerical Practice form Grade EXe een eee: Charleston, W. Va., Course of Study in Book- keeping. H.S Charleston, W. Va., H.S Courses of Study in Commercial Law, Commercial Arith- metic, Penmanship, and Spelling....... Charleston, W. Va., Penmanship Course of study, Grajal2e nese Leer eee tree. Cleveland, Ohio, Pages from a Study of Clerical’ Duties tees eae eee Cleveland, Ohio, Tentative Course of Study in Elementary Accounting, Grades 11 and 12, Bulletin No. 1, Bureau of Edu- cational Research, July 2, 1928........ Dallas, Tex , Commercial Subjects. : Denver, Colo., Commerce, Course of. Study Monograph Noi.8s sti io eee Dubuque, Iowa, Tentative Course of Study, Dept. of Commerce, Sr. H. S Elizabeth, N. J., Course of Study in Business Education raanduot blo E!: Paso County, Colo., Bookkeeping Outline. Enid, Okla., H. S. Courses of Study in Com- mercial’SUDJECtS sen eee ee ie a eat H. S. Commercial Course of Stu ap eae Iowa, Typewriting and Short- ATIC cae se ee Sr et eee eae ge Fresno, Calif., Course of Study in Com- mercialsDept2. = 5. oe eee Hresno, Calit., Shorthands: aes eee ee Harrisburg, Pa., Course of Study in Com- mercial Stprects. Grao=1 2 sae nee ee Hawaii, H. S. Course of Study, Part Two, Section 1, Commercial Course. . : Holland, Mich., H. S. Course of Study, Com- mercial Dept ear Neon 6 Ea een Honolulu, T. H O16.8 8 So. 66 6) 02. 6 @ 6 Cle PB seelo Say) Hee es o.6. 6 @ © © 6 a 6c ne 0 ew! we 6.8 (6 ane)e. i 6.89.6 258 06-8 we Sle wm 6 se Vn Orel, Clete) am wine p Houston, Tex., Course of Study in Com- et Arithmetic, Tenth Grade, Sr. Indiana, Tentative Outline of Course in Shorthand for Secondary Schools....... Indiana, Tentative Course of Study in Be- ginning Typewriting for Secondary Schools, State Dept. Bul. No. 100-G-1d. Indiana, Tentative Course of Study in Book- keeping for Secondary Schools, State Depts Bul Now 100-G-1 cher eee ee Indiana, Tentative Course of Study in Junior Business Practice for Secondary Schools, State Dept. Bul. No. G Kansas, Course of Study for H.S., Part VIII, Commercial SubjectSae se eee Lansing, Mich., Course of Study, Commer- cial Education, Grado) 2). eee eee Lansing, Mich., Course of Study, Commer- cial Education, Gr. 7 Wa Salles lle HS: Course of Study in Short- hand and SVDECWELLLI 2 ce ene eee Los Angeles, Calif., Commercial Studies, S. Course of Study Mono. No. 28, June, LO 2B ereiteth cts esc d ent et (Continued) No. of pages || Year 1925 25 14 1925 209 1926 26 *36 1925 51 13 87 1926 22 1921 *9 1922 *7 1923 1923 #4 1925 *35 1926 1928 182 9 1925 155 1928 *36 1924 48 #4 1926 *18 1925 *10 1925 *6 1925 *7 1925 *14 1925 oe 1925 86 1925 7 1925 *7 1925 *6 1925 *43 1925 *39 1921 1927 *38 1926 *21 31 41 1926 63 1926 *6 1926 71 1926 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION—Cont. Los Angeles, Calif., H. S. Course of Study, Commercial Studies, School Publica- tion (No. 114.0025 S05. ee eee Los Angeles, Calif., H. S. Course of Study, Salesmanship and Advertising, School Publication No, 116232 2 7. eee Maine, Commercial Syllabus, Gr. 7-12...... Maryville, Ohio, A Course of Study in Sten- ography. $3002 eS oe eee Minnesota, H. S. Curriculum and Syllabi of H. S. Subjects, Bul. No. 7, Commercial Education 2:3 ..2 6200 see eee Muncie, Ind., Bookkeeping and Shorthand. . Muncie, Ind., H. S. Course of Study in Book- keepin New oes Pa., Syllabus of the Commercial ept New York City, Syllabus for Day and Even- ing H. S., Bookkeeping, First Unit..... New York City, Commercial Courses of Study for H. S., Secretarial, Account- ing, Salesmanship, Foreign Trade....... New York City, English and Business...... New York City, Syllabus for Day and Even- ing Schools, Accounting, Second Unit... New York State, Syllabus in Commercial subjects for Four-Year Has eae New York State, ope in Commercial Subjects, Gr. 9-12 New York State, Syllabus in Commercial Subjects. 0. 60 6309. ee Oatlands: Calif., Business Penmnanenis for Ale. and Sr. H. S., Supt.’s Bul., Course of Study Series; No; 742-2. ose- oe Oakland, Calif., Commercial Law for High 11th and 12th Grades; 77... 2. eee Oklahoma, Course of Study for Commercial Subjects and Manual Training......... Oregon, A Course of Study for Commercial Departments¢2). 35. 2 eee Pennsylvania, Gotlfses of Study in Commer- cial Education, Gr. 7-12). 5 122 oe eee Philadelphia, Pa., Course of Study in Book- keeping Philadelphia, Pa., Course of Study in Busi- ness Economics bs wile eta sa Oe Geen Philadelphia, Pa., Course of Study in Com- mercial and Economic Geography...... Philadelphia, Pa., Course of Study in Com- mercial Arithmetic..’.. 222 oe eee Philadelphia, Pa., Course of Study in Com- mercial Law. 7.0 i3.005. eee ACS. Philadelphia, Pa., Course of Study in Ele- ments of Business... . 2). Philadelphia, Pa., Course of Study in Jr. Business’ Training *. =... 05. ene Philadelphia, Pa., Course of Study in Sr. Office Practices. sci)... . sete cee fae ooua Pa., Course of Study in Short- a0.0 6 sm) 6 axe: ei coe # elie we 6) a « 16 collect oi ieiie Weare! © 0 0 0 6 © 6 6 0 0 © 6 6 6 te ee © » 614 6 ee 606s ] o 06 6.8 6 Ole whe esl a Mieie ea ee 0) fe, (ae ke (0) ere ve) we mt a) wo wee elon) ile een eee writing... ore: Se'djas‘ia Te icy Bae! Oe, eens OaNl elt eee Pittsburgh, Pa., H. S. Course of Study in Shorthand... 3. 25. eee ee Pittsburgh, Pa., Retail Selling Course in H. S. Portland, Maine, Commercial Arithmetic, Bookkeeping, Accounting.............. Princeton, N. J., Business Training, Gr. 9-12. Rockford, Ill., H. S. Course of Study in Bookkeeping... 26.6.5 vi. «eee Rockford, Ill., H. S. Course of Study in salesmanship... \.. sine oe eee Rockford, Ill., H. S. Course of Study in Stenography and Typewriting.......... St. Louis, Mo., Accounting for the H. S., Cur, Bul. No. 36%........ ase St. Louis, Mo., Business Organization for the B.S; Cur) Bul. Noi'397 = os eee St. Louis, Mo., Commercial Law for the HS;, Cur; Bul. Not402 0-9 oe ee St. Louis, Mo., Salesmanship and Advertising for the H:'S:, Cur, Bul” Now4/2 eee a * Mimeographed or typewritten sheets. Title COMMERCIAL EDUCATION—Cont. St. Louis, Mo., Stenography pepe tne for the He se Cur. Bul. No. San Francisco, Calif., H. > Coo Course of Study, Cur. Bul. No. 201 Sioux City, Iowa, Tentative Commercial Education Outline, Jr. and Sr. H. S Tacoma, Wash., Proposed Course of oie” in Commerce, Intermediate and H. Tacoma, Wash., Proposed Course of ake in Penmanship, Intermediate and H.S.... Texas, The Teaching of Commercial Subjects. Tulsa, Okla., Course of Study in Commercial Law, Central H.S Tulsa, Okla., Course of Study in Salesman- ship and Business Efficiency, Central H.S.. Tulsa, Okla., Office Appliances, Instructions for Students, Central H. S Tulsa, Okla., Outline of Course in Filing and Indexing, Central H. S Tulsa, Okla., Tentative Course of Study, Commercial Work, Jr.’ and Sr. H. S Tulsa, Okla., Outline of Course in Typewrit- ing, Centrrnl H.S Union City, Tenn., Typewriting Vermont, Manual and Courses of Study for H. S., Whole Bul. No. 1, 1923, Part VI, Commercial Subjects Virginia, State H. S. Course of Study, Com- mercial Training, Bul. Vol. VII, No. 1, Supplement No. 5, July, 1924 Wilmington, Del., Bookkeeping Wilmington, Del., Business English Wilmington, Del., Commercial Arithmetic... Wilmington, Del., Commercial Geography... Wilmington, Del., Commercial Law Course. . Wilmington, Del., Typewriting Winnetka, Il]., Commercial Courses of Study.. ENGLISH Aberdeen, S. D., Course of Study in English. . Ashtabula Co., Ohio, The English Course for Austin, Tex., Course of Study in H. S. English. Baltimore, Md., English Course of Study for Jf.-and:Sr: ee S Batavia, Ill., The English Curriculum of the Batavia H Bayonne, N. J., Course of Study in English, Beardstown, Ill., H. S. English Beaumont, Tex.. English Bend, Ore., Course of Study in English, H.S.. Bisbee, Ariz., Course of Study in English, Gr Boston, Mass., Course of Study in English for Cooperative Classes in Day H. S Bridgeport, Conn., Course of Study English for H. S Bryan City, Tex., English Course of Study for the H. S California, A Suggested Outline for a Four- Year Course i in English, Bulletin No. 29.. Canandaigua, N. Y., Public Speaking Casper, Wyo., Syllabus of the H. S. Course in English Centralia, Kan., Outline of Courses in H. S. in .s Pe. Ill., H. S. English Syllabus Chicago, Ill., Course of Study in English, The Drama, Bulletin No. 55 Cleveland, Ohio, Course of Study in English, Jr and Sra Hi: Cleveland, Ohio, Courses of Study in English, Sr: Hi. S Cleveland Heights, Ohio, Sr. H.S Study in English Columbiana.Co-, Ohio, Hoglishi......0.0.. 5. a * Mimeographed or typewritten sheets. (Continued) TABLE 20.—HIGH-SCHOOL COURSES OF STUDY PUBLISHED SINCE 1920— Title ENGLISH—Cont. Connecticut, A Course of Study in English Composition and Literature, Gr. 7-12 Cresco, Iowa, Course of Study i in English. . Cuyahoga Co., Ohio, Jr. and Sr. H. S. Course of Study in English Dallas, Tex., English Courses of Study Delaware, Grammar Review for Seniors Denver, Colo., English, Sr. H. S., Course of Study Monograph No. 10 hsb ee Outline for Business English, r Denver, Colo., Outline for Proposed Experi- mental Classes i in English Detroit, Mich., H. S. Handbook in English. . Downers Grove, Ill., English Course of Study, H Dubuque, Iowa, Tentative Course of Study in English, 'Sr. H.S piu Det a J., Outline of English, Jr. and Elizabeth, N. J., Spelling List, Gr. 7-12 El! Paso Con Colo., Fiesss English Enid, Okla., H. S. Course of Study in English. Eureka, Kan., H. S. Collateral Reading Course of Study Florida, The Teaching of H. S. English, Florida Sed Bul., Vol. I, No. 1 Sr. H. Fort Madison, English Fort Madison, Iowa, English Fresno, Calif., Course of Study in Sr. H. S. English Gary, Ind., English, Gr. 7-12 Gary, Ind., H. S. Composition Gary, Ind., H. S. Literature Outline Greeley (St. Tchrs. Col.), Colo., Course of Study in English, Gr. 7-12... Hagerman, N. M., English Hamtramck, Mich., Creative Teaching in the Field of Spelling, Creative Supervision Mono. No. eure Pa., English Courses of Study, r. 7-12 Hawaii, H. S. Course of Study Series, Part Two, Section II, English Helena, Ark., Outline of English, Gr. 7-12.... Honolulu, T. H., English, Gr. 7-12 Houston, Tex., Requirements in Supple- mentary Readings in English for Grades Iowa, Course of Study, Houston, Tex., Unit Teaching in H. S. English Hutchinson, Kan., English Course of Study, Jeands Sr Et Iowa City, Iowa, Courses in English for Sr. H. S., Univ. of Iowa Ext. Bul. No. 140, College of Education Series No. 23 Janesville, Wis., Jr.-Sr. H. S., English Course Kansas, State Dept. of Education, Course of Study for H. S., Part II, English Knoxville, Iowa, Course of Study in H. S. English pared: N. J., Course of Studyin English, Ss S panes: Mich., Course of Study in English, Tonk Lansing, Mich., Course of Study in English for the Public Schools La Salle, Ill., H. S. Course of Study in English. Long aie Calif., English Course of Study, Sr S Los Angeles, Calif., Course of Study Mono. INOw 32) English for ‘‘Z’’ Pupils, School Publication No. 99 Los Angeles, Calif., Course of Study Mono. INow 21h Library. sl nstruction lt) S. School Publication No. 77 [ 263 ] ENGLISH—Cont. Los Angeles, Calif., English, Course of Study Ne ee 22, School Publication No. 78, H.S Los ea Calif., English for Sr. H. S., Reprint of Supt.’ s Bul., Course of Study Series, No. 65, August, 1923 Lynn, Mass., English, hes Lynn, Mass., Outline, English Course Madison, Wis., Tentative Course of Study in English Maryland, The Teaching of H. S. English, Md. School Bul. Vol. III, No. 3 Michigan, Word Study and Spelling Minneapolis, Minn., The H. S. Course in Pinelish , Ate oats eres Minneapolis, Minn., Course of Study in English Minnesota, H. S. Curriculum and Syllabi of H. S. Subjects, Bul. No. 2, H. S. English Missouri, English Syllabus, Gr. 7-12, Mimeo. Bul. No. 3 Missouri, Courses of Study in Jr. and Sr. H.S., Bul. No. 9, English Missouri, Courses of Study in Jr. and Sr. H.S., Bul. No. 13, Speech Montana, Course of Study in English for Mt. Clemens, Mich., Course of Study, English Dept., H. S *29 Muncie, Ind., H.S. Course of Studyin English} *29 New Brunswick, N. J., Tentative Course of Study in English, Jr. and Sr. H. New Castle, Pa., Syllabus of the English Dept., Sr New Hampshire, Program of Studies Recom- mended for the Public Schools, Gr. 9-12, Part II, English New Jersey, Course of Study in English, Part 2, Four-Year H. S New York City, Syllabus for H. S., English. . New York State, Syllabus for Secondary Schools, English Language and Literature Nutley, N. J., Course of Study in English. . Oakland, Calif., English for Sr. H.S Oklahoma, Course of Study in English Oregon, Elective English Courses Oregon, English Course of Study for the H. S.. Osage. Iowa, Course of Study in English.... Palestine, Texas, English, Gr. 7-12 ee Course of Study in English, r Mena a ite Course of Study in English, Ge Pennsylvania, Course of Study in English, Gr. 7-12, Bul. No. 40 Perry, Iowa, Minimum Essentials in H. S. English for Dalls Co Philadelphia, Pa., Syllabus in English....... Philippine Islands, Literature for Secondary Trade Schools Philippine Islands, Revised Course of Study in Literature for Academic H. S. and Normal Schools Philippine Islands, Secondary Course in English Composition Philippine Islands, Course of Study in Litera- ture for Agri. and Rural H Philippine Islands, Revised Course of Study in Literature for Academic H. S. and Normal Schools Pittsburgh, Pa., H. S. Course of Study in English, Gr. 10-12 Portland, Me., English Course of Study Portland, Ore., Course of Study in English tor Fas Porto Rico, Course of Study in English Porto Rico, Course of Study in English Princeton, N. J., English Quanah, Tex., H. S. English Course St. Louis, Mo., English for the H. S., Cur. Bul. No. 22 * Mimeographed or typewritten sheets. [ 264 ] ENGLISH—Cont. Salt Lake City, Utah, Course of Study in English San ae Tex., Related English, Planing Mi San Antonio, Tex., Related English for Machinists San Francisco, Calif., English for Special Groups, H. S., Cur. Bul. No. 211 San Francisco, Calif., H. S. Course of Study in English, Cur. Bul. No. 209 Sandpoint, Idaho, Outline of English Course. . Sioux City, Iowa, Tentative English Course, Somerville, Mass., Course of Study in English Somerville, Mass., English, Gr. 7-12 Tacoma, Wash., Proposed Course of Study in English, Intermediate and H Tacoma, Wash., Proposed Course of Study in English, Book Lists, Intermediate and H.S Texas, The Teaching of H. S. English Trenton, N. J., Tentative English Syllabus, Sr s Trenton, N. J., Tentative Course of Study, English, Secondary Grades Tucson, Ariz., Course of Study Revision in English, H. S Tulsa, Okla., English IV, Plans and Require- ments, Central H.S Tulsa, Okla., English VI, Plans and Require- ments, Central H.S Tulsa, Okla., English III and College Preparatory III, Plans and Require- ments, Central H.S Tulsa, Okla., English V and College Prepara- ee V, Plans and Requirements, Central Vermont, English, Gr. 7-12, Bul. No. 1, Part II Vermont, English, H. S. Course of Study, Bul. No. 1, Part XI Virginia, English, State Course of Study, H. S., Bul., State Dept. of Ed., Vol. VII;-No.. 1, Supplement NossE Virginia, Minn., Courses of Study, Manual Nou 22; Public Speaking » Washington, D. C., Course of Study in English, Sr. H.S Washington, D. C., English Studies, School Document No. 31, Gr, 7-12 Wilmington, Del., Business English Winnetka, Ill., English Dept., Curriculum and Objectives, H.S FCREIGN LANGUAGES—GENERAL Austin, Texas, H. S. Course of Study in Foreign Languages Burbank, Calif., Dept. of Modern Lan- guages—Course of Study Chicago, Ill., Modern and Ancient Lan- guages, H.S Cleveland Heights, Ohio, Sr. H. S. Course of Study, Modern Language Dallas, Texas, Foreign Languages Dallas, Texas, Foreign Languages Detroit, Mich, Foreign Languages in Inter- mediate and H.S Dubuque, Iowa, Tentative Course of Study, Dept. of Foreign Languages Enid, Okla.,H.S. Courses of Study in Foreign Languages Hagerman, N. , Foreign Languages Harrisburg, Pa., Courses of Study in Foreign Languages, Gr. 8-12 Hawaii, Foreign Languages, H. S. Course of Study Series, Part 2, Section III Indiana, Tentative Course of Study Foreign Languages for Secondary Schools TABLE 20.—HIGH-SCHOOL COURSES OF STUDY PUBLISHED SINCE 1920— (Continued) 432 TABLE 20.—HIGH-SCHOOL COURSES OF STUDY PUBLISHED SINCE 1920— Year Title FCREIGN LANGUAGES—GENERAL— Cont. 1924 | Johnstown, Pa., H. S. Course of Study in Modern Languages, French and Spanish 1926 | Kansas, Foreign Languages, Course of Study BOPAULYGR EL Sep. tomer iioa, Ciiatic oh ees cee es 1922 | Lansing, Mich., Foreign Languages, Gr. 7-12. 1927 | Lansing, Mich., Courses of Study in Foreign Panewacesetste G=1 20 656. ee ac ce nace 1927 | Los Angeles, Calif., A Jr. and Sr. H. S Course of Study, Modern Foreign Languages, Bul. No. 1, Sept., 1927..... | 1926 | Lynn, Mass., Foreign Languages. :......... 1924 | Madison, Wis., Tentative Course of Study Lie vlodermia anetagesian snes tees es || 1926 | Muncie, Ind., Art, Music, and Foreign Lan- eiiace Courses of Study. a. cccee ees sls 1926 | New Castle, Pa., Syllabus of the Math. Dept., oe Dept., and French Dept., Sr. 1924 | New Jersey, The Teaching of Foreign Lan- guages in the H. S., Education Bul. Vol. II, No. 4, December, LOD A. Lee 1927 | New York City, Informational Syllabus and Reading Lists in Modern Languages. . New York State Modern Foreign Language Mala ULSepere treet a ete rete ia teeter d cheleews 1928 | New York State, Tentative Syllabus in Ancient Languages—Latin and Greek.. 1924 | Oklahoma, Course of Study for Foreign Lan- ; guages, Music, and Public Speaking.... | 1923 | Pennsylvania, Courses of Study in Foreign ASAT SUAP OS iat. eat as ik elstes ole wate eutebe's » 1925 | Pennsylvania, Courses of Study in Foreign PAM SUA PCR ems chart ates aie at She iseteemadiane.s | 1927 | Pennsylvania, Courses of Study in Foreign MEATEDU ARES a ae eae oie, etn Glare crores 1926 | Porto Rico, Course of Study in Latin and TEER SLB VCE Us co int oc RE NON nao see EE eee | 1926 | Richmond, Ind., Course of Study in Foreign Paneuaress Gr fe125 ei eo oo. eee | 1926 | Richmond, Ind., Syllabus, Dept. of Foreign a REA SUA RED Pee hc th re eatnaieretelals iw sie bobo ates | 1928 | San Francisco, Calif.; Course of Study in Foreign Languages, H. S., Cur. Bul. INE eee oe citar s dita tier moved esas 1928 | Sioux City, Iowa, Tentative Foreign Lan- guage Curriculum, Jr. and Sr. H.S..... 1928 | Tacoma, Wash., Proposed Course of Study in Foreign Language, Intermediate and TES, Spt oh Peay iets. re SEMEN be a 1927 | Texas, The Teaching of Spanish, German, and RELCTICIIC ee ins Siete oe seas 1925 | Trenton, N. J., Tentative Course of Study, Modern Languages, Jr. and Sr. H. S., A Uae eb A Satie e eietons eee chediviw ie» cule clad 1923 | Vermont, Courses of Study in Modern Wanguacess Gr, fof? eas pees owe ees 1928 | Vermont, Courses of Study in Latin and Greek, Manual and Courses of Study, TEE Taal Srp Dern, chee REI Doce RTH ERE Ie ara a eae | 1928 | Vermont, Courses of Study in Modern Languages, Part VIII of Manual and Gourses of Study 252 os Sees: 1924 | Virginia, Foreign Languages, H. S. Course of Study. Bul., St. Bd. of Ed., Vol. VII, No. 1, Supplement No. 7, July, 1924;.... 1928 | Virginia, Foreign Languages, H. S. Course of Study. Reprint of Bul., St. Bd. of Ed., Vol. VII, No. 1, Supplement No. 7, til ye EO 2AM eh tr aae ce tigate stele oc | 1928 | Winnetka, Ill., The Objectives and Courses of Study of the Foreign Language Dept. Wyoming, Modern Languages.............. FCREIGN LANGUAGES—FRENCH 1925 | Baltimore, Md., French Course of Study, reerTiCly Orem LS ey cette ete oe sks. aheusts iets’ sis Beaumont, Lexas, French... ncis6:.s Sew ess 1924 | Boston, Mass., Course of Study in French. . | 1928 | Charleston, W. Va., Sr. H. S. Course of Study for the French Dept..... pete ee iS ae ge 1925 | Denver, Colo., French—Course of Study VT OLIOM ENO LO erie: ciel lays slic lsnavereiess * Mimeographed or typewritten sheets. (Continued) No. of || Year pages *11 1924 38 1926 47 45 *5 1924 *8 1921 1921 *19 28 1926 1924 11 1923 1924 1923 158 1926 62 1926 9 1925 94 32 80 1923 80 1926 80 *6 *15 1924 #35 1928 79 1925 75 1928 1928 20 81 1926 1924 *26 1925 77 1927 1923 47 1924 1924 73 1921 1926 35 1924 1927 35 1928 *16 *27 1923 1927 61 1926 *19 25 *21 1926 276 Title FOREIGN LANGUAGES—FRENCH—Cont. Fordson, Mich., Course of Study in French, EF Oe ee Fi OES Se) LEM Fresno, Calif., Course of Study in French, OS AY ES EOS SG ER eh a SET oti ie a a ee 8 Fresno, Calif., Course of Study in French, GET ctD Tap MCHA ah ie, La Salle, Ill., Report on the French Course of Study nS OL Cad Rae Meher Se NE yon WMiasee hreneli armani ce eae. Maine, The French Syllabus, Gr. 7-12....... Maryland, The Teaching of H. S. French.... Maryland, The Teaching of H. S. French, Md. School Bul. Vol. III, No. 6, Sept., New Castle, Pa., Dept., Sr Hi Newton, Mass., H. S. French Course....... Oakland, Calif., French for Jr. and Sr. H.S.. Oakland, Calif., French inthe Jr. and Sr. H.S. Philadelphia, Pa., Course of Study in French Princeton, Noho) Brench) Gr. 9-24 9) 2 Rockford, Ill., Outline of the French Course OfsaStudiy oes tee eee aie St. Louis, Mo., French for Grades 9-12, Cur. Bul See rere Cro) ae ity so ea ee Somerville, Mass., Course of Study in Benches, Greets 2g ae ee te ae FCREIGN LANGUAGES—GI RMAN Philadelphia, Pa., Course of Study in German. Se nei Mo., German for Gr. 9-12, Cur. TAGS lee Rea yates Le oe oe FCREIGN LANGUAGES—LATIN Baltimore, Md., Latin Course of Study for Sr. and’ fr. He S Burbank, Calif., Course of Study in Latin... Cleveland Heights, Ohio, Jr.-Sr. H. S., Latin Courserat: Sttdy. sane anger boc ceeok ie Latin Bib We ape et rd RN, = 6 ARO ee beg EEO Denver, Se Latin, Course of Study Mono. 02 OR ae hee eee ete. Kin ake eaten Fordson, Mich. Outline of Course of Study in Latin nigh erchc pete thera ae ooo ares ee Fresno, Calif., Course of Study in Latin..... Illinois, Latin in H. S., Univ. of If. Bul., Vol, XXII; No. 12, Nov: £4) 1924204... Lansing, Mich., Course of Study in Latin, Ee Wear ROC ahaa 4 ire neg ae is eae La Salle, Ill., H. S. Course of Study in Latin. . Los Angeles. Calif., H. S. Latin, Course of Stiidy Monon Nos 132 fine, 1923557. 22- Madison, Wis., Tentative Course of Study LEG LUA CET See tee SPs eae teen hee iar, oars Maine, Summary of the Latin Syllabus..... Maryland, The Teaching of H. S. Latin, Md. School Bul. Vol. III, No. 5. Sept., 1921. . bcp ioe Salah Syllabus of the Latin Dept., PENS ites. See Sen ree ene ee eee HOG RR he sage WRI - sce oR sere 5 AN Be a NU RN New York State, A Survey of Achievement in Birstebalfisvear of Latin, 2.272 e22 2. New York State, A Survey of Achievement in Second Half of First Year Latin..... Philadelphia, Pa., Course of Study in Latin. . Pittsburgh, Pa., H. S. Course of Study in Lath Supplemientiinenieete. co ete es Pittsburgh, Pa., H. S. Course of Study in Latin, Jr.-Se. H.S Princeton, Nes len loatia Gre Onl ao ye aise cee ce Rockford, Ill., Course of Study for Latin TeAticlel Lee ye ees oie. akS: chee ee ese Rockford, Ill., ED carr ce bie eee ee hs ure okt. che mete ovate St. Louis, Mo., Latin for Grades 9-12, Cur. ES RESIN Cae re atelitsia hee as. boa onions re) sikw le be) ww io. @ 8) se! 6: ¢ 6 0) ee. (6 TABLE 20.—HIGH-SCHOOL COURSES OF STUDY PUBLISHED SINCE 1920— (Continued) 1928 1927 1922 1927 1923 1924 1928 * Mimeographed or typewritten sheets. Title FOREIGN LANGUAGES—LATIN—Cont. San Francisco, Calif., H. S. Course of Study in Latin, Gr. 9-12, Cur. Bul. No. 204... Seattle, Wash., Outline for Courses in Latin. . Tennessee, Course of Study in Latin Texas, The Teaching of Latin West Virginia, Tentative Outline for a Course of Study in Latin Wilmington, Del., Latin Course of Study.. FCREIGN LANGUAGES—SPANISH Austin, Texas, H. S. Course of Study in Spanish Beaumont, Texas, Spanish Boston, Mass., Courses of Study in Spanish, Gr. 7-1 Fotdeen vere Outline of Course of Study in Spanish, Gr. 9-12 Fresno, Calif., Course of Study in Spanish, Gr. 7 Fresno, Calif., Gr. 7 Lansing, Mich., Spanish New Castle, Pa., Syllabus of the Spanish Dept..shvias Course of Study in Spanish, Oakland, Calif., Spanish for Jr. and Sr. H. S. Oakland, Calif., Spanish for Jr. and Sr. H.S. Philadelphia, Pa., Course of Study in Spanish. Rockford, Ill., First Year Spanish St. Louis, Mo., Spanish for Grades 9-12, ; Cur. Bul. 44 HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION Alabama, Tentative Course of Study in Physical Education, Jr. and Sr. H.S.... Boston, Mass., A Course of Study in Physical Education, Gr. 9-12 Boston, Mass., Physical Education, Jr. and Srabess Bul. 147, No. Burbank, Calif., Physical Education Charleston, W. Va., Health and Physical Education Charleston, W. Va., H. S. Course of Study in Physical Education for Girls Chicago, Ill., Tentative Course of Study in Physical Education for Girls Dallas, Texas, Physical Training and R. Dallas, Texas, Physical Training and Re OL C Denver, Colo., Physical. Education Course of Study for Sr. H. S Detroit, Mich., Athletic Manual, H. S Detroit, Mich., Athletic Manual, H.S Detroit, Mich., Tentative Handbook Health Education for Boys, H. S Dothan, Ala., A Course of Study in Physical Education, Gr. 7-12 Enid, Okla., Course of Study in Health Florida, Health and Physical Education.... Fordson, Mich., Course of Study in Health, Joand (St Hess Harrisburg, Pa., Hygiene and Physical Edu- cation, Gr. 7-12 Indiana, Tentative Course of Study in Health Education for Secondary Schools Kenosha, Wis., Physical Education for Boys. . Lansing, Mich., Course of Study in Physical Education and Hygiene, Gr. 1-12 La Salle, Ill., Reports on Courses of Study in Physiology, Gymnasium, Physical Education, and Hygiene Los Angeles, Calif., Corrective Physical Edu- cation, H. S. Course of Study Mono. No. 21, June, 1923 Madison, Wis., Tentative Course of Study in Physical Education Maine, Physical Education, Elem. and H.S.. Course of Study in Health and No. of pages Year Title HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCA- TION—Cont. Massachusetts, Physical Education in the Public Schools Missouri, Physical Education, Bul. Gro7 Missouri, Part II Missouri, Physical Education, Courses of study in) Jr:"and! Sr.) Hesse earue Revised Edition Nebraska, Courses of Study for Normal Training H.S., Bul. E., Physiology and Hygiene New Castle, Pa., Syllabus of the Physical Education Dept New Hampshire, Health and Physical Edu- cation, Gr. 7-12 New Jersey, Physical Training Bul. for H.S.. New Jersey, Suggestions for a Health Pro- gram, Gr. 7-12 Newton, Iowa, Boys’ Physical Education ‘Course of Study,-Gr. 7-12 North Carolina, Physical Education in the H.S., Educational Publication No. 104, Division of School Inspection No. 28.... Oakland, Calif., Physical Education for Sr. H. S., Supt.’s Bul., Course of Study Series, No. 72 Oakland, Calif., Hygiene for Boys in Sr. ., Supt.’ s Bul. No. 118 Oakland, ’Calif., Hygiene for Girls in Sr. H. cS Supt.’s Bul. No. 117 Pennsylvania, Course of Study in School Health, Hygiene and Physiology, Gr. Pennsylvania, Course of Study in School Health, Physical Education, Gr. 9-12.. Pennsylvania, Course of Study in Physical Education Pennsylvania, Course of Study in School Health, Hygiene and Physiology, Gr. Philippine Islands, Physiology, Hygiene, and Sanitation Princeton, N. J., Rockford, Tis Physiology St. Louis, Mo., Health for the H. S., Cur. Physical Education Outline of Course of Study in San Francisco, Calif., ‘Course in Physical Education, Gr. 9-12, Cur. Bul. No. 213. Springfield, Mass. ie Physical Education for Boys, Gr. Springfield, Mass., Girls, Gr. 7-12 Tacoma, Wash., Proposed Course of Study in Physical Education and Health; Inter- mediate and H. S Texas, The Teaching of Physiology Virginia, Physical Education, Gr. 8-11 Virginia, State Course of Study, Physical Education, H. S Winnetka, IIl., Boys, H.S Wisconsin, Individual Athletic Activities... . HOME ECONOMICS Aberdeen, S. D., Course of Study in House- hold Arts Alabama, Course of Study in General Home Economics Alabama, Manual of Home-Making Edu- _ cation for H.S Petey 4Eo., Ohio, Economics, H.:S Austin, Texas, Course of Study in Home Economics, Has Baltimore, Md., Home Economics Course of Study for Elem. and H. S Outline for Home TABLE 20.—HIGH-SCHOOL COURSES OF STUDY PUBLISHED SINCE 1920— Year 1925 1927 1925 1925 1926 1924 1925 1926 1927 1923 1928 1922 1927 1927 1923 1925 1927 1928 1924 1929 1929 1929 1929 1922 1927 1926 1925 Title HOME ECONOMICS—Cont. Beaumont, Texas, Course of Study in Home Economics, Gr. TRA RAG akan SPR te ir Charleston, W. Va., Home Tatanine Course OM StUd Ve Mn sae LO eae ee Dallas, dy Home Economics Course of Stu die Uinta VER RES LOD Bean Cece REE ESULLCL VE Rern Ts or I RCI SiaEe ofete oie heco's cant Denver, Colo., Home Economics, Course of SUC yaVeOHO MNO 1 Gaon e erie site ences Denver, Colo., Home Economics, Res. Mono. No. 1, Gr. fan I ri cep Rn ee ee = Dubuque, Iowa, Tentative Course of Study, Dept. of Home Economics sor elerousne Duluth, Minn., Course of Study in Elemen- tary Dietetics and Meal Planning, Gr. TMG) ace Sele net Bede pace Cee 0 Pena RRP ee Duluth, Minn., Course of Study in Ad- vanced Dressmaking, GrilOeee aie e Enid, Okla., H. S. Course of Study in Home ES CON OMICS arena at eie snare cette cc enthale ieee ers Florida, A Tentative Course of Study in EGnie! FU COMOMICS a eer ei eran alee BoD ERA Ace ie ee eae 2 ae ee ee Fresno, Calif., Home-Making Education, r. 7-12 Harrisburg, Pa., Practical Arts Curriculum, STOTMICELUCONOMICS areata. cee ciieeeroeie ee ies Holland, Mich., Home Economics Courses Git STAVOR Apel erate WS Gaal RR ae int eee Holland, Mich., Homecraft Lessons, H.S.... Honolulu, T. H., Home Economics, Girls’ IDV Bic, dosed aS Aid MEDICA ECCI et OacrOr a POLS ae CETTa RE, se atoya tice Corie on Set a aR ocean Indiana, Home Economics, State Course of Studyvator secondary schools... ..s.-6.... Kansas, Course of Study for H. S., Part IX, HemMesteCOnOMmics Geraci mies os Ei oc Lansing, Mich., Course of Study in Home ECONOMICS GE al De cncesieene ee newie elas ee Lansing, Mich., Courses of Study in Home Economics, Gr. 6-12 La Salle, Ill., Report on the Course of Study, Monmiestic: science, Hy Sis. sos eee. o Los Angeles, Calif., Home Economics, Course of Study Mono. No. 14, School Pub- HIGATLON GN Oot 40 eee echo trtcenc eee ee eee Lypn, Mass., Household Arts, Gr. 7-12 Madison, Wis., Tentative Course of Study in Cookery IS ER AGT OR CeO ee ere Madison, Wis., H. S. Manual of Home EC CONOMUCS em eUnt omer tin nee © oes. Manhattan, Kan., Course of Study of ELomeneconomics) Grosel2e ne eauee «1 Maryville, Ohio, A Course of Study in MDLCLELICS Wile Sage cree cre eel ee eet 8 Maryland, Tentative Suggestions for the Teaching of General and Vocational ES nIeyECONOMICS an see ees aeons ee Massachusetts, Basic Courses of Study in Home Economics for Sr. H. S. Part I, Food in Relation to the Health and Happinessvot the Home... .m.c-e > «+ Massachusetts, Basic Courses of Study in Home Economics for Sr. H. S. Part II, Clothineee.Gucations as .e ec cata ees Massachusetts, Basic Courses of Study in Home Economics for Sr. H. S. Part III, HeomenVManacementese as conceee ses ol Massachusetts, Basic Courses of Study in Home Economics for Sr. H. S. Part IV, INUEEILION ees See eso ae cle Minnesota, H. S. Curriculum and Syllabi of H. S. Subjects, Bul. No. 10, Home ICON OMICS See Le ee ees Mississippi, Teaching Homemaking......... Missouri, Courses of Study in Jr. and Sr. H. S., Home Economics Syllabus, Bul. No. 6 Monessen, Pa., Vocational Household Arts. 10 S66 © 6) ee wow ae «mele pe vele Bs isele @¢ 6% 6 « * Mimeographed or typewritten sheets. (Continued) No. of pages Year 1925 *18 *R *53 || 1925 7 1926 16 139 || 1921 71 1925 #26 1924 18 1924 *9 1925 *10 1925 *77 1924 #5 *88 || 1925 *20 || 1928 1926 8 || 1923 20 *22 1926 *6 51 1928 123 58 1926 159 1928 *5 1925 120 *40 1926 *12 1923 114 || 1923 1923 *7 | 1923 1923 *21 1923 *30 || 1924 1925 1926 1926 *41 1927 1927 +36 1923 *13 1928 #11 1925 1926 120 111 137 |) 1920 +R 1924 [ 267] Title HOME ECONOMICS—Cont. Montclair, N. J., Tentative Course of Study in Household ATES ee roma te Muncie, Ind., Tentative Outline of Elemen- tary Home H-CONOMICS wae ae eee ee New Brunswick, N. J., Tentative Course of ase in Home Economics, Jr. and Sr. New Hampshire, Program of Studies Recom- mended for the Public Schools, Gr. 9-12, Part VI, Home Economics....... New York Gitye Course of Study in Food Study, Household Management, and Waindry sere Se aa tain New York City, Syllabus on Clothing and Mextiles awareness ae ee ee New York State, Syllabus for Homemaking and Home Economics, Univ. of the Statcloty Ne yen bile INOw SO Smee eee Oakland, Calif., Home Economics, Clothing, jr and Sr. S Oakland, Calif., ibe and Ore HH. SEM ioe Lhe ae Ohio, Course of Study for H. S. in Vocational Home Economics Education Oklahoma, Course of Study in Home Economics Bie har Ee aH at ee Osage, Iowa, Home Economics, Gr. 7-12.... Pennsylvania, Home Economics Education, Bul Now eer okie. eae ke ee eee Philippine Islands, Food and Health Portland, Maine, Home Economics......... Porto Rico, Course of Study in Home ECOnOnII Cae ere sere ec ee ne Are eae Rockford, Ill., Tentative Course of Study in Household ATES RIN ore San, A eT OEY aie! On St. Louis, Mo., Home Economics for the Hes. .CuryBulaNov4 len eee. San Diego, Calif., Course of Study for Jr. and Sri Home Economicsse seek San Francisco, Calif., Household Arts, H. S., Cur. Bul. No. 205 Somerville, Mass., Gig a 1 2 ee ee re ey Oey ht 2 Somerville, Mass., Course of Study in Cook- Cry Gre (= 1a Orr eee me as aie ees South Bend, Ind., Household Arts Course of Study form) imangisrs Liat Gaee 5 ene Tallahassee, Fla., Tenth-Grade Home Eco- HOMICS attest Tennessee, A Two-Year Course of Study in Home Economics for County H.S Tennessee, Course of Study HCONOMICS Bere eee eee Texas, Applied Design and Clothing Texas, Hood!stidy Outlines). 72.8.0. sa8e- Lexas#GirlssGlothing Contest. ......5...6% Texas, Household Management............ Texas, Suggested Outlines for Study of Voca- tional Home Economics in Rural and SeN tek Se gi In Key, TW - 5 one ee ane ee Texas, Vocational Home Economics in Texas. Texas, Laboratory Manual of Home Nursing. Texas, Home Nursing 0) 6 em hs 14 66 sw & 00 6.0.0: 0 2D 4 TS See 6 Dees eet 8 Oe in Home 0S) e566 (Wiles) Ppa Be” e) Ga le ee: 8).8) 16) Wve Texas, Equipment for Teaching Homemaking. Texas, Teaching Home Economics by Means Of-Home: Projects. ee ee Gee Fas shexasterome: Hconomicsamena erecta: Texas, Home Economics Education........ Tulsa, Okla., Food Manual, Home Econom- ics Dept., Sr. H. S ‘Vermont, Course of Study in Home Econom- ICS ECS rsa 12 Ween screen Oe eee tee kore om Vermont, Manual and Courses of Study for H. S., Whole Bul. No. 1, Part V, Home TLCONOMICS phar EN eee Wayne Co., Ind., Home Economics......... West Allis, Wis., Suggestive and Experi- mental Curriculum in Home Economics, Glothing es jie angdisre Ln Sosa er Winnetka, Ill., Outline of Courses in Dept. OletloMmerccOnomics mr 1 Sie sere niaieien Wisconsin, Suggestions for Teaching Home- making in the Grades and H.S........ Wisconsin, Manual of Infant Hygiene....... No. of pages *10 *58 TABLE 20.—HIGH-SCHOOL COURSES OF STUDY PUBLISHED SINCE 1920— Year 1925 1928 1923 1923 1924 1926 1926 1927 1924 1923 1927 | 1925 1927 1928 1921° 1922 1922 1922 1922 1923 1923 1923 1923 1924 1924 1924 1925 1925 1925 1926 1927 1924 1924 1924 1924 1925 1925 1925 Title INDUSTRIAL ARTS Austin, Texas, Course cf Study in Manual Training e505 5 Vite cee ee a ema ae Bayonne, N. J., Course, Vocational School. nee, Texas, General Industrial Train- Perce Calif., Industrial Education, Course of Study Mono. No:8. 2540505 -5 Berkeley, Calif., Vocational and Non-Voca- tional Industrial Education........... Boston, Mass., Agriculture, Automobile, Electricity, Metal Trades, and Wood- ROLE Te Ses fale. ek tee odes teens ee eee ie Boston, Mass., Cooperative Industrial Edu- cation for Boys at the Hyde Park H.S.. Burbank, Calif., Auto Mechanics........... Burbank, Calif., Drafting. Burbank, Calif., Machine Shop Course...... California, A Study of Vocational Conditions in. thesCity of) Preshose. oo ae eee California, The California Plan of Vocational Education, Bul. No. C-1, Vocational Education and the Secondary School... Columbus, Ohio, Course of Study in Me- chaical ‘Drawing: 2522.25 ees Connecticut, Suggestions for a Program in Educational Guidance, Gr. 9-12........ Connecticut, Trade and Vocational Educa- tion, Voc. Bul. No. 1, Series 1927-28.... Dallas, Texas, Manual Training............. Dallas#DexassMantialeArtsac ear reer Denver, Colo., Industrial Arts, Jr. and Sr. H. S., Res. Mono., N Detroit, Mich., Standards and Conventions for Mech. Drawing, Has Detroit, Mich., Course of Study in Auto- mobile Mechanics oe SEL Sco ee ee Detroit, Mich., Course of Study in Electrical Work for Intermediate and H. S Detroit, Mich., Course of Study in Machine Shop! Practices) eee ae ee ae ae Detroit, Mich., Mechanical Drawing, Lesson Sheets Three, for H. S Detroit, Mich., Mechanical Drawing, Lesson Sheets Two, for Intermediate and H.S.. Detroit, Mich., Mechanical Drawing, Lesson Sheetsil hree* i328 eerie eae Detroit, Mich, Mechanical Drawing, Lesson Sheets Hour... cisco. dee een ene Ree ae Detroit, Mich., Mechanical Drawing, Lesson Sheetsibive La. MAR Goo ee ee Detroit, Mich., Architectural Standards and oeevewener eee eves Conventions. ee ee ea eee as Detroit, Mich., Auto Mechanics Lesson Sheets, A Method for Teaching the Detroit: Cotirse: 33 oe See eee Detroit, Mich., Mechanical Drawing, Lesson Sheets One, for Intermediate and H.S.. Detroit, Mich., Mechanica] Drawing, Lesson Sheets One, for Intermediate and H. S. Detroit, Mich., Mechanical Drawing, Stand- ards and Conventions. o.7e ate eee Detroit, Mich., Specifications for Architec- tural Drawing,CoursesI, II, III, and IV.. Detroit, Mich., Mechanical Drawing, Stand- ards and Conventions... soe eee Detroit, Mich., Mechanical Drawing, Lesson Sheets: Three; for; aS. seein eae Duluth, Minn., Course of Study for Foundry, CLOT Ree cao eran PE eerie, aeemeae as Duluth, Minn., Course of Study for Machine Shop, Gr. ‘11 ae othe atk Sit eae SO ee Duluth, Minn., Course of Study for Me- chanical DrawingsGt Lt ties ee eee Duluth, Minn., Course of Study for Pattern Making, Grol ree. se es oe Duluth, Minn., Course of Study for Archi- tectural Drawing, Gr. 10 Duluth, Minn., Course of Study for Auto Mechantesi Gr £25426 2 fe Duluth, Minn., Course of Study for Elec- tricity Grol, $123 a eee Eau Claire, Wis., Electricity, as Offered at the Kan’ Claire HAS ioe oor oe a at wi See eae ae (Continued) No. of pages Year 60 12 || 1925 *7 || 1925 143. |} 1925 1925 58 || 1925 1925 26 1925 1922 11 || 1925 *10 aa) *12 1927 260 20 23 41 62 16 52 82 44 20 12 23 26 24 1928 31 | 1922 41 || 1927 24 40 1922 1924 104 1927 51 1927 51 44 1923 59 44 || 1923 31 1923 11 10 1923 22 10 || 1923 10 1923 14 25 || 1926 =15 Title INDUSTRIAL ARTS—Cont. Enid, Okla., H. S. Courses of Study in Vo- cational Subjects. 02... . . ee ee Erie, Pa., Details of Unit Trade Course in Auto’ Mechanics,..2225..4. ee Erie, Pa., Details of Unit Trade Course in Cabinet Making... 2.0. see Erie, Pa.; Machine Shon Work). = eeeeeeee Erie; Pa.; Pattern-makingy,) 93-0) eee Erie, Pas Tailors’ Unit Trade Course. 2272. Workersi.c: oon oh bak eee Erie, Pa., Unit Trade Course in Plumbing... Florida, State Plan for Vocational Education. Florida, Vocational Education in Florida, Agriculture, Trade and Industrial, and Home Economics..0) 8.29.0 oe Fresno, Calif., Smith-Hughes Shop Courses. . Hamtramck, Mich., Auto Mechanics........ Hamtramck, Mich., Machine Shop......... Hamtramck, Mich., Machine Shop......... Hamtramck, Mich., Printing, .-. eee Hamtramck, Mich., Sheetmetal Drafting. ... Hamtramck, Mich., Trade Auto Mechanics, Bulletin No. 105. 2995000000 Harrisburg, Pa., Practical Arts Curriculum, Auto’ Mechanics. 2222.22 eee Harrisburg, Pa., Practical Arts Curriculum, Cabinet Making... 2... .2 72) eee Harrisburg, Pa., Practical Arts Curriculum, Drafting. :....8. 2 eee Harrisburg, Pa., Practical Arts Curriculum, Rlectricity. ga0 3.92 Lape ee Harrisburg, Pa., Practical Arts Curriculum, Foundry ose ins oe eee eee Harrisburg, Pa., Practical Arts: Curriculum, Machine. Shopeisisi cosa oe 2 Harrisburg, Pa., Practical Arts Curriculum, Patternmaking)) 222.00 2. eee Harrisburg, Pa., Practical Arts Curriculum, Printing:.22 0.008) Lae ee eerie ce Course of Study in Printing, Honolulu, T. H., Electricity, Printing Trades, and Intro. to Auto Mec Houston, Texas, Manual Train and Voc. Ed. for Evening School... > 722 See Kansas, Plans for Vocational Education in Kansas, Bul: Nov.7. 2.944200 eee La Crosse, Wis., Educational Guidance, Gr. 8-12.03. 0 2 RL eee Lansing, Mich., Course of Study in Industrial Edueation;iGr.) 10-120. >a ee Lansing, Mich., Course of Study in Indus- trial Education Gr.10-12 Lansing, Mich., Course of Study in Indus- trial Education, Gr. 10-12 La Salle, [1]., Courses of Study in Mechanical Drawing, Architectural Drawing, and Bench Work. Little Rock, Ark., Sheet Metal Drafting... Los Angeles, Calif., Auto Electrics, H. S., Course of Study Monographs, No. 15, School Publication No. 68 Los Angeles, Calif., Cakinet Making, Course of Study Monographs, No. 29, School Publication. No. 84. 22 095.45 Los Angeles, Calif., Carpentry and Mill Cabinet Work, H. S., Course of Study ele ate g net No. 17, School Publication Ce Oe Se Be 06 Se Os be © 6 Ss SS eee ee fa) Los Angeles, Calif., Electricity, H. S., Course of Study Monographs, No. 20, School Publication’ No..65 joe... Ue eee Los aie Calif., Machine Shop Practice, Course of Study Monographs, No. oi. School Publication No. 79. Los Angeles, Calif., Printing, H. S., Course of Study Monographs, No. 25, School Publication No264.2° =) eee Los Angeles, Calif., Course of Study in Re- lated Drawing for Vocation 1 Auto ae Students, School Publication No. < Ae ew ee Oe 6 of @ 6 we bs a 5 ee ps, & oa @ wletete 159 128 106 16 * Mimeographed or typewritten sheets. [ 268 ] INDUSTRIAL ARTS—Cont. Los Angeles, Calif., Course of Study in Re- lated Drawing for Vocational Machine Shop, School Publication No. 136 Lynn, Mass., Industrial Arts Maine, Vocational Education in Maine Menominee, Mich., Manual Education Course of Study, Gr. 7-12 Menominie, Wis. (Stout Institute), Pattern- making, Bul. No. 111 Michigan, Outline Course in Building Con- struction... Michigan, Outline Elementary Course in Electrical Applications in the Home.... Michigan, Outline Course in Elementary Auto Mechanics Michigan, Outline Course in pected Mechanical Drawing Minnesota, Suggestive Syllabus in General Industrial Training, Bul. Missouri, Course in Machine Shop Mathe- Information Relating to Unit- Classes in Auto-Mechanics’ Missouri, Trade Missouri, Outline of Plans for Vocational Education eet Courses of Study in Jr. and Sr. Muncie, Ind., Manual Arts and Vocational New York State, The Unit Instruction Sheet, Vocational Education Oakland, Calif., Auto Repair in the Voca- tional Continuation School Oakland, Calif., Cabinet Work for Continua- tion Classes Oakland, Calif., Oakland, Calif., Electrical Work for Con- tinuation Classes Oakland, Calif., Forging for Continuation Cl Oakland, Calif., Machine Shop for Con- tinuation Classes Oakland, Calif., Machine Shop for Smith- Drawing for Continuation Hughes Classes, Supt.’s Bul. No. 29.... Oakland, Calif., Oxygen-Acetylene Welding and Cutting for Continuation Classes... Oakland, Calif.. Pattern Making and Cabinet Work, Supt.’s Bul. No. 9 Oakland, Calif., Related Drawing for Smith- Hughes Classes, Supt.’s Bul. No. 28.... Oakland, California, Shop Mathematics and Elementary Mechanics for Continuation Oakland, Calif., Mechanical Drawing for H. S., Supt.’s Bul. No. 50 Oakland, Calif., A Course of Study in Wood rade Making for H.S., Smith-Hughes Typ Pehiana: Calif., Machine Shop for Smith- Hughes Classes Oakland. Calif., Printing for Classes of Voca- tional Education Type, Course of Study Series No. 115 Ohio, The Teaching of Mechanical Drawing in the Public Schools, Colleges, and Universities of Ohio Paterson, N J., The Cooperative Apprentice Course, Eastside Has Paterson, N. J., Bulletin of the Paterson Vocational ‘School, Day and Evening Paterson. N. J., Bulletin of Classes, Evening Vocational School Pennsylvania, Administration and Courses of Study, All-Day Vocational Trade or Industrial Schools and Depts., Bul. No. 7 * Mimeographed or typewritten sheets. S., Bul. No. 4, Industrial Subjects... (Continued) 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 3 rf Z TABLE 20.—HIGH-SCHOOL COURSES OF STUDY PUBLISHED SINCE 1920— INDUSTRIAL ARTS—Cont. Pennsylvania, Part-Time Cooperative In- dustrial Education Pennsylvania, All-Day Vocational Trade or Industrial Schools and Depts., Bul. 7... Pennsylvania, Part-Time Cooperative Indus- trial Education, Bul. 1 Porto Rico, Mechanical Drawing Rockford, Ill., Course of Study in Auto- motive Shop Rockford, IIl., Cand of Study II, Mathe- matics for Building Trades Rockford, Ill., Courses for Machinists, Half- Time Cooperative Classes St. Louis, Mo., Manual Arts for the H. S., Cur. Bul. No. 42 St. Paul, Minn., The Manual Training Dept. San Antonio, Texas, Machine Drawing San Antonio, Texas, Mill Woodwork San Francisco, Calif., Industrial Arts, H. S., Cur. Bul. No. 206 Sioux City, Iowa, Tentative Se ee Sar. for ey Education Shops, Jr. and Sr. Springfield, Mass., Courses of Study for the Vocational School and the Jr. Col Tacoma, Wash., Proposed Course of Study in Practical Arts, Boys, Intermediate and H.S Tacoma, Wash., Proposed Course of Study in Practical Arts, Girls, Intermediate Texas, Trade and Industrial Education Texas, Manual Training and Mechanical Drawing in Accredited H. S Texas, Industrial Training in Rural Schools Texas, Mechanical Drawing in Accredited Texas, Industrial Training in Rural Schools. . Texas, State Plans for Vocational Education. . Texas, Trade and Industrial Education Toledo, Ohio, Course of Study in Industrial Arts, Gr. 7-12 Trenton, N. J., Course of Study in Manual Arts, Gr. 7-12 Tucson, Ariz., Vocations for Freshman Boys. . Tucson, Ariz., Vocations for Freshman Girls. . Virginia, Minn., Automobile Repairing, Course of Study Manual No. 20 Waterbury, Conn., Survey of Vocational Winnetka, IIll., Course of Study, Dept. of Manual Education MATHEMATICS Austin, Texas, H. S. Course of Study in Mathematics Baltimore, Md., Mathematics Course of Study for Sr. and Jr. H. S Bayonne, N. J., Course of Study in Mathe- matics, Gr. 7-12 Beaumont, Texas, Mathematics, Gr. 7-12... Bend, Ore., Course in Algebra I, II, and III. Bend, Ore., Course in Plane Geometry Boston, Mass., Course of Study in Mathe- Boston, Mass., Course of Study in Mathe- matics for the Industrial Curriculum in H.S Charleston, W. Va., H. S. Course of Study, Mathematics Chicago, Ill., Mathematics Cleveland Heights, Ohio, Mathematics, Sr. H. S Course of Study Columbiana Co., Ohio, Mathematics Dales Texas, Mathematics Courses of Study [ 269 ] Title MATHEMATICS—Cont. Denver, Colo., Mathematics Course of Study. Denver, Colo., Mathematics, Course of Study Mono. No. 25 gee ee ee , Special Report on Geometry, S Enid, Okla., H. S. Courses of Study in Mathematics Florida, The Teaching of H. S. Mathematics, Florida School Bul. Vol. I, No. 2, Sept., Fresno, Calif., Course of Study in Mathe- matics, Gr. 7-12 Hagerman, N. M., Mathematics Course of Study, Mono. No. 4 Harrisburg, Pa., Course of Study in Mathe- matics, Gr. 7-12 Hawaii, Mathematics, H. S. Course of Study Series, Part Two, Section IV Houston, Texas, Course of Study in Ninth Grade Plane Geometry, Sr Indiana, Tentative Course of Mathematics for Secondary Schools... . Kansas, Mathematics, Part III, Course of Study for H.S Knoxville, Iowa, H. S. Mathematics Lakewood, N. J., Plan of Work for Normal, Slow, and Fast Classes in Mathematics. . Lansing, Mich., Course of Study. in Mathe- matics, Gr. 1-12 La Salle, Ill., Reports on H. S. Course of Study in Mathematics Los Angeles, Calif., Supplementary Problems in Algebra, H. S. Course of Study Mono. No. 27, June, 1923 Los Angeles, Calif., H. S. Course of Study, Algebra, Trigonometry, Plane and Solid Geometry Lynn, Mass., Outline of Mathematics Course. Maine, Mathematics Syllabus, Gr. 7 Maryland, The Teaching of H. S. Mathe- matics, Md. School Bul., Vol. VII, No. 2. Maryland, Course of Study for an Eight- Weeks’ Review of Arithmetic for Fourth Year H. S. Classes, Md. School Bul. Vol. IX, No. 7, May, Maryville, Ohio, A Course of Study for Plane Geometry Minnesota, Syllabus of the H. S. Course in Mathematics Missouri, Mathematics, Courses of Study in be and Sra oe Dulee Nod os Muncie, Ind., Mathematics and ’ Science Courses of Study, H. S New Brunswick, N. J., Tentative Course of Study, Mathematics for Sr. and Jr. H.S. New Castle, Pa., Syllabus of the Mathe- Sara Spanish, and French Depts., ig del New York State, Syllabus in Algebra New York State, Syllabus in Solid Geometry and Plane Geometry New York State, Syllabus in Plane Geometry . Newton, Iowa, Course of Study in Mathe- Oakland, Calif., Mathematics as a Related Subject for Smith-Hughes Work, Supt.’s Bul. No. Oakland, Calif., Mathematics for Sr. H. S., Course of Study Series No. 77 Oklahoma, Course of Study for Mathe- Pennsylvania, Course of Study in Mathe- matics, Gr. 7-12 Pennsylvania, Course of Study in Mathe- matics, Gr. 7-12 Pennsylvania, Course of Study in Mathe- Sapa Years 7-12 Pittsburgh, Pa., H. S. Course of Study in Mathematics, Jr.-Sr. Division, Bul. * Mimeographed or typewritten sheets. TABLE 20.—HIGH-SCHOOL COURSES OF STUDY PUBLISHED SINCE 1920— (Continued) Title MATHEMATICS—Cont. Princeton, N. J., Richmond, Ind., Rockford, Ill., Mathematics in Half-Time Cooperative Classes Rockford, Ill., Outline of the Course of Study in Algebra St. Louis, Mo., Mathematics for the H. S., Cur. Bul. No. 23 St. Louis, Mo., Sr. Mathematics for the H Cur. Bul. : San Antonio, Texas, Mathematics Related to Mill Trade San Francisco, Calif., Mathematics Course of Study, H.S Sioux City, Iowa, Mathematics Course of Study, Gr. 7-12 Sioux City, Iowa, Tentative Mathematics Course, Gr. 7-11 Sioux. City, Iowa, Tentative Mathematics Course, Gr. 7-11 South Bend, Ind., Course of Study in Mathe- matics for Sr. S Tacoma, Wash., Proposed Course of Study in Mathematics, Intermediate and H. S. Union City, Tenn., Course of Study in Mathematics Vermont, Course of Study in Mathematics, Gr. 7-12 Vermont, Course of Study in Mathematics, H. S. Manual and Courses of Study, Virginia, State Course of Study in Mathe- matics, Gr. 8-12 Wilmington, Del., Winnetka, Ill., Mathematics Objectives and Courses Amherst, Mass., H. S. Course in Piano Charleston, W. Va., H. S. Course of Study in Music Education Study Dallas, Texas, Music Courses of Study Fresno, Calif., Course of Study in Music, Gr. 7-12 Fresno, Calif., SroHes Hea Pa., Course of Study in Music, r Honolulu, T. H., Music lowa, Courses of Study in Music for the Public Schools, Univ. of Iowa Ext. Kansas, Music and Art, Course of Study foro alten Kansas, Music and Art Course of Study.... Lansing, Mich., Course of Study in Music, Gr. Long Beach, Calif., Music Course of Study, re Long Boi Calif., Supplement to the Courses of Study i in Music Los Angeles, Calif., H. S. Music, Course of Study Mono. No. 18, June, 1923 Michigan, State Music Contests Missouri, Music Syllabus, Courses of Study in Jr. and Sr. He S., Bula Nov 3 Muncie, Ind., Art, Music, and Foreign Lan- ‘guage Courses of Study New York State, Applied Music for Pupils of Secondary Schools New York State, Music Syllabus Oregon, Course of Study in Music Pennsylvania, Course of Study in Music, Elem, and H Pennsylvania, Course of Study in Music, Elem. and H Pennsylvania, Course of Study in Music. Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania in Music, Edu- cational Mono. Vol. I, No. 1 TABLE 20.—HIGH-SCHOOL COURSES OF STUDY PUBLISHED SINCE 1920— Year 1927 1925 1926 1928 1928 1923 1924 1925 1927 1924 1923 1924 1928 1925 1927 1927 1927 1928 1928 1926 1925 1926 1927 1926 1928 1925 1928 1928 Title MUSIC—Cont. Pittsburgh, Pa., H. S. Course of Study in IVEUSTC@ | e-te O1VISION.. ciardevtie se arts « Pueblo, Colo., Outline of a Course of Study for the Grades ANGE Or casera JOS a a Tentative Course in Music, Pap eeS Sah ME te en St. Louis, Mo., Music for the H. S., Cur. Bul. No. 34 apes iin oe a aes Ors oe San Francisco, Calif., Music, H. S., Cur TSTT | Lop A Cf a5 pap nn CR cs eed Dee, a Tacoma, Wash.,.Proposed Course of Study in Music, Intermediate and H.S.......... Vermont, Courses of Study in Music and Art, Manual and Courses of Study, LESTE WAL ace rear ae Serpe Mester oP ke eet Virginia, State Course of Study, Music, Bul. Vol. VII, No. 1, Supplement INDO ULYA (1 O24 cen eee) clstslec eerie. Winnetka, TisGourses in uViusice-es ae se os SCIENCE Wi (aie) 'o) wy wie) 66,6) ers) «0. eee «4b 6o. 52 » els 0 © ale « Baltimore, Md., Science Course of Study for Gera ndasts 472 ei ce Ud. icc ae once eee Bayonne, N. J., Course of Study in Science, GE gonl 2 eek ar Reine = aide aes Ole eee si eye EGSUOMMIVLASS..p DIOlOZYn2<. sce siels cs Se See woe Boston, Mass., Science for Cooperative OTASSCS SP rte ai wee hes SCLETICE Mee eR tre ria ie nes woe este cle ee 6 Charleston, W. Va., H. S. Course of Study FEELS OLOL Veer ete tern hte cies mae a Charleston, W. Va., H. S. Course of Study REY SICH Rae is sae eT eek arene atin s Cleveland Heights, Ohio, Sr. H. S. Course of SrGKe by shel Slain: 8 og beaaeta ou cee oo Cee Dallasw texas he Sciences. .,.eeae sos se WallassbexasheChe Sciences! ..cu¢ ue. aie w «ine Denver, Colo., Biology—Course of Study IVIGTIONEN O24 ry ine ye RE re Se Denver, Colo., Reorganization of Chemistry in the Secondary School eo ee Course of Study in Physics, Detroit, Mich., Laboratory Manual for Chemistry Wee oe Dubuque, Iowa, Tentative Course of Study, Dept om oclence, none ta oat: as fee. Pipeass CosnColorociencewis.. 0. «ieee: Enid, Okla., H.S. Courses of Study in Science Florida, The Teaching of H. S. Science, Fla. Solara op ieyoties Weeyk, Wal, INRey, Ys, anes ain om HES Fordson, Mich., Course of Study in Biology.. Fort Madison, Iowa, Chemistry............ Fort, Madison. Iowa, General Science....... Bort Madison, lowa, Physics. : 22.5. fie..5.. Fresno, Calif., Science Course of Study in the PE CONCALYVMSChLOOlS wae ee atria seo aetnien ays: PAA Peli AT NSE Vie OCIENCGGn ptt hn mrad gets: Harrisburg, Pa., Course of Study in General SICLGHC Copp eee tf he-. ein) siitans She Ree s iapeustade. 0 Hawaii, H. S. Course of Study Series, Part PEwOsoeCelonavy oclerlceaa. 2 fa. deme e ae: wteijat ee. me) ‘fie ie «ele: x CILCLCO Rn Se Heer te tiene © ont: SUV eE Ne ie Aoi an oon ee os Indiana, Laboratory Construction, Equip- ment, and Exercises for Science Teach- Mne@and iwaboratory Work. 98) anon... Indiana, Tentative Course of Study in Botany for Secondary Schools, Bul. Nowe OOST = Sie tery earn ale eedclar auc tee t- cluters Indiana, Tentative Course of Study in Chemistry for Secondary Schools, Bul. No. 100-E-6 + © ee U6 0 6 6 6 © Sha 6, oe 1b bee ob “0 6 * Mimeographed or typewritten sheets. (Continued) [ 271 ] Title SCIENCE—Cont. Kansas, Course of Study for H. S., Part V— Science Apts 1S Andee PRM ureter aon aU, Pika ae DCLENCE Saee ee eek: kt Ree Ee eae viel eer mlaxesenelane! els, aaa. 00 0b @ 6 wi-mi.s esis a) 6) a) i's Lakewood, N. J., Differentiation of Chem- istry Course for Variations of Learning Capacities Of eilpils Lisa ae ee Lansing, Mich., Course of Study in Science fOTEtheshUbDHCeSChOOlSHe setae ete ie Lansing, Mich., Course of Study in Science. . La Salle, Ill., Report on Course of Study in Sciencele ee eee ce eee ee. Los Angeles, Calif., Biology, Course of Study Mono. No. 30, School Publication No. 85. Los Angeles, Calif., General Science, H. S. Course of Study Mono. No. 26, School PublicationyNosS lereeceiserecehunens ae Los Angeles, Calif., Physical Science, Course of Study Mono. No. 34, Gr. 7-12.....- Los Angeles, Calif., Upper Grade Physical Science, Course of Study Mono. No. 33, School LubiicatlonyNoso /amcecnaie eee [Gy Nile Massie bl OlLOgyereay acre ici-e. tee Lynn, Mass., Outline of Course of Study in CRENUISErvid, oe re tie ie Soo ee ee Lynn, Mass., Outline of Course of Study in PRY SICS See or RENE ieee hens Lynn, Mass., Physical Geography.......... yin VEASS se SCLEN CEs) nae ree nn ete Maine, Science Syllabus, Gr. 7-12........... Maryland, The Teaching of H. S. Biology, MdsschooleBuls Viol ll i eNowLO alee: Maryland, The Teaching of H. S. Chemistry, Md. School Bul., Vol. III, No. 8 Maryland, The Teaching of H. S. Physics, MdseschooieBuls Vole tit, No:.Oo.e oe. Maryville, Ohio, Course of Study in Ele- INCHCATY, LEY SICSHyaneniiees ieee rennet oe Minnesota, The H. S. Curriculum Syllabi of H. S. Subjects, Bul. No. 4-A, General Science, General Biological SCIENCE H Ae ae ne ede Minnesota, H. S. Curriculum and Syllabi of H. S. Subjects, Bul. No. 4-B PhysicsrandsGhemistry en eee Missouri, Courses of Study in Jr. and Sr. HS bul NOs soclencersy llabusa... Monessen, Pa., Science Courses of Study... Montana, Tentative Course in General Sclencewn - ae ee ae tee ac Montana, Course of Study in Gen. Sci., Biology, Chemistry, and Physics for New Castle, _Pa., ‘Syllabus of the Science Dept., AGS ee BeOS het ae New Vork State, Syllabus in Physical Geog- TAD pee re Mayet Rte tate enc ae Serene s New York State, Syllabus for Biology..... New York State, Syllabus in General Science. New York State, Syllabus in Physics and Chemistry i... dee oe ie ok ate Oakland, Calif., Science as a Related Subject ee Eas Hughes Courses, Supt.’s Bul. Oakland, “Gait Science as a Related Subject for Smith- Hughes Courses task wrote Oakland, Calif., Experimental Course of Sticiyetle eb Vsicseme vies ClaSSeS eras aor Oklahoma, Course of Study for Science, Oregon, Official Directory: Schools of Ore- gon, p. 57, General Requirements and Apparatus ‘for Science for Oregon H.S.. Pennsylvania, Science in the Secondary School, Educational Mono. Vol. 1, No. 4. Philippine Islands, An Outline of the Mini- mum Laboratory Requirements in Gen- GralL SClEN CER wares oie ects scene oko ees Pine Bluff, Ark., Dept. of Science, Gr. 7-12.. Porto Rico, Laboratory Directions for H. S. LOOIO LYSE ae woule odie «eee ernest Re ees and *26 *58 Title SCIENCE—Cont. Porto Rico, Course of Study for Chemistry and Physics Porto Rico, Biology Outline Princeton, N. J., Physics Princeton, N. J., Bi Princeton, N. J., Elementary Science Rockford, Ill., Course of Study in Physics, Half-Time Cooperative Classes eon Ill., Course of Study in Physics, S Rockford, Ill., Outline of the Course of Study i in Botany Rockford, Ill., Outline of Course of Study in Chemistry Rockford, Il., Outline of ap hes of Study in General Science, H. S Rockford, Ill., Outline of Course of Study in Zoology, Je as St. oe Mo., Biology for the H. S., Cur. Chemistry for the H. S., Gan Bul. No. S2 San Francisco, Calif., Science, H. S., Cur. Bul. No. 210 San Juan, P. R., Biology, Experiments and Equipment San Juan, P. R., Chemistry, Experiments and Equipment San Juan, P. R., Physics, Experiments and Equipment Tacoma, Wash., Proposed Course of Study in Science, Intermediate and H. S Texas, The Teaching of Science Trenton, N. J., Course of Study in Physics, Srauas Trenton, N. J., Outline of Topics in Chem- istry, or. B.S Trenton, N. J., Science, Secondary Course of Study Tulsa, Okla., A Laboratory Manual and Sere of Study in General Biology, Union City, Tenn., General Science Magee Courses of Study in Science, Gr. -12 Vermont, H. S. Manual and Courses of Study, Whole Bul. No. H. S. 1, 1928, Part II, Courses of Study in Science. Virginia, Laboratory Equipment for Science Instruction Virginia, State Course of Study, H. S. Science, Bul. Vol. VII, No. 1, Supple- ment No. SOCIAL STUDIES Arkansas, Social Science Studies. mon hee Course of Study in ‘History, Baltimore, Md., The Social oe Course of Study for Jr. and Sr. H. Bayonne, N. J., Course of Stade in Social Sciences, Gr. 7-12 Boston, Mass. ., Course of Study in Social Science Charleston, W. Va., A Course of Study in Modern European History, H. S Chicago, Ill., Tentative Course of Study in Social Studies Chicago, Il1., The Course in History, Francis W. Parker School, Studies in Education, Vol. VII Connecticut, A Manual Studies, Gr. 7-12. of the Social Dallas, Tex., The Social adc Delaware, A Review of Fundamentals in World Geography for H * Mimeographed or typewritten sheets. (Continued) [ 272 ] TABLE 20.—HIGH-SCHOOL COURSES OF STUDY PUBLISHED SINCE 1920— Title SOCIAL STUDIES—Cont. Delaware, A Syllabus of a Proposed Course af goat of the History of Delaware, Denver, Colo., World History, Gr. 7-12 Denver, Colo., A Survey of World History. . Denver, Colo., U. S. History Denver, Colo., Socia: Science, Sr. H. S., Course of Study Mono. No. 19 Dubuque, Iowa, Tentative Course of Study in Social Studies, Sr. H. S Dubuque, Iowa, Tentative Course of Study in American History, Sr. H. S E! Paso County, Colo., History and Eco- nomics, H. Enid, Okla., H. S. Courses of Study in Social Fordson, Mich., Social Science, Course of study, Sr. H. S i Iowa, Commercial Geography, Fort Madison, Iowa, Community Civics, H, S. Fort Madison, Iowa, H. S. Civics Fort Madison, Iowa, History Course of Fort Madison, Iowa, Outline and Aims of the Economics Course Hagerman, N. M., History and _ Social Science, H. S Hamtramck, Mich., Sociology ‘Hamtramck, Mich., American History Harrisburg, Pa., Course of Study in U. S. History, Gr. 7-12 Hawaii, H. S. Course of Study Series, Part Two, Section VI, Social Science Honolulu, T. H., History and Civics Houston, Tex., Course of Study in English History, Sr. H. S Houston, Tex., Course of Study in Modern European History, Sr. H. Houston, Tex., Course of Study in American History, Sr. H.S ee oe Course of Study in Civics, te Indiana, Tentative Course of Study General History for Secondary healt 2 Indiana, Tentative Course of Study in United States History and Social Studies for Secondary Schools Iowa, A Syllabus for the Study of American History, Sr. H.S Iowa, A Syllabus for the Study of Civics in the H.S Iowa, Courses in the Social Studies for Sr. H. S., Eleventh Grade, Univ. of Iowa Ext. Bul. No. 119, College of Education Series No. 9 Iowa, Courses in the Social Studies for Sr. H. S., Twelfth Grade, Univ. of Iowa Ext. Bul. No. 120, College of Education Series No. 10 Joliet Township, Ill., History and Social Science Curriculum Kansas, Course of Study for H. S., Part IV, History and Social Science Lansing, Mich., Course of Study in History, Civics, and Economics, Gr. 5-12 Lansing, Mich., Course of Study in Social Studies, Gr. 1-12 La Salle, Ill., La Salle, Til., La Salle, Il., Pacer Geography, Part I, A Course of Study in the History of the Commerce of the United States Peat a ee i Long Beach, Calif., Government Long Beach, Calif., World History, Sr. H.S.. Los Angeles, Calif., Social Studies, H. S. Course of Study Mono. No. 23, June, 3 TABLE 20.—HIGH-SCHOOL COURSES OF STUDY PUBLISHED SINCE 1920— (Continued) No. of Year Title Title SOCIAL STUDIES—Cont. * Mimeographed or typewritten sheets. SOCIAL STUDIES—Cont. [ 273] pages eV LASS eee ELIStOLYa. bLs.0 acta sive cus sisi wise *7 1925 | Philadelphia, Pa., Course of Study in His- Lynn, Mass., Syllabus of Social Studies..... *31 tory, Civics, and Social Science......... 51 Madison, Wis., Course in American History..| *39 1927 | Philippine Islands, Course of Study in 1924 | Madison, Wis., Tentative Course of Study in Geograp liye cect cco ese ae arene: ¥*11 BARCO pCa Ns EIStOLry sales oe ee hones *O5 1927 | Philippine Islands, Philippine History and 1924 | Madison, Wis., Tentative Course of Study Government Wore ca eke, Coenen ner oer *16 ieCommunity Civics, Part LI. oo...c - *12 1928 | Philippine Islands, Methods in Philippine 1927 | Maine, Sy!labus for the Social Sciences, Gr. History and Government.............. *16 Beis eee esos Ce *32 1924 | Porto Rico, A Revised Course of Study for 1924 Maryland, The Teaching of the Social HeSeGeorraphy were ae eee ere 16 Studies, A Manual for H. S. Teachers, 1924 | Rhode Island, Outline of a Brief Course in Md. School Bul. Vol. AVALS TNS ey aes Pe 291 the History of Rhode Island. .......... *12 1928 | Maryland, Curriculum Making in Problems 1926 | Richmond, Ind., Course of Study Outline of American Democracy, Md. School and Syllabus, Social Science, Jr. and ESE RVIGE GES AEN One 2etens saree etoicre Sok cab ane 46 Sree wee ere cree om erde: *16 1924 | Milwaukee, Wis., Tentative Course of Study 1927 | Richmond, Ind., Course of Study Bette in Commercial Geography, First Semester] *19 Social Science, NirePanvid Sh LSet es *78 1926 | Milwaukee, Wis., Tentative Course of Study Rockford, IIl., Outline of H. S. Course of in Commercial Geography, Second Study in Modern Geography.s......... *4. PAGTILESCOL PES eRe sitirin fe msicinit he als 2 ses ue ons *76 Rockford, Ill., Social Science Objectives and 1924 | Minnesota, The H. S. Curriculum and Outline of Course of Study ee *44 Syllabi of H. S. Subjects, Bul. No. 3-B, 1926 | St. Louis, Mo., American History, Social Social Studies, American History....... 62 Studies for the H. S., Cur. Bul. No. 27..| 111 1925 | Minnesota, The H.S. Curriculum and Syllabi 1926 | St. Louis, Mo., Economics, Social Studies for H. S. Subjects, Bul. No. 3-A, Social Chen os CULSbUL NG 229 ae chee 55 Studies, Ancient History, Modern 1926 | St. Louis, Mo., Geography, Social Studies EVISLOLV ire iit see sieluhe ok wee anetisisle dee 76 LOGLbeo ter oen ure ill NOs 20s hye 27 1925 | Minnesota, The H. S. Curriculum and 1926 | St. Louis, Mo., Sociology, Social Studies for Syllabi of H. S. Subjects, Bul. No. 3-C, thesHiass Cours BuleNion 280 cae 45 Social Studies, Introduction to Social 1926 | St. Louis, Mo., World History, Social Studies SSCLETICE Meet ee gy eseiionn io be eee seca s 92 fone HS] Cure Bul Noe2s..eee as 272 1928 | Missouri, Courses of Study in Jr. and Sr. 1928 | San Francisco, Calif., Social Studies, H. S., Her ose bul Nowmded, Geography... .-... « 85 Grades 9-12, Cur. Bul. No. 208........ 84 1928 | Missouri, Courses of Study in Jr. and Sr. San Juan, Porto Rico, European History and HJS., Bul. No, 10 Social Studies..:... 541 American Histor he a ae *15 1928 | Missouri, Courses of Study in Jr. and Sr. 1928 | South Bend, Ind., Course of Study in Civics H. S., Supplement to Bul. No. 11, for Sr. is ENO eee ee Mea mn Bt wht *53 Principles of Practical Geography....... 53 1928 | South Bend, Ind., Course of Study in Recent 1926 | Muncie, Ind., Social Science Course of Study.} *44 European History, Social Science III.. *54 1925 | New Brunswick, N. J., Tentative Course of 1928 | South Bend, Ind., Course of Study in Recent SLUG yy ECONOMICS. OF. by Secs se. .0he ws. *18 European History, Social Science IV....} *61 1925 | New Brunswick, N. J., Tentative Course of 1928 | Tacoma, Wash., Proposed Course of Study Study, Problems in American Democ- in Social Science, Intermediate and H. S. 38 nes Sree, URS Ree eee oy 2 =a ee *6 1923 | Trenton, N. J., Secondary Course of Study, 1925 | New Brunswick, N. J., Tentative Course of American, History cee cures c -tom soe ae 72 Study, Social Science Dept., History, 1923 | Trenton, N. J., Secondary Course of Study, imeatrroretl, Sere saw lene cu kas *80 Ancient. Esstory cr oie teieite oss wa ee ee 66 1926 | New Castle, Pa., Syllabus of the Dept. of 1923 | Trenton, N. J., Secondary Course of Study, SOCLad Ee SULICKES Ore TIGHS..s o Sh ees avers ate 36 ECOTLOMICS one ie cate ea ene atone ee 36 1925 } New Jersey, Syllabus of Social Studies...... 112 1923 | Trenton, N. J., Secondary oes, “ Study, 1926 | Newton, Iowa, Social Science Course of Riese in Democracy, Grai2. os.) 57 Sh URC Aig CS ahs 7 PAIN Ss, Ab ae ner re *78 1924 | Trenton, N. J., Secondary eee of Study, New York City, Suggested Outlines for Early European History... eee ee 98 WivicspLeachetssUlsro eee wenness 70 1924 | Trenton, N. J., Secondary Course of Study, 1926 | New York City, Syllabus in Civic Activities. . 63 Modern European Historvers. cen cee 65 1922 | New York State, Syllabus in History, H. S. 229 1926 | Tucson, Ariz., Course in Freshman Civics..| *20 1923 | New York State, Syllabus in Civics........ 38 Tulsa, ee Course of Study in Economics, 1924 | New York State, Economics Syllabus for rt Ia ete ota ne rae *29 DOCONC AT SCHOO ISe har oe eke iene mom ets 29 Tulsa, Oda, Course of Study in Social 1926 | New York State, Economics, H.S.......... 29 Protons, Foo) a eee. *8 1923 | Oakland, Calif., Citizenship in the Evening Mulsay Okla, History Vid. ot be Soe eer *23 School, Courses of Study Series No. 56..| *30 1927 | Tulsa, Okla., The Scope of the Course for 1926 | Oakland, Calif., Social Studies for Sr. H. S., Histonyall atid Vieni er Laas caemeeuctey tere *25 SIDES Ul NOLO fee sel eh tel ea oie 63 1928 | Tulsa, Okla., Outline for History V,Sr.H.S..| *36 1924 | Oklahoma, Course of Study for Social 1928 Vermont, H. S. Manual and Courses of SCIENCE Gh Gal coun ae sre wae ted ks 112 Study, Whole Bul. No. H. S. 1, 1928, 1925 | Pennsylvania, A List of Reference Books in Partel EP Shistony. cc ee ee ron ora 171 History and Social Science............. 51 1925 | Virginia, State Course of Study, H. S., 1925 | Pennsylvania, Courses of Study in History History and Social Science, Bul. Vol. andesSOcialpociencen Gt. 1-120 6 | ee oe. k 273 VIII, No. 1, Supplement No. 2......... 111 1927 | Pennsylvania, Courses of Study in History 1926 Wilmington, Del., Course of Study in Eco- and Social Science, Jr. and Sr. H. S., nomics, Sr. Fi i «eee WE re *5 13S 0a la SR An. RE eae opens ip Semi) mages ee aaa 257 1928 | Winnetka, Ill., Report on the Social Science Department 2 ech RUE ene aE Tee CLE di LIST OF TABLES Page Twenty-five common words in three languages (Table 1)...............2+eeeecceees tore Percent which foreign language enrolment is of total high-school enrolment, distributed according to size of communities (Table °2)......2........40:4- oes) ee 196 Percent modern foreign language enrolment is of total enrolment classified into eight geo- graphical» regions (Table ¢3) i... .% eec0es € ae os ov etsyelciee eis Se omens eee ee 197 Comparison of high-school and college modern foreign language enrolment in 1925 CVable: 4) cv. vs cle tla ioe 0p See Be 6.0% oy os het atpiotlaa ts «05> Tapes eee aaa ee 197 Number of different topics in one hundred home economics courses of study (‘Table 5).... 230 Books dealing with general curriculum problems of the secondary school (Table 6)...... 243 Books helpful in building high-school art education courses (Table 7).................08. 245 Books helpful in building high-school commercial education courses (Table 8)............ 246 Books helpful in building high-school English courses (Table 9).............0-00ceeeeees 247 Books helpful in building high-school health and physical education courses (Table 10).. 248 Books helpful in building high-school home economics courses (Table 11)................ 249 Books helpful in building high-school industrial arts courses (Table 12)................0- 250 Books helpful in building high-school Latin courses (Table 13)............0ceeeeeeeees 251 Books helpful in building high-school mathematics courses (Table 14).................. 252 Books helpful in building high-school modern foreign Janguages courses (Table 15)...... 253 Books helpful in building high-school music courses (Table 16).................00ceecee 254 Books helpful in building high-school science courses (Table 17).............. ; oe 255 Books helpful in building high-school social studies courses (Table 18)................4- 256. Addresses of publishers of books listed in tables 6 to 18 (Table 19)... -.. 2. 1.5 nee 257 High-school courses of study published since*1920 (Table 20). 73) .-. 00... 9. eee 259 LIST OF CHARTS Then. and Now in Secondaty Education:.?). 1.7.2. 4.4.5.5 «+ << is ee ee 180, 181 Topics and Suggested Time Allotments in Pittsburgh Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth Grade Mathematics. courses’... gece Wk PAE als ale tie en tn 216 [ 274 ] * Research Bulletins Previously Issued Facts on State Educational Needs. Vol. I, No. 1, January, 1923. 64 p. (Out of print.) Can the Nation Afford to Educate Its Children? Vol. 1, No. 2, March, 1923. 72 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. (Out of print.) Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trends in 1923. Vol. I, No. 3, May, 1923. 116 p. Price per single copy, $1.00. Five Questions for American Education Week. Vol. 1, No. 4, September, 1923. 56 p. (Out of print.) Facts on the Public School Curriculum. Vol. 1, No. 5, November, 1923. 48 p. (Out of print.) Current Facts on City School Costs. Vol. II, Nos. 1 and 2, January and March, 1924. 64 p. (Out of print.) Teachers’ Retirement Allowances. Vol. II, No. 3, May, 1924. 32 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. (Out of print.) Facts on the Public School for American Education Week. Vol. II, No. 4, September, 1924. 40 p. (Out of print.) The Problem of Teacher Tenure. Vol. II, No. 5, November, 1924. 40 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Public School Salaries in 1924-1925. Vol. III, Nos. 1 and 2, January and March, 1925. 72 p. Price per copy, 50 cents. Taking Stock of the Schools. Vol. III, No. 3, May, 1925. 32 p. (Out of print.) Keeping Pace With the Advancing Curriculum. Vol. III, Nos. 4 and 5, September and Novem- ber, 1925. 96 p. (Out of print.) The Ability of the States to Support Education. Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 2, January and March, 1926. 96 p. Price per copy, 50 cents. Efficient Teaching and Retirement Legislation. Vol. IV, No. 3, May, 1926. 72 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. A rab tae of Major Educational Issues. Vol. IV, No. 4, September, 1926. 72 p. (Out of ~ ‘print. Major Issues in School Finance—Part I. Vol. IV, No. 5, November, 1926. 32 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Major Issues in School Finance—Part II. Vol. V, No. 1, January, 1927, 64 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Salaries in City School Systems, 1926-27. Vol. V, No. 2, March, 1927. 64 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. The Scheduling of Teachers’ Salaries. Vol. V, No. 3, May, 1927. 64 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. The Advance of the American School System. Vol. V, No. 4, September, 1927. 32 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. School Records and Reports. Vol. V, No. 5, November, 1927. 132 p. Price per copy, 50 cents. Creating a Curriculum for Adolescent Youth. Vol. VI, No. 1, January, 1928. 80 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. The Principal Studies His Job. Vol. VI, No. 2, March, 1928. 68 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. The Advance of the Teacher Retirement Movement. Vol. VI, No. 3, May, 1928. 56 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Practices Affecting Teacher Personnel. Vol. VI, No. 4, September, 1928. 52 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Can the Nation Afford to Educate Its Children? Vol. V1, No. 5, November, 1928. 48 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Can the States Afford to Educate Their Children? Vol. VII, No. 1, January, 1929, 44 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. The Principal and Progressive Movements in Education, Vol. VII, No. 2, March, 1929, 60 p. Price per copy, 25 cents. Salary Scales in City School Systems 1928-29. Vol. VII, No. 3, May, 1929. Price per copy, 25 cents. | 1827501 HEN WE IMPORTED the factory, science became busier and \ \ } busier with discovery and invention. With resultant inventions ay Si we took hold of all the tools they gave us—steam, gas, elec- tricity—and appled them to our national resources. Our stand- é ards of living and comfort have risen with our joyous application of every discovery. We cannot deny that friction has grown up in this rush of develop- ment—conflicts between capital and labor, conflicts between groups of cap- ital, invasions of the right to equal opportunity. But I believe we are in these latter years witnessing a silent revolution in many of these phases. The industrial system is fitting itself better into the social instincts of our people. There is a wider recognition of the practical process of assuring equal opportunity to men. The result of all these fundamental currents has been the upbuilding of an enormous system of production and distribution which is constantly improving through the advance of technical understanding and increasing skill, supported by yearly perfection of public education, incessant scien- tific research and invention, and freedom from all but the minimum of interference with individual activities. Our economic system is not perfect, but whatever our national weak- nesses may be, they do not lie in a lack of vitality or courage. If we can maintain the moral fiber of our people and their individual initiative, if we can maintain equality of opportunity for our youth, if we maintain the strength of our government, we shall make even greater progress in the next century.—Herbert Hoover, Foreword, A Century of Industrial Prog- ress, Doubleday Doran. es ae Y : o = — N ? akers Gaylord Bros. M Syracuse y LL 12 119577895