NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION RESEARCH BULLETIN VOL. XVIII - No. 4 SEPTEMBER - 1940 Progress in Rural Education Published by the RESEARCH DIVISION of the NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of the UNITED STATES 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. RESEARCH BULLETIN oF 1 Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION President, DONALD DU SHANE Executive Secretary, WILLARD E. GIVENS Associate Secretary, WILLIAM G. CARS Director of Research: Frank W. Hubbard Assistant Directors: Richard R. Foster, lvan A. Booker, Hazel Davis Research Assistants and Section Heads: Frances G. Bradley, Louise B. Sease, Helen H. Cox, Anna Haddow, Madaline K. Remmlein, Mildred Wharton, and Lillian S. Feldman Executive and Editorial Offices 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. Copyright, 1940, by the National Education Association of the United States Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. Subscriptions The payment of the $5 membership fee of the National Education Association entitles one to receive for one year the Research Bulletin, the Journal, the An- nual Volume of Addresses and Proceed- ings, and certain other publications of the Association. One dollar of each $5 mem- bership fee is for a year’s subscription to the Research Bulletin. The Research Bulletin may be received regularly thru a special subscription at $1 per year. Many of the early issues of the Research Bulletin are already out of print. The special subscription at $1 per year offers an opportunity to maintain a complete file of future Research Bulletins. 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In other cases appli- cation for the release of materials is re- quired. Address communications to the Research Division, National Education As- sociation, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W.., Washington, D. C. CONTENTS FOREWORD |. INTRODUCTION I]. THe ProptemM or RurRAL Epucation 11. Major TrRENps In Rurat Epucarion, 1930 to 1940 General Overview Legislation Affecting Rural Schools Financing Rural Schools Consolidation School Housing and Equipment Rural School Attendance The Instructional Program The Teaching Staff Administrative and Supervisory Leadership IV. Spectric EXAMPLES OF STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS IN RURAL PROGRAMS Some Grave Deficiencies of Rural Schools Some Noteworthy Achievements of Rural Schools V. Next Steps In RurAL EDUCATION A CHECKLIST ON RURAL SCHOOLS FOREWORD NOUGH PROGRESS was made in rural education between 1920 and 1930 BE to warrant considerable optimism with reference to the program in the years immediately ahead. In several states larger and more efficient units of administration had been set up, financial support of rural schools had been improved thru the revision of state equalization and tax laws, rural school terms had been lengthened, more regular attendance had been brought about thru the extension of transportation facilities, obsolete rural school buildings were being replaced with modern well-equipped buildings, and, most important of all, new and vital programs were being introduced and carried out by teachers better qualified for their work. A note of hope and promise was sounded, therefore, in the Research Division’s study of rural education which appeared in 1931 under the title, “The Outlook for Rural Education.” Since 1930, however, ten hard years of depression, drought, and general adversity have claimed their toll. How has rural education fared during this period ? What improvement has been made in spite of adversity? What prom- ises that seemed bright ten years ago lie as yet unfulfilled? It is to questions such as these that the present issue of the RESEARCH BULLETIN is addressed. Thru an examination of trends during the decade now closing, it seeks to point the way both to areas of potential growth and to problems that are now especially acute. This bulletin should prove helpful to anyone responsible for leadership in rural education, particularly to rural superintendents, supervisors, teachers, and members of boards of education. It is appropriate for study in teachers college classes, not only by those who are preparing to work in rural schools but also by urban teachers who need acquaintance with professional problems that lie beyond the corporate limits of their respective communities. The bulletin will achieve its purpose only to the extent that each reader strives, to the utmost limits of his opportunities and responsibilities, to translate it into vigorous action on behalf of rural schools. Witarp E. Givens, Executive Secretary National Education Association Th in ru such the te areas entire pendi gram Wha tion i Th 1940 prese! ary If used | eithe: villag Te bulle’ count I. INTRODUCTION This bulletin is concerned with recent trends in rural education. It seeks to answer questions such as: How have rural schools fared during the ten depression years just passed? In what areas has progress been checked or thwarted entirely? Do some areas reflect actual or im- pending retrogression ? What phases of the pro- gram have shown commendable improvement ? What next steps are suggested in rural educa- tion in the light of prevailing trends? The study deals with the period 1930 to 1940 and considers the direction of change and present status of both elementary and second- ary rural schools. The term “rural school”’ is used in this report to refer to any school located either in the open country or in any hamlet or village of less than 2500 inhabitants. Sources of Data To obtain the basic data summarized in this bulletin a questionnaire was submitted to all county superintendents of schools and to the FIGURE I. NUMBER AND PERCENT corresponding official in towns, unions, pat rural districts. The replies, 30 all such districts, are described below. In addition to the questionnaire data, supple were ishes, and other which represent approximately percent of mentary facts and related information drawn from other sources, usually from cur- rent publications but occasionally from unpub- lished data. The review of legislative trends in particular, which forms one part of Section III of this report, was derived entirely from sources other than the questionnaire. Footnote citations thruout the bulletin indicate the sources used. The Questionnaire Replies Reports on the rural schools in their respec- tive counties, towns, unions, and parishes were received from 1050 superintendents. The num- ber and percent coming from each geographic region in the United States are shown in Fig- ure I. The smallest number of replies came from the Pacific states but the smallest percent OF REPLIES FROM RURAL SUPER- INTENDENTS IN EACH REGION Northwestern States 221 replies : 41 percent Pacific States 53 replies 38 percent Southwestern States ¥ 102 replies 27 percent Northeastern States 231 replies 34 percent 164 replies 17 percent ORes Div, Nat Educ Assn from the Southeastern states. The largest num- ber of replies came from the Middle states; the largest percent, from the adjoining Northwest- ern region. A majority of the tables in the bulletin are derived from these reports. The fact that the number of replies shown in a given table usually is less than 1050 is due to omissions with respect to single items. Some questions, for example, were answered by 1000 or more of the respondents; others, by only 900 or fewer. Each table indicates the number of re- plies on the item or items involved—not the total number of questionnaires returned. Superintendents who cooperated in the study were asked to report only on the rural schools in their respective counties and districts, even tho there were some urban schools within their districts and perhaps under their jurisdiction. As implied in an earlier paragraph the distinc- tion which they were asked to follow was that their report should be based on all schools located in the open country and in villages and small cities below 2500 in population. That their replies pertain to schools truly rural in character is assured not only by the foregoing limitation but by the further fact that the dis- tricts represented are made up very largely of rural territory. As Table 1 shows, 93 percent of the replies came from districts in which opep } country and rural villages occupy from th fourths to all of the available area. Organization of the Bulletin Factual information on the present statu rural education and a general overview of recent trends are considered in the next two parts of this report. Against that background. Section IV takes up the elements of strength and weakness in current rural programs, citing numerous specific examples of grave deficiencies and noteworthy achievements. TABLE 1—AMOUNT OF RURAL TER. RITORY IN THE DISTRICTS REPRE. SENTED Percent Portion of county or school district occupied by of replies “open country”|and villages below 2500 ? Entire area of district eset tenia tela 42 Between 75 and 100 percent 51 Between 50 and 75 percent ES : 5 Less than half : 2 The final part outlines a method of attack on rural school problems, including a checklist for the appraisal of individual rural school pro grams. Ru traint tion’s schor ) appro mente ments howe’ atten¢ urban Fig school ments tary | RUR II. THE PROBLEM OF RURAL EDUCATION Rural School Enrolments Rural schools are responsible for the early training of somewhat more than half the na tion’s children. Enrolments in rural and urban schools are substantially the same, in each case approximately 13,000,000 in the combined ele- mentary and secondary schools. Rural enrol- ments would exceed those in urban schools, however, if the proportion of rural children attending high school were as high as that for urban children. Figure II broadly defines the task of rural schools by comparing urban and rural enrol- ments for 1930 and 1940 in both the elemen- tary and secondary schools. Little change in total enrolment has occurred during the ten year period either in rural or in urban schools the numbers in each biennium fluctuating only slightly up or down from 13,000,000. A shift within that enrolment has occurred, how ever, in both the rural and urban schools, in volving in each case the loss of approximately 1,000,000 pupils in the elementary grades and an increase of substantially the same number at the high-school level. Since rural elementary enrolments were con siderably higher than the corresponding urban enrolments in 1930, the proportionate loss in elementary pupils has been the greater in the city schools. Significantly, too, the approx! FIGURE II RURAL AND URBAN ENROLMENTS, 1930 AND 1940 RERERRRERER) if 1930 oo ©. © RRARARAARR ARK RRRRARRRRAY RAY RERRARAAR ORAAR Each small symbol represents 1 million elementary pupils—Grades 1 to 8. Each large symbol represents 1 million high-school pupils—Grades 9 to 12. Source: U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education No. 20. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931 surveys of the U. S. Office of Education thru 1938 and the enrolment data for 1940 obtained thru questionnaires in the prese Research Division, National Education A BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION: 1928-30. _ Bulletir Enrolments for 1940 are estimated, using comparable data from the mnt s [135] mately equal growth of enrolments in rural and urban high schools during the past decade leaves the former still behind as to the percent of pupils enrolled among those eligible to attend. Sizes and Types of Schools In 1930 there were 221,051 rural school buildings in use in the United States. Altho consolidation has reduced this number to about 200,000, these rural school buildings still con- stitute more than 85 percent of all school buildings. Figure III shows the approximate nu of rural schools of different sizes and ty, Separate elementary schools constitute 4 87 percent of the total number, combined ¢|, mentary and high schools about 11 percent, and separate high schools about 2 percent. Mos numerous of any one type are the one-teache; elementary schools, which account for over 60) percent of the total. There are nearly 45,000 elementary schools, however, each having more than one teacher; and there are about 27,00) combined elementary and high schools and separate high schools. These larger schools. FIGURE III NUMBER OF RURAL SCHOOLS OF DIFFERENT SIZES AND TYPES, 1940 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS hhbhbhbbhbhdhd ONE-TEACHER SCHOOLS CRIES SAGE) SRE) STE RIES SRE GE a Ca SCHOOLS WITH TWO TEACHERS OR MORE COMBINED ELEMENTARY AND HIGH SCHOOLS Bs OS A BO SEPARATE HIGH SCHOOLS bess Each full symbol represents 5,000 rural schools. © Research Divis an National Education Association Source: Estimated on the basis of questionnaire reports from 986 counties or other rural districts. [ 136] alth« imp gran Si and are f enro the t one pupi mon nam ing 1 man fully this data. pupi those thirt the § Colleg 3 as Interic 1937, from | TAE Numt Avera S altho numerically less impressive, occupy an_ tested by the mere existence of some 20,000 important place in the total rural school pro- hamlets and villages which are themselves es gram. sentially rural in character.' Moreover, recent Since one-teacher schools represent a large changes in industrial and agricultural methods and perplexing area in rural education, they together with improvements in methods of are further described in Table 2. The average transportation have resulted in a marked in enrolment in the 32,763 schools included in crease in the non-farm rural population. This the table is approximately seventeen pupils, but — situation is reflected in a recent school survey one school in four is serving fewer than ten in Massachusetts where a majority of the pupils. This brings into clear relief one com- pupils’ fathers were engaged in agriculture in mon fallacy with respect to rural education, only 24 of the 220 rural communities repre namely, that the chief problem in rural teach- sented in the study.2. Massachusetts is an in ing is that of the overcrowded school with too dustrialized state, of course, but it is estimated many pupils and grades to be managed success-__ that for the nation as a whole the rural non fully by one teacher. In some cases, to be sure, farm population constitutes no less than two- this is a major difficulty. According to these _ fifths of the total rural population. data, however, schools with fewer than ten pupils are more than twice as numerous as those with thirty pupils ee , Rural schools require the services of about Marked differences in the usual size of one- 465 000 teachers. or about 53 percent of the teacher schools _— shown for the various geo- combined rural and urban teaching staff. No graphic —— The htc enrolments, rang- material change in the number of rural teach- ing from eleven in the Northwestern states to ing positions has occurred since 1930 or in the thirty-two in the Southeastern states, indicate percent of all teaching positions represented the general direction of such differences. Size of Rural Teaching Staff by the rural group.* Non-Farm Children in the Rural Schools Special Significance of Rural Education The fact that rural education is not identi- The size of the rural school program has fied exclusively with the open country is at- been emphasized in the data just presented 1 Brunner, Edmund de S., and Kolb, John H. Rural Social Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. p. 81 2 Broudy, H. S. Abstract of Findings of a Rural School Survey in Massachusetts. North Adams, Mass.: State Teachers College, 1939. p. 2. (Mimeo.) 8 Brunner, Edmund de S., and Kolb, John H., op. cit., p. 83 The latest published figure on rural teaching positions is 466,642 for the year 1935-36 (see U Interior, Office of Education. ‘‘Statistics of State School Systems, 1935-36.’ Biennial Survey of Education: 1935-36. Bulletin, 1937, No, 2. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1938. Chapter 2, p. 49. [Advance pages.]). Unpublished data from the same agency for the year 1938 indicate that the number has remained virtually the same S. Department of the TABLE 2.—SIZE OF THE ONE-TEACHER SCHOOLS IN VARIOUS REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES Percent of schools of each class in the various geographic regions Number Percent — - : Size of school of schools of schools North- South- Middle North- South- east east states west west Pacific 2 4 5 6 7 8 8,170 2 10 2 23 48 13,927 ; 39 44 6,565 2 33 19 7 661 8 14 7 6 1 944 3 1 0 496 2 1 1 0 32,763 100 100 100 100 Number of schools reported from each region. ... 7 Average enrolment (all the one-teacher schools: 17 pupils) 21 5,195 3,209 14,029 8,097 32 16 il Source: Tabulated from the questionnaire replies of superintendents of schools in 858 counties or other rural d [ 137 ] the fact that rural schools must give at least half the nation’s children whatever public edu- cation they receive. Obviously, any weakness or shortage that exists generally in rural educa- tion seriously impairs the effectiveness of the total program. Yet the problems of rural edu- cation merit special consideration because of their frequency and severity rather than be- cause of the mere size of the program. Many characteristic weaknesses and short- ages in rural education, largely attributable to inadequate financial support, are matters of common knowledge, such as (a) bleak, un- attractive school buildings that often are men- aces to health and safety; (b) lack of sufficient or suitable equipment and supplies; (c) im- mature, relatively untrained, inexperienced, underpaid teachers; (d) short school terms; (e) absence of library facilities; (f) lack of supervisory help for teachers and of health service and other remedial care for children; (g) meager school programs confined to tra- ditional academic exercises that are unrelated to the children’s experiences, interests, and needs; and (h) lack of a sufficient number of accessible high schools to care for the potential enrolments. Until such defects have been cor- rected in most rural districts, as they have been already in some forward-looking communities, there can be no slackening of effort in behalf of adequate rural schools. Keeping in Mind the Total Program The provision of satisfactory rural schools involves something more than the elimination of a single defect. Indeed one of the hindrances to more rapid improvement in rural educat has been the tendency of many people either ; oversimplify the issues involved or to focy attention almost entirely on some one weak ness. For example, some have narrowed thei; concern in rural education to the one-teach: schools ignoring all the larger ones, or perhaps to the elementary grades unmindful of the rural high schools. Some have limited their a: tention entirely to schools located in the open country and attended by farm children. Others have sought only to improve classroom prac tices in the very large or perhaps the very smal! one-teacher schools. Still other enthusiasts have been interested only in the consolidation of small schools. Each of the foregoing areas is important enough to merit, upon occasion, the strongest possible endeavor. No one of them, howeve: constitutes the total problem. Data already pre sented make it clear that rural education in volves both elementary schools and secondary schools and that rural schools are of many sizes and types (see especially Figures II and III). Constructive effort in rural education will not be limited therefore to the advancement of simple panaceas or to an approach that sees no farther than a single defect. Desirable as it may be to work for one improvement such as the consolidation of one-teacher elementary schools, better preparation for rural teachers, the crea- tion of larger administrative districts, or cur- riculum revision, such efforts should not blind rural leaders to other needs, other problems, and other openings for advancement which from time to time appear. T stud com| dica' in Tf pel i¢ sum rati aspe the sent men Ww hi But on 1 subs be d E how som thos perc rep! imp (a) ave! ruré { d) On able spec of s the the sup in { tha rep spec sche add voli : for wel! tar) met not pub con met III. MAJOR TRENDS IN RURAL EDUCATION, 1930 TO 1940 General Overview The questionnaire reports obtained in this study, from county superintendents and from comparable officials in other rural districts, in dicate that considerable progress has been made in rural education during the past ten-year period in spite of adverse conditions. Figure IV summarizes the judgments of these adminis- trative officers with respect to fourteen specific aspects of rural education. In some instances, the ten-year gains reported may have repre sented some degree of unintentional overstate ment growing out of the pride and satisfaction which usually attend one’s own achievements. But even with due allowance for such optimism on the part of those reporting, the fact that substantial progress has been made can scarcely be denied. Examination of Figure IV makes it clear, however, that the gains made with respect to some rural school problems have far exceeded those achieved in other areas. For example, 50 percent or more of the counties and districts represented were able to report that marked improvement has been made with respect to (a) teachers’ classroom procedures, (b) the average amount of professional training for rural teachers, (c) rural courses of study, and (d) the kind and condition of school buildings. On the other hand, fewer than 25 percent were able to report similar improvement with re- spect to (a) per pupil expenditures, (b) length of school terms, (c) teacher turnover, and (d) the average salary of rural teachers. Indeed, in the matter of rural salaries, 35 percent of the superintendents reported that the average now in their respective counties is actually lower than it was ten years ago. In general, the gains reported have been most satisfactory with re- spect to the problems least directly affected by school support and least satisfactory wherever additional financial support was necessarily in- volved. Several trends in rural education not listed for specific appraisal in the questionnaire form were mentioned in the superintendents’ volun tary comments. In the order of frequency of mention, the following improvements were noted: (a) better transportation; (b) better public relations; (c) relief from overcrowded conditions, with recent decreases in enrol- ments; (d) improved health programs; (e) [ 139 | marked increase in the percent of pupils going to high schools and colleges; (f) better extra curriculum programs; (g) increased helpful ness of parent-teacher associations; (h) pro vision of free textbooks: (1) increased state support; (}) decrease in the average teacher load: \ k } stronger county departments of education. ‘The improved playgrounds; and (1) only retrogression similarly reported was aboli tion of the county superintendency in one state and creation in its stead of the office of county examiner, with restricted authority and oppor tunity for leadership. Improvements in rural education have varied considerably from one state and one geographic region to another. ‘able 3 shows for each state the percent of replies from the districts in which some degree of improvement has been made during the past ten years with respect to each of the fourteen items included in Figure IV. Percents of 75 or lower are set in bold type. Examination of the percents in bold type will show, generally speaking, where the need for further progress is urgent. The only excep tions would be those rare instances where, even ten years ago, the counties participating in this study had achieved satisfactory status with re spect to the problem in question. ‘The bold pet cents in column 10 show, for example, that less than three-fourths of the districts in sixteen states reported any progress in reducing the number of one-teacher schools. Similarly, col umn 15 shows that less than three-fourths of the districts in thirty-nine states were able to report any increment over the past ten years in the average salary of their rural teachers. For nine of the forty-three states the percents are in bold type, indicating relatively limited im provement, for as many as half the fourteen items in the table. The regional differences referred to above are shown in Table 4. The percents again refer to districts in which some improvement is ap- parent and those of 75 or lower are printed in bold type. 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The methods included here were: (a) election by teachers or a representative committee of teachers: (b) a civil ser plan; (c) employment by a special ex officio state board; and (d) “any method which will keep the matter out of politics tendents for an appraisal of their own status: (a) to recommend the method of employment for superintendents which in their judgment would obtain and keep in office the finest pos- sible type of administrators; and (b) to indi- cate any change urgently needed in the status of the county superintendency or with reference to his duties and relationships in their respec- tive states. Tables 18 and 19 summarize the superintendents’ judgments with respect to these matters. Nearly two-thirds of the group recommended the employment of county superintendents by boards of education as contrasted with only 22 percent who recommended election by the peo- ple. Distinct regional differences appeared with respect to this point, however, more frequent endorsement of the election plan coming from the Northwestern, Southwestern, and Pacific states. The selection of superintendents by agencies other than county or district boards of education was not strongly favored but drew virtually all the support it did receive from the Northeastern and Southeastern states. The list of recommended changes in the status and functions of rural superintendents summarized in Table 19 includes many sug- gestions long urged by students of rural school problems. Significantly, the item most fre- quently mentioned in these comments is “higher qualifications for superintendents.” Next in order of frequency are (a) an increase in the authority and responsibilities of the office, and (b) various improvements in the professional status of the rural superintendent thru such means as larger salaries, longer tenure, and better methods of selection and appointment In several states, any material improvement of rural schools must wait upon the introduction of changes such as these—changes which wil! result in a higher quality of educational leader ship by county and other rural school adminis trators. Wherever rural superintendents sti! are chosen by popular election, transfer of this function to a representative schoolboard, or to some other nonpolitical agency, is a_ highly practical first step toward improvement in the rural superintendency. TABLE 19.—-CHANGES WITH RESPECT TO THE STATUS OF THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENCY RECOMMEND. ED AS URGENTLY NEEDED IN THEIR RESPECTIVE COMMUNITIES BY 637 RURAL SUPERINTENDENTS Frequency Change recommended of mention 1 Higher qualifications tor superintendents. ........ More authority and responsibility for superin- tendents Larger salaries Longer tenure ‘ ser ; : Better method of selecting superintendents... . More assistants—secretarial and clerical workers Elimination of politics More supervisory assistants Larger units of administration... . More state aid for the schools... . . : More power and authority vested in county boards of education = SP oe e ee Full-time employment of superintendents....... Payment of the travel expenses of superintendents. . Smaller areas of supervision More cooperation and closer relationship with other counties and with the state department... . ; Longer term of office [ 164] M: some schoo the fe most areas relati ing Ul Hence De satisf the does satisf altho Some becat the i1 other offer: sonal time, (c) to de The s Size o Equip The ti The c Instru Comn Lack | Isolat Too n Schoo Short IV. SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS IN RURAL PROGRAMS Many problems in rural education as well as some of the recent accomplishments of rural schools have been sketched in broad outline in the foregoing section of this bulletin. For the most part, however, only general problems and areas of achievement have been discussed, with relatively few examples of what is now happen ing in individual schools and school systems. Hence the present section, thru brief descrip tions of actual school situations, seeks to point out: (a) some of the most serious handicaps and weaknesses of presentday rural schools, and (b) achievement some specific examples of outstanding in rural education. In each case the descriptive statements are drawn from the reports of county superintendents of schools who obligingly described some of their best and poorest schools. Some Grave Deficiencies of Rural Schools Descriptions of schools that are “far from satisfactory” were received from only 272 of the 1050 cooperating superintendents. This does not mean that all the others had no un satisfactory schools in their respective districts, altho several superintendents said just that. Some probably left the question blank merely because it required a written answer instead of the insertion of a check mark or numeral. Still others preferred not to answer the question, offering such comments as: (a) “Too sonal”; (b) “Under the circumstances, at this time, do not feel that we should criticize’; or per- (c) “Some schools very poor, but do not care to describe.’ A Summary of the Defects Mentioned Table 20 represents a tabulation of the kinds of problems and defects enumerated by the 272 TABLE 20—SOME OUTSTANDING PROBLEMS IN RURAL EDUCATION AS REFERRED TO BY 272 COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS OF SCHOOLS IN DESCRIBING THE MOST UN- SATISFACTORY SCHOOLS UNDER THEIR JURISDICTION Frequency Problem of mention 1 The school housing situation... ; : Size of school (extremely large or small enrolment) . Equipment needs The teaching service. . The curriculum. . Kemaed ees Instructional materials and supplies Community attitude. . Lack of funds....... Isolation 4 ; Too many grades for one teacher Schoolboard practices Short school term... .. superintendents who described their most un satisfactory rural schools. Obviously, because of the limited sampling involved and in view of the nature of the tabulation itself, no high de gree of statistical accuracy should be attributed to the frequencies given. They are presented, not to indicate national trends or the actual scope of various rural school problems, but for such general interest and significance as they may have. Each item in the table is singled out for discussion in later paragraphs. Not more than ten of the 272 descriptive statements can be identified positively with rural schools in which two or more teachers are employed. The great majority refer specifi cally to one-teacher schools, and apparently so do most of the general statements which, with out mentioning the number of teachers in volved, merely tell of the need for new school buildings or the solution of other vital prob lems. Again, many of the statements were made concerning the situation in some specific rural school. Almost as many, however, were general ized statements in which the superintendent would begin by saying, for example, “There are five one-teacher schools in which SON perhaps, “Several one-room schools are The frequencies entered in Table 20 show the number of superintendents who mentioned each problem—not the number of schools men tioned in which the unfortunate situation exists. In other words, the school housing situation the first problem listed in the table—was .re 163 of the 272 superintendents re ferred to by porting, but is a vital problem in considerably more than 163 schools in the districts repre sented—probably, in no less than five times that number. { 165 | Housing Problems The urgent need for improvement in rural school housing stands out in bold relief in Table 20. Three of every five superintendents who reported any unsatisfactory situation men- tioned this problem. In connection with it, the most frequently named condition was the con- tinued use of obsolete, dilapidated buildings, unattractive in appearance and sorely in need of repairs. Other housing needs, listed in the order of frequency of mention, were as follows: (a) unsatisfactory lighting; (b) improper heating arrangements; (c) overcrowded build- ings; (d) improper ventilation; (e) absence of a supply of drinking water on the schoolgrounds or the use of water from questionable sources ; (f) unsafe or unsanitary conditions attribut- able to the condition of the school building it- self; (g) the use, for school purposes, of various makeshift structures such as churches, rented halls, or rooms in private dwellings; (h) the absence or unsanitary condition of toilet facili- ties; (i) undesirable school sites ; (j ) continued use of buildings much too large for the present school enrolment; and (k) buildings far more costly and elaborate than should have been con- structed. The last named problem, so different from all the others, was mentioned in only two of the 163 descriptive statements. In describing these housing needs, one super- intendent referred to the use of “a small, weather-beaten building which is often mis- taken for a woodshed.” Another told of “a building 16’ x 20,’ with an 8-foot ceiling; poorly lighted; an old, radiating stove heater; very congested; pupils’ desks against three walls to make room for the stove ; small amount of blackboard; no bookcase; no equipment— and no room for any.” A third described a school in which “96 pupils are taught in one room by two teachers.” Still others commented as follows: “building a mere shack”’; “a frame building built in 1826”; “building approxi- mately 100 years old”; “buildings in a sad state of repair”; “few windows”; “cross lighting” ; “an old box stove with large cracks in it”; “heaters with doors off and holes in stove pipes” ; ‘‘a small, old, tin heater” ; “‘no space for a real program”; “57 pupils in a one-room school in which two teachers are working” ; “34 pupils in a building 16’ x 24”; “no drinking water, carry it about 14 mile”; “water brou to school in a milkcan”; “five buildings condemned by the state board of heal: “school in a log cabin in which the tea lives”; “school consists of but one room of none-too-good residence”; “building was o: inally a bungalow”; “using an old, tun down squatter’s cabin for a schoolhouse’”’ ; ‘ one room of a two-room cabin”; “schoo! housed in an old church building, which badly in need of repair”; “school is held in th: waiting room of the — depot” ; “schoo! a rented room in a home—dirt floor, dirt roo! over lumber-adobe walls, one small window homemade door” ; “lack of sanitary provisions “outdoor toilets very unsanitary”; ‘“‘a smal old, unattractive building located on a high bleak, barren hill with no other house in sight “orounds small ; located on a curve on a much traveled paved highway”; “no playground speak of”; “play space nil”; “school in one room of an old four-room school building’ and—as if speaking in general summary of th« situation—‘“‘buildings that are in a run-dow: condition and antiquated in every respect.” After reading 161 reports, of which those abov: are typical, one is likely to be tolerant—even a bit indulgent—in his attitude toward the tw: contrasting indiscretions described as follows In the _______ district, the board erected a fine rock building, at great cost. The school is on the highway, close to city schools. The average enro! ment is only about eight pupils. In the _____ district, the board erected an alto gether too expensive building. The valuation of th: district is low and the debt load excessive. Size of School The problem which ranked second in fre quency of mention in the superintendents’ de scriptions of unsatisfactory schools was that of enrolment, or size of school. This, in turn, is a twofold problem for a school may be eithe: too large or too small. Very properly much has been written as to the impossible task of the rural teacher who is responsible for the instruction of 40 to 50 chil dren, ranging in age from five to sixteen years and in school achievement from the first- to the eighth-grade level. Such a situation cannot be too strongly condemned. Forty of the descrip tive statements used in this analysis deplored ‘For a teacher’s description of a rural school building more than 100 years old, see: Waltermire, Helen M. ‘“‘In_ the Name of Economy!"’ New York State Education 27: 426-27; March 1940. { 166 ] tne | schor one t pupil dren respe more ports tione who lem— were but Vv were than Quit pupil seve! long schor rolm such atter ICCe] speci follo dent schor schor train here men “chi trair a me enro near othe amo T dent men can used “me in d the : wer repo the educational losses in overcrowded rural schools, various superintendents mentioning one-teacher schools with enrolments of 40 to 61 pupils. In the 61-pupil school, 31 of the chil dren were one or more years over age for their respective grades, and every grade from [ to VIII was represented. The extremely small school, to which rela tively less attention usually is paid, figured even more prominently in the superintendents’ re- ports than large schools of the type just men tioned. In fact, 115 of the 155 superintendents who mentioned size of school as a serious prob lem—a ratio of approximately three to one were troubled especially, not by large schools, but with the small ones in which too few pupils were, and must necessarily be, enrolled. No less than three one-pupil schools were described. Quite a number of schools with fewer than five pupils were reported as problem situations several of them maintained for pupils all be- longing in a single family. Virtually all of the schools mentioned in this connection had en- rolments of not more than ten pupils. Altho such schools approach the ultimate in individual attention, they fail in many respects to meet an icceptable educational standard. Among the specific problems created by such schools the following may be cited from the superinten dents’ own comments: “too few pupils for real school activities’; “impossible to provide such schools with any but poorly equipped and poorly trained teachers” ; ‘‘a good teacher will not stay here’; “no chance for discussion or the develop ment of good citizenship habits thru play”; “children are unable to receive proper social training”; “excessive per pupil costs’; and as 1 more complete description, ‘‘only one pupil is enrolled and he could easily attend a school nearby; he is an only child, has no contact with other pupils, and costs the county the highest amount.” Equipment Needs Third in frequency among the superinten- dents’ comments was mention of various equip- ment needs. The situation in this connection can best be summarized with the adjectives used repeatedly in the superintendents’ reports: “meager in amount” ; “antiquated and obsolete in design’; “wholly unsuited to the needs of the school.’’ Three specific types of equipment were singled out for special mention in various reports: (a) seating equipment, (b)_ black- 167 ] With to seating equipment the following boards, and (c) playground equipment reference quotations tell their own story: “using doubl desks and seats” ; “40 pupils, but only 30 seats” ‘‘no seats—yjust crude benches for the pupils to sit on”; “old-type desks not adjustable”; ‘old desks that were made in the community years ago’; “benches for seats’; and, as reported from two ditterent communities, “church pews are used for seats.’ Teaching Service Quality of teaching service, altho fourth in frequency of mention in these reports, is surely ve altho outranked in frequency of mention, this 100 of the a crucial problem in rural education. problem was discussed by nearly 272 superintendents. Significant, too, are the aspects of teaching service on which specine comments were made. Leading the list in this particular, as might be expected, was insufh cient preparation for teaching. This was fol lowed in order by many references to (a) teachers who cling to outworn, obsolete pro sal iriecs so low 1] reasonaDIl\ be cedures, (b) that expected, (d) lack of professional attitude on inexperience, (c) satisfactory work cannot the part of teachers, (e) rapid teacher turnover in the rural schools, and (f) the procedures followed when teachers’ appointments are made on some basis other than merit. Representative quotations on the foregoing items include the following: “teacher only a high-school graduate”; “‘a $40-a-month teach er’: “uncertificated teacher because of low sal ary’; “teacher is not academically or profes sionally prepared’”’; “‘teacher, as well as equip ment, is obsolete’’; “can’t get or retain a good teacher” ; “teacher paid $30 a month” ; “teacher is inexperienced”; “teachers will not cooperate with each other’; ‘“‘teachers have not qualified have obtained certificates” ; themselves—they “teacher has steadfastly refused to change dur ing the fifty years since she began’’; “‘teache: is old, and has not kept up”; “teacher is under permanent tenure and is a total loss’’; “teacher clings to antiquated methods” ; “teacher is quite set in her ways’; “the teacher herself is a mere child with ‘Normal Training’ in high school a month”; and “teacher is the ; is interested only in the pay receives $30 daughter of check.” To this series the following VIV port may be added: “In id re school sits a dom ineering but ineffective teacher. The room is slovenly kept; the pupils are impolite to each other, to the teacher, and to any visitors who come there.” The superintendents’ reports emphasized and reemphasized the fact that better teaching service usually could be obtained were it not for unfavorable situations in the school en- vironment, inadequate salaries, and other re- lated problems. Such phrases as the following were common: “a good teacher, but without a chance to succeed”; “would be an excellent teacher under better circumstances”; and “the teacher does as well as can be expected.” On the other hand, many illustrations were given of the fact that a superior teacher can and does succeed in spite of unbelievable handicaps. Says one superintendent of a school which he is de- scribing, ‘There is a good teacher there ; other- wise the condition would be deplorable.” An- other testifies that “in our poorest equipped school, a well-trained teacher is doing excellent work.” Perhaps the most striking illustration of the real meaning of teaching service was the following pointed contrast: We have a small school, four pupils housed in a shack that is located out where the rattlesnakes can crawl in if the door is left open. But this is an excellent school because we have an excellent teacher there. Our poorest school has a good building, fair equipment, and some twenty pupils enrolled. But the teacher comes late every morning and continually finds fault—with the children and with the supplies. Nothing is ever right for her. The Curriculum and Instructional Supplies Two problems closely related to the teachers’ instructional procedures and tied for the next lower rank in frequency of mention in these re- ports were (a) the curriculum; and (b) in- structional materials and supplies. Curriculums were described as: “traditional”; “narrowly academic”; “impractical”; “unrelated to the children’s interests and experiences” ; and “with no provision for individual differences in abili- ties and needs.” Some teachers were mentioned who still “assign the next three pages and keep each subject in its own fifteen-minute com- partment.” Of such programs one super- intendent wrote: These schools are not lively, happy places. The daily schedule is a matter of routine. Children are not given freedom; their school life is monotonous. These are the traditional, question-and-answer | of schools. Instructional materials, as in the case school equipment, were declared to be “wholl, lacking” ; “meager in amount”; “antiquated” : or “unrelated to the instructional program.” Repeated mention was made of the lack of library facilities and even of text and reference books. One situation was reported in which the textbooks in use were 1911 and 1912 ed; tions. Maps, globes, dictionaries, and reference books were among the other instructional ma terials for which an urgent need was expressed Community Problems Then ranking close to the foregoing items were three problems sometimes the most baffling of them all: (1) community attitude, (2) lack of funds, and (3) isolation. The influence of community attitude on the quality of the schoo! program was reflected in observations such as these: “the community is provincial, feeling that ‘what was good enough for grandpa is good enough for us’ ”’; “there is a complete lack of community interest” ; “cannot get consolida tion on account of wealthy families in the dis trict who have no children and do not want any increase in taxes”; ‘‘a wealthy district but benighted in regard to education”; ‘‘needed consolidation is opposed, altho there is a good school only 2% miles away and the buses now pass thru this community”; and “people argue against ‘losing the community,’ yet they already attend church and social gatherings at a town twelve miles away.” The second problem in this group, namely, lack of funds, is too generally known and recognized to warrant extended comment here. Perhaps this accounts for the rather surprising fact that it ranked eighth in frequency of mention in these analyses. Low valuation of property in the various districts concerned, the effects of recent and current economic condi- tions, and tax delinquency were the chief causes assigned to financial stress. Isolation, the third problem in the group, is perhaps more nearly inherent in the rural situation than either of the others. Several instances were cited where: “consolidation is impossible because of bad roads” ; ‘‘our smallest and least satisfactory school must be maintained for children living in that isolated region, for it is fifteen miles from the next school district ; [ 168 ] some | or on boat 1 the sc “this lated ; school impas munit from Sev attent witha pupils tende enrol to hi enroll grade tribut Us ence, is the schoo stater for tl unwi comn “very that : erate inten bers this s “this with make train: boar two | has p Tl rural term. a" Southw some of the pupils must come to school by boat, or on the ice’; “children are transported by boat to the Island; the school is isolated and very difficult to visit”’ ; sche ne )] on “this typical mountain school is very much iso- lated; road very bad in winter’; “the school is ten miles from the highway ; roads are impassable at times”; “isolated territory ; com munity feud”; and, finally, ‘‘the school is miles almost inaccessible.” trom any center Too Many Grade Levels Seventeen of the descriptive statements called attention to a problem closely related to, but withal different from, that of having too many pupils in a one-teacher school. These superin- tendents contend that, even with a normal enrolment, one teacher can scarcely do justice to his work if pupils at all grade levels are enrolled. In other words, too many school grades as well as too many pupils often con- tribute to poor work in rural schools. Schoolboard Practices Usually a reflection of community indiffer- ence, to which reference has already been made, is the problem of indifferent or even malicious schoolboard members. Eleven of the descriptive statements attributed some direct responsibility for the unfortunate conditions described to the unwise policies of boards of education. Typical comments suggest the nature of this problem: “very negligent about doing even the repairs that are absolutely necessary” ; ‘‘will not coop- erate with the teacher, with the county super- intendent, or with each other”; “board mem- bers are disinterested in the improvement of this school—which is a discredit to the state”’ ; “this year an excellent teacher—B.S. degree, with high honors, long tenure—was let out to make way for a young girl without college training or teaching experience’; and “the board never hires a teacher until a week or two before school opens and therefore generally has poor teachers.” Short School Terms The final item in this ugly picture of the rural school at its worst is the short school term. In one district, “due to lack of funds Southwestern, 28; and Pacific, 13. 2 The number of replies from the six districts were: Northeastern, 50; Southeastern [ 169 } it has been necessary to reduce two one-teachet schools to a half-time basis, which means that they will have only four and one-half months ot school during the vear.” In another district the report was, ‘they can have only four months of school this year—no revenue.” Several seven month school terms were mentioned, including the report that in one state a “school term of 137 days is found in 79 counties.”’ Regional Differences The descriptive reports on unsatisfactory rural schools were tabulated separately for each major geographic region of the United States. Only a few marked differences in relative fre quency ot mention were apparent, however, and it is quite possible that chance factors alone were responsible for them. The four fairly clear-cut regional differences thus disclosed had to do with the prominence of (a) housing prob lems in the reports from the Northeastern states: (b) excessively large one-teacher schools in the Southeastern states; (c) equipment and supply problems in the Middle states; and (d) extremely small schools in the North western states. The Outlook for Underprivileged Schools When the fundamental purposes of public education are projected against the background of limitations and handicaps described above, the temptation to assume a defeatist attitude must be vigorously opposed. With this array of weaknesses and defects in mind, one can readily note the genuineness of, and the sense of achievement implied by, the superintendent who reported: “No school entirely unsatisfac tory!” Yet the situation is by no means hope less, except for those unwilling to put forth their own best efforts on behalf of rural schools. Among the leavening elements to be kept in mind is the fact that, after all, the unsatis factory schools are greatly in the minority ; also, that conditions by and large are improving, that the past decade has witnessed the elimina tion or material improvement of numerous situations just like those which have been de scribed. There is assurance, too, in the oft repeated testimony of these superintendents, to 58: Middle states, 61: Northwestern, 62 the effect that many competent rural teachers are doing excellent work in spite of deplorable handicaps. And finally, there are encouragement and fruitful suggestion in such reports ot cific accomplishment as those summariz: the following paragraphs of this bulletin Some Noteworthy Achievements of Rural Schools Descriptive statements of definite and un- usual achievements in one or more of their own rural schools were supplied by 454 county superintendents. Table 21 indicates the areas in rural education represented in these de- scriptions of exceptional work and shows how frequently each area was mentioned. As is true of all such tabulations, the frequencies are of interest chiefly in relation to one another and must not be interpreted as actual measures, or indices. The very phrase, “unusually fine work,” is a relative term. Practices and devel- opments, which in one community and in the opinion of one individual are “outstanding,” seem but commonplace when appraised by an- other individual under another set of circum- stances. Some of the examples included in Table 21 perhaps poorly deserve the special mention they received. On the other hand, many achievements similar to if not even more significant than some here described probably were passed over without mention by these and other superintendents. Hence, there is no basis here for determining either the proportion of rural communities in which some type of out- standing work in education is being done or the prevalence of good work of any given type in the nation’s rural schools. Instead, this table TABLE 21.—AREAS OF OUTSTANDING ACHIEVEMENT IN RURAL EDUCA- TION MENTIONED BY 454 SUPERIN- TENDENTS OF RURAL SCHOOL DIS- TRICTS Frequency “pray : of mention 1 2 Area of outstanding achievement The instructional program in some specified de- partment or subject field ; Health services it 92 Library services 88 Classroom procedures Technics of organization or administration. . Upgrading of the teaching staff................. The general instructional program at some specified grade level or in a given area of service..... Recent or eurrent revision of curriculum... . Improvements in school housing Instructional materials and supplies Extracurriculum programs Public relations Cooperation with colleges or with neighboring school districts merely suggests several areas of achieve which_one rather large group of superintend ents identified as the high lights of their res) tive school programs. By implication it gests, in broad outline, some of the curr emphases and trends in the improvement rural education. Instruction in Specified Departments or Subjects Descriptions of unusually successful work in some designated department, special area, o: subjectmatter field were more numerous thar those of any other type, coming from 142 su perintendents or nearly a third of those r porting. This, in itself, is a gratifying result suggesting as it does that recent developments in classroom teaching have been significant enough to rank foremost in the thinking o! rural superintendents. But perhaps even mor significant are the areas of instruction and th kinds of classroom work specifically described When the specific phases of the instructions program mentioned in the 142 descriptive stat ments were tabulated, the area of rural schoo music far outranked all others. Fifty-one supe: intendents—36 percent of those who referred to any instructional field—described some new development or outstanding achievement i: music education. Several cases were cited where now for the first time special teachers or musi supervisors are at work in rural schools and are achieving remarkable success. In other cases reference was made to the outstanding work o! some individual teacher, as in the following examples: a. Mrs, ___. has taught every child in her rura school to play a violin and is developing fin orchestral work. Incidentally, her pupils also have a workshop in which they work wit! woods, varnish, battery sets, etc. Ordinary classroom work is above average. . In —— district the teacher of a one-roon school has carried out an unusual program in music, including the organization of a har monica band. Ranking next to music, but considerably be low it in frequency of mention, was instruc [170] vocatic ial st tional } nomics mentic statem Lays 12) tion b i) ticeabl mentic mathet examp depart clude | In heal a. OT rion in the field of health and physical educa tion. Lhere were 39 references to achievements n this area. Then ranking next in order, and with frequencies ranging from 25 down to 10, vere: (3) vocational education (especially ocational agriculture) ; (4) reading; (5) so ial studies; (6) industrial arts (nonvoca tional); (7) visual education; (8) home eco nomics; and (9) art. Subject fields and areas mentioned in fewer than ten of the descriptive statements included: (10) safety education; 11) speech work (including choral reading) ; 12) science and nature study; (13) educa tion by radio; (14) dramatics and rhythms; 15) conservation; and (16) commerce. No ticeably lacking in this list was even a single mention of outstanding work in the areas of mathematics and foreign languages. Selected examples of significant or more or less unique departures in some of the foregoing areas in clude the following: In health education a. In the middle of the day there is a rest period for first- and second-grade pupils who come to school on buses and must remain all day. Individual cots are provided in a quiet room with plenty of fresh air. b. A checklist was recently developed and used in formulating a new program based on child, school, and community needs. c. An experimental and developmental course of study in health education is in use. The study, which will run two, three, or four years, is in cooperation with the state department of health and the state department of public instruction In safety education a. A countywide safety program has been devel oped and is directed by a county council made up of students and teachers. In radio and visual education a. Systematic use of radio in the school program has been introduced on a countywide basis this year. It is meeting an enthusiastic response. b. In __ County a musical semiweekly broad cast is given over a local station to rural schools. The programs are designed to help with the teaching of singing and music appre- ciation. The county superintendent assists with the broadcast. c. Since 1935, the school has been using the first sound-on-film projector owned by any school system in the state. In conservation education a. The building of feeders and shelters for song birds and animals, in cooperation with the Isaac Walton League, has been used as an educative activity. [171 ] I As a result of the work in conservation in the County schools, a state committee 1s now working on an outline for all the schools In vocational agriculture and me economics a. Vocational agriculture and home economi: ire gaining a foothold in this county—now being taught in each school These studies are es pecially practical for our farm boys and ls b. In the high school, a home economics cottage is being constructed at a cost of sli less than $10 Interior decoratio and the selection and arrangement of furniture and equipment are being done as a class project In reading a. In the County schools for two ye good standardized reading test has been used in trying to appraise, coordinate, and unify teaching procedures. Teachers are becoming reading readine ss conscious: the progran shows results b. In cooperation with the State College about 95 rural teachers in the county are working on a project to improve reading in struction. In social studies a. The teacher in the one-room school has worked out some especially interesting social studies units. b. Excellent pioneer work in social studies is being done in the rural junior high school Health Services The extension o! improvement of health sery ices in rural schools was the area ranking second in frequency of mention in the reports on unusual Within this general area, reference was made most often to the pro achievements. vision or extension of the professional services of doctors and nurses, sometimes thru coopera tion with public health agencies or local asso ciations of doctors and nurses and sometimes as an independent school service. Ranking high, also, among these descriptions was mention of the provision of hot lunches, often under con ditions where regular school cafeterias could not be established. Then, according to fre quency of mention, should be listed : immuniza tions ; dental service ; vision tests ; hearing tests ; tuberculin tests (occasionally supplemented by X-rays) ; and tests to discover speech defects In two of the counties represented, the vision and hearing of every child is tested by means of the telebinocular and audiometer. In con nection with various accomplishments of the foregoing types, generous credit for helpful cooperation was given to local community or- ganizations, such as the P.T.A., the Red Cross, the service clubs, and the fraternal organiza- tions. Library Services The type of improvement in library service which predominated in these reports was the establishment of some type of circulating li- brary for the rural schools. Only 17 of the 88 reports described improvements in the li- braries of individual schools and classrooms. The remaining 71 spoke of plans such as the following: a. A traveling library has been established with deliveries each six-week period, which means that each one-teacher school will have at least 125 books during the school year. - Bookmobile service is available to all rural schools. . Ten years ago 3000 children in the County schools were without supplementary material. Today a system is in operation whereby each school has access to 1000 or more good books and at least three sets of supple- mentary readers for each grade. . Fifteen circulating libraries of 20 books each are made up at, and distributed by, the county superintendent’s office. . Each district pays $5 per school year and re- ceives each month a box of 19 books, giving them at least seven times as much reading ma- terial as they otherwise would have. - The local Kiwanis Club sponsors a traveling library housed in the county superintendent’s office. . Under a cooperative agreement, the six-year school has the use of the town library for three days each week. The school department spends about $200 yearly on books for this library. . Seventy-four counties in the state now have cir- culating libraries, many with library trucks to transport books from the central library to the schools. Under the traveling library system now in op- eration here, hundreds of books are used in comparison to tens used previously. All schools in the county have access to 25 boxes, each containing 30 books, for the postage to and from which amounts to about $1. Schools withdraw 10 to 15 books for a period of three weeks, with renewal privilege if they are needed longer. Schools use, on an average, 75 to 125 books a year. Pupils may, and often do, withdraw books during the summer months. Teaching Procedures The fourth area of outstanding achievement included in Table 21 is that of improvement in classroom procedures. Here the strong emphasis in the reports was on the substitution of ‘‘ac- tivities,” “meaningful experiences,” ‘‘projects,” and “units of work,” for the standardized academic routines once so generally followed No fewer than 51 of the 74 references t; proved procedures told of the shift to th newer devices. One superintendent desc: the practices of his staff as follows: Several schools are experimenting with activi; programs. We are not taking at face value ever, thing that the Progressives tell us; but we do a litt), free lancing, still trying to keep one foot on th, ground all the time. We are conservatively gressive here, as it were. Several superintendents told of outstanding activities, or units, involving such things as participation of the school in community ente: prises, the beautification of the school building and grounds, local history, local industries and resources, and school gardening projects. Othe: comments worthy of summary deal with im provements in testing procedures, controlled experiments to evaluate different procedures completely individualized instruction using modification of the Winnetka plan, effective use of school excursions, and the integration and correlation of work in various subject fields Administrative Changes and Reorganizations Achievements with respect to various aspects of school organization and administration, which collectively ranked fifth among the com ments summarized in Table 21, covered variety of specific problems. Only two, how ever, were mentioned more than twenty times namely, significant achievement in effecting needed consolidations of rural schools and de velopment of more suitable pupil reports o1 cumulative record systems. Six superintendents reported outstanding achievement in the saf: eficient, and economical transportation of pupils. The same number pointed with prid: to experimental or accomplished reorganiza tions for the elimination of grade lines. In this connection the following account is of interest : In all the rural schools of __. County _ the first, second, and third grades are replaced by a pri mary division. There are eight reading levels in the primary division, which a child may complete in three or four years. On completing the work in this division he receives his first promotion, to the fourt! grade. Among the other types of reorganization de- scribed were: two “modified platoon” plans; [172] ind in plan, ntensl stead ( Achiev partme ot atte combir high f been a tendan ot the called itinera Ups sixth pf schools can be in whi been re In spe staff, t extensi service service higher in sala work ¢ last ni the su four 0 Unitec Spec Fift ments or are: freque areas 1 includ of var termec tained the se case 0} way © report are be saving and tv und in one high school a single-subject study plan, in which each pupil studies one subject ntensively for nine weeks, then another, in stead of carrying four subjects simultaneously. \chievements with respect to attendance de partments included : one case in which the work of attendance officer and school nurse has been combined; and another in which an all-time high for the county in school attendance has been achieved—a record of 95 percent in at tendance, with perfect attendance by 28 percent ot the pupils enrolled. “Two moveable or so called “wheels” schools were reported, to serve itinerant or isolated families. Improvements in Personnel Upgrading of the teaching staff appears in sixth position in Table 21 perhaps because the schools for which outstanding achievements can be reported are those, generally speaking, in which the caliber of the teaching staff has been relatively high over a period of some years. In speaking of improvements in the teaching staff, the contributing factors mentioned were: extensions and improvements in supervisory service; special projects looking to the in service growth of teachers ; additional training; higher standards of certification ; improvements in salaries or in living conditions; and effective work on the part of teachers organizations. ‘The last named factor was mentioned in nine of the superintendents’ statements, drawn from four of the six major geographic regions of the United States. Special Types of Educational Service Fifty-one superintendents spoke of achieve- ments identified with some specified grade level or area of educational service. In the order of frequency of mention these specific levels and areas were: pupil guidance; adult education including public forums; remedial instruction of various types; the primary grades; the in termediate grades; the separate schools main tained for minority racial and national groups; the senior high-school program; and, in one case only, the junior high-school program. By way of special education, one superincendent reports that seventy-five handicapped pupils are being cared for in four centers: a sight saving center, a center for the | ard of hearing, and two centers for crippled children. [1 Curriculum Development Improvement of the curriculum as a whole is the eighth area of outstanding achievement appearing in ‘Table 21. Several statements re ferred to improvements which had come as a result of the recent adoption of new courses of study ; several, to curriculum projects at present under way. Community surveys, as the basis for curriculum revision, were mentioned in two reports. Several countywide projects in curt riculum development now in progress were re ported—one of them “under the direction of the state department of public instruction.” One superintendent described a countywide o1 ganization for continuous curriculum revision, with committees in each major subject area, such as arithmetic, English, reading, science, and social studies. In another county, reviewing committees in each of four major subjectmattet areas select the best units developed each yea! in their respective subject fields. ‘hese are mimeographed in the county superintendent’s office and distributed to all teachers concerned Still another report told of efforts to “‘ruralize”’ the curriculum and to encourage teachers to develop an adequate rural philosophy. Improvements in School Housing Significant improvement in rural school hous ing was an area of achievement emphasized in just 10 percent of the progress reports. More than half of these statements told of new build ings, describing them with such enthusiastic “the building in the “the last word in rural school con phrases as finest rural state,” and struction.” A noticeable emphasis in connection with these new buildings was the use of ma terials obtained from local sources. In one county, for example, ‘““'wenty-three new, rock buildings have been constructed during the past five years, most of them modernly equipped. Before this program was started pupils were in churches, ‘shacks,’ Monolithic “rammed earth,” in in temporary quarters and many inadequate buildings.” concrete, pine logs, and addition to native stone, were mentioned as materials peculiarly adapted to the situation in which they were used. The building was made of native clay, tamped into block form. It was finished with modern fix “rammed earth” tures and furnishings. Finally, in addition to the construction of new buildings, several re ports described the transformation achieved in school environments thru improvements in sanitation and lighting, remodeling and refur- nishing of school buildings, and thru redecorat- ing and landscaping operations. Pupils, parent- teacher associations, and other local organiza- tions were credited with important help in connection with such renovations. Equipment and Supplies Improvement with respect to the quantity or quality of either school equipment or in- structional materials and supplies was referred to in approximately one in twelve of the de- scriptive statements. As in the case of library service, probably the most significant feature of the work here reported was the frequent reference to centralized systems of obtaining and distributing materials and supplies. The general “materials bureau,” where all types of teaching aids and supplies are made available to all teachers in the county, is proving effec- tive in a limited number of rural counties. Similar bureaus, except limited to certain types of materials or teaching aids, were mentioned even more frequently, and apparently consti- tute an intermediate step toward the complete centralization of the instructional supply serv- ice. Among the limited-service plans which were described should be mentioned: (a) the county textbook exchange; (b) a collection of portable dioramas and other visual aids used in connection with units in reading, biology, geography, and history; and (c) projection equipment and film service. The following brief quotations indicate the services of centralized visual education departments when established in rural communities: a. We have developed a cooperative program of visual education, operating the equipment on a circuit basis. . A central library is maintained of films, film strips, and other visual aids. At the end of the first year more than 300 films had been ac- quired. . The individual in charge of our visual educa- tion service selects and obtains educational films, operates the projector, and helps to cor- relate the work with the classroom teaching. . Battery type film and slide projectors are used. Films are obtained from the state university. Equipment is in constant use, making a com- plete circuit of all schools twice during the school year. . The bookmobile also carries projection equip- ment and motion picture, educational films. The sound projector is used daily in the s: and practically every night in giving ed tional shows in the various rural comm Extracurriculum Activities The outstanding achievements mention: connection with the extracurriculum progran rural schools had to do chiefly with inter-schoo| festivals and contests; the work of 4-H Clubs: activities of the Young Citizens plans of student government; school paper, and countywide systems of honors or awar« All six of the references made to the work of Young Citizens Leagues came from Northwestern states. An interesting variati: of a common extracurriculum activity was ‘ county, literary magazine, The Amateur Pen open to high-school contributors from all th: schools.” It is mimeographed in the county superintendent’s office. Another interesting de parture is the general club program of one rural school, where pupils who have finished elementary school but cannot go on to high school are encouraged to participate with uppe: grade pupils in their clubs—a series which in cludes art, music, crafts, dramatics, and scienc: clubs. League S Public Relations Work in the field of public relations is said to have been outstanding in twenty-four coun ties. Participation in community projects and activities of various kinds and the work of parent-teacher associations were most frequently mentioned in this connection. Systematic home visitation by teachers was reported from tw: widely separated counties as an effective wa) of maintaining wholesome public relations American Education Week programs, news paper publicity, and unified commencement exercises for all high-school graduates in the county were other devices described. Cooperation of Colleges with Rural Schools The final item in Table 21 refers to the out standing work being done in rural schools in active cooperation with a neighboring college —usually a state teachers college or state uni versity. Most of the schools mentioned in this connection are used as practice schools for cadet teachers. Typically, they are under the im- mediate supervision of the college, are staffed { 174] better all th school: school: Numé The ing do trates possibl cumsté public compe! improv Scho cel bai Scho plz Scho sal on: Scho hig the lur cer Scho pe! ure ces un Scho no’ wh scl bu Siv Scho: cip with teachers of unusual ability, and have better than average financial support. Nearly all these schools serve not only as ‘practice schools for cadets but also as demonstration schools where teachers in service gather to ob serve new developments in curriculum, class organization, and teaching procedures. Numerous Types of Achievement in Single County The following report of what is actually be ing done in a single rural school system illus trates the wide variety in achievement which is possible when, under reasonably favorable cit cumstances and supported by an_ informed public opinion, an able administrator and a competent staff set their hand to the task of improving rural schools: School A, a two-teacher village school—An ex cellent program of music instruction, including band instrumentation. School B, a one-teacher school—An unusually fine playground and health program. School C, a one-teacher school—Good program in safety education. Also gives regular public dem onstrations of schoolwork. School D, a consolidated rural elementary and high school—The P. T. A. the home economics department furnishes hot lunches for all pupils at the nominal price of 10 in cooperation with cents. School E, a one-teacher school—The teacher, ex perimenting with the newer classroom proced ures, has worked out some interesting and su cessful units of work—especially social studies units. Schools F and G, both one-teacher schools—Are now operating in recently constructed buildings which represent about the last word in rural school construction. One is a monolithic conerete building. Both schools are carrying out progres- sive educational programs. School H, a 15-teacher village school—The prin- cipal is working toward a modified platoon or- ganization, recommended to him by the Teachers Colle School I j j 1940, as one of 16 in the state to be studied as a } ) t a rural high school—Selected in January model by a committee of the North Central As- sociation School Pa a one-teacher school ect for beautifying the Carried out a proj schoolgrounds. Children drew up a landscaping plan. Woodworking and sewing are other activities directed by this busy teacher in a school of more than 20 pupils School K, a 23-teacher plant, having all safety devices and village school—In an ul tramodern with radio and public address equipment, the speech department specializes in creative proj ects and an outstanding program in music has been developed, especially the band ensemble. his school is also experimenting with a new system of pupil reports. School L, a 25-teaché the 6-3-3 plan school marks and rq tillage $4 hool organ 1 on Has also done pioneer work on grading; is an experiment base for the state board of education in the field of Smith-Hughes ture in the county; only vocational agricul home economics: maintains the course in and is doing especially nne work in health and physical education, English, and dramatics School M, a one-teacher band for the younger pupils School N, a tavo-teacher school singing is exceptionally fine School O, a one-teacher school remark able program in music is being carried out, in school—Has a rhythm Instruction in part -Anothet cluding the organization of a harmonica band Implications for Rural Administrators The effective practices and unusual proced ures summarized in the foregoing paragraphs are rich in practical suggestions for the im provement of rural schools. In comparing them with the achievements of their own schools, most superintendents will tind some common ground of similarity but will find also a num ber of areas where further pioneering is sug gested. V. NEXT STEPS IN Information with respect to the status of rural schools and the direction of current trends in rural education is of little avail except when applied in the solution of the problems re- vealed. What then are the practical problems suggested by the foregoing description of rural schools? To what tasks must the leaders and friends of rural education set their hands in the decade that lies ahead ? The Advice of Rural Superintendents A significant answer to the foregoing ques- tions was given by the rural superintendents who cooperated in this study. As requested in the inquiry form, each of 864 superintendents listed from one to four things which he would do first in his own county, if he were free to correct only a few of the most flagrant weak- nesses of the rural schools under his direction. These suggested next steps in rural education are summarized in Table 22. The formation of larger attendance units thru the consolidation of small schools was mentioned far more often than any other single proposal. Improvement of school buildings, more adequate preparation of rural teachers, curriculum revision, and better supervision were next in frequency of mention. The list as a whole reemphasizes many of the imperative needs referred to in earlier sections of this bulletin. In it most communities will find one or more problems which can be successfully attacked and at least a partial solu- tion found for their own rural schools. Improving Rural Schools thru Legislation Several of the proposals listed in Table 22 and many of the needs of rural schools discussed in earlier sections of this bulletin lie beyond the reach of individual communities. The abolition of small districts and substitution of satisfactory units for purposes of taxation and school administration may be cited as one such basic problem. Effective removal of all school affairs from the control of partisan politics, adequate systems of equalization and state finan- cial aid, satisfactory minimum standards of training for rural school teachers and adminis- trators, welfare legislation which makes rural education inviting to competent teachers, and the creation and support of effective state edu- RURAL EDUCATION TABLE 22.—_CHANGES IN RURAL EDu. CATION BELIEVED TO BE Most URGENTLY NEEDED IN THEIR Rep. SPECTIVE DISTRICTS BY 864 RURAL SUPERINTENDENTS Frequency Change recommended of mention 1 More consolidated schools (larger atte néiinee units) New, improved, or larger school buildings (includ- ing better lights, sanitation, and grounds).... Better supplies and equipment. Better trained teachers... .. Broader curriculum ‘ More adequate and effective. supervision Higher salaries for teachers and other school em- ployees.... Improved transportation fac ilities Larger administrative units. Better financing Improved library facilities. . Better methods of certification and/or tea acher ap- pointment Improved classroom procedures av An adequate health service program. Improved textbooks (free, uniform, etc.) Better organization and administration of indi- vidual schools............. Longer tenure for rural teac hers. Longer school terms More enlightened public opinion Improved school lunch facilities. . ere Improved professional attitude on the part of teachers (including ea? in teacher asso- ciations, meetings, etc.). Improved living conditions for rural Sieaahibie Improvement in the status of the county superin- A central purchasing authority or agency Improved educational opportunities in the separate schools maintained for Negroes or other racial or national groups......... Elimination of politics from all phases of sc hool management Revision or more strict enforcement of attendance A satisfactory retirement system for teachers... .. Introduction of gaan social, and recreational programs. ee Improved janitorial service . Development of adequate and vit l programs of adult education Payment of teachers on the 12- month plan. Other changes *® Number of replies research on rural needs; simplification of the system of records and reports now in use; elimination of high ® Includes: school teacher-training departments; and the adoption of minimum standards which must be met by all rural boards cation departments and teachers colleges are other areas where fundamental revisions in school legislation must be made in many states before their rural schools can approach an reasonable standard of efficiency. Not the least of the legislative changes which should be sought in several states are those which would make the county superintendency, or its equiva- [176] who h to give changt mater! cure tl more | prove Imy rural leader instru a spec partm gestiol gated is bro spond: more, local naturé ficials city sc are pe tion oO rural types procec and s helpft study of rut and <« progr: impro frame WI tial, i of bo and tl essent lent, a truly professional office manned by those who have both the authority and the ability to give real leadership in rural education. When changes such as these are prerequisite to any material progress, statewide cooperation to se- cure the necessary laws may prove considerably more fruitful than the best local efforts to im prove rural schools within the various districts. State Leadership Important, too, for the consistent progress of rural schools is the assumption of genuine leadership by the state departments of public instruction and state education associations. In a special way rural workers look to state de partments for supervision, guidance, and sug- gestion. Generally speaking, the authority dele- gated to state departments over rural schools is broader and more direct than their corre- sponding control over urban schools. Further- more, in the absence of the same measure of local leadership, workers in rural education naturally turn more often to state school of- ficials for guidance than is generally true of city school employees. Hence, state departments are peculiarly responsible both for the continua- tion of promising trends already under way in rural schools and for the stimulation of other types of achievement. Thru such devices and procedures as the formulation of requirements and suggested standards, the distribution of helpful materials, leadership in curriculum study and revision, extension and improvement of rural school supervision, and more frequent and direct contact with actual rural school programs, state school officials can do much to improve the status of rural schools within the framework of existing legislation. Where basic changes in legislation are essen- tial, initiative and full cooperation on the part of both the departments of public instruction and the state education associations usually are essential to satisfactory accomplishment. On these state leaders the local communities must chiefly rely for the development of and later management of timely legislative plans. Local Initiative in Improving Rural Schools Altho the point ot view expressed above is unquestionably true, it is a mistake for rural leaders to assume that all improvements in rural education must wait upon legislative changes or upon state department leadership. Within the limitations of current regulations and en tirely apart from any form of external assist- ance each district has its own opportunities and its own responsibilities for lifting the standards of its rural schools. Until such time as desirable effected, for effort can be focused on the best possible school consolidations can be example, programs in existing schools. In the absence of statewide curriculum study programs, local groups can study their own curriculum prob lems. Lacking statewide provisions for school- health or library services, cooperative effort among adjoining school districts and with non school agencies within a given area may result in commendable achievements. As a means of suggestion and help to rural administrators and others in positions of re sponsibility for rural schools, a checklist on rural education concludes this bulletin. With this checklist current practices can be brought to mind and evaluated, and the areas noted where timely improvement should now be sought. Items in the list will be checked “Yes” when any practice suggested or one equally good is being carried out already. They will be checked “No” when any proposal reveals an unsatisfactory situation in the school or schools under review. Altho the checklist is designed especially for rural school adminis- trators, it should prove helpful when used either by teachers or by laymen in the study and discusssion of rural school problems. A Checklist on Rural Schools —— Answer the following questions for the rural school, or schools, in your district: Yes | No Organization and Administration 1. Is the school district large enough for maximum efficiency and economy in both fiscal and educational administration? : (a) If not, is the district as large as it can be made without the modi- a aa RR a . Has every school in the district too small for effective work been eliminated thru consolidation except for those where consolidation is obviously im- possible? . Are school opportunities provided for all who should have access to them: (a) all children of elementary-school age? (b) all children of high-school age? (d) children of minority racial and national groups?................ (e) out-of-school youth and adults? . Is home teaching service, or perhaps a “moving school,” provided for isolated or shut-in pupils? . Is transportation at public expense provided for all pupils living more than a specified distance—e.g., 114 miles—from the school attended? . Is transportation provided for all handicapped pupils, regardless of distance? _ . Do all conveyances used in pupil transportation meet the generally ap- proved standards for health and safety? . Is experimentation being carried out with reorganization plans adapted to the needs of individual schools—e.g., modified platoon; elimination of grade lines; or the rescheduling of school activities? . Is the attendance officer primarily a social worker rather than a police officer? . Do the school funds raised in the district show a genuine effort to support the schools according to the taxpaying ability of the people? . Is the district taking full advantage of state and federal financial aid by qualifying for, and requesting, such aid? . Have all possibilities been exhausted for cooperation among neighboring districts in purchasing equipment and supplies or effecting similar econ- 15. 16. 17. 18. Whether by law or administrative policy, are rural teachers made to feel secure in their positions so long as they render efficient teaching service?. . (a) Are teachers regularly selected and appointed well in advance of . Are living conditions and working conditions for rural teachers as attractive and wholesome as can be arranged? . Are teachers encouraged to remain year after year in the same school and to become real leaders and builders of the community? [178] A Checklist on Rural Schools (Cont.) _—_- Answer the following questions for the rural school, or schools, in vour district: 43. 44, Are teachers encouraged to continue their professional training? Is a helpful program of in-service growth for teachers regularly carried out? Is full advantage taken of the teacher help which colleges in the area might give—cooperative experiments, demonstrations, etc.? Are teachers helped and encouraged in developing a local teachers associa tion with a vital program? Are there supervisory officers from whom every teacher can obtain suf ficient help and guidance with general teaching problems? . Are supervisors available to give sufficient help with music, art, and other subjects requiring special training and special skill Is some reasonable amount of musical ability expected of all applicants for teaching positions in nondepartmentalized rural schools? he Instructional Program Does the teaching emphasis fall on living in and improving the rural com munity rather than on leaving it at the first opportunity? Are teachers making sufficient use of the local environment, local resources, and local history? ; Is the course of study billets in terms of loc al needs? Are teachers now —_—s the curriculum with a view to adapting and strengthening it?. Seewlans Are experimental courses and projects being carried out and evaluated?. Is special effort being made to strengthen the work at some grade lev el or in some department or area where it has been especially weak?. . Are the schools now cooperating actively in one or more of the normal affairs or enterprises of the community?. . . i Are pupils taught by means of firsthand experiences, activities, and projects whenever Leaner with the minimum use of textbook-recitation pro cedures?. Is suitab “— opportunity wrovided Sas excursions and other chances to ob serve real objects, processes, and relationships? Is a genuine and successful attempt being made to correlate the work various subjects and departments and to minimize subjectmatter lines? Does the daily schedule consist of a few periods for carefully integrated activities rather than numerous 5- to 15-minute “‘recitations’’? Are frequent and regular contacts with good music and some music in struction provided for all rural pupils?. Are health instruction and physical education included in the school periences of all rural pupils?... Does the health program deal primarily with local health prob lems and health needs? ee Are the health s services of ‘the schools weed as vital experiences in health education? ve ; Is safety instruction given to all pupils- instruction dealing primarily with local school and community hazards? ae Are pupils being taught to conserve nz cai resources, particalesty the re sources of the local community and region?. 45. Is maximum use being made of visual aids—maps, pictures, and specimens as well as slides and motion pictures? [179] A Checklist on Rural Schools (Cont.) Answer the following questions for the rural school, or schools, in your district: 46. Is active use being made of the phonograph i in rural classrooms? 47. 48. hes new courses organized and ied as soon as the need for such courses 1S s discovered—e.g., courses in vocational agriculture, home economics, 49. Can any pupil pursue in courses arranged for and supervised by the school when such courses are not offered locally? 50. Is provision made for individual help and remedial work for those who ” 51. Is every teacher a “guidance worker,” interested in and capable of giving help to pupils with their personal and educational problems?.. 52. Do teachers make good use of objective tests in evaluating pupil ac Manis re- 53. Are pupils interested primarily in what they have learned rather than in the marks they have received? Special Services for Pupils 54. Are doctors and nurses available for the adequate health inspection and health care of all rural pupils? 55. Are the general health examinations as thoro and as frequent as seems feasible and desirable? 57. 58. ! 59. Are special tests given to discover vision, hearing, and speech defects?... . 60. Have all possibilities been exhausted for helpful cooperation between the schools and local health workers—private practitioners as well as public Housing and Equipment 63. Has every obsolete, unsafe, and unhealthful building been replaced or its 64. Have all urgently needed alterations and remodelings been carried out?.... 65. Has everything possible been done by way of needed repair and redecora- tion of buildings? 66. Is full advantage being taken of state and federal aid in the construction and repair of school buildings? Ot ys 6 RN ea) Yes 67. Is the help of the state department sought in planning school buildings?... — 68. Is use generally made of building materials RR 69. 70. Are equipment and supplies provided in sufficient quantity for all the pupils? 71. In selecting materials and supplies is their educational value the first con- Ck a ARKS Eile Baad ias-s. 0 vio cls eR GEN EAs Reiko 63.0 08 alors = [ 180 ] N Public 6. Is 7... Ee 8. Is 9. Ar . Ar f) A Checklist on Rural Schools (Cont.) qo Does the library in every rural school meet at least the n wer the following questions for the rural school, or school 1% our district: Ye suggested by the state department of public instructior Does some good type of circulating library bring each rural of books in addition to its own? reference materials? Are the schools getting as much material and help as p county, or local libraries? \re suitable visual and auditory aids the rural schools, preferably thru a centralized agency « F aoit ee peel, 5. . ° Extracurriculum Programs 78. Do all pupils have maximum opportunity to participate of pupil self-government? 79. Is each school sponsoring a reasonable number of successful \ 8] x XY. YW), 91, g) 93, Public Relations SO. clubs?.. ). Have at least a few clubs for older pupils been opened a school youth in the community? . Are the schools cooperating with established agencies Y.M.C.A., Y.W.C.A., Boy and Girl Scouts, ete.? as the preparation of a school paper? festivals, joint programs, and contests? munity center? room work?. school ? : public?. . ment exercises and other special school programs? the school program?. . obtained and made ] | n 1imum standard $+. Is every school provided with suitable maps, dictionaries, ani "5. Is every school equipped with some type of musical instrum: - T I S¢ he Ol t 1 Ot ible ave bureau! ] a supply her standard ntr Lt from state, 1] ulable to all effective plan special interest sO to the out of. the Do teachers systematically visit the homes of all their pupils? Is American Education Week observed so as to interpret the schools to the 4-H Club, 2. Does the extracurriculum program include developmental projects such 3. Are the schools cooperating, neither too little nor too much, in interschool . Does the extracurriculum program help to make the school a genuine com . Do the extracurriculum activities contribute directly and helpfully to class Is there an active and constructive parent-teacher association in each rural Are school aims and activities explained and demonstrated thru commence Are the resources of the local press and radio used effectively in interpreting Are fraternal organizations, service clubs, and other local organizations encouraged to devote their energies and funds to worthy school projects such as obtaining health, guidance, or library services? developing school policies and planning school activities! Is each school a genuine cultural and soci fee Are frequent invitations and opportunities given to the public to share in al center for the community which PUBLICATIONS ON RELATED TOPICS . . The Outlook for Rural Education. Research Bulletin, Vol. 9, No. 4; Sep- tember 1931. 76 p. 25¢. The Rural Teacher’s Economic Status. Research Bulletin, Vol. 17, No. 1: January 1931. 64 p. 25¢. A Policy for Rural Education in the United States. Committee Report, Department of Rural Education, 1940. 48 p. 25¢. Community Resources in Rural Schools. Yearbook of the Department of Rural Education, 1939. 109 p. 50¢. Newer Types of Instruction in Small Rural Schools. Yearbook of the Department of Rural Education, 1938. 144 p. 50¢. Adjustments in Rural Education. Yearbook of the Department of Rural Education, 1937. 120 p. 50¢. Rural School Libraries. Yearbook of the Department of Rural Education, 1936. 112 p. 50¢. Schools in Small Communities. Seventeenth Yearbook, American Asso- ciation of School Administrators, 1939. 608 p. $2. All orders for publications should be accompanied by funds in payment for same and must be so accompanied when orders for material amount to $1 or less. Orders not accompanied by funds in payment are subject to transportation charges. Discounts on quantity orders of the same publication: 2-9 copies, 10 percent; 10-99 copies, 25 per- cent; 100 or more copies, 33 1/3 percent. Make checks or money orders payable to the National Education Association of the United States, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. [ 182 ] Det 11 1940 URAL PEOPLE are organizing their efforts toward the re- construction of their institutions. They will advance the cause of rural education if they will concentrate their efforts on (1) the development of larger administrative and attendance units, (2) securing more adequate financing for the rural schools thru state and federal aid, (3) employing better educated and better paid teachers, and (4) securing improved library and recreational services. As these ob- jectives are achieved, rural life will have a sound educational basis on which to build for the future.—Educational Poli- cies Commission, Educational Policies for Rural America, 1939, p. 18.