PBRI®DICAL ROCK ) 'QAN GENERAL LIBRARY UNIV. GF NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION RESEARCH BULLETIN VOL. XVIII - No. 2 MARCH -— 1940 The Status of the Teaching Profession Published by the RESEARCH DIVISION of the NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of the UNITED STATES 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. RESEARCH BULLETIN o¢ 14 Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November President, AMY H. HINRICHS NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Executive Secretary, WILLARD E. GIVENS Director of Research: William G. Carr; Associate Director: Frank \W. Hubbard Assistant Directors: Richard R. Foster, lvan A. Booker, Hazel Davis Research Assistants and Section Heads: Frances G. Bradley, Louise B. Sease, Helen H. Cox, Anna Haddow, Madaline K. Remmlein, Mildred Wharton, and Lillian S. Feldman Executive and Editorial Offices 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. Copyright, 1940, by the National Education Association of the United States Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. Subscriptions The payment of the $5 membership fee of the National Education Association entitles one to receive for one year the Research Bulletin, the Journal, the An- nual Volume of Addresses and Proceed- ings, and certain other publications of the Association. One dollar of each $5 mem- bership fee is for a year’s subscription to the Research Bulletin. The Research Bulletin may be received regularly thru a special subscription at $1 per year. Many of the early issues of the Research Bulletin are already out of print. The special subscription at $1 per year offers an opportunity to maintain a complete file of future Research Bulletins. Those entitled to receive the Research Bulletin regularly are asked to report at once any change of residence, giving old as well as new address. Purchasing Copies Additional copies of this issue of the Research Bulletin may be obtained at the following prices, postpaid if remittance accompanies order: Single copies, 25¢. 2 to 9 copies—10% reduction. 10 to 99 copies—25% reduction. 100 or more copies—33'%4% reduction. Orders for Research Bulletins not ac- companied by remittance are subject to transportation charges. Make checks pay- able to National Education Association. Reproduction of Material in Research Bulletins Material appearing in the Research Bulletin is copyrighted. However, de- partments and regularly affiliated organi- zations of the National Education Asso- ciation may reproduce parts of these bul- letins for the advancement of education. These departments and organizations need no authority other than this notice previous to such reproduction. In other cases appli- cation for the release of materials is re- quired. Address communications to the Research Division, National Education As- sociation, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W.., Washington, D. C. S CONTENTS FoREWORD INTRODUCTION I, II. III. GENERAL COMPOSITION OF THE TEACHING POPULATION EDUCATIONAL PREPARATION AND CERTIFICATION PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE AND MOBILITY SALARIES AND ECONOMIC CONDITION PROFESSIONAL LOAD PROVISIONS FOR TENURE PROVISIONS FOR RETIREMENT PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS OF TEACHERS MENTAL AND PuysicaLt HEALTH ACADEMIC FREEDOM TRENDS AFFECTING THE FUTURE STATUS OF TEACHERS SoURCES OF INFORMATION FOR SECTIONS [51] 67 6Y FOREWORD HE POSSIBILITIES of professional organizations as potent factors in modern life have not yet been fully sensed. As individuals, teachers have often been timid. As professional groups they frequently have failed to express them- selves frankly and vigorously. Sometimes it has been because they have been divided within their own group. Again they have feared the attitude of the public or they have dreaded the reprisals from influential politicians. But the time has now come when, if teachers are to live up to the possibilities of their profession, they must act more courageously and more aggressively as members of their professional organizations. Teachers are potentially the strongest professional group in America. As a profession we have not yet begun to achieve the possibilities within our reach. In our ranks we have allowed ourselves to be divided over insignificant and petty details, frequently to the advantage of our enemies. Our professional organizations have not wielded the social power which they have at their dis- posal. Education is not today receiving the attention and financial support which it merits, and the responsibility is largely our own. In this connection we may well remember Cassius’ classic reply to Brutus, “The fault, dea: Brutus, is not in our stars, but in ourselves, that we are underlings.” Working alone few of us can exert much influence upon professional prog- ress; thru organized effort more can be accomplished. We need to participate actively in community affairs. Some of us do not even vote regularly in local elections, thereby failing to express our choices on matters of professional importance. When we are indifferent to the civic aspects of educational issues, have we reason to expect other citizens to be more active? Francis Bacon wrote, “T hold every man a debtor to his profession.” If we are a part of the profession of teaching we should be willing to give some of our time and money to its improvement. The present RESEARCH BULLETIN outlines the current professional status of teaching. There is a great deal in the picture to make us proud; there is much to be done if we are adequately to serve democracy thru its youth. Wiiarp E. Givens, Executive Secretary National Education Association [52] Introduction In classrooms the forces which will govern nation in the future are takinz shape in the nds of the boys and girls now subject to the fluence of teachers. Educational policies are ely to be mere words on paper and well inned programs will fail to achieve thei: irpose unless trained and competent are situated at the points of closest contact persons with those who go to school. Thus, the status of classroom teachers is of vital importance to every citizen in the United States. In 1870 approximately one person in 192 was a classroom teacher in the public elemen tary or secondary schools. Today there is one teacher for every 148 persons in the total popu lation. The average daily attendance in publi schools has risen at a rate which is three times the percent increase in the number of children five to seventeen years of age, inclusive. With this increase in pupils has come an unprece dented demand for classroom teachers. From 200,000 in 1870 the teachers (not counting supervisors) has increased almost 340 percent to approximately 877,000. Of this number, number of classroom administrators and seven-tenths are teaching in kindergartens and elementary schools and three-tenths are in jun ior and senior high schools. A little more than one-half of all teachers are working in schools in the open country or in towns under 2500 in population. This bulletin is an attempt to gather objec tive facts pertaining to the present status of classroom teachers. It is for the information of teachers themselves, administrators and leaders of educational thought, civic and professional organizations concerned with teacher welfare, and the taxpaying public. While personal quali fications and social adjustments should have an important place in any cross-section study of the teachers of the United States, objective data on these matters are not generally avail able. The bulletin includes information on following phases of the status of classroom the teachers: general composition of the teaching population ; educational preparation and certi fication ; professional experience and mobility salaries and economic condition; professional load: provy sions for tenure: ional provisions TX tirement ; protess associations of teach hysical health; and academic free mental and p dom. The findings ot existing protfessiona } studies, the regular reports and special bull tins of the | ed States Office of Educat and the periodic and special surveys of National I duc ition Association are the ources of information. In all instances the most recent available data are reported. Reference status is made only when it is felt tl present situation is thus clarified. The data presented are, for the most | general and national in scope. All facts relate to classroom teachers in public elementary and No doubt profession engaged in college secondary schools. a similar study of the teaching and university instruction is also desirable. Such a report i future possibility. Statistics are reported thru pictorial graphs. Altho the majority of teachers are women, the male figure has been used in most of the charts This is in accordance with the accepted policy of using the masculine gender when data do not specify a sex differentiation. No effort has been made to document each statement but the reader who is interested in details is referred to the specific citations at the end ot the bullet n Special acknowledgment is made to the fed eral Office of Education for providing recent information on various phases of public educa tion. The final section Suggests certain current trends, both within and outside the teaching profession, which have a bearing on the future status of classroom teachers. Existing social and economic forces in the country have largely determined the teachers’ present position. Che attitudes and actions of teachers themselves contribution to the existing have made further situation. These same influences will continue to operate. If the educational needs of children met adequately, if teachers are to l; are to be occupy the place in society which their re sponsibilities warrant, the trends examined in this last section of the bulletin should be con- by the sidered carefully both by educators and lay public. Or6/ ‘9 A410nsgey “wosujoINpZ sO 821440 A ueby Ayssinzesg josepey “OSO/G 1 PIACT AF peydIns ‘'95-Z£6/ S$einbiy ABAINS JOOYDS AsO PUOIOS PUD BE-LLEG/ ‘SWOISAS JOOYIS BIDS 104 SINSI{O{S POYSIIGJNIUN WO4} pajidwog :@24N0S SYFHIVIL OOO'OE SINISIUAFY TOGWAS HIVI @ STOOHOS HOIH IWNOILVOOA ONV ¥V1NS34U NI STOOHOS HOIH Q3ZINV9YNO3Y NI STOOHOS AYVLNSW3713 ONV N3SLYVOUNSONIX NI SIOOHOS TIV Ni WLOL STOOHOS OI18Nd NI SYSHOVSL WOOYSSV19 I qanodla [ 54] supplied ondary schoo/ survey figures /937- 382 1937-38 and sec February 6, /940 , , state school systems Office of Education npublished statistics for Federal Security Agency, , vource: Compiled from u by David T Bilose I. General Composition of In 1870, 39 percent of the public elemen- rarv- and secondary-school teachers were men ind 61 percent were women. Today, 79 per- cent are women. For the various types of schools the proportion of women teachers is ipproximately as follows: in the kindergartens ind elementary schools, 88 percent; in the re- organized high schools, 62 percent (junior high schools alone have almost 70 percent women) ; and in the regular and vocational high schools, 56 percent. The greater number of men teachers on the secondary level does not markedly affect the general proportion for all schools because kindergarten and elementary-school teachers constitute seven-tenths of the public school teaching population. Among rural teachers, where 83 percent teach in elementary schools and 17 percent in secondary schools, the propor tion of women is less than in the urban schools. This is explained, in part, by the fact that vocational-agriculture classes, characteristic gf rural high schools, are usually taught by men. National data on the marital status of class- room teachers have not been compiled since 1930-31. Since that date factors have been at work to increase the proportion of married women in teaching. It may be assumed, how- ever, that the same general conditions exist now as did in 1930; that is, between three and four out of every twenty elementary-school teachers are married women and about fourteen are single women, two out of every twenty junior high-school teachers are married women and twelve are single women, and between one and two out of every twenty women senior high- school teachers are married as compared with eleven who are single. Out of twenty teachers on each level only one _ elementary-school teacher, three junior high-school teachers, and four senior high-school teachers are married men. Single women hold the majority of teach- ing positions on all public school levels. The most recent available figures on the age of teachers also are those for 1930-31. At that time the median age for elementary teachers was twenty-seven years—twenty-five years for rural teachers and thirty years fo1 urban teachers. For junior high-school teachers the median age was thirty years; for senior high-school teachers, twenty-nine years. A re- cent national survey of teacher experience shows a four-year increase in the median number of the Teaching Population years’ experience of urban elementary teachers in 1938-39 over that in 1930-31. Assuming that a rise in experience level would affect the median age level, it may be estimated that the median age of urban elementary teachers today is somewhere near thirty-four years. Probably the median ages for urban junior high-school and senior high-school teachers have also in- creased at least four years during the past decade. Economic conditions have influenced teachers to remain longer in their positions. Also, sional profes ot probably standards of preservice highe1 preparation and greater security tenure in certain localities have tended to raise the general median age level. Besides sex, marital status, and age, social background is a significant factor in the com position of the teaching population. All the studies which have been made of the back ground of students in teachers colleges show that classroom teachers today are, for the most part, natives of the United States, born of native-born parents, reared in families of farmers, skilled workmen, or owners of small businesses where the median annual incomes are between $2000 and $2500. Most of the pre- college life of the typical American teacher was spent in an area within a 200-mile radius of his home, and his opportunities for cultural contacts were not so great as those afforded in the homes of professional men and women. The intellectual status of the parents of most class- room teachers, however, is above the average for the whole population. From the foregoing data it is apparent that on the average the typical public school teacher is a relatively young, unmarried woman and is recruited from a social background character- istic of a middle economic level of American life. There is some evidence to indicate that more men are entering the field of classroom teaching. In sections II, III, VI, and VII of this bulletin influences tending to raise the age level and contribute to the maturity of the teaching population may be discerned. The trend is to ward rather than away from women teachers marrying and remaining in the profession. In teachers colleges increased efforts are being made to enrich the social and cultural grounds of student teachers. Thus, it is possible that the general composition of the teaching back- population will change in the next decade. [55] 7 ‘8 8/901 ‘6E6I ‘SF/LININNOD TWENEY Ni SYFHIVIL PYO 6S‘ 8/901 ‘OKE/ A40NUOL Sr 8/ NILITING HOAVIS TH . ‘e@2ualsadxZ puod ‘salrsOjog ‘vosjosOdasg 4OY{ /$40YI00{ A419, ‘UOl{DII0SSy UVOIJOINPFZ /OVUOI{jON 4@24NOS ie y jeone PUONIEN] ‘UOISIAIG] YUP2S2y o ‘“SYFHIVIL WOOYSSVTI NYGYN YO TWHNY FLIHM FHL IO hb SLNISIHATIY TOGWAS HIVI®@ JYOW YO SUVIAA ¥ SYVSA » NVHL SS31 AAAAAANA “ners SUYV3A 2 NVHL SS31 [ 56] SYSHOVSL WOOYSSVTD JO NOILVYVdSsYdd 3937109 II Handa 4b, j/- ME VOCAITOCM OULLE SIV (6? wren row, Be ” Te er ee wre were and TEACHERS IN RURAL COMMUN/T/ES, /939, rrw Ve mee Vie &AMSTICMLC SE, Table 8, p./7 Table 4, p.9; January /940, fan fe aie II. Educational Preparation and Certification Prior to the turn of the century, a typical elementary-school teacher had less than the equivalent of a high-school education. At the time of the World War, approximately half of the 600,000 teachers in the country had no more than four years’ education beyond the eighth grade. Such conditions were deplored by professional and lay groups alike. By 1922, three-fourths of the teachers in the several states had at least the equivalent of fou vears’ high-school education, but less than one- half had a minimum of two years of college work. Following that date, certification re quirements for beginning teachers slowly but steadily rose. ‘Two-year normal schools gave way to four-year teachers colleges. Programs in both types of institutions showed striking developments in subjectmatter and growth both in quality and in quantity of professional edu cation courses. Extensive in-service education became an accepted part of a teacher’s profes sional services. Summer session attendance in creased and many teachers entered upon gradu ate study. Today, on the average, a classroom teacher in the American public schools has had more than three years of educational work beyond high-school graduation. The median number of years of college training of teachers in cities of 2500 population or over is +.2 years; only 4 percent have had less than two years’ prepara- tion and 16 percent have had five years or more. Of the teachers in rural schools, about 62 percent have completed less than four years of college work and 16 percent have had less than two years beyond high-school graduation. In city school systems, the median number of years of preparation beyond high-school graduation for kindergarten teachers is 3.1 years ; for elementary-school teachers, 3.4 years ; for junior high-school teachers, 4.5 years; and for senior high-school teachers, 4.8 years. ‘The proportion of senior high-school teachers with five or more years of training is 37 percent, eight times that of elementary-school teachers, and a little less than twice that of junior high- school teachers. In the elementary schools about one teacher in three can claim college gradua- tion or its equivalent, but in senior high schools the proportion is nine out of ten. Approximately 60 percent of the teachers in city school systems have completed four or more [ 5 / years of college education. The highest median levels of preparation are found among teacl ers in the Far West and Southwest. Despite the financial handicaps of many districts in the Southeast the median amount of training of city teachers is above the general average for the country as a whole. Among the factors determining the level of ] educational preparation of classroom teachers in the various sections of the United States are the requirements for certification set by states or by other certificating authoritie elementary teachers the minimum requirements range trom an indefinite specification of exami second iry nations covering elementary- or school subjects, found in six states, to four years of college work, required by five states and the District of Columbia. The minimum of junior high-school preparation expected teachers in half the states is four vears of col lege preparation; in the remainder of the states, either two or three years are required, lhree states still will certify high-school teachers with only two years of college work: three other states and the District of Columbia require five years. The typical requirements today are two vears of college work for elementary teachers and four years for secondary teachers vste There is a decided tendency in school ms with high standards and economic advantage to employ teachers whose preparation exceeds the minimum needed for certification within the state. For instance, in states having a two tor elementary teachers, some cities often specify year education requirement certificating a minimum of three or four years of prepara- tion for the employment of such teachers. This practice in cities has tended to raise the average educational level of classroom teachers as re- ported in national surveys. The number of years that teachers have studied to prepare themselves for their profes- sional duties is no accurate measure of the qual- ity, the appropriateness, or the breadth of that schooling. Therefore, educational leaders are making increased efforts to evaluate and im- prove the typical programs of teacher education now being offered. Yet, despite rising standards, rural areas have not been able to keep pace with cities in demanding better professional equip- ment of their teachers. | ve irk inc ber u na vo \ Xf ext 1a it} the Su ieén kir pel abc 9/ 2 ‘G 8/92L CEE ‘SFILINIWWOD WEN NI SYFHIVIL PYO 21°F “6 819PL ‘OVE! 9-1 (BI MLITING HOAVISTA ,(PIUAUAIXT PUD ‘SAslsDIOG ‘UOJJO1ODOlY HOY *S4OYIOOL AWD, ‘WONMOIDOSSy VOoIZOINPZ joUuol{ON uo WIDOSS\Y YOHPINPY jPUOneny ‘UOISIAIG] YrsPasay fo] ‘ANOYD HIVI JO FINFIYIAXFI JO TIAIT NVIGIW FHL LV OFIIV Id NIFTG FJAVH STIOGWAS FHL® news & » * g@ OO 2 uojjojndod OOO'OO/ 4eA0 Ais2 e oe uoijojndod , of ‘Oc Aii2 "Suh GI. 40} 000 wad a oe) uoyojndod 0000 9% 000 ‘OI 4412 SYA 9h ‘ wossojndod 000 ‘OI % O00'S 4419 vosjojndod 000'S % O0G'Z 4119 uosjojndod oOg'Z 4epun eboisjsA JOOYIS /D4INJ 10YIDB{-810W-10-OM4 JOOYIS (O4Ns 48042004 -8U0 (} us uy uw u ui us us us 4043084 s0y208, 4042081 s0y200/ 4042001 4042084 40y2084 404Y2 08, Asonuor f@2I1INOS -H - 9 Jd =z -@ -2 -@ - SYSHOVSL WOOYSSVTD JO SON3IY3SdxX3S WNOISS3SSOUd III Zana [58] /- 48, 48 , Salaries, and Experience,” RESEARCH BULLETIN » Oily Teachers: Their Preparation and TEACHERS /N RURAL COMMUN/TIES, MNOMOCnat LGUCGrion ASsociarion wveredc. /6 1/939, Table §, p mm #. oF: Table /940, January III. Professional Experience and Mobility In 1920, half of the classroom teachers in the (‘nited States had less than four years of teach experience. Altho a study of teachers in ties of 8000 population and over showed a edian of 9.5 ichers was estimated at below two years. On years, the average for rural the average an urban teacher today has had out seven more years’ experience in the teach \g profession than a rural teacher. The general verage for all classroom teachers, however, is pproximately ten years. The length of school service varies directly with the size of the community in which teach ers are employed. In open-country, one-teache: schools, the median experience level is approxi mately five years; in two-or-more-teache schools in the open country, seven years; in villages of less than 2500 population, also ibout seven years. On the other hand, the me- dian experience of teachers in service in city school systems ranges from 9.3 years in cities 2500 to 5000 population to 16.0 years in citiés over 100,000 population, with a median for all urban teachers of 14.0 years. Experience data for rural teachers by sex and marital status show that the median num- ber of years’ school service for single men is tour years; for single women, five years; for married men, nine years; and for married women, ten years. Despite a tendency among certain city school systems to provide intern or cadet teaching experience for beginning teachers, the initial experience of the majority of classroom teachers has been gained in rural schools because many cities have long refused to employ them unless they have taught at least one or two years. Such an employment policy, especially preva- lent in the larger cities, tends to keep the ex- perience level of urban teachers consistently above that of rural teachers. The median number of years’ experience for kindergarten teachers in all cities of 2500 popu- lation and over is 13.2 years; for elementary teachers, 14.4 years; for junior high-school teachers, 13.3 years; and for senior high-school teachers, 13.6 years. Kindergarten teachers in the smallest cities (2500 to 5000 population) have been in the profession the least number of vears and senior high-school teachers in the largest cities (over 100,000 population) have and had the longest teaching careers. On the aver- more ex and senior high the difterences in age, elementary teachers in cities are perienced than junior high teachers school because of length of educational preparation and the fact that many more new high-school teachers have been employed in recent years to care for The dif ference between the medians for kindergarten creases in high-school enrolments. teachers and for elementary teachers is probably due in part to the relatively recent employment of kindergarten teachers in many public schools Increases in the experience level of classroom teachers during the past two decades give evi dence of a growing stability in the teaching profession, but the mobility of teachers is still great. More than half of all teachers holding positions today have been employed in two ot more school systems during their careers, and about one-tenth have had experience in five o1 more systems. The mobility ratio of elementary teachers in the United States has been reported as one to five; that is, one teacher in every five changes his position annually. In open-country, one- and two-teacher schools, two of every five rural teachers are new each year in the positions they hold. In sharp contrast is a mobility ratio of one to twenty for elementary teachers in cities above 100,000 in population. Nearly half of the annual vacancies in all school systems are caused by the departure of teachers to accept other teaching positions or to enter another occupation. Other major causes of vacancies are marriage, death or disabling illness, retirement, departure to continue edu- cation or to take advantage of a leave of ab- sence, and the creation of new positions. Three fifths of the vacancies in one- and two-teacher rural schools occur when teachers find other jobs, while only one-fourth of the open posi- tions in cities must be filled for that reason. Teaching has not yet become a life-career service, but the tendency is definitely in that direction. The progress made by larger cities is indicative of the stabilizing influence of better salaries and tenure. Rural schools today are taught by more experienced teachers than they were twenty years ago, but.transiency is still more of a rule than an exception, particularly in areas where standards are iow and salaries are poor. [ 59] 60 -B8EO6/ ‘S4EYI0084 VOGsIN {JO SAIsSOIOS be oF ‘2% 8/991 ‘6E6/ ‘SFIILINIWWOD TVSNY N/ SHFHIOVIL “YOHOLIOSSy VOoIs;OINPT jOVUOal{ON :@21NOS OOl$ SLNISTHIJIY TOGWAS HIVI® SRPorrer & & fo) PEPER ERPEREEEREE *) - & ff & f+ iol ” fe) Je) ge) Je) qe qe q+ qe Qe qe qe qe qe qe qe) Qe qe PRERRERBEERFRBRERBEREEEE ° he) I) f+) Qe) Qe Ge) Ge Je Ge f) PRERERERPERBRERRBEEE 2 ‘PERERBEEEEEEREE 3 FEREEREEEEEE « o ff +) hie) Qe) Qe uoijojndod OOO'OO/ 4eA0 Aiso2 40Y 2081 | WE, uoijojndod OOO'OO! 94 OOO‘OE A4I2 Ul seyr0e1 FERPERERERE & 9 vouojndod OOO'OE % OOOO! Ai/2 ul seyr0e, ' voljojndod O00 'O/ 94 OOO'S A412 ui seyooe, PERE EEREE g uoyojndod 0000'S O14 OOS Ai/2 wl sey20e, uoljojndod 0OG'Z 4#epun ebosjjA Ul sey 20e4 JOOYIS (O4NS 10YID0{ -840W~J0-OM{ Us JOY I0eL SFE REEE Vv /OOYIS /O4Ns J0Y200{-8U0 us s0Y 200, # SYSHOVSL WOOUSSVTD JO S3AIYVIVS WANNV AI Fanodla on , TEACHERS /N RURAL COMMUNITIES, /939, Table 42, p. 44; and unpublished figures National Education Association Source: 39 4/938 of urban teachers, salaries IV. Salaries and Economic Condition [In 1913 the average yearly salary of class oom teachers was little more than $500. ‘This smount was about half the average yearly earn vs of all gainfully occupied persons—cleat testimony as to the inferior economic position then held by members of the teaching profes sion. Following the World War, teachers’ sal n aries improved considerably until, in 1930, a werage of about $1400 was reached. The de pression brought the national average down by ipproximately $200. Rural teachers, especial] suffered severe salary cuts. Today again the trend is upward, the average salary of all class room teachers being close to $1360 a year. On the average, urban teachers are receiving $1900 annually; rural teachers, $830. Figures by size of community show a diffe: ence of more than $1000 between the mean salaries of teachers in cities 2500 to 5000 popu- lation and of teachers in cities over 100,000 population. In the smallest cities, the average annual salary is about $1300 a year; in the largest cities, about $2450. In villages with less than 2500 inhabitants, teachers are receiv- ing approximately $1000 annually; in the open country, teachers in two-or-more-teacher schools average $880 a year and teachers in one teacher schools, about $670. In other words, there is a disparity of almost $1800 between the smallest and the largest school systems in the average salaries of teachers. Despite the growth in the use of the single- salary schedule, secondary-school teachers con tinue, on the average, to receive higher salaries than elementary-school teachers. In cities the average salary of junior high-school teachers is 13 percent more than that of elementary- school teachers ; senior high-school salaries aver- age 22 percent more than those at the elemen- tary-school level. Altho summer work, investments, and cer tain nonschool sources provide some of the in come of classroom teachers, their economic con- dition is almost entirely dependent upon the adequacy of their salaries. About 94 percent of the income received by urban teachers and 80 percent of the income of rural teachers is de- rived from this source alone. After 35 or 40 vears of teaching service, single women teachers in cities may expect to have accumulated about $10,000 on the average; married men, as much as $17,000. In rural areas, the average net of the men teachers who have assets about 40 years do not exceed S6000 ans of women teachers are not more than These amounts are not sufficient to retirement incomes equal to the average cu expenditures of men and women accu to a teacher’s standard of living. Teachers in cities are reported to be d as follow uting theit omes somewhat percent to savings or payment of old 7 percent to donations to institutions o1 rcent to living expenses at 71 pe charities, port of dependents, and 6 percent to bk professional activities, other educati: The is rooming and boarding ha $830. Seventy-for ments won and recreation ) rural, single teacher who average total income of percent is used for living expenses and support of dependents, 6 percent fo! betterments percent for donations, and 14 percent for sa ing or for payment of old debt. In rural area teacher who rents a home the married man has an average total income of $1400, of whic! 84 percent is used for living expenses and suy port of dependents, 5 percent for betterments 3 percent for donations, and 8 percent for ing Ol the payment of debts. Public school teaching has been ranked elk enth in a group of sixteen occupations according to estimated average earnings during a working lifetime. ‘Those ranked above public schoo teaching are medicine, law, dentistry, enginee: ing, architecture, college teaching, social wor] journalism, ministry, and library work. Or this same basis the skilled trades, nursing, u skilled labor, low public school s lary of the lowest professional grade in the classified service of the federal government $2000. ‘This is about $100 higher than average salary of all city than $1150 above that for rural teacher Classroom teaching must compete for recruits with other branches of the public ser\ farming, and farm labor fall be teaching. The minimu he teachers and more ice and with other professions. As long as low salaries continue in many American con munities, teachers will be forced to remain or an economic level inferior to that of other pro fessional workers. Thus, it is likely that too few of the outstanding young men and women who are today choosing their vocations will be attracted to teaching as a career. [61] ‘8 9/90L ‘ESE/ 4equeAoy ‘ZE2Z $21 NILITING HOBVISIA , ‘POT 40YI0OL 10 SYOO] 40YI00{ BY{, ‘WOs{oOIJOSSY VOHOINPZ JOUO/joN WO44 pajdopy ;e241n0g YONPIIOSS\Y UOHPINDF jevoNeAY ‘UOISIAIG] YOuPasay o *“SYFHIVIL WOOYSSVTI FHL 40 ~& SLINISTIUAIY TOGWAS HIVI @ Hl ajil E | [4 00HOs HOIH YOINNE JOIGIWES EIS 2a s + ide ekdeh atch SW3YULX3 GNV AAV3H | SISGVNOSV3Y GNV LHOIT SOVO1 IWNOISSSSO¥d YISHL 3SLVY SYSHOVSL WOOYSSV19 A qanold &wWL, ‘ff lt de ed ee fable &, MOVEMOEGr IFIF, V. Professional Load In the past two decades, altho elementary- school classes have decreased slightly in size, ‘unior high-school and senior high-school classes have become larger, especially in the metropolitan areas. Increased clerical work as school routines have been standardized, greater emphasis on individual pupil guidance, more stress on teachers’ cooperation with homes and community social agencies, growing demands for in-service professional study and for teacher participation in professional education asso- ciations—all have contributed to an increase in the professional load of classroom teachers. A recent study in cities over 2500 population reported average class sizes of 30 pupils in kindergartens ; 34 pupils in elementary grades; 33 pupils in junior high schools; and 30 pupils in senior high schools. In urban secondary schools, physical education classes enrol an average of over 40 pupils. Junior high-school classes in mathematics, English, social studies, science, commercial work, music, and art all average more than 30 pupils; in senior high schools, classes in English, social studies, com- mercial work, and music are the only ones, in addition to physical education, which average as many as 30 pupils. Manual training, indus- trial work, and household art classes are usu- ally smaller than the average. All classes tend to be larger in the large cities than in the smaller communities. In addition to nearly thirty hours a week spent in actual classroom teaching, secondary- school teachers give an average of ten hours a week to out-of-class activities pertaining to their jobs. These activities include keeping records, making reports, grading papers, ful- filling extracurriculum assignments, voluntary service to pupil-interest groups, interviews with pupils, professional meetings, committee serv- ice, and conferences with parents. On the aver- age, elementary-school teachers are assigned slightly more than thirty hours per week of actual teaching; out-of-class activities average nine hours per week. Teaching load, as measured by the pupil- teacher ratio, class size, length of the school term, and number of hours required for in- struction and for out-of-class activities, does not indicate the total professional load. The length of class periods, the number of those periods for which the preparation is different from that of any other period, the nature of the subject taught, and the degree of respon sibility for out-of-class activities, irrespective of amount of time required, are factors which add to or take from the load of individual teachers. It has been reported in various studies that there are heavier pupil activity loads per teache in the smaller schools; a greater delegation of guidance and supervisory activities to special ized persons other than teachers in the large schools; fewer different class preparations pet teacher in large schools; and greater probability that beginning teachers carry heavier loads than experienced teachers. Such generalizations are tentative, however, since there is no measure of total professional load adequate enough to wat rant final conclusions. In many situations, the intangible aspects of teaching are the critical factors in determining actual teacher load. In a recent national su1 vey of teacher opinion, the greatest pressure on elementary- and secondary-school teachers alike was reported as coming from class interruptions for administrative matters or for special events. Also, each broadening of the objectives of edu cation implies additional services for pupils and adds to the total responsibility of the teacher. In addition to the well-known pressures of daily paper-grading and clerical work, of ove: size classes and excessive total pupil load, and of crowded classrooms, teachers continually find the adaptation of class programs to indi vidual pupil differences an unusually heavy re sponsibility. The standards to meet a “no-failure” ideal without adjustment of promotion neglecting “minimum essentials” expected by the school or without endangering the future school adjustment and progress of pupils fur ther weighs upon teachers who are not relieved of pressures in other directions. Approximately 40 percent of the elementary teachers and 47 percent of the high-school teachers consider their total loads as unduly heavy or extreme. These proportions represent subjective judgments, but the attitudes of teachers toward their teaching loads exert an important influence both on their morale and on their efficiency. If these: burdens are exces- sive, the teacher’s own development is being retarded and the quality of his work in school and in the community is likely to be lowered. [ 63] ae » — lU-Ftlc(<(i re — ae le a. — #«3C —_ ee _— ea een -— oo =| - . - . = often : q = 2 of ~~ —- ¢ > @ A anaes c= Ls D 4 : A ¢ Be ZL£6i SIPYUIOSPs WOoOsSSODiIP2 fO 4OqGuUNU UO ‘uonoonpz #/O 9F2Af{fO Sf) #4 /O ojop peysijgndun wos puod «Su S/AOIG B1NUB{ (0I0/ PUD Bf{O4{S VO “UOISIAIG YIIDOESAY Y'I'N 8Y4 {9 OOP peysijgndun wos pejiduog /a241NOS ‘SYFHIVIL WOOYSSVTII FHL JO %b& SLNISIYAIIY TOGWAS HIVI @ A ) ) Seeger } } } } ' ‘ Sa aasies SS NVId NOILIOSN3 TWANNY =3YNN3L YO4 NOISIAOUd ’ JAILW1S1931 ON SYSHOVSL WOOYSSV1D YO4 NOILOSLOYd SYNNSAL IA AaNnodIA S=SSSSSSSSSERBYUNN SL INSNVWUSd [ 64] and from unpublished , » On state and local tenure provisions: 1937-38 rs, fee MLA. MeSeCAr Ch Uivision , on number of classroom fteache ‘rwrnwrrerrewasT waa Oe data of the U.S. Office of Education oo In 1924, 37 states had no tenure legislation ; || provided some kind of protection to teachers. Only three of these offered unqualified state wide protection, two extended protection to reachers in all school districts except the largest netropolitan areas which had local tenure reg lations, and the remaining six states defined specific districts in which teacher tenure was to be assured. Several of the laws attempted to define a basis for dismissal, naming certain causes which constituted valid reasons for dis continuing a teacher in his position. Not all laws provided for a reasonable notice of inten tion to dismiss or hearing for the teacher before dismissal. Today 19 states and Alaska have no state tenure laws; 29 and Hawaii have either tenure laws or provision for long-term contracts. Six and Hawaii provide permanent tenure after a probationary period ; ten grant permanent ten- ure in certain districts; seven provide for con- tinuing contracts; five permit the signing of contracts for more than one-year periods, at least in certain districts; one allows local citi zens to vote permanent tenure in each district. Permanent tenure on a statewide basis is mandatory in Hawaii, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. After probationary periods of from one to five years, teachers in these states are as- sured continuous employment during efficient service and appropriate behavior. Alabama, Delaware, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, South Carolina, and West Virginia provide by law for “continuing contracts” on a statewide basis, that is, for plans whereby teachers may hold their positions without the necessity of annual applications and elections. Under these plans the employing board must give notice by a specified date, usually early in the spring, if it does not wish to continue the contract. A similar obligation rests upon the teacher. Contracts are permitted for more than one year in Maine and Ohio. This plan definitely sets limits on the maximum term of employ- ment under one contract, whereas continuing contracts fix no maximum limit. Arizona, Iowa, Kentucky, Missouri, Okla- homa, and Washington have legally adopted the annual election plan on a statewide basis. VI. Provisions for Tenure [ 65 ] Teachers are protected against arbitrary dis missal only within the limits of the provisions in their annual contracts. In about one-fourth of the states tenure pro tection varies with the different classes school districts within each state. Indiana and Minnesota legalize permanent tenure in some districts and continuing contracts in othe areas ; California makes permanent tenure com pulsory in some districts and optional in othe: in Illinois, permanent tenure is mandatory in certain districts while contracts are permitted for more than one year in other districts ; Colo rado, Florida, Georgia, Kansas, New Yorl and Oregon provide for permanent tenur« some districts and make no provisions or ut ize the annual election plan in others; M sippi, North Dakota, and Texas provide fo either annual election or permission to extend contracts for more than one year in certain di tricts; Michigan’s permissive law provides fo: tenure after two years of probationary service in those districts where local voters accept the act. Of the 316 cities in the United States having over 30,000 population, 158 are included under state laws governing the tenure of teachers: nearly all the others operate under an annual election plan without tenure provisions. There are also some districts under 30,000 in popu lation where teachers have tenure. Most local tenure provisions are simple resolutions of the schoolboard to the effect that after a specified probationary period teachers will be considered permanent employees and may be dismissed only for cause. It is common practice in state tenure laws today to allow teachers to be dismissed only after a hearing, for causes such as incompetence, immorality, or neglect of duty. Tenure regula tion seeks to keep the schools free from politic al personal, or commercial domination ; to protect competent teachers from unjust discharge and to permit them to devote themselves whole heartedly to their profession; to discourage school management based on fear and to en 1 courage leadership based on confidence an understanding; to provide a reasonable pe sonal and academic freedom for teachers; and to encourage efficient, public-spirited teachers to stay in the profession. SE Zf£6/ S4OUYIOA{ WOoOsS EO? 4a 4agung va “‘wornmo2npz fo @214/0 Sf? ous 4O ojop POeYSIIGNIIGUN UWOs4 PUD FSUOISIAOIA {UBWAII{OAs {OIO{ PUO B4/OIS UO ‘sajdiguisd aQuoinsul uo pesog “9 ySi/ a2uDINSUI Of paj{DjasuN —AJOjJOS UO pesog ‘DB “SYFHIVIL WOOYSSVTI FHL JO 4b SLNISIVAIN TOGWAS HIVI ®@ TUTTI ry LL MM Sscesnsass LL or: SYSHOVSL WOOUSSVTD 40 ALIWNOAS LNAWSYILSY GALVdIOILNV IIA Zana q@ALIANNY WIYVNLOV NO LINSW3¥ILSY = CWIYVNLOV-NON) S3SVE SNIAYVA NO LNIUW3YILSY UOISIAID YIIDOSOEY WIN 844i {0 OJ OP peysijgndun wos pajidwog :a214NeS [ 66] * and from unpublished ocal retirement provisions: on state and / , EA. Research Division on number of classroom leachers vource: Compiled from unpublished data of the N data of the U.S. Office of Education, 4937-38 VII. Provisions for Retirement \ teacher retirement system is a businesslike alan, enacted into state or local law, to im- rove schools by helping aged or disabled teach- - to retire from active service with a modest, it assured, income for life. Sound retirement principles were frequently disregarded in early laws. Since 1920, however, legislative activ ty has been directed toward improving exist retirement systems and to establishing each ew plan upon a sound fiscal basis. In the past ere were three types of plans for teachers: ension, mutual benefit, and joint-contributory retirement systems. In 1937 the last state mu- tual benefit plan was abandoned in favor of the better type of system wherein teachers have some state aid in maintaining the fund. Today, 33 states and Hawaii make statewide provision for the retirement of their teachers; 29 states ind Hawaii have joint-contributory plans and four states have pension systems. Under the pension type plan found in Ari- zona, New Mexico, Rhode Island, and West Virginia teachers contribute nothing. The state an amount after the teacher has required length of service or has reached the minimum age. The state board of education usually administers the system. The 29 joint-contributory state retirement laws have a wide variety of provisions, but the more common are: appropriates fulfilled the 1. A plan whereby the state makes regular pay- ments over a period of years creating a reserve sufficient to pay the benefits promised when due. Under this plan future costs are calculated and payments are made in advance to be held in reserve until the benefits are due. State pay- ments are usually made from tax sources. . Provisions for periodic actuarial valuations in order that the future c-st of the benefits promised may be calculated in advance. . Administration by a board composed of five to seven persons, some of whom are members of the system and are usually elected by the mem- bership of the system. On the average, board members serve three years. . Administrative expenses paid by state separately from state contributions to retirement fund. 5. Investments limited by law to the types of in- vestments and securities permitted to savings banks. . Membership compulsory for new teachers em- ployed after enactment or after a specified date and voluntary for teachers employed prior to enactment of law. 7. Portion of salary of each member deducted monthly from payroll and forwarded as a from local district or county to state board. Contributions are determined total tirement 1 based percentage of salary to be actuary or set by law refund of member’s contributions Provision fo ; death in case of withdrawal or before retire ment. retirement at age Provision for compulsory voluntary sixty-five after at least Teacher allowed choice of options on the met seventy, retirement at age sixty to thirty years of service of payment of benefits. 11. Provision both for service and/or age and f disability retirement allowances In 17 of the 33 states making statewide legal provision for retirement there are also some separate local retirement systems operating. In nine additional states, legislatures have pro vided for or permit the establishment of retir« ment systems in cities of a certain class or size There are also in operation nine local retire ment systems which were established by city charter or schoolboard resolution without state legislative action. At present there are at least 64 local retirement plans operating in 28 states. The provisions of the majority of these plans follow the same lines as the typical statewide systems. Alaska, North Carolina, Oklahoma, and South Carolina, so far as is known, make no state or local provision for old-age or dis ability retirement of their teachers. At present, practically one-fourth of teachers in the country can look forward to no retirement or disability security whatsoever. Fifty percent are protected by actuarially sound retirement plans; the remaining teachers are under various non-actuarial retirement systems the or pension plans. Protection by retirement law does not neces sarily insure adequate retirement allowance, however. A study made in 1935-36 showed that, of the teachers who were employed where re tirement laws operated at that time, 48 percent could expect $50 or less per month upon with- drawal from active service; 39 percent could receive between $51 and $100 per month; only 13 percent looked forward to a retirement in come of over $100 per month. Usuatly the states and communities which pay the lowest retirement benefits are also the ones paying salaries below the annual national average. It is unlikely that individual savings of teachers can supplement small retirement allowances to assure sufficient financial security. [ 67 ] seqwajdes 18k 8Z NOILVIDOSSY NOILVINGI IWNOILVN AHL 40 I¥NUNOr BEGI ~ SUOWeIIOSSy UOWeONPZ ul Gjyssoqway, aainos VaASVI1V & Y3AO ONV XSL Sib wy IWWMVH iy %VL%OS , wi! “4 yl %60" %SS Fees 6E6! ‘NOILVIOOSSV NOILVONGS TWNOLLVN JHL NI SUSHOVSL JO NOILYOdOUd IIIA AZANIA 181 September 1939 28 IATION EDUCATION ASSOC THE WATIONAL OF a - - > °o = 1939 Membership in Education Associations Source VIII. Professional Associations of Teachers The Educational Directory of 1913 listed i) national and sectional educational asso itions and 135 state educational groups; the 940 Directory lists 451 national and sectional sssociations and 119 state groups. Local profes sional associations number several thousand. Most professional associations for teachers iccept the point of view set forth by the Edu cational Policies Commission of the National Education Association : that, in order to achieve their purposes, professional organizations 11 the field of continuous study education should strive toward and research with respect to the process of education, the conditions under which the process is carried on, the re sults achieved, and the means of its improve ment; promotion of all movements which will give stability and progressive character to edu cational undertakings; provision which will in sure the continued professional growth of thos engaged in the service of education; and the maintenance of such relations with the public as will secure economic welfare, social security ind civil liberties for those who serve the public in carrying on education.” Trends in the membership of the National Education Association are indicative of the de velopment of teachers’ interest in professional solidarity. Before 1920 the membership was small. During the four years from 1919 to 1923 the 100,000 members; and from then to 1932 there was a Association added about steady annual increase. The depression caused a drop in membership but a peak of 201,682 was reached in 1939. In themselves these national membership figures are large, but the growth in the propor- tion of educators belonging both to this Asso ciation and to the various state education groups has been slow. In 1925, 19 percent of the pub- lic school teachers in the United States were members of the national body and 70 percent were affliated with their respective state groups. Today, 21 percent are in the National Edu cation Association and 86 percent are affiliated with their state associations. The proportion of teachers in the states who are members of the national group ranges from 5 percent in two states to 77 percent in Nevada, 87 percent in Hawaii, and 103 percent in Alaska. Twelve states have enrolled 100 percent of their teach- ers 1n their own state associations and | = have enrolled over 90 percent , Among tne in the field o ups with principal f teacher welfare is the Ameri } ¢ Federation of Teachers. It is a national eration of local associations which ire ae The union made up almost entirely of classroom tea than tendents may be approy three-fourths of the voting members. The ] with the American |] nated as ‘‘teachers’ unions.” altho supervisory officers other admitted upon eration is afhliated eration of Labor The professional Assoc issociation primarily a Progressi\ e Educ ation stimulating and sponsoring educational exp mentation in an effort to build a body of edu tional actices based on the philosophy ot There are no local 1 held Al i¢ ‘progressive’ education. } associations, but regional conferences annually. In addition to national organizations the above, which are working in the general educational field, there are numerous profes sional associations which concentrate their ef forts in special fields. The departments of the National number of groups not officially affiliated with Education Association, as well as a the Association, are examples of this type of specialized teacher organization. A recent survey of the membership of rural teachers in professional organizations showed that approximately 59 percent belong to local or county teachers’ groups, 87 percent belong to state associations, and 16 percent are afhili ated Among the teachers in the smallest open-country school with national associations. 53 percent hold memberships in local or count) groups, 75 percent belong to their state group have affiliation but only 9 percent with national association. Local and state organizations incr professional unity of teaching, but cert tional objectives demand strong national o1 ganization. At present, with the largest national association enrolling only a little more than one-fifth of the teachers in the United States, it is dificult to achieve unanimity of purpose and solidarity of action on problems such as the equalization of educational opportunity fo: children in all states or the improvement of professional standards. [69] Zio ‘TT wosboig 8e6/ Id Of BuUNM{SOM yoogs/0at YiVIN ‘HOW IL OL Lld $40YIDE{ UOOsSSO/Z JO jueuwjpsodeg vorjolzg0ssy volognpyz /OUOI{ON *@I24NOS ‘SYFHIVIL WOOHSSYTII FHL JO %U2Z SLINISTIHVATY TOGNAS HIVI @ a VVVY oe HOTT TEE E HOOP PEED mo TD SPELL LLL. Aeiiaiien SYSHOVSL WOOYSSVTO JO SNLVLS HLIWSH WYAN3d XI ZaANndIA _ = ~ = the Association , Washington, OC Ninth Yearbook , FIT TO TEACH on, Department of Classroom Teachers be MEET &SUCOMON ASSOCciati Diagram IT = aww SS /938. AIF. , IX. Mental and Physical Health In 1926 a study of the health of the teacher concluded that, as compared with workers in other fields, teachers were relatively longer lived and free from sickness. According to a 1937 survey of a representa- tive group of teachers, about one-third have abundant energy, a constant feeling of vigor, and exceptionally good health. Approximately half of the teachers have general good health suficient to stand extra strain and occasional illness. The remaining 15 to 20 percent lack the kind of sustained vigor necessary for reg- ular and effective classroom work. Some have energy enough for ordinary work but have little resistance to colds or periods of extra pressure; others have low vitality and are in- clined to worry over their work ; approximately 2 percent have chronic ill health and carry their responsibilities only with effort. About 285,000 teachers are away from their jobs one or more days each year and lose annually no less than a total of 2,000,000 working days. Expert opinion has concluded that person- ality maladjustment is responsible for failures in teaching more often than physical disorder. In answer to direct questioning, superintend- ents, principals, and school physicians agree that, serious as are physical handicaps and dis- eases of the body, lack of mental or emotional poise is the prime detriment to successful teach- ing; inability to make necessary social adjust- ments is second ; and physical ill health, third. Available evidence indicates that the percent of maladjustment among teachers is somewhat lower than that of the general population. Physicians have reported the following eight factors as the leading causes of poor health among teachers: (1) incorrect personal health habits, (2) general weaknesses and physical handicaps, (3) an unfavorable out-of-school environment, (4) unfortunate personnel rela- tionships with administrative officers, super- visors, or fellow teachers, (5) an amount of school work, (6) improper school- housing facilities, (7) diseases contracted from pupils, and (8) accidents. Among the leading physical handicaps and diseases of teachers are colds, grippe, tonsillitis, and all the common respiratory diseases ; diges- tive disorders, including constipation ; disorders associated with “nervousness”; heart trouble; excessive menstrual disorders; rheumatism; and abnor mal blood pressure. Altho the teaching profession offers no safe guard against mental hazards and personality maladjustments, there are certain aspects of teaching which are conducive to mental health. Among such advantages are the following: that ) teaching (1) is socially useful work, (2) in volves a continuous series of challenging new problems, (3) encourages creativeness, (4) provides opportunity for self-analysis, (5) stimulates broad interests, (6) requires an unusual amount of self-control, (7) aftords unexcelled opportunity for growth, and, gen erally speaking, (8) is done amid surroundings that are relatively pleasant and comfortable On the other hand, the following factors con tribute to the personality maladjustment ot mental instability of many teachers: (1) pressure of required work, (2) underpay, OVe!l 3 ) insecurity of tenure, (4) constant sharing of the burdens of others, (5) puritanic restrictions on out-of-school activities, (6) repressive, auto- and supervision, (7) 5) cratic administration aloofness on the part of the general public, necessary attention to numerous details, and (9) association with immature minds. A certificate of health before appointment is required of teachers in about two-thirds of the cities over 100,000 population; and in one third of the cities 5000 to 10,000. Some pro vision for teacher sick leave is made in about nine-tenths of all cities. About two-fifths of the cities offer care by a school nurse when a teacher wishes it, and almost one-fifth provide medical advice and treatment by a school phy- sician or periodic health examinations. To the workers in many occupations, illness is largely a personal loss affecting few othe persons. In the case of teachers, directly or indirectly, their illnesses and their health de- fects are likely to influence the health of their pupils. Teachers themselves consider sick leave, sabbatical leave, a good retirement plan, a nonteaching period during the day, a definite salary schedule, and security of tenure to be the most important health aids in their teaching situations. Communities which have taken these health safeguards into. consideration, and also provide some recreational facilities, are making outstanding contributions to the ad justment of their classroom teachers. [71] £61 PeSIMOY “SHLVO «SYFHIVIL “WOISIAIG YIIOOSEY ‘VOIJOsQOSSY VOLJOINPZ (OVUOION UWO4j peidopy ‘e2/neS 2 Ss ‘ Qg3ayuind3ay 3903 1d 4¥O HLVO ON SONIHL NIVLY3S9D ONIHOV3SL WOYS NIVYS3SY YO HOV3L ‘SLOWOYd OL 39037d ALIIWAOT JO 3903 1d YO 3914350 3O HLVO SYSHOVSL WOOUSSVT0 JO G3SYINDAY SHLVO X FZaANoIA Srouwght wp are > Figure l, p.é TEACHERS * OATHS, Revised I9Z7, Research Division, Adapted from National Education Association Source: \pprehensive citizens sometimes view discus ns of controversial subjects in public school lassrooms with disfavor. They become con erned that boys and girls are studying ques ‘ions surrounding which strong opinions, vital onomic interests, and powerful emotions have intangible Various pressures ng persisted. ve been brought to bear upon outspoken eachers; legal controls have taken the forn new oaths of allegiance. Prior to 1930, ten states required pledges of loyalty from their public school teachers. In the two years 1931 ind 1935, thirteen additional pledges were put nto force. Half of the states are now making t obligatory for teachers to take an oath of al legiance to the United States Constitution. The simplest pledge required of teachers is one “to support” the United States Constitu tion and the constitution of the state—the reg ulation in four states. Six additional states have enlarged the pledges “to support’ the Constitution to include the promise charge faithfully” the duties of a teacher. Four “to dis states require teachers to both “support’’ and ‘defend” the Constitution. In there has been added to the pledge the requirement “to teach by precept and example” love, respect, and/or undivided allegiance to: (1) the national flag, (2) the state flag, (3) law and order, (4) the gov- (5) American institutions. eight states constitutional ernment, and/or Prescriptions designed to prevent the teaching of specific theories of government and eco nomics are found in one state, where the law requires the teacher to “refrain from directly or indirectly subscribing to or teaching any theory of government, or economics, or of social relations which is inconsistent with the funda- mental principles of patriotism and high ideals of Americanism.” In nineteen states there do not exist any defi- nitely prescribed penalties for failure to ob- serve the law, but state and county authorities can refuse to grant certificates to, and local officials can withhold contracts from, noncon- formists. Penalties are imposed upon noncon- tormists in all other states. What may constitute violation of teachers’ oaths is subject to widespread speculation. The broad and logical inference is that a teacher sworn to support the federal and state constitu- X. Academic Freedom tions (and in most instances state law bound in conscience to uphold the provisions and principles of said laws. Thus, the questior irise: Should a teacher be required to teacl only “things s they are” or should he be free t review ways of improving existing laws o and changing public Policy If orde r to meet new conditions? \W ould a teacher sworn to upport constitutions and state laws federal and state ch the facts concerning 11 1] pe Tree to t of controversial political que ] Social OT without fear of molestation? Or. would th tricting the academic freedom of nd the freedom of the student result in re 1 the teacner learn’? Some state legislatures have becom vare of the dange rs of too strict application ot oath laws. Pennsylvania and Utah, for example, have protective legislation safeguarding teach ers from dismissal for their religious or political views. One state recently proposed a legislative rt measure which would direct the state dey ment of education and the state superintendent to stress the significance of tolerance as a basi American principle, to define the meaning of intolerance, and to provide for the inclusion of s( hool system. A proposed law in another state would instruction of tolerance in the public provide that removal or disciplinary measures against a teacher should not be based on expres sion of opinion on any political, social, ot economic subject, or on out-of school activities in public affairs, or on membership in or ad herence to the principles of any lawfully con stituted party or group. A recent study of the opinions of 785 laymen and teachers on the issue of academic freedom indicated that while few teachers are dismissed, demoted, or otherwise disciplined for exercising academic freedom, a majority of them deal with controversial subjects because carefully of fear of punishment. These subjects include religion, sex, politics, and economics. It is probable that in many cases where teach ers feel their freedom of speech is being cur tailed, communities are only asking that the teachers refrain from imposing their personal opinions upon pupils. However, when teachers must refrain from presenting, within the limits of good taste and sound scholarship, facts avail- able on any subject, academic freedom is en- dangered. Trends Affecting the Future Status of Teachers The last two decades have seen a significant upgrading in the general professional and eco- nomic level of the teaching population. It is clear, however, that the present status of class- room teachers, especially in rural areas, is not now satisfactory in view of the important re- sponsibility these teachers have to the nation at large. What of the future? Will desirable trends persist ? What forces now operating may affect the status of teachers in the next few years? This final section of the bulletin sug- gests some of the pressures which may have an influence, favorable or unfavorable, upon the teaching population of the United States. Movements within the profession to improve the quality of the teaching service—Educators, the lay public, and professional associations of teachers recognize the need for continuous im- provement of the teaching service. Colleges and normal schools have often graduated many young persons who expect to become teachers but who obviously lack the personal, social, and intellectual qualifications essential to success- ful teaching. State education departments or other authorities have too frequently granted certificates to teach only on evidence that the technic of conducting a class exercise has been mastered, that subjectmatter can be reproduced in writing, and that a required number of “courses in education” have been carried. Many school systems have often failed to provide a truly professional environment for teachers, with the result that, under the monotony of daily routine, teaching methods have become out-dated and ineffective, and initiative and enthusiasm have been dulled. Recognition of these needs has resulted in action Three movements toward improvement stand out. The first is a growing tendency among normal schools and teachers colleges to select their students intelligently on the basis of personal, social, and intellectual qualifica- tions rather than only on their expressed de- sires to “learn to be teachers.” The teaching profession is no longer as easy to enter as it once was. Selective admission to schools offer- ing courses in teacher preparation has begun to condition the quality of the teaching service at the very beginning, by determining the kind of man or woman who eventually will seek em- ployment as a teacher. Secondly, enriched curriculums for prosp. tive teachers are giving greater assurance parents and to communities that new teachers in their schools will be better educated and women, possessed with a broader genera] background of social knowledge, a more ade. quate specialized training to teach, and greater competency to accept the responsibiliri: In the third place, the emphasis on in-ser\ education is helping teachers already employed to enrich their classroom contributions. [n number of communities there are increasing opportunities for active teachers to improv their professional equipment. Wise counse! supervision, participation in curriculum struction, opportunities for special study travel, and summer school attendance have helped many to do more effective teaching. With improvement in the quality of teach- ing service, the future should bring a rise | the economic status of teachers, a reduction teacher mobility, increased provisions for tenur and retirement, and a general stability in the profession. External pressures, however, may turn the tide in another direction. Population trends—The decline in the num- ber of children of school age, resulting from a slowing down of population growth, may, on the one hand, mean smaller classes, lighte: teaching loads, more individual guidance, and expansion of needed service both to the pre- school child and to adults. On the other hand fewer children may lead to a cut in teaching staffs and unemployment. With proportionately more children in rural areas than in urban areas, increased attention should be given to improvement in the prepara- tion of rural teachers, to elimination of inferio: economic conditions in many rural places, t outside financial aid to the poorer school dis tricts, and to better salaries for teachers in those districts. Without such changes, rural teachers will remain transients, seeking to obtain posi tions in cities. The rise in the average age of the populatior is turning certain efforts of the nation toward security for adults. Vast sums necessarily are being spent on relief and for old-age pensions. Rather than increase taxes some communities and states are diverting funds from public edu- [74] te! en tr M wi en an co th to su nprove el and iP. teach- ion in fenure in the » May num- rom a iy, on ighter », and 2 pre- hand, ching 1 rural ‘ntion para- terior ] dis- those chers posi- ation ward V are sions. nities edu- cation to these channels. Such a tendency to curtail expenditures for education of youth in order to care for older adults creates a real threat to boys and girls as well as to the eco nomic position of teachers. On the other side of the picture, an aging of the general population would naturally imply) an aging of the teaching population. This trend should be watched in order that teachers on permanent tenure, lending stability to the pro- fession, are not permitted to work too long at their jobs because of lack of retirement pro visions. Unless adequate adjustments are made, the migration of families from one section of the country to another leaves unemployed teachers in the deserted areas and places unreasonable professional loads on teachers in the places which receive the migrant families. The mental and physical health of teachers and pupils alike suffers in overcrowded schools when adjust- ments in school revenues fail to keep pace with shifts in population. Occupational trends—The current occupa tional shift is from the productive and extrac- tive occupations to the mechanical, managerial, professional, and service occupations. Formerly, the home guided the child in his choice of voca- tion and retained control over his occupational training. The classroom teacher who was re- sponsible for academic instruction only was largely isolated from other professions and trades. Today, much occupational guidance and training has become a responsibility of the teacher. Cooperation with and the respect of persons working in the mechanical, managerial, professional, and service fields must be main- tained. Working cooperatively with business, industry, and the professions in carrying out certain school policies may change the status of classroom teachers in the eyes of the commu- nities where such cooperation is necessary. Another occupational trend is the increased tendency for married women to seek gainful employment. Upon the teaching profession this trend has already had a pronounced effect. Many communities, recognizing that married women are usually efficient and experienced employees, permit women teachers to marry and retain their positions. Teaching will be- come more of a career service if selection is on the basis of personal and professional fitness to do the required work, regardless of factors such as marital status. Trends in acquiring and spending publi revenue—Because public school teachers are paid from public funds, trends in acquiring and spending those funds will affect the future status of teachers. After the World War, wealth in the United States became cities and in property other than real estate. increasingly concentrated in The decline of real property values during the depression brought the states face to face with the inadequacy of their tax policies. In local areas, where the property tax had long been the chief source of public revenue, money could not be raised to maintain the customary public services. Such conditions have forced states to revise their systems of taxation in the direction of lessening taxes on property and increasing revenues thru personal or corpora- tion income taxes, general sales taxes, chain store taxes, inheritance taxes, or taxes on to bacco, alcoholic beverages, and gasoline. Tax collections, altho redistributed and diversified, have continually increased. No longer are pub lic revenues collected and disbursed principall; within the local governmental units. What was emergency state and federal aid to local areas during the depression has, in many instances, become permanent policy. Government, in gen- eral, has continued to take over added func- tions. In other words, out of the breakdown of local financial support of public functions has come a dependency of the nation at large upon state and federal money to finance expanded social services. These shifts in the collecting and spending of public revenues carry important implica- tions. Education, traditionally a function of local government, required and obtained a limited amount of state and federal aid in the emergency. However, since the early days of the depression, schools have been receiving a steadily decreasing proportion of government funds. At a time when expenditures for all types of public education were declining 26 per- cent, the costs of other government services rose more than 32 percent. Currently, many tax- payers are building up resistance to further taxation and at the same time are demanding continuation of government expenditures for relief, old-age assistance, housing, and addi tional expenditures for new types of govern- ment service. Wars in other parts of the world are causing American people to demand greater appropriations for national defense and, unless [75] taxes are increased, public services will have to be curtailed. There is a determined and alarm- ing drive against educational expenditures in many communities and states. Diversion of state funds from schools in localities where local financial support is im- possible means disaster. In many rural areas, outside financial assistance is necessary to make the educational service more adequate than it now is. Bills are pending in Congress to grant permanent federal aid to public education in order to equalize educational opportunity among the wealthier and poorer communities. Unless there is continuation of state assistance plus financial aid from the federal government, the status of classroom teachers and the quality of the entire public school service will fall in the very communities where improvement is most needed. Current public discussion and reinterpreta- tion of education in a democracy—During 1939 public forums, institutes and conferences, the radio and the press, classroom discussions and professional meetings, all have given increased time and attention to the problem of educa- tion for democracy. In face of world events which challenge the democratic principles of living enjoyed by American citizens, the forces of education and reason are examining their structures and procedures in order that this country will not fall into the ways of totali- tarianism or war. Such emphasis on the democratic way of life holds important implications for the aca- demic freedom of classroom teachers. An apprehensive public, fearing that teachers may not emphasize the advantages of a democracy over and above other forms of government, may make further attempts to dictate what is taught in American classrooms. On the other hand, if the public is made to realize that the effectiveness of democratic government lies in the freedom of the people to discuss and evalu- ate all policies and to work conscientiously for their improvement, the classroom teacher in the future will be allowed to encourage his pupils in impartial and independent thinking about current social, economic, and political prob- lems. Discussion of the importance of democracy in the national life has made educators increas- ingly aware of the need for more democratic procedures within the administration of the public schools. The trend is toward recognition of the potential contributi classroom teachers in the determinatio; administrative policies. National conventions, regional professional and institutes of professional relations ous sections of the country are offering room teachers increased opportunity to ex; themselves as an articulate branch of profession. In the third place, if this widespread re-eyal uation of education in a democracy is seriously, the forces currently at work threaten the financial support of public school; will be halted. It may be that a growing respect for the unique function education must pe; form, apart from all other governmental ser\ ices, will turn the tide of government spending toward rather than away from the schools Finally, constant reference to the import place of the teacher today may result in gr social recognition of his role. Too often contribution is taken for granted. As teache: acquire more and more civic influence, as t! participate in community activities and draw the community into cooperation with th schools in pupil projects of civic importanc the social status of classroom teachers wil! change for the better. educ if meet ( Recognition of the need for professiona unity of teachers—Teachers have not been united as have certain trades and professions Disunity has worked to the teachers’ disad vantage in cases where social and economy trends have imposed unfavorable conditions upon the profession. Educational leaders have recognized these disadvantages and agitation for greater professional solidarity is increasing in teachers colleges and among teachers in service. Professional associations of teachers are giving special attention to this need. If the majority of teachers would unite o1 pertinent issues and launch a well-organized effort to promote or to offset influences on education growing out of national trends, public opinion would probably not be unfavor- able. Thus, by and large, the future status of classroom teachers rests with the teachers them selves. No matter what external pressures are brought to bear upon this branch of the edu- cation profession, if teachers are sufficient; concerned about their own economic and pro- fessional positions the future need not be feared. [76] ork t schools respect st per i serv- ee ending chools Ortant -achers is they draw h the rtance s will SSiona een as SsiOns. disad- Nomi ditions s have itation easing ers in ‘achers lite on anized res on ‘rends, favor- tus of them- res are e edu- siently d pro- ot be Sources of Information for Sections General Composition of the Teaching Pop ilation Blose, David T., and Alves, Henry F. “Statistics ¢ State-School Systems, 1935-36.” Biennial Survey } Education in the United States: 1934-36. U. S. ept. of the Interior, Othce of Education, Bulletin, 137. No. 2. Washington, D. C.: Government Print- 2 Office, 1938. Vol. II. p. 18-21, 49, 75. 1 Elsbree, Willard S. The American Teacher. New York: \merican Book Co., 1939. p. 551-53. { Evenden, E. S., ad others. Teacher Personnei in the United States. S$, Dept. of the Interior, Ofhce of Education, Bul- etin, 1933, No. 10. National Survey of the Educa rion of Teachers, Vol. II. Washington, D. C.: Goy- rnment Printing Office, 1935. Chapter 2, “Age, Sex, Marital Status and Teaching Experience,” p. 17-28. ©Federal Security Agency, U. S. Office of Education Statistics of State-School Systems, 1937-38. Washing- ion, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1939. 8 p. Mimeo.) %Moffett, M’Ledge. The Social Back- jround and Activities of Teachers College Students. Contributions to Education, No. 375. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1929. 98-99, T I[. Educational Preparation and Certification Evenden, E. S. Summary and Interpretation. U.S Dept. of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1933, No. 10. National Survey of the Education of Teachers, Vol. VI. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1935. Chapter 2, “Raising the Level of Education of American Teachers,” p. 29-71. *Evenden, E. S., and others. Teacher Personnel in the United States. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Office if Education, Bulletin, 1933, No. 10. National Survey if the Education of Teachers, Vol. II. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1935. Chapter 3, Extent, Source, and Nature of the Education of Teachers,” p. 40-61. {Frazier, Benjamin W. De- velopment of State Programs for the Certification of Teachers. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Office of Edu- cation, Bulletin, 1938, No. 12. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1938. 166 p. 'Gaum- nitz, W. H. Salary and Education of Rural School Personnel. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Office of Edu- cation, Pamphlet No. 85. Washington, D. C.: Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1938. 19 p. National Edu- cation Association, Committee on the Economic Status of the Rural Teacher. Teachers in Rural Communities. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1939, Table 8, p. 17. National Education ciation, Research Division. “City Teachers: Their Preparation, Salaries, and Experience.” Research Bulletin 18: 1-48; January 1940. “Levels of Prepara- » tion of Teachers in Service,” p. 7-15 Asso- lil. Professional Experience and Mobility | Evenden, E. S. Summary and Interpretation. U. S. | Dept. of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, } 1933, No. 10. National Survey of the Education of » Teachers, Vol. VI. Washington, D. C.: Government | Printing Office, 1935. Chapter 4, “Controlling the Demand for and Supply of Public-School Teachers,” »P- 200-204. {Evenden, E. S., and others. Teacher ; Personnel in the United States. U. S. Dept. of the of Education, Bulletin, 1933, No. 1 National Survey of the Education of Teachers, \ II. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Ofhce 1935. Chapter 2, p. 28-39, and Chapter 5, p. 82-93 “Keith, John A. H., and Bagley, William ( T/ Nation and the Schools. New York: Macmillan Co 1925. p. 221. { National Education Association, Com mittee on the Economic Status of the Rural Teacher Teachers in Rural Communities. Washington, D. ¢ the Association, 1939. Tables 4 and 5, p. 16. "Na tional Education Association, Research Division “Administrative Practices Affecting Classroom Teachers. Part 1: The Selection and Appointment of Teachers.” Research Bulletin 10: 1-34; January 1932 “Experience Requirements for Newly Appointed Teachers,” p. 12-13. { National Education Associa tion, Research Division. “City Teachers: Their Preparation, Salaries, and Experience.” Research Bulletin 18: 1-48; January 1940, “Years of Experi ence of Teachers in Service,” p. 16-21. { National Education Association, Research Division Che Problem of Teacher Tenure.” Research Bulletin 2: 138-75; November 1924. “Teacher Turnover in the United States,” p. 142-43. UStrayer, George D chairman. Know and Help Your Schools. National Committee for Chamber of Commerce Cooperation with the Public Schools. New York: American City Bureau, 1920. p. 28. Interior, Othce LV. Salaries and Economic Condition Clark, Harold F., and others. Life Earnings in Selected Occupations in the United States. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1937. Chapter 14, “Life Earnings in School Teaching,” p. 89-94, and Table 1 p. 5. TEells, Walter Crosby. Teachers’ Salaries and the Cost of Liwing. Stanford University, Calif Stanford University Press, 1933. 94 p. %Elsbree, Willard S. Teachers’ Salaries. New York: Teach- ers College, Columbia University, 1931. 286 p *Gaumnitz, Walter H. Economic Status of Rural Teachers. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Office of Edu cation, Bulletin, 1937, No. 13. Washington, D. C. Government Printing Office, 1939. 56 p. {1 Gaumnitz, Walter H. Salary and Education of Rural School Personnel. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Office of Edu cation, Pamphlet No. 85. Washington, D. C.: ernment Printing Office, 1938. 19 p. 1 National Edu- cation Association, Committee on the Economic Status of the Rural Teacher. Teachers in Rural Communities. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1939. 125 p. "National Education Association, Re search Division. “City Teachers: Their Preparation Salaries, and Experience.” Research Bulletin 18 1-48; January 1940. “Salaries in Relation te Pre paration and Experience,” p. 22-29. { National Edu cation Association, Research Division. “Salaries of School Employees, 1938-39.” Research Bulletin 17: 67-95; March 1939. {National Education Associa- tion, Research Division. “The Teacher’s Economic Position.” Research Bulletin 13: 165-267; Septem ber 1935. {Pyle, Theresa P. The Teacher’s De pendency Load. Contributions to Education, No. 782 New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1939. 111 p. 7U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Office of Education. “Statistics of State School Systems, 1935-36.” Biennial Survey of Education in the United States: 1934-36. Bulletin, 1937, No. 2. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1938. Chapter I, Vol. II, Table 13, p. 16-17. (Advance pages.) % Un- (roy [77] published figures of the National Education Associa- tion, Research Division. V. Professional Load Blose, David T., and Alves, Henry F. “Statistics of State School Systems, 1935-36.” Biennial Survey of Education in the United States: 1934-36. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1937, No. 2. Washington, D. C.: Government Print- ing Office, 1938. Vol. II. p. 14, 20-21. TEells, Ken- neth W. “Measuring Teacher Load.” Nation's Schools 23: 49-51; February 1939. Irwin, Manley E. “Size of Class and Teaching Load.” Review of Educational Research 7: 276-83; June 1937. 1Na- tional Education Association, Department of Super- intendence and Research Division. Size of Class in Public Schools in 61 Cities over 100,000 in Popula- tion. Educational Research Service Circular No. 5, 1936. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1936. 30 p. {National Education Association, Department of Superintendence and Research Division. Size of Class in Public Schools in 139 Cities 30,000 to 100,000 in Population and 82 Cities under 30,000 in Popula- tion. Educational Research Service Circular No. 7, 1936. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1936. 68 p. @ National Education Association, Research Division. “The Teacher Looks at Teacher Load.” Research Bulletin 17: 223-74; November 1939. 1U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Education. Biennial Survey of Education, 1918-20. Bulletin, 1923, No. 29. Wash- ington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1923. Chapter II, “Statistics of State School Systems, 1919-20,” p. 44, and Table 1, p. 45-46. VI. Provisions for Tenure National Education Association. Report of the Committee on Tenure. Washington, D. C.: the Asso- ciation, 1939. 11 p. National Education Association. Tenure Publications. Washington, D. C.: the Asso- ciation, 1939. 4 p. 1 National Education Association. Why Teacher Tenure. Washington, D. C.: the Asso- ciation, 1939. 4 p. {National Education Association, Committee on Tenure. The Status of Teacher Ten- ure. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1938. 31 p. {National Education Association, Research Division. “The Problem of Teacher Tenure.” Research Bul- letin 2: 138-75; November 1924. TScott, Cecil Win- field. Indefinite Teacher Tenure. Contributions to Education, No. 613. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1934. 165 p. VII. Provisions for Retirement National Education Association, Research Divi- sion. “Analysis of Local Provisions for Teacher Retirement.” Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1940. (To be issued as the May 1940 Research Bul- letin.) UNational Education Association, Research Division. “Current Issues in Teacher Retirement.” Research Bulletin 8: 221-88; November 1930. 1Na- tional Education Association, Research Division. “Teacher Retirement Systems and Social Security.” Research Bulletin 15: 90-151; May 1937. { National Education Association, Research Division and Na- tional Council on Teacher Retirement. Analysis of the Statutory Provisions for State Teachers Retire- ment Systems. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1939. 30 p. TStudensky, Paul. Teachers’ Pension Sys- tems in the United States. New York: D and Co., 1920. 460 p. VIII. Professional Associations of Te: International Institute of Teachers College. | lumbia University. Educational Yearbook, 1935 x York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers Colle, Columbia University, 1935. p. 511-15. { Nationa] Pp, ucation Association, Committee on the Econom; Status of the Rural Teacher. Teachers in Rural ( munities. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 19: Tables 10 and 11, p. 19. {National Education A« ciation, Department of Classroom Teachers. Tra;i,, and Public. Eighth Yearbook. Washington, Dp. | the Association, 1934. Chapter 5, “The Mod, Teacher,” p. 124-25. {National Education Asso tion and Department of Superintendence, Ed tional Policies Commission. A National Organi: tion for Education. Washington, D. C.: the Comn sion, 1937. 47 p. TOfficial membership data for ; National Education Association, 1919 to 1939 in sive. 1Umstattd, J. G. “Teachers Associations, ( ganizations, and Unions.” Review of Education, Research 7: 314-15; June 1937. TUnpublished R search Division data on membership in state ed tion associations, 1939. IX. Mental and Physical Health Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, Welfa Division. The Teacher's Health. School Heal: Monograph No. 4. New York: the Company, 193: 32 p. {National Education Association and Amer can Association of School Administrators. E mplo; ment Status and Leaves of Absence of Teacher 1937-38. Educational Research Service Circular, \ 1, 1938. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1938 45 p. {National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. Fit To Teach. Ninth Year book. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 193: 276 p. INational Education Association, Resea Division. Schoolboard Rules Governing Sick Lea: for School Employees. Washington, D. C.: the Ass ciation, 1939. 27 p. (Mimeo.) TRogers, James Fr erick. The Health of the Teacher. U. S. Dept. of t Interior, Bureau of Education, School Health Studies No. 12. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1926. 64 p. TRogers, James Frederick. T Welfare of the Teacher. U.S. Dept. of the Interior Office of Education, Bulletin, 1934, No. 4. Washing ton, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1934. 7 X. Academic Freedom Beale, Howard K. Are American Teachers Fri Report of the Commission on the Social Studies American Historical Association, Part XII. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1936. 856 p. ‘Ke secker, Ward W. “Teachers at the Battle of Oaths School Life 20: 234-35; June 1935. { National Ed tion Association, Committee on Academic Freedo' The Limits of Academic Freedom. Washingt D. C.: the Association, 1939. 30 p. { National Edu tion Association, Research Division. Teacher Oaths. Revised report. Washington, D. C.: the Ass ciation, 1937. 29 p. (Mimeo.) {The session laws 0! the states from 1937 to date were examined ! changes in teacher oath legislation. [78] Cac h ay lege, ( 1935. New Ss College tional Eq Econom} ‘ural Com tion, 193 tion Agso. 8. Teacher on, D. ¢ e Mode r nA e, Ssar Educ Organiza e Commis ita fort 1939 inc itions, ( ducationa lished Re ate ed ’ Welfare ol Healt any, 1938 id Ameri |. Employ T eacher cular, No tion, 1938 epartment nth Year ion, 193% Researct rT, k Lea the Ass mes Fred- ept. of the th Studies t Printing rick. The e Interior Washing: 934. 70 p ers Free? 1 Studies KIT. New Pp. q Kee »f Oaths al Educ Freedom ashingtor al Edu Teacher the Asso- n laws ot nined for PUBLICATIONS ON RELATED TOPICS Analysis of Local Provisions for Teacher Retirement. To be issued as the May 1940 Research Bulletin. 25¢. City Teachers: Their Preparation, Salaries, and Experience. Research Bul- letin, Vol. XVIII, No. 1; January 1940. 48 p. 25¢. The Teacher Looks at Teacher Load. Research Bulletin, Vol. XVII, No. 5; November 1939. 56 p. 25¢. Report of the Committee on Tenure. July 1939. 11 p. 10¢. The Limits of Academic Freedom. Report of the Committee on Academic Freedom, June 1939. 30 p. 25¢. Salaries of School Employees, 1938-39. Research Bulletin, Vol. XVII, No. 2; March 1939. 32 p. 25¢. Teachers in Rural Communities. Report of the Committee on the Eco nomic Status of the Rural Teacher, 1939. 120 p. 50¢. Analysis of the Statutory Provisions for State Teachers Retirement Sys- tems. 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Orders not accompanied by funds are subject to transportation charges. Discounts on quantity orders of the same publica tion: 2-9 copies, 10 percent; 10-99 copies, 25 percent; 100 or more copies, 331% percent. Make checks or money orders payable to the National Education Association of the United States, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. [79] \ \ JE CANNOT emphasize too strongly the fundamental importance of improving the status of the teacher if we would improve child service. To provide an adequate supply of well-trained teachers, we must equip and support more and better teacher-training schools and colleges; we must offer salaries adequate to attract high-minded and well- educated youth into the profession; we must insure to them promotion on merit alone as well as permanent tenure while they render satisfactory service; we must remove from them the fear of destitution by adequate retirement annuities and pensions; and we must recognize their right to express their professional opinions and to develop in every proper way personal initiative.—Resolution of the National Education Association, 1923.