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NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 


RESEARCH BULLETIN 


VOL. XVIII - No. 1 JANUARY 


. 7 10An 








1940 
i 


City Teachers: Their Preparation, 


Salaries, and Experience 


Published by the RESEARCH DIVISION of the 


NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
of the UNITED STATES 


1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C 








Published five times each year 
in January, March, May, 
September, and November 


President, AMY H. HINRICHS 






RESEARCH BULLETIN or 1 





NATIONAL 
EDUCATION 
ASSOCIATION 


Executive Secretary, WILLARD E. GIVEN 





Director of Research: William G. Carr; 


Associate Director: Frank W. Hubbard 


Assistant Directors: Richard R. Foster, lvan A. Booker, Hazel Davis 


Research Assistants and Section Heads: Frances G. Bredley, Louise B. Sease, Helen H. Cox, Anna 
Haddow, Madaline K. Remmlein, Mildred Wharton, and Lillian S. Feldman 





Executive and Editorial Offices 


1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. 





Copyright, 1940, by the National Education Association of the United States 


Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at 

Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing 

at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 
1917, authorized February 10, 1923. 





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CONTENTS 


WORD 


,ODUCTION 


Scope and Plan of the Bulletin 


LEVELS OF PREPARATION OF TEACHERS IN SERVICI 


Size of City and Levels of Preparation 

School Division and Levels of Preparation 
Regional Distribution and Levels of Preparation 
Levels of Preparation of Negro Teachers 


Upward Trends in Levels of Preparation 


YEARS OF EXPERIENCE OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE 


_ 


Length of Service, by City Size 
Length of Service, by School Division 
Length of Service, by Region 


Length of Service of Negro Teachers 


The Trend toward Longer Service for City School Teachers 


ARIES IN RELATION TO PREPARATION 
Salaries and Preparation 


Salaries and Experience 


AND EXPERIENCE 


Preparation and Experience of Negro Teachers as Related to Salaries 


Regional Comparisons 


State Studies of Relationship 


Why the Disparity between Qualifications and Salaries? 


ARY SCHEDULES IN RELATION 


How Salary Schedules Recognize Preparation 


ro LEVELS OF PREPARATION 


Levels of Training of Teachers under Salary Schedules of Different Types 


Administration of Salary Schedules Based on Preparation 
I 


V. A Loox AHEAD 


Selective Admission to the Teaching Profession 


Enriched Curriculum for Prospective Teachers 


Local School Administration Adapted to Needs of Professional Tea 


Better Social and Economic Recognition of 


Constructive Program of Professional Growth in 


Tea hing 


Increased Participation by Teachers in Community Living 


STUDIES OF TEACHER EDUCATION 





Copy of Questionnaire Sent to Superintendents of S« 


Tables 


w 











FOREWORD 


HE AIMS OF EDUCATION are so lofty that they sometimes may seem to 

transcend the merely human powers of the men and women in the teach- 

ing profession. And yet it is those very people, already in the classrooms 
of the nation, who, more than any others, will be helping the children in school 
in the next few years to realize for themselves the aims of education. The 
teacher of today is also the teacher of the future, at least of the near future, 
and thus the qualifications of today’s teachers deserve attention as a major factor 
in continued educational achievement. 

The January 1940 Research Bulletin pictures in broad outline the qualifica- 
tions of some two hundred thousand city teachers today, showing pertinent 
facts in relation to salaries paid. The study was made by the Research Division 
at the suggestion of the Association’s Committee on Salaries. Such findings as 


these are reported: 

1. The median city teacher has completed 4.2 years of educational prepara- 
tion beyond high-school graduation. The corresponding level in 1920 was 2.5 
years. The median level of preparation is the same in small cities below 5000 


in population as in large cities above 100,000 in population. 

2. Fourteen years of teaching experience has been completed by the median 
city school teacher. Levels of experience are much higher in large cities than in 
small ones. 

3. Qualifications of teachers in terms of preparation and experience appear 
to have less relationship to salaries than do the factors of city size and geo- 
graphic region. 

There has been striking progress over earlier years in the aspects ef teachers’ 
qualifications reported on in this bulletin. Professional levels of preparation 
and long tenure of serviee are becoming typical of city teaching today. But 
there is no room for complacency. Quality of preparation and experience, as 
well as quantity, should be scrutinized ; the income of teachers should be related 
more definitely to qualifications; the factors contributing to permanency in 
service should be evaluated; and the conditions of teaching service should be 
appraised in terms of their contribution to the continued professional growth 
of teachers. Efforts to improve the lot of rural teachers, whose status is so un- 
satisfactory in comparison to that of city teachers, should be intensified. 

If the progress of the teaching profession in the past twenty years is to be 
continued in the decades that lie ahead, there must be statesmanlike considera- 
tion of basic questions regarding the status of teachers such as are raised in this 
bulletin. Thoughtful effort toward the solution of these problems, in the light 
of state and local conditions, is earnestly commended to all leaders of educa- 
tional thought in the teaching profession. 

Witvarp E. Givens, Executive Secretary 
National Education Association 








Introduction 


ch year sees new demands upon the abili 
of teachers. As always, children need help 
earning to read, write, and use numbers. 


rses of study are more flexible than they 


: were; integrated programs are being de 
loped; but it is expected that in the end pu 
rather than a pooret 


pils will obtain a better 


mastery of 
school curriculum. This old core of learning, 


many traditional elements of the 


once honored as an end in itself, is now taken 
for granted as a background for further learn 
ings which the acute problems of the modern 
world bring to the fore. Safety education, social 
education, consumer education, sex education, 
conservation education, personality develop 
ment, social skills, education for the democratic 
way of life—these phrases suggest but do not 
encompass the complex of new emphases in 
school experience. The teacher’s responsibility 


was defined recently in these terms: 


While facts, knowledge, and skills are and always 
will be essential in the education of children, they 
do not represent the major purposes for which the 
schools are maintained. It is only as the schools in 
culeate worthy attitudes and ideals, develop powers 
of critical analysis, initiative, and resourcefulness, 
and encourage habits of conduct that are socially 
desirable that they adequately serve our society 
The highest teaching is really counseling and guid 
ance, and the ultimate objectives of education are 
effective citizenship and good character.’ 


So broad a view of the teacher’s duties calls 
for superlative wisdom and ability. But no new 
race, endowed with teaching genius, is rising up 
to perform these almost superhuman tasks of 
teaching. The men and women now in the 
school service will do much of what is done in 
the next decade in leading young people toward 
an understanding of the world in which they 
live. Some new teachers will come in; many 
more of the old will remain. 

The professional status of teachers now in 
service is then of concern not only for the pres- 
ent but for the future. Are these teachers pre- 
pared to render the service needed? Are they 


experienced in teaching? Are they following 
teaching as a life work or are they transients 
in the profession? Do the salaries they receive 


John A.; 
Report of a 
Columbia 1 
on training 


Oberholtzer, E. E.; Sexson, 
Committee of the St. Louis School Survey.” A 
Strayer, director.) New York: Teachers College, 
“See the Appendix for the questionnaire form 
5 In view of the heavy weighting which the five largest 
the fact that figures were reported from Chicago, Philadelphia 


1 Glenn, Charles B 


ities 


Stoddard, A. J 


Survey 


relation to the 


lhe tacts 


Dear some reasonable 


sional qualifications ? in this bul 
on the status of city teachers give a 
swer to these questions, tor one 


of the teachin protession, 


Scope and Plan of the Bulletin 


About 45 percent ot the nation’s teachers, 01 


nearly four hundred thousand, are servin; 
cities above 2500 in population. ‘This bulletin 
reports on preparation, experience, and salaries 


over two 


hundred Classroon 


teachers only, exclusive of principals and supe1 


of more than half of this number, 
thousand city teachers. 
visors, are included. Questionnaire replies fron 
superintendents of schools, ‘in cities of all sizes 


above 2500 in population, furnished the basic 


Table 1 


and the percent of return. 


figures. shows the number of cities 


TABLE 1.—DISTRIBUTION OF QUES 
TIONNAIRE ON PROFESSIONAL 
TRAINING AND TEACHING EXPERI- 
ENCE 





Number of 
city school 
systems re- 
ceiving the 
questionnaire, 
grouped ac- 
cording to 
1930 Census 


Number 
of city 
school 
systems 
reporting 


Percent 


Population group reporting 


I. Over 100,000 

II. 30,000 to 100,000 
III. 10,000 to 30,000 
IV. 5,000 to 10,000 
V. 2,500 to 5,000 


Total 





The first part of the bulletin, on levels of 


preparation of teachers in service, presents fig 
ures by population group, region, and school 
division, on the levels of preparation attained 
by teachers. The 1938-39 figures are compared 
with certain studies made in earlier year 
Quantity rather than quality of training is 
ported upon but the discussion touches upon 


qualitative pl 


iases also. 
and Chrelkeld, A I 


the Publi Sc hy s of St. Louts, 


niversity 
and exper 
can 
and Detroit 


York or Los 


give to the ' ma fig 


but not 1 Nev 





As with training, the figures on years of ex- 
perience are reported by city size, region, and 
school division. Population trends and policies 
of selection and remuneration are influencing 
the levels of experience of teachers; these facts 
and forces are discussed in the second part on 
years of experience of teachers in service. 

The third and fourth parts bring together 
certain evidence on the relationship of salaries 
to preparation and experience. Salary levels are 
more closely related to region and city size than 
to preparation and experience but certain rela- 
tionship of salary schedules to levels of prepa- 
ration are reported. 

The last section calls attention to certain 
needs to be met as further advance is made in 
the improvement of teachers’ professional quali- 
fications. ‘Teachers in service, school adminis- 
trators, staffs of teacher-training institutions, 
and members of state legislatures should con- 
sider these issues when deciding on policies 
affecting teacher-training institutions, certifi- 
cation standards, selection procedures, salary 
scheduling, and in-service education of teach- 
ers. The final section is followed by a selected 
list of recent and current studies of the educa- 
tion of teachers. 


The report does not duplicate the int 
tion on the professional status of rural tea 
which is collected regularly by the 
Office of Education.* The facts present: 
for city teachers only, and thus are not 
sentative of the entire teaching professio: 

City teachers are in a more favorable pos 
than rural teachers on each of the basic as 
of professional status covered by this su 
In 1931, 42 percent of rural elementary-sc} 
teachers reported less than two years of trainin: 
above high school. In contrast, less than 11 pe; 
cent of the city teachers in elementary sc! 
were below the two-year training level.° |} 
amount of teaching experience of city teache: 
in 1931 was reported to be approximately twic 
that of rural teachers, when cities over 100,() 
in population were compared with villages oj 
less than 2500 population.® In 1935-36 
average salary of city teachers was more tha: 
double that of rural teachers.’ The analysis 
the situation affecting urban teachers, as pri 
sented in this bulletin, will throw light also ; 
some of the problems faced in rural teachi: 
Altho different in many ways, rural and urbar 
conditions help to explain each other. 


4 Gaumnitz, W. H. Salary and Education of Rural School Personnel: Status and Trends. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, ( 
Education, Pamphlet No. 85. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1938. 19 p. 
5 Evenden, E. S. National Survey of the Education of Teachers: Summary and Interpretation. U. S. Dept. of the Interio: 


of Education, Bulletin, 1933, No. 10, Vol. VI. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1935. p. 37. 


from Table 1.) 


(Percents cx 


* Evenden, E. S.: Gamble, Guy C.; and Blue, Harold G. National Survey of the Education of Teachers: Teacher Personn 


the United States. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1933, No. 10, Vol. II 


Washington, D. C.: Gover 


Printing Office, 1935. p. 32. (Median of state medians: 12 years of experience reported by elementary teachers in citic 
100,000 in population; 6 years by elementary teachers in villages below 2500 in size.) 

7 U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Biennial Survey of Education in the United States: 1934-36. B 
1937, No. 2. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1938. Vol. If, Chapter 2, (Advance pages) ‘‘Statistics of State > 
Systems, 1935-36,’ p. 49. (Average salary of supervisors, principals, and teachers: urban, $1818; rural, $827.) 





I. Levels of Preparation of Teachers in Service 


Any large-scale effort to study the prepara 
rion of teachers is limited by the fact that quan- 


tive rather than qualitative measures are 


used. Individual differences among students 


and institutional 


u 


differences among normal 


schools and colleges are such that a “year of 
training beyond high-school graduation” is a 
very elastic unit of measure. However, difter- 
ences in years of attendance at school and col 
lege are observable differences that laymen and 
teachers can understand and agree upon. ‘lime 
spent in school represents an exposure to In 
formation and an opportunity for systematic 
study. Measures of quantity of educational 
preparation are used as a measure of excellence 
in all of the learned professions.‘ Hundreds of 
salary schedules adopted within the past two 
decades have used amount of training as a basis 
for salary classification. he general acceptance 
of such schedules and their popularity with 
teachers and public suggest that, by and large, 
teachers with high levels of preparation are be 
lieved to be better teachers than those with 
little preparation. 

Some school systems do not keep personnel 
records in enough detail to have up-to-date fig- 
ures on levels of preparation of teachers in 
service. But a large number—1456 systems 


1 Evenden, E. S. National Survey of the Education of Teachers: Summary and Inte 
Washington 


Office of Education, Bulletin, 1933, No. 10, Vol. VI 


sent in the facts requested. Replies came trom 
more than 60 percent of the cities above 30,000 
in population, and from 46 percent of all school 
systems in cities over 2500 in population. It is 
possible that in the nonreporting cities, where 
adequate personnel records are lacking, the 
qualifications of teachers are lower than is typi 
cal of the cities represented in the bulletin 
Five levels of preparation were recognized in 

the questionnaire to superintendents of schools, 
as follows: 

Less than two years 

I'wo years or more, but less than three yea 


years or more, but less than four years 


1, 
2 
3. Three 
4 


Four years or more, but less than five years 


bachelor’s degree or equivalent 


5. Five years or more. 

This part of the bulletin summarizes the fig 
ures on preparation according to size of city, 
school division, and region. One section gives 
figures on the preparation of Negro teachers in 
segregated schools. Certain earlier studies are 
quoted as a basis for interpreting the presentday 


figures. 


Size of City and Levels of Preparation 


The median levels of training and the num 
ber of teachers are shown in Table 2. This table 


/ rpretation. \ 


C.: Government Printing Office, 19 


TABLE 2.—MEDIAN LEVELS OF PREPARATION OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE IN 


CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 


1938-39, BY SIZE OF CITY" 





Group I, 
over 100,000 
population 
(57 cities 


School division 


Group II, 
30,000 to 
100,000 p >p- 
ulation 
(155 cities) 


Group V, 
2,500 to 
5,000 pop- 
ulation 
498 cities 


Group IV, 
5,000 to 
10,000 pop- 
ulation 
399 cities 


Group III, 
10,000 to 

30,000 pop 
ulation 
347 cities 


3 4 5 6 


Median years of preparation beyond high-school graduation 


Kindergarten 
Elementary school. . 
Junior high school 
Senior high school 


Kindergarten 774 
Elementary school 675 
Junior high school 906 
Senior high school i 22,614 


Totalt 81,969 


® Does not include Negro teachers in segregated schools 
> Includes a few cities for which the distribution by school 


Number of teachers 


808 390 50 4,229 
19.636 11.265 8 158 108 611 
5,649 2,232 1,831 19 28 
11,578 7,445 6,039 5 795 


21,367 16,32 201 , 206 


division was not reported 








is so organized that figures are shown sepa- 
rately for each of five population groups and 
for each of four teaching classifications—kin- 
dergartens, elementary schools, junior high 
schools, and senior high schools.? 

The median level of preparation in 1938-39 
for the 201,206 teachers covered by Table 2 
was 4.2 years of training beyond high school.* 
The typical classroom teacher in this group of 
city school systems is one whose education rep- 
resents college graduation plus one or two ad- 
ditional college courses. The median level of 
preparation of teachers is identical in four of 
the five population groups of cities—4+.2 years. 
In Group IV,* cities 5000 to 10,000 in popula- 
tion, the median is higher by one-tenth of one 
year. 

This uniformity of 
among cities of different sizes may be sur- 


teacher preparation 
prising. The belief has been general that teach- 
ers in small towns and cities were less well 
educated than teachers in larger places. But 
Table 2 shows this belief to be erroneous, so far 
as this group of 1456 cities is concerned. The 
median years of training of kindergarten teach- 
ers is lowest in the largest cities and highest in 
the smallest cities, the median in Group V 


being seven-tenths of a year higher than 
large cities in Group |. Median training 
are almost the same for all population 
in each of the other school divisions, wit! 
tenths of a year as the widest variation s| 
Suppose that some unit of comparison 
than the median is used. Will it still ap; 
that teachers in small cities have spent 
as much time in preparing for their wo 
teachers in large cities? ‘Table 3 provides 
a basis for comparison by showing the « 
lative percents of teachers at the two wy 
training levels. The highest percents of kind 
garten teachers with four and five yea: 
training are found in the smallest cities. In « 
mentary schools no consistent trends in relati: 
to population can be observed. At the senio: 
high-school level the percent of teachers wit! 
four or more years of training is higher as the 
cities are smaller, going from 90.1 percent 
Group I cities to 94.4 percent in Group V. Th 
situation is reversed when the proportion ot 
teachers with as much as five years of trai: 
is considered—43.3 percent in Group | 
only 27.1 percent in Group V. 
In general, it appears that there are as mar 
college graduates in the small cities as in th 
large ones. The large cities do have the advai 


* See Appendix Table A for detailed figures basic to Table 2. 


* Statisticians will recognize the possibility that the interv 
heavily by individuals who have completed only four years of 


al of “four years of training but less than five’’ may be we 


training, whereas the calculation of the median assumes a 


distribution of cases thruout the interval. It seems reasonable to suppose, however, that the medians as presented are a 
approximation to the actual situation and are comparable in relation to one another. 
* For convenient reference the five population groups of cities, on the basis of the 1930 Census, are referred to by nu 


follows: Group I, cities over 100,000 in population; Group II, 


cities 30,000 to 100,000 in population; Group III, cities | 


30,000 in population; Group IV, cities 5,000 to 10,000 in population; Group V, cities 2,500 to 5,000 in population. 


TABLE 3.—PERCENT OF CITY TEACHERS WITH FOUR OR MORE YEARS OF 


PREPARATION, 1938- 


39, BY SIZE OF CITY“ 





School division and level of 
preparation 


Group I> 


2 
Kindergarten 
5 years or more 
4 years or more 
Elementary schools 
5 years or more 
4 years or more 
Junior high schools 
5 years or more 
4 years or more 
Senior high schools 
5 years or more 
4 years or more 
Total 
5 years or more 
4 years or more 


90 
18 
58 


Percent of teachers with level of preparation indicated 


Group II» Group OI Group IV' Group V' 


3 4 5 





* Does not include Negro teachers in segregated schools. 


» For population ranges see Table 1, p. 5 











however, of a greater proportion of teac h 


es with five years of training or more. 


School Division and Levels of 
Preparation 

The differences between elementary schools 
and secondary schools in levels of teacher prepa 
ration date back at least a hundred years. ‘The 
early normal schools were organized to train 
teachers for elementary grades while the liberal 
arts colleges were the source of teachers for the 
selected student bodies of the academies and 
the early public high schools. This distinction 
in sources of supply between elementary and 
secondary teachers has continued into the twen- 
tieth century, altho teachers colleges now are 
preparing high-school teachers in larger num 
bers than formerly. Salary differences between 
elementary- and high-school teachers, discussed 
in a later section of this report, are another 
symptom of this old distinction between the 
upper and lower age-groups of pupils. 

The chances of being taught by a college 
graduate are about the same for the pupil in a 
small town as for the pupil in a big city. But, 


regardless of city size, the child in the lowe: 


grades is very much less likely than his brothet 


in high school to receive class instruction from 


a teacher with four years of preparation. ‘Tables 
2 and 4 and Figure | give the basic compari 


TABLE 4.—PERCENT OF CITY TEACH- 
ERS AT EACH OF FIVE LEVELS OF 
PREPARATION, 1938-39, BY SCHOOL 
DIVISION * 





Less 2 years, 3 years, 4 years, 5 years 
than less less less or 
2 years than3 than4 thanS5 more 


School 

division 

l 2 3 4 5 6 

Kindergarten 2 46.0 22.1 26.2 
Elementary 38.1 18.9 33.6 
Junior high 2 10.4 8.3 57.5 
Senior high 6 >. 3.6 54.8 
Total 3.5 24.0 13.0 43.1 

} 


® Does not include Negro teachers in segregated s¢ 





sons. In the elementary schools about one 
teacher in three can claim college graduation o1 
its equivalent, but in senior high school the 
proportion is nine out of ten. The median ele 
mentary teacher has completed 3.4 years of 
college work; the median high-school teacher, 


4.8 years. 


FIGURE I 





P om | 
aS 


Less than 4 years 


oO 0 0 


Elementary 


Junior high 


Senior high 


LEVELS OF PREPARATION OF CITY TEACHERS, 1938-39, BY SCHOOL DIVISION 


ee 7 
tf 


5 


5 years or more 


Each symbol represents 10 percent of the teaching group concerned 




















professional qualifications for 
teachers in elementary schools have been recog- 
nized for years as not less than two years of 
normal school or college education. This mod- 
est standard is still ahead of actual practice in 
rural schools.® In city schools, however, this 


Minimum 


standard apparently is met or surpassed by the 
overwhelming majority of teachers. Only 4.8 
percent of the elementary-school teachers cov- 
ered by Table 4 have received less than two 
years of training and in secondary schools the 
proportion is much smaller. 


Regional Distribution and Levels of 
Preparation 


It has been shown that the average teacher in 
a small city is likely to be at about the same 
level of preparation as the average teacher in 
a large city. There is another basis for group- 
ing cities, however, by which rather substantial 
differences in levels of preparation appear, 
especially in elementary schools. 

In preparing Table 5 and Figure II, the 
cities were grouped in seven regions.°® 

The highest levels of preparation of kinder- 
garten and elementary teachers are found in the 
Southwest, where 4.4 years of preparation is 





the median for teachers in elementary s 
High levels of training are also reported 
teachers of elementary schools in the Sout! 
where the median is 4.1 years. So much 
been said of the financial handicaps suffe: 
southern schools that it may be surprisi; 
learn that so far as formal educational atta), 
ments are concerned, the median city teach 
in the Southeast is slightly above the ave 
for the country as a whole. 

California’s long-standing requirement 
five years of preparation for certificatio; 
high-school teaching * helps to account fo: 
very high levels of training of secondary tea 
ers in the Far West. Half of the junior hig! 
school teachers and 67.7 percent of the seni 
high-school teachers have completed five yea; 
of training or more. 

In all regions the high-school teachers 
above the elementary teachers in levels of prepa 
ration. The differences are greatest in the Mid 
dle Atlantic states and least in the Southwest 

Figures on levels of training were reported 
for the Territory of Hawaii as a whole. Thes 
figures, which include both rural and urbai 
teachers, 2855 in all, are not directly compa: 
able with those for city teachers in continental 
United States. The proportion of teachers hay 


5 Gaumnitz, W. H. Salary and Education of Rural School Personnel. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Office of Education, Pam; 


No. 85. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1938. p. 15. Shows that 31.9 percent of 175,441 rural teachers in |! 
had completed less than two years of preparation beyond high school 

® Odum, Howard W. Southern Regions of the United States. Chapel Hill, N. C.: University of North Carolina Press, | 
p. 5-11. Odum’s classification of states is followed except that the Northeast, which includes more than a third of the cities reportins 
is subdivided to show New England and the other northeastern states separately. The grouping is as follows: New England 


Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont; Middle Atlantic: 


Delaware, Maryland, New 


Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia; Southeast: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana 
Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia; Middle: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota 
Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin; Southwest: Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas; Northwest: Colorado, Idaho, Ka: 
Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming; Far West: California, Nevada, Oregon, and Washingt 


™See Appendix Table B for detailed figures basic to Table 5. 


8 Cook, Katherine M. State Laws and Regulations Governing Teachers’ Certificates. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau 
Education, Bulletin, 1927, No. 19. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1928. p. 264. 


TABLE 5.—MEDIAN LEVELS OF PREPARATION OF CITY TEACHERS, 1938-39, 











BY REGION * 

— 4 —- Southeast — Northwest Southwest Far West Total 
School division — , — — (117 (04 (102 (1,456 

ja pes ities) pas iti 
cities) cities) cities) cities) cities) cities cities) cities 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ~ 9 
Kindergarten... . 2.7 2.8 3.5 3.0 4.1 4.3 3.7 3.1 
Elementary school 2.8 2.8 4.1 3.5 3.6 4.4 3.8 3.4 
Junior high school. . . 4.1 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.6 5.0 4.5 
Senior high school. . 4.6 4.7 4.7 4.8 4.7 4.8 5+ 4.8 

3.4 3.9 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.5 4.6 4 
Number of teachers 21,650 49 031 19 369 70,660 11,377 12,778 16,341 201 , 20¢ 








® Does not include Negro teachers in segregated schools. 





[10] 








prepa 
Mid 


hwest 


ported 


Thes 
urbDal 


mpat 


lental 


s ha 


1, New 
uisiana 
inesot 


Kansa 





tal 
456 
es 


PU 


eS we Ww 


dO 





TABLE 6—LEVELS OF PREPARATION OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE IN SEGRE 
GATED SCHOOLS FOR NEGRO PUPILS IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1938-39, 
BY SIZE OF CITY 





School division and level of Group I* Group II« Group III* Group IV* Group V* Total 
preparation 13 cities 29 cities 49 cities 54 cities 74 cities 219 cities 
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 


Median years of preparation beyond high-school graduation 


hool 4 


ntary school 3 3 4 2.8 } 
r high school 4.5 4.2 3 1.3 4.1 ; 
ov, r high school 1.5 1.5 1.5 45 4.4 j 
+ 1 4 1 } 4.2 3.5 
Percent of teachers with four years of preparation or more 
Elementary school 40.1 16.4 10.1 50.1 27.1 iI 
ior high school 85 2? 60.5 15 8 62? 53 3 
Senior high school 85.0 87 3 7 oO 89 Q 86 3 
tal > ‘ S30 S56 6 54.3 6? 8 13.6 + 4 
Number of teachers » O84 1.980 1.022 696 548 


« For population ranges see Table 





ing completed four or more years of prepara- Levels of Preparation of Negro Teachers 


tion is 22.2 percent in elementary school, 84.9 Levels of preparation of Negro teachers, in 
percent in junior high school, 94.4 percent in the school systems where separate schools for 
senior high school, and 46.5 percent for all Negroes are maintained, are reported in ‘Table 
schools combined. 6. Figures are reported for 7230 teachers i1 


'See Appendix Table C for detailed figures basic to Table 


FIGURE II 





PERCENT OF CITY TEACHERS WITH FOUR OR MORE YEARS OF PREPARA- 
TION, 1938-39, BY REGION 


New England 


Middle Atlantic 





Southeast 





Middle States 












Northwezt 
' 
' 
' 
Southwest 
' 
\ 
Far West 
68.0 ’ 
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 ~—«100 
PERCENT OF TEACHERS ‘ 
A verage—all regions 
59.5% 
K search Divisi n National duc atior A atio 

















219 cities. All the cities, except eight in Mary- 
land, are located in the Southeast and South- 
west, a large majority being in the Southeast. 

The median level of preparation for this 
group of 7230 Negro teachers in city schools is 
4.1 years, or the equivalent of college gradua- 
tion. Expressed in percents, 54.4 percent of 
these teachers have completed four years or 
more of preparation beyond high-school gradua- 
tion. Less than a tenth, or 8.7 percent, most of 
whom are elementary teachers, are below the 
two-year level of training. 

The differences in training, when population 
groups are compared, show no consistent re- 
lationship to size of city. The situation appears 
to be less favorable in the Group V cities, be- 
tween 2500 and 5000 in population, than in 
larger cities, but the highest levels are not 
found in the largest cities. The largest propor- 
tion of teachers with four or more years of 
training is found in Group IV cities for the 
elementary schools, Group I for junior high 
schools, and Group III for senior high schools. 

The Negro teachers in senior high schools 
are about a year above the elementary teachers 
in levels of preparation, with 4.5 years of 
training as the median in high schools, and 3.4 
in elementary schools. 


Upward Trends in Levels of Preparation 


Nearly two decades ago, in 1920, a resolu- 
tion of the National Education Association pro- 
posed four years of study beyond high school 
as the minimum requirement for teaching: 


We commend and indorse the conviction, now so 
rapidly gaining favor in our profession and in the 
public mind, that those who enter the public-school 
service, whether they are to teach in rural schools 
or in urban schools, in elementary schools or in 
high schools, should have had a minimum of four 
years’ carefully planned preparation, following upon 
graduation from a four-year high school. We 
earnestly recommend the extension of the brief and 
quite inadequate programs for the preparation of 
teachers that now prevail.” 


In 1935 a yearbook of the National Society 
of College Teachers of Education proposed a 
still higher minimum standard of qualifications : 


The education of teachers should be c!} 
ized both by greater depth and greater brea 
should include a broad general education; ad 
specialized preparation, both academic and 
sional; and supplementary cultural contacts 
make for a truly liberal education. The ps 
education for all teachers should be lengt 


being extended as soon as possible to a minin 
five years of academic and professional ed 
beyond high school, of which the early years s 


be devoted to general education.” 


The 1920 proposal of the National Fy 
tion Association perhaps seemed radical at ¢} 
time, when less than a fourth of the city sc! 
teachers in service had completed as muc! 
four years of college or professional trainin: 
But in less than twenty years the prop 
minimum of four years of preparation has by 
reached by nearly 60 percent of all city teache: 

The five-year standard of the National S 
ciety of College Teachers of Education is «| 
ready met by 16 percent of all city teachers. 
It does not seem unlikely that another twent 
years will see the pioneering 1920 recommenda- 
tion of the National Education Associatio 
realized almost in full in city school systems 
with the median level of training of teacher; 
definitely above the five-year minimum p: 
posed in 1935. 

The extent of the change since 1919-20 
levels of training of city teachers is pictured in 
Figure III.‘° The lower limit of city size was 
8000 for the 1919-20 figures and 2500 for the 
1938-39 study, but in both years the levels ot 
training were about the same in all population 
groups, so the two sets of figures appear to be 
comparable. Almost the same percent of teach- 
ers were in the four-year level of training in 
1938-39 as were in the two-year level in 1919- 
20. The proportion of teachers with five o: 
more years of training has more than doubled. 
The median has risen from 2.5 to 4.2 years of 
preparation beyond high-school graduation. 

Figure III, of course, tells only a part of the 
story. A leveling-up process has been going on; 
the median preparation of elementary teachers 
was reported as 2.3 years in 1920 as compared 


1 National Education Association. Addresses and Proceedings, 1920. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1920. p 


1 National Society of College Teachers of Education, Yearbook Committee, Thomas Alexander, chairman 


The Edu 


Teachers. Yearbook 23. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1935. p. 12. : 
12 Strayer, George D., chairman. Know and Help Your Schools, National Committee for Chamber of Commerce Coopera 


with the Public Schools. New York: American City Bureau, 1920. p. 


24. (Reports training levels of 63,336 teachers, base 


questionnaire replies from superintendents of schools in 359 cities above 8000 in population. Nine years or more of training ab 
elementary schcol was reported for 6.1 percent of the teachers; 8 years, 15.0 percent; 7 years, 8.7 percent; 6 years, 43.5 per 
less than 6 years, 26.7 percent. In comparing the figures with those for 1938-39, the first four years above elementary scho« 


regarded as the equivalent of high-school graduation.) 
18 Figures for 1919-20 from Strayer, op. cit., p. 24. 


[12] 


















FIGURE III 





——— 





CHANGES FROM 1919-20 TO 1938-39 IN LEVELS OF PREPARATION OF 
CITY TEACHERS 


1919-20 





5 years or more 


4 years, less than 5 


3 years, less than 4 


2 years, less than 3 


Less than 2 years 


1938-39 

























20 40 


Percent of teachers 







Percent of teachers 


National Edu 











Figures for 1919-20 from Know and Help Your Schools. 





















rose less sharply, from 4.4 years to 4.8. An 


other factor which accounts for a part of the 


striking increase in the median preparation of 
all teachers is the larger proportion of secondary 
teachers. They make up more than 40 percent 
of the total number in the 1938-39 figures, 
whereas only 23.3 percent of the 1920 teachers 
were in junior or senior high schools. 

Specific illustrations of upward trends are 
shown in Tables 7 and 8 for several different 
school systems, and in Figure IV ** for the 
educational employees of a whole state. 

The hundredth year of professional educa 
tion of teachers in the United States has just 
ended. No one knows, or could define in terms 
usable today, the qualifications of the typical 
city school teacher of 1839. The writings of 
that day agree that the preparation of teachers 
was wholly inadequate. As this report shows, 
1939 found the average city school teacher to 


with 3.4 years in 1939. The high-school figure 






be a person who had completed four or more 
vears of formal academic schooling above the 
level of high-school graduation. ‘The figures 
give no measure of the quality, the breadth, or 
the scope of that schooling—only of its dura- 
tion. 

Teachers may well take pride in the simple 
fact that the mere length of training repre- 
sents college graduation or its equivalent. But 
the next step may be in the direction of an even 
greater achievement than that of the past hun- 
dred years, toward a qualitative enrichment of 
the teacher’s professional equipment. It is un- 
likely that the present trend toward a longer 
period of preservice preparation will be 
checked. The future may witness a develop- 
ment such as occurred in medical education 
some years ago when two or more years of 
undergraduate general education, four years 
of professional study, and a year of internship 


became standard practice.'® But in the mean- 


14 Pennsylvania Department of Public Instruction. Teacher Certification of Instructional and Administrative Emt n the 
Public Schools of Pennsylvania, 1937-1938. Bulletin 74, Research Circular No. 9. Harrisburg: the Department. p. 26. | es ir 
lude all instructional and administrative employees except county and assistant county superintendents of school 

15 See, for example, the seven-year curriculum for teachers proposed by: Neilson, N. P., chairman. “National Study of 


Professional Education in Health and Physical Education; National Committee Report on Standards.” Research Quarterly of the 


American Physical Education Association 6: 48-68; December 1935. See p. 59-65 


[13] 



















FIGURE IV 





1924 (51,703 teechers) 


1938 (63,757 teachers) 


42.3% 


=a 


FOURTEEN YEARS OF PROGRESS IN LEVELS OF TEACHER PREPARATION | 
IN PENNSYLVANIA 





Tr vr us 


10 20 30 40 50 
Black—percent of teachers with college certificates 


Gray—percent of teachers with normal-school certificates 


White—percent of teachers with standard, partial, and emergency certificates 


60 


Percent of teachers 


Research Division, National Education Associa 





Figures from Pennsylvania Department of Public Instruction. 


in the Public Schools of Pennsylvania, 1937-1938. p. 26 





Teacher Certification of Instructi 


Sebe, 


land Admi tive Employees 











TABLE 7.—AVERAGE LEVELS OF PREP- 
ARATION OF ELEMENTARY TEACH- 
ERS IN 14 CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 
1916-17 AND 1938-39 


TABLE 8.—CHANGES IN PERCENT OF 
TEACHERS WITH FOUR OR MORE 
YEARS OF PREPARATION, IN 10 CITY 
SCHOOL SYSTEMS 





Average years of 
preparation above Increase 
high school in 


1916-17 1938-39 


Over 100,000 in population 
San Antonio, Texas... 
30,000 to 100,000 in population 

Aurora, Illinois......... 

Joliet, Illinois ‘a 
Oak Park, Illinois. ...... 
Rockford, Illinois... . 
East Chicago, Indiana 


10,000 to 30,000 population 
Winnetka, Illinois. . 
Mishawaka, Indiana 
Whiting, Indiana. . . 
Norfolk, Nebraska. . 


§,000 to 10,000 population 
Douglas, Arizona. 
Boonville, Missouri... . . 
Bozeman, Montana 
Gallipolis, Ohio. 


NWN NN bt 





Source: Figures for 1916-17 on average years of preparation 
of elementary teachers from: Claxton, P. P., director. Educa- 
tional Survey of Elyria, Ohio. U. S. Department of the Interior, 
Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1918, No. 15. Washington, 
D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1918. p. 31. 


Figures for 1938-39 collected in present study. 


Percent of teachers 

with 4 or more 

Earlier Yrs of preparation 
year In 

earlier 
year 


In 
1938-39 





Over 100,000 in population 
Wilmington, Delaware 
Atlanta, Georgia*.... 
Peoria, Illinois» 

Gary, Indiana....... 
Springfield, Massachusetts 


1919-20 
1921-22 
1924 
1915-16 
1922-23 


30,000 to 100,000 population 
Pasadena, California 
Stamford, Connecticut” 
Binghamton, New York® 
Port Arthur, Texas... .. 
Racine, Wisconsin. . . 


1929-30 
1922-23 
1918 
1925-26 
1924-25 


69 75.¢ 
20 44 
14 50 
40 94.2 
20 50.3 





Source: Figures on percent of total teaching staff wit! 
more years of training for various years from 1915-16 to 1‘ 
computed from published school surveys for each of the 
named. Exact citations of sources will be sent on request 


Figures for 1938-39 collected in present study. 


® No kindergarten or junior high-school teachers in 192! 
the 1938-39 figure includes both 

>» No junior high-school teachers in earlier year; the | 
figure includes junior high schools 





[ 14 


] 





T OF 
MORE 
CITY 


—— 
teachers 
r more 

paration 


In 
1938-39 


the immediate emphasis turns upon the 
efiort to evaluate and improve the typical four 
ind five-year programs of teache prepa 


yeal 
ration NOW being oftered in arts colleges, teach 


ers colleges, and universities. 

[he improvements already being made, and 
those that will continue to be made, place upon 
teachers and school administrators already in 
service certain responsibilities not to be shirked. 
One is the individual effort, as much the duty 
of each principal and superintendent as of each 
classroom teacher, to renew continuously his 
own intellectual resources. A fourth of the city 


teachers now in service still are below thx 
three-year level of preparation. Many of thos 
who are college graduates left their respective 
training institutions without benefit of th 
comprehensive survey courses now being de 
veloped in many colleges and universities." 
These teachers are graduates of highly special 
ized college curriculums. They would have 
much to gain, at whatever age they now find 
themselves, by the effort to experience for them- 
selves the types of intellectual and social activity 
associated with the modern concept of general 
education.'* Self-directed reading, liberalizing 
and esthetic and formal 
courses in colleges and universities all have 


social experience, 
their place in carrying out such a program of 
professional rejuvenation. 

The gains both to teachers and to their 


®One recent fact-finding survey 


example, it is not uncommon to find high-school teachers who have had no contact \ 


college other than one or two courses in history, or who have n 
unusual to find a teacher whose preparation includes contact 
Association, Committee on the Subject-Matter Preparation of T 
mittee.”’ 5 

‘7 National Society for the Study of Education, Comm 
Eurich, chairman. General Education in the American. Colle 
School Publishing Co., 1939. 382 p. 


reported as follows The general education of teacher 


classes would be enormous if ovet 
years each teacher would svstematica 
his understanding of the broad fields of hu 
learning—such as science, the arts. 
ies, and the humanities. Even the 
classi 


historv, philosophy, and 


ditterent I the bottles oT contemy] 


thought. And it 


new 


almost vyoes W ithout 


the teacher needs from time to time 


that 
explore recent developments in the professional 


education. most urgently 
‘ ‘7 
needed of all is 


study of Perhaps 


a wider understanding of the 
social philosophy underlying American demo 
racy and of the practical activities which are 


the acceptance of the 


implicit in democrati 
wav of life 
teachers ha ( 


Administrators, as much 


an individual responsibility for self-improve 


ment and have a further responsibility for d 


veloping situations for professional growth that 
will meet the varying needs of teachers in sery 
ice. Principals and supervisors who keep men 
tally 
true worth of a broad educational background 


teachers. They 


fit themselves are able to recognize thre 


In selecting new are able also 


to help in organizing programs of professional 
activity that will be stimulating and challeng 


ing to the young teacher who brings to his 


teaching the combination of liberal education 
and professional specialization which the prep 
aration of prospective teachers should include 


usually seriously 


th any of the social studies in 


ever had even a } course in any of the biological 
with all of the fields of learning 
Frank E. Her k, chairmar 


eacher Final Report 


North Central Association Quarterly 12: 439-53 April 1938. p. 444 


ttee on General Education i 


] the American ( 
ze. Thirty-Eighth Yearbook 


n 
£ Part II. Bloomingtor 








II. Years of Experience 


When the preparation of teachers is studied, 
the natural assumption is that the higher the 
level of preparation, the better the situation. 
Is it also true that the higher the average years 
ot experience, the better the situation ? The an- 
swer to this question usually has been ‘“‘yes”’ be- 
cause the typical situation has been that of a 
transient teaching group lacking in adequate 
experience and maturity. Until the average 
level of experience is high enough to be repre- 
sentative of a life-career service, the answer 
will continue to be “yes.” One report on years 
of experience of teachers stated the need for 
longer tenure of service as follows: 

Stabilization or permanence of personnel may be 
considered a basic prerequisite of a profession. 
Adjustment to a community, acquaintance with its 
traditions, and knowledge of its social needs can 
come only thru continued residence. The high rate 
of transiency among teachers in public-school sys- 
tems in the past has been detrimental not only to 
educational planning but unquestionably has also 
been of significance in lowering the professional 
status of teaching in the public mind.’ 


What may be considered desirable as an av- 
erage level of experience depends on the num- 
ber of years assumed to be representative of a 
career service. If all teachers began their pro- 
fessional work between the ages of 20 and 25 
years and retired between the ages of 65 and 
70, a teaching career of about 45 years would 
be typical. Five years might be deducted trom 
this figure to allow for those who might enter 
late or who would drop out due to dismissals, 
resignations, and deaths, no matter how stable 
the profession. The average teacher, then, 
would spend about 40 years in the service of 
the schools, and the average experience of the 
whole teaching staff at any given time would be 
about 20 years. Each year about one-fortieth of 
the total number, or from 2 to 3 percent, would 
complete their teaching careers and would be 
replaced by as many young beginning teachers. 
These hypothetical figures refer to a teaching 
staff that neither grows nor shrinks in total 
numbers. If the total number must be in- 
creased, the additional teachers are likely to be 
young teachers and the average level of expe- 
rience goes down. If the total number of teach- 








Government Printing Office, 1935. p. 32. 
2 See Appendix Table D for detailed figures basic to Table 9. 


of Teachers in Service 


ers must be decreased, vacancies are lef: 
filled, the customary annual additions of 
teachers are not made, and the average | 
experience goes up. 

The average amount of experience of 
teachers has been rising in recent years, due } 
several different influences. But the levels oj 
experience are still below, rather than above 
levels which would be typical of a stable teac| 
ing service, 

Figures are presented in this section on | 
amount of teaching experience of nearly ty 
hundred thousand city teachers, by city siz 
school division, and region. The discussion ; 
fers also to the trend toward longer service 
by teachers and reviews some of the factors | 
fluencing this trend. 


Length of Service, by City Size 


Fourteen years of teaching is the media: 
level of experience for teachers in cities aboy: 
2500 in population, according to the figures for 
193,601 teachers reported in Table 9.? ‘Teach- 
ers who were rendering their first year of ser\ 
ice in 1938-39 made up 1.9 percent of the total 
teachers who had served 40 or more years 
made up another 1.9 percent. Figure V shows a 
distribution of the total according to four-year 
intervals. There are fewer teachers who have 
served less than 8 years than there are teachers 
who have served from 8 to 15 years. If the pro- 
fession were stabilized at 40 to 45 years as a nor- 
mal career of service, a substantial proportior 
of teachers, perhaps a fourth, would have con 
pleted more than 30 years of service. Figure V 
shows, however, that less than 10 percent of 
teachers have served more than 31 years. There 
are enough older teachers to represent the bal 
anced judgment of maturity, but larger num 
bers are found in the young group. 

Table 9 makes it clear that the larger cities 
have the more experienced teachers. A ditte: 
ence of nearly seven years is shown between thie 
median experience of 9.3 years for Group \ 
cities below 5000 in population, and the 16.0) 
years for Group I cities above 100,000 in popu 
lation. Many teachers who begin their service 


1 Evenden, Edward S.; Gamble, Guy C.; and Blue, Harold G. National Survey of the Education of Teachers: Teacher 
sonnel in the United States. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1933, No 


10, Vol. Il. Washington, D 


[ 16] 








TABLE 9.—MEDIAN YEARS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE OF TEACHERS 


IN 








to explain the situation of the larger cities. 


Length of Service, by School Division 


A marked advantage is shown for secondary 


teachers in levels of professional preparation 


but not in years of experience. For the whole 


FIGURE V 


years, respectively. 


school teachers. 
are a half year 


teac hers. 


lhe 


Wi 


ahe 


In Group I citie 


th 16.4 vears of ex 


ad of the elementary 


re is practically no ditterenc 


tween the two in Group II; in the thre 


maining 


served longe ré 


groups 


element 


ary 


tear he I 


] 


Junior high-school teache: 


SERVICE IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1938-39, BY SIZE OF CITY 
. Group I Group I Group II Group IV Group V 
Sc 1 < “= , > 
School division 53 cities 151 cities 345 395 cities 497 cities 
1 2 3 0 
r 5 i 4 1 
ry ci 5 \ 
igh scl 4 10 
igh school 16.4 5 } 
16.0 0 
iC ns) > ( 
* Does not include Negro teacher egreg | 
For population ranges see Tal 
, l . »- acte | | . | rover . . - fs } ] 
n smal towns are attracted to the larger cen group of teachers in cities of all 
ters after a year or two of experience. Better dian elementary teacher has nearly a mi 
salaries, better tenure provisions, and more of experiet than the senior h he 
favorable working conditions in general help teacher, the figures being 14.4 ye 13 


{ 


have 





"] 


Percent of teachers 
- 
° 
i 





Median, 14 years 


















































YEARS OF EXPERIENCE OF 193,601 CITY TEACHERS IN SERVICE, 1938-39 

















' 
5+ ' 
t 
t 
t 
t a 
t t 
1 
t t 
1 ‘ 
‘ t 
0 : i x 4 
0-3 4-7 8-11 12-15 16-19 20-23 24-27 28-31 32-35 36-39 40 and 
Years of experience \| 
Research Divis on National Ed Jcatio As ét 
[17] 











consistently younger in experience than those 
in elementary schools or senior high schools. 
The kindergarten teachers have served for 
even shorter periods, in three of the five popu- 
lation groups, and in the total for all cities. 


Length of Service, by Region 


Variations in length of service appear to be 
more closely related to size of city than to geo- 
graphic area. Some differences on the basis of 
region are shown in Table 10 but they are not 
extreme. In the Far West the average length 
of service is 15.4 years as compared with 12.5 
years in the Southeast and 12.9 in the South- 
west. The fact that the teachers in the two lat- 
ter regions are younger in experience than is 
typical for all cities probably is directly related 
to the fact that they are above average in 
median years of preparation. 

Figures on length of service for the 2855 
teachers in the Territory of Hawaii show a 
median of 10.9 years of experience. The me- 


*See Appendix Table E for detailed figures. 


dian for teachers in elementary schools js |? 4 
years; in junior high schools, 6.8 years; 
senior high schools, 9.5 years. 


Length of Service of Negro Teachers 


The amount of teaching experience of \ 
teachers in segregated schools was reported | 
217 cities, most of them in the Southeast. Ax 
shown in Table 11, the median amount of | 
perience in 1938-39 for the 7210 teachers 
11.3 years.* More than 16 percent of 
teachers had taught less than four years: n 
than a third of them had taught less than « 
years. One-fifth of the total number had « 
pleted 20 years or more of teaching experie: 

A tendency appears for experience to 
longer in large cities than in small cities 
to be longer in elementary than in second 
schools. In Group II, however, experience | 
els are higher than in Group I. Half of the « 
mentary teachers but only about a third of +! 
high-school teachers have been in service m 
than 12 years. 


TABLE 10.—MEDIAN YEARS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE OF TEACHERS IN 
SERVICE IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1938-39, BY GEOGRAPHIC REGION 





Po ll _— Southeast — Northwest Southwest Far West Total 
School division my Te (170 . oa (118 (92 (98 1,441 
- ~ cities) bie cities) cities) cities) cities 
cities) cities) cities) 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 
Kindergarten 14.3 15.1 11.7 12.2 9.7 11.7 13.1 13 
Elementary school 15.5 15.0 13.0 14.1 13.0 13.2 16.5 14.4 
Junior high school 13.7 13.5 44.35 13.9 12.0 11.5 14.5 13.3 
Senior high school 14.0 13.1 12.2 14.1 12.2 13.2 14.9 13. 
Total 14.8 14.2 12.5 14.0 13.4 12.9 15.4 14.( 
Number of teachers 21,143 47 340 18 606 68,461 10,044 11,917 16,090 19% 601 





® Does not include Negro teachers in segregated schools 





TABLE 11.—MEDIAN YEARS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE OF TEACHERS IN 
SERVICE IN SEGREGATED SCHOOLS FOR NEGRO PUPILS IN CITY SCHOOL 


SYSTEMS, 1938-39, BY SIZE OF CITY 











a Group I+ Group II* Group III* Group IV* Group V+ Total 
Scheel division (12 cities) (29 cities) (50 cities) (53 cities) (73 cities) 217 cities 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 
Elementary school . 12.2 14.3 11.5 10.4 7.9 12.2 
Junior high school ee : 9.5 12.1 9.7 7.4 7.0 9.7 
Senior high school. . 11.5 9.5 7.4 7.2 6.6 9.4 
Wei hk daa sss ; 11.8 13.1 10.4 9.1 7.5 11.3 
Number of teachers Ry ee ae 2,884 1,985 1,114 693 534 7,210 

















tal 
441 


1é€s 


IN 
}OL 


ies 








The Trend toward Longer Service for be somewhere near 20 years, which will b 
City School Teachers representative of a st ibilized teaching staff 


Figure VI shows the distribution of expe 


= a 5 ot ae ee ee a ee 
[he comment that “teaching is not a pro- ©Mce OF teachers a all grade levels (a) in citic 
eg . *r SOOO in pop t 91990. ar b) 3 
fession but a procession” may soon lose its point “©! in population in 1919-20, and (b) in 


S- 


so far as city schools are concerned. If the cuits over 10,000 in population In 
trend toward longer tenure of service that has went) percent of the 1920 teachers were in 
marked the last two decades continues the their first four years of teaching as compared 
average experience of city teachers will ap with only 10 percent in 1939, In round num 
proach a level typical of a permanent and bers, 40 percent of the teachers in 1919 u had 
stable profession. been teaching 12 years or longer; by 1938-39 

The change may be illustrated by figures for this proportion had increased to 65 percent 
elementary teachers in cities over 100,000 in If figures for individual cities are compared, 
population. In 1919-20 the median number of ¢ven more striking changes can be observe 


years of experience was 10.4 years; in 1930-31 than appear in the summary figures for many 
it was 12 years; in 1938-39 it was 15.9 vears.’ cities combined. For example, ‘Table 12 reports 
If the next two decades see another rise of five early figures from school surveys in ten cities 


years in the average experience of teachers along with corresponding data for 1938-39. In 


in service in these large cities, the average will eight of the ten cities the median experience of 


‘Strayer, George D., chairman. Know and Help Your Schools. National Committee for Chamber of Commerce Ci 
with the Public Schools. New York: American City Bureau, 1920. p. 27. (Figures for women elementary teacher 
based on questionnaire replies from superintendents of schools in 43 cities over 106 n population. ) 

Evenden, op. cit., p. 32. (Median of state medians, based on individual repli¢ n 1 1 from 50.163 ele 
in cities over 100,000 in population. ) 

Figures for 1938-39 for 42,731 elementary teache based on questionnaire eplie ir uperintende 

ties over 100,000 in population. See Appendix Table D of this bulletir 

5 Data for 1919-20 in Figure VI are based on Strayer, George D., op. cit § Data for 1938 for Groups I, IT. and III 
as shown in Appendix Table D of this bulletin. (The form of Figure II wa ested by a ar chart in the f t 
Springfield Public Schools. 40,000 Years. Springfield, Ma the Schools, 1 


FIGURE VI 





CHANGES FROM 1919-20 TO 1938-39 IN YEARS OF EXPERIENCE OF 
TEACHERS IN SERVICE IN CITIES OVER 10,000 IN POPULATION 


Less than | 
| 
| 


12-19 years 20 years and ove 


0 O0/;0 0 O QID Q QO O 
1919-20 | 
(68,291 teachers in 
cities over 8,000 
in population) 


1938-39 
(156,213 teachers in 
cities over 10,000 
in population) 


4 years 4-11 years 














Each symbol represents 10 percent of the teaching group concerned 


Research Division, National Education A ciatior 





Figures for 1919-20 from Know and Help Your Schools. New York: American City Bureau, 1920. p. 28 








[19] 











TABLE 12.—CHANGES IN LEVELS OF EXPERIENCE OF TEACHERS IN SERVICr 
IN CERTAIN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 





. Earlier 
City year 
1 2 
Gustin I—Cities over 100,000 in population 
Wilmington, Delaware . artes 1919-20 
Atlanta, Georgia 1921-22 
Peoria, Illinois 1924 
Springfield, Massachusetts 1922-23 
Group I1I—Cities 30,000 to 100,000 in — 
Stamford, Connecticut . 1922-23 
Holyoke, Massachusetts 1929-30 
Port Arthur, Texas 1925-26 
Racine, Wisconsin 1924-25 
Group III—Cities 10,000 to 30,000 in Seepaenane 
Boise, Idaho. 1919 
1921-22 


Augusta, Maine 


Source: 
1938-39 collected in present study. 

® No kindergarten or junior high-school teachers in 1921-22 

> Includes kindergartens. 

© No junior high school in first year reported on; 


Figures for y years prior to 1938- 39 computed from | published school surveys for ‘each of the 


Median years of experien 

of teachers 
School division - 
In earlier 


In Incre 
year 1938-39 in years 
3 4 5 6 
Total... 9.9 16.4 
Elementary 9.0 16.3 
High school 9.4 18.3 
Total® 9.1 16.8 
Elementary 14.1 8 ) 
High school 8.8 12.8 4 
Elementary» 13.2 21.7 g 
Junior high school 13.8 23.7 
High school 13.5 24.6 11 
Total 13..$ 23.1 ) 
Elementary’ 11.9 13.7 1 
High school 14.3 16.7 
Totale 12.4 33... 0.7 
Elementary» 22.0 28.3 
Junior high school 15.7 22.4 ) 
High school 16.0 21.2 5 
Elementary 5.6 7.6 
High school 4.8 3.3 
Totale 5.3 9.1 
Elementary 10.4 18.8 g 
Junior high school 12.8 14.0 
High school 13.0 16.0 
Total 11.4 16.7 5 
Elementary 10 11.6 1 
High school 8.5 15.0 6.5 
Elementary» 9.4 8.0 1 
High school 4.6 11.6 
Total 8.8 9.4 0 


Figure 


cities named 


; the 1938-39 figures include both. 


the 1938-39 figures include junior high-school teachers 





at least one group of teachers has increased 

five years or more in the period covered. 
What have been the causes of this increased 

permanency of service of city school teachers? 
What are the implications of this trend for 
school administration? The influences at work 
are numerous, some working for greater per- 
manence and some against it. A mere listing 
of a few of the obvious factors in the situation 
should prevent any deceptively simple explan- 
ation of what is happening. For example: 

A. These influences are tending toward greater 
permanence in the teaching profession in city 
school systems: 

1. Certification requirements are demanding 


longer training and professional speciali- 
zation in preparation for teaching, thus 


nN 


[ 20] 


making it less likely that teaching will | 
used as a stop-gap in preparing for som 
other professional occupation. 

Tenure laws, retirement systems, sick leav: 
rules, and other provisions are improving 
the working conditions of teaching and 
making it more desirable as a career. 

. Tenure laws and local tenure policies in 
some states and cities are protecting th: 
employment status of women teachers 
who marry and are protecting all teachers 
from dismissal on personal or politica! 
grounds. 

. Average salaries of city teachers improved 
during the decade of the 1920’s sufficient! 
to represent an increase in the real wages 
of teachers in many cities. 

. New salary schedules in recent years hay: 
increased the length of time required to 
reach the maximum of the schedule. This 











policy has made it possible to set higher 
maximum salaries, which are reserved 
those who remain long in the school sery 
ice. 

6. The increased use of single-salarv sched 
ules is tending to reduce the number wf 
experienced and well-trained teachers 
who formerly were promoted from ele 
mentary to high schools, and thus makes 
for greater permanence of service within 
the elementary-school field. 


Che industrial unemployment which became 


acute early in the decade of the 1930's 
has tended by contrast to improve the 
relative attractiveness of teaching and to 
hold in the profession those already estab 
lished in it. 


These influences are tending toward transiency 


in the teaching profession im city school sys 


tems: 


1. Salaries in teaching are low as compared 
with those in other occupations requiring 
a similar period of preparation. Many 
young teachers, after a brief experience 
with the kind of close economy which 
school salaries require, decide to start 
over in some occupation which will pay 
better. In many cities young men who de 
sire to establish homes cannot adequately 
support a family and remain in the teach 
ing profession. 

2. Salaries are lower and working conditions 
are less favorable in small cities than in 
larger ones, with the result that small 
cities lose many of their most ambitious 
teachers to the large school systems, some 
of which require one or two years of 
experience as a prerequisite for appoint 
ment. 

3. In many smaller cities a standard pattern of 
life is expected from teachers which is so 
different from that of other citizens that 
young persons of spirit leave the profes 
sion rather than resist or yield to the 
community pressure for conformity. 

4. Women teachers who marry are dismissed 
from service in many cities; some women 
teachers who marry resign from service 
voluntarily. 

5. In many communities a ban on marriage is 
combined with low salaries and a policy 
of localism in making all appointments 
so that teaching offers little inducement 
except to young women who can live in- 
expensively at home until they marry. 





6. Low tification requireme 
states make it easy to use teaching as 
te porary source of income w 
iring tor some other occupa 
( T/ f fors are tendir to redu f f 
tion of young teachers and thu 
wwerage years of experienr , ; 
1. Decreases in school enrolments in é 
tary schools are being interpreted to me 
that tewer teachers are needed. Inst { 


of such measures as reducing class size 


providing needed personnel workers, and 


meeting the demands for preschool and 
idult education, schoolboards a iving 
icancies unfilled and the proportion o 

older teachers tends to rise 

2 The extreme economy measures of the 1 
pression period held down the numbe 
teachers by enlarging class size and 
reducing services. Vacancies were left 
filled and the proportion ot older teachers 
tended to rise. 

3. In some cities where retirement systems 
are not provided, the older teachers 
continued in service far beyond a normal 


etirement age 


The outline just given suggests the complex 
ity of the problem of permanence in the teach 
ing profession. Any local school system desirin 
to reduce the transiency of the school staft 
might use this list of factors as a starting point 


in analyzing and improving the local situation 


In many systems the teaching 
of two more or less distinct parts one 
manent group of mature people who intend to 
continue teaching until the age of retiremetr 
the other a less stable group of younger people 


some oft those mn the second group W ill cquire 


mastery in the art of teaching and will remain 
in the profession; some will leave it. Both the 
older and the vounget teachers will be he Iped 
by the stimulus of a challenging professional 
program within the school service. ‘he needs 
of the two groups are equal but not identical 
and should be recognized as separate problems 
in the plans which teachers and school ad 
ministrators make for professional growth in 


service. 





III. Salaries in Relation to Preparation and Experience 


The past twenty years have seen a striking during the World War period and were 
rise in the level of training and experience of ally below prewar levels in purchasing p 
city teachers; they have witnessed also an up- By 1925 the losses of the war years had 
ward trend in teachers’ salaries. Whether or overcome. Between 1925 and 1931 the ay: 
not the increase in salaries has been commensu- _ salary of al/ teachers moved upward faster 1 
rate with the improvements in training and the estimated average salary of city teac! 
experience cannot be stated, because no com- ‘The city teachers however received lighte: 
mon unit of measurement can be applied to the ary cuts during the depression than cou 
changes that have occurred. Increased salaries teachers and apparently there has been mor 
and increased training probably have had a re- progress in cities than in the country tow 
ciprocal influence on each other, higher salaries restoration of those cuts. By 1939 the estimated 
tending to encourage teachers to acquire better average salary of all city teachers combined y 
preparation, and better preparation tending to near the predepression figures but in many ce: 
justify the payment of higher salaries. ters, especially the smaller cities, severe reduc 

‘The trends in estimated average annual sal- tions still were in effect. ‘The changes in th 
aries of all teachers, principals, and supervisors purchasing power of the dollar reported 
since 1920, and of city classroom teachers since Table 13 show that, in spite of downward 
1925, are shown in Table 13. Salaries in 1920 trends in the depression years, city teachers 
were extremely low. They had risen but slowly average salaries are higher in real value th 


TABLE 13.—ESTIMATED AVERAGE ANNUAL SALARIES OF TEACHERS IN 
PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 1920 TO 1939 





All teachers, principals, Classroom teachers in cities Purchasing 
and supervisors over 2,500 in population power of 
- — —— —— the dollar 
Estimated Index Estimated Index (1923-1925 
average (1925 equals average (1925 equals equals 
salary 100) salary 100) $1.00 


2 3 4 5 6 


1920 4 ea ‘ $871 $0.86 
1921 ‘ ,091 87. 0.98 
1922.. : , 166 F 1.03 
1923 oe ,197 95. 01 
1924... ,227 98. re 1.01 


1925 .252 100. 
1926 ° ,277 
1927.. , , 320 
1928 : , 364 108. 
1929.. , 392 


1930 , : ,420 

_ er , . ‘ .440 

1932.. : ‘ 417 

1933... ows , ‘ ,316 

1934. . . ,227 98 

1935... ; ‘ ° . , 244 99. : 96.7 1 
1936 , 283 102. ier 8s &. 
1937. ,320 105. ° 103.1 1.18 
1938 ore , 360 108. er ; 1 
1939 : ; . . ae , 380 110 1,903 109.7 1 





Sources: Column 2: Figures for 1920, 1922, 1924, 1925, 1926, 1928, 1930, 1932, 1934, and 1936 from U. S. Office oi 
Education, Biennial Survey of Education. For 1921, 1923, 1927, 1929, and 1937 by direct interpolation. Figures for 1931, 19 
1935, and 1938 are estimates of the National Education Association based on data from 40 states, 23 states, 32 states, and 35 states 
respectively. Figures tor 1938-39 are estimated by the Research Division on the basis of city returns 

Column 4; Estimates of the Research Division of the National Education Association to include all classroom teachers 
cities over 2500 in population, based on the study reported in the Research Bulletin of the National Education Association fo! 
the month of March in the years 1925, 1927, 1929, 1931, 1933, 1935, 1937, and 1939. 

Column 6: Calculated as reciprocals of the cost-of-living index for wage-earners in cities, published by the U 
of Labor Statistics. Monthly Labor Review 48: 1358; June 1939. 

* September 1939. 


2 





[ 22] 














they were fifteen or twenty years ago. But they 
ire still far below a professional salary stand- 
ird 

Teaching is one form of public employment ; 
t must compete tor 
ranches of the public service and with other 


its recruits with othe 
rofessions requiring specialized preparation. 
\s one illustration of the disadvantages faced 
1y the schools in this competition, mention may 
ve made of the fact that the minimum salary 
of the lowest professional erade in the classified 
service of the federal government is $2000. 
This minimum salary of $2000 is nearly $100 
ibove the 1938-39 


teachers and more than $600 above the average 


average salary of city 
salary of all educational employees in city and 
rural schools. As the distribution in Table 14 
shows, it is estimated that less than 40 percent 
of the city teachers in the United States re 
ceived salaries in 1938-39 as high as $2000 and 
9 percent of them received salaries below $1000. 

Altho 


preparation all have been rising in recent years, 


salaries, experience, and levels of 


it does not follow, for the country as a whole, 
that the experienced and well-qualified teach 
ers are the best paid. To study the exact rela 
tionship of salaries to preparation and experi 
ence, the records of individual teachers would 
be needed. Lacking such data, information by 
cities reported for this study can be used to 
show a rough measure of the relationship of 
the three factors of salaries, preparation, and 
experience. Certain other illustrations of these 
relationships have been brought together and 
are presented in this part of the bulletin. 


Salaries and Preparation 


Table 15 (p. 24) gives the results of caicu- 
lating median salaries paid classroom teachers 
(a) in cities above the average in levels of prepa 
ration, (b) in cities near the average, and (c 
in cities below the average in levels of prepara 
tion.? Such figures are shown for elementary 
teachers, junior high-school teachers, and senio1 
high-school teachers in each of five population 
groups, thus making fifteen sets of comparisons. 
In four of the five population groups the median 





TABLE 
TION OF 


14.—ESTIMATED 
SALARIES 


PAID 


DISTRIBU 


20 Cery 


SCHOOL CLASSROOM TEACHERS IN 


THE 


UNITED 


STATES, 


1938-39 





Salary class 


l 
$4,600 
+,500--4,59 
4+,400-—4, 49° 
4,300—4,399 
4,200—4,299 
4,100—4, 19% 
4,000—4,099 
3,900—3,999 
3,800—3,89 
3,700—3,79' 
3,600—3,699 
3,500—3,599 
3,400-—3 499 
3300-3399 
3,200-3 
3,100—3,199 
3,000—3,099 
2,900-2 99 
2,800—2,89 
2,.700—2,799 
2,600—2 699 
2,500—2,599 
?, 400-2.499 
? 300-2 ,399 
2,200—2,29 
?,100—2,19 
? 000-2099 
1,900—1,99 
1,800—1,899 
1,700—1,799 
1,600-—1,699 
1,500-—1,599 
1,400—1,49* 
1,300—1,39 
1,200-—1,29° 
1,100—1,199 
1,.000—1,.099 
900 999 
800 899 
700 799 
600— 699 
500 599 
Below 500 
Total 
M 
S N I 
i 1 Er 
5 \I 1 ] 
tend 
rt ding N eache 
Pp Doe 
lowest for cities 


highest where training is low; in o 


Estimated 
number of 
teachers 


17,043 


W here 


Percent 
in each 
class 


6 
0 


training 


salary of elementary teachers is shown to be there is an exact reversal of the 
1 United States Civil Service Commission. Classification Statutes. Washington, D Gove é I 
p. 26. (Professional and scientific service, Grade 1, $ $2600; Grade 2, § $32 et ip to Grade 
2 Complete distributions of salaries paid to classroom teachers in 1938 I $1 terva were rey f 
Division of the National Education Association by 1850 city school systems. The following bulletin su 
National Education Association, Research Division. ‘Salaries of School Employees, 1938-39 Research Bu 
March 1939. Price 25¢ 
Che information on 1938-39 salaries used in Tables 15, 16, 17, and 20 based on the original sala é 
previous study, but is limited to cities replying to the questionnaire on training and experience 


[ 23] 





Percent re- 
ceiving salaries 
in or above the 
class indicated 


is high a 






which might be expected. A similar negative 
relationship is found for junior high-school 
teachers’ salaries. But when senior high-school 
salaries are compared thus, using five years of 
preparation as the basis of classification, a con- 
sistent tendency appears for salaries to be higher 
where training is higher, average where train- 
ing is average, and lower where training is 
lower. 
Salaries and Experience 


The amount of experience of teachers in 
service was the basis for grouping cities in pre- 
paring Table 16. The percent of teachers hav- 
ing twelve or more years of experience was cal 
culated for each city, some cities having 75 per- 
cent or more teachers with twelve years of ex- 
perience, some having less than 30 percent, and 
others falling in intermediate groupings. ‘he 
median salary of teachers in each group of 
cities is shown. As in Table 15, the salary com- 
parisons are made for three school divisions and 
five population groups. Unlike the results of 
Table 15, however, a consistent tendency ap- 


pears in all groups. In each comparis 
median salaries are highest in the cities } 
the high percents of teachers with long e 
ence and lowest where experience leve! 
low. In eleven of the fifteen series of 
the median salaries for each intermedia: 
perience grouping also show a consistent 
tive relationship between level of exp: 
and amount of salary. The differences in s 
levels between cities with many experie: 
teachers and those with few experienced t 
ers are much greater in large cities than i: 


cities. 


Preparation and Experience of Neg: 
Teachers as Related to Salaries 


Tables similar to Tables 15 and 16 wer 
pared for the Negro teachers in segre; 
schools. These figures are not being report 
however, as they fail to show anything m 
ingful. Ten different series of figures on 
aries related to experience and five on salaries 
related to training include only one grou; 


TABLE 15.—MEDIAN SALARIES PAID CLASSROOM TEACHERS IN CITY SCHOOL 
SYSTEMS, GROUPED ACCORDING TO LEVEL OF PREPARATION OF TEACH 


ERS, 1938-39 * 





School division, level of Group I» 


Group II> 


Group IV‘ Group V 


Group ITI» 





preparation, percentage 
——s of cities salary 


Number Median Number Median Number Median Number Median Number Median 
of cities salary 


of cities salary of cities salary of cities salary 





1 2 3 4 





Elementary teachers in cities 
where the percent of elemen- 
tary teachers with four or more 
years of preparation is: 

50 percent or more 
25 to 49 percent 
Less than 25 percent... 

Junior high-school teachers in 
cities where the percent of 
junior high-school teachers 
with four or more years of 
preparation is: 

90 percent or more... . 
70 to 89 percent....... 
Less than 70 percent 

Senior high-school teachers in 
cities where the percent of 
senior high-school teachers 
with five or more years of 
preparation is: 

50 percent or more 
25 to 49 percent 
Less than 25 percent....... 


25 
68 
38 


.724 
.455 
,221 


15 
21 
17 


7 8 9 10 11 


39 1,575 
92 ,461 
168 1,342 


53 1 
112 1 
103 1 


,900 
,625 
,498 


54 
115 
108 


1,989 
1,745 
1,707 


2,312 
1,975 
1,968 





Read as follows: Of the Group I cities for which salary information was available, there were 15 cities where 50 percent « 


more of the elementary teachers had completed four years or more of preparation above high-school graduation. 


media 


The 


salary of all the elementary teachers in these 15 cities was $1710. 


* Does not include Negro teachers in segregated schools. 
» For population ranges see Table 1, page 5. 





[ 24] 





TABLE 16.—MEDIAN SALARIES PAID CLASSROOM TEACHERS IN CITY SCHOOI 


SYSTEMS, GROUPED ACCORDING TO AMOUNT OF EXPERIENCE OF 


ERS, 1938-39 * 


TEACH 





i Group I 
School division, amount of _— 


experience, and percentage 


: Number 
grouping 


of cities 


Mex 


sal 


Number 


of cities 


lian 
ary 


> 


teache 
the percent 
who have 
ot exper 


teachers 
r more 
5 percent or more 
74 percent 
to 59 percent 
44 percent 
than 30 percent 
high-school  teaci 
where the 
high-school teachers 
have 12 years or more otf 


percent 


4 
xperience is: 


5 percent or more 


60 to 74 percent 

45 to 59 percent 

) 44 percent 
Less than 30 percent 
high-school te 
where the 
enior high-school 
who have 12 years or more of 


wt 

tor boner in 
ties percent 

teachers 


experience is: 
75 percent or more 
60 to 74 percent 
45 to 59 percent 
30 to 44 percent 
Less than 30 percent 


Read as follows: Of the Group I cities for which s 
of the elementary teachers had completed 12 
elementary teachers in these 14 cities was $2063 

* Does not include Negro teachers in segregated 

» For population ranges see Table 1, page 5 

© Includes all cities with less than 60 percent 

4 Includes all cities with less than 45 percent 

¢ Includes all cities with 60 


more 


cho 


percent or more 


(sroup II 


information Vv 


or 


Group IV 


Median 


salary 


Number 


‘ 
oO 


Median 


Salary 


Numt 


cities 


5 


14 citi 
rhe 


there were 


more of rience 





in which there is any consistent relationship, 
either positive or negative, between salaries and 
the other variable. There is nothing to indicate 
that the cities employing well-prepared Negro 
teachers of long experience are paying those 
teachers either more or less than other cities 
are paying to less well-qualified teachers. 


Regional Comparisons 


Median salaries for 1938-39 in the cities re- 
plying to the questionnaire on training and 
experience are shown in Table 17 for each 
geographic region. It appears that average sal- 
aries in the Middle Atlantic states and in the 
Far West are about 50 percent higher than the 
average salaries paid in the Southeast and 
Southwest. The salary figures are limited to 


the cities for which training and experience 
were reported, and hence do not include New 


4 


- 


TABLE 17.—AVERAGE SALARIES PAID 
CLASSROOM TEACHERS IN CERTAIN 
CITIES, BY GEOGRAPHIC REGION, 
1938-39 * 





Average 
annual salary 
of classroom 

teachers, 

1938-39 


Number of 


Re 
— cities 


2 3 


New England 
Middle Atlantic 
Southeast 
Middle States 
Northwest 
Southwest 

Far West 


166 
346 
165 
444 
115 
04 
101 


$1,795 
022 
359 
7§2 
572 
455 
141 
® Limited to 1431 


cities and 


mentary, 


reporting on training 
perience of teachers. Includes classroom teachers in el 
kindergarten, junior high, and senior high 
Does not include Negro teachers in segregated schools 
> The average salary for the Middle Atlantic 
higher if New York City were included 


ex- 


atypical, schools 


region Wo ild 


be 





5] 








York City. The relative salary advantage of 
the Middle Atlantic region would be more 
striking if New York were included. 

The map in Figure VII shows the average 
level of salaries, preparation, and experience in 
each of six regions.* Teachers in the Northeast 
are relatively low in preparation and high in 
salaries and experience; the Far West is high 
in all three. The Southeast and Southwest are 
average or high in preparation and low in sal- 
aries and experience. Budget studies show that 
costs of living are slightly lower in southern 
cities than in other regions, but the differences 
in salaries, as shown in Table 17, are far 
greater.‘ It seems clear that teachers in the 
Southeast and Southwest are receiving much 
less in real wages than teachers in other parts 
of the country, in spite of the fact that their 
professional qualifications are high. 


State Studies of Relationship 


The relationship of salaries to prepara- 
tion and experience thus far presented are 
based on comparisons from city to city. More 
sensitive measures are possible when based on 
comparisons among individual teachers. Sev- 
eral such studies have -been made in state and 
local school systems; two of the most exten- 
sive recent surveys of this kind are summarized 
in Tables 18 and 19. 

Figures on salaries of some 8000 teachers 
in Minnesota cities below 30,000 in population 
are given in Table 18. A glance at the indexes 
of relationship will show that the size of the 
town appears to have more influence on salaries 
than either the experience or the training of 
the teachers. When size of city is disregarded 
and teachers are classified according to length 
of service, it appears that the highest salaries 
are earned by the teachers of twenty years and 
more of experience. When level of preparation 
is the basis of grouping, the best paid teachers 
in the elementary schools are those with less 
than two years of training. In the high schools 
the teachers with less than four years of train- 


TABLE 18.—RELATIONSHIP OF VApy. 
OUS FACTORS TO LEVELS opr 
TEACHERS’ SALARIES IN MINNeg 
SOTA CITIES BELOW 30,000 IN Pop. 
ULATION, 1937-38 





Elementary Secondar 
schools schools 
Factors ao Index 
Median “OWS Median ‘lowest 
salary median salary “© !an 
equals “equals 
100) l 
1 2 3 4 
Population of towns 
500 and under $766 100.0 $955 104 
501— 1,000 857 111.9 1,023 1 
1,001-— 1,500. 914 119.3 1,119 1 
1,501— 2,500. 963 125.7 1,180 1 
2,501— 5,000 1,049 136.9 1,286 134 
5,001-10,000 1,147 149.7 1,383 } 
10,001—30,000 1,344 175.5 1,633 1 
Years of teaching ex perience 
oe 784 100.0 974 104 
2- § 858 109.4 1,086 11 
6-10 947 120.8 1,273 1 
11-20.. 1,082 138.0 1,439 14 
21-25.. 1,265 161.4 1,630 1 
26 and over 1,198 152.8 1,591 
Years of training above high 
school 
Less than 2 years 1,150 128.6 
Two years ‘ 894 100.0 
More than 2, less than 4 
years.... 1,017 113.8 
Less than 4 years 1,316 1 
Four years 937 104.8 1,086 100.0 
More than 4, less than 5 
WEES. cc cas 1,012 113.2 1,233 113.5 
Five years.... 950 106.3 1,258 115.8 
More than 5 years.. 980 109.6 1,438 13 
Source: Minnesota Education Association, Committ 


~~ 


Research and Information. Facts and Figures on 
Salaries, 1929-1938. St. Paul: the Association, 1939. 
24-27. (Calculations based on individual records of 
mentary teachers and 4397 high-school teachers.) 





ing are paid more than those with either fou 
or five years of training. The teachers wit! 
more than five years of training are, howeve: 
at the top in high-school salaries. 

The Minnesota report includes figures als 
for the three largest cities in the state, not 
included in Table 18, that show the 
slight or erratic relationship between prepara 
tion and salaries.° 

Another state study, covering more tha: 


same 


*In preparing Figure VII, the figures for New England and the Middle Atlantic regions are combined in a single figure 
the Northeast: average salary, $1953; median preparation, 3.8 years; median experience, 14.4 years 
*U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Changes in Cost of Living. Serial No. R.1008. Washington, D. | 


Government Printing Office, 1939. p. 11-14. 


(Average cost of living at maintenance level approximately 6 percent lower 


nine large southern cities than in 22 large cities in other regions.) 


“Differences in Living Costs in Northern and Southern Cities.” Monthly Labor Review 49: 22-38; July 1939 


(Figure 


December 1938 show costs in southern cities to be 3.1 percent lower than in northern cities in one comparison; 3.9 perc: 


lower in another comparison.) 


5 Minnesota Education Association, Committee on Research and Information. 


1929-1938. St. Paul: the Association, 1939. p. 39-46. 


Facts and Figures on Teachers Salari 


[ 26] 








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OF 


NNE 


POP. 





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as 


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— 


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Fae 








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6E-8E6l ‘SW3ISAS TOOHDS ALID NIV 143) NI 
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12,000 Michigan teachers, is reported in Table 
19. Again the evidence indicates that in the 
elementary schools and senior high schools 
teachers below the four-year level of training 
are about as well paid as are the college grad- 
uates. But teachers with as much as five years 
of preparation appear to have received salary 
recognition. In the Michigan junior high 
schools a clear-cut tendency appears for salaries 
to be higher with each added year of pro- 
fessional preparation. 


Why the Disparity between Qualifica- 
tions and Salaries? 


It has been shown that when figures for 
many different school systems are brought to- 
gether there is some evidence that teachers of 
long experience tend to receive higher salaries 
than the younger teachers, if the school sys- 
tems compared are in cities of approximately 
the same size. But the small cities pay smaller 
salaries to well-experienced teachers than the 
large cities pay to those with much less ex- 
perience. 

There is little evidence, even when com- 
parisons are limited to cities of like size, that 
the teachers with high professional preparation 
are paid better than those with little prepara- 
tion, if teaching in elementary schools. At the 
high-school level, when cities of the same popu- 
lation group are compared, there does appear 
to be a relationship between salaries and prep- 
aration for teachers who have completed as 
much as five years of preparation. 


® The disparity in salaries between large and small cities is 
of elementary teachers was 74 percent higher in Group I cities 


Table 20 brings together figures o: 
ration, experience, and salaries of t 
showing the variation on basis of « 
school division, and region. Indexes sh 
amount of variation within each of th 
groupings. This table summarizes mu 
has been given in more detail in previo 
tions, but the figures on average sala: 
cording to size of city and school divisi: 
not shown elsewhere. The salary figures ) 
sent only the cities reporting on trainir 
experience as well as salaries and hen 
somewhat lower than they would be if \ 
York City were included. 

The average salary in Group I| cit 
62.1 percent higher than the average 


in Group V cities. Median years of experie: 


vary according to city size in the same wa 
the average salaries. But median 
preparation vary not at all with size of 
These three sets of figures help to explai 
lack of consistent relationship between lev: 
preparation and levels of salaries. Wealth 
are concentrated in the 


yeatr 


cities 


income 


larger the city the greater the wealth. Son 
progress has been made toward equalizi: 


school support, but not enough to oftset 
local economic advantages of the large cit 
which have been able to pay higher salarie 


teachers than could be paid in the smaller co 


munities.® The higher salaries have tended t 
tain teachers longer in the large cities than i: 
small ones, and to draw off experienced tea 


from the smaller cities with the result that t 


increasing rather than growing less. In 1925 the mediar 
than in Group V; by 1938-39 the difference was 10 


The corresponding salary advantage for high-school teachers in the large cities was 70 percent in 1925 and 90 percent 


(Research Bulletin of the National Education Association, Vol. 3: 


27-28; Vol. 17: 70, 74.) 


TABLE 19.—MEDIAN SALARIES OF TEACHERS IN VILLAGE AND CITY SCHOOLS 
IN MICHIGAN, 1937-38, ACCORDING TO LEVEL OF PREPARATION 





Level of preparation 
of teachers Median 


salary 


2 


Elementary 


Index 
(lowest 
salary 
equals 100) 


Junior high Senior high 


Index 
Mediian 
salary 


(lowest 
salary 
equals 100) 


4 


Median 


salary salary 


3 5 6 7 





$1,348 
1,367 
1,361 
1,625 


Less than 3 years.... 
Three years....... 
Bachelor's degree 
Master's degree 


$1,517 102 
1,482 
1,484 


1,901 


100.0 
108.8 
118.4 
134.2 


$1,376 
1,497 
1,629 
1,847 


100.0 
101.4 
101.0 
120.5 





Source: Michigan Education Association, Subcommittee of Professional Problems Committee. A Survey of Teachers Sa 
in Michigan, 1937-38. Bulletin No. 35, 1938. Lansing: the Association, May 1938. 71 p. (Mimeo.) p. 8. (Calculations bas 


individual records of 12,583 teachers.) 


100 _( 
100.1 


128.3 


lowest 


equals 100 


+ 





[ 28 ] 





TABLE 20.—DIFFERENCES IN PREPARATION, EXPERIENCE, AND SALARIES OF 
CLASSROOM TEACHERS, IN RELATION TO SIZE OF CITY, SCHOOL DIVISION 


AND REGION, 1938-39 * 





Years of preparation 


Index 
Basis of classification lowest 
Median median 

equals 100 


3 


Over 100,000 100.0 
30,000—100,000 2 100.0 
10,000— 30,000 100.0 
5,000 10,000 3 102.4 
2,500-— 5,000 ? 100.0 


| division 
Kindergarten 

Elementary school 
Junior high school 
Senior high school 


New England 
Middle Atlantic 
Southeast 
Middle States 
Northwest 
Southwest .. 


Far West 


' Does not include Negro teacher 
Salaty figures represent only the « 
lower than they wouid be if New 
Includes kindergarten teachers 


fears of experience 


Index 

lowest 

median 
equals 100 


5 





average level of experience is higher in the large 
cities. Certification requirements for new teach- cities 


salaries 


ntinue between large and small 


between wealthy and less wealthy 


ers have been rising so rapidly that the younger 
teachers with little experience, typically found 
in the smaller school systems, tend to have pro 
fessional qualifications as high as or higher than 


the older teachers who were employed when 


standards were lower. Regional differences in 
concentration of wealth and income also ope: 
ate to the disadvantage of the less favored 
regions so far as teachers’ salaries are con- 


cerned. So long as the extreme differences in 


regions there seems little prospect that for the 
teaching profession as a whole there will be any 


consistent relationship between profession 


qualifications and salaries. Within sey 
school systems, however, it Is possible 

up administrative procedures whereby qual 
fications are recognized in the salaries paid 
The nature and extent of such procedures are 
reported on in brief in the next part of this 
bulletin 








IV. Salary Schedules in Relation to Levels of Preparation 


To trace the causes of the recent upward 
trend in levels of training for city teachers 
would be difficult. To some extent the change 
has been merely a part of the general expansion 
of higher education. Teachers always have 
been expected to be well educated; and altho 
their qualifications never have been ideal their 
formal educational background has been su- 
perior to that of the masses of the people. When 
the general level of education rises for all 
people it naturally rises for teachers also. The 
transformation of normal schools into teachers 
colleges and the elimination of high-school 
teacher-training classes have been parts of the 
up-grading process in teacher education. Other 
changes which have encouraged higher levels 
of teacher education include the following: 

. . . The centralization of certification authority; 
the decrease in the number of certificates issued as 
a result of examination; the rapid development of 
the materials in the field of education and psychology 
which required a longer period of preservice prepa- 
ration if they were to be mastered without sacrificing 
time needed for the acquisition of subjectmatter; 
the rapid growth of local and national associations 
of teachers with their campaigns for increasing the 
professional status of public-school teaching; and 
the increased competition for positions which ap- 
peared during the last part of this decade and 
which encouraged many prospective teachers to con- 
tinue in college one or two years longer than the re- 
quired minimum period in order to increase their 
chances of securing positions.’ 


This part of the bulletin presents figures to 
suggest that policies in salary scheduling may 
have been an added factor in stimulating pro- 
fessional growth among teachers. 


How Salary Schedules Recognize 
Preparation 


Salary schedules recognize and encourage 
higher levels of preparation in several ways. 
The traditional policy provided low training 
requirements and low salaries for teachers in 
elementary schools and set higher requirements 
and higher salaries in the secondary schools. 
Ambitious elementary-school teachers could 


qualify by further study for high-schoo! 
tions but had to leave the elementary 

field in order to receive a promotion in s 

All of the early salary schedules for teac| 
were based thus on position, with differ: 
preparation usually taken for granted. |; 
decade of the World War a few school syste; 
began to experiment with rewards for 
preparation without requiring that tea 
leave elemeniary-school teaching to secur: 
ognition for higher qualifications. For examp|, 
as early as 1913, the schedule in Richmo; 
Virginia, provided two maximum salaries {o; 
elementary-school teachers—a regular n 
mum for holders of the minimum standard ce: 
tificate, and a higher maximum for holde: 
certain higher certificates.2 Other pioneers 
the use of such position-preparation schedul, 
were reported in 1919.° The schedule in Cle: 
land Heights, Ohio, was among this grou 
with a maximum salary of $1600 for norma 
school graduates and $1800 for college gradu 
ates teaching in elementary schools; the max 
mum for college graduates teaching in hig! 
schools was $2300.* This kind of schedule has 
grown in popularity until about a fourth of al 
salary schedules are of the position-preparation 
type.° In such a schedule, elementary-schoo! 
teaching is less well paid than high-school teac! 
ing but some extra salary is given to certain 
groups of teachers whose professional equi; 
ment is above the minimum required for a; 
pointment. Such a differential may appl) 
elementary teachers only, to high-scho 
teachers only, or to all teachers. 

A third method of recognizing professiona! 
training began to appear about 1920. This was 
the plan of paying all teachers as teachers, re 
gardless of age or grade of the children being 
taught. Basic salary classes were established 
not in terms of the position or school division 
but in terms of professional preparation. On« 
of the earliest schedules of this kind wa: 
adopted in 1920 in Denver. It set minimun 
and maximum salaries of $1200 and $204( 
respectively, for normal school graduates, and 


1 Evenden, E. S. National Survey of the Education of Teachers: Summary and Interpretation. U. S. Dept. of the Interio! 
Office of Education, Bulletin, 1933, No. 10, Vol. VI. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1935. p. 33-34 

2 Boykin, James C., and King, Roberta. The Tangible Rewards of Teaching. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Educat 
Bulletin, 1914, No. 16. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1914. p. 238. 

3% Evenden, E. S. Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Schedules. Commission on the Emergency in Education, Commission S« 
No. 6. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1919. p. 125-26. 


* Evenden, E. S., ibid., p. 125. 


5 The 1220 salary schedules reported in 1938-39 by cities over 2500 in population can be classified as follows: position | 
498 or 40.8 percent; position-preparation, 346 or 28.4 percent; preparation, 376 or 30.8 percent. 


[ 30] 











Cleve 


school 
teach 
ertain 
equly 
yr ay 
ly te 


schor 


sion il 
Ss Was 
‘Ss, re 
being 
ished 
ision, 
On 

Was 
mun 


2040) 


and 


iter 





amounts for teachers with additional 


met 


For the master’s degree the minimum 
$1500, the maximum $3080. One aim of 


wras 
aich schedules was to break down the prac 
rice of “promoting” good teachers from ele 


nentary to secondary schools, and to substi 
tute a plan which would keep competent teach 
ers in the elementary schools at salaries as good 
is they could receive in high schools. Hence the 
name “single-salary schedule” was used to in 
licate that a single standard was used for all 
school divisions. But requirements for appoint 
ment to elementary schools were left, in most 
places, at a lower level than the requirements 
for high schools. A salary differential for men 
could be added, thus tending to raise the salary 
levels for secondary schools. For these and other 
reasons, the term preparation schedule rather 
than “‘single-salary schedule” may be preferred 
is a descriptive title. The two terms are used 
interchangeably in this discussion. 

Many new salary schedules were adopted 
in the years just after 1920. By 1924-25 nearly 
a fifth of the salary schedules in cities over 
30,000 in population were of the preparation 
or single-salary type. Their growth since that 
vear has been steady but not so rapid as in the 
first five years. By 1938-39 the proportion of 
single-salary schedules in cities of this size 
had increased to 34.8 percent, or more than 
one-third.* 


Levels of Training of Teachers under 
Salary Schedules of Different Types 


What is the effect of preparation or single- 
salary schedules on the levels of training of 
teachers? Is it sound to assume that teachers 
in service will seek additional training if a 
salary schedule is adopted that places a pre 
mium on training? The answer to these ques 
tions cannot be precise because many factors 
other than the type of schedule may influence 
levels of training. For example, some school 
systems following preparation schedules still 
appoint as elementary-school teachers the grad- 
uates of two-year or three-year training courses, 
in preference to college graduates whose initial 
salaries would be higher. Other systems, fol 


a es 
lowing salary schedules of the position type, 
+] 


Hose 


consistently appoint as new teachers only 
with four years of training. Teachers in some 
S( hool 


cities are required to attend summe1 


periodically regardless ot prey LOuUsS tral 
here are differences among systems in the 
emphasis placed on protessional growth, in 
the accessibility of local colleges and univer 
sities, and in other factors which might in 
fluence the amount of preparation of the 
teaching staff. 

Whether or not a cause-and-effect relation 
ship exists, the figures collected for this study 
show higher levels of training in cities where 
preparation schedules have been in effect fo: 
several years than in cities where position 
schedules are used. 

Previous studies made by the Research Di 


Association 


provide facts on types of salary schedules in 


vision of the National Education 
effect over a period of several years in city 
school systems. In 1938-39 it was found that 
122 of the Group I and Group II cities re 
porting on levels of training were following 
schedules which had not changed in 
1930-31. 


salary 
basic classification since Forty-two 
of these schedules were of the position type 
, 4 > ? 

30 were position-preparation schedules, and 
50 were preparation or single-salary schedules 


When 


service were calculated for each of the three 


levels of preparation of teachers in 
groups of cities, the results shown in Figure 
VIII and in Table 21 were obtained see 
p. 32). 

Elementary teachers in the 42 cities using 
position schedules have completed a median 
of 2.9 years of training above high school, as 
compared with 4.1 years for the teachers work 
ing in 50 cities under schedules based on prepa 
ration. There is thus a substantial difference, 
1.2 years, in favor of the latter group. In kin 
dergartens and in junior high schools there 
are smaller differences, likewise in favor of the 
There 


groups of 


cities following preparation schedules 
is no difference between the two 
cities in median years of training of high 
school teachers. ‘The comparisons just made 
refer to the position schedule vs. the prepara 
tion type of schedule. Under the intermediate 


National Education Association, Salary Committee. Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trends in 1 Washington, D. ¢ the 
Association, 1923. p. 60. (The lower and upper limits of this schedule, $1200 and $3080, remain the same in 1 ; here 
have been minor changes in the intermediate levels. ) 

7 National Education Association, Committee on Equal Opportunity. Progress and Problems in Equal Pa r Equal Work 


Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1939. p. 8 
*See Appendix Table F for detailed figures and for list of 


cities 


[ 31 ] 





TABLE 21.—MEDIAN LEVELS OF PREP- 
ARATION AND PERCENT OF TEACH- 
ERS WITH FOUR YEARS’ PREPARA- 
TION, IN 122 CITIES OVER 30,000 IN 
POPULATION, BY TYPE OF SALARY 
SCHEDULE" 





Position- 
preparation 
schedules 
(30 cities) 


Preparation 
schedules 
50 cities) 


Position 
schedules 
(42 cities) 


School division 


2 3 4 


Median years of preparation of 
teachers, 1938-39 
Kindergarten... 8 8 6 
Elementary school 9 1 
Junior high school 5 6 
Senior high school 9 9 
Total 1 4 

Percent of teachers with four years 
or more of preparation 


Kindergarten. . . . m . 42 
Elementary school... ’ . 54 
Junior high school. . . ; : 86 
Senior high school. . . of . 92 

Total : ; $2. 71 


14,625 


Number of teachers... 38,969 25,745 


* Includes 40 Group I cities and 82 Group II cities in which 
the type of salary schedule followed in 1938-39 had been 
adopted not later than 1930-31. 





position-preparation type, the median 
training are essentially the same as u: 
schedules based entirely on position. 
Table 21 also shows the percent of 1 
with four years or more of preparatior 
position schedules are followed and 
in elementary schools thus have no direct 
cial incentive for raising their level of p: 
tion, only 30.1 percent of the elem: 
school teachers have completed or surpas 
equivalent of college graduation. But 
where preparation schedules are followed 
percent of the teachers in elementary 
have reached the four-year level of prepa 


Administration of Salary Schedules 
Based on Preparation 


The many discussions of the values o! 
single-salary schedule center around two n 
purposes which it is believed that such sc! 
ules will achieve: first, making element 
school teaching as desirable and as well | 
a branch of the profession as high-school tea: 
ing, and second, encouraging teachers t 


FIGURE VIII 





Position-type schedules 
—21,626 teachers 


Preparation or single- 
salary schedules— 12,942 teachers 


Each symbol represents 10 p 





Less than 4 years 


ereeneie 


LEVELS OF PREPARATION OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL TEACHERS WORK- 
ING UNDER TWO TYPES OF SALARY SCHEDULE 


4 years 5 years or more 


a 





ereeneany 


t of the teaching group concerned. 








Research Division, National Educetion Associet 






































their professional growth. Certain ad 
ministrative problems in connection with these 
rwo aims, as related to levels of preparation 
of teachers, are observed in the presentday 
peration of schedules of this type. 


Recognition of full professional status of 
slementary-school teaching—Schedules of the 
single-salary or preparation type ordinarily 
have been used in connection with a policy of 
selection which makes one real distinction be- 
tween elementary and secondary schools. For 
a number of years, graduation from a two-year 
normal school was the typical requirement for 
appointment to the elementary schools, with 
four-year college graduation a minimum for a 
high-school appointment. Many schoolboards 
now require college graduation of prospective 
elementary-school teachers and an added year, 
perhaps a master’s degree, for high-school teach- 
ing. Relatively few set the same quantitative 
standard for both, even today. 

Nearly all statements of the purposes of 
education and of the functions of teachers say 
by implication that teachers in all branches of 
the school service need wisdom, scholarship, 
and broad human understanding far above that 
of the average run of humanity.’ Studies of 
childhood continue to pile up evidence of the 
crucial influence on all later life of the for- 
mative years of early childhood.'® Adminis- 
trative plans that approve a lower level of 
preparation for elementary-school service than 
for high-school service seem to be incompatible 
with the modern belief in the professional sig- 
nificance of all teaching. The National Survey 
of the Education of Teachers recognized the 
situation by a positive recommendation that 
such differences be eliminated: 

.. « There is no reason to believe that elementary 


teachers whose educational preparation is equal to 
that of secondary teachers (tho different in content) 


*E.g., “*. .. The primary business of education, in effecting the promises of American 
advance, and make available in the life of coming generations the funded 
the race. This involves the dissemination of knowledge, the liberation of minds 
inquiries, the encouragement of the creative or inventive spirit, and the establishment of wholesome attitudes toward or¢ 
change—all useful in the good life for each person, in the practical arts, and 
society, as our society, in the world of nations.’-—National Education Association and Department of Superintende 
Policies Commission. The Unique Function of Education in American Democrac) 


p. 77-78. 


If the kind of training which is appropriate for the teacher. . . i 
diverse fields of knowledge, thought, and ideals to the physical, intellectual, and moral growth of the child and to tl 
tion and enrichment of culture, then the pattern of training to be followed should be like that suited to the edu 
American Historical Association, Commission on the Socia 


artist, the poet, the statesman, the spiritual leader of mankind.”’ 


Conclusions and Recommendations. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1934. p. 1 
: 1 E.g., “An individual’s first twelve years are more significant to his 
interval of his life. The childhood years are learning years, during which the most 





cannot render as valuable service to education and 


to American social progress as that of the secondary 
teachers. It is, therefore, recommended that as rap 
idly as possible the states approach the ideal of hav 
ing all public-school teachers meet the same stand 
ard for the amount of preservice education 


The National Survey made its recommenda 
tion to ail school systems, without limitation. 
It would seem to be of special significance to 
school systems operating under a preparation 
or single-salary schedule, in view of the fact 
that the adoption of such a schedule represents 
an effort to raise the professional status of the 
elementary-school teacher. 

Encouraging teachers to continue their pro 
fessional growth—For the many school systems 
where the typical teacher is still below the 
standard recognized as most desirable, the 
preparation schedule is a valuable aid to con 
tinued professional growth. Some considered 
policy should be adopted for a truly profes 
sional rather than a mechanical operation of 
the schedule. Limitations may be necessary to 
discourage unwise piling up of “‘credits’’ too 
rapidly or without due regard for balanced 
educational needs. There should be a system 
for evaluating the added professional training, 
perhaps thru the services of a “credential com 
mittee” or some other cooperative plan. Every 
step toward qualitative rather than purely quan 
titative measures of professional growth would 
seem to be desirable. This aspect of the ad 
ministration of preparation schedules will con 
tinue to require thoughtful attention in many 
school systems for a number of years to come. 

There is another group of cities, however, 
where the use of preparation schedules to en- 
courage continued professional growth is enter- 
ing upon a new phase. If the trends toward 
higher levels of training reported in this bul 
ietin continue, and if the recommendations for 


de mocracy, is to guard I 
ind growing wisdom, knowledge, and aspirations of 
the development of skills, the promotion of free 


ler and 
in the maintenance and improvement of Americar 
nce, Educationa 
Washington, D. C.: the Com ion, 1 
conceived in terms of the application of broad 


at 





ultimate happiness and welfare than is a 
important patterns of behavior are d 


—Brooks, Fowler D. Child Psychology. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1937. p. 1 


See also: Murchison, Carl A., editor. Handbook of Child Psychology. Second edition. Worcester, 


Press, 1933. 956 p 
' Evenden, E. S., National Survey ¢ 








the Education of Tea 


[ 3: 


Mass ( irk 


hers 1p 





a four-year or five-year minimum of prepara- 
tion be adopted alike for elementary and sec- 
ondary schools,'* administrators of single-sal- 
ary schedules will have to face certain new 
problems. The typical preparation schedule now 
in effect sets either the master’s degree or five 
years of training as the upper limit of prepa- 
ration for which salary recognition is given.'® 
In many cities the time is rapidly approaching 
when all new teachers will be placed on one 
of the lower steps of the highest salary class 
in the schedule.'* Increments are provided for 
each year of satisfactory service up to the maxi- 
mum of the schedule, but there is no salary 
incentive for further training. The schedule 
becomes literally a “single” salary schedule 
with the same minimum and the same maxi- 
mum for all teachers. The second advantage of 
the preparation salary schedule—the encourage- 
ment of continued professional growth—begins 
to disappear when most of the teachers start 
their service at the highest level of preparation 
recognized by the schedule. 

One method of meeting this difficulty has 
been to provide more classes in the salary sched- 


in service whose qualifications are bel 
acceptable minimum should be given so: 
nancial incentive for improvement. | 

reasonable also that teachers and school! off 


should agree upon the highest amounts of { 


mal training which are believed to be des 
for all teachers to work toward, and s! 
try to have salary differentials provided 

those limits. 

Beyond that point, however, some ad: 
trative policy other than the salary scl 
may be the most effective means of stimu 
professional growth. For teachers who 
reached the upper limits of training, as | 
ured quantitatively by a salary 
further professional growth will be a n 
of individual needs. The professional nn 


revealed to the teacher in his own classroo 


experience may suggest the direction of fu: 
personal growth. Many teachers may profit 


continued systematic study which can be meas 


ured in semester hours of credit. Others 
gain as much professionally from travel, 


dependent study, organizations, civic servic 
and certain kinds of occupational experienc: 


schedu 


r 


\ 


Informal curriculum workshop experience hia: 
been found helpful by some teachers. A ba! 
anced program which will include all thes 
activities over a cycle of several years maj 
the wisest course for the teacher whose basi 
professional qualifications are of high stand 
ard. The salary schedule policy should not 
place so much emphasis on the amassing of 
further academic credits that a broader pro 
gram of liberalizing and informal in-servic: 
growth actually is retarded. 


ule to reward added amounts of training— 
six years, seven years, Ph.D., and the like. 
Another familiar device is to set up require- 
ments for additional professional study at stated 
intervals, in order for the teacher to receive 
regular increments or to stay at the maximum 
of the schedule. But a question may arise as 
to the ultimate extent to which any salary 
schedule should be depended upon to carry 
out the purpose of encouraging professional 
growth. It seems clear that teachers already 





12 See recommendations cited on p. 12 of this bulletin 

18 National Education Association, Research Division and American Association of School Administrators. Salary Schedu 
Provisions for Classroom Teachers in 84 School Systems in Cities over 100,000 in Population, 1938-39. Educational Resear 
Service Circular No. 3, 1939. Salary Schedule Provisions for Classroom Teachers in 143 School Systems in Cities 30,000 to 10 
in Population, 1938-39. Educational Research Service Circular No. 1, 1939. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1939. Se« 
Table 2 in each circular. 

Of the 84 single-salary schedules outlined in these two circulars, 16 recognize four years of preparation as the highest leve 
of training; 27 make the fifth year and 35 make the master’s degree the upper limit of training for salary credit; three schedulk 
provide separate salary classes for six years of training; one schedule recognizes seven years; and two the Ph.D. degree 

4 The following quotation illustrates the problem referred to by this discussion: 

“For a number of years the board of education of the city of Tulsa has had a ruling that each teacher in the school syst: 
must attend summer school at least once every five years. Of the 825 teachers and principals in the school system, 458 have their 
bachelor’s degree and 367 their master’s or doctor’s degree. Consequently, each year fewer teachers are working toward hig! 
degrees. In many instances, therefore, teachers have had to take courses in which they were not particularly interested, in « 
to comply with the summer-school-attendance requirement.’’ Gowans, Harry W. ‘‘Teaching Tulsa’s Teachers.’’ School Exec 
59: 21; October 1939. 


[ 34] 








rien e 


ce has 


A bal 
these 
jay 

basi 


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1 not 


TVICE 








V. A Look Ahead 


The long struggle to build up a permanent 
ind well-prepared teaching staft in city school 
ystems may soon result in something close 
ry success, if judged by simple quantitative 
measures of permanence and preparation. [he 
werage experience of city teachers in service 
. 14 years; the average preparation beyond 
high school is more than four years. 

Such averages represent significant progress 
but they do not tell the whole story. Many 
teachers and many city school systems are fat 
helow these average figures. For example, in 
one city employing 493 elementary teachers 
in 1938-39, 103 of them had completed less 
than two years of preparation above high school. 
The total staff of 222 elementary and second- 
ary teachers in another city included only 64 
who had earned the bachelor’s degree or its 
equivalent, and only one with as much as five 
vears of preparation. It should be remembered 
also that the qualifications of rural teachers, 
who make up more than half of the total teach 
ing staff of the United States, are far below 
those of city teachers. 

The fact that the average city teacher has 
completed four years of college preparation 
offers no basis for complacency. On the con 
trary, there is a lively ferment of study and 
activity in the direction of improving the quali- 
fications of teachers. The quality of prepara- 
tion and experience, not the quantity alone, is 
receiving emphasis. Four years or even more of 
highly specialized academic courses will not 
equip the prospective teacher to meet the prob 
lems of his profession, or will an equal amount 
of time spent in a narrowly conceived program 
of methods courses and student teaching. What 
is needed is something broader and better than 
the student can achieve thru extreme specializa- 
tion, either academic or professional. And be- 
yond the preservice period of education, the 
need still exists to make each year of teaching 
service also a year of learning and growth. 
Until the typical teaching situation can be made 
one of challenge and stimulus, the value of 
each added year of experience will fall short 
of its potential worth. 

Perhaps the most heartening aspect of the 
present status of teacher preparation and ex- 
perience is not the relatively high quantitative 
levels that have been reached by the average 
city teacher but the amount of dissatisfaction 


that exists with regard to the present situation. 
The cooperative studies of teacher education 
completed or launched during the past decade, 
several of which are cited in the sixth part of 
this bulletin, testify to the intensity of the 
desire for improvement. No one type of organ 
ization has monopolized the field ; college teach 
ing, elementary education, secondary education, 
specialized subjectmatter fields, accrediting as 
sociations, and nonspecialized educational agen 
cies of nationwide scope—all are represented. 
The findings and recommendations of these 
studies are helping to lay the foundation for 
future progress. 

The facts in this bulletin, and the thinking 
represented by studies such as those just men 
tioned, call attention to certain needs and 
limitations to be met and overcome as further 
advance is made in the improvement of teach 
ers’ professional qualifications. Certain of these 
challenges to progress are mentioned and briefly 


discussed in this section. 


Selective Admission to the Teaching 
Profession 


Facts reported in an earlier section show that 
the number of new teachers appointed in city 
school systems has been reduced in recent 
years. Reductions may continue in school enrol 
ments and in the number of new teachers ap 
pointed. Each year, however, the colleges and 
normal schools are graduating thousands of 
young persons who expect to become teachers, 
some of whom lack the personal, social, and 
intellectual qualifications essential to success 
ful teaching. The need is urgent for recruit 
ment of able students to seek admission to 
courses for the preparation of teachers, for a 
rigorous selection among those applicants, and 
for a process of certification which will recog 
nize adequate qualifications and protect the 
schools against incompetence. Legislation will 
be required in some states before selective 
recruitment can be made effective. Strong state 
departments of education, adequately financed 
and staffed with professional workers, are 
needed in order to establish sound procedures 
for maintaining a balance -between supply and 
demand and for issuing certificates to teach. 
Accrediting agencies have a responsibility also 
for adapting standards to recognize adequate 


[ 35] 





qualifications. Cooperative effort is needed for 
continuous revision of standards so that they 
will stimulate rather than retard the develop- 
ment of comprehensive curriculums for teach- 
ers in training and will encourage significant 
programs of in-service growth. 


Enriched Curriculum for Prospective 
Teachers 


More than half of the city school teachers 
represented in this bulletin had completed four 
years or more of preparation beyond high 
school. But nearly one-fourth were still at or 
just above the two-year level of training. The 
increasing breadth of the service now expected 
from teachers makes the short periods of train- 
ing acceptable in the past seem totally inade- 
quate. <A broad general education, adequate 
specialized preparation, and supplementary cul- 
tural contacts which make for truly liberal 
education—all are needed. Bold experiments 
and innovations are likely to be made as the 
purposes of teacher education are clarified 
further. To be sure that such changes are made 
wisely and well, institutions for the education 
of teachers need able people on their staffs. 
These people can make their best contribution 
to students only when adequate provision is 
made for libraries, laboratories, staff assistance, 
and facilities for creative experiences with chil- 
dren. Ample financial support is needed. All 
parts of the program of these institutions— 
course offerings, student organizations, living 
arrangements, and community contacts—should 
be evaluated in terms of their contribution to 
the development of individuals who as teachers 
are competent to accept the responsibilities of 
personal living, professional service, and useful 
citizenship. 


Local School Administration Adapted to 
Needs of Professional Teachers 


Many of the administrative practices of the 
past were adopted to overcome in part the defi- 
ciencies of a staff of untrained and immature 
young teachers, most of whom would leave 
teaching after a few brief years of service. 
Every administrative practice relating to teach- 
ers should be scrutinized now to see whether 
or not this old assumption is still the only valid 
basis for its existence. Every move that can be 
made to liberate teachers from petty restric- 


tions and to substitute opportunities { 
sonal initiative and responsibility js 
toward professional growth in service. 
organized school system certain pro 
must be routinized. But the routine is 
only as a means for carrying out effect 
major purposes of the schools. Teache; 

a service to render in thinking about pu 
and in developing cooperative ways t 
out those purposes. The administrative | 
zation will be poorer than it needs ‘to by 
does not include a plan for using effectiy: 
contribution which teachers can make 
veloping school policies. Likewise, the te 
will be less well equipped than they need : 
for service to children if they do not part 
pate in the study and experimentation w! 
are basic to wise decisions on school poli 


Better Social and Economic Recognition 
of Teaching 


One of the barriers to successful recruitment 
of teachers is the combined effect of low salaries 
and the fact that teachers in many places 
regarded almost as a separate social class whos 
activities and enjoyments should be of a m 
ascetic tone than those of other people. Olde: 
teachers may be able to recognize this setti: 
apart of the teachers as to some extent a tri 
to the profession and to adjust themselves : 
the mores of their communities. Younger peop! 
often find it hard to accept the fact that they 
are excluded from many pleasant social 


tionships of a community merely because thx 


are labeled as “school teachers.” This problem 


is so complex, and yet so basic to the protes 


sional advancement of teaching, that it deserves 


thoughtful study as to methods of meeting 
One obvious step would be the effort to abolis! 


in every community the short-sighted policy ot 


dismissing women teachers who marry and !! 


related policy of refusing to appoint married 


women as new teachers. Marriage is the n 
mal expectation of all young people, and 
creasing numbers of young women in ever! 
occupation combine marriage with paid en 
ployment. To limit women’s opportunities 
teaching to spinsters is to place a wholly 
necessary handicap on the profession. ‘The : 
marriage rules perhaps have been one of 
most potent forces in setting teaching apart 
the social scale in many communities. Certain! 


[ 36] 





long 1 


ty te 


have 


At th 


servic 


edge a 


if eve 
systen 
teache 
help 1 
sional 
teachi 
“Ti 
1 fam 
much 
refers 
Teacl 
sions ; 
gaine¢ 
varde 
f th 
nfort 
Super 
many 
All ¢] 
have’ 
in he 


been one important factor in holding 
wn the level of experience of teachers. 
Economic recognition of teaching is no less 
sortant than social recognition, and to some 
vtent may be basic to the latter. The teacher 


lacks money for clothes, living accommo 


y! } 
!ations, books, and recreation is plainly at a dis 


vantage in community life. Continuing ef 
rts are needed for the adoption of salary 
hedules which do not belittle the significance 
{the teacher’s service to society. Salary sched- 
les which make definite recognition of pro- 
fessional training undoubtedly have been one 
factor in raising the level of preparation of 
reachers. Until all teachers have reached de 
rable levels of professional preparation, such 
schedules will continue to be a valuable aid 

professional growth. The relationships be 
tween level of salary and length of service 
reported in this bulletin suggest that adequate 
salaries contribute also to greater permanence 
f teachers in service. 


Constructive Program of Professional 
Growth in Service 


This bulletin has shown the extent to which 
ong tenure of service is becoming typical of 
ty teachers. Nearly 30 percent of the teachers 
have been in service twenty years or longer. 
\t the same time that greater permanence in 
service is becoming typical, the body of know] 
edge and skills which should be at the command 
f every teacher is rapidly growing. Each school 
system therefore needs some plan to help older 
teachers keep professionally alert, as well as to 
help new teachers adjust their general profes 
sional training to the specific needs of a local 
teaching situation. 

‘Professional growth in service” has become 
1 familiar phrase in school administration, but 
nuch is still to be done before the expression 
refers to a vital reality in school practice. 
Teachers in service have attended summer ses 
sions and have taken extension courses and have 
gained much thereby. Salary schedules have re 
varded added professional training, and some 
t them have made monetary recognition of 
ntormal modes of growth such as travel. 
Supervision has been provided, thru which 
many creative activities have been developed. 
All these procedures and others not mentioned 
have been useful and will continue to be useful 
in helping teachers to improve the quality of 


) —_ 
their service. But a Cl itical evaluation Is needed 


of the philosophy underlying these practices 


Education is a process of growth from 
within, for teachers in service as much as for 
the children in their classes. Until the activities 
in a program of professional growth in service 
are the things that teachers need to do and 
want to do in order to cope with thei protes 
sional problems, the program will lack the 
vitality that it might have. Conceivably, a teach 
ing situation could be so challenging and the 
professional resources provided by the school 
system so rich that no dividing line could be 
found between professional growth in service 
and the day-to-day process of being and becom 
ing as good a teacher as possible. Organized 


activities would be no less necessary than they 
are now, but they would be planned by the 
participants instead of for them. Under such 
a policy closer cooperation than now exists 
probably would be developed between school 
systems and institutions for the education of 
teachers. Teachers associations might extend 
further their present services in developing ma 
terials and activities related to the professional 
problems of teachers. 


Increased Participation by Teachers in 
Community Living 


School duties themselves are so heavy that 
some teachers regard participation in out-of 
school community activities as an impossible 
addition to their existing loads. But the kind of 
participation in community life emphasized in 
the new curriculum of teacher education is not 
something added on to the school program; it 


Many 


teachers who are coming into the schools, as 


is a part of the school program. new 


well as many teachers already in service, are 
able and willing to assume their full civic re 
sponsibilities in the communities they serve. 
In the experiences that they share with pupils 
and in their own personal relationships, they 
seek to bridge the gap between the school and 
The 


professional usefulness of such teachers will be 


other community agencies and influences. 


greater wherever school systems and communi 
ties facilitate, rather than discourage, an inter 
play of contact and understanding between in 
school and out-of-school living. What is needed 


here is a more general understanding of the sig- 
nificant role of teachers as public servants who 
participate creatively in the promotion of the 


common welfare. 





VI. Studies of Teacher Education 


Because they summarize some of the best 
thinking of the profession on the improvement 
of the teacher’s qualifications, a brief overview 
is given here of the scope of certain recent 
studies in this field. The list is not complete, 
but it is representative of the many significant 
projects completed during the past decade or 
now in progress. 


1. American Council on Education, Commis- 
sion on Teacher Education 


Outstanding among current efforts toward im- 
proving the preparation of teachers is the five-year 
program of the Commission on Teacher Education 
of the American Council on Education, financed by 
a grant from the General Education Board. A co- 
operative study has been undertaken by selected 
higher institutions and public school systems. The 
purpose of the study is to encourage the putting 
into practice of generally accepted principles of 
teacher education and to stimulate experimentation. 
The cooperating units will be centers for study and 
for demonstration of best practice in teacher edu- 
cation, both prior to and subsequent to employment. 


a. American Council on Education. Major Issues in 
Teacher Education. American Council on Edu- 
cation Studies, Series I, Vol. II, No. 4. Washing- 
ton, D. C.: the Council, 1938. 44 p. 

. American Council on Education, Commission on 
Teacher Education. Bennington Planning Confer- 
ence for the Cooperative Study of Teacher Edu- 
cation. Washington, D. C.: the Council, 1939. 
261 p. 

>. American Council on Education, Commission on 
Teacher Education. Cooperation in the Improve- 


ment of Teacher Education. Washington, D. C.: 


the Council, 1939. 19 p. 


2. Association for Childhood Education 


The education of teachers of young children is 
being given continued study by the Association for 
Childhood Education’s Committee on Teacher Prep- 
aration. The most recent report mentions a tenta- 
tive syllabus which has been prepared to serve as 
a guide in preparing teachers for wise use of com- 
munity agencies. 


a. Association for Childhood Education. “Commit- 
tee Reports, 1938-39: Teacher Preparation.” 
Yearbook, 1939. Washington, D. C.: the Associa- 
tion, 1939. p. 30-31. 


3. Cooperative Study of Secondary School 
Standards 


The Cooperative Study of Secondary School 
Standards, on the basis of an intensive study of 
200 secondary schools, proposed methods for eval- 
uating qualifications of professional staff members 
on eight factors: academic preparation, profes- 
sional preparation, source of degree, general prep- 
aration, noneducational experience, personal qual- 
ifications, outstanding contributions, and _ instruc- 
tional qualifications. Plans are proposed also for 
evaluating the in-service improvement of staff 
members. 


a. Altstetter, M. L. “Scales for the Evaluati: 
Training of Teachers.” School Review 45 
September 1937. 

. Cooperative Study of Secondary Schoo! 
ards. Educational Temperatures. 1938 
Washington, D. C.: the Study, 1938. p. 14-1 

*, Cooperative Study of Secondary Schoo! s 
ards. Evaluative Criteria. 1938 edition. Wa», 
ington, D. C.: the Study, 1938. p. 90-91. 

. Cooperative Study of Secondary School Sta; 
ards. How to Evaluate a Secondary School. 193 
edition. Washington, D. C.: the Study, 1 
85-91. 


4. Groups representing curriculum fields 


Several groups representing specialized phas 
the curriculum have made studies of teacher 
aration. Among these are the Modern Foreign | 
guage Study, the Commission on Social Studies 
the American Historical Association, the Math, 
matical Association of America, the America 
Chemical Society, the National Study of Profes 
sional Education in Health and Physical Edu 
tion, and the National Council for the So 
Studies. 


a. Purin, C. M. The Training of Teachers 
Modern Foreign Languages. Publications of 1 
American and Canadian Committees on Mod 
Languages, Vol. XIII. New York: Macm 
Co., 1929. 112 p. 

. American Historical Association, Commission 
the Social Studies. Conclusions and Recommer 
dations of the Commission. New York: Charles 
Scribner’s Sons, 1934. Chapter 7, “The Teacher 
p. 103-18. 

Bagley, William C., and Alexander, Thoma, 
The Teacher of the Social Studies. Report 
the Commission on the Social Studies, America: 
Historical Association, Part XIV. New York 
Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1937. 328 p. 

. “Report on the Training of Teachers of Math 
matics.” Report of Mathematical Association of 
America. American Mathematical Monthly 42 
263-77; May 1935. 

. “The High School Teaching of Chemistry.” R: 
port of American Chemical Society Committe: 
School and Society 43: 604-606; May 2, 1936 

. Neilson, N. P., chairman. “National Study 
Professional Education in Health and Physica 
Education; National Committee Report on Stand 
ards.” Research Quarterly of the American Phys 
ical Education Association 6: 48-68; Decembe 
1935. 

. National Council for the Social Studies. /-Sers 
ice Growth of Social Studies Teachers. (Burr \\ 
Phillips, editor.) Tenth Yearbook. Cambridg: 
Mass.: the Council, 1939. 187 p. 


5. National Education Association 


One of the four original departments of th 
National Education Association was the Depart 
ment of Normal Schools, now the American Ass 
ciation of Teachers Colleges. The annual delibera 
tions of this Association and the reports of its com 
mittees, as published in its own yearbooks and 1! 
the Proceedings of the National Education Associa 
tion, reflect the entire scope of teacher education 
and indicate the breadth of the service being ren 
dered. A current survey deals with selection 0! 


[ 38 ] 





Th 
Colle 
evalu 
of Ti 
atten 
admi 
and | 
dema 


Tw 
tion o 
into ‘ 
onda 
trying 
colleg 
omme 
The « 
ter fi 


also | 


a. No 
Sul 


and student personnel practices in teachers 

In addition to the continuing 
irtment, the National Education Association 

has sponsored certain related studies. A 
survey of teacher demand and supply was 

ed in 1931 by the National Education Asso 
ition’s Committee on the Status of the 
wher. The findings and recommendations of this 
iy have been used as the basis for state investi 
The same problem in somewhat wider form 
. being considered anew by the National Education 
\ssociation’s Committee on Supply, Preparation, 
nd Certification of Teachers. A tentative platform 
f principles relating to supply, preparation, and 
ertification of teachers has been drafted. Another 
roject recently undertaken is a survey of the prep 
iration of teachers of science being made by the 
National Committee on Science Teaching. Institutes 
Professional Relations the 
\ssociation in 33 university summer sessions in 1939 


sery ice of 


pio 
Economic 


tlons 


were sponsored by 


1. National Education Association, Committee on 
the Economic Status of the Teacher, B. R. Buck 
ingham, chairman. Teacher Demand and Suppl) 
in the Public Elementary and Secondary Schools 
of the United States. Washington, D. C.: the As 
sociation, 1931. 99 p. (Reprinted as the Research 
Bulletin for November 1931, Vol. IX, No. 5, 
p. 305-408.) 

Jaggers, Richard E., chairman. “Supply, Prepa 
ration, and Certification of Teachers.” Proceed 
ings, 1939. Washington, D. C.: National Educa 
tion Association, 1939. p. 916-18. 

“Growth of Institutes on Professional Relations.” 
Journal of the National Education Association 
28: 233: November 1939. 


. National Society of College Teachers of 


Education 


The 1935 yearbook of the National Society of 
College Teachers of Education was primarily an 
evaluation of the National Survey of the Education 
of Teachers. The yearbook singled out for special 
attention the Survey’s discussion of (1) selective 
admission and promotion, (2) curriculum content 
and pattern, (3) directed teaching, and (4) teacher 
demand, supply, and certification. 
nittes 
$6 
dy of 
ysica 
stand 
Phys 


=mbe 


a. National Society of College Teachers of Educa 
tion, Yearbook Committee, Thomas Alexander, 
chairman. The Education of Teachers. Yearbook 
No. 23. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 
1935. 266 p. 


North Central Association of Colleges and 
Secondary Schools 


Two committees of the North Central Associa 
tion of Colleges and Secondary Schools have evolved 
into a single Committee on the Preparation of Sec 
ondary School Teachers. The joint committee is 
trying to enlist the cooperation of high schools and 
colleges in putting into practice certain specific rec 
ommendations made by the two earlier committees. 
The cooperation of learned societies in subjectmat 
ter fields and of state departments of education is 
also being sought. 


a. North Central Association, Committee on the 
Subject Matter Preparation of Secondary School 


leac he rs, Frank | 
the Committee.” No 
Quarterly 12: 439-539: 


Quarterly 13 


Henzlik, chairman 

rth Centrai 
April 1938 
193-221 


Report of 
clation 
cussion of report in 
tober 1938 

North \ssociation, Committee 
High School ‘Te 
chairman. “A Committe: 
( entral Tss Clation Ouarter 
1939 


Central 
fessional Prey 
Samuel Everett 
port.” North 
297 January 
North Central 
aration ot Secondary School Leacher 
Preparation of Secondary School ‘J 
North Central Association Quarterly 14 

October 1939. 


iration of 


300° 


\ssociation, Committe 


—" ° 
8. Progressis ;ducation Association 


Altho not a formal study of teacher 
a unique contribution to the professional edu 

of teachers has been made by the Progressive Ed 
cation 


informal 


prepar 


in developing new technics 
The curriculum 
shop conducted by the Commission on the Relat 
of School and College in 1937 
that the Association has organized a 
Workshops and Field 
sponsored by this organization is the 
yearbook of the John Dewey Society 


Assoc iation 


study-conferences. work 


proved so popu 
Committee o 
Another 


forthe oming 


Service. project 


Thayer, V. T., and others. “The Summer Worl 
shop in Secondary Education Held at Sarah Law 
rence College.” Progressive Education 14: 457 
67: October 1937. 

b. “Summer Workshops in Secondary Education 
1939.” Bulletin of the Department of Secondary 
School Principals of the National Education As 
sociation 23: 49-62; April 1939. (Lists 
graduate providing summer 
experience in 1939.) 

c. John Dewey A Commission of the Pro 
gressive Education Association. Axtelle, George 
E., and Wattenberg, William W., editors. Teac/ 
ers for Democracy. Fourth Yearbook. New York 
D. Appleton-Century Co., 1940. 


thirteen 
schools workshop 


Society, 


In press 


9. United States Office of Education, Nationa 
Survey of the Education of Teachers 


The United States Ofhce of Education 
the National the Education of 
which was carried on during a three-year 
beginning July 1, 1930. Facts 
qualifications and status of teachers in service and 
on programs of teacher education. The sixteen prin 
ciples of teacher education stated in conclusion em 
phasize the preservice education of teachers, refer 
ring to selection of candidates, curriculum and sery 
ices of teacher-training institutions, and 
bility of the state for certification and maintenance 
of a balance between supply and demand 


sponsore i 
Survey of Teachers 
pe riod 
assembled 


were on 


responsi 


a. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Ed 
cation, National Survey of the Education of 
Teachers. Evenden, E. S., director 
Frazier, B. W., coordinator. National Survey of 
the Education of Teachers, Vols. 1-V1 
1933, No. 10. Washington, D. ¢ Government 
Printing Othce. Vol. I, 118 P.; Vol. II, 258 
Vol. III, 547 p Vol. IV, 
Vol. VI, 


associate 
Sulletin 


p 


123 p.; Vol \ 484 p 


253 p. 


[ 39] 





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TABLE F.—LEVELS OF PREPARATION OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE IN 122 CITIES 
OVER 30,000 IN POPULATION, 1938-39, BY TYPE OF SALARY SCHEDULE * 








Position schedules 


School division and level of preparation beyond ~ 


high-school graduation 


1 
jrien 
5 years or more 
4 vears, but less than 5 years 
; years, but less than 4 years 


rs, but less than 3 years 
s than 2 years 
Total number of teachers 
Median number of years 
mentary school 
5 years or more 
4 years, but less than 5 years 
} years, but less than 4 years 
? years, but less than 3 years 
Less than 2 years 
Total number of teachers 
Median number of years 
lunior high school 
5 years, or more 
4 years, but less than 5 years 
3 years, but less than 4 years 
2 years, but less than 3 years 
Less than 2 years 
Total number of teachers 
Median number of years 
Senior high school 
5 years or more 
4 years, but less than 5 years 
3 years, but less than 4 years 
2 years, but less than 3 years 
Less than 2 years 
Total number ot teachers 
Median number of years 
yi—all teachers 
5 years or more ‘ 
4 years, but less than 5 years 
3 years, but less than 4 years 
2 vears, but less than 3 years 
Less than 2 years a 
Total number of teachers 
Median number of years 


teachers in 
adopted not 


not include Negro 
followed in 1938-39 had been 


a I Joes 


Arlington, Mass 
Brockton, Mass 
Fitchburg, Mass. 
Quincy, Mass 
Revere, Mass 
Salem, Mass 
Taunton, Mass 
Pontiac, Mich 
Kearney, N. J 
Passaic, N. J. 
Plainfield, N. J 
Union City, N. J. 
Binghamton, N. Y 
Poughkeepsie, N. Y 
Mansfield, Ohio 
Chester, Pa. 
Johnstown, Pa. 
New Castle, Pa 
Williamsport, Pa 
York, Pa. 
Cranston, R. I 
Everett, Wash. 


4. POSITION 
SCHEDULES 
Group I cities 
Long Beach, Calif 
San Francisco, Calif. 
Kansas City, Kans. 
Lynn, Mass. 
New Bedford, Mass 
Somerville, Mass. 
Detroit, Mich. 
Newark, N. J 
Paterson, N. J. 
Akron, Ohio 
Canton, Ohio 
Columbus, Ohio 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
Reading, Pa 
Providence, R. I, 
Nashville, Tenn. 
Dallas, Texas 
Group II cities 
Glendale, Calif. 


Moline, Ill 


Portland, Maine 


(42 cities schedules (30 cities schedules (50 cities 
Number Cumula- Number Cumula- Number Cumula 
of tive of tive of tive 
teachers percent teachers percent teachers percent 
2 3 4 5 6 > 
13 1.3 12 3.2 19 3 
191 19.9 58 18.7 133 1 
75 36.9 81 40.3 129 63.8 
631 98 4 202 94.1 202 ) 
16 100.0 2 100.0 14 100.0 
1.026 375 597 
2.8 2.8 3.6 
976 4.5 265 3.6 R87 6.9 
5.542 30.1 1,695 26.4 6,174 54.¢ 
2,868 43.4 1,488 46.4 2,157 1 
11,371 96.0 3,377 91.9 3.327 %.9 
869 100.0 604 100.0 397 100.0 
21,626 7.429 12.942 
>a > 9 4.1 
1.819 26.3 557 19.2 1,237 4 
3,352 74.7 1,592 74.2 3,150 86.9 
387 80.3 15 81.6 337 93.5 
1,109 96.3 3 94.6 249 WS 
257 100.0 155 100.0 77 100.0 
6,924 2 896 5,050 
4.5 4.4 46 
4,258 45.3 1,338 34.1 3.071 42.9 
4,130 89.3 > 044 86.2 3,568 97.8 
301 92.5 176 90.6 263 96.5 
472 97.5 191 95.5 163 98 
232 100.0 176 100.0 91 100.0 
9 393 3.925 7.156 
4.9 4.7 4.9 
7.066 18.1 2,172 14.9 5,214 0.3 
13,215 52.0 5,389 51.7 13,125 1 
3,731 61.6 1,960 65.1 > SRG 82.4 
13,583 96.5 4,147 93.5 3,941 17.8 
1,374 100.0 57 100.0 579 100.0 
38.969 14.625 25.745 
4.1 4.0 4.4 
segregated schools. Includes all reporting cities in which the type of salar 
later than 1930-31, as follows 
B. POSITION- Waterloo (West Indianapolis, Ind Medford, Mass 
PREPARATION side), Iowa Louisville, Ky. Bay City, M 
SCHEDULES Holyoke, Mass Flint, Mich Hamtramck, M 
’ > Pittsfield, Mass Duluth, Minn Saginaw, M 
Group I cities Nashua, N. H Oklahoma City, Springfield, M 
Wilmington, Del New Brunswick, Okla Lincoln, Nebr 
Atlanta, Ga. N. J Tulsa, Okla Watertown, N. ¥ 
Peoria, Ill Perth Amboy, N. J San Antonio, Texas Durham, N.C 
Fall River, Mass Jamestown, N. Y Seattle, Wash Greensboro, N. C 
Springfield, Mass Mt. Vernon, N. ¥ ; Cleveland He 
St. Paul, Minn East Cleveland Group II cities Ohio 
Trenton, N. J. Ohio Ft. Smith, Ark Norwood, Oh 
Albany, N. Y Lakewood. Ohio Berkeley, Calif Steubenville, O} 
Rochester, N. Y. Newark, Ohio Colorado Springs, Zanesville, Ohi 
Dayton, Ohio Springfield, Ohio Colo Muskogee, Okla 
Richmond, Va Altoona, Pa Stamford, Conn Harrisburg, Pa 
. ia Sheboygan, Wis Decatur, Ill Beaumont (City 
Group II cities Elgin, Il Dist.), Texa 
Pueblo (Dist. No C. PREPARATION _ Rockford, Ill Port Arthur, Texa 
i), Colo SCHEDULES Rock Island, II! Newport News, Va 
Chatham County East Chicago, Ind. Huntington, W. Va 


Group I cities 
Ala 


(including Savan 
nah), Ga. 
Joliet, Ill 
Springfield, Ill. 
Dubuque, Iowa 


Birmingham 

Oakland, Calif 
Denver, Colo 
Bridgeport, Conn 


Position-preparation 


Hammond, Ind 
Richmond, Ind. 
Terre Haute, Ind 
Cedar Rapids, Iowa 
Sioux City, Iowa 
Lexington, Ky. 


Preparation 


Green Bay, Wi 


La Crosse, Wi 
Madison, Wis 
Oshkosh, Wis 





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The Teacher 


EACHERS, regardless of position or title, are profes- 


sional workers in a common cause. The interests of 


the child and of the profession require: 


Teachers of sound character and good health, with high 
civic ideals, who have been effectively trained for the service 
which they are to perform. Their preparation should be 
rich in cultural, professional, and subjectmatter content, 


and adapted to the demands of actual service. 


Teachers who have the professional attitude in regard to 


self-improvement. 


Teachers who are guaranteed the Constitutional rights of 


freedom of speech, press, and assembly. 


Teachers who are protected by salaries adequate to attract 
and hold in the service men and women of marked ability 


and thoro training. 


Teachers who are protected in disability or old age by 


sound retirement systems. 


Teachers, who are protected from discharge for political, 
religious, personal, or other unjust reasons by effective 


tenure laws.