RESEARCH BULLETIN 


Ore NATIONAL 
VOL. XV - No. 4 EDUCATION 
SEPTEMBER 1937 ASSOCIATION 





Federal Support for Education 


The Issues and the Facts 


Published by the RESEARCH DIVISION of the 


NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. 











RESEARCH BULLETIN oF wn 


Published five times each year 
in January, March, May, 
September, and November 


President, CAROLINE S. WOODRUFF 


NATIONAL 
EDUCATION 
ASSOCIATION 


Executive Secretary, WILLARD E. GIVENS 





Director of Research: William G. Carr; Associate Director: Frank W. Hubbard 
Assistant Directors: Richard R. Foster, lvan A. Booker, Hazel Davis 


Research Assistants and Section Heads: Frances G. Bradley, Louise B. Sease, Helen H. Cox, 


Anna Haddow, Madaline K. Remmlein, Ruth Shirley, Mildred Wharton, and Vera D. Vinogradoff 





Executive and Editorial Offices 


1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. 





Copyright, 1937, by the National Education Association 


Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at 

Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing 

at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 
1917, authorized February 10, 1923. 





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CONTENTS 


FoREWORD 


INTRODUCTION 


INEQUALITIES OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY 


Economic ABILITY OF THE STATES To SupporT SCHOOLS 


THE SIZE OF THE EDUCATIONAL TASK 


THE DEcLINING BirTH-RATE 


MIGRATION FROM FARMS 


GROWTH IN CorPORATE OWNERSHIP OF WEALTH 


Errorts Requirep To Support AN ADEQUATE SCHOOL PROGRAM 


IMPROVEMENT OF STATE TAX SYSTEMS 


ScHOOL CosTs AND OTHER EXPENDITURES 


THE INCIDENCE OF FEDERAL TAXATION 


Mopsitity oF PoPULATION 


FURTHER QUESTIONS ON FEDERAL AID 


VIII. 

em 
. Percent of State Tax Revenues from Sources Other Than Property Taxes, 1930 

XI. 
XII. 
XIII. 
XIV. 


LIST OF FIGURES 


. Expenditures for Public Elementary and Secondary Schools, Per Pupil Enrolled, 1933-34 
. Relative Per Capita Taxpaying Ability of the States, 1930 
. Number of Children Aged 5 to 13 for Each 1000 Adults 20 to 64, by Regions, 1930 


. Percent of Nation’s Children and Percent of Nation’s Income in Each of Six Geographic 


Regions, 1930 


. Net Change in Rates of Natural Increase in Population, by Regions, 1929-36 
. Net Migration of Farm Population by Regions, 1920-1930 


. Movement of Wealth Away from Farms, 1920-1930 


Comparative Trends in Corporate and National Wealth 


Effort, Based on Chism’s Data, Required To Support National Minimum Program, 1932 


Index of Educational Expenditures and Other Governmental Expenditures, 1926-34 
Percent of Federal Tax Collections from Twelve States, 1935 
Growth in Number of Stockholders in Three Large Corporations 


Gain and Loss thru Interstate Migration, 1920-1930 


[155] 


1S2 


Page 
160 
162 


164 


164 
166 


168 


178 


180 











FOREWORD 


it there is not the remotest possibility of providing an equitable minimum 
standard of educational opportunity thruout the nation. This conclusion 
is based upon the following indisputable facts: 


Fite: PARTICIPATION in the support of education is inevitable. Without 


(1) There are the most appalling differences in educational opportunity, both among 
the states and within the states. 

(2) These differences in educational opportunity are the result of economic con- 
ditions largely beyond the control of the states. 

(3) Regardless of the effort made, many states will never be able to provide, from 
their own resources, a minimum acceptable program of educational opportunity. 


(4) The recent development of corporations and holding companies, and changes 
in the forms of wealth, have made it impossible for the states to tax the greatest 
potential sources of revenue. 


The federal government has an inescapable interest in the maintenance of 
public education, and it must bear with the states the financial burden ot 
supporting school facilities thruout the nation. Considerations leading to this 
conclusion are as follows: 


(1) Citizens of the state are none the less citizens of the nation, and, as has been 
pronounced by every American statesman, schools and the means of public education 
are indispensable to a democratic nation. 

(2) The mobility of our population and the higher birth-rates among the poor states 
compel the interest of each of the states, and hence of the nation, in the character of 
educational opportunity offered everywhere in the nation. 


During the past two or three years there has been considerable legislation 
designed to reform various economic and social conditions. For example, Con- 
gress voted twenty million dollars to enable tenant farmers of the South to 
become farm owners. Desirable as reform legislation may be, there is often 
an underlying problem of education. This fact is recognized in a Works Prog- 
ress Administration publication entitled Landlord and Tenant on the Cotton 


Plantation: 


The new order in agriculture, necessary to rehabilitate the South, gives rise to entirely 
different problems, and these modern agricultural problems cannot be successfully met 
with ignorance. Yet the schools, the chief agencies by which ignorance may be dispelled, 
are allowed to languish for want of interest and adequate financial support. The 
ignorance and shortsightedness of the cotton share-cropper of this generation is but a 
reflection of his training in the past. In like manner succeeding generations of adults 
will be handicapped by the inadequacies of their childhood training unless a new order 
of rural education can be effected. 


In this bulletin the Research Division brings before the profession the gist 
of the argument presented at recent Senate and House hearings on the Harrison- 
Black-Fletcher Bill. The cause of federal aid goes forward. Let teachers in 
their local and state groups review the evidence and prepare themselves for 
the next advance. 

Witarp E. Givens, Executive Secretary, 
National Education Association. 








[156] 


























Introduction 


Prior to the last two decades the public 
schools with but few exceptions were supported 
thru the resources of local communities. Under 
pressure of sweeping social and economic forces 
state participation eventually became necessary. 
These same forces have made it just as essential 
for the federal government to contribute to the 
support of education as it has been for the states 
to do so. What are the facts to support this 
point of view? The purpose of the present bul- 
letin is to review the evidence in the case for 
federal aid to education. 


Is Federal Aid a New Idea? 


Between 1781 and 1802 the thirteen original 
states ceded to the federal government their 
claims to the land between the Alleghanies 
and the Mississippi River. In 1783 Colonel 
Timothy Pickering, in a proposal for settling 
soldiers of the Revolution in a part of the 
present state of Ohio, suggested that surplus 
western lands should be disposed for the com- 
mon good including the establishing of schools 
and academies. The Ordinance of 1785, order- 
ing the rectangle system of survey of public 
lands, provided that “lot No. 16 of every town- 
ship” should be reserved for the maintenance 
of public schools. The Ordinance of 1787 stated 
that “schools and the means of education shall 
forever be encouraged” in the states to be de- 
veloped from the western territory. In the same 
year the Ohio Company purchased land on the 
Ohio River with the understanding that Sec- 
tion 16 should be reserved for schools. Similar 
terms were made in the sale of Ohio land to 
John C. Symmes in 1788. In these laws and 
grants of Congress we have the beginnings of 
a national land-grant policy for the promotion 
of education. 

The earlier policy was definitely established 
and extended in the admission of states carved 
from the western lands.' In the admission of 
Ohio in 1802 the sixteenth section of land in 
each township was granted for schools, on the 
condition that the state should exempt from 
taxation for five years all public lands sold by 
Congress. Similar bargains were made in the 
admission of Tennessee, Indiana, Mississippi, 
Illinois, and Alabama. With the exception of 
Maine, Texas, and West Virginia, all states 


1 Cubberley, Ellwood P. State School Administration. Boston: 


admitted after the establishment of this land 
policy received grants for schools. Most of the 
states west of the Mississippi River received 
two and sometimes four sections in every town- 
ship. In most of the states, also, similar grants 
were made for college and university purposes. 
By the Morrill Act of 1862 additional grants 
for colleges of agricultural and mechanical arts 
were made not only to the western states in 
the form of land, but to the southern and east- 
ern states in the form of land scrip. ‘l'aken to- 
gether, the federal land specifically granted for 
common schools constituted an area larger than 
Italy, over twice as large as England and 
Wales, and twenty-five times the size of Con- 
necticut.” 

After the Civil War there were several pro- 
posals that federal aid to the states for educa- 
tion should take the form of money grants. The 
Hoar Bill of 1870 provided that proceeds from 
the sale of public lands should be distributed in 
proportion to illiteracy in each state. This bill 
was never enacted into law. The three Blair 
bills (between 1884 and 1887), also providing 
for the distribution of funds to the states on 
the basis of illiteracy, passed the Senate but 
were never approved by the House. 

In 1887, by the passing of the Hatch Act, 
Congress appropriated $15,000 a year to each 
of the land-grant colleges for agricultural ex- 
perimental stations. Later the basic amount 
was increased and provision was made for an- 
nual increases. By the so-called “Second Mor- 
rill Act” of 1890 Congress granted additional 
money to the land-grant colleges. Beginning at 
$15,000 per year for each college, the law has 
been amended to provide for grants up to a 
maximum of $50,000 per year. The Hatch Act 
and the Second Morrill Act together make it 
possible for each state to receive $140,000 each 
year in direct aid for higher education. 

Since 1911 the general policy of federal aid, 
other than that of recent emergency grants, 
has followed the pattern set by the Weeks Act 
for fire protection. The significant features of 
this act were: (1) state matching of federal 
funds; (2) details of administration in state 
hands; and (3) federal supervision and inspec- 
tion of the operation of the plan. 

In 1914 the Smith-Lever Act provided na- 


Houghton Mifflin Co., 1927. p. 15-76 


2See Table V in F. H. Swift’s Federal and State Policies in Public School Finance in the United States. Boston: Ginn and 


Co., 1931. p. 26. 


{ 157] 








tional aid to the states for the diffusion of in- 
formation on subjects relating to agriculture 
and home economics. In 1924-25 the total fed- 
eral grants under this act amounted to nearly 
six million dollars. The Smith-Hughes Act of 
1917 provided federal aid for vocational edu- 
cation. The states must appropriate a sum equal 
to the federal grant. In August 1937 a sup- 
plementary law was enacted, providing $14,- 
000,000 of federal funds to meet the provisions 
of this bill and subsequent legislation. 

In addition to the foregoing provisions for 
federal aid to education, there have been other 
less well-known grants of assistance. These in- 
clude gifts of saline and swamp lands, grants 
from the sale of public lands, the distribution 
of “surplus revenue” from the federal treasury, 
the gifts of public lands for internal improve- 
ments, and various enabling acts upon the ad- 
mission of territories to statehood. Since the 
World War, there have been large federal ap- 
propriations for the vocational reeducation both 
of veterans and of persons disabled in industry. 
Federal assistance in the form of money grants 
has been given during the recent depression 
years to help “closed” schools, to provide 
nursery and adult education, to construct school 
buildings, and to carry out the programs of 
the Civilian Conservation Corps and the Na- 
tional Youth Administration. 


The National Education Association and 
Proposals for Federal Aid 


As early as 1869 the National Teachers’ 
Association, a forerunner of the present Na- 
tional Education Association, became interested 
in the establishment of a national university. 
A bill was introduced in 1873, providing that 
the federal government should pay the pro- 
posed university 5 percent on an endowment 
of $20,000,000. Congress took no action on 
this measure or on similar proposals which 
have been introduced from time to time. The 
idea, however, is discussed from year to year 
by members of the Association who believe that 
the proposition has considerable merit. 

A committee of the Association proposed in 
1919 that there be established a Department 
of Education with a Secretary in the Presi- 
dent’s Cabinet and that $100,000,000 a year 
be granted to the states for the improvement 
of schools. In essentially the same form (Smith- 
Towner, 1919; Sterling-Towner, 1921; Ster- 
ling-Reed, 1923) the bill was reintroduced into 


[158] 


Congress. Without the provision for feders| 
aid, a similar bill was unsuccessfully advocate, 
in 1925. 

In 1936, thru its Legislative Commission, 
the National Education Association had 
troduced into Congress the Harrison-Blac! 
Fletcher Bill. The main provisions of the p; 
posal were: 


Appropriations to the states—Funds are a; 
priated to the states to be used by them for sci 
The manner in which the funds received sha}! 
used for the maintenance of a program of p 
education is left wholly to the respective state levi. 
latures. 

Basis of apportionment—The funds are a 
tioned to the states and territories according ¢ 
number of persons 5 to 20 years old in each ($25 
per person the first year and increasing to $7.63 ; 
fifth year). Each state can then apportion the funds 
to its districts according to any plan it may choos 

Federal control prohibited—All control, adm 
tration, and supervision of schools and educatio: 
programs are reserved strictly to the states and { 
bidden to all federal officers and agencies. 

What the states must do—In order to qualify { 
receiving the federal allotments each state or t 
tory must do three things: (a) maintain a syste: 
public schools available thruout the state or territ 
wherein each school in said system shall be hy 
session for a term of not less than 160 days, closing 
of schools due to epidemics, fires, and acts of God 
being excepted; (b) spend from combined state and 
local revenues for elementary and secondary sch 
as much per person 5 to 20 years old as was spent 
in the school year ending 1936, taking into conside: 
tion the total population and each population g: 
for which schools are specifically maintained; and 
(c) have legislative enactments for the distributior 
expenditure, and administration of the fund a; 
priated by the federal government, and for a 
and equitable distribution and expenditure of said 
funds among the several public schools of that 
state or territory. 

Amount of funds to be required—An initia 
propriation of $100,000,000 and an increase of $5 
000,000 each year until $300,000,000 per ye 
provided. 





Publ; 
ernm: 
State. 
Ist S 


In the spring of 1937 hearings were held be 
fore the Senate Committee on Labor and Edu 
cation and the Committee on Education of the 
House of Representatives. The Senate Com 
mittee voted favorably on the bill, but an 
“economy wave” prevented its further con 
sideration by the Senate. The House Commit 
tee postponed action, pending action by ¢! 
Senate. Meanwhile educators await with 
terest the report on the role of the federal 
government in education which is now being 
prepared by the President’s Advisory Commit 
tee on Education. 


e 





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How the Bulletin Is Organized 


The published reports * of the congressional 
hearings on the Harrison-Black-Fletcher Bill 
cover over one thousand pages of statistical 
evidence and expert opinion. It is doubtful 
whether any educational proposal considered 
by Congress has had a more carefully con- 
sidered and detailed body of supporting evi- 
dence. One of the principal purposes of the 
present bulletin is to make this collection of 
information available in concise and systematic 
form. 

In presenting the case for federal aid to the 
congressional committees, the Association drew 
upon the studies of the Research Division, the 
investigations of educational and tax authori- 
ties, and the experience of experts in numerous 
fields. In a brief presentation of the data this 
bulletin will discuss the following major ques- 
tions: 

(1) What inequalities among the states make 
federal aid a necessity? Three topics will be 
treated in this connection: (a) the inequalities 
of educational opportunity, (b) the economic 
ability of the states to support schools, and (c) 
the size of the educational task. 

(2) Do present conditions tend to perpetuate 
the inequalities among the states? Evidence 
will be presented on three topics: (a) the de- 
clining birth-rate, (b) migration from farms, 
and (c) growth in corporate ownership of 
wealth. 

(3) Could the states themselves overcome 
the existing inequalities? The points 


two 


treated in answer to this question are: (a) 
ettorts required to support an adequate school 


program, and (b) improvement ot state tax 


systems. 
(4+) Can the nation afford to support educa- 
tion? Particular attention is given here to the 


topics: (a) school costs and other expenditures, 
and (b) the incidence of federal taxation. 

(5) Why is the education of children in all 
of the states of national concern? This question 


is answered by evidence on the mobility of 


population. 
(6) What other questions artse with regard 
to federal aid for education? Passing reference 


is made to several problems discussed at the 
congressional hearings which do not lend them- 
selves readily to statistical treatment. 


How This Bulletin May Be Used 


The history of federal legislation indicates 
an increasing sentiment for a recognition by 
the federal government of its obligations to 
education. At some future time appropriate 
legislation will be passed—either the Harrison- 
Black-Fletcher Bill or some other. Desirable 
action will be hastened if teachers themselves 
are aware of the issues and the facts involved. 
The evidence needs to be thoroly studied by 
individual teachers and by groups in local and 
state associations. Laymen need to be informed 
by discussions in parent-teacher associations and 
in the many civic organizations. The present 
bulletin should prove to be a valuable hand- 
book in all such activities. 


5U. S. Congress. Senate, Committee on Education and Labor. Assistance to States and Territories in Providing Programs of 
Public Education. Hearings on S. 419, February 9, 10, 11, and 15, 1937. 75th Congress, Ist Session. Washington, D. C.: Gov- 
ernment Printing Office, 1937. 307 p. 1 U. S. Congress. House of Representatives, Committee on Education. Federal Aid to the 
States for the Support of Public Schools. Hearings on H. R. 5962, March 30 and 31, April 1, 2, 6, 8, and 13, 1937. 75th Congress, 
Ist Session. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1937. 485 p. 








O MORE FUNDAMENTAL RESPONSIBILITY rests upon Congress than that of devising 
N appropriate measures of financial aid to education, supplemental to local action 
in the states and territories and in the District of Columbia. The wise forethought of 
the founders of our government has not only furnished the basis for the support of the 
common-school systems of the newer states, but laid the foundations for the maintenance 
of their universities and colleges of agricultural and mechanic arts. Measures in accord- 
ance with this traditional policy for the further benefit of all these interests and the 
extension of the same advantages to every portion of the country, it is hoped will receive 
your favorable consideration.” —Message to Congress, 1879, Rutherford B. Hayes. 











[159] 





FIGURE I 





EXPENDITURES FOR PUBLIC ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY 
SCHOOLS, PER PUPIL ENROLLED, 1933-34 


$80 $120 





°o 
had 
3 
“ 
48 
3 
Jo 


4 


New York 
Nevada 
California 
New Jersey 
Delaware 
Massachusetts 
Rhode Island 
Wyoming 








Connecticut 
Minois 

Ohio 

New Hampshire 
Montana 
Maryland 
Pennsylvania 
Arizona 
Colorado 
Wisconsin 
Minnesota 
Michigan 
Oregon 
Kansas 
Washington 


lowa 


Hi 


Indiana 

New Mexico 
South Dakota 
North Dakota 
Utah 

Idaho 
Missouri 
Vermont 
Nebraska 
Maine 

West Virginia 
Texas 
Oklahoma 
Florida 
Virginia — 
Louisiana United States 
Tennessee 


Kentucky 
Alabama 


North Carolina 
Georgia 

South Carolina 
Arkansas 
Mississippi 








$20 $40 $60 $80 $100 $120 


a“ 


Research Divisic.n, National Education Associa 





| 


Based on the “Biennial Survey of Education, 1932-34."" Federal Office of Education 








[ 160 } 





tion 








Inequalities of Educational Opportunity 


There are wide differences in the extent and 
quality of the school programs offered by the 
various states.’ The full significance of these 
differences can never be shown statistically, yet 
their presence is clearly reflected in certain types 
of data. Some of the more striking disparities 
revealed by figures on per pupil expenditures, 
length of school term, ratio of high-school en- 
rolment to total enrolment, salaries paid teach- 
ers, and the per pupil value of school property 
are cited in the following paragraphs. 

Figure I, on the opposite page, makes use of 
only the first of these measures—expenditures 
per pupil enrolled—to demonstrate the com- 
parative inadequacy of the educational oppor- 
tunities afforded the children of some of our 
states. The year 1933-34 is the latest for which 
reliable and complete information is available. 


Inequalities in Pupil Expenditures 


Contrast the kind of schools that can be 
bought for $18.93 per pupil, annually, with 
those which cost an annual sum of $124.32 per 
pupil. Yet Figure I shows that these were the 
average amounts spent in 1933-34 for each 
pupil enrolled in the public schools of Missis- 
sippi and New York, respectively. According 
to these figures the average school child of 
New York state has about 6% times as much 
money spent on his education, each year, as the 
average school child of Mississippi. 

Figure I ranks all of the states in the order 
of their annual expenditures per pupil enrolled 
in the public schools, in 1933-34. In the United 
States as a whole, this expenditure was $64.76 
—more than three times as great as that of 
Mississippi. Seven states spent more than $80 
per pupil enrolled, but eight states spent less 
than $30, and eleven states less than $40 per 
pupil enrolled. 


Other Disparities 


The average school term in the nation as a 
whole is about 8'%4 months. The average terms 
supported by the states range from 914 months 
to less than 6% months. In seven states the 
average number of days attended by rural 
pupils is less than 6 months. More than 600,- 
000 children attend rural schools which are in 
session for less than 6 months per year. Are 
these rural children expected to learn as much 


1 Based upon Senate Hearings on S. 419, p. 29-32; House Hearings on H. R. 5962, pp. 34-37 


in 6 months as children in some other states, 
and in city schools of the same states, can learn 
in 8 or 9 months? 

Can a teacher be employed for $465 annually 
who will be equal in training and ability to one 
who is paid an annual salary of $2361? The 
former figure is the average, not the minimum, 
salary paid public school teachers in Arkansas 
in 1933-34. The latter figure is the average 
salary paid teachers in New York state. Four 
states pay teachers an average of less than $600 
a year; nine states pay less than $750. 

The ratio of high-school enrolments to total 
enrolments varies, among the states, from 30.9 
percent in Wisconsin to only 10.6 percent in 
Mississippi. Eleven states have more than 25 
percent of their total enrolment in high schools 
while in eleven other states high-school enrol- 
ments represent less than 16 percent of the total 
enrolment. With our present population, if 
high schools were universally available and 
universally attended, high-school enrolments 
would constitute approximately 331% percent 
of total enrolments. 

The range among the states in the value 
of public school property per pupil in attend- 
ance is from $570 in Massachusetts to $60 in 
Mississippi. Over 65 percent of all school build- 
ings in the latter state are one-room schools. 
In the former state, one-room schools represent 
less than 15 percent of total school buildings. 

A study by PWA engineers reveals that 
about two and one-half million children are 
not provided with public school facilities. 
Nearly as many pupils attend school only part- 
time or in buildings that are unsanitary and 
unsafe. 

Differences among the states in breadth of 
educational opportunity are as great as the 
more material differences reflected in the sta- 
tistical data cited above. 


Differences Not Due to Lack of Interest 
in Education 

The differences in educational opportunity 
cited above are not the result of reluctance 
upon the part of some states to support schools. 
They are, in almost every case, due to economic 
conditions over which the states -affected have 
no control. ‘These conditions are discussed in 
the following pages. 


and U. S. Office of Education, 


Biennial Survey of Education, 1932-1934, Chapter II, ‘Statistics of State School Systems, 1933-34 


[161 ] 





FIGURE II 





RELATIVE PER CAPITA TAXPAYING ABILITY OF THE 
STATES, 1930 


$64 $96 $128 $160 $400 
at 


— j 
Delaware oe 


Nevada 
New York 
New Jersey 
Connecticut 
California 
Wyoming 
Massachusetts 
Mlinois 
Rhode Island 
lows 
Montana 
Oregon 
Michigan 
Washington 
Nebraske 
Ohio 


Pennsylvania 


ro 
“ 
re 





UN 


Arizona 
Colorado 
Kansas 
Maryland 
Minnesota 
Wisconsin 


Idaho 

South Dakota 
Missouri 

Utah 

New Hampshire m 
Indiana . 
West Virginia 
North Dakota 
Floride 
Vermont Mt) 
Oklahoma 

Texas Sead Stotes k 
New Mexico al 
Virginia ; 
Tennessee 
North Carolina 
Kentucky 
Louisiana 
Arkansas T] 
Georgia C, 
Alabama , 
South Carolina ( 
Mississippi l | | l 1 — M 
$64 $96 $128 $160 $400 








o 

tad 
w 
LJ) 


Research Division, National Education Associat 





Based on data from Mabel Newcomer's "An Index of the Taxpaying Ability of State and Local Governments.” 








{ 162] 














Economic Ability of the States To Support Schools 


The states are unequal in their economic abil- 
ity to support schools." Differences among the 
states in financial ability to support schools 
have been measured in several ways. In an early 
investigation Norton measured ability in terms 
of income and wealth. The expenses of govern- 
ment, however, are paid out of taxes so that the 
state which can collect the most taxes is un- 
doubtedly the most able to support schools or 
any other public function. T'wo more recent 
investigations of tax resources have been made 
by Newcomer and Chism. Figure II, on the 
opposite page, is based on data from New- 


comer’s study. 
Differences in Taxpaying Ability 


Newcomer based her measures of taxpaying 
ability on the estimated yield, in each of the 
states, of a uniform system of taxation, recom- 
mended by a committee of the National Tax 
Association in 1933. The committee recom- 
mended that every tax system should include a 
personal income tax, a tax on tangible property, 
and a business income tax. In addition, New- 
comer included in her proposed uniform tax 
system three supplementary taxes—a severance 
tax, a corporate organization tax, and a stock 
transfer tax—on grounds that these taxes rep- 
resent extraordinary taxpaying ability in cer- 
tain states which should be reflected in any 
measure of the relative taxpaying ability of the 
forty-eight states. 

According to Newcomer, the estimated tax 
resources of New York state were $1 ,038,000,- 
000 in 1930, 115 times as great as the $9,000,- 
000 of estimated tax resources of New Mexico. 
Figure III is based on these data and compar- 
able data for the other states reduced to a per 
capita basis. 

Figure III shows that in 1930, Delaware 
had a per capita taxpaying ability of $390—39 
times that of South Carolina and Mississippi. 
The average taxpaying ability in the United 
States as a whole was $40, which is just equal 
to the taxpaying ability of each resident of 
Michigan, Washington, Nebraska, and Ohio. 
Nevada, which ranks second to Delaware, had 
a per capita taxpaying ability of $141, and the 
figure for New York, which ranks third on this 





basis, is $79. Residents of eight states had an 
average taxpaying ability of less than $20 
average taxpaying ability of less than $20. 

Using similar methods, Chism also found a 
wide divergence in the estimated tax resources 
of the various states. 


Differences in Ability as Measured by 
Income and Wealth 


The United States Department of Com- 
merce has estimated the national income, in the 
year 1934, at $50,174,000,000. A distribution 
of this total among the states, as estimated by 
the National Industrial Conference Board, in- 
dicates that $8,650,000,000, or about 17 per- 
cent of the total, was received by the inhabitants 
of New York state. The people of only seven 
states—New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Cal- 
ifornia, Ohio, Massachusetts, and New Jersey 

-received $27,053,821,000, or almost 54 per- 
cent of the national total. 

The total estimated wealth of the nation in 
1932, according to the National Industrial 
Conference Board, was $247,300,000,000. The 
Conference Board’s estimate ot the distribution 
of national wealth among the states shows al- 
most one-third of the total wealth of the nation 
located in four states—New York, Pennsyl- 
vania, Illinois, and Ohio. 

All available data on the relative financial re- 
sources of the states tend to bear out the con- 
clusion that wide differences exist. According 
to the most conservative of the figures the abil- 
ity of the richest state to support education is 
at least six times as great as that of the poorest 
state. Other estimates indicate that this diver- 
gence is even greater. 

On any basis, so far presented, the taxpaying 
ability of states like Delaware, Nevada, New 
York, New Jersey, California, Connecticut, 
Wyoming, and Massachusetts averages from 
two to four times as great as that of the states 
of North Carolina, Kentucky, Louisiana, Ar- 
kansas, Georgia, Alabam&, South Carolina, and 
Mississippi. ‘hese differences are great enough 
to account for many of the variations in educa- 
tional opportunity cited on page 161, even if 
they were not aggravated by conditions dis- 
cussed in later sections of this bulletin. 


‘ Based upon Senate Hearings on S. 419, p. 21-27, 242-45. 1 House Hearings on H. R. 5962, p. 32-34. 1 Newcomer, Mabel. An 
Index of the Taxpaying Ability of State and Local Governments. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1935. 85p. 
For further reference consult Norton, John K., and Norton, Margaret A. Wealth, Children and Education. New York: Teachers 
College, Columbia University, 1937. p. 1-48. Mort, Paul R., and others. Federal Support for Public Education. New York: 


Teachers College, Columbia University, 1936. p. 115-205. 


[ 163 ] 





FIGURE III 





NUMBER OF CHILDREN AGED 5 TO 13 FOR EACH 1000 
ADULTS 20 TO 64, BY REGIONS, 1930 











? 190 a 390 400 a bs 
Southeast 
South west 
Northwest 
Midd le States 
Northeast 
Far West 
t T T T 7 
0 100 200 300 400 500 


Research Division, Nationa! Education 


Based on data from the Fifteenth Census of the United States, 1930. 





FIGURE IV 








PERCENT OF NATION'S CHILDREN AND PERCENT OF NATION'S 
INCOME IN EACH OF SIX GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS, 1930 











PERCENT c 10 20 30 40 50 
Northeast 
Middle States 
Southeast U 
Southwest 
P. t of child 
on SEMMEE 51517 core of ase 
GE Percent of national income 

Far West 

-_ ¥ ' T T 7 

0 10 20 30 40 50 


Research Division, National Education 








Based on population figures from U. S. Census, 1930, and data on the distribution of income for 1929 published by 
the Brookings Institution. 











ton 














The Size of the Educational Task 


Inequalities in the economic ability of the 

ites to support education are emphasized by 
differences in the size of the educational task.’ 
It is significant that almost invariably the 
states with the lowest taxpaying ability and the 
most meager educational programs are those 
with the highest number of children in propor- 
rion to adults. Figure III, on page 164, shows 
the number of children 5 to 13 years of age for 
each 1000 adults in the total population in six 
geographical regions. Figure IV presents data 
bearing on the relationship of financial ability 
to educational load by comparing the percent of 
the nation’s children with the percent of na- 
tional income received in each of these regions. 


Ratio of Children to Adults 


Figure III reveals striking regional differ- 
ences in the ratios of children to adults in the 
main productive age group. For every 1000 
persons between the ages of 20 and 64, there 
are in the Southeast 426 children of elementary- 
school age (between the ages of 5 and 13). In 
the Southwest section of the country the ratio 
of children ages 5 to 13 years per 1000 adults 
is 380. There are 350 children per 1000 adults 
in the Northwest; 297 in the Middle States; 
295 in the Northeast, and only 236 in the Pa- 
cific Coast States of the Far West. In other 
words, the productive population of the South- 
east is carrying a burden of child care and edu- 
cation which is 44 percent greater than that 
carried by the Northeast and 80 percent greater 
than that carried by the Far West. 

Differences in the distribution of school pop- 
ulation among the individual states are even 
greater than among the geographical regions. 
Only a few comparisons between states will be 
made at this point. ‘Che number of children, 5 
to 13 years of age, for each 1000 adults between 
the ages of 20 and 64 is 523 in South Carolina 
as compared with 225 in California. Similar 
ratios are 491 in North Carolina and 441 in 
Alabama, as compared with 254 in New York 
state and 270 in Illinois. 

Usually the relation of the number of chil- 
dren to adults is in inverse ratio to the size 
of the community. In cities of 100,000 popula- 
tion or more the ratio of children to adults is 
relatively small. In towns and villages with a 


population of less than 2500, this ratio is con 
siderably higher than in large cities, but it is 
upon the rural farm population that the cost 
of educating children rests most heavily. Fo: 
each 1000 adults of the rural farm population 
in the Southwest and Southeast, there are twice 
as many children of school age as for each 1000 
adults of the population in the large cities. In 
other regions of the United States the rural 
farm population is carrying an educational load 
which is from 65 to 85 percent greater than in 
the cities. 

Percent of the Nation’s Children and 
Percent of the Nation’s Income in Dif- 
ferent Areas 
The rural sections of the nation, by and 

large, are the ones least able to support schools. 

The states shown to have the least taxpaying 

ability in the preceding section of this bulletin 

are for the most part predominantly rural. 

When these facts are considered in the light of 

the data presented above, showing that predom 

inantly rural states and rural areas within states 
are those which carry the heaviest educational 
loads, the problem assumes serious proportions. 

Figure IV, on the opposite page, compares 
the distribution of the nation’s children with 
the distribution of the national income among 
the six geographical regions. In the industrial 

Northeastern states are 29.65 percent of the 

nation’s children between the ages of 5 and 13. 

The people in that section receive about 43 per 

cent of the national income. By way of contrast, 

the people of the rural Southeastern states re 
ceive only 10 percent of the income, yet have 
over 24 percent (almost one-fourth) of all the 
children of school age in the nation to feed, 
clothe, and educate. Similar figures for the 

other geographic regions are as follows: Mid 

dle States, 26.05 percent of children and 28.38 

percent of total national income; Northwest, 

6.25 percent of children and 4.59 percent of in- 

come ; Southwest, 8.13 percent of children, 5.22 

percent of income; Far West, 5.48 percent of 

children and 9.87 percent of income. 
Differences in educational opportunity are 
due to a lack of financial resources in the very 
states where educational load is heaviest. These 
differences are not likely to decrease with the 


passing years. 


1 Based upon Senate Hearings on S. 419, p. 44-59. 1 House Hearings on H. R. 5962, p. 33-37. § U. S. Department of Con 


merce, Bureau of Census. Fifteenth Census of the United States, 1930. ‘‘Population,”’ Vol. II, p. 591. § Leven, M.; Moulton, H. G 


and Warburton, C. A. America’s Capacity To Consume. Washington, D. ( 


>.: Brookings Institution, 1934. p. 172 


{ 165 J 





‘NOILW1NdOd NI 





9€61-6361 “SNOIDIY AG W 3 
ISVIIONI TWANLWN 4O SALVY NI JONWHD LIN 


63 ‘ss yb Ol "Tim 


2582193 


QN3931 





A aanold 








Mersey VPONM. WEPaErtnenmt OF VOMMEercEe, VUrESaYU OF Lensus 


10 424.7 


4.2 


ORes Div Nat Educ Assn | 


1929 and 1936 


Spec ial Reports for 


3 
= 
* 

a 

3 

> 





The Declining Birth-Rate 


Differences in the rate of natural increase of 
sulation in various regions of the United 
Sates tend to perpetuate and increase educa- 
jonal inequalities.‘ In Figure V the forty-eight 
sates have been grouped into the six major geo- 
sraphic regions used by Odum to illustrate 
these variations. Rates of natural increase in the 
population, that is, the excess of live births over 
jeaths per 1000 population, have been used in- 
sead of crude birth-rates (live births per 1000 
estimated population). Tho it is a well-known 
fact that the national birth-rate has been de- 
clining, a rapidly decreasing death-rate may 
vive the false impression that the actual increase 
n population has not been seriously affected. If 
: birth-rate falls more rapidly than a death-rate 
which includes infant mortality) the rate of 
natural increase will drop correspondingly, in- 
dicating a decrease in the number of children 
srowing up to replace the maturing population. 
\ study of the changes in rates of natural in- 
crease over a period of years, as shown in Figure 
V, will reveal the true situation created by de- 
clining birth-rates in the six major regions of 
the United States. 


Regional Variations 


In comparing the net changes in rates of nat- 
ural increase in population it is significant that 
certain regions are experiencing far greater dif- 
terences between falling birth- and death-rates 
than are other regions. The national birth-rate 
dropped from 18.9 in 1929 to 16.6 in 1936, and 
the death-rate from 11.9 to 11.5, thus produc- 
ing a met decrease of 1.9 in the rate of natural 
increase for the nation as a whole. But the rate 
of natural increase in the Northeast region de- 
creased 2.7 as compared with a falling off of 
0.9 for the Southeast during this same period. 
The Middle States showed a decrease of 2.2 
compared with drops of 0.3 for the Southwest, 
1.4 for the Northwest, and 1.5 for the Far 
West. These regional variations in the net 
changes between 1929 and 1936 are particu- 
larly important because of the pronounced dif- 
terences between the actual rates of natural in- 
crease for the six geographical regions. In 1929 
the Southeast had a 9.5 rate of natural increase 
compared with 8.9 for the Northwest, 8.1 for 


1 Based upon Senate Hearings on S. 419, p. 28-29, 44-59. | House Hearings on H. R. 5962, p 

University of North Carolina Press, 1936. p 

merce, Bureau of Census. Vital Statistics, Special Reports, 1929 and 1936. For further reference consult 
Macmillan Co., 1934 3 


Southern Regions of the United States. Chapel Hill 


Osborn, Frederick. Dynamics of Population. New York 


the Southwest, 6.4 for the Middle States, 6.1 
for the Northeast, and 3.1 for the Far West. 
Thus the small drop of 0.9 for the Southeast 
leaves its 1936 rate standing at 8.6, while the 
net change for the Middle States sets the 1936 
figure at 4.2, the rate for the Northeast drops 
to 3.4, and a decrease of 1.5 gives the Far West 
a rate of natural increase of only 1.6 for 1936 

A comparison of rates of natural increase in 
1936 with population estimates for that same 
year shows that approximately 55 percent of 
the natural increase is coming from three re 
gions—Southeast, Southwest, and Northwest 
that contain altogether only about one-third ot 
the total population. Conversely, the Northeast, 
Middle States, and Far West, with 65 percent 
of the total population, account for only 45 per 
cent of the total excess of births over deaths. 
If rates of natural increase continue to decline 
less rapidly for some years to come in the three 
regions which contain one-third of the national 
population, the ratio of children to adults of 
the productive ages will be disproportionatel\ 
large in these regions. 

With the above situation in mind, this trend 
resulting from the declining birth-rate is of sig 
nificance in our problem of the inequality of 
educational opportunity. It has been shown in 
previous sections of this bulletin that, on the 
whole, the states of the Northeast, the Middle 
States, and the Far West are best prepared to 
bear the costs of an adequate educational op 
portunity for their children. In all six regions 
there are notable exceptions to this general clas 
sification, but it is definitely true that the 
states which are furnishing the larger propor 
tion of the nation’s new population are the least 
able financially to educate it. These states in the 
Southeast, Southwest, and Northwest have ex 
tensive rural areas with low incomes and less 
desirable levels of living. 

If movement of population from rural to uw 
ban areas continues, it will be the children of 
the rural areas who will replace a considerable 
part of the urban population of the Northeast, 
Middle States, and Far West. Thus the present 
trend in rates of natural increase in the six 
yveographic regions may have a profound eftect 
on the distribution and social characteristics of 
the people of the United States. 

Howard W 


Department of C¢ 
Lorimer, Frank 


33-34. 7 Odum 
7¢u.% 


Chapters ind 


{ 167 ] 





FIGURE VI 














NET MIGRATION OF FARM POPULATION BY REGIONS, 
1920-1930 


Wines hoe 








LEGEND 


BE Ove: 2,000,000 
1,000,000-2,000,000 
om Under 1,000,000 


[] Approximately no net migration 


Research Division, Nationa 


Based on the President's Research Committee, ‘Recent Social Trends in the United States." 1933. p. 111. 





FIGURE VII 








MOVEMENT OF WEALTH AWAY FROM FARMS, 1920-1930 
PERCENT 9 20 40 60 80 100 





T t ' 





Total 
farm 
income 








Wealth | 
leaving 
farms 

















Division of wealth leaving farms 


Cost of care and education of Interest on debts paid by 


migrants to age of economic farmers to non-farmers 
productivity 


Settlement of estates inherited Rs. Rents paid by farmers to 


y migrants non-farmers 
Research Division, Nationa! Education’ Ass 


Based on O. E. Baker's ‘Migrant Wealth and Farmers’ Income" in Annals of Association of American Geographers 
33; 85-89; June 1933. 








[ 168 ] 





























Migration from Farms 


\fovement of population from farms to non 


m and urban areas results in a movement of 


ealth in the same direction.’ In Figure V1 the 


ipproximate net migration of the rural-farm 
r 


population away from farms during the decade 


1920 to 1930 is shown for six regions. For com 
parative purposes the estimates of the move 
ment of wealth away from farms for the same 
period are shown in Figure VII. Regional esti 
mates of the movement of wealth are not avail 
able, but a clear picture of the situation may be 
ascertained by consideration of the farm in- 
comes of the six regions in comparison with 
their net migration from farms. 


Migration Moves Wealth 


Since the World War much of the migration 
from rural-farm to rural-non-farm and urban 
areas has come from the Southeast, the eastern 
corn belt of the Middle States, and the South- 
west. Approximately 60 percent of the net mi- 
gration during the decade 1920-1930, or about 
3,437,000 people, came from the combined re- 
gions of the Southeast and Southwest. Negroes 
constituted one-third of this migration from 
southern farms. About 24 percent of the migra- 
tion came from the Middle States alone, and 
the remaining 16 percent moved from the farms 
of the Northwest and Northeast regions. Tho 
the movement from farms in New York and 
Pennsylvania was relatively large, a net migra- 
tion to farms in Massachusetts and Rhode 
Island reduced the average for the Northeast 
region. In the Far West the extensive move- 
ment to the farm areas of California counter- 
balanced the small migration from farms in 
Oregon, Washington, and Nevada with the re- 
sult that there was virtually no gain or loss for 
the non-farm areas of the Far West region dur- 
ing the decade. 

In all regions the migrants from farm to city 
were mostly young people. Not quite a third 
were under 15 years of age, more than a third 
were 15 to 25 years of age, and about a tenth 
were 25 to 35 years old. Non-farm areas ob- 
tained these people near the beginning of their 
productive life almost free of cost. The expense 
of care and education of these migrants up to 
the age of economic productivity was borne by 


‘ Based upon Senate Hearings on S. 419, p. 28-29. § louse Hearings on H. R. 5962, p. 33-34 
| . Tt . r ; : . , . + 
Migration and the National Welfare.”’ Annals of the Association of American Geographers 
Migration and Economi 


ence consult Goodrich, Carter, and others. 
Press, 1936 


the rural areas which lost their investment 
the young persons when they left for no: 
centers. 

According to Baker the net migration fro 
the farms during the decade 1920-1930 
sented a contribution of about $14,000,000, 
000. ‘This amounts to $1,400,000,000 a year, a 
sum almost equivalent to the annual value of 
the wheat crop plus half the cotton crop. ‘To 
of wealth must be added be 


$4,000,000 000 


this movement 
tween $3,000,000,000 and 
which was considered to have gone from farms 
as estates of farm parents were settled among 
migrant children, about $7,500,000,000 inter 
est on debts paid by farmers to non-farmers, 
and approximately $10,500,000,000 rent paid 
by farmers to non-farmers. The resultant total 
of $35,000,000,000, which left farms between 
1920 and 1930, represented 56 percent of the 
total farm income for the decade. 

This 


found in all six regions, but the areas of low 


movement of wealth from farms is 
farm income naturally suffer most. Again the 
southern regions are affected out of proportion 
to other sections of the country because the 
greatest migration from farms occurred there. 
The Southeast and Southwest, with meager re 
sources for taxation, are left with a dispropo: 
tionately large number of children. The rural 
sections of the South must support nearly a 
third of their population in school, the indus 
trial sections of the North and West less than 
one-fourth. This means that even when an 
equal expenditure per adult is made for educa 
tion, a discrepancy in costs per child remains. 
Authorities predict that future migration is 
likely to continue and possibly to accentuate 
the trends of the decade from 1920 to 1930. 
The early years of the depression brought a re 
versal of the direction of migration, and many 
unemployed city-dwellers trekked ‘“‘back to the 
land” to seek subsistence security. But, because 
of the competition of commercial agriculture 
and the ever increasing attractions of non-farm 
life, already the movement is again away from 
that self-sufficing type of farming. In the long 
run no material change has taken place in the 
great movement to non-farm centers which has 
persisted for many decades. 
{ Baker, O. E. ‘“‘Rural-l 


85-90; June 1933. For further 1 


Opportunity. Philadelphia: University of Pent 


[ 169 ] 





FIGURE VIII 






























































COMPARATIVE TRENDS IN CORPORATE AND NATIONAL WEALTH 
Index of Change Based on 1923 
} 
L Corporate 
140 }— a _ oe | 
Wealth 
| | 
| | 
} | 
130 [2s Se — T = 
| | 
| 
| | 
{ | j 
| | 
| | 
| 
| 
| | 
| | 
120 + = ME © ote ' —- — 
| 
| 
| 
110, -/—_—_—_fA-—_____+—___—__+_____ 
National 
- fees ™=<«/, pow 2 eee 
P ae | - Wealth i 
4 ~~ _ a a 
4 ~ i, Poel 
4 ~ Pa 
7 => 
Z 
ft >a ; 
1923 = 100 
90 4 
| 
' | L 
1993 1924 1995 1926 1927 1928 1929 
Research Division, National Education Associat 
Based on estimates of national wealth by the National Industrial Conf Board, ‘Conference Board Bulletin,” 
May 20, 1933; and estimates of the wealth of all non-financial corporations by the Federal Trade Commission, ‘Nationa! 
Wealth and income" (for 1923) and by Gardiner C. Means, American Economic Review 2: 10-42; March 1931 (for 
the years 1924-1928 inclusive). 








[170] 








Growth in Corporate Ownership of Wealth 


Growth in corporate ownership and control 
of wealth is making it increasingly difficult for 
the states to tap their own economtc resources 
for the support of education and other publi 
services. This growth in corporate wealth re- 
ceived its first major impetus in the develop 
ment of railroads in this country, spread to 
other industries, and proceeded at an acceler- 
ated rate after the World War. Figure VIII 
compares trends in corporate wealth and total 
national wealth in the years between 1923 and 
1929, as shown by figures compiled by Means, 
supplemented by data from U. S. Internal 
Revenue Reports, and estimates by the Federal 
Trade Commission and the National Industrial 


Conference Board. 


Trends in National Wealth and 
Corporate Wealth 


The National Industrial Conference Board 
estimates the amount of our national wealth in 
1923 at $339,960,000,000. In the same year 
corporate wealth equaled $90,507,000,000 or 
27 percent of the total. By 1929 national 
wealth had increased to $361,837,000,000 and 
corporate wealth to $127,318,000,000—an 
amount equal to 35 percent of the national 
wealth. Thus, while the total wealth of the na- 
tion increased something more than 6 percent in 
the years between 1923 and 1929, the growth 
of corporate wealth about 41 percent. 
Means estimates that in 1929 the two hundred 
largest corporations alone, controlled wealth 
equal to about one-fifth of the total national 
wealth. 

What does this increasing concentration of 
wealth in the hands of corporations mean in 
terms of adequate school support from state 
sources? In the first place, it means absentee 
ownership of much of the wealth in the form 
of natural resources located in some of our 
states. Absentee ownership may mean removal 
of this wealth, at least to a large extent, as a 
source of taxation. Often this movement of 
wealth is from other parts of the country to- 
ward the industrial Northeast. For instance, a 
large corporation organized in the state of Del- 
aware may run pipe lines for gas or oil out of 
| the state of Texas to other states and may carry 
on a large proportion of its business operations 


was 


Based upon Senate Hearings on S. 419, p. 227-33; House Hearings on H. R. 5962, p. 260-71; 
Large Corporation in American Economic Life.’’ American Economic Review 21 


in these other states. Ownership may be vested 
in stockholders scattered all over the country, 
with a large block of the stock controlled by 
financial interests in New York City. Such a 
company probably would pay its corporate or 
ganization tax in Delaware and would pay 
only a small proportion of its corporation in 
come tax, even if one were levied, in ‘Texas. 
Texas could levy taxes on the property of the 
corporation located within its borders and it 
could collect severance or sales taxes on the 
amount produced or sold within the state but it 
is dificult to pass legislation levying severance 
or sales taxes at sufficiently high rates to retrieve 
the loss in revenues suffered, since competitive 
efforts of the states to attract business tend to 
limit the rates of state taxation. Fortunes made 
by the exploitation of the natural resources lo 
cated in Texas would be principally taxable i: 
other states. 

The 
creates technical problems in the administra 
It becomes difh 


corporate torm of organization ilso 
tion and assessment of taxes. 
cult to define each state’s jurisdiction in the 
taxation of an interstate business and it compli 
cates the collection of taxes actually levied. 

The only agency which can alleviate the in 
justice resulting from the interstate character 
of our industrial system is the federal govern 
ment. The provision of federal assistance to the 
states in support of education, from taxes col 
lected from the whole nation, would be a step 
in this adjustment. Federal taxes do not pro 
duce the disturbance of competitive conditions 
which often result from unequal rates of state 
taxes. Some economists believe that the federal 
government must more and more act the part 
of the tax collector and distributor. It is already 
collecting a major portion of the revenues in 
certain fields of taxation also occupied by the 
states. 

It is not intended here to imply that the 
states of the Northeast are at fault because the 
movement of wealth is preponderantly in thei: 
direction. This phenomenon is the natural re 
sult of many historical and geographical factors. 
Because of this fact it is all the more true, how 
ever, that the citizens of these states should ex 
pect to make some contribution to the well 
being of those states which are in a less for 
tunate situation, thru federal aid for education 


and Means, Gardiner ( The 


10-42; March 1931 


{171 ] 





FIGURE IX 








EFFORT, BASED ON CHISM’'S DATA, REQUIRED TO SUPPORT 
NATIONAL MINIMUM PROGRAM, 1932 


Percent of Tax Resources Required To Support a Defensible Program of 
$60 per Unit of Educational Need 





50 60 70 80 90 100 


fo] 
- 
°o 
jro 
o 
w 
°o 
& 





Mississippi 
Alabama 
South Carolina 
North Carolina 
Georgia 
Arkansas 
Kentucky 
Oklahoma 
New Mexico 
Tennessee 
Texas 
Louisiana 
Utah 

Virginia 
Florida 

Idaho 
Wyoming 
North Dakota 
Colorado 
Arizona 
Kansas 
Indiana 
Vermont 
West Virginia 
Oregon 
Wisconsin 
Michigan 
Maine 
Montana 
Nebraska 
Missouri 
South Dakota 
Minnesota 
California 
Washington 
Ohio 
Maryland 
Delaware 
Pennsylvania 
lowa 

Illinois 

New Jersey 





NAA 


- 
United States 








50 60 70 80 90 100 


o 
— 
° 
-] 
or 
aw 
So 
& 


Research Division, Nationa! Education 








[172] 








ation 





——__—— 


Efforts Required To Support an Adequate School Program 


Educational inequalities cannot be removed 
oven tho the states adopt modern tax systems 
and allot a suitable proportion of resulting rev- 
enues to the financing of education. The state- 
ment has sometimes been made that the wide 
differences in educational opportunities are due 
less to differences in ability to support schools 
than to the willingness to do so. 

Figure LX shows the percent of tax resources 
in each state which would be required, even 
under a modern tax plan, to support a mini- 
mum defensible school program. 


Ability on the Basis of a Uniform Tax 
System 


In October 1933 the National Tax Associa- 
tion proposed a model tax system. This plan in- 
cluded a personal income tax levied by the state 
of residence, a business tax levied in the state 
where the business is conducted, a tax on tangi- 
ble property, and supplementary taxes made up 
of an automobile license tax, gasoline tax, and 
an inheritance tax. With this plan as a basis, 
supplemented by a 2 percent general retail sales 
tax, Chism applied a tax program at uniform 
and reasonable rates to the 48 states. In this 
way Chism estimated the relative tax resources 
of the states under a model tax plan between 
the years 1922 and 1932. 

By taking the 1931-32 data it can be shown 
that even under a uniform system great differ- 
ences in ability would exist among the states. 
For example, New York could raise 82 times as 
much as Nevada; 22 times as much as Missis- 
sippi; 19 times as much as Arkansas; 2% times 
as much as California. However, to bring these 
differences into perspective as related to the sup- 
port of education it is necessary to take into 
account the number of children to be educated 
and the quality of the educational program to 
be provided. 

Chism assumes in his investigation that the 
schools can reasonably claim 31.27 percent of 
the revenues of each state (the average percent 
of total tax collection expended on schools in all 
states in 1932). He then divides this amount 
for each state by the number of units of educa- 
tional need in the state. The resulting amounts 
indicate the ability of the states to support edu- 


cation as related to the children and to the edu 
cational program. ‘he range among the states 
in the value of tax resources per unit of educa 
tional need is, according to Chism, from $19.45 
in Mississippi to $113.57 in Nevada. In other 
words, the richest state has a per capita taxpay 
ing ability nearly six times that of the poorest 


state, 


Effort Required To Support a Minimum 
Program 


If it is assumed that the minimum national 
educational program should cost $60 per child, 
it is possible to calculate the total cost of this 
defensible program in each state. By comparing 
these totals with the total revenues collected 
under a uniform tax plan it is possible to dete: 
mine what proportion of the revenues would be 
required for school purposes. ‘These proportions 
are shown in Figure IX. 

To carry out the proposed minimum national 
school program Mississippi would need to use 
almost 100 percent of all revenue produced 
under a model tax plan. Twelve of the states 
(Figure 1X) would require 50 percent or more 
of all revenues for education. Obviously, under 
such conditions there would be inadequate 
amounts available for the other services of go 
ernment in those states. 

On the other hand, Nevada would require 
for education only slightly more than 15 per 
cent of its revenues under a model tax plan. 
New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode 
Island, New Hampshire, and New Jersey could 
provide a program comparable to the average in 
the nation by the utilization of only about 20 
percent of their tax resources. 

The obvious conclusions from the foregoing 
facts are (1) that even tho the states “put their 
fiscal houses in order” by adopting a uniform 
model tax plan there would still be great dif 
ferences in their ability to support education; 
and (2) that if the states provided a minimum 
defensible program of education, under a model 
tax plan, the majority of them would be unable 
to properly support other necessary services of 
government. Greater effort on the part of the 
states, even under ideal conditions of taxation, 
will not eliminate the underlying causes of in 
equality in educational opportunity. 


1 Based upon Senate Hearings on S. 419; p. 21-26; House Hearings on H. R. 5962, p. 39-43: and Ashby, Lyle W. The Effort 


f the States To Support Education. Washington, D. C.: 
Research Bulletin, National Education Association.) 


National Education Association, 1936. (Also published as May 1936 


[173 ] 





FIGURE X 














PERCENT OF STATE TAX REVENUES FROM SOURCES OTHER 
THAN PROPERTY TAXES, 1930 


PERCENT 9 ae 2 _60 gs __—_100 


T T 








North Carolina 
Virginia 
Tennessee 
South Carolina 
Georgia 
Arkansas 
Florida 
Louisiana 
Alabama 
Kentucky 


Mississippi 


Southeast (Average) = eee 
Northwest (Average) ae | mm 


Southwest (Average) 





Far West (Average) 


Middle States (Average) 


Northeast (Average) 





Research Division, Nationa! Education 


Based on data from U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, ‘Financial Statistics of States, 1930." 








{ 174] 














Improvement of State Tax Systems 


Inequalities in educational opportunity can- 


not be eliminated by the improvement of state 


tax systems.’ The preceding section of this bul 
letin has already demonstrated that if all states 


operated uniform model tax systems, such as 


those suggested by Chism and Newcomer, many 
of them would still be unable to support a sat 
isfactory school program and at the same time 
maintain other government services. ‘his sec- 
tion considers the states which have tax systems 
most in need of revision. Undoubtedly there is 
room for improvement in the systems of many 
states, which would yield increased support of 
schools and other functions of government. But 
is this true of the states which are now afford- 
ing the least adequate educational opportu- 
nities? How do these states compare in this re- 
spect with those which rank higher both in the 
amount of their economic resources and the 
amount of their pupil expenditures ? 

It is impossible here to apply all of the cri- 
teria of a good tax system to the methods of 
raising revenues used by individual states. One 
of the first and most universally selected cri- 
teria of the adequacy of a state tax system is 
diversification. Figure X uses this criterion, de 
termined by the percent of state revenues from 
sources other than property taxes, as a basis for 
judging the tax systems of the low-pupil-ex- 
penditure states of the Southeast. 


Diversification of Revenues 


Figure I on page 160 of this bulletin has 
shown that the eleven states with the lowest 
expenditures per pupil enrolled in 1934 were 
Mississippi, Arkansas, South Carolina, Geor- 
gia, North Carolina, Alabama, Kentucky, Ten- 
nessee, Louisiana, Virginia, and Florida. These 
are the states which, according to Odum’s 
grouping, comprise the predominantly rural 
Southeast region of the country where economic 
resources are low and educational load is heavy. 
Not one of these states spent as much as $40 per 
enrolled pupil for public schools in 1934, and 
eight of the eleven spent less than $30. Two 
states spent less than $20. 

When the criterion of diversification is ap- 
plied to the tax systems of these states, we dis- 
cover that not one of them derived as much as 


a) 


‘ Based upon Senate Hearings on S. 419, p. 233-52 
State Support for Public Education. Washington, D. C 
Commerce, Bureau of Census 


7 


Financial Statistics of States, 19 


1 House Hearings on H.R 
: American Council 


7 
; 


50 percent of its revenues from general prop 
erty taxes in 1930. North Carolina and South 
Carolina raised 100 percent and 85 percent, re 
spectively, of their total state revenues from 
non-property tax sources. These other taxes 
contributed more than 75 percent of state rev 
enues in Georgia and Arkansas. More than 88 
percent of state revenues in Virginia and more 
than 86 percent in Tennessee were raised by the 
recently developed tax methods. For the whole 
Southeast region the average of state revenues 
from non-property tax sources is 75.1 percent. 
The only other region which shows so high a 
percent of state revenues derived from special 
taxes is the Northeast with 83.7 percent. Simi 
lar percentages for the other regions are: Mid 
dle States, 71.5; Far West, 70.3; Southwest 
60.2; and Northwest, 60.1. 

In the states of the Southeast, moreover, the 
trend toward the increased use of diversified 


1930. Ala 


bama, Arkansas, and Georgia have added sales 


tax methods has continued since 


taxes since that year. Florida has enacted new 
chain store tax laws and raised the rates of gas 
oline taxes. South Carolina has increased its in 
come tax rates. Louisiana has adopted a long 
line of special taxes. 

There is, without question, room for im 
provements in many state tax systems which 
would benefit schools as well as other public 
services. It is probable that if some of the states 
in the Middle States and Northwestern regions 
were to make the same effort to diversify their 
tax methods as has been made, on the average, 
by the states of the Southeast, their pupil ex 
penditures could be raised to a level equal to 
those of the highest ranking states in this re 
spect. But it is obvious that diversification has 
been tried already in the states which are spend 
ing the least for public school support and fur 
ther efforts in this direction would, relatively 
speaking, yield a much lower return than would 
the same efforts in states which have a large 
amount of economic resources to draw upon. 
Educational opportunities can never be equal 
ized thru state revision of tax systems. Unless 
the federal government steps in to aid the states 
where economic resources are least abundant, 
the democratic ideal of an adequate education 
for every child will not be realized. 

1 R 

Paes 


1932. 1 


5962, p. 4 43 Mor Pat nd other 


on Education, 1 196 S 
Washington, D. C.: Governr , r Office 


ent ol! 


[175] 





FIGURE XI 








INDEX OF EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURES AND OTHER 
GOVERNMENTAL EXPENDITURES, 1926-34 


Federal, state, and 
jlocal expenditures 
 \excluding education 


State and local 
“expenditures, 
___ excluding education 


—+TOTAL ENROLMENT 
ie 
~ 


” 4 ' 
jLocal expenditures 


oo | 
excluding education 


1926= 100 











IPublic educationa 


expenditures 


1934 





Research Division, National Education Ass 


Based on “Cost of Government in the United States, 1933-35,"" National Industrial Conference Board; and ‘'Biennia! 
Survey of Education, 1932-34," Federal Office of Education. 











School Costs and Other Expenditures 


That the nation can afford to extend federal 
vid to education is shown by what the people 
vay for government and for certain commodt- 
ties and services.’ During the congressional 
hearings the question was raised: “Where is 
Congress to obtain the money required for fed- 
eral participation in the support of education?” 
\lembers of Congress who appeared before the 
House committee pointed out that in 1937 al- 
most $1,000,000,000 was appropriated for na- 
tional defense, the largest allotment ever made 
for this purpose in the peace-time history of the 
nation. Between 1916 and 1932 Congress sub- 
sidized the merchant marine to the extent of 
$3,000,000,000. Where, then, will federal 
money be found for education? Obviously, 
what the nation pays for education and other 
governmental services is a matter of choice on 
the part of the people and their representatives. 

Since 1926 governmental expenditures have 
steadily risen. Between 1926 and 1930 the cost 
of all types of public education increased and 
then declined rapidly during the depression 
years. These trends are shown graphically in 
Figure XI. 

Expenditures for Government 


In 1926 the total expenditure for local, state, 
and national government amounted to over 
$10,000,000,000—28 percent of the total being 
spent by the federal government, 14 percent by 
the states, and 58 percent by local governments. 
The combined expenditure in 1926 for public 
elementary, secondary, and collegiate education 
totaled $2,250,000,000. 

Expenditures for all types of government in 
1934 amounted to $14,500,000,000—an_in- 
crease of about 40 percent over the 1926 figure. 
The federal government spent 46 percent of the 
total, the states 16 percent, and the localities 38 
percent. The total cost of education meanwhile 
dropped to less than $2,000,000,000—over 
$500,000,000 under the highest point in 1930. 

Why did governmental costs increase? 
Between 1934 and 1936 federal expenditures 
for veterans’ pensions and benefits rose from 
$500,000,000 to nearly $2,500,000,000. In this 
period the postal deficit increased almost $30,- 
000,000. In 1936 national defense required 
nearly twice as much as it did in 1934. 

An even larger share of the increased cost of 


1 Based upon Senate Hearings on S. 419, p. 30, 41. 1 House Hearings on I]. R. 5962, p 


government has arisen from new and presun 
ably emergency activities. Federal expenditures 
for relief and recovery amounted to $892,600, 
000 in 1932, increased to $4,000,000,000 in 
1934, and then declined to slightly 
$3,000,000,000 in 1936. Since 1933, federal 


grants to the states and localities for unem 


over 


ployment relief and works projects have been 
larger than all other types of federal aid com 
bined. In the one year of 1936 direct payments 
to the states by the federal 
amounted to $2,000,000,000. 


Are certain governmental services developing 


government 


at the expense of education? While relief meas 
ures have been necessary, there is considerable 
evidence that the need for some new federal 
services could be prevented if the federal gov 
ernment assumed its rightful place in the fi 
nancing of education. Under the circumstances, 
the people have the right to demand of their 
legislators that in the selection of fields for fed 
eral expenditure political expediency shall not 
be permitted to outweigh larger social consid- 
erations. Education is one of the most essential 
and fundamental activities of government, and 
in the budgeting of the available resources it 
should be made an effective service to all of the 
people. 


Certain Private Expenditures 


In addition to their choices of various gov 
ernmental services, the people, thru their ex 
penditures, indicate certain preferences for va 
rious commodities and services. By these private 
expenditures, the nation indicates that it has a 
high degree of purchasing power. Among the 
large bills paid by the American people in 1934 
were the following: $1,344,000,000 for to 
bacco; $1,229,073,000 for ice cream, candy, 
and chewing gum; $600,000,000 for theaters, 
movies, and similar amusements; and $314.- 
368,000 for toilet preparations and beauty par- 
lor services. In this same year $1,229,400,000 
was spent in purchasing new passenger auto- 
mobiles, and $3,066,304,933 was set aside for 
life insurance premiums. By 1934 the accumu- 
lated savings deposits in the United States 
amounted to nearly $22,000,000,000. Whether 
the economic ability represented by these facts 
will be used for the satisfaction of individual 
or collective wants, the people will decide. 


27-28, 124-29, 384-85, 433-36. Also 


Kimmel, Lewis H. Cost of Government in the United States, 1934-36. New York: National Industrial Conference Board, Inc., 


1937, 127 p. 


{ 177] 





FIGURE XII 














PERCENT OF FEDERAL TAX COLLECTIONS* FROM TWELVE 
STATES, 1935 





New York 
North Carolina 
Pennsylvania 
Ilinois 
California 
Ohio 

Virginia 
Michigan 
Massachusetts 
New Jersey 
Kentucky 





Missouri 
i i L —_ 


1 
0 5 10 15 20 25 





*including internal revenues and customs receipts, but omitting agricultural adjustment taxes. 


Research Division, National Education Associa 


Based on ‘Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury for the Year Ending June 30, 1935."" p. 345-46, 355. 





FIGURE XIII 











GROWTH IN NUMBER OF STOCKHOLDERS IN THREE LARGE 
CORPORATIONS 
Number of Stockholders in Hundreds of Thousands 


1 2 3 4 5 6 Z 8 ~ 10 11 _12 
T T T | ! T 1 T T 


T 





1910 
1920 
1930 


1934 


Research Division, National Education Associa 


Based on “The Modern Corporation and Private Property" by A. A. Berle and G. C. Means, p. 55; and annual 
reports of American Teleph and Telegraph Co., the Pennsylvania Railroad, and the United States Stee! Corp. 








{178 ] 











The Incidence of Federal Taxation 


Federal aid for education would place no un- 
due burden upon states where federal tax col- 
lections are already relatively large.’ An argu- 
ment frequently advanced against any extension 
of federal aid for education runs as follows. 
Federal aid payments now made vary widely 
smong the states and bear no relation to the 
amounts contributed by the individual states 
toward the support of the federal government. 
Any extension of federal aid, distributed on the 
basis of need, would only increase the discrep- 
incy between federal 
each state and the amount of federal aid re- 


tax collections within 
ceived. States already carrying a large share of 
federal government costs should not be ex 


pected to contribute still more for aid from 


which they would receive a less than propor 
tionate return. In refutation of this argument, 
Figures XII and XIII, on page 178, present 
statistics on the proportionate contributions of 
taxes collected in twelve states to total federal 
tax revenues and on the incidence of federal 
corporation income tax payments. 


Relation of Area of Collection to 
Incidence of Federal Taxes 


Generally speaking, the place where federal 
taxes are collected gives no indication whatso- 
ever of the place where these taxes are ulti- 
mately paid. In the last analysis, it is the indi- 
vidual citizen who pays federal taxes, regardless 
of where they are collected. 

Figure XIII shows the proportion of these 
taxes coming from the twelve states in which 
collections were highest in 1936. It will be 
noted that New York, according to the data 
of this chart, is credited with over 25 percent 
of total collections. But were these taxes ac- 
tually paid by the citizens of New York state ? 

The Bureau of Internal Revenue figures 
show that about one-fifth of the total federal 
revenue collected in New York consisted of 
customs duties imposed at the Port of New 
York. The purchaser of an imported Paris 
gown may be a resident of New York, or of 
any other city or state in the nation. Yet New 
York is credited with the payment of this tax 
in the federal reports where it is often misin- 
terpreted as an actual contribution made by the 
people of that state to the federal government. 


1 Based upon Senate Hearings on S. 419, p. 33-37, 127-34 


Annual Report of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 1935, 


1935, p. 345-46, 355. 


1 House Hearings on H. R 


Approximately another one-fifth of federal 
tax collections in New York state consists of 
corporation income taxes. Economists generally 
agree that the corporation income tax is shifted 
backward to the stockholders instead of for 
ward to the consumers of the products sold by 
the corporation. This being so, the facts pre 
sented in Figure XIII are of interest. This 
chart shows a growing diffusion of corporate 
ownership among small, or relatively small, 
stockholders. A previous section of this bulletin 
has shown an increasing concentration of the 
wealth of the nation in the control of corpora 
but 


counterbalanced by an 


this movement is to some extent 


tions, 
Increasing number of 
stockholders. It is these stockholders who ult 


] 
CUI 


mately pay the corporation income taxes 
lected in New York. 


ranking state with respect to 


The second 
the percent of federal taxes collected is North 
Carolina. North Carolina, with only 


cent of the nation’s population and 1.5 percent 


2.6 per 


of the national income, is credited with having 
paid 8.3 percent of total federal taxes. The fed 
North Carolina, how 


ever, consisted of over $231,000,000 of taxes 


eral taxes collected in 


on tobacco products manufactured in the state 
and collected at the source. This $231,000,000 
was not paid by residents of North Carolina 
but by tobacco users thruout the nation. 

Thus, the citizens of New York and North 
Carolina are not bearing as heavy a burden of 
federal government costs as the statistics on 
federal tax collections would, at first thought, 
seem to indicate. The same conclusion is war 
ranted with respect to the shares of federal 
taxes collected in other states, especially the 
ten XII. Manufac- 


turers’ excise taxes and liquor taxes, which con 


states shown in Figure 
stitute important items of federal tax income 
under the Revenue Acts of 1932 and 1934, are 
collected at the source, the same as tobacco 
taxes. Like tobacco taxes they are paid by con 
sumers thruout the nation. Any increase in the 
cost of the national government due to federal 
assistance in the support of education would 
be slight in comparison with the cost of other 
services that recently have been added. But 
whatever its amount, the incidence of this cost 
would be widely distributed. 


46-47. 7 U. S. Treasury 
Secretary of the Treasury, 


5962, p 


94-95, and Annual Report of the 


[179 ] 











FIGURE XIV 








GAIN AND LOSS THRU INTERSTATE MIGRATION, 1920-1930 


Born in State 


Living in Other States 


Hundred Thousand 


_= 5 8 9. 8 


Living in 
Born in ¢ 





Maine 


New Hampshire 


Born in State iv 
Living in Other States Borr 


state 
ther States 


Hundred Tt 


__16 — a 





North Dakota 


South Dakota 


























Vermont Nebraska 
Massachusetts Kansas 
Rhode Island Montana 
Connecticut Idaho 
New York W yoming 
New Jersey Colorado 
Pennsylvania Utah 
Delaware Virginia 
Maryland *® North Carolina 
West Virginia South Carolina 
Ohio Georgia 
Indiana Florida 
Minors Kentucky 
Michigan Tennessee 
Wisconsin Alabama 
Minnesota Mississippi 
lowa Arkansas 
Missouri Louisiana 
Oklahoma Nevade 
Texas Washington 
New Mexico Oregon 
Aritona California 
Gam 1920 Gam 1930 


*including District of Columbia 


Research Division, Nationa! Education / 


Based on the Federal Census for 1920 and for 1930, U. S. Department of Commerce. 











Asso 








Mobility of Population 


The mobility of population makes the educa- 
tion of children in all states of national con- 
ern’ The migration of the population from 
farm to non-farm areas, as discussed in a pre 
‘ous section, is one problem when it occurs 


within a state and quite another when it be 
comes interstate. Figure X1V shows graphicaily 
the gain and loss thru interstate migration, as 
indicated by state of birth and state of residence 


jata from the census, 1920 and 1930. Only 


native population, that is, population born in 
the United States, is being considered. By 
srouping the states into the six geographic 
regions referred to in earlier sections the areas 
of greatest mobility are plainly seen. 


A Problem for All States 


Population is being constantly redistributed 
thru migration, largely motivated by repulsion 
from areas of low economic opportunity and 
attraction to areas offering greater economic, 
social, and cultural advantages. Attracted by 
new opportunities in manufacturing and com- 
merce, many people moved into the industrial 
area around the Great Lakes, into California, 
and back into the Middle Atlantic States dur- 
ing the decade following the World War. Be- 
tween 1920 and 1930 the territory 
New York City gained 1,120,000 native-born 
people; the Great Lake States of Michigan, 
Ohio, and Illinois added around 700,000 native 
white migrants to their population; and the 
Pacific Coast States of Oregon, Washington, 
and California showed a net gain of about 
1,750,000 people during the ten-year period. 
The movement of 1,600,000 native-born people 
into California alone was phenomenal. 

Texas, Florida, and Maryland (including 
the District of Columbia) were other areas 
with net gains in population thru migration. 
In all cases the economic attractiveness of these 
sections of the country drew migrants from the 
less favored areas. 

Balancing these net gains thru interstate 
migration are the losses in two sections of the 
country: (1) the states south of the Ohio and 
Potomac and east of the Mississippi Rivers, 


around 


except Florida; and (2) 


the Rocky 


River, except Arizona and ‘Texas. These areas 


the states between 


Mountains and the Mississippi 
each lost about 1,700,000 persons. In addition, 
about 115,000 moved out of New 


England, and around 390,900 migrated from 


northern 


Pennsylvania. 

This movement of people in and out of state 
presents a significant problem for education 
It is not surprising that the states with bette: 


educational opportunities are attracting the 


These 


migrants enter such states, California, for ex 


greater proportion of new residents. 
ample, with conglomerate educational back 

grounds granted them by the states of thei 
birth, childhood, and early adolescence. Nat 

urally, many of these people from other for 

tunate states make distinct contributions to the 
educational level of the citizenry of California 
by bringing with them superior training. How 

ever, the proportion of migrants who come into 
the state from less favored areas is large. In 
1930, 29 percent of the native population living 
in California but born in other states had come 
from the 19 states which in 1929-30 had spent 
less for education per pupil enrolled than the 
average for the continental United States. 

It is important to recognize that internal 
migration affects the life of receiving communi 
ties quite as profoundly as immigration from 
other countries as long as there is wide disparity 
in educational opportunities among the several 
states. The interchange of people and of ideas 
from region to region is becoming more rapid 
The impact and conflict of divergent social 
traditions demonstrate clearly the 
federal aid for education. The richer states anc 


need for 


those whose educational systems already rank 
considerably above the average of the country 
need not be moved by altruism to participate 
in any program of national equalization. From 
a purely selfish point of view, if nothing else, 
these very states are concerned in the develop 
ment of superior schools in all the other states, 
for it is from these other states that many of 
the wealthiest states gain their future popula 


tion. 


1 Based upon Senate Hearings on S. 419, p. 61-63. { House Hearings on H. R. 5962, p. 80-86. § Dorn, Harold F. and Lorimer, 


Frank, “Migration, Reproduction, and Population Adjustment.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 
188:280-89; November 1936.  U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census figures for 1920 and 1930. For further reference 


consult: Goodrich, Carter, and others. Migration and Economic 
1936. { President’s Research Committee on Social Trends. Recent Social Trends in the United States. New 


Book Co., 1933. Chapter I. 


Pennsylvania Pres 
McGraw Hill 


Opportunity. Philadelphia: University of 


York 





Further Questions on Federal Aid 


Preceding sections of the bulletin have pre- 
sented the social and economic facts which 
make federal aid for education imperative. In 
spite of these facts certain questions regarding 
federal aid arise. Some of the problems raised 
have to do with federal aid in general, some are 
questions about the principles and practises to 
be used in a federal program, and a few ques- 
tions may have to do with the specific pro- 
visions of legislative proposals. It is the pur- 
pose of this section to consider briefly several 
issues raised in the recent congressional hear 


ings. 


Does Federal Aid Mean Federal Control 
of Education? 


First, it is necessary to agree as to what is 
meant by “federal control.” The use of the 
term may refer to the fact that federal agencies 
will have to divide the available money, audit 
accounts, and make sure that the provisions of 
the law are carried out. Since most people are 
agreed that there should be minimum require- 
ments and safeguards in the distribution of 
public funds, this type of “federal control” 
need not be objectionable. A properly drawn 
law, however, would reduce even fiscal ad- 
ministration to a minimum. 

A second and more common use of the term 
“federal control” refers to the possibility that 
state and local direction of education might be 
endangered. Those who raise this question are 
afraid not only of the loss of state and local 
control but of the danger that courses of in- 
struction would be prescribed from Washing- 
ton. In this way public education might be re- 
duced to a dead level of uniformity and might 
become a powerful instrument of propaganda 
for whatever political faction is in control at 
a given time. It does not follow, however, that 
federal interference with the administrative 
control of states and localities must necessarily 
accompany federal appropriations to education. 
Two ways of preventing federal direction are: 
(1) to appropriate funds for education in gen- 
eral, not for special subjects or types of train- 
ing; and (2) to provide in the legislation spe- 
cific prohibitions against the exercise of un- 
desired authority by federal officials. 


Should Federal Aid Be Provided Befor,. 
the States Have Eliminated Allegeg 
Inefficiencies in School Administra 
tion? 

The fact that there are thousands of 
room schools is often cited as a willingn: 
many states to go on using obsolete org 
tion. It is contended by some that fede: 
will only tend to perpetuate existing 
tions; that not until states eliminate poo: 
ministrative organization, equalize educat 
opportunity within state boundaries, and 
taxes comparable to best practise shoul 
federal government assume its rightful 
in school support. 

Questions of educational opportunity w 
state boundaries and of the progressive: 
states in adopting new methods of tay 
have been analyzed statistically in previo 
tions. There is abundant room for differ: 
of opinion and experimentation in many 
of educational management. The facts 
that many states, and particularly the p 
ones, are making more than an average ef 
to modernize their school administration 
tax systems. There is reason, too, for beli 
that thru federal aid the reorganizatio: 
improvement of state school systems wou! 
speeded up. Whether it does or not, it is diff 
to justify the penalty imposed upon child 
by withholding federal aid simply becaus« 
provements in school machinery are not 


ceeding as rapidly as some may wish. 


Why Should the Federal Government 
Have an Interest in the Education 
Its People? 


Education is a state function. No proy 
was made in the Constitution for the fed 
government to organize and to finance a 
tem of public schools. It is contended that { 
eral appropriations for education means 
assumption of state prerogatives not cont 
plated by the Founding Fathers. 

Under the American form of governn 
the final power and authority rest upon the w 
of the people as expressed by the ballot. ‘This 
no less true of the federal government than 
state and local governments. It is necess 
therefore, that the federal government, 














es, and the communities provide oppor 


nities whereby every person may acquire the 


attributes necessary to exercise intelligently 
Jefore honestly, and effectively the privilege of suf 
lleged frage. Immediately after the American Revolu 


tion articles, pamphlets, and books revealed the 


Primary has been placed 


bulleti : : the 
Dulletin upon th 
federal 


must be added the political argument 


economic tactors 


‘To th 
A citizer 


aid to education a necessity 


listra- 
reign states is none the 


{ nder the Constitut 
the United States guarantees to every state 


While the Oo 


ganization and administration of education | 


nterest of many in the function of education of one of the sove 


the new social order. Washington, Jefferson, 


a citizen of the nation 


. 
John Quincy Adams, and others less well 
known anticipated in their writings many edu republican form of government 
cational developments of the past century and 
a half. As Charles A. Beard has pointed out, 


“They nearly all insisted that there should 


major function of state governments the finan 
cial support of 
which the federal government cannot continu 


education is a_ responsibility 
be a nationwide system of popular education, 


universal . . . supported by general taxation, to avoid without endangering democracy itself 


Beard, Charles A 


and Beard, Mary R. The Rise of American Civilization. New York: Macmillar 





RELATED NUMBERS OF THE RESEARCH BULLETIN 


The Ability of the States To Support Education. January-March 1926. 96 p. 50¢. 
Can the Nation Afford To Educate Its Children? November 1928. 48 p. 25¢. 
Can the States Afford To Educate Their Children? January 1929. 44 p. 25¢. 

The Outlook for Rural Education. September 1931. 72 p. 25¢. 

Estimating State School Efficiency. May 1932. 68 p. 25¢. 


The Nation’s School Building Needs. January 1935. 36 p. 25¢. 


Efforts of the States To Support Education As Related to Adequacy and Ability. 
May 1936. 64 p. 50¢. 


iment 


sadings Financing Public Education. January 1937. 56 p. 50¢. 


Vision 


edera All orders for publications should be accompanied by funds in payment for same and must be so accom 


a sys 


panied when orders for material amount to $1.00 or less. Orders not accompanied by funds in payment are 


the National Education Associa 


subject to transportation charges. Make checks or money orders payable to 


tion, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. ¢ 











nment 
e will 
This is 
lan oO! 
>ssary, 


4 the 








HE PREAMBLE to the Constitution of the United 
States declares that the Constitution is ordained and 
established “in order to form a more perfect Union, 


insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common de 


fense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings 


of liberty to ourselves and our posterity.”’ 

It is an obvious fact to enlightened people everywhere 
that none of these blessings is possible unless each genera- 
tion of citizens is educated. 

Hence the schools are our most fundamental public 
institutions and are a matter of first concern for our govern- 


ment.—Senator Pat Harrison. 














Introduction 


nce the World War increasing attention 
:s been given to the social studies program of 
elementary and This 
reased interest has been shown in part by 


secondary schools. In 


oreat 
ictivity in the preparation of courses of study, 
by the appearance of numerous new textbooks 
ind supplementary materials, and by the spe- 
cial reports of various professional groups.' Yet 
in all these extensive activities little effort has 


been made, at least on a national scale, to prol 


™ 
the depths of the experience of classroom teach 
ers. The present study is an attempt to explore 
this little known area. Thru the cooperation of 
1764 classroom teachers, the Research Division 
s able to present facts and opinions of interest 
to both instructors and administrators. 


Method of Procedure 


In September 1936 city superintendents of 
schools were asked to supply the names of ele 
mentary, junior high-, and senior high-school 
teachers who gave all or a large share of their 
time to the teaching of the social studies. The 
term “social studies” was defined as “‘the topics 
ind the courses ordinarily designated as his 
tory, geography, economics, current events, 
sociology, social problems, problems of Ameri 
an democracy, and general social studies.” 

About one-third (942) of the superintend 
ents of schools in cities over 2500 in popula 
tion supplied a total of 6776 names, divided 
ibout equally among the three school levels, 
elementary, junior high, and senior high. If in- 
structions were followed, all were teachers of 
‘recognized ability who had been teaching at 
least two years in the school to which they are 
now assigned.” 

Copies of a questionnaire (reproduced on 
pages 247-54 of this bulletin) were mailed in 
November 1936 to the 6776 teachers recom 
mended by superintendents. The inquiry form 
defined the 
panied by a letter requesting the cooperation of 
the recipients. Without any administrative in 
fluence by superintendents or a second request 
trom the Research Division, 1764, or 26.0 
percent, of the teachers returned usable replies. 


“c ° . ” 
social studies” and was accom 


‘For example, various reports of the National 
ntendence; (2) Implications of Social-Economic Goals for 
Historical Association (available from Charles Scribner’s Sons 


For example, ‘““‘The Questionnaire,”’ Research Bulletin of 


Education 

. Edu 
National Council on the Social Studies. Also numerous monograph 
New 


the 


As 


listribution of blanks 


[able | 


lhe extent ot the 


replies is shown in 


Limitations of the Study 


limitation is that the basi t 


he 


tor the study were obtained by questionnaires 


first 


Since several professional publications have 


inalyzed the weaknesses of this procedure it 
be this 


The inquiry 


will not necessary to discuss them at 


form was formulated as 


pol 


carefully as possible to insure thoughtful and 


nt. 


iccurate responses, and the completenes oT 


most of the replies was reassuring. 

A second limitation is that the survey was 
confined to city school systems. It was necessary 
resources 


to ‘do this because of the time and 


available to the Research Division. 


The restriction of the study to teachers ot 


recognized ability with at least two vears’ ex 


perience in their present assignments consti 


tutes a third limitation. Obviously, it was ne« 
essary to take a sampling from among the thou 
sands of teachers who give all or a portion ot 
their time to the social studies. Since the pri 
mary purpose of the study was to obtain com 
petent judgment on instructional problems and 
the 


to ascertain facts on superior practises, 
selective criteria of ability and experience ap 
peared to be amply justified. Some of the char 
acteristics of the respondents and the communi 
ties which they represent are shown in Table 2 
Except for city size these characteristics are 
based upon teacher opinions. Participants in 
the study were asked to rate themselves as 
radicals, liberals, conservatives, or reactionaries 
on social questions. Therefore, a term such as 
“liberal teachers” as used thruout the bulletin 
really means “teachers who rated themselves 
as liberals.” In much the same way teachers 
indicated the predominant attitude of parents 
on social questions, the economic status of the 
community near the school, the general type of 
community (residential, factory, etc.), and the 
predominant nationality group. In each case 
these ratings were the opinions of the teachers 
and should be so interpreted when presented 


thruout this report 
(1) 1 


1937; and 
Commiss 


earbook of the Departme: 
cent yearbooks and 


the Studie 


ociation 


tion 
Social 


the 
York) 


National Educat No 


. 


189 | 








TABLE 1—NUMBER OF QUESTIONNAIRES SENT OUT AND TABULATE! 
GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS AND BY CITY SIZE 





Cities Cities Cities Cities Cities 
2,500-5,000 5,000-10,000 10,000-30,000 30,000-100,000 over 100,000 Tota 
population population population population population 
Geographical area 
Num Nun 
Bianks Re- Blanks Re- Blanks Re- Blanks Re- Blanks Re ber ber 
sent plies sent plies sent plies sent plies sent plies sent re 
celyv 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 
New England 15 4 93 17 314 75 144 40 100 34 666 1 
Middle Atlanti 225 53 268 58 611 163 318 94 291 84 1,713 r 
East North Central 208 37 243 53 440 «111 380 «121 254 96 1,525 $1 
West North Central 196 30 99 26 293 80 108 31 138 73 R34 4 
South Atlantic 24 6 61 11 o4 13 163 31 134 45 476 10 
East South Central 23 4 46 0 42 9 42 5 86 14 39 ; 
West South Central 51 3 102 11 111 26 53 23 161 65 478 ] 
Mountain 65 10 81 20 71 11 37 10 24 10 278 
Pacific o4 11 55 9 193 52 85 39 140 46 567 15 
Total 901 158 1,048 205 2.169 540 1,330 394 1,328 467 6,7/6 1 64 
Percent returned of 
blanks sent to each 
city-size group 17.5 19.6 24.9 29.6 35.2 





Finally, the question may be raised as to 
whether or not 1764 teachers are enough to 
represent truly the opinions of teachers of rec- 
ognized ability and experience. No final answer 
can be given on this question. First, it is with 
great difficulty that estimates can be made of 
the total number of teachers of social studies 
in elementary and secondary schools. In the 
second place, it is a matter of judgment as to 
how many of the total number, in the estima 
tion of their respective superintendents, have 
the necessary ability and experience to have 
qualified for the survey. 

Because of these limitations, particularly the 
last one mentioned, most of the data in the 
bulletin are presented in terms of city size and 
school levels only. Other classifications (see 
Table 2), such as the characteristics of the 
communities and the attitudes of the teachers, 
were used in tabulating the replies. Most of 
these results, based upon the grouping of teach- 
ers according to these other classifications, show 
no statistically significant relationships between 
the classification factors and the findings. The 
few that are reliable have been included from 
time to time thruout the report. 

With respect to city size and school level, 
especially the latter, differences in the reports 
from teachers are large enough to be sta- 
tistically significant. That is to say, when the 
teachers are grouped by grade level, and in 


8 The probable error was computed for each percent and the critical ratio of the difference in each 


most cases by city size, the findings diff 
such a way as to indicate a reliable corre| 
with these two classification factors. The 
letin includes only those differences whic! 
sufficiently large that there is a nine-out 
chance that a difference in the same dir 
that is, favoring the same classification 
would be found if other samplings of te 
were investigated.* 
Plan of the Bulletin 

The data are presented in general 

same sequence as the questions in the o1 


inquiry form. Part I deals with the object 


of social studies instruction; first, in te: 
their estimated importance and, second, t! 
gree of adequacy with which they are 
Part II treats the adequacy and importa: 
certain areas of instruction. 

Part III consists of an analysis of cou: 
study in terms of teachers’ practises and p: 
ences. This section is followed by Part I\ 
viewing the methods and aids in teachin, 
formation is given not only of the te 
actually used and preferred, but of the su 
mentary sources available and found to be 
useful. 

Parts V and VI deal with two specific | 
lems: first, the teaching of controversial is 
and, second, the use of the community 
social studies laboratory. 


comparison ot 


No difference in percents is reported unless the critical ratio is 1.9 or higher. 


[ 190 ] 








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Part VII consists primarily of the standard 
tests reported by teachers as most helpful in 
evaluating their teaching of the social studies. 
Part VIII presents lists of the textbooks most 
frequently used at the various school levels. 


Uses of the Bulletin 


The contents of the bulletin may be of value 
Parts II and VI 
may be suggestive with regard to the grade 


to curriculum committees. 


placement of social studies topics. Parts II] 
and V should be helpful in matters of devices 
and aids. Part VIII suggests the many helpful 
textbooks which are now available. 

Many sections of the bulletin represent the 


considered opinion of teachers 
results of controlled research studies. 
suggests the possibility of using the | 
extensive professional investigation 
tion with the in-service training of 
Principals and supervisors will 
port, as indeed many have already fou 
questionnaire itself, challenging topics { 
fessional study and discussion. 
Individual teachers will 
discussion offers many suggestions for 


disc over 


provement of their own work. The f 
the bulletin is based upon actual classro 


periences of others should increase 


bility of usefulness to most teachers. 





HEN WE COME TO THE PURPOSES of the social studies in the 

school, we face the question of our thought about them and our desires. The 
billions of facts recorded in books on history, economics, politics, and sociology, 
or any selections of them, do not tell us what use we must make of them, any 
more than chemicals in themselves tell us whether they are to be employed to 
poison neighbors or to heal the sick. We ourselves individually and in groups 
decide the question of purposes and uses. Since matters of opinion enter at this 
point, we necessarily find more or less variety in our thoughts. Yet on many 
points there is agreement, such a general agreement that large numbers of us can 
work together in a certain way and go along together a certain distance. It is true 
that some educators in the United States hold that schools should merely incul 
cate a love of the good life for the individual or a purely “scientific” spirit and 
that it is not the business of the schools to make “‘good citizens,” or use learning 
as a means to any ends. But the number of such persons is small. Doubtless the 
great majority of people believe that it is the function of the social studies 
to serve some purposes.—1936 Yearbook, Department of Superintendence. p. 
56-57. 








I. Objectives of the Social Studies Curriculum 


What are the prime purposes of the social 
studies program? Which of these objectives do 
reachers think are of first importance in ele 
mentary schools, in junior high schools, and in 
senior high schools? In the opinion of teachers, 
do these objectives shift in their relative im 
portance? Do feel that 
under present conditions these objectives are 


classroom teachers 
being adequately met? Before proceeding to 
the more definite fields of content and method, 
it is highly desirable that some attention be 
paid to the goals of social science instruction. 


Relative Importance of Objectives 


Objectives in education serve two primary 
purposes: (1) as guides to the curriculum 
maker in selecting the large areas of experience 
and subjectmatter, and (2) as goals for teach 
ers and pupils in selecting specific activities of 
the classroom and in judging the effectiveness 
of instruction. Objectives may be classified as 
either immediate or ultimate. They may also 
be classified as those of (1) general education, 
(2) subjects, (3) grades, and (4) 
teaching units. Many examples of these vari- 


specific 


ous types may be found in professional litera- 
ture and in current course-of-study bulletins. 


Objectives selected for study—As a basis for 
obtaining the opinions of classroom teachers the 
present study used the statement of objectives 
published in The Social Studies Curriculum,’ 
the 1936 Yearbook of the Department of 
Superintendence (now known as the Amer- 
ican Association of School 

The original list of objectives in the year- 
book included only the first four in the follow- 
ing list. For the purpose of locating teachers 
who might still emphasize the “‘subjectmatter”’ 
aim, a fifth statement was included in the in- 
quiry. A few slight changes in the original 
wording were made in the interest of brevity 
and clarity. The statements used and a brief 
characterization of each are as follows: 


Administrators). 


(1) To give pupils the truest and most 
realistic knowledge that is possible of the com- 


' For a statement of social-economic goals of America consult /mplications of Social-Economi 
by the National Education Association, 1937, 126 p. For a historical treatment of the 
Sciences, consult Rolla M. Tryon’s The Social Sciences as School Subjects, Part XI of the 
Social Studies, American Historical Association, published by Charles Scribner’s Sons, New 
treatment of the nature and objectives of the social studies see Charles A 
American Historical Association, 1934, 236 p 


of the report of the Commission on the Social Studies 


* National Education Association, Department of Superintendence 
56-59. This statement of objectives may 


Washington, D. C.: the Department, 1936. p. 
references cited in the first footnote above 


»rld—the social and phys 
hich 


realism. A 


r 
Slate 


munity, 


1 al setting in the \ liz Cc. I he essence 


of this objective is teacher who 
worked toward this goal would of necessity 


avoid a purely idealistic and highly generalized 


picture of human affairs. He would require 


freedom to point out the conflicting groups in 
society and to deal with controversial issues. 


(2) To prepare pupils for promoting a 


wiser and more effective cooperation among 


regions, areas, individuals, groups, states, and 


nations—a cooperation interracial, interrellt 
gious, and intereconomic. Here the emphasis is 
upon increasing interdependence in society. In 
struction aimed toward this goal would of 
necessity deal with the changing nature of 
American civilization, the trend away from 
rugged individualism and the increase in asso 
ciational and cooperative activities. 


> 


(3) To develop character by giving pupils 
a love of truth, an appreciation of the beautiful, 
a bent toward the good, and a desire and will 
to use knowledge for beneficent social ends. 
Obviously this objective stresses the character 
training aspects of the social studies. The at 
tainment of this aim would require emphasis 
upon the social values, the mores, and standards 


of people both in the past and in the present 


(4) To train in the intellectual processes 
indispensable to the functioning of society, such 
as: skill in locating sources of information on 
social questions, skill in using these sources 
skill in exploring and stating both sides of con 
troversial questions, skill in selecting and veri 
fying information, and skill in discussing social 
problems. In this case the emphasis is upon the 
intellectual processes necessary for individual 
effectiveness in group living. Content is by im 
plication secondary in importance to the meth 
ods necessary to develop certain habits, skills, 


and attitudes. 


(5) To give pupils knowledge of historical, 
geographical, social, political, and economic 
facts which may be of importance to them in 


Goals for Education, published 
values and purposes of various social 
report of the Commission on the 
York, 1935, 541 p. For a general 
Beard’s The Natmre of the Social Sciences, Part VII 


Studies Curriculum. Fourteenth Yearbook 
be compared with those given fn the 


The Social 


[ 193 ] 





later life. Most teachers will recognize in this 
objective the emphasis upon cataloged facts ob- 
tained primarily from past events. The cur 
riculum organized on the basis of ‘“‘subject 
matter-set-out-to-be-learned”’ assumes that the 
acquisition of certain so-called essentials ade- 
quately prepares one for future civic duties. 
this goal has led in the 


of the interests of the 


Primary emphasis on 
past to subordination 
learner and to neglect of instruction in the 
activities of contemporary social life. 

No statement of objectives consists of items 
which are mutually exclusive. Nor have there 
been many teachers, even in the past, who have 
focused their efforts upon a single goal to the 
exclusion of all others. However, it seemed 
pertinent for the present investigation to see 
whether or not there were differences of opin- 
ion as to the importance of the foregoing ob- 
jectives at the various school levels. It seemed 
the 
which teachers thought the objectives were 


pertinent also to determine degree to 
being successfully obtained. Competent judg- 
ment on these points may suggest the possibility 
of redirection of current practises in social 
studies instruction. 

Teacher opinion as to the relative importance 
of objectives for various grade levels—To dis- 
cover which objectives should receive major 


TABLE 3.—JUDGMENTS OF SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHERS AS TO THE RELA 


attention at the various school levels t 
were asked to rate each statement as 
great importance, “2” of secondary impo 
and “3” of minor importance. The tot 
ber of teachers and the percent makir 


Table 3. In th 


the objectives are listed in accordance w 


evaluation are shown in 


rank order of composite judgment of 
tance, 

The order of arrangement in Table 
considerable interest. Both elementary ar 
ondary teachers placed the “‘character’’ 
tive first and “subjectmatter” at the bott 
the list. Of all the teachers giving the 
ions, about three in four rated characte 
cation of great importance. On the othe: 
about one in four believed that subject: 
was of primary importance. With refer 
the three other objectives, the ratings of s 
ary teachers differed considerably from t 
elementary teachers. Senior high-school 
ers particularly believed that realism, 
pendence, and the intellectual process of 
inquiry apparently should assume a posit 
greater importance at the secondary leve 

The general pattern of Table 3 is ur 
edly explained by the current trend of t! 
not only in social studies instructior 
among all teachers. Subjectmatter as 


TIVE IMPORTANCE OF OBJECTIVES 





Objectives 


2 


Elem. 
J.H.S. 


S.H.S. 


I. To develop character by giving pupils a 
love of truth, etc. 


Elem. 
J.HS. 
S.H.S. 


To give pupils the truest and most realistic 
knowledge, et« 


Elem. 
J.H.S. 


a wiser 
among 


To prepare pupils for 
and more effective 
regions, etc. 


promoting 
cooperation 


To train in the intellectual processes in- 
dispensable to the functioning of society, 
etc. 

To give pupils knowledge of historical, 
geographical, social, political, etc. 


Read table as follows: 78.5 percent of the 534 elementary-school teachers who rated 


Percent of teachers rating each objective as of Total nu 
of teact 
rating ¢ 

object 


Secondary 
importance 


Great 
importance 


3 ‘ 6 


Little 
importance 





45 


the importance of Objective I 


it was of great importance for attention at the elementary-school level. Only about 22 percent of the 511 elementa 
teachers rating Objective V thought that it was of great importance for attention at the elementary-school level. 





[ 194] 














FIGURE I 





TEACHER OPINION AS TO RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF TWO 
SOCIAL STUDIES OBJECTIVES 


PERCENT 
50 





CHARACTER 


Elementary 


Junior High 


Senior High 


SUBJECTMATTER 





























Elementary 








Junior High 








Senior High 


Great 


importance 


Eo 


| Little 
importance 


Secondary 
importance = 





For details consult Table 3. 


Research Division, National Education Associat 








as been definitely subordinated, at least in 
theory and in discussion, to objectives such as 
character development. It is not surprising then 

find the opinions of teachers of recognized 
ility conforming to the more generally ac- 
epted view. Whether or not typical practise 
iso conforms is a question which no inquiry 


form can determine. 


Importance of objectives on the basis of 


assifications other than grade levels—Special 
tabulations on the basis of city size (not re 
ported in tables in this bulletin) reveal few 
mportant differences in teacher opinion. How 
ever, realism in teaching, emphasis on interde- 
pendence, and training of the intellectual proc- 
ess for social inquiry were most often stressed 
n the cities over 100,000 in population. The 
proportion of first importance ratings on these 
tems declined consistently down to the smallest 
of 2,500 to 5,000 population. If these 
three objectives should and are to receive in- 
creased emphasis, it appears that the responsi- 
bility rests most heavily upon the teachers and 
administrators of the smaller communities. 


Adequacy of Attainment of Objectives 


A complete educational program should ir 
clude not only the setting up of desirable goals 
effort to 
ward these objectives. One method of appraisal 


but systematic appraise progress to 
is by means of standardized or new-type tests 
Other less objective measures are teacher opin 
ions which may or may not be based upon both 
tests and observation of changes in pupils. In 
classroom teachers were 


the present study 


asked to give their judgment as to the degree 
to which the social studies in their schools met 


each of the five objectives. 


success in attaining 


T ea her 
the objectives 
indicated the degree of attainment of the ob 


opinion as to 
The scale upon which teachers 


jectives in their schools included four items: 


(1) in large measure; (2) adequately; (3) to 
a limited degree; and (4) not at all. The dis 
tribution of the replies on this request is given 
by school levels in Table 4. 

The objectives are listed in Table 4 on the 
basis of the proportion of teachers rating each 


objective as attained “in large measure” and 


[195 ] 





FIGURE II 





) 


TEACHER OPINION AS TO DEGREE OF ATTAINMENT OF TWO 
SOCIAL STUDIES OBJECTIVES 


PERCENT 
50 





SUBJECTMATTER 





Elementary 








L 
hia 


Junior High 








Senior High 








CHARACTER 





Elementary 








Junior High 








Senior High 





In large 
measure 


[ Adequately 


To a limited 
degree 


Be Not at 4 


TABI 





For details consult Table 4. 





Research Division, National Education A 





“adequately.” For example, 70.9 percent of the 
elementary teachers rated the “subjectmatter” 
(V) objective as attained at least adequately, 
if not “in large measure.” Even larger propor- 
tions of the junior high- and senior high-school 
teachers rated the objective (V) similarly. Ob- 
jective III (interdependence) was thought by 
only 48.8 percent of the elementary teachers 
to be attained adequately or better. The corre- 
sponding proportion of junior high-school 
teachers was 51.0 percent and of senior high- 
school teachers, 43.4 percent. 

Looking at it another way, only with regard 
to Objective V (subjectmatter) and Objective 
II (realism) were the majority of the teachers 
rather positive that the goals were attained 
either adequately or in large measure. On Ob- 
jective I (character) the elementary teachers 
were still rather sure of the success of their 
schools; junior high-school teachers were less 
sure; and a majority (57.7 percent) of the 
senior high-school teachers marked the ratings 
“to a limited degree” or “not at all.” A similar 
condition of uncertainty of success held true 
with Objective IV (intellectual processes) ex- 


cept that here a majority of the senior 


school teachers were sure that adequa 


better was attained. Of all the teachers 


Objective III (interdependence) about 
believed that the degree of attainment was 


tainly not adequate. 
What do the composite ratings mean 


assume that the opinions of these teache 
reasonably fair measures of success of! 


schools ? Apparently, in connection with ( 


tives I (character), IV (intellectual 


esses), and III (interdependence), there 
be impediments to a reasonable level of att 
ment. Do these difficulties lie in the train 
the teachers, the methods used, the qua! 


the supplementary materials, or in the 
ences upon pupils outside of the schools? 


cases of Objectives V and II is there no 
sion for further professional investigation 
tho 70 to 80 percent of the teachers be! 
achi 


that adequate success had been 


Further questions on the significance of ' 
findings are raised under the next center | 


ing: “Comparison of Importance and 
quacy Ratings of Objectives.” 


[ 196 } 





Acie 





hers’ opintons on adequacy of attain- 


of objectives when classified in terms 
ther than grade levels—Tabulations on the 


hasis of city size did not reveal any important 


litterences 


With regard to Objective I (character) and 


Obiective IV (intellectual processes) the spe- 
al tabulations show certain reliable differ- 
ences. For example, relatively more of the 
teachers who rated themselves as conservative 
believed that Objective I was adequately at 
tained than of those who rated themselves as 
liberals. This difference may indicate merely 
that “liberal” teachers are more skeptical of 
their success in teaching character than are 
‘conservative’ instructors. Perhaps supervisors 
need to cultivate a more general skepticism 
mong the latter. 

In the communities of the 
Table 2) teachers showed marked differences 
of opinion with regard to Objective IV (in- 


various types 


tellectual processes). This objective was be 
lieved to be adequately met more often in 
American communities than in those of pre- 


dominantly foreign populations. ‘The estimaced 
degree of adequacy of treatment also dropped 
consistently with decreases in economic level 
In communities considered liberal by the teach 
ers the degree of attainment of Objective IV 
was thought to be higher than in the conserva 
tive districts. These differences suggest several 


\re 


foreign-born, and con 


problems for teachers and supervisors. 
pupils in the poorer, 
servative communities less responsive to present 
directed toward the 
Objective IV? Would a study 


and needs of these communities reveal the pos 


methods attainment of 


of the nature 


sibility of other methods and content in social 

studies instruction? Has success in attainment 

of Objective LV been caused by a lack of oppor 

tunity? 

Comparison of Importance and Ade- 
quacy Ratings of Objectives 


It will be apparent that the objectives are 
not listed in the same order in Tables 3 and 4. 


For example, in Table 3 the composite judg 


TABLE 4.—JUDGMENTS OF SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHERS AS TO THE DEGREE 
OF ATTAINMENT OF EACH OBJECTIVE IN THEIR SCHOOLS 





Objectives 


1 
V. To give pupils knowledge of historical, geographi 
cal, social, political, and economic facts whic! 
be of importance to them in later life. 


may 


To give pupils the truest and most realistic know 

edge that is possible of the community 

nation, and world—the social 
-in which they live. 


state 


ind physical setting 


To develop character by giving pupils 
truth, an appreciation of the beautiful 
toward the good, and a desire and will t 
knowledge for beneficent social ends. 


To train in the intellectual processes indispensable 
to the functioning of society, such as: skill 
locating sources of information on social questions 
skill in using these sources, skill in exploring and 
stating both sides of controversial questions, skill 
in selecting and verifying information, and skill ir 
discussing social problems. 


To prepare pupils for promoting a wiser and mor 
effective cooperation among regions, areas, indi 
viduals, groups, communities, states, and nations 
a cooperation interracial, interreligious, and inter 
economic. 


Read table as follows: 21 percent of the 515 elementary-school teachers 
49.9 percent 
Similarly read other items. Column 7 shows that a few teachers at various grade le\ 
Roman numbers preceding each objective 


that their own schools attained this objective in large measure; 


4 


number of teachers at each grade level see Table 2 


Percent reporting each adequacy rating 

Total number 
of teachers 

rating each 
objective 


In Toa 
large Ade- limited 
measure quately degree 


Not 
at all 


4 : 6 7 


149 9 ? 0.4 515 
53.8 4 0.4 

5? 8 G.2 

aso 3 2 0.4 

5 0.0 

0.0 


subjectmatter”’ ‘objective 


degree of 


who rated the 
thought the 
els did not rate each objective. Fo 
refer to the rank in 


attainment was 








ment of teachers as to the objective of greatest considerable lag between ideals 
importance placed Objective | (character) How extensive and serious this condi: 
first in the list. The composite judgment on be the present study did not attem 
this objective as to the adequacy of attainment cover. Perhaps the lag is more serious 
(column 3, “in large measure”; and col-  <chool systems and some schools tha: 
umn 4, “adequately” ) placed it third in Table sdientn: “Diet eitetalition dlicnsaion on 
4. Objective \ (subjectmatter ) apparently possibility of less emphasis upon subj: 
fifth in importance in the opinion of all the 


; : . and more effective efforts to develop c! 
teachers is believed to be first in adequacy of 


, bs .o ; and an appreciation of social interdepe: 
attainment. A similar difference occurs in the , 


case of Objective III (interdependence). In 
contrast, however, the ratings of attainment of 
Objective II (realism) and Objective IV (in- 
tellectual processes) apparently correspond 


Decisions as to how imperative in 
action may be and as to the best method 
cedure rest eventually with the teach 
administrators of each school. For th: 
with the importance ratings of these objectives. are interested in making a beginning 

These relationships suggest that in the opin- maining sections of this bulletin will off 
ion of teachers of recognized ability there is concrete suggestions. 





% An interesting venture into a program for teaching children to work together is being worked out by the N.E.A 
of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction. A stimulating guide booklet, Teachers and Cooperation, may be obta 
copies, 25 cents; one hundred or more, 20 cents each) from S. A. Courtis, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, M 





HE FIRST CRITERION which should guide curriculum-making groups 

and against which the proposed content of social studies must be evaluated is 
that of accuracy. Recognizing that final truth in societal matters is unknown AD 
even if knowable, and that most significant problems are highly controversia! 
in such an age as ours, we are still bound by the tenets of a scholarship to which 
we owe a large measure of allegiance to see that no known untruth be taught 
as true. A second quality we have the right to demand in material selected fo: 
teaching purposes is that of usefulness. Usefulness is not a narrowly utilitarian 
or materialistic quality, but one of the broadest significance. The pupil has the 
right to expect that that which is taught him in the schools be applicable to and 
helpful in meeting the situations of normal living. A third criterion is that. of 
learnability. We may construct a curriculum which is at once accurate and use 
ful, at least potentially so, and yet find that our efforts are in vain because we 
have failed to assay the ability of pupils to learn. Learnability is an elusive mat 
ter, for it involves method of teaching as well as grade placement and recognition 
of individual differences, but it is a criterion which contemporary education 
emphasizes.—1936 Yearbook, Department of Superintendence. p. 142-43. 








[ 198 ] 





II. Content of the Social Studies Program 


lag between accepted objectives and suc- 
attaining them, indicated by teacher 
n in the preceding section, may be partly 
sed by weaknesses in the content of social 
lies programs. As a means of improving 
resent social studies courses, the Commission 
the Social Studies Curriculum briefly out- 
ned sixteen areas or topics believed to be in 
jequately treated by most schools.’ These six 
teen areas were based upon a consideration of 
umerous research studies, the present work 
f the schools, and recent trends in American 
society.” 

In making its proposals the Commission did 
(1) to 
what extent are these areas now adequately 
taught in elementary and secondary schools; 
ind (2) at which school levels should the neg- 
lected areas be given increased emphasis? One 


not answer two important questions: 


section of the questionnaire was designed to 
supply information on these two points. Teach- 


of 


157-59. 


National Education Association, 
hington, D. C.: the Department, 


Department 
1936. p 


For other suggestions on the large areas in social studies instruction 


Marshail and Rachel M. Goetz, and Social Foundations of Edu 
the Commission on the Social Studies, American Historical 


Superintenc¢ 


Assox 


ers were asked first to mark out any of the six 
teen areas which they thought were adequately 
taught in their schools. The remaining topics 
} 


by to thei 


relative importance for additional emphasis at 


were then rated each teacher 


as 


his school level. ‘The ratings used were: “1,” 


great importance; “2,” secondary importance 
and “3,” little importance. 

The sixteen areas or topics were printed on 
the questionnaire in topical form (e.g 


prob 
fol 


possible 


lems of metropolitan government) and 


lowed by an annotation suggesting 


subtopics. The reproduction of the question 
naire on pages 247-54 of this bulletin shows the 


complete procedure in detail. 


Judgments of Elementary-School 
Teachers 


Of the 584 elementary-school teachers pat 
ticipating in the study, between 384 and 420 


marked out or rated each of the sixteen areas 


lence The Socia Studie Curriculum F< Yearbook 


urteent! 


M 
George S. Count 


published by Charles 


in the So 
Parts XIII and 


Scribner’s Sons 


see Curriculum king tal Studies, by 


IX of 
New York 


Le 


the rep 


ition, by 


ation 


TABLE 5—JUDGMENTS OF 584 ELEMENTARY TEACHERS WITH REGARD TO 
ADEQUACY OF TEACHING AND IMPORTANCE FOR ADDITIONAL EMPHASIS 


OF CERTAIN AREAS 





Number of 
teachers 
answering 


nsumer education 

stment and personal finance 
rmation of public opinion 

itional analysis and information 


ration and public finance 
unity analysis 
ns of metropolitan government 
ties of social intercourse 


n of industry and government 
t education 
| effects of the rise of science 

of government 


ties of the national government 
rnational relations 
l as a social institution 


nal analysis 


Read table as follows: Of the 584 elementary teachers partici; 
as adequately taught in their schools or rated its 
was adequately taught in their schools; 
elementary level. One-third of the teachers 
n elementary schools even tho inadequately taught 


a 


ating in 
import 
over 29 percent th 
thought ‘‘consu 
at pre 


Percent of 
teachers 
reporting 
areas 
adequately 
taught 


Percent of teachers rating importance 
for additional emphasis 


Great 
importance 


Little 
importance 


Secondary 
importance 


4 s 6 


the 
additional emy 


yught the topic 


study 
ance tor 
was 
mer education 


ent 





[ 199 ] 















In other words, on no single topic did less than taught is that these topics are not 
three out of five teachers express an opinion. erally placed at the elementary-scho 
Table 5 shows the proportion of teachers indi Perhaps the topics are better suited fo: 
cating each area as adequately taught (column ondary schools. Upon this point the ( 
3) or giving a rating of importance for further sion on the Social Studies Curricul 
emphasis (columns 4, 5, and 6). Columns 3 to — silent, but by implication at least it 
6 add to 100 percent and are based upon the suggests that a beginning should be n 
number answering as given in column 2. The many of these areas in the elementary 
least adequately treated topics, as shown by With this point of view some of the 
column 2, are placed first in the table. agreed, as will be shown in the next 
graphs. 











Adequacy of present teaching of sixteen 

areas—Generally speaking, the elementary Importance of additional emphasis o» 
teachers of recognized ability reported all of topics—Column 4 of Table 5 shows o 
the sixteen topics as not adequately taught in topic—personal analysis—as of great 
their schools. Only on the three topics having tance for additional emphasis in the o; 
to do with international relations, the school two teachers out of five. On no other t 
as a social institution, and personal analysis did there as much agreement, altho almost 
as many as one teacher in three believe that the cent of the teachers agreed that consu 
teaching was adequate. The topics which the cation was of great importance. 

fewest number of teachers reported as ade- By combining the percent of teacher 





















































































quately taught were consumer education, in- each item as of “great” and “‘seconda: ld 
vestment and personal finance, formation of portance, other topics stand out for 
public opinion, and vocational analysis and additional attention. On this basis, at ul 
information, percent of the elementary teachers wou t 
It may be contended that one reason so few’ increased emphasis to the following t 
teachers reported these sixteen as adequately areas: personal analysis, vocational anal; le 
TABLE 6—JUDGMENTS OF 562 JUNIOR HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS WITH nN 
GARD TO ADEQUACY OF TEACHING AND IMPORTANCE FOR ADDITIONA nat 
EMPHASIS OF CERTAIN AREAS il 
ne! 
Percent of toy 
teachers Percent of teachers rating im 
Number of reporting for additional empha v 
Areas teachers areas Ame 
answering adequately Great Secondary ' 
taught importance importance ne 
“ WI 
2 4 5 
{ la 
Consumer education 507 16.8 42.0 23.1 —" 
Investment and personal finance 509 20.2 29.5 25.9 S 
Facilities of social intercourse 505 0.4 25.9 34.1 le: 
Adult education 512 27.9 23.8 20.8 
| 
Community analysis 513 2 19 ial t 
Social effects of the rise of science 503 33.6 13.5 31 
Personal analysis 511 35.8 41.5 13.9 CS 
Taxation and public finance 512 36.5 21.1 25.0 ] 
Impo 
Vocational analysis and information 517 31.3 21.3 , 
International relations 516 39.6 29.3 23.3 
Relation of industry and government 516 41.3 23.8 26.8 0] te 
School as a social institution 512 42.5 14.5 24.8 ne 
Formation of public opinion 509 44.2 27.1 20.6 ince 
Problems of metropolitan government 509 44.4 16.3 23.4 Tal I 
Nature of government. . 514 57.6 16.0 13.6 1D1€ 
Activities of the national government 519 69.8 12.3 14.6 con: 
- he te 
Read table as follows: Of the 562 junior high-school teachers participating in the study, 507 either mark 
“consumer education” as adequately taught in their schools or rated its importance for additional emphasis. Nea toy 
thought that the topic was adequately taught in their schools; 42 percent thought the topic was of great importan tion. inv. 
emphasis at the junior high-school level. Almost one in five teachers thought the topic was of little importance 
lation 


emphasis in junior high schools even tho inadequately taught at present 









[ 200 } 





oformation, consumer education, community 
analysis, relation of industry and government, 
ternational relations, and the formation of 
public opinion. These judgments suggest sey 
eral important areas for the consideration of 


curriculum committees at the elementary- 


SX he | )] level. 


Judgments of Junior High-School 
Teachers 


Between 505 and 519 of the junior high- 
school teachers participating in this study gave 
their opinions on the sixteen areas. In other 
words, about nine out of ten of these teachers 
expressed an opinion on each of the topics. 
[able 6 shows the number answering each 
topic (column 2) and the proportion of these 
reporting “adequately taught” (column 3) or 
viving a rating of importance for further em- 
phasis (columns 4, 5, and 6). 


Adequacy of present teaching of sixteen 
areas—IThe two topics, activities of the na- 
tional government and the nature of govern- 
ment, were thought to be adequately taught by 
about three out of five of the junior high-school 
teachers. Two out of five teachers appeared to 
be satisfied with the treatment of such topics 
as the problems of metropolitan government, 
formation of public opinion, the school as a 
social institution, relation of industry and gov- 
ernment, and international relations. All of 
the topics mentioned in this paragraph pertain 
more or less to government and its activities. 

Among the topics most neglected in junior 
high schools in the opinion of teachers are the 
following : consumer education, investment and 
personal finance, facilities of social intercourse 
¢.g., cooperatives), and adult education (e.g., 
agencies and opportunities for). Most of these 
topics offer possibilities for helping the indi- 
vidual to appreciate and to use his opportunities 
and resources. 


Importance of additional emphasis on certain 
topics—Over 40 percent of the junior high- 
school teachers agreed that consumer education 
ind personal analysis were areas of great im- 
portance for additional emphasis. In column 4 
of Table 6 no other topics attained such a gen- 
eral consensus of opinion. Nearly 30 percent 
of the teachers rated of great importance the 
three topics, vocational analysis and informa- 
tion, investment and personal finance, and in 
ternational relations. 


Other areas of possible additional emphasis 
re revealed by combining the percent of teach 
ers rating items of “great” and “secondary” 
importance. On this basis at least 50 percent 
of the teachers agree that additional emphasis 
should be given to the following eight areas: 
consumer education, personal analysis, facili 
ties ot social intercourse (ez... cooperatives ), 
investment and personal finance, community 
analysis, vocational analysis and information, 
international relations, and the relation of in 
dustry and government. The possibilities of 
these topics for particular school systems should 
be an object of investigation of curriculum 


committees at the junior high-school level. 


Judgments of Senior High-School 
Teachers 


Of the 654 senior high-school teachers pat 
ticipating in the study, between 618 and 639 
marked out or rated each of the sixteen areas. 
Table 7 shows the number of teachers answer 
ing each topic (column 2) and the proportion 


of these reporting ‘adequately taught’ (col 
umn 3) or giving a rating of importance for 


additional emphasis (columns 4, 5, and 6). 


Adequacy of present teaching of sixteen areas 

Eighty percent of the teachers thought that 
the topic, activities of the national government, 
was adequately taught. The nature of govern 
ment was also adequately taught according to 
70 percent of the senior high-school teachers. 
About two in five of the respondents thought 
that there was no neglect of the five topics, 
relation of industry and government, taxation 
and public finance, formation of public opinion, 
problems of metropolitan government, and in 
ternational relations. 

The five topics most seriously neglected in 
the opinion of the teachers were: facilities of 
social intercourse (e.g., cooperatives), con 
sumer education, vocational analysis and infor 
mation, personal analysis, and adult education 
(e.g., agencies and opportunities for). 

Importance of additional emphasis on certain 
topics—Nearly half of the senior high-school 
teachers thought that it was of great impor 
tance to place additional emphasis upon pet 
sonal analysis, consumer education, and voca 
tional analysis and information. Investment 
and personal finance, international relations, 
adult education, formation of public opinion, 
and facilities of social intercourse (e.g., -co- 
operatives) were thought to be of great impor 


i 201 








tance for further emphasis by about one 





teacher in three. 

On the basis of ratings of great and second- 
ary importance, nine topics were thought by 
more than 50 percent of the teachers to de- 
serve additional emphasis at the senior high- 
school level. These topics were: consumer 
education, personal analysis, vocational analy- 
sis and information, facilities of social inter- 
course (e.g., cooperatives), investment and 










personal finance, community analysis, adult 
education (e.g., agencies and opportunities 
for), social effects of the rise of science, and 
international relations. High-school teachers 
and administrators, as well as curriculum com- 
mittees, should be interested in these opinions 
of teachers of recognized ability. 
















Other Classifications of Teachers’ 
Judgments 







Differences of opinion among teachers at all 
school levels were not apparent when the data 
were classified by size of city. Considering 
the teachers’ opinions from the points of view 
of the type of community in which they teach 













®It must be remembered that “‘liberal’’ 


EMPHASIS OF CERTAIN AREAS 








who rated themselves as liberal 





teachers are those 





and the social attitudes of the teache 
parents, the same general pattern was 
as described heretofore in the bulletin. 

large, liberal teachers * were more dou 

to the adequacy of the teaching in their 

while conservative teachers were de 
more inclined to be satisfied with the 
of their schools. Liberal teachers als 
most areas higher importance ratings { 
ther emphasis than did conservative t 
Teachers in communities of higher e& 
levels rated most areas as being mo 
quately taught than did teachers of poor 
munities, while the latter judged that 

attention should be given to these to; 
their communities (poorer). 

The foregoing differences suggest 
important questions. Do teachers who 
themselves as liberals tend to set too hig! 
of attainment for their classes? Are t! 
servative teachers too well satisfied 
present accomplishments in their school 
the apparent superior results in comn 
of the higher economic levels real o: 
evidence of biased opinions? If the 


TABLE 7.—JUDGMENTS OF 654 SENIOR HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS WITH 
GARD TO ADEQUACY OF TEACHING AND IMPORTANCE FOR ADDITIONA 





























1 


Facilities of social intercourse 
Consumer education 

Vocational analysis and information 
Adult education 












Personal analysis 
Community analysis 

Investment and personal finance 
School as a social institution 








Social effects of the rise of science 
International relations 

Problems of metropolitan government 
Formation of public opinion 













Taxation and public finance 
Relation of industry and government 
Nature of government 

Activities of the national government 

























Read table as follows: Of the 654 senior high-school teachers participating in the study, 626 either marked 
“facilities of social intercourse’ as adequately taught or rated its importance for additional emphasis 
that this area was adequately taught in their schools; 32 percent thought the topic was of great importance for 
emphasis at the senior high-school level. About one in five teachers thought the topic was of little importance fo. 
emphasis at the senior high-school level even tho inadequately taught at present. 


Percent of 
teachers Percent of teachers rating im; 
Number of reporting for additional emphasis 
Areas teachers areas 
answering adequately Great Secondary I 
taught importance importance imp 














2 3 4 5 


626 17.1 32 

625 21.6 48.6 21.3 
622 23.3 48.2 1.6 
623 22.8 33.2 27.3 









621 2 50 5 
619 25.4 29.1 32.8 
626 26.8 40.6 22.7 
630 33.5 18.6 30.5 






618 7 21.3 

639 39.4 33.5 22.1 
627 42.4 26.8 22.0 
631 45.8 33.1 16.3 





635 48.0 27 

636 50.8 30.2 15.6 
635 70.4 16.8 10.3 
637 80.2 11.1 77 







Only 17 percent 





[ 202 ] 

























ts are real why are certain topics neglected 
districts? Do these 
instructional 
further 


he so-called poorer 
poorer districts lack 


materials? These are questions for 


essential 
study in local school systems. 


General Conclusions with Regard to 
Areas of Study 


What general conclusions may be drawn 
from the preceding paragraphs of this section ? 
If the judgments of these teachers of recog 
nized ability were reliable then almost all of 
the sixteen areas have received far from ade 
quate attention. This conclusion agrees with 
that of the Commission on the Social Studies 
Curriculum of the Department of Superin 
tendence. 

Generally speaking, the topics dealing with 
the nature and activities of government were 
thought to be most adequately treated in these 
schools. Consumer education has been 
sistently neglected at all school levels. Facilities 
cooperatives), and 


con 


of social intercourse (e.g., 
adult education (e.g., agencies and opportuni- 
ties for) have been neglected at the secondary 
school level. In the opinion of the elementary 
school teachers inadequate attention has been 
given at their level to investment and personal 
finance, formation of public opinion, and 
vocational analysis and information. Would it 


be desirable in terms of the objectives of the 


social studies to give these neglected areas add 
tional attention in social science instruction ? 
If the answer to the preceding question is in 
“At which 
school levels should this increased attention be 
Tables 5, 6, and 


suggests preliminary answers to this second 


the afirmative, the next question is: 


given?” The discussion of 


question. Table 8 brings together the points 
upon which there is considerable agreement. It 
will be assumed, where 50 percent or more of 
the teachers of any school level (‘Tables 5, 6 
and 7) suggest a topic for additional emphasis, 
that the area deserves special consideration of 
all teachers, principals, and curriculum com 
mittees. Check marks in Table 8 indicate the 
items which 50 percent or more of the teachers 


“secondary 


“great or impor 


rated either of 


aste! isk 


proportion is 60 percent or higher. 


tance. An indicates cases where the 


On the foregoing basis, 50 percent or more 
but in no case as high as 60 percent) of the 


elementary teachers agreed upon the follow 


ing seven topics: 


Consumer education 

Vocational analysis and information 
Community analvsis 
Personal analysis 
International relations 
Formation of public opinion 


Relation of industry and government 


rea 
asterisk indicates at 


At least 50 
least 60 


percent 


percent) of the junior high-school 


TABLE 8.—TEACHER OPINION AS TO AREAS FOR ADDITIONAL EMPHASIS AT 
VARIOUS SCHOOL LEVELS 





Suggested by 50 percent or more of teachers as of great or 


Elementary 
school 


Consumer education 

Facilities of social intercourse 
Investment and personal finance 
Adult education 

Vocational analysis and information 
Community analysis 

Personal analysis 

Social effects of the rise of science 
The school as a social institution 
Taxation and public finance , 
Problems of metropolitan government 
International relations 

Formation of public opinion 

Relation of industry and government 
Nature of government 

Activities of the national government 


Read table as follows: At least 50 percent of the junior high-school teachers believed that 


great or secondary importance (the asterisk indicates that really more than 


secondary importance for 


Senior high school 
“00 percent or more 


Junior high school 
“00 percent or more 


> 3 4 


consumer education’ 


60 percent thought for increased emphasi 


junior high-school level. Similarly interpret other check marks and asterisks. 





t 


{ 203 ] 








t turther 


teachers agreed on the desirability « 
emphasis on eight topics: 


‘Consumer education 
Facilities of social 
Investment and personal finance 
Vocational analysis and information 
Community analysis 

Personal analysis 

International relations 

Relation of industry and government 


intercourse 


Fifty percent or more (asterisks indicate 60 
percent or more) of the senior high-school 
teachers agreed upon the following nine 
topics: 

*Consumer education 

*Facilities of social intercourse 
*Investment and personal finance 
*Adult education 

*Vocational analysis and information 
*Community analysis 

*Personal analysis 

Social effects of the rise of science 
International relations. 


It should be noted that five of these topics 
are found in the lists at all three levels. These 
topics are: consumer education, vocational 
analysis and information, community analysis, 
personal analysis, and international relations. 
The formation of public opinion is found only 
on the elementary-school list. Adult education 
(e.g., agencies and opportunities for) and the 


* For suggestions on the selection of content, grade placement, and similar problems consult The Sox 
Present practise and trends, p. 
165-77; 


1936 Yearbook, Department of Superintendence. 
178-232; selection of content, p. 141-64; grade placement, p 





social effects of the rise of science are tw 
found only on the senior high-school |i 
junior high-school list overlaps both 
mentary and the senior high-school | 
contains no topic not found on one 
others. 

The outcome of this 
teachers is not presented as a guide to 


rating by cl 


cepted uncritically. In specific school 
and in individual 
judgment is at variance with Tables 5, 


schools, where con 
7, the use of even the same procedure 
outlined might result in a listing of ite 
ferent from that in Table 8. Howeve: 
in these schools the procedure for obtair 
judgment of competent teachers and 
sults in the present case will be helpful 





placement of the sixteen areas, regarded 
Commission on the Social Studies C 
lum as generally inadequately emphasize 
have to be made largely on the basis o 
petent opinion. The success of such pla 
will be determined in large measure 

skilful use of methods, devices, and sup; 
tary materials. Adjustment of the plac 
of the topics will necessarily follow f: 

observed and tested outcomes. 
to method and instructional materials w 
found in the remaining sections of tl 

letin.* 


Suggest 


ial Studies ¢ 
63-90; organization of 
and evaluation of outcomes, p. 312-43 


program 


[ 204 ] 


III. Characteristics of Course-of-Study Bulletins 


Learning takes place in the classroom thru 
. interaction between the pupil, the teacher, 
1d “the thing to be learned.” In most city 
school systems the third of these factors is 
described in some detail in so-called course-of 
study bulletins. Observation shows that these 


bulletins vary widely as to the general and 
specific nature of their contents, as to their 
emphasis upon pupil and social or group out- 


comes, and as to the rigidity of conformance 
expected of the teacher. Under what conditions 


in these matters are teachers of recognized 

ability expected to do their work? How would 

the preferences of these teachers change exist- 

ing practises? Upon these two questions the 

1764 teachers in the present study were asked 
give their most careful judgments. 


General Analysis of Practise and 
Teachers’ Preferences 


Rigidity of requirements—Three degrees of 
prescription of the course of study were sub- 
mitted for the judgment of classroom teachers: 

rigid prescription of subjectmatter to be 
ght; (2) pre- 
scribed—freedom beyond this; and (3) gen- 


tau minimum or core content 
eral areas stated—specific details and topics 
left largely to the teacher. Each participant in 
the present investigation was asked to indicate 
the predominant nature of the present course- 
of-study bulletin now used in his teaching and 
then to indicate his preference. The results of 
these requests are shown by school levels in 


Table 9. 


} 


Twelve and four-tenths percent of all th 
teachers reported that rigid requirements ar¢ 
prescribed for them; but only 2 percent pre 
ferred to have their subjectmatte1 gidly 
prescribed. More than half the teachers pre 
ferred to have general areas stated with specific 
topics and details left to the teacher. There 
seemed to be little difference among teachet 
from different grade levels, except that mor 


teaching 


so Tl 


elementary teachers were under 


rigidly prescribed requirements, whereas 
greater freedom was given to teachers of older 
pupils. Size of city, tvpe of community, and 
social attitudes of teachers and parents had no 
apparent bearing upon the percent of teache: 
reporting averseness to rigid prescription of 
subjectmatter. In general, from 10 to 16 per 
cent of the teachers used bulletins rigidly pr 


scribing subjectmatter. 


General plan of course-of-study bulletins 
For the most part, the general plans of course 
of-study bulletins may be classified into three 
(1) brief lists of topics and pages in 
summary of 
and (3) elaborate treat 


types: 
textbooks; (2) information, ob 
jectives, and sources: 
ment of information, objectives, sources, meth 
ods, tests, and references. Teachers were asked 
to report the predominant characteristic of the 
bulletins they were using and then to indicate 
the type preferred. These data 
Table 10 by school levels. 
Nearly 25 
that in actual practise they used the brief-out 
) 


per 


cent, the summary type; and 19 percent, the 


are given 
percent of the teachers reported 


line type of course-of-study bulletin; 56.: 


TABLE 9.—PERCENT OF TEACHERS AT EACH SCHOOL LEVEL FOLLOWING AND 


PREFERRING DIFFERENT TYPES OF 


COURSE-OF-STUDY REQUIREMENTS 





Elementary 
school 
Requirements 
Prac- 
tise ence 
2 3 


Rigid subjectmatter to be 
taught 

Minimum or core content prescribed; free- 
dom beyond this 

General areas stated 


details left largely to teacher 


prescription ofl 


43.5 
and 


specific topics 


40.5 


100.0 100.0 


Read table as follows: 16 percent of the elementary teachers 


gidly prescribed subjectmatter; only 1.8 percent preferred 


Prefer- 


Total 
all levels 


Senior 
high school 


Junior 
high school 


Prefer 


ence 


Prac- 
tise 


Prefer- 
ence 


Prac- 


tise 


Prefer 


ence 


Prac- 
tise 


6 7 8 


100.0 100.0 100 100_0 


reported that pract 


pe of requirement 








FIGURE III 





COURSE-OF-STUDY REQUIREMENTS USED IN PRACTISE AND 
PREFERRED BY TEACHERS 


PERCENT 
50 


l 





ELEMENTARY 





Practise 








Preference 





JUNIOR HIGH 


Practise 


Preference 


SENIOR HIGH 


Practise 


Preference 


Rigid 
prescription 


























yeneral areas 
stated 


Minimum or 
core content 


[J 





For details consult Table 9. 





Research Division, Nationa! Education Ass 





more elaborate plans. When preferences were 
given there was a definite shift in these per- 
cents. Only 6.3 percent of the total group pre- 
ferred the brief-outline type and 33.5 percent 
preferred the elaborate bulletins. The sum- 
mary plan was preferred by 60.2 percent. 
Only 10.3 percent of the elementary teachers 
reported a brief list of topics to be their prefer- 
ence, and this type of bulletin was even less 
popular among secondary teachers. The sum- 
mary type of bulletin is used more generally by 
senior high-school teachers ; elaborate treatment 
is less often used and also less popular at the 
senior high-school level than at the lower grade 
levels. ‘These facts should be of particular in 
terest to those responsible for the preparation 
of course-of-study bulletins. 


Specific form of bulletins—Proceeding from 
the general plan of course-of-study bulletins to 
the specific form of the content, certain pre- 
dominant types may be found: (1) topical out- 
line; (2) detailed narrative and descriptions ; 
(3) questions and answers; (4) problems; (5) 


projects, units, or activities. Upon these 
teachers reported their practise as to usag 
also their preferences. The results by 
levels are given in Table 11. It should be st 
that, altho combinations were not provid« 
in the inquiry form, the teachers wrote 
on their replies. In most instances thes 


S 


various combinations of (1), (4), and 
About four teachers in ten reported th 
bulletins in use are predominantly topic 
line in form. A similar proportion rey 
bulletins which consist chiefly of projects, 
and activities. On the basis of preference 
about one in ten selected the topical « 
form while six in ten preferred the p1 
unit-activities type. At the various school 
certain differences in practise were ap} 
and, on the basis of preferences these diff 
ences were even more marked. A consid 
larger proportion of the elementary t 
preferred the project-unit-activity form o! 
letin than did secondary teachers. Also 
tively more senior high-school teachers 
ferred the topical outline than did teach 


[ 206 ] 





the elementary or junior high-school ing the type did not show 
tween types of communities 


P\ 
Aly 


[he project-unit-activities type of bulletin is sie ae 

: ‘ Individual and Socal CMPAA 
nore frequently used by elementary teachers ; 

? aie : educators there are some who urge 

, cities over 100,000 population. ‘The topical Pine 

J h jun; matter emphasis in teaching; some advox 
tline tvpe increased in use among both junio : ; 
itline type a = . J ve primary attention to the individual’s need 
ey . . oh-sc - y : 
1- and senior high-school teachers with de interest; others emphasize group or so 


if 
4 


reases in the size of city. Preference for the needs: and still others trv to attain a b 
type increased among between the individual and the soci? aspect 
Most course-of-study bulletins either by di 
or indirectly thru lists of desira 
be classified under one of 


project-unit-activities 
elementary teachers with increases in city size; 
preference for the problem type among sec-  <tatement 
ondary teachers. Other classifications also sug- outcomes may the 
gested certain differences. For example, in pre- four preceding points of view. In the present 
dominantly foreign-born communities the study teachers reported the predominant em 
teachers did not report the use of the project- nd 
unit-activities type as often as in American- 

orn communities. However, when preferences 


phasis in the bulletins used in their schools a 
followed this judgment with an indication of 
their own particular preferences. The percent 
types of practise and pret 


were given the proportion of teachers approv of teachers stating 


LEVEL USING AND 


TABLE 10.—PERCENT OF TEACHERS AT EACH SCHOOL 
PREFERRING DIFFERENT GENERAL PLANS OF COURSE-OF-STUDY BULLETINS 





Elementary Junior Senior Total 


high school high school 


school 
Prefer 


ence 


General plan of bulletin 
Prac- Prefer Prac- Prefer 


tise ence tise ence 


1 


topics and pages in textboo 
of information, objectives, 





> treatment f information, objec 
, sources, met! and refer 
19 


100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 


the present study 
1 th enecral plan 


Read table as follows: 24.8 percent of all of the teachers in 
f topics and pages in textbooks; only 6.3 percent preferre 





TABLE 11.—PERCENT OF TEACHERS AT EACH SCHOOL LEVEL USING AND 


PREFERRING VARIOUS FORMS OF PRESENTATION IN COURSE-OF-STUDY 
BULLETINS 





Elementary Junior Senior Total 
all levels 


school high school high school 


Prefer- Prac- Prefer 
ence 


Specific form of bulletin 
Prefer- Prac- Prefer- Prac- 


Prac- 
tise ence tise 


tise ence 


ence tise 


Q 


2 


33 
2 8 


1. Topical outline 37.¢ 

2, Detailed narrative and description 6.2 

3. Questions and answers 2.9 1.0 y 
4. Problems . 4.4 7 10.: 
5. Projects, units, or activities 43.4 > 39 
6. Combinations 5.6 3.8 11 


) 


100.0 100.0 100 100 100.0 


of the teachers reported that bulletin 
f bulletin 


ot 


Read table as follows: 37.9 percent of all 
into topical outlines; 12.1 percent of the total group preferred this 








erence is shown by school levels in Table 12. letins was about equal between social 
Combinations not specifically listed in the interests. About 30 percent believ: 
questionnaire were written in by the re- phasis was predominantiy or 
spondents. On the basis of preferences the vast 
At all school levels about 50 percent of the of the teachers chose the balanced s 


! 
| natior 


teachers thought that the emphasis in the bul- emphasis. Subjectmatter di 


TABLE 12.—PERCENT OF TEACHERS AT EACH SCHOOL LEVEL REPOR?7 
EMPHASIS PRACTISED AND PREFERRED IN COURSE-OF-STUDY BULLET! 





Elementary Junior Senior 
school high school high school 
Emphasis 
Prac- Prefer- Prac- Prefer- Prac- Prefe 
tise ence tise ence ence 


1 2 


; r group) interests 
Pupil (or individual) interests 
3. About equally—social and pupil interests 
Subjectmatter 
Combination of (1) and (4) 
. Combination of (3) and (4) 
Combination of (2) and (4) 


100.0 { 100.0 


100 100.0 100 100.0 


Read table as follows: 31.6 percent of all of the teachers reported a subjectmatter emphasis i 
which they used in practise; 3.7 percent of the total group preferred a subjectmatter emphasis 





FIGURE IV 





EMPHASIS IN COURSE-OF-STUDY BULLETINS REPORTED AS 
PRACTISED AND PREFERRED BY TEACHERS 
PERCENT 
5060 


i 1 





ELEMENTARY 








Practise 


Preference 


JUNIOR HIGH 








Practise 


Preference 


SENIOR HIGH 





Practise 


Preference 


Social- Subjectmett 
Baie Social Individual 3S Individual _} Combinat 


For details consult Table 12. Research Division, Nationa! Education Ass 











[ 208 ] 





table to only 3.7 percent of the entire group, 
the elementary teachers being most nearly 

mous in rejecting this emphasis. 
Elementary and junior high-school! teachers 
eported a decrease in use of subjectmatter popular amon 
emphasis with increase in city size. Senior high f this type. 
«chool teachers, however, did not indicate that f bulletins estions and 
jis was true of high-school courses of study. least liked by tl x such bulletins 
In all city-size groups relatively few of the bulletins characterized by problems and 
teachers preferred the subjectmatter emphasis. jects, units, or activities were preferred 
On other bases of classification important dif large majority of those using them 
ferences appeared. For example, bulletins em- courses of study organized around p 


sizing subjectmatter are less generally used were not verv widely used, 6 


the problem type 


\merican-born communities than in foreign those using 
orn areas; less by teachers in wealthy com kind of bulletin. 


nunities than in the poorer districts. The Very tew tear he rs whose course of stu ly 
} 
hha 


marked desire of the teachers to move away  phasizes subjectmatter preferred that emp 
from the subjectmatter emphasis should be of | whereas the type of bulletin which balances th 
irticular interest to curriculum committees. emphasis between individual and group acti 


ties was well liked by those who have used 


Relationship between Use and 


Preferences of Teachers Summary 


Further investigation into the preferences of \ review of the preceding sections sui 
that recognition of the preterences of t 


} 


teachers and the types of bulletins in use 
will result in more widespread use of courss 


showed that many teachers preferred a bulletin 
bulletins with the following ch 


form different from the one they were using. of-study 
Table 13 presents the evidence in support of _ teristics: 
this finding. Rigid prescription of subjectmat ; st ; aps 

‘ : “ 1) Prescription of general areas but cor 
ter is preferred by less than 10 percent of those apie freedom for the teacher to determine spe 


1 


who use courses of study of this type; bulletins topics and details 


It must be remembered that these classifications of communities are based upon teachers’ opinions 


TABLE 13.—PERCENT OF TEACHERS USING CERTAIN TYPES OF COURSE OF 
STUDY AND PREFERRING TO USE SAME TYPE 





Elementary Junior Senior 


Type of course of study odiaad high school high school 


Requirements: 
1. Rigid prescription of subjectmatter to be taught 
2. Minimum or core content prescribed; freedom bey 
3. General areas stated—specific topics and details 

to teacher 

General plan of bulletin: 
A. Brief list of topics and pages in textbook 
2. Summary of information, objectives, and sources 
3. Elaborate treatment of informatior 

methods, tests, and references 

Specific form of bulletin: 
1. Topical outline 
2. Detailed narrative and description 
3. Questions and answers 
4. Problems ae 
5. Projects, units, or activities 

D. Emphasis: 
1. Social (or group) interests 
2. Pupil (or individual) interests 
3. About equally—social and pupil interests 
4. Subjectmatter 


obiecti 


36 
42.9 
5.9 
60.0 


» oO 


Read table as follows: Of the elementary-schoo! 
this kind of requirement; of those using the ‘‘general 











(2) Detailed treatment of information, objectives, 
sources, methods, and other aspects of the curriculum 
(3) Specific suggestions as to problems, projects, 
units, and activities 
(4) Less emphasis upon subjectmatter as such 
and more upon a combination of social and pupil 


interests. 


For years there has been widespread ad- 
vocacy of the four preceding principles, par- 
fields of 


teacher training and curriculum development 


ticularly among authorities in the 


That a large proportion of the teache: 
in their preferences to these principles 
be encouraging to those interested in 
improvements in social studies prograr 
hiatus here revealed between teachers 
ences (which tend to be idealistic) and | 
is undoubtedly related to the lag noted 
ceding sections of the present bulleti: 
to improve course-of-study bulletins n 
take into account the methods and aids 
are discussed in the next section. 





ROGRESSIVE ADMINISTRATORS and teachers are coming to be 


lieve that the only way to prepare the oncoming generation to live success 
fully in a Democracy is to give them the opportunity to practice Democracy i: 
the classroom, and that teachers for their part cannot develop skill in cooperation 
successfully unless they, too, are members of a school system which operates 
democratically from top to bottom. With the great awakening in regard to the 
importance of emphasis upon the principles of democracy has arisen a desire to 
democratize education, to take the children into partnership (as some schools 
have already done), to create schools which shall be an integral part of the 
community life, in which children will face the future, deal with life problems, 
and learn to solve such problems democratically. 

All these new goals and functions mean that attention must be given to the 
development of skill in cooperation in the schools. Unfortunately the literature 


on cooperation is meager. New techniques must be invented and new methods 
of teaching them developed.— Teachers and Cooperation,” published by De- 
partment of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction, 1937. p. 2-3. 








IV. Methods and Aids in Teaching 


What methods are most frequently used by 
<ocial studies teachers of recognized ability ?' 
Under ideal conditions w hich methods would 
ve used? What of 
sources and agencies? What are the kinds of 
help which teachers think 
most to do better teaching ? Thought-provoking 
answers to these questions by 1764 teachers 


is made non-school 


use 


would aid them 


ire presented and analyzed in this section. 
Specific titles of textbooks, supplementary pub 
lications, and standard tests reported as helpful 
given on 


hy teachers of recognized ability are 


232-37 


es 


Technics of Instruction 


Each teacher was asked to report the one 
method which best described his technic of in- 
struction. The inquiry form next called for an 
ndication of the technic he would prefer to use 
f conditions permitted. In both cases the ques- 
tionnaire listed four types: (1) textbook reci- 
(2) (3) 


activities ; activities. 


recitation ; indi- 
vidual (4) 


Spaces were provided for writing in the names 
of other technics if any teacher felt that the 


tation . socialized 


and group 


TABLE 14.—PERCENT OF TEACHERS 
AT EACH SCHOOL LEVEL REPORT- 
ING THE USE OF VARIOUS INSTRUC- 
TIONAL TECHNICS 





Ele- 
men- 
tary- 
school 
teach- 


All levels 

- Senior 

high- 

school 

teach- 
ers 


Junior 
high- 
school 
teach- 
ers 


Num- 
ber 
report- 
ing 


Per- 
cent 


Technic 


1 2 

201 
585 
186 
342 


1. Textbook recitation 
Socialized recitation 
3. Individual activities 
4. Group activities 
5. Various combina- 
tions of (1), (2), 
3), and (4 
6. Unclassified 


411 23.7 25.2 
11 0.6 0 0 


Total .-. 1,736 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 


Read table as follows: Of the 1736 teachers reporting best 


description of their technics, 201 or 11.6 were using 
the textbook recitation type; of the elementary teachers, 10.9 
percent indicated that the textbook recitation described 


their technic. 


percent 


best 





‘For a comprehensive summary of the professional literature 


Council 


1 Also, 


Methods in Teaching the Social Studies. National on 
18 Lawrence Hall, Harvard University, 1936 
the Commission on the Social Studies, 


1937, §23 p. 


75 p 


American Historical 


Horn, 


Most ot the 


the replies were combinations 


four listed were not satisfactory. 
items written on 


of the four printed on the blank. 


lable 14 shows the percent 
“Which 


technic of instr 


Technics used 
of teachers answering the question: 
describes your 


item best 


tion?” ‘The socialized recitation is most gen- 


erally reported at all grade levels. The text 
book recitation and the individualized activities 
types were least frequently used. ‘The group 
activity procedure was the second most widely 
of 


consisted chiefly of 


used type. The item “various combinations 
(1), (2), ( (4)” 


combinations of the group activity method with 


3), and 


one of the other types. Secondary teachers of 
waeniwed abelit ke . , individual- 
recognized ability make more use of individual 


ized instruction in the social studies than do 


teachers. The reverse is true 


elementary-school 


rT 
| 


in the case of the group activity method. 
On the basis of city size these data showed 
textbook recitation in cities 


greater use of the 


under 30,000 population than in the larger 


No othe 


size appeared to be 


cities. r differences on the basis of city 


reliable. Group activities 
likely to be 
American-born communities than in 
Why do teachers report 


difference between American- and foreign 


used in 
Tor 
this 


bor n 


more 


were reported as 
the 
eign-born areas. 
communities? Are group activities less success- 
ful with children from foreign homes? Do the 
course-of-study requirements for foreign areas 
discourage the use of more informal technics? 
Are the teachers in these areas not prepared 


to use group activities ? 


Technics preferred—The preferences of the 
teachers of recognized ability have been pre 
sented from different 
Tables 15 and 16. Table 15 represents a dis- 
tribution of all the replies in answer to the 
question: “Which technic would you prefer to 


somewhat angles in 


use if conditions permitted ?” Table 16, on the 
other hand, shows preferences related to use 
as reported in Table 14. 

The group of teachers as a whole showed a 
decided preference for group activities accord- 
of Table 15. Elementary 
ly showed a decided prefer- 


ing to column 3 
| 


ial 


teachers particu 


W. A 


Secret 


on method consult: Hodgkins, George Guide 
the Studies. Cambridge, Mass 
Ernest. Methods of Instruction in the So 


Association, Part XV. New York: 


Newer 
Sociai ary of Council 


tal Studies, Report 


Charle Scribner ; 2£ons 


’ 


[211] 





FIGURE V 





INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNICS USED IN PRACTISE AND PREFERRED 
BY TEACHERS 


PERCENT 
50 60 


ELEMENTARY 1 4 








Practise 








Preference 





JUNIOR HIGH 





Practise 








Preference 





SENIOR HIGH 





Practise 








Preference 





Textbook socialized Individual Group 
recitation recitation instruction activities 


For details consult Tables 14 and 15. Research Division, Nationa 











ence for this type. The textbook recitation was TABLE 15.—PERCENT OF TEACHE! 

rejected almost entirely at all school levels. AT EACH SCHOOL LEVEL STATIN« 
Further analysis of the preferences as related PREFERENCES FOR VARIOUS IN 

to use showed even more marked enthusiasm STRUCTIONAL TECHNICS 

for the group activity type of method. These 

data are reported in Table 16. Of all the 

teachers using group activities, 86.7 percent Num- tary- high- 





All levels Ele- 


men- Junior 


preferred this technic. Only 10.3 percent of Technic ber Per- school school 
: report- cent teach- teach- 


those using the textbook recitation indicated a ing ers _— ers 
preference to continue using it if conditions ~ ‘ ie 
permitted a change. 


P 2 1. Textbook recitation 
Supplementary Instructional Aids 2. Socialized recitation 
3 


. Individual activities 
ss 4. Group activities 
One of the characteristics of the textbook 5. Various combina- 
recitation procedure is the rather close ad- 1 he “. (2), aa er 
, iets , and ( : 3 7 S 
herence to a single source of knowledge. The 6. Unclassified 0.3 00 Oo 
other technics previously discussed in this sec- vr a ane tee ont 
tion encourage the use of many sources and the 9 ——--—-——— 
° ° . ary ° - Read table as follows: Of the 1690 teachers stating 
examination of different points of view. What ences for instructional technics, 25 or 1.5 percent sel 
are the supplementary sources used most often 


textbook recitation type; of the elementary teachers, 1.5 
’ as. 5 preferred the textbook recitation. 
and regularly by teachers of recognized ability / 





Types of supplementary aids most frequently state government publications, and refer 
used — Newspapers, magazines, federal and books in general were most often used as 


[ 212 ] 








st ud les teac het $. 
} 


ners 


ntary sources DY social 
sources listed by the responding Teac 

so scattered that less than 10 percent were 
issin ible in any one category. Table 17 shows 
percent of teachers at each grade level re 
ng use of supplementary sources as classi 
is \mong the less frequently used sources, 
idvertising materials, museums, and trips and 
visits Were most often used at the elementary 
level. Reference books and visual aids were also 
more often used at this grade level than in the 


inior and senior high schools. 


TABLE 16—PERCENT OF TEACHERS 
AT EACH SCHOOL LEVEL PREFER- 
RING THE INSTRUCTIONAL TECH- 
NIC WHICH THEY ARE NOW USING 





All levels 
Num- 

ber Per- 
using cent 
who using 


Ele- 

men- Junior 
tary- high- 
ex- who school school 
pressed also teach- teach- 
prefer- prefer ers ers 
ence 


Senior 
high- 
school 
teach- 


Technic 


1 2 


1. Textbook recitation 194 
2. Socialized recitation 573 25 23 
3. Individual activities 180 ‘ =. 36 


4. Group activities 331 86 89 84 


Read table as follows: Of the 194 teachers reporting that 
they use the textbook recitation method, 10.3 percent preferred 
to continue even tho conditions offered opportunity for a 
hange. 





Newspapers and magazines were used about 
equally by teachers at different grade levels; 
slightly less emphasis was placed on newspapers 
by senior high-school teachers and more em- 


phasis upon magazines. Government publica- 
tions were used often and regularly by more 
teachers at high-school levels than in elemen- 


tary grades. 

Since availability may determine the extent 
to which teachers use certain supplementary 
sources, it seemed probable that size of com- 
munity might be a significant influence on use. 
When these data were tabulated by city size, 
however, most of the differences revealed were 
small. With each decrease in size of com- 
munity, there was a corresponding decrease 
in the use of magazines, federal, state, and local 
government publications, advertising materials, 
museums, and trips and visits. Since no sup- 
plementary source was reported by teachers of 


1 11 , 
recognized »bDe more venerally used 


small towns and ; than in the larger 


conclusion 


veneral 
teachers in smal communit 


1\ ely 


communities. Observati 


plementary sour exten 
in larger 
that this limited use of supplem«e ntar\ 
related to their non-availability in 
towns. [Chere would be available to teache 
towns of 2,500 to 5,000 populatio: 
local government publications, lectures 
tising materials, and museums. Greate 
ability of radio equipment probably acco 
for the fact that teachers in large 


to use the radio as a 


cities were 


five times more likely 


source of supplementary information than were 


teachers in towns of 2,500 to 5.000 population. 


} 


Government publications were reported a 


used more frequently by liberal teachers; con 
servative teachers reported more frequent use 
of encyclopedias and library reference books. 
Teachers were also more likely to use govern 
ment publications if the parents in their com 


liberal 


servative. Library references were less generally 


munity were mainly rather than con 
used in business and factory districts than in 
residential communities. Do these differences 
indicate that conservative teachers and patrons 


do not distinguish between the research and 


TABLE 17.—SUPPLEMENTARY 
SOURCES USED OFTEN AND REGU- 
LARLY BY TEACHERS OF SOCIAL 
STUDIES GROUPED BY GRADE 
LEVEL 





Percent of teachers using 


Ele- 
mentary 
school 


Senior 
high 
school 


Junior 
high 
school 


Supplementary sources 


Newspapers 
Magazines 

Federal governi 
state government pl 
City and local g 


Foreign governn 
Publications of 
Publications of 
Radio 
Reference books 
Visual aids 


pictures, post 


moving 
slides, 
charts, et 

Lectures 

Advertising materi 

Museums 

Trips and visits 

Others—miscellaneous 





[ 213 ] 





propaganda publications of the government and 
consequently reject them all? Are there ways 
to overcome the apparent shortage of library 
resources in schools located in business and 
factory districts ? 

Aids thought to be most helpful to teachers 
and pupils—The social studies teachers in the 
present study were given opportunity to report 
the specific supplementary materials and sources 


TABLE 18.—PERIODICALS REPORTED 
BY TEACHERS AS MOST HELPFUL 
IN SOCIAL STUDIES INSTRUCTION 





Most helpful to teachers Most helpful to pupils 
Elementary school 

Current Events 
Geographic News Bulletin 
Junior Red Cross News 
*National Geographic 
*News Review 


Current Events 
Geographic News Bulletin 
Grade Teacher 
Instructor 
Journal of Geography 
Journal of the N. E. A. 
Literary Digest 
*National Geographic 
Reader's Digest 
News Review 
Time 
Junior high school 
*Current Events 
Every Week (News Outline 
*Junior Review 
*Literary Digest 
*National Geographi 
News Review 
News Week 
Reader's Digest 
Scholastic 
Time 
Senior high school 
*American Observer 
Current History 
*Literary Digest 
National Geographic 
News Review 
News Week 
*Reader’s Digest 
Review of Reviews 
*Scholastic 
*Time 


Current Events 
Current History 
Journal of the N. E. A. 
*Literary Digest 
*National Geographic 
News Week 

*Reader's Digest 
Scholastic 

Social Studies 

*Time 


*American Observer 
*Current History 
Forum and Century 
Harper's Magazine 
*Literary Digest 
Nation 
New Republic 
*Reader's Digest 
Review of Reviews 
Scholastic 
*Social Studies 
*Time 


Explanation: The magazines listed at each grade level were 
reported by 5 percent or more of the teachers assigned at that 
level. These teachers, originally selected because of their 
recognized ability, were asked to report the magazines most 
helpful to them and to the pupils in their classes. Asterisks 
indicate the items reported most frequently. In no sense, 
does this table represent the appraisal of the Research Divi- 
sion of the National Education Association. 





they had found most helpful in addition to 
checking the list of sources used. Eighty-four 
percent of all teachers in the study reported 
that they used magazines. Table 18 lists the 
most frequently mentioned periodicals reported 
as being especially helpful to social studies 
teachers and to pupils in social studies courses. 
Magazines reported by less than 5 percent of 


the participating teachers at each schoo 
Table 18. The 
zines reported most frequently in eacl 
lhe table w 


have been omitted from 


are indicated by asterisks. 
helpful as suggestive of the periodicals 
school libraries should expect to find mo 
ful to teachers and to pupils. 

The teachers participating in the p: 
study listed a number of other suppleme: 
aids of a more or less ephemeral nature. ‘| 
included various newspapers, the World 4 
nac, and pamphlets issued by such organiz 
as the Foreign Policy Association. The 
books, supplementary books, and standard 
listed by name are reported in the final se 
of this bulletin. 


Contacts with Outside Agencies 


Great emphasis has been placed in 
years upon the values which should be fou 
establishing contacts with local stores 
tories, departments of government, and ; 
welfare groups. The questionnaire ident 
nine such local agencies and provided sp 
the addition of others. Teachers were as! 
check the agencies with which they made 
lar and systematic contacts. The percent 
teachers making use of local agencies, art 
by school levels, is shown in Table 19. A 


TABLE 19.—LOCAL AGENCIES WITH 
WHICH REGULAR AND SYSTEMATI( 
CONTACTS ARE MADE BY SOCIAI 
STUDIES TEACHERS GROUPED BY 
GRADE LEVEL 





Percent of teacher 
making contacts 

Junior Senior 
high high 

school school 


Ele- 
mentary 
school 


Local agencies 


1 2 4+ 
Public libraries ee a ae 
Health department....... 42.; 
Local government ; , 14.2 
Factories and business. . a. a 
Fire department....... 30.5 
Police department...... 22.3 
Welfare societies........ 18.6 
lee pis 3.6 
Penal institutions........... 0.5 
*Museums ealaey’s 8.8 
No contacts 8.9 13 


71.4 

19.1 

35.0 
22 
13 
18 
20 
26 
8 
? 


19 


oe ht 


Om WON OO Ww 


© 





Read table as follows: Of the 1764 teachers part 
in the study, 77.4 percent reported regular and systemat 
tacts with public libraries; 14.3 percent of all teachers 
survey made no regular contacts with local agencies. M 
(marked with an asterisk) was an item not listed on 
quiry form. 





[ 214] 





reported by fewer than 4 percent of the 


sntiit group of teachers (column 5) have been 
omitted from the table. The item ‘‘museums’’ 
marked with an asterisk) was not printed on 
the inquiry form. 

Extent of regular contacts with local agencies 

According to Table 19 only 14.3 percent of 
the social studies teachers of recognized ability 
failed to avail themselves of the resources of 
local agencies. A smaller proportion of senior 
high-school teachers than elementary teachers 
made contacts with local agencies; junior high 
school teachers reported such contacts more 
often than senior high-school teachers but less 
often than elementary teachers. Public libraries, 
health departments, factories and _ business 
houses, fire departments, and museums were 
reported as used more frequently at the ele- 
mentary level than at the higher grade levels; 
state and local government, courts, and penal 
institutions more often at the 
senior high-school level than at the other school 
levels. These differences suggest that the ma- 
turity of the pupils has been an influential 


were visited 


factor in determining the agencies for regular 
and systematic contacts. 

When the replies on “outside contacts’ were 
arranged on the basis of city size, no differences 
were revealed in the use made of the agencies 
listed in Table 19. Considerable difference in 
practise was shown in the use of miscellaneous 
agencies. Doubtless since some of these, such as 
art institutes, civic clubs, and bureaus of the 
state government, exist less frequently in the 
cities under 30,000 population these teachers 
were unable to report regular contacts. Are 
these smaller communities overlooking other 
outside contacts of equal instructional value? 
What use is made of farms, dairies, parks, and 
historical sites? Are the experiences and curios 
of old upon for classroom 
activities ? 

Several other dependable differences were 


residents drawn 


found. In elementary schools, the local govern- 
ment was more extensively visited by liberal 
than by conservative teachers; in liberal com- 
munities more than among conservative par- 
ents; in foreign-born communities more often 
than in American-born districts.2 Among ele- 
mentary teachers there was also a slight de- 
crease in the number of contacts reported with 
the local government corresponding with a de- 
crease in the wealth of the parents in the com- 


munity. On the senior high school level, several 
agencies were more extensively visited in c¢ 
tain types of districts than in others. For ex 
ample, the fire and health departments were 


more generally used in first-hand instruction 


than in conservative communities. 
Furthermore, neither the 


students nor the social attitudes of teachers at 


in liberal 
economic level of 
fected the extensiveness of the contacts with 
the fire and health departments. Greater varia 
tion with the type of community obtained in 
consideration of the courts as an agency possible 


s( hool 


level. Courts were reported as used more often 


for outside contacts at the senior high 


in liberal than in conservative communities, in 


American-born districts than in foreign-born 


communities, by conservative teachers rathet 
than by liberal teachers, and in the wealthier 
These 


possibility of greater variety in outside contacts 


communities. differences suggest the 
on the part of conservative teachers and by 
teachers in conservative and foreign-born com 


munities. 


> ; 
Reasons for not using outside agencies 


What are the reasons given by teachers for 
making little or no use of non-school agencies ? 
Five possible impediments or difficulties were 
listed on the inquiry form and space provided 
for additional reasons. Teachers were asked to 
mark the chief reason for not using non-school 
agencies. The replies on this question are at 
ranged by school level in Table 20. Reasons ri 
ported by less than 1 percent of all the teachers 
have been classified as miscellaneous. Specific 
items not printed on the inquiry blank are 
marked with asterisks. 

According to the replies of these teachers of 
(Table 20), the chief im 


pediment to regular contacts with local agencies 


ane 
recognized ability 


was a lack of time in the school schedule. Only 
7.1 percent of the entire group were dubious 
as to the value of these contacts. The reason 
“disapproval of public and parents” (printed 
on the questionnaire) was checked by on/y two 
junior high-school teachers! Since the provision 
of time in the schedule for outside contacts is 
primarily an administrative problem the com 
posite opinion of these teachers puts the ques 
tion squarely up to school executives. If the 
use of outside resources is to increase, princi 
pals and superintendents will have to make the 


necessary adjustments in school schedules. 


*It must be remembered that these classifications of teachers and communities are based on teachers’ opinions 


[ 215 ] 


] 
| 





TABLE 20.—REASONS GIVEN BY SO- 
CIAL STUDIES TEACHERS FOR NOT 
MAKING EXTENSIVE USE OF OUT- 
SIDE AGENCIES 





Percent of 


402 469 1206 
Junior Senior Teach- 
Reasons high- high- ers 
school school at all 
teach- teach- school 
ers ers levels 


1 3 


Lack of time in school s hed- 
ule 
Teachers’ doubt as to their 
usefulness in social studies 
instruction 
Lack of transportation facil- 
ities . 
Disapproval by administra- 
tive and supervisory officers 
Unwillingness of these agen- 
cies to cooperate.... 
*Size of classes and number of 
classes to be taken 
*Combinations of two or more 
reasons printed in question- 
naire , 
*Miscellaneous 


Total percent giving 
reasons . 100 100.0 100.0 100.0 


Read table as follows: Of the 1764 teachers participating 
in the study, 1206 gave reasons why they established few or 
no regular contacts with local agencies. Over 72 percent of the 
1206 teachers reported the chief reason as lack of time in the 
school schedule. Only 7.1 percent felt that these contacts were 
of doubtful value in social studies instruction. 





The data revealed that teachers of recog- 
nized ability in the large cities were more likely 
to doubt the value of contacts than those in the 
small towns. There appeared to be less likeli- 
hood of administrative disapproval in large 
cities than in cities of population under 30,000. 
It was reported that agencies in large cities 
are more likely not to cooperate than those in 
towns under 10,000. Transportation facilities 
are more of a problem in the large cities than 
in the small towns where distances are not 
so great. Lack of social agencies was not re- 
ported as a problem in the larger cities and 
towns, but below 10,000 population a few 
teachers reported this as a reason for not making 
the contacts. These differences suggest that 
school executives in the large cities have more 
difficulties to overcome in making first-hand 
contacts available to the pupils of their schools. 
Can transportation problems be overcome by 
the use of chartered and bonded buses? Could 
the service clubs be enlisted in opening stores 


and factories to visits by pupils? Car 
ing community agencies be discovered 1 
each school ? 

Needs of Teachers 


Often an excellent method of in 


hampered by factors such as a lack of 


tional materials, inadequate supervisior 
course-of-study requirements, large cla 

brief classroom periods. What assista 
teachers of recognized ability think wou 
them to do better teaching? Fourtee: 
were listed on the questionnaire and sp 


TABLE 21—PERCENT OF SO 
STUDIES TEACHERS REPOR!’ 
NEEDS WHICH WOULD IMPRO 
INSTRUCTION 





548 
Ele 562 654 
men- Junior Senior 
tary- high-  high- 
Need or change school school school 
teach- teach- teach 
ers ers ers 


1 2 3 


. Smaller classes 
. Longer periods 


More reference books 
. Auditory and visual aids 
. More bulletins and leaflets 
on social problems 
Improved textbooks. . 
More magazines 
. More newspapers 
- More equipment (e.g., 
maps) on 
. Improved library facilities 
o BeRte... 


. More opportunity to take 
class on excursions. .. 

. Freedom from present 
course requirements. . . 

. More definitely formu- 
lated courses 

. Better coordination of 
subjectmatter thru 
grades 


. Opportunity to observe 

other teachers aes 

. More guidance from su- 
pervisors es, See 

. Advice from principal... . 

. Time for preparation, con- 
ferences... ieee 

20. Time and money for 
travel and study..... 

21. Less clerical and extra- 


class work 0 


*22. Miscellaneous 3 2 2.3 


Read table as follows: Of the 1764 teachers partic 
the study, 57.4 percent thought that one of the great 
in the improvement of their instruction would be 
classes; 59.8 percent thought instruction could be imp 
more reference books. Asterisks indicate items not pr 
the questionnaire 





[ 216] 





ded for additional statement of needs 
hose marked with asterisks were not printed 
the questionnaire. 


lable 21 shows the percent of the entire 


p of teachers and of those at each grad 


| mentioning various needs. It should be 


7 
noted that items (1) and (2) are primarily ad 
ministrative problems; (3) thru (11), matters 
of improving the quantity and quality of in 
structional materials; (12) thru (15), items 
having to do with the course of study; and 
16) thru (21), items essentially supervisory 
in nature. 

The need for “more reference books”’ is the 


Next in fre 


“auditory 


one most frequently reported. 


quency were “smaller classes” and 
ind visual aids.”’ These three needs were re 
ported by nearly three teachers out of five. 
Other outstanding wishes expressed by the 
teachers are for more bulletins dealing with 
social problems, opportunity for more excur- 
sions, More magazines, improved textbooks, and 
opportunity to observe the teaching in othe 
classrooms. 
Apparently elementary teachers of recog 
nized ability, more than senior high-school 
teachers, felt the need for more reference books 
ind better textbooks. More elementary-school 
teachers also expressed a desire for freedom 
requirements. 


from course-of-study 


There was a suggestion, altho the percents were 


present 


small, that clerical and extra-class duties intet 
fered more with classroom instruction on the 
senior high-school level than in elementary 
schools. 

When these data were arranged by estimates 
of the economic levei of the communities, the 
poor districts were shown to have consistently 
inadequate Reference 
books, magazines, newspapers, excursions, and 


teaching conditions. 
auditory and visual aids were reported as 
needed with one-third to one-half greater fre 
quency in poor districts as compared with well- 
to-do communities. Classes also appeared to be 
larger in the “‘poor’’ districts, and course-of- 
study requirements more burdensome 


3 See footnote 1 in this section 


Also, Wesley, Edgar B. Tea 


Summary 


section has not deen cons 


lhe present 


weaknesses of 


with the strengths and 
methods and aids in social studies inst: 
[hese questions have been discussed 


the inqu 


the technics and 


publications. purpose of 


been to discove I 


quently used by city teachers of 


ability, the reasons for not using lo« 


and the points at which social studies teacl 
believe that they require help. On the topic « 

ie 1 . 
several self-evaluation 


d To! 


section 
teachers and 


For teachers 


| 
opyecti 


general 
moved 


1) Is it possible that the 


social studies instruction have ahead 


past few years while my methods have r« 


relatively stati 
2) Is my teaching characterized by almos 
clusive use of one or possibly two methods 

j 


S jual 


(3) Do I adjust my instructional procedur 


t 
ciously to the implications of research and tested 


practise or am I merely trying to be fashion 
educationally 

4) Am I attempting to keep the minds 
bodies of my students confined within the fo 
of the classroom thereby overlooking the avai 
resources in non-school agencies? 


5) Have 


quacies of my 


le 


I been active in eliminating the ina 


} 


instructional environment by confer 


ences with supervisory officers, by establishing con 
tacts with non-school groups, by collecting free and 
inexpensive instructional materials, and by develop 
ing in pupils the maximum responsibility for self 
direction ? 
For administrators 

1) Have teachers participated in the preparation 
of the schedule of classes so as to introduce the ele 
ment of instructional as well as administrative ef 
ficiency ? 

(2) Could funds now used for other purposes be 
used for more and better instructional materials, the 
improvement of library facilities, visual aids, and 


other means for enriching instruction ? 

(3) Have I been willing to make the administra 
tive adjustments and provide the facilities for trips 
excursions, and contacts with resources outside of 
the school ? 


(4) What effort have I 
with the teachers under my supervision to discover 


made thru conferences 


the extent and the nature of the instructional prob 


lems suggested by the foregoing section ? 


t the Social Studies. New York: D. C. Heath and Co., 1937 





V. Dealing with Controversial Subjects 


Altho closely allied with general methods Controversial Topics Avoided Enti: 
and aids discussed in the preceding section, the or Treated with Special Tact 
problem of dealing with controversial subjects 
is of such importance as to require detailed 


1 


Since the topics listed by some tea 
treatment.' The purposes of this phase of the avoided entirely aie pagnnnen oy 
present study may be suggested by the five ques- merely requiring tactful treatment, the 
tions included in the questionnaire. What ‘°° these two questions are considered to; 
controversial topics do teachers of recognized It is interesting to note that of the entire 
ability think they must avoid entirely? What of 1764 teachers, 63 percent * thought 
are the chief reasons why these topics must be controversial topics did not have to be ay 
excluded from the classroom? What topics entirely. Fifty-seven percent of the elem« 
must be treated with special tact? Specifically, teachers, 62 percent of the junior high-s 
how does one treat a controversial issue with teachers, and 70 percent of the high-s 
tact? Do school systems have rules forbidding teachers reported no controversial issues w 
all discussion of controversial questions ? needed to be avoided. Only 1.3 percent 


1 For a summary of studies on the teaching of controversial topics consult Ernest Horn’s Methods of Instruction in th 
Studies, Part XV of the report of the Commission on the Social Studies, American Historical Association; published by 
Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1937. p. 87-96. For the general question of ‘“‘What and How To Think the same ref¢ 
79-121 
2In The Social Studies Curriculum (1936 Yearbook, Department of Superintendence, p. 303) 
porting that controversial issues did not have to be avoided were: 67.2, senior high schools; 64.2, junior 
junior high schools; 44.5, eight-year elementary schools; 23.2, six-year elementary schools. The exter 
two studies is rather significant. 


TABLE 22.—RANK ORDER OF FREQUENCY OF MENTION OF ISSUES AVOID! 
AND TACTFULLY HANDLED 





Elementary school Junior high school Senior high scl 


Tactfully Tactfully Tactf 


Type of issue 
Avoided handled Avoided handled Avoided han 


6 


SO ee eee 
Politics—general... . 
» Sem questions. ......0.6:: 
. Social legislation and reform 
5 ND IDS os oben nccescc 
. Communism 
- Racial problems : 
. Policies and practises of national government..... 
. Criticism of prominent people 
I a ec pipe c ee aereeenerass 
. Class distinctions 
. School problems and policies 
. Policies and practises of state and local government 
. Social customs and attitudes 
5. General theories of economics and government 
. Socialism 
. Nationalities 
. Organizations and their influence 
. Consumer education 
. International relations 
. Public control or ownership of industry 
22. Policies in commerce or business 
. War and peace 14 
. Fascism tas 18 
. 25.5 


15.5 


CSenNAU es wh = 
Ne - — 
NK BDRDASCASU®eWrne 


10 
12 
21 
23 
21 


—_ 
~ uN 


25.5 
25.5 


Nw 


2nnun 
a © 


> 


. State politics 

. Civil war... Heaene oe 

. War involving the U. S. and foreign countries. .. 
. Naziism 


wNNN 


< 


16.5 25! 
18.5 21 
21.5 


N 


NNER eee LD 
° 


~ 
= 
< 


w 
— 


Read table as follows: Among the senior high-school teachers reporting issues as avoided entirely 
religion were reported most frequently and therefore this area is ranked first. This area was also most frequently reported 


the subjects dealt with tactfully. 


y questions having to d 





[ 218 ] 





ported that local rules prohibited consideration 
f all controversial topics. The nature of these 
mitations will be discussed later in the present 
section. 

Twenty-five types of issues and their rank 
n order of frequency of mention at the senior 
high-school level 6) 
lable 22. In many instances, the teachers 


(column are shown in 


listed specific topics rather than the general 


:reas given in the table. For example, strikes, 


lockouts, picketing, and similar questions have 


been tabulated under the general heading of 
labor problems. 

Comparison of columns 2 thru 7 of Table 
22 indicates that issues most frequently reported 
as needing to be avoided were also reported to 
be in need of special treatment. In a few cases 
only were issues ranking high in the “to be 
woided” list less frequently mentioned in the 
list of issues requiring tact. Sex questions at 
the senior high-school level is an area which 
exemplifies this difference. This type of issue 
s third in column 6 and tenth in column 7. 
Obviously, the emphasis on this type of issue 
has been toward avoidance. Labor problems, 
ranking tenth in the list of issues to be avoided, 
is ranked fourth in the list of issues to be treated 
with tact. In this case, the emphasis has been 
toward tactful treatment rather than avoid 
ance. 

The evidence seems to show that regardless 
of the background of the teacher, the com- 
munity, or pupils, certain issues are more ot 
less perilous. On every basis of classification of 
the replies controversial religious topics were 
most frequently mentioned. Politics was the 
issue second in rank order of frequency of men 


TABLE 23.—PERCENT OF TEACHERS AT EACH LEVEL 


tion both on the ‘ iwoidance”’ and the ‘‘tact 


handled”’ lists. In 


of teacher, size of 


both lists neithe1 orade 


community, type of c 
munity by several measures, nor attitude 
parents and teachers affected the relative po 
Table 22. We 
these seven issues 
factors 


wh cil 
arouse highly emotionalized partisanship 


tion of the first seven issues in 
that 
debatable 


} 1 
may conclude, then, 


particularly involve 
A different sort of picture of the relation 
ship between controversial topics and the school 
levels is shown in Table 23, which presents the 
proportion of teachers in each group reporting 
that the issues must be avoided or handled tact 
fully. In this connection, each issue should be 
examined separately with regard to the number: 
of teachers listed at the top of columns 2 thru 
The first issue mentioned is religion. A larger 
proportion of elementary teachers reported that 
issues were QvVOlde 


controversial religious 


whereas a larger proportion of senior high 


school teachers reported that debatable reli; 
ous topics were treated with special tact. 

The economic background of the commut 
affects controversial topics as shown by the fact 
that teachers reporting their communities to be 
“well oft” did not 
ligious issues as frequently, proportionately, 


mention the difhiculty of re 
did teachers in communities rated to be o 

lower economic level. Teachers in communities 
with reactionary and radical parents more often 
avoided controversial religious issues than thos« 
having conservative and liberal patrons, while 
the latter more often reported that religious 
questions needed to be treated tactfully than 
did the teachers in reactionary and radical com 
munities. With regard to political issues, these 


REPORTING CERTAIN 


ISSUES AVOIDED OR HANDLED TACTFULLY 





548 
Elementary-school 
teachers 
Type of issue 
Handled 
Avoided tactfully 
3 
. Religion. . . 34.; 25 
- Politics... .. : : 18.3 
3. Sex questions : 8.§ 3 
. Race problems ‘ 13 
5, Communism 
. Local politics 
. Social legislation and reform 


Junior high-school 
teachers 


Avoided 


654 
Senior high-school 
teachers 


562 
Entire group 


Handled 
tactfully 


Handled 
tactfully 


Handled 


tactfully Avoided 


Avoided 
5 6 7 8 


32 y 35.8 
29 7 25.1 
1 7.5 
16. 4 2 ee 
13.3 ) 21.4 
8 8.7 
g 


5 7 11 1 


Read table as follows: Of the 548 elementary-school teachers, 34.3 percent reported that they avoided religi: 


percent reported that they handled these topics with special tact 


40.3 percent did not mention issues in this area 





[ 219 ] 





same findings hold, except that teachers who 
reported “reactionary parents’ more often 
avoided the problems than teachers reporting 
their communities to be conservative, liberal, 
or radical. ‘The differences suggested by these 
composite opinions clearly indicate that social 
studies instruction does not take place in a 
vacuum. Teachers must be familiar with the 
opinions and prejudices of the communities in 
which their pupils live. While certain issues 
are particularly difficult to handle, wise class- 
room procedure may win public approval of 
instruction even on most controversial topics. 

Considering the issues most frequently men 
tioned by the entire group of 1764 teachers, we 
find that religious issues were avoided by 26.8 
percent and treated tactfully by 31.6 percent. 
The next most frequently mentioned area is 
that of politics which was avoided by only 13.5 
percent and treated tactfully by 23.8 percent. 
The other issues included in Table 23 were the 
most frequently mentioned issues, yet a very 
small percent of the teachers reported them. 
This would indicate that altho the issues ranked 
in Table 23 assume those relative positions ac- 
cording to rank order of frequency of mention, 
religious issues and politics are apparently the 
areas of the greatest general controversy. 


Reasons Given for Avoiding 
Controversial Topics 


Why do teachers of recognized ability avoid 
controversial subjects in their classrooms? Is 
it because they think that the discussion of cer- 


8 For evidence concerning this fear of pressure groups, 
New York, 1936, 855 p.; Bessie L 
Sons, 1933, 426 p.; 
*On this point compare with Frederick H 

to Education, No. 625, Teachers College, Columbia University, 


Sons, 


consult 
Pierce’s Citizens’ Organizations and the Civic 
and Bruce Raup’s Education and Organized Interests in America, G. P. Putnam’s Son 
Bair’s The Social Understandings of the Superintendent o/ 
1934, p 


tain topics will bring reprisals from 
groups? Is it because of local board 
cluding controversial subjects from class 
Teachers were asked in the present 
select a specific topic usually avoided 
indicate the primary reason for exclud 
from their classrooms. 


Reasons given for avoiding controve) 
jects—Seven possible reasons were id 
on the questionnaire. Altho space was pri 
for additional items, few were written 
few cases teachers gave two or three reas 
stead of the primary reason as requested. 
650 teachers reported various issues as 
entirely, only 409 gave reasons for so 


ason are 


The proportions citing each re 
Table 24. 
Table 24 shows that the reason cited 


frequently for avoiding controversial 


was “fear of outside pressure groups.’ 
reason was most frequently given at the 
high-school level. Immaturity of the pup 
the reason given the greatest number of 
by elementary-school teachers. Disapproy 
parents apparently is a stronger deterr 
the elementary school than it is at the 
school levels. Relatively few teachers rep: 
that they avoided controversial topics be 
of proscriptions by principals, superintend 
or schoolboards. 


Local rules forbidding consideration 
controversial topics—Of the 1764 tea 
only 1.3 percent reported the existence of 
Charles § 
Charles 


New York, 19 


Schools, Cont 


Howard K. Beale’s Are Teachers Free? 
Training of } 


‘th, 


44-45. Ninety-eight percent of the superinte 


schools answered affirmatively the question: “Do you think the public schools ought to deal with such [controversial] q 


TABLE 24.—PERCENT OF TEACHERS CITING CERTAIN REASONS FOR AVOI! 
ING CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS 





Total 
° number of == +--+ 
School level teachers Forbidden Forbidden 
giving by by super- 
reasons principal intendent 


2 3 4 


153 4! 9.2 
127 $.! 13.4 
129 4 


Elementary 
Junior high 
Senior high 
11.2 


Total 409 4.9 


Read table as follows: 
the reason ‘‘fear of outside pressure groups”’; 


Of the 409 teachers giving reasons for avoiding various controversial subjects, 42.5 percent re 
61.2 percent of the 129 senior high-school teachers cited this reason. 


Percent giving each reason 
Disap- 
proval of 
parents 


Forbidden 
by school- 
board 


Fear 


side | 


Lack of 
maturity 
of pupils sure gr 


Forbidden 
by law 


7 


31.4 
24.4 
20.9 


25.9 





[ 220 ] 





['abulations on the basis of school level ir 
.d that elementary-school teachers taught 
often under prohibitory rules than seni 


h-school teachers. When ved 


the data indicated that t large 


arran DY Cl 


he 


more likely to have rules than the sma 


P 
ee 


cities.” A few teachers commented that ther 


was no written rule, but a general understand 
based upon the superintendent’s warning. 


[hat these cases could not be very many is 


shown by Table 24 where only 11.2 


.2 percent 
of the teachers mentioned a superintendent’s 


« 


ruling against specific controversial topics. 
Examples of local rules excluding contro 
versial topics from the schools are the follow 
ing: 
No denomi 
national publication of any kind whatever shall be 
of 
library, nor shall any denominational or sectarian 
doctrines be inculcated. (Population 30,000-100,000) 


Sectarian publications: sectarian or 


used in the schools or made a part any school 


Teachers must carefully guard against the intro 
duction of all questions of a sectarian, partisan, or 
controversial character. (Population over 100,000) 


All questions of a sectarian or partisan character 
shall be carefully excluded from the schools. (Popu- 
lation over 100,000) 


All teachers shall carefully guard against the in 
troduction of questions of sectarian or partisan po- 
litical nature into their 
citizens and have the citizen’s right to form and ex- 
press opinions. But the schools must not be used for 
propaganda purposes. (Population over 100,000) 


instruction. Teachers are 


The superintendent and teachers shall prevent the 
introduction or within the of 
questions of a sectarian nature or of a political char- 
acter that may become partisan. 

Only such books shall be used by teachers for 
class or reference work as are approved by the 
superintendent or the board of education. There 
shall not be any teaching in the schools which tends 


discussion, school, 


to impair the pupil’s respect for and confidence in 
our government. (Population 10,000-30,000) 


In addition to local rules against the con- 
sideration of controversial topics there are the 
limitations imposed by general state law and by 
special laws requiring oaths of teachers. In 
thirty states the constitutions or statutory laws 
prohibit sectarian teaching. It is probable that 
in most instances these laws were designed to 
safeguard the right of freedom of religion. 
Teacher oath prescriptions range all the way 
trom simple promises to fulfil the duties of 


5 A similar finding was reported by the American Institute of Public Opinion 


isms” was 63 percent; in the ten largest cities, 58 percent 
® The texts of the oaths now required of teachers will be 


Division of the National Education Association 


found in Tea 


221 


rt S| 


ofhce tal 


te icher’s th 


Deal Controversial 


Subjects 


How Teachers with 


How do 


lly with controvers! 


s } 
yy] 1 as) 
LOWITY Geal 


on the 


otf 


Space was 1ded INqUITY 


statements. nun I illust itions 


level will be given, 
After each illust: 


given parenthetically the teacher’s descr 
ot 


as examp!| 


ce ich schor )| 


the methods re ported. 


the 


na 
and 


himself community in w 


teaches. 


1? 


. , ) 
’ 4 
btions of procedure al the ele 


De seri tl 
school level 
sider the teaching of controversial issues on the 
level as difficult 


the secondary level because of the simplicity of 


”) 


Apparently teachers do not con 


elementary a problem as on 


the curriculum content and the immaturity of 
the pupils. According to the reports, elementary 
teachers aim to present all sides impartially and 
remain neutral but give simplified explanations 
of issues as they arise. Pupils are usually taught 


tolerance of others’ views, broadmindednes 


fairness, and independent thinking. In the upper 


elementary grades such questions may arise as 


] 


religious, racial, and national prejudices, and 


issues of personal social relations. Pupils are 
likely to express the opinions learned at home 
has a difficult teacl 


The teacher task in teaching 
tolerance to pupils in spite of their 


family’s 
prejudices without gaining the ill-will of the 
For ot 


think, a few quotations are given with reference 


parents. illustrations what teacher 


to several of the major issues. 


Religion—Introduce_ religion as a worldwide 


thing. 
ship, mythology, etc. 


Show its beginnings, paganism, family wor 
de 


veloped as civilization came. Simply mention var 


Show how Christianity 


ious kinds of religion existing and speak as if they 


are all beneficial to persons involved. Show that 


religion is mostly an influence which comes in the 


upbringing of the person and that many hay 


definite belief but are still worthwhile people 
ported by a conservative teacher in a liberal 


munity of population between 2,500 and 5,000 


community is predominantly foreign-born and busi 


ness type, in comfortable circumstances. ) 


Religion—Biography of Martin Luther, emphasiz 


] 


ing his boyhood days in his father’s home, early 
g 


In small towns, the vote in fa 


hers meographed report 


] 





days, singing on the streets; life in the 


(omitting any criticism of the priests) ; 


S( hool 
monastery 
particular emphasis on the Aeroism of his stand 
at Worms (omitting all partisan references) ; his 
valuable contribution of the German transla- 
tion of the Bible. (Reported by a 
teacher in a conservative community of population 
between 5,000 and 10,000. The community is pre 
dominantly American-born, of factory type, in com- 


very 
conservative 


fortable circumstances. ) 


Religion—The word Catholic is explained as 
meaning universal. All Christians were Catholic for 
many years. Gradually, a group disagreeing with 
certain beliefs of the Catholics and led by Martin 
excom- 


protesters were 


Luther and 


Luther, protested. These 
municated they followed 
started the Protestant religion. This new group set 
about to reform the Catholic beliefs to suit their 
ideas and thus the movement became known as the 
Reformation. Some men within the Protestant group 
soon disagreed and broke away from Luther and 
started a new sect, making the changes they believed 
were needed. Thus, the Protestant group has many 
sects. (Reported by a liberal teacher in a liberal 
community of population over 100,000. The com- 
munity is predominantly American-born, residen- 
tial, in comfortable circumstances. ) 


when thus 


Labor problems—Begin by showing differences in 
industrial activities in North and South, the strug- 
gle between East and West during the westward 
movement. Show dire results of lack of arbitration 
in 1863, 1861, and 1865. Class works out adjust- 
ments made by East and West. Discuss the financial 
obligations of mill owners such as overhead, wages, 
markets, foreign competition, safety devices, etc. 
The workers’ problems such as health, living, and 
needs are discussed. I lead the class away from di- 
rect controversial issues in the locality as hosiery 
and textile industry are directly affected. (Reported 
by a liberal teacher in a liberal community of popu- 
lation between 2,500 and 5,000. The community is 
predominantly American-born and residential type, 
of high economic level.) 


Labor problems—All work is honorable; service 
to others. Men and women must be trained and fitted 
to the work they choose, otherwise the worker cannot 
be contented and happy. As schools have superin- 
tendents and grade one has reporters and leaders, 
manufacturing plants and stores have different 
duties for differently trained workers and people to 
keep all departments working together. (Reported 
by a conservative teacher in a conservative com- 
munity of population between 5,000 and 10,000. The 
community is predominantly American-born, of 
factory type, in rather poor circumstances. ) 


Modern health rules—Interesting and convincing 
materials chosen for showing children. Assimilative 
materials arranged so as to include posters, graphs, 
and charts, which they can take into the home. 
Parents are interested by inviting them to programs 
in which the new ideas are made reasonable and at- 
tractive. (Reported by a conservative teacher in a 
conservative community of population between 5,000 
and 10,000. The community is predominantly Ameri- 


| 


can-born, factory type, in comfortable 


stances. ) 


Family relations—Gain confidence of pupi 


pathize with their problems; confer with 


make whatever adjustments are possible in 
follow-up of cases giving children moral sx 
(Reported by a liberal teacher in a radix 
munity of population over 100 he con 
is predominantly American-born, factory t 
rather poor circumstances. ) 


Evolution—Many times no discussion aris 
casionally some child asks “Does that mean 
cestors were monkeys?” (or some similar que 
or a child goes home with Van Loon’s Hist 
Mankind and returns stating that mother sa 
was evolution and he couldn’t read it. We the: 
quite frankly that it is evolution, but that ey 
simply means change. We are constantly cha 
to fit our environment and our ancestors d 
same. Better brains made strong muscles less 
sary, etc. (Reported by a conservative teach« 
liberal community of population between 30, 
100,000. The community is predominantly Am: 
born, residential type, in comfortable circumst 


Evolution—I never let pupils know my o; 
We never draw any conclusions. We read 
creation in the scriptures, in other stories of 
tion. But all are read as stories and not as 
(Reported by a conservative teacher in a cons 
tive community of population over 100,000. The 
munity is predominantly American-born, resid 
type, in rather poor circumstances. ) 


Fascism—There are often children whose | 
are great admirers of Mussolini and Hitler. 7 
children are always given a chance to ex 
their point of view and give their reasons 
sides of the question are discussed. Class end 
coming to conclusion that they prefer to live 
democratic country and that we should strive to 
our country such so that it will not be necessa 
resort to a dictatorship. Children are always a 
to express any opinion, but quietly and calmly 
ported by a liberal teacher in a conservative « 
munity of population between 30,000 and 1' 
The community is predominantly 
residential type, in comfortable circumstances 


American 


Descriptions of procedure at the junior hi 
school level—At this level, a few teachers n 
general comments to the effect that contri 
sial issues are not so pertinent at the ju 
high-school level because they are not rele) 
to certain subjects like geography and 
naturally omitted from other subjects be« 
of the immaturity of the pupils. Since the n 
frequently described issue is politics, a few 
illustrations are given of how the junior hi 
school teachers handle these problems. 


Politics—We study the history of each pa 
Try to pick out the good and weak points in « 
We study how machine-like they are and how « 


trolled by political bosses. In conclusion the « 


] 





ese 
ress 


soth 


shows how much alike the two major parties really 
»re and that much of the campaign literature was an 
sttempt to ruin the reputation of their opponents 
Reperted by a conservative teacher in a liberal 
community of population between 2,500 and 5,000. 
[he community is predominantly American-born, 
factory type, in comfortable circumstances.) 


Politics—Platforms are discussed and bad ones 
touched only lightly. Good points of both major can 
jidates are mentioned. Ballots are made. Instruc- 
tion given in straight and split tickets. Straw votes 
with returns posted hourly. Each votes as he likes. 
Reported by liberal teacher in a liberal community 
of population between 10,000 and 30,000. The com 
munity is predominantly American-born, residential 
type, in comfortable circumstances. ) 


Politics—Pupils give opinions regarding parties 
and issues. They list parents’ opinions. Project is as- 
signed to find names of officials. Local government 
and relation to child’s life are stressed. Speeches by 
city officials. Class visits city court, police and fire 
departments. Class discussion on qualities needed 
in politicians and wherein our city could be im- 
proved. Personal references are avoided. (Reported 
by a liberal teacher in a conservative community of 
population between 10,000 and 30,000. The com 
munity is predominantly American-born, residential 
type, in comfortable circumstances. ) 


Politics 
newspapers that have different political opinions. 


Study an issue that is current. Study 
Study identical issues in each. Use clippings for 
notebooks which illustrate contrasts in point of view. 
Pupils comment. Study articles to distinguish be 
tween fact and propaganda. Study the history of 
parties and issues. (Reported by a liberal teacher, 
in a community which the teacher rates as indiffer 
ent to social issues. The community has a population 
over 100,000, is predominantly American-born, fac 
tory type, in poor circumstances. ) 


To give a more complete picture of the treat 
ment of controversial issues at the junior high 
school level, illustrative comments are given 


below for a few varied issues: 


Comparative government—Study by definition 
only of kinds and systems of governments in the 
world. Identification of each system with country 
as example. Statement of fundamental aims of each 
system of government. Causes for rise of these types 
in a country: (1) stress economic conditions of peo 
ple, (2) importance of minority parties. Compari 
son and contrast of features in systems. Each pupil 
draws own conclusion on basis of comparison. (Re 
ported by a liberal teacher in a conservative com- 
munity of population between 30,000 and 100,000 
lhe community is predominantly foreign-born, fac- 
tory type, and in rather poor circumstances.) 


Labor unions—Good and weak points of each type 
of labor union. Neutral attitude maintained. En- 
couraging each pupil to secure sufficient information 
upon which to base an individual tentative decision. 
Avoid class conclusions. Develop an attitude of open- 
mindedness. (Reported by a conservative teacher in 


[ 223 


a conservative community of population between 
30,000 and 100,000. The community is predominantly 
foreign-born, residential type, in comfortab cil 


cumstances 


Nationalities—Representatives of various natior 
ality groups in classes. Desire to foster a democrat 
spirit among mixed groups. Discuss contributions of 
each nation to civilization. Reasons for variety of 
peoples in United States. Desirable traits and merits 
of each group in this country. How various people 
have been fitted into American ways and become 
worthy citizens of our nation. Realization of the 
value of good fellowship thruout the world or the 
brotherhood of man. (Reported by a liberal teacher 
in a liberal community of population between 30,000 
and 100,000. The 


American-born, residential type, in comfortable cir- 


community is predominantly 


cumstances. 


Religion—In general way discuss how it happens 
each of us goes to a particular church—usually find 
it is because we were born in a certain house, a 
thing over which we had no control. From this point 
develop a spirit of tolerance, emphasizing that we all 
live together, must do so, and ought to get along 
with little or no prejudices. Then go back to his 


torical development of religion (specific) tracing 


thru various splits down to present time, emphasiz 
ing similarities rather than differences. (Reported 
by a liberal teacher in a liberal community of popu 
lation between 30,000 and 100,000. The community 
is predominantly American-born, factory type, in 


poor circumstances 


Descriptions of procedure at the senior high 
S¢ hool level 


ers, many reported on methods of handling con 


Of the senior high school teach 


troversial issues pertaining to comparative gov 
ernment, socialism, and communism. Since this 
topic was one of the most often described issues 
for tactful discussion at senior high-school level 
it will be illustrated by several of the teachers’ 
descriptions. 

Communism—Reading of newspaper and maga 
zine items of each form; brief, explanation; com 
parison with democracy, pointing out the superi 
ority of democracy. Light discussion. (Reported 
conservative teacher in conservative community 
population 2,500 to 5,000. The community is pre 
dominantly foreign-born, factory type, in poor ci: 
cumstances. ) 


Comparative government—Summary of class 
opinion and understanding; much reading; parallel 
outlines on communism, fascism, and democracy 
Parallel outline on various types of socialism. Dis 
cussion of original erroneous ideas. Discussion of 
influences which must follow any accepted facts and 
principles. (Reported by liberal teacher in a con 
servative community of population between 2,500 
and 5,000. The community is predominantly foreign 
born, residential type, in comfortable circumstances 
Communism—Need for knowledge of all forms 


of government. Purpose of knowledge is not indoc 








trination. Reports on current articles, pro and con. 
Discussion of all articles from author’s viewpoint. 
Comparison of communism with other types of gov- 
ernment. Weaknesses and strengths in all govern- 
ments. These are applied to American society and 
government. All personal animosities and favorit- 
isms are excluded from discussions. Students draw 
their own conclusions based on facts. (Reported by 
liberal teacher in conservative community of 5,000 
to 10,000 population. The community is predomi- 
nantly American-born, factory type, in comfortable 
circumstances. ) 


Communism—Cause of the philosophy. Absence 
of conditions in United States which foster this 
philosophy. Comparison of communism and democ- 
racy as to (a) participation of the individual; (b) 
wage scales and standards of living; (c) social and 
moral conditions. The purpose or aim of government 
is health and happiness. Can best be achieved by 
education and self-direction. (Reported by conserva- 
tive teacher in conservative community of population 
5,000 to 10,000. The community is predominantly 


American-born, residential type, in comfortable 
circumstances. ) 
Socialism—The origin, growth, and aims of 


socialism are treated under the topic of Third Party 
Movements along with other parties. A chart is 
used giving differences and similarities of various 
types of government. Questions are answered as im- 
partially as possible. (Reported by liberal teacher 
in liberal community of population 10,000 to 30,000. 
The community is predominantly American-born, 
residential type, in comfortable circumstances. ) 


Communism—I strictly follow the analysis of 
communism as outlined by the November 23, 1936, 
issue of the American Observer. If any word, phrase, 
or paragraph is not clear, I explain it as well as 
I can. Then, of course, I ask questions, and a general 
discussion follows. In the course of the discussion, 
we generally discover whether or not the arguments 
in favor of communism are sound. If one or two of 
them are sound, we make no pretense by way of 
denial. In conclusion, we say that the only way we 
can overcome communism is by offering society a 
better system of capitalism. (Reported by a liberal 
teacher in a conservative community of population 
between 10,000 and 30,000. The community is pre- 
dominantly foreign-born, residential type, in com- 
fortable circumstances. ) 


Communism—The good and bad ideas in com- 
munism and methods for obtaining a communistic 
state. Criticisms pro and con. Discussion of how 
good ideas can be secured by other methods. No out- 
side speakers or news item in school paper, no de- 
bates or programs or anything to work up emotion. 
(Reported by a liberal teacher in a conservative 
community of population between 30,000 and 100,- 
000. The community is predominantly American- 
born, business type, in comfortable circumstances. ) 


Communism—Allowed to develop naturally out 
of major problems of better production and distri- 
bution of goods. Avoids sensationalism by naming 
it one of several solutions. Students evaluate capital- 
ism and present their own plans for reform. Au- 


[ 224 ] 


thoritative sources used by stud 


socialism. Teacher guides investig 


and organization. Critical discussion fo 
sides of issue. Students are then guided 
major problem and discuss better product 


distribution of goods. (Reported by a liberal! 
in a conservative community of population 
and 100,000. The 
nantly American-born, factory type, in con 


30,000 community is 


circumstances. ) 


Comparative government—We use book 
phlets, pictures. We are particular about pr: 
both sides of the question. As a teacher I 1 
neutral and I also tell the class | l 
sides in any discussion nor shall I attempt to « 
their ideas on the subject. This announcems 
made for this subjéct alone, but is one I shal 
use for any question in order to prevent a pro 


shal 


ment of fact or conclusion. The question thus 
remains open to continued discussion. (Report 
a liberal teacher in a liberal community of 
tion over 100,000. The community is predom 
foreign-born, residential type, in comforta 
cumstances. ) 


Analysis of teachers’ procedures—Fro 
reading of several hundred descriptions of 
cedure given by the teachers, it appeared 
certain common practises existed. First, the 
vailing method appeared to be discussion 
signed primarily to bring out facts and 
of view rather than to reach final cone 
Second, the teachers were interested in de 
ing certain attitudes in pupils: (1) self-ex 
nation for the purpose of recognizing preju 
as prejudices; (2) objective and impe: 
view of facts; and (3) appreciation of the : 
of others to different opinions. 

In fifty-seven descriptions of how 
high-school teachers handled political ques: 
the teachers placed particular emphasis 
eleven specific practises. Arranged in des 
ing order, with frequency of mention 
right, these practises were : 


] 


Lu 


Both sides treated impartially (31) 
Discussion unrestricted (15) 

Polls and straw votes on election day (1| 
Tolerance of others’ views emphasized (7 
Teachers do not give views (6) 
Conclusions avoided in class (6) 
Miniature campaign before election day (¢ 
Indoctrination avoided (6) 

Discussion kept neutral (4) 

Discussion restricted (2) 

Conclusions reached in class (2) 


On two points there was some disagreen 
(1) discussion was not restricted by fit 
teachers and restricted by two: and (2 
clusions were not reached in class, acco! 











+) six teachers, but considered a part of the in 
tion by two teachers. 

In descriptions of how seventy-seven senior 

h-school teachers presented issues pertaining 

comparative government, the teachers re 

vealed fourteen specific practises. “These prac 

rises and their frequency of mention were as 

lows: 

Comparisons with the United States included (28 

\ll] sides given impartially (22) 

Indoctrination for democracy (19) 

Pupils draw own conclusions outside of class (11 

Weaknesses of democracy discussed (10) 

Discussion restricted (9) 

attitude (7) 

Weaknesses of democracy not discussed (6) 


t Scientific stressed 
Tolerance of views emphasized (6) 

Teachers’ personal opinions not expressed (5) 
(4) 
Conclusions reached in class 


Discussion not restricted 
(4) 


ntly Pupils urged to suspend judgment (3) 
( [eacher’s opinion expressed, but minimized (1 


Apparent differences in practises appear at 
three points: (1) ten teachers include a discus- 


pro sion of the weaknesses of democracy, but six 


that avoid this phase; (2) nine restrict discussion 
pre and four allow free discussion; and (3) five 
de- teachers avoid giving their personal views and 


one expresses his but does not emphasize them. 
ons. 


Controversial Subjects as an Integral 


mi- Part of the Social Studies 

Ices ~ ° ° ° 
Why must controversial topics be considered 

Mal ; ° . . . rn . 

ve in social studies instruction? The first most 

igh : ; , 

obvious answer is found in the nature of the 

. social studies themselves. As stated in the 1936 

nLio , P . ‘ 

Yearbook of the Department of Superinten- 

ions 

dence: 

on 

nd- Now a true picture of communities, states, the 

a nation, and the world shows many facts beyond dis 


pute, many opinions held by different persons and 
groups, and frequent clashes of opinions and inter 
Hence we are compelled to bring into 
any true picture of a community or nation, facts, 
opinions, differences of opinion, and methods em 
ployed in settling differences of opinion. 

Not only do the social studies deal with debatable 
questions; they also deal with changing issues. This 
element of change involves emerging questions and 


Department 


1936. p. 57-60 


7 National Education Association, 
Washington, D. C.: the Department, 
8 Philadelphia Inquirer America Speaks.’’ 
* National Council for the Social Studies (a department of 
ganda. Seventh Yearbook. Cambridge, Mass.: the Council 
ss 1937. 182 p 


(Sec 


of Superintendence 


Philadelphia Inq1 


problems. The social studies, if ilistic 
tion, cannot be confined to reciting past ises 
traditions, and events. They must come to grips with 
new things.’ 

In the second place, many laymen recoyvnize 


controversial subjects as a necessary part of 
social studies instruction. This statement is sup 
ported by a nationwide survey made in 1936 by 
the American Institute of Public Opinion.® 
of 


study were in favor of discussing 


those canvassed by the 
| 
all 


the public schools. Similar results were obtained 


Sixty-two percent 


“isms” 


in 1936 by a poll of the members of the Com 
monwealth Club of California, a statewide as 
of tial 


forum for the discussion of disputed questions. 


sociation men organized as an impat 


The vote on three questions Was as follows: 


(1) Do you believe that there should be free and 
open discussion in the classroom on ai// controversial 
issues? Y es, 85.5 percent; No, 14.5 percent 

(2) 


public issues is essential 


Do you believe that discussion of all sides of 


for education of youth in 


democracy? Yes, 92.0 percent; No, 8.0 percent 


3) Do you believe that teachers as a group can 
be relied upon to support the principle of demos 


racy? Yes, 93.5 percent; No, 6.5 percent. 


The club the of 
whether or not teachers should express thei: 


also voted on questions 
personal opinions and whether or not teachers 
should advocate one side of a debatable issue. 
On the first question the members were about 
equally divided but inclined slightly to the ex 


Ninety 


opposed the idea of advocacy as presented by 


pression of teacher opinion. percent 
the second question. 

The conclusion follows from the evidence 
that the 


of controversial subjects is primarily one of 


presented in this section question 


method. Teachers and laymen generally are 
opposed to the presentation of debatable ques 
tions as tho they were not debatable. This 
would be propaganda, as pointed out in the 
1937 Yearbook of the National Council for the 
Social Studies. The intelligent and practical 
approach, as indicated by the teachers of recog 
nized ability in the present study, is thru the 
forum procedure.'” Here the primary purpose 


The Social Studies Curriculum. Fourteer 
uirer, May 17, 1936. p. 11 
the National Education Association). Edu 


I ition Against Propa 
Howard E. Wilson, 18 Lawrence Hall, Harvard Un 


®In his study (The Social Understandings of the Superintendent of Schools, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1934 
een 51-53) Bair found that superintendents ranked the methods for treating controver questions in the following order 1) 
‘on- areful study of various angles of questions with much “research” reading of compet opposing and intermediate 
: s discussion following (1); and (3) debates following (1) 
1 
[ 225 ] 








and reference materials. For suggesti 


is not “‘to reach a group decision on a question, 
helpful instructional materials consult ‘J 


but to air varied views in a friendly discussion 
and clarify the individual thinking of those 26 to 34 of this bulletin, and Guides to 
present.” '! A fundamental requisite for discus- Material for Teachers published by the H 


sion groups is contact with many source books Wilson Company.'” 


‘ Hodgkins, George W. A Guide to Newer Methods in Teaching the Social Studies. Bulletin N Cambridge 
tional Council for the Social Studies, a department of the National Education Association (Sec.: Howard E. Wilson 


Hall, Harvard University), 1936. p. 61. 
* Townsend, Mary E., and Stewart, Alice G. Guides to Study Material for Teachers. New York: H. W. Wilson Cx 








VERY COMMUNITY, urban and rural, is filled with challenges to 

achieve the good life. The physical health and safety of our citizens can be 
still further increased thru cooperative planning and action. The beauty of our 
homes, streets, parks and playgrounds, countryside, and public places can be 
enhanced immeasurably. The recreational and leisure-time facilities for child 
hood and adulthood need to be expanded in every population center. The cul- 
tural life needs to be deepened thru community participation in music, arts, 
pageantry, and similar spiritual and esthetic endeavors. The quantity and quality 
of the agricultural and industrial goods and services with which we satisfy out 
needs for daily living can be multiplied to provide a standard of living far 
beyond the present level. Im general, the community tasks awaiting the positive 
and vigorous attack of the hosts of eager American children and youth present 
a thrilling adventure in social betterment.—Paul R. Hanna in 1935 Yearbook, 
Department of Elementary School Principals. p. 544. 








”” 
226 | 















VI. The Local Community as an Area of Study 


Another important question of social studies 
instruction, closely associated with the problem 
of method, but also involving content and 
rade placement, is: “How and to what extent 
should the local community be studied ?” Cur- 
rent educational discussion, at least, places con- 
siderable emphasis upon the values to be ob- 
tained from exploring and studying the local 
environment. This point of view may be il- 
lustrated by a quotation from the /nstructional 
Guide for Elementary Schools published by the 
Michigan Department of Public Instruction: 


The finest teaching is that which best adjusts the 
child to his own total life situation and to his own 
individual life problems. Because of this the child’s 
real community provides the most important teach- 
ing situation. It is imperative that each teacher 
develop the utmost skill in utilizing the community 
as a natural laboratory. Basing the children’s activi- 
ties upon the realities of the social situation is the 
surest, most understandable, and most effective way 
of making the curriculum “modern’—or rather, 
functional.’ 


Do teachers of recognized ability agree with 
this point of view? What specific phases of 


1 Michigan Department of Public Instruction 
the Department, 1936. p. 60. 


Instructional Guide for Elementary Schools 


community life do they think should be studied 
at each school level ? To what extent do teach- 
ers bring their pupils in direct contact with 
these specific aspects? It is the purpose of this 
to to 
these questions. 


section present information in answer 


The questionnaire described ‘‘direct or first- 
hand contacts” (1) thru 
trips and excursions, usually informal group 


as those obtained, 


expeditions, focused upon a specific area, and 
limited in time to a few hours or days; (2) 
thru community surveys, usually involving sys 
tematic investigation and record-keeping, more 
or less comprehensive in character, and extend 
ing for weeks or even an entire term; (3) thru 
speakers, motion pictures, and exhibits, usually 
attempts thru verbal or visual means to illus- 
trate and explain social processes. 


General Topics Studied and Thought 
To Be Suitable for Study 


An outline of items suggested as essential 
for a comprehensive view of a community and 
presumably necessary for an understanding of 


3ulletin No. 301. Lan Mich 


TABLE 25.—PERCENT OF TEACHERS REPORTING COMMUNITY ASPECTS AS 
DESERVING AND RECEIVING INSTRUCTION THRU DIRECT CONTACTS AT 


EACH SCHOOL LEVEL 





Percent of teachers 





Elementary Junior high Senior high 
school school school 
Categories of outline Desirable Studied Desirable Studied Desirable Studied 
for in for in for in 
study practise study practise study practise 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 
4. Physical environment............ 78.7 54.4 71.8 41.4 43.0 2 
B. Historical background............. 62.0 37.6 68.7 42.4 56.7 33.5 
GaN Bicigk diacie ddNdndsavecane 15.0 7.8 38.8 18.8 54.5 25.0 
D, Community organization and control 44.1 26.3 63.0 37.8 62.2 34.3 
1. Government structure. . 36.6 18.4 75.9 52.5 73.4 53.4 
ee 0 ido ove wienevy ac 10.8 4.3 39.1 18.9 60.6 29.9 
Gk kno dc a19 50.0. 8ew wiv ce : 58.9 36.6 69.9 42.4 60.6 32.2 
E. The community's economic and industrial environment 40.3 22.3 50.0 24.9 48.6 20.5 
F. Supplementary cultural influences and activities 46.4 24.4 56.1 26.7 50.7 22.2 

G. Conclusions 

1. Evidence of social problems......... Fee 29.4 14.4 57.8 33.8 65.7 319 6 
2. Next steps in improving the community. . 40.7 19.3 60.5 32.6 65.9 34.9 
3. Evidences of cultural and social growth 29.7 15.9 53.9 28.1 58.7 28.0 
4. Characteristics of an ideal community. . 51.5 24.5 68.9 38.6 66.5 35.8 


Read table as follows: 78.7 percent of the elementary teachers checked items classified as physical environment as belonging 


in the elementary grades; 54.4 percent of the elementary teachers reported as giving first-hand instruction on these items 


71.8 


percent of the junior high-school teachers checked physical environment items as belonging in the junior high-school level, and 
41.4 percent of the junior high-school teachers checked these items as receiving first-hand study thru their instruction; 43.0 per 
cent of the senior high-school teachers placed physical environment topics at the senior high-school level: and 21.2 percent of 


the senior high-school teachers are giving first-hand instruction in physical environment at the senior high-school | 


level 





N 
“NI 








social problems at the community level was 
presented to the social studies teachers partici- 
pating in this study. These teachers checked 
within the outline those items which they be- 
lieved properly to belong, altho not necessarily 
taught now, at the school level at which each 
was teaching. A second check on the same out- 
line indicated those items which the teacher 
used regularly to help pupils study realistically 
and first-hand thru excursions and trips or com- 
munity surveys. 

The complete outline may be seen by inspec- 
tion of pages 7 and 8 of the questionnaire re- 
produced on pages 253 and 254. Table 25 gives 
the broad categories of the outline and the 
average percent of teachers at each grade level 
checking the subordinate topics under each 
classification heading. T'wo sets of percents are 
shown for each grade level: the percent of 
teachers who checked items so classified in the 
outline as belonging at their grade level, and 
the percent of teachers who checked the various 
items as receiving first-hand study thru their 
instruction, The latter column is headed “‘Stud- 
ied in practise,” the first column “Desirable for 
study.” 

Physical environment was and should be 
stressed in the elementary grades according to 
the judgments of most elementary and junior 
high-school teachers. Governmental structure 
was checked by a large proportion of junior and 
senior high-school teachers, as belonging at 
their high-school levels and receiving more at- 
tention than any other main topic. More than 
half the senior high-school teachers judged all 
topics except physical environment (43.0 per- 
cent) and the community’s economic and in- 
dustrial environment (48.6 percent) as belong- 
ing at the senior high-school level. 

According to 85 percent of these teachers of 
recognized ability, population problems do not 
belong at the elementary level, especially topics 
bearing specifically on age and sex distribution, 
birth and death rates, marriage and divorce, 
size of family, and mobility of family. Occupa- 
tions, races, and nationalities are the only topics 
dealing with population which more than 25 
percent of the elementary teachers believed 
should be taught in the elementary grades. 
Community finances was another area generally 
thought not to require special emphasis in ele- 
mentary-school instruction. 

Physical environment, historical background, 
governmental structure, services, certain aspects 
of the community’s economic and industrial en- 


vironment, cultural influences and 


were placed more frequently at the junio: 
the senior high-school level. ‘The topics re 
largely for senior high-school study wer 
ulation problems and public finance. 


Specific Topics Studied and Thou 
To Be Suitable for Study 


Does practise follow the judgments 
grade placement? In all cases, a smaller p 
tion of teachers reported giving first-ha: 
struction to these topics than the pro; 
who placed the several topics at thei: 
level. There were 63 items on specific to; 
the outline. Lists of specific items are pr 
below to indicate those topics considered | 
largest proportion of teachers at each 
level as belonging in the specified grade 
and those topics reported by the larg: 
portion of teachers at each grade le 
receiving first-hand study thru their inst 
tion. Each list is arranged in descending o 
of frequency of checking the items, the pe: 
after each topic indicating the proportio: 
teachers of that level checking that topic 

The fifteen topics listed below were co: 
sidered to belong at the elementary grad: 
by two-thirds or more of the elementary 
studies teachers : 


Topics Per 


Local geography ....... 84.5 

Early settlement 82.3 

Natural resources 

Rn SO caine od cto: ; : 81 

Fire protection 80.1 

Communication 

Police protection 

Libraries 

Transportation 

Traffic and streets 

Sanitation and health 

Newspapers and magazines as supplement- 
ary cultural influences and activities 

Schools. thin Rie ois 69.2 

Topography Rita, ¢ 

Manufacturing 66.8 


Despite the fact that fifteen topics wer 
placed at the elementary level by two-thirds o: 
more of the elementary teachers, and nine ot! 
topics were placed at the elementary grade | 
by between 50 and 66 percent, the next list of 


eleven topics was the only one reported by 5U 


to 60 percent of the elementary teachers as 
ceiving first-hand study thru their instruct 


[ 228 ] 








> a ne nen ee 


to 
th 
fi 


rOpor- 


id in- 


struc- 
order 
rcent 


yn of 


con- 
ley el 


SOC al 


ent of 
hers 
4.5 


32.3 


51.6 
31.0 


were 
1s or 
ther 
level 
st of 
vy 50 
$ re- 


tion. 





The list of topics below shows the proportion 
of elementary teachers who checked each as 
eiving first-hand study thru their instruc- 


ret 
tion. 
Topics Percent of 
tear he rs 
Local geography se 60.9 
Libraries 60.0 
Natural resources 57.5 
Trafic and streets 57.5 
Fire protection 56.0 
Climate eee 55.7 
Early settlement 54.9 
Communication , +e 53.8 
Sanitation and health noe 51.1 
Police protection 50.7 
Newspapers and magazines 50.2 


In the entire outline of 63 items, all but seven 
topics were thought to belong at the junior 
high-school level by at least 25 percent of the 
teachers. Thirteen topics were placed at this 
level by between 25 and 50 percent, and 18 
topics by between 50 and 66 percent of the 
junior high-school teachers. The 24 topics 
which were placed at the junior high-school 
level by two-thirds or more of the junior high- 
school teachers, are listed below with the per- 
cent checking these topics. 


Topics Percent of 
teachers 
Fire protection ie 81.3 
Police protection Ae 80.4 
Early settlement ............. 79.9 
Executive and administrative officers 79.7 
Newspapers and magazines....... cove oe ne 
Schools ek ees 79.2 
Communication . eee 79.0 
Natural resources ee 77.9 
Sanitation and health.......... » aes 
Libraries R = 76.7 
Traffic and streets..... oa 76.0 
Legislative body se 76.0 
Occupations Seesaw a het 76.0 
Local geography ............... : 74.9 
Transportation .. Daan we aes ae 74.7 
Water . zi ae 73.3 
Courts . cones Rae 2 
Manufacturing ....... mandgans sreidlane, Alea 
ee er 71.0 
Industrial development eee 69.9 
Characteristics of an ideal community . 68.9 
Population trends 68.7 
Participation of community in 1 larger history 
of county, state, or country. . 68.3 
Electric light and power...... 66.9 


The list of nine topics below indicates which 
topics were checked by 50 percent or more of 
the junior high-school teachers as receiving 
first-hand study thru their instruction. Altho 


twenty-tour topics were placed at the junior 
high-school level by two-thirds or more of the 
junior high-school teachers, only nine topics 
were checked as receiving first-hand instruction 
by at least half of the teachers at this level. 


Topics Percent of 

teachers 
Newspapers and magazines $9.4 
Libraries 56.4 
Executive and administrative officers 56.2 
Schools 55.9 
Fire protection $4.8 
Legislative body 53.4 
Communication §3.2 
Police protection §2.0 


No topic in the outline of 63 items was 
checked by less than 33 percent of the senior 
high-school teachers as belonging at the senior 
high-school level. 
applies to some extent to this level. Only eleven 


Therefore, the entire outline 


topics were so placed by two-thirds or more of 
the teachers, altho 34 topics were placed at the 
senior high-school level by between 50 and 66 
percent of the senior high-school teachers. 

The eleven topics placed at the senior high 
school level by at least two-thirds of the senior 
high-school teachers are listed below. Note that 
the first three mentioned are the three most 
practised items. 


Topics Percent of 
teachers 
Executive and administrative officers 74.0 
Courts 73.4 
Legislative body 72.9 
Taxation 72.8 
Newspapers and magazines 70.9 
Standards of living 70.2 
Occupations 69.6 
Labor conditions 69.1 
Schools 68.3 
Characteristics of an ideal community 66.5 
Relief 66.4 


Inspection of the proportion of senior high- 
school teachers giving first-hand instruction in 
the topics of this outline shows that there were 
only three topics which were checked in this 
respect by half or more of the senior high-school 
teachers. As few as 10 percent checked some of 
the topics. 
“executive and administrative officers” (54.6 
percent). The courts (52.9 percent) and the 
legislative body (52.8 percent) were the other 
two most frequently checked ‘topics from the 


The topic most often checked is 


point of view of practise. 
Comparing the lists of topics placed at each 
of the three grade levels, it may be seen that all 


[ 229 ] 








of the fifteen topics in the elementary list (ex- 
cept topography) are included in the junior 
high-school list but are listed in a different 
order of emphasis; five of the topics included 
in the junior high-school list, but not in the 
elementary grade list, are also included in the 
senior high-school list. Five of the topics, in- 
cluding water services, industrial development, 
population trends, electric light and power, 
and the part of the community in larger history 
of the county, state, and country are the only 
topics which were placed exclusively at the 
junior high-school level. The four topics, taxa- 
tion, standards of living, labor conditions, and 
relief, are the only topics placed exclusively at 
the senior high-school level. —I'wo topics are car- 
ried thruout the lists at all three levels: (1) 
the school as a community service; and (2) 
newspapers and magazines as supplementary 
cultural influences and activities. 

Many more topics were placed at each level 
than were checked with regard to practise. In 
this respect, the elementary grade teachers 
showed greater tendency to practise the topics 
they placed at the elementary grade level than 
teachers in the higher levels. The senior high- 
school social studies teachers gave very little 
first-hand instruction on the topics they placed 
at their level, possibly because of a fuller and 
a more rigid schedule than in the lower levels. 
What small amount of first-hand instruction 
was practised by the senior high-school social 
studies teachers, however, dealt primarily with 
those very topics which the teachers had most 
emphatically placed at the senior high-school 
level. 


Direct Study of the Community, an 
Integral Part of Social Studies In- 
struction 


There are two possible misinterpretations 
of the suggestion that the community should be 
a laboratory for social studies instruction. The 
first is the belief that direct experience refers 
merely to contact with the more or less ma- 
terial objects of the community such as fire sta- 
tions, city hall, police stations, water works, 
and similar agencies. This point of view mini- 
mizes the people, the climate of opinion, social 
programs, propaganda, and the other less tang- 
ible aspects of community life. As stated in the 


1936 Yearbook of the Department of Su; 
tendence, “if pupils are to have genuine 
standing of their environment, they mu 
given the opportunity to examine and to « 
ate the intangible processes of group life 
as the tangible social machinery and 
tions.” ? 

A second misinterpretation is the ove 
phasis of direct contacts as a means of lear 
It is neither economical of time nor nec: 
to have direct experiences so far as many p 
of learning are concerned. At the same 
the reverse is equally undesirable—name! 
attempt to help pupils acquire insights n 
by academic discussion and by reading y 
understanding may be had more efficiently t 
direct contacts. Hence, there falls upor 
teacher of the social studies the responsibilit 
reconciling desired objectives and the 
chology of efficient learning with the pract 
limitations of each teaching situation. Coo; 
tion between classroom teachers and adn 
trators will be necessary on this problen 
pointed out in the earlier section of this bul 
under the discussion of methods and aids 

It should be noted that direct comn 
contacts vary as to the amount of pupil pa 
pation involved. The 1936 Yearbook of 
Department of Superintendence identified t! 
types: 

(1) Observational—involving primarily pass 
study or examination of community agencies 
processes (excursions and trips). 

(2) Participational—where pupils join or co 
ate in some established social process (clear 
campaigns, community chest drives, etc.). 

(3) Contributory—including original and 
tive activities of pupils to build upon and to 
prove community characteristics.” 


Examples of types (2) and (3) are t 
found in the 1936 Yearbook and in Hanna's 
port entitled Youth Serves the Communi 

From the federal Works Progress Admi: 
tration comes preliminary word of a remar 
able series of guides to school, government 
and other types of community records. |! 
several years the WPA Historical Record Su 
vey has had people examining, classifying, a 
listing public records. Most of the basic wo: 
has been completed for the more than th: 


| 


thousand counties of the United States. The 


2 National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. The Social Studies Curriculum. Fourteenth Yea 


Washington, D. C.: the Department, 1936. p. 249. 


8 National Education Association, Department of Superintendence, op. cit., p. 254-74. 
‘Hanna, Paul, and associates. Youth Serves the Community. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1936. 303 p. 


{ 230 ] 











sae 










lem now is one of reproducing the inven cludes a brief historical sketch, a description of 

rories and distributing them to teachers, at the county governmental machinery, an expla- 

hivists, and historians. The following inven- nation of the location and classification of the 

wales tories have been published: Allegany County, records, and a brief description of the records 
\farvland; Morris County, New Jersey; Fay- to be found in each public office. Similar in 


ette County, Kentucky; and Hamilton County, ventories have been made of many cities. ‘The 
Ohio. The remaining counties may be issued guides produced to date indicate here is an 








in more permanent form if the demand war- invaluable aid for studying the ramifications 
rants the cost. The report of each county in- | of all types of governmental service 
Works Progress Administration funds have been allotted primarily for salaries for unemployed workers, not for pri: 
7 their investigations. A general demand for the inventories may be expected to lead eventually to provision 
sae tion in permanent form. Inquiries may be made at the state offices of WPA or at the national office in Washingt ) 
tim 
VI 
ty 
ps 
ne 
n as 
| 
tl ONTINUOUS EVALUATION is essential to determine the degree ot 
iree effectiveness of the social studies program and to obtain an intelligent basis 
for curriculum improvement. An adequate program of appraisal provides evi 
dence of the degree to which all of the important purposes of the social studies 
Gi are being realized. To this end, teachers will increasingly use a variety of 
evaluation methods instead of limiting themselves to written examinations. A 
per comprehensive plan of appraisal also involves cumulative studies of pupils and 
n cumulative records of their behavior beyond the years of formal schooling so 
that the relative permanency of these educational experiences may be determined 
‘le Evaluation is necessary, it is practicable, but it involves a new conception of 
methods of appraisal which modify radically our present procedures.—/936 
Yearbook, Department of Superintendence. p. 343. 
» DE 
> { 
it 
inis 
irl 
tal 
Fo 
sul 
and 
' 
ork 
1ret 
Phe 
ok 








VII. Standard Tests in the Social Studies 


Continuous appraisal is as essential in social 
studies instruction as in any other part of edu- 
cation. ‘Thru systematic evaluation the teacher 
may discover how effective the curriculum is 
proving for each pupil and where more helpful 
experiences are needed. Thru systematic infor- 
mation of his progress, the pupil may cooperate 
more intelligently in directing his own energies 
toward worthy purposes. Objective evidence 
from evaluation provides a basis for coopera- 
tion between teachers and parents, not only in 
improving the school’s program, but in making 
all community influences constructive elements 
in social education. 


Standard tests reported by teachers of recog- 
nized ability—The present survey asked 
teachers to list the standard tests which had 
been most helpful in evaluating their teaching 
of the social studies. A rather striking fact was 
that 79 percent of the 1764 teachers did not 
report a single test. Many who replied to this 
question apparently did not know what was 
meant by the term “standard test.’’ Often they 
listed social studies textbooks, and books on 
educational psychology and method. Others re- 
ported questions found in textbooks and in pro- 
fessional magazines. A few gave the names of 
tests which had been developed in connection 
with the preparation of local courses of study. 
Rarely are any of these tests standardized.' 
If the testing movement has made so little 
progress in convincing “teachers of recognized 
ability” of its possible usefulness, what may 
be said of its impression on typical teachers ? 

A few teachers gave reasons for not using 
standard tests. The most frequently men- 
tioned reason was that many tests were inade- 
quate measures of the purpose of instruction. 
Existing tests were thought to measure subject- 
matter, but not attitudes, insights, and the less 
tangible aspects of instruction. Lack of funds 
to purchase tests was given as another reason. 


Four schoolboards were reported as 
to the use of tests. Perhaps still another 
is to be found in the widespread devel. 
of new-type tests in connection wit! 
courses of study. 

One hundred and ten different t 
ported by social studies teachers, were 
tified as to authors and publishers.® \] 
the tests were reported only once, a few 
and eighteen tests were mentioned mor 
three times. The latter are marked w 
asterisk. 





The tests mentioned at each school le 
arranged alphabetically to avoid impli 
of a rank order of merit. It will be noted ¢ 
several tests are listed for use in juni 
senior high-school classes, whereas oth: 
reported as helpful in elementary schools 

as junior high schools. The range for 
each test is intended is noted in each case 
the information was available. 


Tests Used by Elementary-Schoo! 
Teachers 


Analytical Scales of Attainment in Geograt 


M. E. Branom and M. J. Van Wagenen. Ran 


Division 2, grades 5 and 6; division 3, grad 
and 8. Forms A, B and C. Minneapolis } 
tional Test Bureau, 1932. 


Branom’s Diagnostic Tests in Geography, by M 
Branom. Range: grades 5-8. Bloomington, | 
McKnight and McKnight, 1926. 


Brueckner-Cutright Essential Location Exer. 
Geography, by L. J. Brueckner and P. Cutrig 
Range: grades 5-8. Minneapolis: Educationa 
Bureau, 1927. 


Buckingham-Stevenson Place Geography Test 
B. R. Buckingham and P. R. Stevenson. Ra: 
grades 5-8. Bloomington, Illinois: Public § 
Publishing Co., 1926. 


Check Tests to Accompany Carpenter's “Aroun 
World with the Children,” by G. D. Str: 
R. Mort, and J. E. Dransfield. New York: An 
can Book Co., 1929. 


1A standard test is one that has the following characteristics: (1) scientifically constructed for validity and relial 
uniform procedure of administration; (3) objectivity in scoring; and (4) interpretation of results by comparative nor 

2 For suggestions in the field of American history consult the monograph by Howard R. Anderson and E. F. Lindquist ¢ 
Selected Test Items in American History, published by the National Council for the Social Studies and available from tl 
tary, 18 Lawrence Hall, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. For general suggestions on testing in the social studies sé 
ter 8 of The Social Studies Curriculum, 1936 Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence, National Education A 
and Kelley, T. L., and Krey, A. C. Tests and Measurements in the Social Sciences. Report of the Commission on 


Studies, American Historical Association, Part IV. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1934. 635 p 
Among the general books in the field of new-type testing are the following: Hawkes, Herbert E.; Lindquist, | 


Mann, C. R. The Construction and Use of Achievement Examinations. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1936. 497 p 
Charles. Classroom Tests. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1926. 346 p. 1 Rugh, G. M. Tests and Measurements in High School In 


Yonkers, N. Y.: World Book Co., 1927. Part III, p. 251-375. 


8 For a list of 223 standard tests in the social studies consult the monograph by Gertrude E. Hildreth entitled A Bi/ 
of Mental Tests and Rating Scales, published by the Psychological Corporation, New York, 1933. 242 p 


[ 232 ] 








)] 


y, by 
ange: 
des 7 


duca 


M. E. 


inois: 


res in 
right. 


Test 


ts, by 
ange: 


‘chool 


1d the 
er, P. 


meri 








Detroit Examination in Social Science, by Detroit 
Public Schools. Range: 


troit: Detroit Public Schools. 


intermediate grades. De 


Detroit Standard Tests in Geography, by Detroit 
Public Schools. Range: grades 4-9. Detroit: Detroit 
Public Schools, 1918, 1922. 


Gregory-Haggerty Geography Test, by C. A. Greg 
orv and M. E. Haggerty. Range: grades 4-6. Cin- 
cinnati: C. A. Gregory Co., 1926. 


Hahn-Lackey Geography Scale, by H. H. Hahn 
and E. E. Lackey. Range: grades 4-8. Bloomington, 
Illinois: Public School Publishing Co., 1918; re- 


vised, 1922. 


Harlan Test for Information in American History, 


by C. L. Harlan. Range: grades 7 through high 
school. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Pub- 


lishing Co., 1917. 


lowa State Teachers’ College Geography Test, Parts 
I and II. Range: grades 4 and 5. Cedar Falls: 
Iowa State Teachers’ College, 1921. 


Junior American History Test, by H. J. Carman, T. 
N. Barrows, and B. D. Wood. Range: grades 7 
and 8 and junior high school. Yonkers: World 
Book Co., 1929. 


Kelty-Moore Test of Concepts in the Social Studies, 
by Kelty and Moore. Forms A and B. New York: 
Charles Scribner’s Sons. 


Learning and Teaching American History in the 
Middle Grades of Elementary School, by Mary 
G. Kelty. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1936. 


Manchester Remedial and Diagnostic Tests, by 
Meyer and Hamm. Range: unknown. North Man- 
chester, Indiana: Bureau of Tests and Measure- 
ments, Manchester College. 


*Metropolitan Achievement Tests, (New York City 
Edition) by S. F. Bayne, F. B. Graham, edited by 
J. S. Orleans. Advanced Battery, New York City 
Edition. Range: grades 7 and 8. Spelling vocabu- 
lary, reading, arithmetic, English literature, his- 
tory, geography. Yonkers: World Book Co., 1932. 


*New Stanford Achievement Test, Forms V, W, X, 
Y, and Z, by T. L. Kelley, G. M. Ruch, and L. M. 
Terman. Range: primary examination—grades 
2-3, reading, arithmetic, spelling; advanced ex- 
amination—grades 4-9, reading, spelling, arith- 
metic, language usage, literature, history and 
civics, geography, physiology and_ hygiene. 
Yonkers: World Book Co., 1929. 


Philadelphia Survey Test in Geography, by P. A. 
Boyer. Range: grade 5. Philadelphia: Division of 
Educational Research, Philadelphia Public 
Schools, 1926. 


Posey-Van Wagenen Geography Series, by M. J. 
Van Wagenen. Range: Division I, grades 5 and 
6; Division II, grades 7 and 8. Bloomington, IIli- 
nois: Public School Publishing Co., 1922. 


Pressey-Richards Test for the Understanding of 
American History, by L. C. Pressey and R. C. 


Richards, Range: grades 6-12. Bloomington, IIli- 
nois: Public School Publishing Co., 1922. 


[ 9 


* 


y & | 


Tests. Forms I and II 
Forms III and IV by T. I 


arithmetic computatio1 


Public School Aci 
by J. S. 


Torgerson. 


tevement 
Orleans; 
Reading, 
arithmetic reasoning, language usage, spelling 
and 


School Pul 


nature study, 
health. Bloomington, Illinois; Public 


1928, 1930 and 1931. 


grammar, history, geography, 


lishing Co., 


Ridgley-Russell-Harr Unit Tests in Geography, by 
D. C. Ridgley, H. H. Russell, and L. Har 
Bloomington, Illinois: McKnight and McKnight, 
1928. 


Silver, Burdett Geography Tests. (In 
revision to fit new Barrows-Parker geography 
series.) New York: Silver, Burdett Co., 1937. 


Social Studies Achievement Tests, by H. O 
and Mendenhall. Forms A and B. Range: Low 
seventh to high ninth. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1935. 


process ol 


Rugg 


Standard Graduation Examination for Elementary 
Schools, by A. S. Otis and J. S. Orleans. Spelling, 


reading, vocabulary, arithmetic, grammar, lan 


usage, literature, history, geography. 


World Book Co., 1930, 1931. 


guage 
Yonkers: 


Tests for Unified Course of Study, by Meyer, Hamm 
and Jolliff. North Manchester, Indiana. Bureau 
of Tests and Measurements, Manchester College. 


*The Modern School Achievement Tests, by A. | 
Gates, P. R. Mort, P. M. Symonds, R. B. Spence, 
G. S. Craig, De F. Stull, H. Hatch, A. I. Shaw 
and L. B. Krieger. Reading comprehension, read 
ing speed and accuracy, arithmetic computation, 
arithmetic reasoning, diagnostic test in spelling, 

health knowledge, language usage, social studies 

civics, social studies—geography, 
elementary New York: Pub 
lications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 


1931. 


—history and 


science. Bureau of 


Unit Elementary Tests, by Meyer, Homer and Eiken- 
berry. Range: grades 4-8 inclusive. North Man- 
chester, Indiana. Bureau of Tests and Measure 


ments, Manchester College. 


*Unit Scales of Attainment, by M. E. Branom, L. J. 
3rueckner, A. M. Jordan, P. Cutright, W. A. 
Anderson, M. G. Kelty, A. Dvorak and M. J. 
Van Wagenen. Includes tests in reading, arithme- 
tic, language, spelling, geography, history, litera 
ture, and Range: 
(only) Ist grade; reading (only) 2nd grade; 
sion 1, grades 3 and 4; division 2, grades 5 and 6; 
division 3, grades 7 and 8; division 4, grade 9. 
Minneapolis: Educational Test Bureau, 1932 


Wiedefeld-Walther Geography Test, by M. T. 
Wiedefeld and E. C. Walther. Range: grades 4-8 
Yonkers: Worid Book Co., 1931. 


Witham Geography Test of Europe—New Series, 
by E. C. Witham. Range: 
les; Southern California School Book Depository, 
1929. 


elementary science. reading 


divi 


grades 6-9. Los Ange 


Witham Geography Test of the United States—New 
Series, by E. C. Witham. Range: grades 5-8. Los 
Angeles: Southern California School Book De- 


pository, 1928. 


3] 








Witham Geography Test of the World—New Series, 
by E. C. Witham. Range: elementary and high 
school. Los Angeles: Southern California School 
Book Depository, 1928. 


Witham Standard Geography Tests, by E. C. 
Witham. Range: grades 5-12. Newark: J. L. 
Hammett Co., 1916-1921. 


Tests Used by Junior High-School 
Teachers 


American Council European History Test, by H. J. 
Carman, W. C. Langsam and B. D. Wood. Range: 
high school and college. Yonkers: World Book Co., 
1928. 

Ancient and Medieval History Tests, by L. N. 
Brown. Oklahoma City: Harlow Publishing Co., 
1930, 1931. 


Atlanta Series of Tests. English Test, grades 7-8, 
Algebra, junior high school; Biology, grade H-9; 
English Classics; American History, grade H-8; 
Latin, junior and senior high school; Spelling. 
Atlanta, Georgia: Board of Education, 1929. 


Barr’s Diagnostic Tests in American History, by 
A. S. Barr. Range: grades 8-12. Bloomington, IIli- 
nois: Public School Publishing Co., 1920. 


Bowman (Gipson) United States History Test, by 
L. C. Bowman. Bloomington, Illinois: Public 
School Publishing Co., 1931. 


Branom’s Diagnostic Tests in Geography, by M. E. 
Branom. Range: grades 5-8. Bloomington, I|linois: 
McKnight and McKnight, 1926. 


*Brown-W oody Civics Test, by A. W. Brown and 
C. Woody. Range: grades 7-12. Yonkers: World 
Book Co., 1926. 


~ 


tolumbia Research Bureau American History Test, 
by H. J. Carman, T. N. Barrows and B. D. Wood. 
Range: high school and college. Yonkers: World 
Book Co., 1926. 


~ 


‘ooperative American History Test. New York: 
Cooperative Test Service, 1930, 1931, 1932. 


~ 


Jooperative Ancient History Test. New York: Co- 
operative Test Service, 1930. 


Cc 


‘ooperative European History Test. New York: Co- 
operative Test Service, 1930, 1931, 1932. 
*Denny-Nelson Tests in American History, by E. C. 


Denny and M. J. Nelson. Range: grades 7 and 8. 
Yonkers: World Book Co., 1928. 


Early Progress Workbook, by West and Shellman. 
Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 


Fourteen Tests in Vocational Civics, by H. C. Hill. 
For use with H. C. Hill’s “Vocational Civics” and 
“Community and Vocational Civics” and H. C. 
Hill, and D. H. Sellers, “My Occupation.” Boston: 
Ginn and Co., 1931. 


Gregory-Spencer Geography Test, by C. A. Gregory 
and P. L. Spencer. Range: grades 6-8, and normal 
school students. Cincinnati: C. A. Gregory Co., 
1923. 


Hakn-Lackey Geography Scale, by H. H. H 
E. E. Lackey. Range: grades 4-B. Bloo 
Illinois: Public School Publishing Co.. 1 
vised, 1922. 


Harlan Test for Information in American | 
by C. L. Harlan. Range: grades 7 thr 
school. Bloomington, Illinois: Public Sc} 
lishing Co., 1917. 


*Hill Civic Attitude Test, by H. C. Hill. } 
grades 6-12. Bloomington, III].: Public Scl 
lishing Co., 1926. 


*Hill Civic Information Tests, by H. C. H 
H. E. Wilson. Range: grades 6-12. Blo 
Illinois: Public School Publishing Co., 19: 


Hill-Wilson Civic Action Test, by H. C. H 
H. E. Wilson. Range: grades 6-12. Bloon 
Illinois: Public Schoo! Publishing Co., 192 


Iowa Third Annual Every Pupil Test in 
States History, by H. R. Anderson and 
Andrews. Range: high school. Iowa Cit 
University of Iowa, 1931. 


lowa Third Annual Every Pupil Test in Hi 
tory, by H. R. Anderson and G. G. 
Range: high school. Iowa City: State U: 
of Iowa, 1931. 


Junior American History Test, by H. J. Ca 
N. Barrows, and B. D. Wood. Range: 
and $8 and junior high school. Yonkers 
Book Co., 1929. 


Kansas State Teachers College Scholarship | 
American History Test. Emporia: Bureau 
cational Measurements and Standards, K 
State Teachers College, 1927, 1928. 


Kansas State Teachers College Scholarship | 
Constitution Test. Emporia: Bureau of | 
tional Measurements and Standards, Kansa 
Teachers College, 1927, 1928. 


Kansas State Teachers College Scholarship ( 
Current History Test. Emporia: Bureau of 
cational Measurements and Standards, K 
State Teachers College. 


Kansas State Teachers College Scholarship ( 
Social Civics Test. Emporia: Bureau of | 
tional Measurements and Standards, Kansas $ 
Teachers College, 1927. 


Kansas State Teachers College Scholarship ( 
World History Test. Emporia: Bureau of | 
cational Measurements and Standards, K 
State Teachers College, 1928. 


Kelty-Moore Test of Concepts in the Social Stu 
by Kelty and Moore. Forms A and B. New \ 
Charles Scribner’s Sons. 


Kepner’s Background Test in Social Scien 
Tyler Kepner. Forms A and B. Range: G 
9-12. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 

Lynch American History Test Series, by I. R. Ly 
Range: grade 8. Minneapolis: Educational! 
Bureau, 1926. 


[ 234] 








ihn and 


ge 


0] Py 


ld H 
idrews 


versity 


lan, | 
ades 7 


Worl ] 


Jontest 
f Edu- 


Cansas 


ontest 
Educ a- 


s Stat 


Jontest 


Cansas 


Jontest 
edu a- 
s State 


‘ontest 
Edu- 


-ansas 


tudies, 
York: 


rrades 
1924. 


uynch. 
Test 











Vanchester Semester-End Achievement Tests, by 
Meyer, Eikenberry and others. North Manchester, 
Indiana: Bureau of Tests and Measurements, 
Manchester College. 

*Mectropolitan Achievement Tests (New York City 
edition), by S. F. Bayne, F. B. Graham, edited by 
1. §. Orleans. Advanced Battery, New York City 
edition. Range: grades 7 and 8. Spelling, vocabu- 
lary, reading, arithmetic, English literature, his- 
tory, geography. Yonkers: World Book Co., 1932. 


Modern Progress Workbook, by West and Shellman. 
Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 


Modern School Achievement Tests, by A. I. Gates, 
P. R. Mort, P. M. Symonds, R. B. Spence, G. S. 
Craig, De F. Stull, R. Hatch, A. I. Shaw and L. 
B. Krieger. Reading comprehension, reading speed 
and accuracy, arithmetic computation, arithmetic 
reasoning, diagnostic test in spelling, health 
knowledge, language usage, social studies—his- 
tory and civics, social studies—geography, ele- 
mentary science. New York: Bureau of Publica- 
tions, Teachers College, Columbia University, 
1931. 


*New Stanford Achievement Test, Forms V, W, X, 
Y, and Z, by T. L. Kelley, G. M. Ruch and L. M. 
Terman. Range: primary examination—grades 
2-3, reading, arithmetic, spelling; advanced 
examination—grades 4-9, reading, spelling, arith- 
metic, language usage, literature, history and 
civics, geography, and physiology and hygiene. 
Yonkers: World Book Company, 1929. 





Ohio Every Pupil Test, conducted by the Ohio State 
Department of Education. Includes Plane Geome- 
try, Physics, First Year Latin, Second Year Latin, 
General Science, Chemistry, Arithmetic Prob- 
lem Test, one aspect of 7th, 8th, and 12th Year 
American History, and Algebra. Columbus: State 
Department of Education, April 1931. 


Philadelphia Survey Test in History. Range: grade 
7B. Ref.: Browne, E. C., and Boyer, P. A. Report 
on survey test in history of the United States, 
grade 7B, conducted June 1928. Historical Out- 
look 20: 17-23, 1929. 


Posey-Van Wagenen Geography Series, by M. J. 
Van Wagenen. Range: Division I, grades 5 and 
6; Division II, grades 7 and 8. Bloomington, III.: 
Public School Publishing Company, 1922. 


Public School Achievement Tests. Forms I and II 
by J. S. Orleans; Forms III and IV by T. L. Tor- 
gerson. Reading, arithmetic computation, arith- 
metic reasoning, language usage, spelling, gram- 
mar, history, geography, nature study, and health. 
Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Publishing Com- 
pany, 1928, 1930, and 1931. 


Ridgley-Russell-Harr Unit Tests in Geography, by 
D. C. Ridgley, H. H. Russell, and L. Harr. Bloom- 
ington, Ill.: McKnight and McKnight, 1928. 


Rochester Board of Education American History 
Test for History III. Ref.: Ruch, G. M. “The 
Objective or New Type Examination.” Chicago: 
Scott, Foresman and Company, 1929. 


Russell-Harr Diagnostic Geography Tests, by H. H 
Russell and L. Harr. Bloomington, Ill.: McKnight 
and McKnight, 1926. 


Stormzand American History Teaching and Testing 
by M. A. Stormzand. Range: grades 7-12. New 
York: Macmillan Company, 1927. 


Twentieth Century Test in American History, Vests 
I and II, by Gale Smith. Range: high school. 
Fowler, Indiana: Benton Review Shop, 1931, 1935 


Twenty Tests to Accompany Muzzey’s “History of 
the American People,” by M. C. Bishop and FE. K 
Robinson. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1929. 


Twenty-four Tests to Accompany Robinson and 
Beard'’s “History of Europe: Our Own Times,” by 
M. C. Bishop. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1930. 


Twenty-four Tests in Ancient and Medieval History 
to Accompany Robinson and Breasted’s “History 
of Europe: Ancient and Medieval,” by E. P. Stick- 
ney. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1931. 


Twenty-four Tests in World History to Accompany 
Robinson-S mith-Breasted’s “Our World Today 
and Yesterday,” by E. P. Stickney. Boston: Ginn 


and Co., 1930. 


Unit Elementary Tests, by Meyer, Homer, and 
Eikenberry. Range: grades 4-8 inclusive. North 
Manchester, Indiana: Bureau of ‘Tests and 


Measurements, Manchester College. 


*Unit Scales of Attainment, by M. E. Branom, L. J. 
Brueckner, A. M. Jordan, P. Cutright, W. A 
Anderson, M. G. Kelty, A. Dvorak and M. J. 
Van Wagenen. Includes tests in reading, arithme- 
tic, language, spelling, geography, history, litera- 
ture, and elementary science. Range: reading 
(only) Ist grade; reading (only) 2nd grade; divi- 
sion 1, grades 3 and 4; division 2, grades 5 and 
6; 


9. Minneapolis: Educational Test Bureau, 1932 


division 3, grades 7 and 8; division 4, grade 


Vannest Diagnostic Test in Modern European His- 
tory, by C. G. Vannest. Range: secondary school. 
Bloomington, Indiana: Bureau of Cooperative 
Research, Indiana University, 1921. 


Van Wagenen American History Scales (Revised 
Editorial), by M. J. Van Wagenen. Range: Scale 
S1, grades 5 and 6; Scale $2, grades 7 and 8; 
Scale S3, grades 9-12; Scale R1, grades 5 and 6; 
Scale R2, grades 7 and 8. New York: Bureau of 
Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- 
versity, 1922. 

Wiedefeld-Walther Geography Test, by M. T 
Wiedefeld and E. C. Walther. Range: grades 4-8 
Yonkers: Werld Book Co., 1931. 


Witham Comprehensive History Test, by E. C. 
Witham. Range: grades 7 and 8. Newark: J. L. 
Hammett Co., 1924. 


Witham Standard Geography Tests, by E. C. Wit- 
ham. Range: grades 5-12. Newark: J. L. Hammett 
Co., 1916-1921. 


- 
[ 235 ] 








Tests Used by Senior High-School 
Teachers 


*A merican Council Civics and Government Test, by 
R. D. Leigh, D. McGoldrick, P. M. Odegard and 
B. D. Wood. Range: high school and college. 
Yonkers: World Book Co., 1928. 


American Council Economics Test, by H. Taylor, 
T. N. Barrows, and B. D. Wood. Range: high 
school Yonkers: World Book Co., 


1929, 


and college. 


American Council European History Test, by H. J. 
Carman, W. C. Langsan and B. D. Wood. Range: 
high school and college. Yonkers: World Book 
Co., 1928. 


American History Tests, Forms A and B, by J. A. 
Kinneman. Range: high school seniors and college 
freshmen. Bloomington, Illinois: McKnight and 
McKnight. 


Barr-Daggett Tests in American History, by A. S. 
Barr and C. J. Daggett. Range: Senior High 
School. Forms A and B. Minneapolis: Educational 
Test Bureau, 1932. 


Barr’s Diagnostic Tests in American History, by A. 
S. Barr. Range: grades 8-12. Bloomington, Illinois: 
Public School Publishing Co., 1920. 


Bowman (Gipson) United States History Test, by L. 
C. Bowman. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School 
Publishing Co., 1931. 


*Brown-W oody Civics Test, by A. W. Brown and C. 
Woody. Range: grades 7-12. Yonkers: World Book 
Co., 1926. 


Burton Social-Science-Civics Test, by W. H. Burton. 
Range: grades 7-12. Cincinnati: C. A. Gregory 
Co., 1930. 


*Columbia Research Bureau American History Test, 
by H. J. Gorman, T. N. Barrows and B. D. Wood. 
Range: high school and college. Yonkers: World 
Book Co., 1926. 


*Cooperative American History Test. New York: 
Cooperative Test Service, 1930, 1931, 1932. 


Denny-Nelson Tests in American History, by E. C. 
Denny and M. J. Nelson. Range: grades 7 and 8. 
Yonkers: World Book Co., 1928. 


Detroit Examinations in History, by Detroit Public 
Schools. Range: high school. Detroit: Detroit Pub- 
lic Schools, 1925, 1926. 


*Gregory American History Tests (revised), by C. 
A. Gregory. Range: grades 7 and 8. Cincinnati: 
C. A. Gregory Co., 1926. 


Gregory-Owens Tests in Medieval and Modern His- 
tory, by C. A. Gregory and A. D. Owens. Range: 
grade 11 thru normal school. Cincinnati: C, A. 
Gregory Co., University of Cincinnati, 1926. 


Harlan Test for Information in American History, 
by C. L. Harlan. Range: grades 7 thru high school. 
Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing 
Co., 1917. 


Indiana Composite Achievement Test, by 
Wright. Range: grades 7 and 8. A 
American history, Indiana history, civi 
raphy, language, reading, physiology, 


Bloomington: Bureau of Cooperative R 


Indiana University, 1927. 


Institute of Educational Research Ancient 
Test, by B. D. Wood. For college entran 
York: Institute of Educational Research, J 
College, 1922. 

Iowa Every Pupil Academic Contest Exami: 
in World History. lowa City: State Un 
of Iowa, 1930. 


*lowa High School Content Examination, | 
Ruch with the cooperation of G. U. Cleet 
G. D. Stoddard. Range: high school seni 
college freshmen. English literature, 
grammar, mathematics, science, history an 
science. Iowa City: Bureau of Educatior 
search and Service, University of lowa, | 


*Ilowa High School Content Examination, by ‘ 
Ruch with the cooperation of G. L. Huffeke 
Knight and W. Koerth. Range: high school s 
and college freshmen. English literature, |] 
grammar, mathematics, science, history and 
science. Iowa City: Bureau of Education 
search and Service, University of Iowa, 1924 

*lowa Third Annual Every Pupil Test in An 
Government, by H. R. Anderson. Iowa Cit 
University of Iowa, 1931. 


*Kansas State Teachers College Scholarship | 
American History Test. Emporia: Bureau of } 
cational Measurements and Standards, K 
State Teachers College, 1927, 1928. 


Kansas State Teachers College Scholarship ¢ 
Constitution Test. Emporia: Bureau of | 
tional Measurements and Standards, K 
State Teachers College, 1927, 1928. 


Kansas State Teachers College Scholarship ¢ 
Social Civics Test. Emporia: Bureau of | 
tional Measurements and Standards, Kansas $ 
Teachers College, 1927. 


Kelty-Moore Test of Concepts in the Social Stu 
by Kelty and Moore. Forms A and B. New \ 
Charles Scribner’s Sons. 


Kepner’s Background Test in Social Scien 
Tyler Kepner. Forms A and B. Range: g: 
9-12. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1 


Learning and Teaching American Histor} 
Middle Grades of Elementary School, by Ma 
Kelty. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1936. 


*Magruder-Chambers-Clinton American Civics 
Government Test for High Schools and C 
by F, A. Magruder, R. J. Clinton, and M 
Cha-nbers. Range: high school and college. B 
ington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Co 


Manchester Semester-End Achievement Tests 
Meyer, Eikenberry, and others. North M 
chester, Indiana: Bureau of Tests and Meas 
ments, Manchester College. 


[ 236 ] 











very Pupil Test, conducted by the Ohio Stat Tests i ¢ YY . it F 
WwW. V tment of Education. Includes plane geon pher MM Hom: ad Guis ( 
hvsics, first year Latin, second year Latin Follett P a ( 
al science, chemistry, arithmetic proble 
yne aspect of 7th, 8th, and 12th year Am Tuer Century 1 n Am in H ts 
story, and algebra. Columbus: State Depart I and Il Gale Smith. Range: | 
t of Education, April 1931. Fowler, Ind Benton Review Shop, 1931. 1 
| phia Survey Test in History, by B. ( 7 sdenth Cee « Seok te Clekes. bn 
vyne and P. A. Bover. Range: Grade 7B. P! Rane al it nse Deli B is 
vhia: Philadelphia Public Schools, Division hates 
Educational Research. 
” Pp , Richards Test for the Understandina f Twenty 7 f mn piven ty Cig s, DY H. 4 1] 
Imerican History, by L. C. Pressey and R. ( For use with H. C. Hill’s vo tional Cy l 
Richards. Range: grades 6-12. Bloomington: Illi Comm nity and Vocational Civics” and H. ( 
( s Public School Publishing Ce. 1922 Hill and D. H. Seller’s “My Occ 
vised). Bost Ginn and Co., 1931 
" Pressey Scale of Attainment No. 2, by S. L. Press 
Reading vocabulary, American history, arithmeti *Twenty Tests to Accompany Muzzey’s “H , 
ng ind English grammar. Range: grade 8. Bloom the American People,” by M. ( Bishop and ] 
ngton: Department of Psychology, Indiana U1 Wt sens Basta > Csinn and tn. § 


i versity, 1921. 

2 , Vannest Diagnost Test in Modern European His 
Ouestions in Ancient and Medieval History (now . 

tory, by C. G. Vannest. Range: seconda 


G, } liscontinued), Questions in Modern European BI : Ind 

' ‘i ‘ : 3loomington, Indiana: Bureau of Cooperatiy < 
I History, and American History, by D. J. Arrin hI : ; 

. . , a. search, Indiana niversity, 1921 

¢ Range: high school. New York: College Entrance 

ng ? ’ 97 930 , ‘ 

B Book Co., 1929, 1930. Van Wagenen American History Scales (Revised 
. Social Studies Achievement Tests, by Rugg and Editoria by M Van Wagenen. Range: Scale 
igte Mendenhall. Forms A and B. Range: low seventh S1, grades 5 and 6; Scale S2, grades 7 and 8; 
1.4 . e .* — > > 

to high ninth. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1935. Scale S3, grades 9-12; Scale Rl, grades 5 and ¢ 

rica . . : , Scale R2, grad 7 and 8. New York: Bureau 

St State High School Tests. Lafayette, Indiana: Put . & ; ‘ urean of 


ORD aget : 

due University, Division of Educational Refe: Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Univer- 
> ‘ ”” 

ence. (Annual testing service.) ity, 1922. 

} Tests in Unified Social Studies (Western Hemi Wesley Test in Social Terms, by E. B. Wesley. 

sphere), by Meyer, Homer and Jollief. Chicago: Forms A and B. Range: junior and senior. New 


Follett Publishing Co. York: Charles Scribner’s Sons 





M 











VIII. Texts and Supplementary Books Reported To Be Most 
Frequently Used by Social Studies Teachers and Pupils 


Social studies teachers reported texts and level list the books are separated int 


supplementary books found by them to be most 
helpful in social studies courses. ‘Tables 26 
to 34 which follow give the texts and supple- 
mentary books reported by ten or more teach- 
ers. In each list those books which were men- 
tioned so frequently as to be outstanding in 
their respective group have an asterisk at the 
left. The first three tables, numbers 26, 27, 
and 28, give the supplementary books reported 
to be most useful to social studies teachers in 
preparing for their classes. These tables are 


groups: those most frequently reported 
frequently mentioned, and those met 
still less frequently but reported by 
ten teachers. 

Tables 29 to 33 list textbooks report 





social studies teachers of different grade 
to be helpful to their pupils. The texts 
ported are listed by the course in whic} 
are most frequently used. 

The supplementary books reported f: 
pils’ use are listed in Table 34.' Some s 
mentary books are used by pupils at diff 





arranged by grade level. Within each grade 


‘ For another comprehensive list of the sources of supplementary materials consult Guides to Study Material 
Townsend and Alice G. Stewart; published by the H 


Mary E 


W. Wilson Co., 


foo 7 
New York, 1936. 113 p 


TABLE 26.—SUPPLEMENTARY BOOKS MOST USEFUL TO ELEMENTARY-SCHOO 
TEACHERS OF SOCIAL STUDIES 





Author 


*Carpenter, Frances... . 
and Gabriel, 


Casner, Mabel B., 
Ralph H. 
*Kelty, Mary G 


Stull, De Forest, and Hatch, Roy W 
Van Loon, Hendrik W. 


Clark, Rose B ‘ 

Hillyer, Virgil M 

*Hillyer, Virgil M 

Packard, Leonard O., and Sinnott, 
Charles P. 

Rugg, Harold O 


Rugg. Harold O 


*Thralls, Zoe <A., and _ Reeder, 
Edwin H. 


Wells, Herbert G 


*Allen, Nellie B 
Branom, Mendel E., 
Frederick K. 
Huntington, 
Charles 
Frank M. 
Huntington, Ellsworth, and Cush- 
ing, Sumner W. 
Nida, William L., 
Victor L. 
*Petersham, Maud, and Petersham, 
Miska. 
Rugg, Harold O. 
Smith, Joseph R.... 
Tappan, Eva M 
* 


and Branom, 


Benson, 
McMurry, 


Ellsworth; 
B., and 


and Webb, 


Title 


Most Frequenily Mentioned 


. New Geographical Readers 


Exploring American History.... 
Learning and Teaching History in the 
Middle Grades. 
Our World Today 
Story of Mankind 
Frequently Mentioned 
Unit Studies in Geography P 
Child's Geography of the World 
Child's History of the World 
Nations as Neighbors 
Changing Civilizations in the Modern 
World. 
An Introduction to American Civiliza- 
tion. 
Geography in the Elementary School. . 
Outline of History 


Less Frequently Mentioned 


Geographical and Industrial Studies 
Teaching of Geography 


Living Geography 


Modern Business Geography 
Our Country Past and Present 


Petersham Series 


.A History of American Civilization. . 
.Human Use Geography... 


When Knights Were Bold. 


..Unit Study Booklets... .. 
..-Geography......... 


* In the case of more than one edition of the same publication the date will identify the latest edition 


Publisher 


American Book Co 
Harcourt, Brace and Cx 


Ginn and Co 


Allyn and Bacon 
Garden City Publishing C¢ 


World Book Co 
Century Co 
Century Co 
Macmillan Co 


Ginn and Co 





Ginn and Co... 


.Rand McNally and Co 


Garden City Publishing Co 


..Ginn and Co..... 19 


Ginn and Co 


Macmillan Co 


. World Book Co 


..Scott, Foresman and Co 


.John C. Winston Co 19 
Ginn and Co.. 

John C. Winston Co 

Houghton Mifflin Co 

American Education Press : 193 


.Simon and Schuster 





[ 238 ] 





levels: tor example, Van Loon s Stor, three levels sumeirently Trequently tor 


\fankind was reported as frequently used tion at all levels. Many other books were re 
mentary, junior high-school, and senio1 ported as useful to pupils at two levels. usu 
school pupils. It is listed with the junio: ily elementary and junior high-school o1 


] ] ] ] 


school supplementary books because it was senior and junior high-school levels. In each 





wost often reported at this level. However case these books are listed at the level fo which 
parenthetical (E-S) after the title of the book they were most trequently reported and the 
dicates that it was also reported by elemen svmbol of the other levei placed after the titl 
iry and senior high-school teachers as being of the book. For example, the first book in th 


helpful to the pupils at these levels. The Story list is Allen’s G. ographical and Industr 
Vankind is the only book reported at all Studies. The J) after the title indicates 1 


TABLE 27.—SUPPLEMENTARY BOOKS MOST USEFUL TO JUNIOR HIGH-SCHOOL 
TEACHERS OF SOCIAL STUDIES 








Author Title Publisher Year® 
Most Frequently Mentioned 
Bassett, John S \ Short History of the United States... Macmillan ( 19 
Ol Beard, Charles A., and Beard, Mary.. Rise of American Civilization Macmillan ¢ 1933 
*Casner, Mabel B., and Gabriel, Exploring American History Harcourt, Brace and Co 193 
Ralph H. 
— “Ison, Henry W History of the United States of America. Macmillan C: 1 
Kelty, Mary C.. Learning and Teaching History inthe Ginn and ¢ 1934 
‘ Middle Grades. 
Magruder, Frank A............. American Government Allyn and Bacon 193 
Stull, De Forest, and Hatch, Roy W Our World Today Allyn and Bacor 1931 
{ ain ae 
Adams, James T March of Democracy Charles Scribner's Sons 1932-—33 
Bowman, Isaiah The New World World Book Co 1928 
Edmonson, James B., and Dondi- Citizenship and Oc upations through Macmillan Co 1931 
neau, Arthur. Problems 
Gabriel, Ralph H Pageant of America Yale University Press 1925 
Johnson, Amanda Teaching of History and Citizenship The ithor 193 
in the Grades and in Junior High 
School 
Marshall, Leon C Story of Human Progress M n Co 1928 
Rugg, Harold O An Introduction to American Civiliz Ginn and ( 
tion 
*Rugg, Harold O Man and His Changing Society: Rugg ( ( 
Social Science Series, Junior High- 
School Course 
Sullivan, Mark Our Times Charles Scribner's Sons 1936 
rryon, Rolla M Teaching of History in Junior and Ginn and ¢ 1921 
Senior High School 
Wells, Herbert G Outline of Historv Garden City Publishing ( 1927 
Less Frequently Mention 
Elson, Henry W Sidelights on American History Macmillan ¢ 
Hart, Albert B Source Book of American History Macmillan ¢ 
Haskin, Frederic J American Government Grosset and Dunlap 0 
*Hill, Howard C Community Life and Civ Problems. ..Ginn and (¢ 
Hill, Howard C Readings in Community Life Ginn and ¢ 1930 
Huntington, Ellsworth Benson, Living Geography M llan ¢ 
Charles B.; and McMurry, Frank 
M 
Huntington, Ellsworth, and Cush Modern Business Geogr \ Vor I k ( 
ng, Sumner W. 
Rugg, Harold O A History of American Civilizatiot Ginn and ¢ 34 
Southworth, Gertrude, and South American History Iroqu Publishing ¢ 
worth, John Van Duyn 
Ur Study Bookl \ Edu I 
in Loon, Hendrik W Geography n and Schuster 
nnest, Charles G and Smith, Socialized History the Ur 1 State Charles Scribner's S 
Henry L. 
Ruth, and West, Willis M Story of Our Count: All I t 1 
rn “In the case of more than one edition of the same publicat the date w der the latest editior 
l 239] 








to 34, the asterisk before the author’s na | 
dicates that a book was reported man 


more than most of the books in the |i 


it was reported also by junior high-school 
teachers, altho more frequently mentioned by 
elementary teachers. In each list of Tables 26 


TABLE 28.—SUPPLEMENTARY BOOKS MOST USEFUL TO SENIOR HIGH-SCH 
TEACHERS OF SOCIAL STUDIES 








Author Title Publisher 


Most Frequently Mentioned 


Epic of America ... Blue Ribbon Books 
A Short History of the United States...Macmillan Co 
American Government and Politics . Macmillan Co 
. Macmillan Co 


Adams, James T 
Bassett, John S 
Beard, Charles A 








*Beard, Charles A., and Beard, Mary. . Rise of American Civilization 


Elson, Henry W , 
Hart, Albert B., and Curtis, John G 


*Johnson, Allen 
Magruder, Frank A 
Pan American Union oe 
President's Research Committee on 
Social Trends 


Adams, James T 
Benns, Frank L 
Breasted, James H 
*Channing, Edward 
Dorf, Philip 
*Hayes, Carlton J. H 


Ogg, Frederic A., and Ray, Perley O 

*Schlesinger, Arthur M ‘ 

Sullivan, Mark.. ak , 

Tryon, Rolla M.; Lingley, Charles 
R.; and Morehouse, Frances M. I. 

Tugwell, Rexford G., and Hill, 
Howard C. 

Wells, Herbert G 


Adams, James T., and Vannest, 
Charles G. 


History of the United States of America. Macmillan Co 


American History Told 
tem poraries. 
Chronicles of America 


.American Government 


American Nation Series 


Recent Social Trends in t 


States. 
Frequenitl 
March of Democracy 


Europe Since 1914.. 
Ancient Times. . 


.History of the United States 
. Visualized History Series 
.Political and Cultural History of Macmillan Co 


Modern Europe. 


. Essentials of American Government 
New Viewpoints in American History... 


Our Times.. 


by Con- Macmillan Co 


. Yale University Press 
Allyn and Bacon 
The Union 


he United McGraw-Hill Book ¢ 


Mentioned 


Charles Scribner's Sor 
F. S. Crofts and C« 
.Ginn and Co 
Macmillan Co 
Oxford Book Co 


D. Appleton-Century ¢ 
Macmillan Co 
.Charles Scribner's Sons 


American Nation Yesterday and Ginn and Co.. 


Today. 


Our Economic Society and Its Prob- Harcourt, Brace and (¢ 


lems. 
Outline of History 


Less Frequently 


Record of America 


Garden City Publishing ¢ 
Mentioned 


Charles Scribner's Sor 


: : re .American Life Series ..Rand McNally and C: \ 
Becker, Carl L : . Modern History .Silver, Burdett and Cx 
Bidwell, Percy W .American Primers University of Chicago Press \ 


Bogart, Ernest I 


Bryce, James 
*Dorf, Philip : : chicas 
Dames, Beemens Uw. cccccccccs 
Harlow, Ralph V cine artis aaa 
Hayes, Carlton J. H., and Moon, 
Parker T. 
Hill, Howard C ee re 
MacDonald, William............... 


Munro, William B 

Muzzey, David S 

Pahlow, Edwin W 

Paxson, Frederic L 

Rhodes, James F ‘ ; 

Robinson, James H., and Beard, 
Charles A 


.Economic History of the 


People. 


.. American Commonwealth 
. Visualized History Series 


American Longmans, Green and ( 


....Macmillan Co 
sitecarall Oxford Book Co 


Economic History of the United States. .Macmillan Co 


Growth of the United States 


Modern History 


. Readings in Community Life 


...Henry Holt and Co 
..Macmillan Co 


...Ginn and Co 


Documentary Source Book of Ameri- Macmillan Co 


can History. 


...Government of the United States...... Macmillan Co 
. .Readings in American History. ....... Ginn and Co 
. Man's Great Adventure 


nased Ginn and Co 


Recent History of the United States. ... Houghton Mifflin Co 


History of the United States 


ikea Macmillan Co 


Readings in Modern European His- Ginn and Co... 


tory. 


. Unit Study Booklets 


American Education Press 


* In the case of more than one edition of the same publication the date will identify the latest edition 


> We have assumed that teachers mentioning American Nation referred to this series since it is the only one of 
However, Albert B. Hart is editor of a series called American Nation. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1904-1908 


re 








[ 24 














- 
TABLE 29.—TEXTS REPORTED TO BE MOST FREQUENTLY USED IN HISTORY 
COURSES 
Author Title Publisher Year 
OOL 
Eugene C.; Duncalf, Fred Old Europe and Our N R 
k: and Bacon, Francis 
— *Rarker, Eugene C.; Webb, Walter Story Our Nation Row, Peterson and ( 
P.: and Dodd, William E 
. rnham, Smith, and Jack, Theo The Story of Amer r Your John C. Winston ( 
re H. Americans 
rk, Marion G., and Gordy Westward Toward Ame ( irles Scribner's Sons 
Vilbur F. 
( iy, Wilbur F American Beginnings in Eu t ( rles Scribner's Sor 34 
Halleck, Reuben P and Frantz Our Nation's Heritage (mer n | k ¢ 
Juliette 
ty, Mary G Beginnings of the A Reople Ginn and ( 0 
and Nation. 
<elty, Mary G Growth of the Amer n People and G 
Nation 
William I Dawn of American History Ma n ( 
Nida, William L., and Webb, Vik Our Country Past and Present Scott, Foresman and ¢ 
rl 
Southworth, Gertrude, and Sout! America’s Old World Background lroqu Publishing ¢ 4 
worth, John Van Duyn. 
West, Ruth, and West, Willis M The New World's Foundations in the Ally Ba 
Ol 
rker, Eugene C.; Webb, Walter Growth of a Nation Row, Peters ind ( 1934 
P.; and Dodd, William E 
Beard, Charles A., and Bagley, History of the American People Macmillan ¢ 
William C. 
Breasted, James H Ancient Times Ginn and ¢ 
Burnham, Smith, and Jack, Theo America, Our Country John ¢ Vinston ( 1 { 
dore H 
*Casner, Mabel B., and Gabriel, Exploring American History Harcourt, Brace and Co 1935 
Ralph H. 
Elson, Henry W Modern Times and the Living Past American Book Co 1930 
Gordy, Wilbur F History of the United States Charles Scribner's Sons 193 
Halleck, Reuben P., and Frantz, Our Nation’s Heritage American Book Co 19 
Juliette 
Hayes, Carlton J. H., and Moon, Ancient and Medieval History Macmillan (¢ i‘ 
Parker T 
Knowlton, Daniel C., and Harden, Since We Became a Natior American Book Co 34 
Mary. 
Leonard, Arthur R., and Jacobs, Nation's History Henry Holt and ¢ 1 
Bertha E. 
McKinley, Albert E.; Howland, World History in the Making American Book ( 
Arthur C,.; and Dann, Matthew L. 
McKinley, Albert E.; Howland, World History Today American Book ( 
Arthur C.; and Dann, Matthew L. 
Southworth, Gertrude, and South- American History Iroquois Publishing Co 1935 
worth, John Van Duyn. 
*Tryon, Rolla M.; Lingley, Charles American Nation Yesterday and Today .Ginn and Co 30 
R.; and Morehouse, Frances M. I. 
*Vannest, Charles G and Smith, Socialized History of the United States..Charles Scribner's Sons 1934 
Henry L. 
Webster, Hutton Early European Civilization D. C. Heath and Co 1933 
v Webster, Hutton Modern European Civilization D. C. Heath and Co 1933 
*West, Ruth, and West, Willis M Story of Our Country Allyn and Bacon 1930 
Woodburn, James A.; Moran, Our United States Long ns, Green and 193¢ 
Thomas F.; and Hill, Howard ¢ 
Senior High School 
*Adams, James T., and Vannest, Record of America Charles Scribner's Sons 
9 Charles G. 
Barker, Eugene C.; Dodd, William Our Nation's Developme: Row, Peterson and Co 1934 
E.; and Commager, Henry S. 
Bassett, John S.... , ..A Short History of the United States. .Macmilian Co 
Beard, Charles A., and Beard, Mary. .History of the United States Macinillan C 1929 
Beard, Charles A., and Beard, Mary. . Rise of American Civilization Macmillan Co 1933 
*Becker, Carl L.. Modern History. Silver, Burdett and Co 1931 
Breasted, James H Ancient Times Ginn and Co 193 
— Elson, Henry W... History of the United States of America. Macmillan Ce 19 


Table continued on page 242 


[ 241 ] 














TABLE 29.—TEXTS REPORTED TO BE MOST FREQUENTLY USED IN H! 
COURSES (Contd.) 





Author 


Elson, Henry W 
*Faulkner, Harold U., 
Tyler. 
*Hamm, William A.; Bourne, Henry 
E.; and Benton, Elbert J. 
Hayes, Carlton J. H., and Moon, 
Parker T. 
Hayes, Carlton J. H., 
Parker T. 
Hayes, Carlton J.; Moon, Parker T.; 
and Wayland, John W. 
McKinley, Albert E.; 
Arthur C.; 
McKinley, 
Arthur C 
*Muzzey, David S 
*Muzzey, David S 
Pahlow, Edwin W 
Pahlow, Edwin W 
Rogers, Lester B.; Adams, Fay; and 
Brown, Walker 
Schapiro, Jacob S., 
Richard B. 
Thomas, Harrison C., 
William A. 
Webster, Hutton 
Webster, Hutton 
West, Willis M 
West, Willis M 
West, Willis M 
Wirth, Fremont P 


and Kepner, 


and Moon, 


Howland, 


Albert E.; Howland, 


and Morris, 


and Hamm, 


@ In the case of more than one edition of the same publication the date will identify the latest edition 


and Dann, Matthew L. 


and Dann, Matthew L. 


Title 


Senior High School 


Modern Times and the Living Past.. 


America: Its History and People 
Unit History of the United States 
Ancient and Medieval History 
Modern History 

World History 


World History in the Making 


World History Today 

History of Our Country 

History of the American People 
Man's Achievement 

Man's Great Adventure 

Story of Nations 


Civilization in Europe 
Modern Europe 


Early European Civilization 
Modern European Civilization 
American People 

Story of Man's Early Progress 
Story of Modern Progress 
Development of America 


Continued 


-American Book ( 


Publisher 


American Book Co 
Harper and Brothers 


D. C. Heath and ¢ 





Macmillan Co 
Macmillan Co 
Macmillan Co 
American Book ¢ 
American Book ( 
Ginn and Co 

Ginn and Co 
.Ginn and Co 

Ginn and Co 
Henry Holt and (¢ 
Houghton Mifflin ¢ 
Henry Holt and Co 
D. C. Heath and Cx 
D. C. Heath and (¢ 
Allyn and Bacon 


.Allyn and Bacon 
.Allyn and Bacon 





TABLE 30.—TEXTS REPORTED TO BE MOST FREQUENTLY USED IN GE 
RAPHY COURSES 





Author 


*Atwood, Wallace W., and Thomas 
Helen G 

Atwood, Wallace W - 
Helen G 

Atwood, W allac eW “ 
Helen G 

*Atwood, Wallace W., 
Helen G 

Atwood, Wallace W 
Helen G 

Barrows, 
Edith } 

Barrows, Harlan H., 
Edith P. 

Barrows, Harlan H.; Parker, Edith 
P.; and Parker, Margaret T. 

Barrows, Harlan H.; Parker, Edith 
P.; and Parker, Margaret T. 

Brigham, Albert P., and McFar- 
lane, Charles T. 

Brigham, Albert 
lane, Charles T. 

Brigham, Albert 
lane, Charles T. 

Carpenter, Frances 

Dodge, Richard E., and Lackey, 
Earl E 


and Thomas, 
and Thomas, 
and Thomas, 


, and Thomas, 


Harlan H., and Parker, 


and Parker, 


P., and McFar- 


P., and McFar- 


Title 


Elementary 


The Americas 


The Earth and Its People, Elementary 


Book 
Home Life in Far 


Away Lands 
Nations Beyond the Seas 
South America and the Old World 
Journeys in Distant Lands 
United States and Canada 
Europe and Asia 

Geographies 

Essentials of Geography 

How the World Lives and Works 


Our Continental Neighbors 


Our Neighbors Near and Far 
Advanced Geography 


Table continued on page 243. 


[ 242 ] 


Publisher 


Ginn and Co 


Ginn and Co 





Ginn and Co 
Ginn and Co 
Ginn and Co 
Silver, Burdett and Cx 
Silver, Burdett and Cx 
Silver, Burdett and ¢ 
Silver, Burdett and 


American Book Co 


American Book Co 


.American Book Co 


American Book Co 
Rand McNally and Co 











TABLE 30.—TEXTS REPORTED TO BE MOST FREQUENTLY USED IN GEOG 
RAPHY COURSES (Contd.) 





Author 


Ellsworth 


and M¢ 


ngton 

rles_ B.; 

nk M. 
McConnell, Wallace R 
nnell, Wallace R 


Mc‘ 
McConnell, Wallace R 
Smith, Joseph R 


*Smith, Joseph R 
Smith, Joseph R 
Styll. De Forest, and Hat« 


Title 


Bensor Living Geography 
Murry 
Living Across the Seas 


in the An 


Living 1ericas 
Unite 
Foreign Lands and Peoy 
Human Use Geography 
World Folks 

h, Roy W.. Journeys Through M 

Roy W...Our World Today 


Stull, De Forest, and Hatch 
Junior 

Atwood, Wallace W [The World at Work 
Barrows, Harlan H.; Parker, Edith Southe Lands 

P.; and Parker, Margaret T 
Brigham, Albert P and McFar- Essentials Geogr 

lane, Charles T 
Brigham, Albert P., and McFar How the World Liv 


lane, Charles T. 
Huntington, Ellsworth 

Charles B.; 

Frank M. 
McConnell, Wallace R 


and 


Packard, Leonard O., an 


Charles P. 
*Smith Joseph R 
Smith, Joseph R 
*Stull, De Forest, and Hat 


“In the case of more than one 


Benson I ng Geography 


McMurry 


United States in the Mo 
d Sinnott Nations as Neighbors 
Human Use Geography 
Our Industrial World 
h. Rov W Our World Today 


edition of the same 


publ ati 


d States in the Modern World 


; 
S 
i Works 
1 W 


yn the date 


Publisher Yea 

Rand McNally and Co 34 
Rand McNally and Cx 34 
Rand McNally and C« 
John C. Winston (¢ 
John C. Winston Cx 
Tohn ( Winston ( 
Ally: i Bacon 
Allwr i Ba 
( i ( 
Silve I de 1 ¢ 
Ar I k ¢ 
Ame I k ¢ 
M 
Ra M i 1 ( ; 
M ll ( 
Tohn ¢ Wir » ( 
John C. WV 1 ¢ 
Allyn B r 

he i ed 





TABLE 31—TEXTS REPORTED TO BE 


MOST FREQUENTLY USED 


IN CIVICS 


AND GOVERNMENT COURSES 





Author 


Arnold, Joseph I 
Capen, Louise I 
Montfort 
*Edmonson, James B 
neau, Arthur 
Hill, Howard C 
Hill, Howard C 
Hill, Howard ¢ 
*Hughes, Ray O 
Hughes, Ray O 
Hughes, Ray O 
Hughes, Ray O 
Smith, Henry L 


Garner, James W 
Louise I. 


Kinneman, John A.; Brown 
Robert S 


ard G.; and Ellwood 
I app, John \ and 
Robert B. 
*Magruder, Frank A 
Magruder, Frank A 


Munro, William B 
Munro, William B 


“In the case of more 


ind Me 


Davies 


E.; and McClure, Claren 


nd Capen Our G 


Title 


Junior | 


Ichior, D. My Worth to the Worl 


zer y» and Ox« 
Problems 

Community and Vocat 
Community Life and Ci 
Life id Work of the ¢ 
Building Citizenship 
Civ Training 
Community Civics 
Economi« 

Sheldon Government in the Ur 


eH 


Citizenship 


Rich American Citizen 
Weaver Citizen 
American Government 
National Governments 
tional Relations 
Government of the Un 
Social Civics 


High 


vic Problems 


and His Government 


and Interna 


ted States 


Publisher Year 
R P nd ¢ 
\ Book (¢ 
M ( 
Gi 1 ¢ 
(inn id Cx 
Ginn 1 ¢ 
Allyn and Ba 1 
All and Bacon 1 
All 1 Ba 1 
Ally id Bacon 1 
I vy Brothe 
Ame Book ( 1931 
Harper and Brothers 193 
S Bi ett and ( ) 
Allyn and Bacon 
Allyn and Bacon 1926 
Macmillan (¢ 193 
Macmillan ¢ 


than one edition of the same publication the date will iden 


tify the latest edition 





243 | 





TABLE 


32.—TEXTS REPORTED TO BE MOST FREQUENTLY USED IN E 


NOMICS COURSES 





Author 


orbett, James I 
witz, Minnie I 
Fay, Charles R 
Janzen, Cornelius ( 
son, Orlando W 
Klein, Jacob, and Colvin, Woolf 
Smith, Augustus H 
Tugwell, Rexford G 
Howard C 


and 


and Herschko- 


, and Stephan- 


Hill, 


Title 


Senior High School 
Modern Economics 


Elements of Economics 
Everyday Problems in Economics 


Economic Problems of Today 


. Economics 


Our Economic Society and Its Prob- 


lems 


Macmillan Co 


Macmillan Co 


Silver, Burdett and ( 


Publisher 





Lyons and Carnahar 
McGraw-Hill Book 
Harcourt, Brace and ( 


“In the case of more than one edition of the same publication the date will identify the latest edition 





TABLE 33.—MISCELLANEOUS TEXTS REPORTED TO BE MOST FREQUENT! 


USED IN SOCIAL SCIENCE COURSES SUCH AS SOCIOLOGY, SOCIAL PE 


LEMS, PROBLEMS OF DEMOCRACY 





Author 


Rugg. Harold O., and Krueger, 


Louise 


King, Clyde L., and Barnard, James 
L. 
Marshall, Leon ( 


Rugg, Harold O 


*Rugg, Harold © 
Rugg, Harold O 


Rugg, Harold O 
*Rugg, Harold O 


Rugg, Harold O 


Rugg. Harold O 


Eldridge, Seba, and Clark, Carroll 
De Witt. 
Elliott, Mabel A., and others 
Ellwood, Charles A 
*Gavian, Ruth M.; Gray, Arthur 
A.; and Groves, Ernest R. 
Greeman, John T., and Meredith, 
Albert B. 
Hughes, Ray O 
Hughes, Ray O 
Towne, Ezra T ' 
Williamson, Thames R., and Wes- 
ley, Edgar B 


* In the case of more than one edition of the same publication the date will identify the latest edition 


Title 


Elementary 


Building of America 


Junior High School 
Our Community Life 


Story of Human Progress 

Man and His Changing Society: Rugg 
Social Science Series, Junior High 
School Course. 

Introduction to American Civilization 

Changing Civilizations in the Modern 
World. 

History of American Civilization 

History of American Government and 
Culture. 

Introduction to Problems of American 
Culture. 

Changing Governments and Changing 
Cultures. 


Senior High School 
Major Problems of Democracy 


Our Dynamic Society 

Social Problems and Sociology 

Our Changing Social Order. 

Everyday Problems of American 
Democracy. 

Making of Today's World 

Problems of American Democracy 


.Social Problems. . 


Principles of Social Science 





Ginn and Co 


John C. Winston Co 


Macmillan Co 
Ginn and Co 


Ginn and Co 
Ginn and Co 


Ginn and Co 
Ginn and Co 


Ginn and Co 


Ginn and Co 


Century Co 


Publisher 





Harper and Brothers 
American Book Co 
D. C. Heath and Co 


Houghtor Mifflin Co 


Allyn and Bacon 
Allyn and Bacon 


Macmillan Co. 


D. C. Heath and Co 























ated TABLE 34.—SUPPLEMENTARY BOOKS MOST FREQUENTLY USED BY PUPILS 
IN SOCIAL STUDIES COURSES 
Author Title Publishe Ye 
(Geog il 1 ( 
} 
é Frar New ( t 
er, Frank A 1 eV ( dr \ 
Marior ( ( y W \ Tow \ ( 
4 ir F 
William 5S Day Old A 
Virgil M Child G Xv I j ( 
er, Virgil M ( i's Hist ( 
Willian I t \ Our ry | I J ( 
\ rl 
im, Maud I Pe er 
— { 
Ur | | Pr 
*] Study | 1 Pp 
W H H r Bu n He Ira 
&TLY inior ; 
2OB rpenter, Franc New Geogr 
*Casner, Mabel | 1 Gabriel, Exploring Amer I ( 
Ralph H 
——— I nson, James I 1 ( é I 1 ¢ M 
uu, Arthur Problems. 
was *Gabriel, R. Henry Pageant of America 
Haskin, Frederic J American Government ( 
H Howard ( Readings in Commu Life (S Git ( 
H Howard ( Cor unity Life and Civ I ems ( 
H tington Ellswor Ber n Living Geography M 
Charles B ind McMurry 
rank M 
Marshall, Leon ¢ S H Prog M 
Harold ¢ An Introdu nto Ame n Civiliza 
g. Harold O Man and His Changing S ty: Rugg ¢ 
Social Science Serie Junior Hig 
School Course 
De Forest, and Hatch, Roy W Our World Today (I All 
mn, Rolla M.; Lingley, Charles American Nation Yesterday and To Ginr ( i 
R.; and Morehouse, Frances M. I day. 
Loon, Hendrik W Story of Mankind (E-S G ( 
Vannest, Charles G ind Smith, Socialized History oft United States. . ( 
Henry L 
Vest, Ruth, and West, Willis M Stor Our ¢ 
nior | hool Pu 
Adams, James T Epic Ameri 
Adams, James T nd Vannest Record of Amer ( 
Charles G. 
*Bassett, John S 4 Short History of the United States Ma 
Beard, Charles A , and Beard, Mary. . Rise of American Civilization M 
Bidwell, Percy W American Primers Unive I 
Breasted, James H Ancient Times Gint 
Channing, Edward History of the United é Ma 1 
5 Dorf, Philip Visualized History Ser Oxf 1 
35 Elson, Henry W History of the Unite States of M 
34 America J 
Elson, Henry W Sidelights on Amer n History (J M 
Faulkner, Harold U., and Kepner America: Its History and People H 
Tyler. 
Hart, Albert B., and Curtis, John G..American History Told by Conter M 
8 por iries 
1 Johnson, Allen Chronicles of America Yal 
2 Magruder, Frank A American Government (J Al I 
Muzzey, David S Readings in American History Gint ( 
*Pan American Union American Nation Serie Th 
President's Research Cor ttee on Recent Social Trends in the United Met H 
Social Trends States 
— Robinson, James H., and Beard, Readings in Modert pean H ( 
Charles A tory 
wne, Ezra T Social Probk M 
“In the case of more than one edition of the é blication the date w 
>It has been assumed that teachers mentioning American Nation referred f 
However, Albert B. Hart is editor of a series called American Nation. New \Y Br ‘ l 

















National Education Association of the United States 
1201 Sixteenth Street, Northwest, Washington. D. C. 
SOCIAL STUDIES SURVEY 
Nove r 6 
Explanation—This inquiry form is being sent t issroom tea ep n curre é 
<ocial studies instruction, and who may be willing iggest in eme existing progra Che 
ilation will be of value to other teachers to the extent that vou give e facts and. where requeste 
your best judgment. You may be sure that replies will reported , i? r sch / 
ntified. Mail your reply directly to the National Education Associati Research Division, 1201 Sixteentl 
ulentified J Ply directt\ 1 ! 
St., N. W., Washington, D. C. There is no objection to showing this report t Iministrative office ; 
quiry has been planned to obtain information on the il studie é view of cla n te é 
The inquiry is concerned primarily with the instructional aspects of the topics and the ; : 
designated as history, geography, economics, current event log lath yr 
democracy, and general social studies 
Name of teacher replying Name of school 
{ ty St if 
I. School and Community Background 
Grades in the school to which you are assigned: (Circle as necessary 
K 1 2 3 $ 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 
2, Grade in which you do most of your teaching 
3, Social studies courses or topics which you teach 
4. Predominant character of the AREA from which the pupils in the school come 
(Check one) 
Factory - - Business Rural Residential Other (name it 
5. What economic level predominates among the parents of the pupils? (Check one 
Well off - Comfortable circumstances Poor 
6. What is the predominant race or nationality of the parents of the pupil Check one 
White American French Mexican 
Negro German Other (name it 
English Italian 
7. On social questions, do you consider the parents predominantly: reactionary conservative 
liberal ; or radical ? (Check one) 


8. On social questions, do you consider yourself predominantly reactionary 


I conservative 


liberal....._; or radical ? (Check one) 


(1) 





Il. General Objectives of Social Studies 


In column (2) below are listed the major objectives of social studies instruction ess 
forth in the 1936 Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence. You are asked to ¢ 
is to their importance and as to how successfully they are being attained. 

First, in column (1) use the figures 1 (great importance), 2 (secondary importance 

how which objectives should receive major attention at the school level where you are 

Second, opposite each statement put a check mark in one of the spaces on the scale (« 
degree to which you believe the social studies courses im your school meet that objective 


In 
large 


lo give pupils the truest and most realistic knowledge that is possible measure 


of the community, state, nation, and world—the social and physical 
setti in which they live 


In 
large 


lo prepare pupils for promoting a wiser and more lective cooperation cenianin 


g regions, areas, individuals, groups, communities. states, and 


interracial, interrelign ! intereconomic 


haracter by giving pupils i love ith 1 appreciation of 


ful, a bent toward the good, anc desire and will to use 
or beneficent social ends 


| processes indispens to the functioning of In 


ocating irces of information on social ques- 
ind stating both 
les of controversial questions, skill ir cting erifying informa- 


tion, and skill in discussing social prot 


large 
measure 


In 
large 
. easure 
To give pupils knowledge of historical, geographical, social, political, a 
and economic facts which may be of importance to them in later life 


III. Possible Areas for Increased Emphasis 


Che 1936 Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence listed sixteen areas as being treated inade 
today in most schools and suggested that greater emphasis on these phases would increase the direct us 
of the social studies to young American citizens. Please be sure that each of the sixteen areas is either 
out or rated as the directions below suggest. Some of the items are printed on page 3. 

First, draw a line thru the topics which you believe are treated adequately in the social studies instr 
of your school. 

Second, consider the areas not adequately taught and show the order in which they should receive ad 
emphasis at your school level by marking each either 1 (great importance), 2 (secondary importance), or 
importance). 


Problems of metropolitan government:. 
Concrete information and critical attitudes concerning overlapping agencies and functions of municiy 
and state governments 
Nature of government: 
Insight into the real workings of politics, the nature and function of the state, the basic elements 
cratic theory, and the broader phases of political theory 
Activities of the national government: 
The relation of state and federal agencies; the relation of the branches of government to each other 


toward new governmental functions (public welfare, et« 


International relations: 


Material about the areas near home (Canada, Mexico, South America, Pacific, etc.), the methods of internat 
politics, foreign policies, and international needs of nations 


Relation of industry and government: 


L:conomic activities of modern peoples and the political agencies of modern states; relations between tl 


(2) 





ition and public finance 
es of taxes; public agencies with t 
sund tax systems 
estment and personal finance: 
ities and dangers of savings 
redirection of thrift education 
nsumer education: 
blems and possibilities as to the 
1ation of articles commonly bx 
mation of public opinion: 
tivities of energetic 1 ities 
mmunity analysis: 


Personal analysis: 

Personal inventory of health ; 
Vocational analysis and information 
The relationship between the pupil's anal 
Social effects of the rise of science: 


Fundamental alteration in patterns of t 
lication of science to the common t 


ap} 
The school as a social institution: 
Past and present development, purposes 
Facilities of social intercourse: 
More direct study of the personal qualities w! 
ol group cooperation; an examination of in 
16. Adult education :- - 


Information about the 


youth programs, community 


IV. Courses of Study in Social Studies 


What are the predominant characteristics of the course of study b 


which you are now teaching? Write the name of the course or ti 


Check in the spaces below to show your preferences w 


Requirements 
1) Rigid prescription of subjectmatter to be taught 


Minimum or core content prescribed; { 


General areas stated 
eneral plan of bulletin: 
Brief list of topics and pages in textb« 
Summary of information, objectives, an 
Elaborate treatment of information, ot 
Specific form of bulletin 
1) Topical outline 


2) Detailed narrative and description 


Questions and answers 
Problems 
Projects, units, or activitie 
Emphasis: 
(1) Social (or group) interests 
2) Pupil (or individual) interests 
About equally—social and pupil in 


Subiectmatter 





V. Methods and Aids in Teaching 


1. Which one of the following best describes your technic in instruction? (Check one) 

d. Group activity (conferences, committees, 
reading, etc.) -- 

e. Other (name it) 


a. Textbook-recitation 
b. Socialized recitation 


c. Individualized units 


2. Which one of the following technics would you prefer to use if conditions permitted? (Check one) 
d. Group activity (conferences, committees 


a. Textbook-recitation - - - : 
reading, etc.) -- 


b. Socialized recitation 


c. Individualized units e. Other (name it) 


3. Which of the following supplementary sources do you use often and regularly? (Check as necessary) 
d. State government publications 

e. Other (name it) - - 

f. Other (name it) 


a. Newspapers. -- 
b. Magazines. 
c. Federal government publications 


4. With which of the following local agencies do you make regular and systematic contacts in your social st 
instruction? (Check and write in as necessary) 


a. Police department. - - Factories and business 


b. Fire department. - - . Courts_-. 

c. Local government. . Penal institution 
d. Health department i. Welfare societies 
e. Public libraries. j. Other (name it) 


5. If you make little or no use of outside agencies (such as those listed in 4) check below the chief reason. 


one) 
a. My doubt as to their usefulness in social studies d. Lack of time in school schedule 
instruction e. Disapproval by public and parents 
b. Disapproval by administrative and supervisory offi- f. Other reason (name it) 
cers ; 
c. Unwillingness of these agencies to cooperate 


6. List the textbooks which you find most helpful in teaching the social studies to which you are assigned. 
give exact titles and authors) 


7. List the supplementary books, pamphlets, and magazines which you find most helpful to you as a teacher 
(see next item for materials useful to pupils). (Please give exact titles and authors) 


Select 
Indica 
reason 
Disay 
Forb 
F orb 
1, Forbi 


Forbi 





s. List the supplementary books, pamphlets, and magazines which you have found to be most helpful to pupils 
Please give exact titles and authors) 


List the standard tests which you have found to be most helpful in evaluating your teaching of the social studies 
Please give exact name) 


10, What are your greatest needs as a teacher of the social studies? (Check and write in the changes which would 
help you most to do better teaching) 
1. More advice from principal ---- 9. Longer class periods 
2, More guidance from supervisors ' 10. Opportunity to visit classrooms to observe teachers at 


F work 
3. More modern textbooks—reater detail, more up-to- 
/ 


date, more on social problems ------ More auditory and visual aids 
4, More supplementary reference books  —_.-... 2. More magazines 
5. Opportunity to take class on excursions and trips More newspapers 


6. Freedom from present course of study require- More bulletins and leaflets dealing with current social 
ments problems 
More definitely formulated courses of study Other eset 
8, Smaller classes 


VI. Teaching of Controversial Issues 
List three controversial issues which must be avoided entirely in your social studies teaching Please 
specific) 


a 


Select the ONE controversial issue in (1) above which you believe would be of the highest instructional value 


Indicate the one selected by placing (a), (b), or (c) in this space ( ). Indicate below the primary 
reason for excluding it from your classroom. 


a. Disapproved by parents < f. Fear of outside pressure groups 
b. Forbidden by law g. Lack of maturity of pupils 

c. Forbidden by schoolboard_-. - - - - h, Other reason (name it) 

d. Forbidden by superintendent 

e. Forbidden by principal 





3. List three controversial issues which require special tact (but not completely avoided) in your social 
teaching. (Please be specific) 


Select ONE of the controversial issues necessarily handled with special tact (see item (3) immediately 
and describe briefly the specific steps of your procedure. Indicate the issue chosen by placing (a), (b 
in this space ( - 


5. Has your school system a rule forbidding all discussion of controversial questions? (Please send « 
available) 


(Check one) Yes No 


VII. Use of the Community as a Social Studies Laboratory 


Each year, as a fundamental obligation of the social studies, increased emphasis is being placed uy 
exploration and study of the local community. As stated in a recently published state instructional 
‘Democracy safeguards itself and improves itself only as young and old are capable of living democrat 
Such living depends upon understanding of ‘community,’ as such, and of community factors, fundament 
stitutions, and societal processes.” 


There are three direct ways in which social processes may be studied by pupils: 
(1) Thru trips and excursions—usually informal group expeditions, focused upon a specific area, and limited in time t 
a few hours or days. 


(2) Thru community surveys—usually systematic investigation and record-keeping, more or less comprehensive in chara 
ter, and extending for weeks or even an entire term. Involve many individual assignments as well as group activities 
(3) Thru speakers, motion picutres, and exhibits—usually attempts thru verbal or visual means to illustrate and explain 
social processes. 
In most instances all of the above are special methods which supplement the textbook, library reading 
by the teacher, and other usual methods. Thru these special procedures social experiences are believed t 
made more concrete and realistic. 


Pages 7 and 8 of this blank list items which have been suggested as essential for a comprehensive view 
community and presumably necessary for an understanding of social problems at the community level. 


First, please check in column 1 those items which you believe belong properly at the school level at whic 
are teaching (altho not necessarily taught now). 


Second, check in column 2 those items with which you make a regular practise of helping your pupils to st 
realistically and at first-hand thru either excursions and trips or community surveys. 


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— 
Note: Items continued on page 8. Check items | Check ite 
which belong 


5 
receiving 
Community phases or topics which may be studied at your shot 


tudy thru 
school level stud 


your teact 








Physical environment: 
1, Local geography. - 
2. Natural resources 


3, Climate 
4. Topography 


Historical background: 
1. Early settlement 
2. Growth: 
(a) Population trends_- 
(b) Industrial development 
3, Participation of community in larger history of county, state, or country 
4. Special events... 


’opulation: 
1. Age and sex distribution --- 
Races and nationalities 
Literacy 
Birth and death rates 
Occupations 
Labor conditions (hours, unions, welfare 
Transients and unemployed 
Standards of living (wealth, income, etc.) 
Political alignments. -.- - 
Marriages and divorces - 
Size of families 
Mobility of families__- 
Religious affiliations. - - - 


so WS w& 


Community organization and control: 
1. Governmental structure: 
(a) Executive and administrative officers 
(b) Legislative body 
fe aaa 
2, Finances: 
(a) Wealth and income 
(b) Taxation- 
(c) Budget 
(d) Expenditures_- 
(e) Indebtedness 
(f) Records. 
3. Services: 
(a) Schools. - 
(b) Colleges- - - - 
(c) Libraries... - 
(d) Fire protection - 
(e) Police protection 


(f) Sewerage control 

(g) Relief (poor, aged, etc.) 
(h) Traffic and streets 

(i) Sanitation and health _- 
(j) Zoning and housing 


(k) 

(1) Electric light and power. - 
ee eel eed 

(n) Transportation (buses, cars, etc.) 

(0) Communication (postoffice, telephone, etc.) 











Check items 
Community phases or topics which may be studied which belong 
at your 


school level 








E. The community's economic and industrial environment: 


1. Agriculture. - 
Manufacturing 
Banking 
Wholesale and retail trade 
Mining 
Shipping 
Crafts and arts 


Supplementary cultural influences and activities 


Art galleries - 

Museums 

Music centers. . " 
Community centers and forums 
Churches and religious agencies 
Newspapers and magazines. 


G. Conclusions: 
1. Evidences of social problems- - 
Next steps in improving the community 
Evidences of cultural and social growth - 
Characteristics of an ideal community 





VIII. Comment 


1. What type of help would you and other social studies teachers like to have from national teachers associations 
(Comment briefly) 


PLEASE RETURN TO Research Division 
National Education Association 


1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W. 
Washington, D. C. 


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