RESEARCH BULLETIN 


PERICDICAI RUUM 





a OFTHE NATIONAL 
VOL. XIV - No.5 EDUCATION 
NOVEMBER: 1936 ASSOCIATION 


Safety in Pupil Transportation 


Published by the RESEARCH DIVISION of the 


NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. 





RESEARCH BULLETIN o: » 


Published five times each year 
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NATIONAL 
EDUCATION 
ASSOCIATION 


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Copyright, 1936, by the National Education Association 


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CONTENTS 


FOREWORD 

THE PROBLEM OF SAFE TRANSPORTATION 

THE SELECTION OF COMPETENT DRIVERS 

SAFE EQUIPMENT 

SAFE TRANSIT PRACTISES 

THE SELECTION OF SAFE ROUTES 

SAFETY PROMOTION 

Business Practises AFFECTING PupiIL SAFETY. 


IMPLICATIONS OF THIs STupY. . 
LIST OF TABLES 


Pupil Transportation Programs in 177 Cities over 30,000 in Population, 1934 


Miscellaneous Standards for School Bus Equipment and the States Having Each 


Regulation or a Similar One... 


Regulations Pertaining to the Operation of School Buses and the States in 


Which These Regulations Apply. . 


Rules for Pupi! Conduct and the States in Which Each Rule Applies 


Deficiencies in School Bus Construction in the Case of Certain District Owned 


and Privately Owned Vehicles 
LIST OF FIGURES 


Ten-Year Trend in Pupil Transportation. . . 

Percent of Pupils ‘Transported at Public Expense, 1933-34 

Number of School Buses of Various Sizes Produced by Bus Manufacturers, 1928 
Ten Commandments for Safe Driving 

Safe Driving Examination 

The School Bus Route 

Certificates Awarded for Safe Driving. 


VIII. A Checklist of Important Safety Standards and Practi 


[199 ] 











FOREWORD 


decade and a mounting toll of automobile fatalities and injuries on 

the nation’s highways have brought safety in school bus operation into 
the foreground as a problem of first importance. Moreover, there is every 
reason to expect that within a few years a much larger number of children 
will be transported and that certain traffic hazards will continue to exist. 
This situation calls for increased attention to matters of safety on the part 
of school authorities and all governmental agencies which share with them 
the responsibility for the safe operation of school buses. It demands, too, a 
more widespread public interest and a better informed public opinion than 
now exist with reference to the problems involved in safe pupil transportation. 

This issue of the Research Bulletin directs attention to some of the possible 
causes of pupil injury associated with school bus operation. More important, 
it suggests numerous safeguards and safety precautions which have proved 
effective in eliminating school bus accidents. It indicates some of the common 
qualities which characterize safe drivers. It outlines certain minimum stand- 
ards for school bus equipment. It calls attention to safe operating practises 
and to a number of administrative and supervisory procedures having vital 
safety implications. 

One of the significant contributions which the study makes is to demonstrate 
that, in most of the states, adequate information about pupil transportation 
cannot now be obtained from any central agency. It is to be hoped that in 
many states steps will soon be taken to obtain more complete and accurate 
reports. That this result may reasonably be expected, is suggested by the 
following quotations from correspondence pertaining to the study: 


R™ EXPANSION of the system of pupil transportation during the past 


1. We have very little of the transportation data called for in your form of May 
1936. I have started action looking toward securing the complete information. 


2. In filling out your questionnaire regarding transportation, it becomes very obvious 
that we do not have sufficient records to give us the information we need. We realize 
this situation and I hope the state board at its next meeting will appoint an official 
committee to work with me on records for transportation. 


Written primarily for local school administrators and schoolboard members, 
this bulletin is intended as a manual, or practical handbook, which can be used 
either in evaluating an established system of pupil transportation or in develop- 
ing plans for safe transportation where a new system is to be introduced. In 
addition, the bulletin should be particularly helpful to state school officers, 
legis'ative committees, and other officials whose duty it is to establish state- 
wide minimum standards and uniform operating rules. It should be of interest 
and value also to members of state and local safety councils, to the members 
ot parent-teacher associations, to teachers concerned with safety education, and 
to other individuals and groups engaged in safety promotion. 


Wittarp E. Givens, Executive Secretary, 


National Education Association. 














soni 
the 
izat 
Hel 
tain 
Col 
to 
193 














[hree million boys and girls are transported 
9 and from school daily in conveyances pro- 
vided by school authorities. Morning and even- 
ing a fleet of approximately 80,000 school 
juses moves out upon the highways of the na- 
rion, to cover routes totaling at least a million 
miles. There they take their chances with traffic 
hazards, inclement weather, and all other un- 
favorable road conditions. If this great pro- 
oram is to be carried out with safety, every 
precaution must be taken by those responsible 
tor the enterprise. 


Purpose 


This bulletin is intended to encourage more 
widespread adoption of the best safety prac- 
tises. It reviews important legal provisions and 
oficial rulings which pertain to pupil safety. 
It describes actual transportation practises in 
various states and localities. It contains safety 
suggestions and recommendations offered by 
various organizations and agencies concerned 
with the promotion of highway safety. 


Sources and Procedures 

The study began with a canvass of the litera- 
ture already available. Search was then made 
thru the school laws and motor vehicle codes of 
all the states for legislation affecting safe school 
bus operation. The regulations of state boards 
and departments of education, and the rulings 
of highway commissions and motor vehicle 
departments were also analyzed. For the five- 
year period 1931 thru 1935, the New York 
Times was consulted for reports of school bus 
accidents. Information and constructive help 
were obtained thru correspondence and _ per- 
sonal conferences with many people, especially 
the representatives of several national organ- 
izations and certain federal and state officials. 
Helpful reports on present practises were ob- 
tained from thirty-six states, the District of 
Columbia, Alaska, and Puerto Rico in reply 
to a brief questionnaire submitted in May 
1936 to each state and territorial department 
of education. Fhruout the bulletin our in- 


Vol. 6, No. 3. Lexington: University of Kentucky, 1934. 81 p 
? National Highway Users Conference 
1936. 127 p. 


*U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Public Roads 
(Act V of the Uniform Vehicle Code 
Their Safe Design and Operation. Chicago 
Be Established 


D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1934. 46 p 
* National Safety Council. School Buses 
5 Farnsworth, Burton K. “Basic Principles Must 
August, 1933. 


I. The Problem of Safe Transportation 


1 Eddleman, James C. The Regulation of Pupil Transportation in the United States 


Equipment Requirements 


[ 201 ] 


debtedness to others is acknowledged in foot 
note references. Particularly helpful were th 
transportation manuals of state departments of 
education and the bulletins (1) Regulation of 
Pupil Transportation in the United States, 
(2) Equipment Requirements for Motor V« 
hicles,? (3) Uniform Act Regulating Traffic 
on Highways,’ and (4) School Buses: Their 
Safe Design and O peration.* 


Trends in Pupil Transportation 


The transportation of school pupils is not 
a new form of educational service. It began, 
according to Farnsworth,® in a Massachusetts 
school district in 1840. There it continued 
for twenty-nine years without legal authoriza 
tion, until in 1869 Massachusetts passed the 
nation’s first school transportation law, pro 
viding that 

Any town in this Commonwealth may raise, by 
taxation or otherwise, and appropriate money to 
be expended by the school committee in their dis 
cretion for the conveyance of pupils to and from 


public schools. 


Between 1870 and 1890, similar laws were 
passed in five states and between 1890 and 
1910 in twenty-five additional states. In 
twenty-three states the provision of transpo1 
tation facilities is now mandatory under ce) 
tain conditions. In Missouri and Nevada it may 
be made mandatory in any district by vote of 
the people. In six states the law permits the 
transportation of pupils living more than 
specified minimum distance from school. In 
fifteen states transportation is legally permis 
sive at the discretion of school authorities. In 
Florida and Utah, the only states without 
specific legislation on the subject, general leg 
islation authorizing school authorities to pro 
mote education and do all things needful for 
the maintenance and success of the schools has 
been interpreted to include pupil transporta 
tion. By 1920 pupils were being transported 
in all the states, whether or not specific legal 
sanction had yet been given. 


Bulletin of the Bureau of School 


for Motor Vehi Washington, D..C.: the Conferer 


Uniform Act Regulating Trafic on Highways. Was! 


the Council, 193€. 14 p 
] Nation’s Schools 12 


for Pupil Transportation.” 








In spite of the fact that pupil transportation 
has been provided in certain cases for nearly 
a century, it is in some respects a new problem. 
Methods of transportation have changed—and 
are changing. The number of pupils trans- 
ported is mounting rapidlv. Figure I, based on 
the number of pupils transported in the decade 
since 1924, shows how rapidly the program 
is expanding. The development in certain 
states has been remarkable. New York, for 
example, which in 1927 was transporting only 
a little more than 10,000 pupils, now trans- 
ports more than 100,000.° ° 

Three factors have been especially impor- 
tant in producing the trend noted above: (1) 
improvements in our system of public roads, 
(2) new developments in motor bus construc- 
tion, and (3) widespread efforts to provide 
better educational opportunities for rural 
children by consolidating small schools. High- 
way improvements have made it possible to 
transport pupils several miles within a rela- 


® Griffin, Francis E 
21-22; April, 1936 


“The Board of Education and Its Child-Transportation Program.” 


tively short time. With good roads, to 
come better equipment and more 
schedules. ‘The success of the movemen: 
consolidated schools is readily shown. ‘| 
were 12,674 consolidated schools in | 
17,248 in 1934. There were 165,417 on 
schools in 1924; only 138,542 in 1934, Sjy 
all these factors and others are still ope: 
there is every reason to expect that duri: 
immediate future pupil transportation 
continue to increase in volume and in r 
importance. 


Transportation in the Various States 


The problem, to be sure, is not of 
relative importance in all the states. Son 
transport relatively few of the pupils en: 
others, a substantial percent, depending | 
on the sparsity of population and the prey 
attitude toward consolidated schools. Figu; 
indicates the general volume of pupil tra: 
tation in each state. 


American School Board Jou 


FIGURE I 


TEN-YEAR TREND IN PUPIL TRANSPORTATION 


OOO 


SCHOOL 





ef 
ae. 
ae. 


if 
if 


ae 


Each symbol represents 200,000 pupils transported. 


Ass 


Research Division, National Education 


[ 202 ] 

































































FIGURE II 


Percent of Pupils Transported at Public 
Expense, 1933-34 


Below5% L15-9% Efo-14% Els 


24% (25%2 06 


Research Division, National Education Association 


Sources: (1) Enrolments—U. S. Office of Education, Statistics 
of State School Systems, p. 49; (2) Pupils transported—Blose, 
David T., “Some C lidation Statistics.’ School Life 21: 224; 


April, 1936 





Record of Safety Thus Far Established 


Generally speaking, pupil transportation has 
been conducted with few accidents. 
During the five-year period 1931 thru 1935 
only nine school bus accidents were reported 
nthe columns of the New York Times. There 
as a whole,’ but 


serious 


ire no figures for the nation 


from individual states come such reports as: 

Alabama—During the year 1934, there was not a 
single fatal accident in transporting 125,100 pupils 
more than 10,000,000 bus miles.® 


Delaware—During the period 1924-25 to 1934-35, 
45,000 school children were transported over ap- 
proximately 5,000,000 miles without a serious injury 
resulting from the negligence of a school bus driver.” 


Illinois—During 1935, there were six accidents in- 
volving school buses, but these accidents did not 
result in a single injury or death.” 


a report to the local police or the sheriff is sufficient 


Five of these eleven states compile statewide summaries but do not report the 
accidents. State departments of education usually have the best information available 


information is incomplete. 


8 Blome, H. P. Improving the Safety of School Bus Transportation 
® Letter from William Ball, supervisor of transportation in the Delaware State Department of Public Instruction, Jur 
10 Letter from H. H. Harrison, traffic engineer, Illinois Division of Highways, June 
“ Reports from state departments of education, June 1936, except in the case 
comes from R. E. Hammond, Utah state tax commissioner, in a letter of June 1, 
director of the Highway Safety Department of the Wisconsin State Highway Commissi 


12 National Safety News 29: 36; June, 1934. 


13 Moore, D. H. “An Economical County Transportation System.’ American School Board Journal 85 


14 Blome, H. P. op. cit., p. 2. 
15 J bid. 
16 School Life 21: 246; May, 1936. 


17 Replies from state departments of education to one of the questions in our inqu 


1936. See “Sources and Procedures,” p. 201. 














7 There is at present, no possible source for complete and reliable informat 
with pupil transportation. In nine states no report of any kind is required in case 








Michigan, Mis 
South 
No pupils are 


ldaho, Kansas, 
Rhode Island, 


and Wisconsin 


Flerida, Georgia 
sourt, Nebraska, 

South Dakota, Utah, 
known to have been injured in school bus accidents 


in 1934-35 

To the further credit of those responsible 
for pupil transportation may be cited the un 
fine safety records of certain school 
districts. The Charles Feilbach School for 
Crippled Children makes the proud boast of 
“no child injured in a million bus rides.” 
Lake County, buses to 
carry daily 1000 children, an average distance 


Carolina 


usually 


Florida, operates 27 


of 10 miles. The system has been so carefully 
planned and administered that no single serious 
injury to any pupil has ever occurred.'* Wasco 
Union High School in California also has a 
perfect score—not a single accident, collision, 
or injury in over 15 years of operation.'* Bat 

stow Union High School in California claims 
the same distinction, adding further that ther 
have been but 4 vehicle delays enroute in the 
last 2 years of operation. This school, inci 
dentally, also claims the longest bus route in 
the United States, a loop route of 104 miles. 

Then there is the record of Sioux City, lowa 

-1000 pupils a day in 17 buses for 17 years 
without an accident in which a child was in 
jured.’® One of the 17 drivers has been on 
the job the whole of the 17-year period; 2 
have served 16 vears; another, 14 years. These 
and other districts are setting safety records 
worthy of emulation. 

Yet in spite of the general good record for 
safety which has been established, preventable 
accidents occasionally do result in the death 
or serious injury of school pupils. The need 
for vigilant attention to safety problems is 
demonstrated by the following accident reports 
from 11 states.’17 During the past few vears 
not more than 5 years in any case—297 school 
bus accidents have occurred in the 11 states. 





it accidents to school children a ited 


of motor vehicle accidents. In most of the state 
In only eleven states must a report be made to some designated state official 
aumber of children killed or injured in school bus 





but a majority of these admit that their 
Berwyn, Ill.: the Author. Unpublished ms. p. 2 
| 
19, 1936 
Utah and Wisconsin. The report from Utah 
1936; that for Wisconsin from W. A. Burdick 
on, in a letter of June 11, 1936 
68: October, 19 
iry on safe transportation, submitted May 





Eighteen pupils were killed; 209 were seri- 
ously injured. According to the reports re- 
ceived, most of these accidents, with proper 
precautions, might have been prevented. Furth- 
ermore, just as there are districts with un- 
usually fine safety records, there are others 
with high accident records. For example, be- 
tween October 18, 1934, and January 24, 
1935, there were 10 accidents in one school 
district.'* Five pupils were struck by passing 
automobiles after alighting from buses. One 
accident involved striking a car which stopped 
suddenly ahead of the bus; another, colliding 
with a car as the bus was passing a truck and 
trailer; another, skidding into a parked car 
on a curve; another, forcing a car off the road 
and causing it to strike a pole; and the last, 
collision with a car as the bus entered a main 
road. 

It is the occasional accident and the rare 
case of negligence that seem to justify this 
bulletin. A single preventable school bus acci- 
dent is one too many. 


Scope of This Study 


The material presented here deals primarily 
with safe pupil transportation in rural school 
districts. The problem is more urgent in these 
districts than in urban centers, not only be- 
cause more rural children are transported, but 
because equipment standards tend to be lower 
and operating regulations less strict than those 
enforced by city school authorities. A number 
of city school districts have extensive pupil 
transportation programs. As early as 1930, 
84 percent of the cities over 100,000 in popu- 
lation were providing transportation for cer- 
tain handicapped pupils and 58 percent for 
certain normal children to whom no school 
was reasonably accessible. Smaller cities, too, 
have their transportation programs, as Table 1 
reveals. This bulletin should prove helpful to 
city school officials to the extent that common 
safety problems are found in rural and urban 
areas. Most of the safety suggestions offered 
are applicable in city school systems. There is 
no discussion, however, of the special hazards 
associated with pupil transportation in urban 
districts. 

In the same manner, the bulletin is restricted 
almost entirely to safe motor bus operation, 
because buses far outnumber school convey- 


and Indemnity Company, in a memorandum of July 13, 1936. 


TABLE 1.—PUPIL TRANSPORTATIon 
PROGRAMS IN 177 CITIES OVER 30 0 
IN POPULATION, 1934 





Type of transportation 


No transportation provided..... 

Transportation for atypical children only 

Transportation for certain normal children as 
well as atypical children... . , 





Source: Hill, Henry H. “City School Transportat 
Method of Economy.” American School Board Journa 
August, 1934. 





ances of all other types. Safety problems 
to be sure, in cases where children are 
ported by means of horse-drawn wa; 
sleighs, boats, taxicabs, special trains, 
cars, and other vehicles. But the conside: 
of special problems associated with these f 
of transportation lies beyond the scope of 
study. 

In connection with motor bus operat 
the bulletin deals with both district owned 
school buses, and with those privately owned 
and operated under contract. Altho in som 
measure the problems of safety are different 
as related to these two types of school trans 
portation, they are to a considerable degre 
the same. Reports from 20 states and 
District of Columbia indicate that the 
vately owned school buses are the more n 
merous—20,147 to 8,641, respectively—o: 
these states, a ratio of 2.3 to 1. Each typ: 
so widely used that neither can be ignored 
this discussion. 


Organization of the Report 


The bulletin has eight sections of which 


this is the first. The second deals with the 
selection of competent bus drivers; the third 
with the provision and maintenance of safe 
equipment. Safe practises on the part of drivers 
and pupils are then outlined, this being fol- 
lowed by a section on the selection of safe 
routes. The discussion then turns to some of 
the less direct influences on pupil safety, in 
cluding certain forms of safety promotion and 
various business practises affecting pupil safety. 
The final section reviews the salient facts and 
important implications of the bulletin. 


18 This report on an unnamed school district is given by G. B. Butterfield, assistant secretary of the Hartford Ac: 


[ 204] 





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II. The Selection of 


No school bus is safer than the driver who 
erates it. Iwo of the contrasting cases cited 


in the preceding section of this bulletin illus- 
trate this fact—one a school district without 
a pupil injury in seventeen years of operation; 
the other a district where ten accidents oc- 
curred within a period of three months. The 
same conclusion is suggested by the accounts 
of nine school bus accidents which appeared 
in the New York Times between 1931 and 
1935, inclusive.’ Eight of the nine apparently 
were due to negligence on the part of the 
drivers. Neither the finest of equipment, roads 
remarkably free from traffic hazards, excellent 
lriving regulations “‘on paper,” nor all of these 
ombined, are effective pupil safeguards if in 
ompetent drivers are employed. 


Responsibility for Selecting Capable Drivers 


Obviously, major responsibility for selecting 
competent school bus drivers must be assumed 
by local boards of education, even under the 
best of circumstances. State legislatures, state 
departments of education, and state highway 
officials have responsibilities which they should 
not neglect. General basic qualifications fo1 
school bus drivers ought to be specified in the 
state’s motor vehicle code and in the official 
rulings of the state’s education and highway 
departments. Such laws and rulings make it 
much easier for local schoolboards to weed 
out undesirable applicants, to resist local pres- 
sure, and thus to secure well-qualified drivers. 
But local schoolboards must interpret and 
apply these regulations, they must usually 
adopt other supplementary standards, and they 
must exercise good judgment in evaluating 
certain personal traits and qualities which no 
set of rules can adequately describe. 

In the absence of appropriate state laws 
and regulations, schoolboards must assume 
almost complete responsibility for obtaining 
competent drivers. How generally this must 
be done, and the implied need for more rigid 


1 Also referred to earlier, see p. 203. 


2 The term “regulation” is used here, and thruout the bulletin, to mean an offi 
which has the full force and effect of law. It includes requirements established by e 


not refer to suggested standards which local boards may ignore 

3 These states are: Arizona, Delaware, Indiana, 
Texas, Utah, and Virginia. 

4 Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Florida 
Washington. 

5 Colorado. 

®Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, 


Kentucky 


Journal 87: 41; October, 1933 


Massachusetts, 


Michigan 


Montana, North Carolina, and South Dakota 
7Carson, J. D. ‘‘Why Expensive Transportation of School Children 


Competent Drivers 
dards, is suggested in 


] 
lowing paragraphs. 


statewide stan 


Minimum Age 


The qualification mentioned most frequently 
in state laws or regulations * is an acceptable 
minimum age for school bus drivers. In Okla 
homa, only “‘an adult” may be employed, un 
less he is endorsed by at least five patrons. In 
12 states, drivers must be at least twenty-one 
years old.* ‘I'welve prescribe eighteen years as 
a minimum ;* another, seventeen years;> and 
6 specify the minimum age as sixteen.® Thus 
only 13 states require school bus drivers to be 
adults; 19 specifically authorize the employ 
ment of minors; and 16, by the absence of 
state regulation, permit their employment. In 
contrast, 33 states have established twenty-one 
years as the minimum age for drivers of public 
motor buses. Surely there is no good reason 
why the driver of a commercial vehicle servin; 
the general public should be more mature than 
the driver of a school bus. 

Pupil Drivers 


In the states where minors are allowed t 


drive school buses, older pupils—usually high 


school students—are often employed. In no 
case do these drivers constitute a large percent 
of the total number of drivers, but there are 
several states where the practise is not un 
common. 

In support of this arrangement it is 
that (1) high-school boys can be employed 
for considerably less money than adult drivers ; 
(2) they will always be at school, ready to 
start promptly at the close of the day’s session ; 
and (3) they are accustomed to school routine 


and will cooperate better with school authori 


. } 
argued 


to 


ties in carrying out the instructions given 
them. In Montgomery County, Ohio, where 
until recently student drivers were regularly; 
employed, the authorities were well satisfied 


with the plan.’ 


ial ruling by any duly authorized state 


lucation or highway departments, | 


New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode 


Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oregor 


in Privately Owned Buses?” Ame mn 


| 205 ] 


School Board 


} 





Other districts, however, find them less mercial trucks are between the ages of ty 
satisfactory—for example, the district where one and forty-five. 
one student driver racing with another over- No statewide regulation with respect 
turned his bus, killing one child and injuring maximum age for school bus drivers is k: 
others ;° and the one where a student driver to be in use; neither is it possible at this ; 
started up before the pupils were loaded, to suggest an optimum age limit. Local 
breaking the leg of his own younger brother.® lations vary, some fixing the limit at 
Insurance companies, too, have found them years, others at sixty-five or seventy. B 
poor risks for liability insurance, as is shown recommends that no school bus driver b: 
by the following testimony: ployed or retained beyond sixty-five 
, ‘ of age.'* The Kentucky and Nebraska 
Sty fare problem we ace in the mate departments of eduction suggest the 
drivers. We would like to see drivers for school boards employ no driver more than fifty 
buses be at least twenty-one years of age. We our- of age. 
selves decline risks when school buses are driven License Requirements 


by students.” ri : 
There are eighteen states in which 


In some cases student drivers may prove school bus driver must have either a sp 
quite satisfactory, but their employment should _ bus driver’s license or chauffeur’s license. 
probably be the exception rather than the rule. most cases this special license is in additio: 
It is generally conceded that they tend to be some ordinary form of driver’s license. |; 
less level-headed in emergencies, that they are twenty-one other states no special license i 
less able to maintain proper discipline on the quired, but a system of ordinary drive: 
bus, and that they are inclined to drive reck- censing is in use and school bus drivers n 

have the regular license.'® Nine states req 

. no license.'? 

Maztmem Age The states requiring drivers’ licenses 
chauffeurs’ licenses follow different standard 
and procedures in issuing them. In some . 
the application for license is a mere formali! 
and little or nothing is done to exclude unfi 
drivers. Other states enforce certain age 
quirements and give whatever tests are 
sidered necessary if the applicant has any 
vious mental or physical handicap. Still others 
exercise considerable care in issuing licenses 
giving rather thoro driving tests to all ap 
plicants. In three states, Montana, Ohio, and 
Rhode Island, a certificate issued by the | 
or county schoolboard is required in addition 
to other necessary licenses. 


lessly. 


Altho the age of a safe driver is usually 
thought of in terms of the minimum age of 
responsibility, some attention should also be 
given to maximum age. Advancing years bring 
changes which definitely affect driving skill. 
For example, vision is more likely to fail than 
to improve, and general health is likely to 
become poorer. Tests made at Massachusetts 
State College show that brake reaction time ™’ 
grows increasingly slower after twenty-three 
years of age, changing from an average of .41 
seconds at age twenty-three to an average of 
47 seconds at age sixty-five.’? Other tests 
reveal a distinct loss in coordination between 
eve and hand in steering an automobile after P ; 

ee Experience Requirements 
the age of fifty-five years.’® It is significant, 
too, that 97.8 percent of the drivers of public About one-third of the state laws and regu 
buses and 96.4 percent of the drivers of com- lations specify that school bus drivers shall b« 


5 Reported by G. B. Butterfield in a memorandum on school bus accidents, June, 1936. 

® An accident which occurred a few years ago in a consolidated school district in Webster County, Nebraska 

1 Letter under date of June 13, 1936, from G. B. Butterfield. 

™ This refers to simple brake reaction time as distinguished from complex, reflex, and discriminatory reactions. 

12 Massachusetts State College Psychological Laboratory. Research on Driving Skill. Report of FERA Project XS-F2-1 
Amherst, Mass.: the College, 1935. p. 7-8. 

13 [hid., p. 9-11. 

™ Blome, H. P., op. cit., p. 4. 

% Alabama, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Delaware, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota 
Missouri, New Jersey, Ohio, Oklahoma, Utah, and West Virginia. 

1@ Arizona, Connecticut, Idaho, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, 
Carolina, North Dakota, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin. 

1? Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Tennessee, and Wyoming 


[ 206 ] 





.xperienced. In the states having some regu 
the usual requirement is 


¢ 
lation of this kind,'® 
either one or two years’ experience ; sometimes, 
only the general provision that the driver be 


“experienced.” 
Physical Fitness 


Except as freedom from physical handicaps 
is a prerequisite to obtaining the necessary 
chauffeur’s or driver’s license, few states have 
regulations with respect to the physical fitness 
of drivers. Arkansas, Florida, Indiana, Ken 
tucky, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode 
Island, and the Territory of Alaska are excep 
tions to this rule, the requirements ranging 
from Florida’s “good health, physically sound 
and alert” to a health certificate issued on the 
basis of a thoro physical examination. Indiana, 
New Jersey, Ohio, and Rhode Island require 
annual health examinations. For example, in 
New Jersey, “the medical examination shall be 
made annually within ten days before the open 
ing of school in September, and reported on 
the prescribed form.”’ 

The need for such requirements was strik 
ingly illustrated in a survey made in Florida 
just before the adoption of the present school 
transportation code. Among 1000 drivers ex- 
amined, two were deaf, two were blind in one 
eye, three had had one leg amputated, and 
six were more than sixty years old. A number 
of others were considered physically unfit fo1 
their jobs by the examining physicians.'® 

The Committee on Safety of the National 
Association of Motor Bus Operators has rec 
ommended : 

That all bus drivers must undergo physical ex 
amination before being employed and twice each 
year after employment and that only men who are 
in physical condition that will enable them to drive 
safely be employed or retained in employment as 
bus drivers. Such physical examination must 
clude vision and hearing tests.” 


in 


Character 


The character and habits of a school bus 


driver should be considered almost as carefully 
as those of a teacher. More than a fourth of 


18 Fourteen states having some type of experience reg 
Maryland, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, Utah, V 
requirement 

19 Public Safety 8: 16; 

20 National Association 
D. C.: the Associat 1932 

21 States which have certain 
Kentucky, Mississippi, Montana, New York, Ohio, 

22 The standards proposed with respe ) age and vision 


March, 1934 
of Motor Bus Operator 


character require 


é 


Rhode Island 


ther in their laws or officia 
ivers shall be of good moral 


nee a a 
ill have good habits 


the states specify, ¢1 


regulations, that d1 


Other Qualifications 


Occasionally certain personal trait 


qualities are listed in the state regulations suc] 
ant appearance’; “tactful 
of 


the 


is, “neat, plea 
the management children”; “be able 


read and write English language” 


order on the Dus wit 


Ino 
Lil’ 


capable of maintain 
out friction”: 


efficiency 


One state 


reasonable degree ot 
first 
requires the driver to be of the same 


he 


and “‘a 


aid treatment 


, ‘ 
In the use oft 


race as the pupils riding in the bus. 


Sample Requirements 


As example of rather thorogoing re 
the i 
Is recently adopte 


ited « 
ited: 


tions with to qualific 


respect 
drivers, the standart 
he 


tucky may 


1ge"—No one should be 


school bus who is less than eighteen or more than 


employed to drive a 


fifty years of age 

Health certificate—No one should be emplove 
able-bodied or 
communicable He be 
physically to handle the bus with ease. He 
have normal use of his body, as use of both hands 
both feet, both eyes, and both ears. He must present 
a certificate from a reputable physician, after a care 


to 


drive a bus who is not who has a 


disease. must strong enough 


must 


ful examination, annually. 
Vision “—He present a 
reputable oculist as to his vision 
Morals—No person shall be employed or kept 
as a of a 
must 


must certificate from a 


in 


service driver school bus who uses in 


toxicating liquors; 
in the bus or on the school grounds; and 
of and 


he not use tobacco while 


he must 


refrain from the use profane indecent 


language. 
Characte? and of 
I] 


on 


reliable 
children 


be thoroly 


He 


repute; a 


must 
whom the Ww 


should 


pupils 


good person 


result in « 


He 


actions 
structive the 
capable of maintaining order. 
Experience—He shall 
thority of ability 
citing driving experience and by 


respect, and whose 


influence over must be 


satisfy the employin 
drive a school | 


his to 


ble 


i ; 
giving relia 


references. 
No one 


who | 


License—He must hold a driver’s license 


should be employed as a school bus driver is 


had a driver’s license revoked. 


[ 207 ] 





Contract—He must sign the driver’s contract fur- 
nished by the schoolboard, which contract covers 
“Regulations for Driver” furnished by school au- 
thorities. 


Personal appearance—Drivers should be required 
to keep clean and neat while operating a school bus. 


First aid—Bus drivers should be expected to at- 
tain a reasonable degree of efficiency in the use of 
first aid treatment. They should be regularly in- 
structed concerning the best way to render first aid 
by someone thoroly qualified to give instruction.” 


Rhode Island is a state in which consider- 
able success has been achieved in selecting safe 
school bus drivers. The State Board of Public 
Roads requires that every applicant present a 
certificate from the schoolboard certifying that 
he is twenty-one years of age, in good health, 
and of good moral character. He must also 
have a chauffeur’s license dated at least a year 
previous to application for a position as school 
bus driver. Meeting these prerequisites, the 
applicant is interviewed by an official of the 
Board of Public Roads who discusses with 
him the responsibilities and obligations of 
school transportation. Emphasis is laid on the 
need for unusual care in operating a school bus. 
The system has never become perfunctory. 
Drivers on the job frequently bring back to 
the Board problems and experiences which 
lead to improvements in regulations and prac- 


tises. 


Salary 


Competent school bus drivers are not 
tained by selecting those who are willing to 
accept the lowest wages. In this matter, as j; 
most other instances, school districts usua|! 
get the kind of service for which they pay 
One of the common reasons for the employ 
ment of poorly qualified school bus drivers js 
that no competent drivers can be had for th 
wages offered. Salary levels which vary widel, 
from one community to another are to 
expected, but in every school district, the sala 
range should be high enough so that comp: 
tency may be the criterion for selection. 


Driving Practises, the Ultimate Test 


Careful selection of bus drivers accordin, 
to standards such as those enumerated ab 
should do much to achieve the goal of “a sa{ 
driver on every school bus.”’ More rigid 
quirements than now exist might well 
adopted by many of the responsible stat: 
agencies; and in the absence of state regu! 
tions, local schoolboards should set up th: 
own local standards. However, a driver mig 
conceivably meet the letter of every requi 
ment listed here and still prove incompeten: 
because of indifference, carelessness, or unsai 
driving practises. Hence the driver’s safe' 
record and an intimate knowledge of his cus 
tomary driving practises should be regard 
as the ultimate test of his fitness for continu 
ance in service or reemployment. 


*3 Kentucky State Board of Education. Manual on Pupil Transportation. Educational Bulletin, Vol. 4, No. 2. Frankfort, K 


the Board, 1936. p. 36-37. 





III. Safe Equipment 


The same used in selecting well- 


jualified drivers should be taken in providing 
safe equipment. Accidents are invited when 


care 


the school buses used are poorly constructed, 
lacking in essential equipment, or badly in 
need of repair. About 15 percent of all the 
motor vehicle accidents that occur are caused, 
at least in part, by mechanical defects.' In the 
ase of school bus accidents, an even larger 
percent should probably be attributed to this 
cause. The director of public safety of the 
National Safety Council describes the situation 
s follows: 


All too frequently the school bus consists of a 
hassis, which has outworn its usefulness for haul 
ing farm produce, on which has been hammered 
together a wooden body at the lowest possible cost, 
and representing, in toto, unsafe and unhygienic 
and also uneconomical equipment. If children are 
to be transported safely, this kind of equipment must 
be relegated to the junk yard, and at once.” 


School buses of the type just described are 
less common now than when school transpor- 
tation was in its infancy. The general advance 
the rapid in- 
crease in the number of children to be carried, 
and a public opinion awakened to the problem 
of pupil safety have led to marked improve- 
ments in mechanical standards. Yet there is 
much room for improvement and many wholly 
unsuitable buses are still in use. Reports from 
three comparatively recent state inspection pro- 
grams suggest the seriousness of the problem: 


oO 
=) 


made in automotive engineerin 


1. Last winter we had one very serious accident 
in which three children lost their lives. The body of 
the bus was wood constructed and was in the neigh- 
borhood of 12 to 15 years old. Had it been of steel 
construction, there is no doubt in my mind but that 
the lives of these three children could have been 
saved. The bus body was crushed similar to a match 
box. After this accident we were prompted to make 
a survey relative to our school buses. . . . 7 Of the 
168 buses inspected, 46, or approximately 29 percent, 
were equipped with bodies that were unfit for the 
transportation of children. Several bodies were 
found to be complete wrecks, unfit to be driven, let 
alone used in transporting children. . . . Ninety per- 
cent of the chassis were not in good shape.® 








2. Of the 500 school buses inspected, the dep: 
ment’s representatives approved 75 vehicles. Tenta 
tive approval was given for 362 other buses on 
condition that certain minor repairs would be made 
immediately. The remaining 63 either were declare 
totally unfit for service or were required to retur! 
for reinspection after extensive rebuilding or repair.’ 

3. Of a little more than 4,000 buses inspected 2,656 
had front exits only; 887 had rear exits only. Forty 
had quite inadequate or defective 


ad questionable brakes or brakes 


V ehic le 8 
29 h 


tour 

brakes; 5 
2 ? 

only medium quality 


7 
Bi 


In 1933, antiquated, wooden 
were held largely responsible for t 
fifteen Florida children killed in school bus 
accidents. Aroused to the importance of sate 
equipment, the state department of education 
then ruled that after July 1, 1935, all school 
buses should be equipped with steel bodies.® 
Until 1934, it was a common practise fot 
school bus owners to purchase from franchised 
operators in New York City the buses which 
had been condemned by the New York Transit 


] . 
Trevulal 


) 
35 


Commission as unsafe for use on the 
lines! One instance will illustrate the hazards 
involved. A for 


school purposes was disbarred as a school bus 


condemned bus purchased 
because the emergency door was inoperative. 
Several times the driver tried to have this bus 
passed without correcting the defect. Finally 
he had the door repaired and put the bus into 
service. Three months later, in 
1934, it caught fire from the back-fire of the 
engine while carrying a load of forty children 
Had it not been for the now usable emergency 
door, escape would have been impossible, for 
flames enveloped the front portion of the bus, 
cutting off access to the service door. A few 


December 


experiences of this type have led New York 
to ban such equipment.’ 
An insurance company official reports that: 


As a class, school buses are inferior to those used 


for transporting the public; in fact, we have run 
across some wretched specimens. One bus was a 
canopy top truck with canvas side which 


when let down kept the children in darkness and 


covers, 


rave the driver no side vision. 


1 National Safety Council. Accident Facts. Chicago: the ¢ l. 1936. p 

2Statement by Sidney J. Williams quoted by Curtis Billings in an article in Motor Transportation 8: 11; A 

> Letter of June 3, 1936, from the director of motor vehicle inspection in the state highway department of Oklal 

* News release of September 2, 1934, from the Department of Motor Vehicles of Connecticut. 

5 Moffitt, M. E., and Calhoun, J. T. Transportation Survey, Public Sch Mississippi. Bulletin No. 78. Jack M 
the State Department of Education, 1934 

® Bus Transportation 13: 300; August 15, 1934. 

7Fullen, William G. “Insuring Safe Transportat the Public.”’ Proceedin N Annual Meetir N 
ion of Motor Bus Operators. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1935. p. 83 


. 209 ] 





Minimum Standards for School Bus 
Equipment 


Safe equipment, like other important safety 
measures, can be assured only by the cooperative 
efforts of various state and local agencies. 
Certain minimum standards should be estab- 
lished on a statewide basis, either thru state 
laws or by means of authoritative rulings. 
Appropriate state agencies should be clothed 
with certain regulatory powers—with what- 
ever authority over school transportation is 
consistent with their respective governmental 
functions. More often than at present, school 
bus equipment should conform to the general 
safety standards required of other comparable 
vehicles. Now school buses usually are exempt 
from the regulations of highway and public 
service commissions and from the provisions 
of state laws regulating “common carriers.”’ 
For the most part, the passengers of common 
carriers are adults. ‘They enter the bus recog- 
nizing the element of risk; they can insure 
themselves against accidents if they so desire; 
in case of accident they should be able, in some 
measure, to help themselves. School children, 
on the contrary, are required to ride in the bus 
provided. They seldom recognize the risks in- 
volved and in emergencies are less able to care 
for themselves. In a great many instances they 
have little or no protection in the form of 
liability insurance. This being true, equipment 
standards for school buses should be higher, 
if anything, than standards for other motor 
vehicles. State legislatures, state education de- 
partments, state highway commissions, motor 
vehicle departments, the state highway police, 
and perhaps other state agencies should join 
forces in keeping dangerous buses out of school 
service. Local school authorities too must 
shoulder large responsibilities, sometimes for 
the interpretation and enforcement of state- 
wide regulations, more often for the develop- 
ment of their own equipment standards in the 
absence of adequate state regulation. 

State and local agencies interested in this 
problem can turn to two sources for sug- 
gestions with respect to suitable equipment 
standards: (1) to the actual laws and regula- 
tions of the several states, and (2) to the ideal 
equipment standards proposed by recognized 
leaders in the field of highway safety. Using 
these sources, the discussion now turns to a 
summary of existing practises and proposed 
standards. 


Size of the School Bus 


A majority of the school buses now in us; 
especially those just going into service, 
considerably larger than those in use a 
years ago. The spread of the school con 
dation movement, resulting in more pupil 
be transported, has created a demand 
larger buses. Engineering improvements 
bus manufacturers and improved highwa 
have made the use of larger conveyances fe 
ible. The general trend is apparent fi 
Figure III, which shows the number of la: 
medium, and small school buses produced a: 
distributed by bus manufacturers from 1925 
to 1935. Buses having a capacity of 40 pu 
or less constituted 86 percent of all those p: 
duced in 1928 and 78 percent in 1929. Begi: 
ning in 1930, however, these began to | 
outnumbered by the larger buses with th 
result that in 1935 they constituted less than 
3 percent of the new buses produced. ‘Thy 
medium-sized bus, carrying 40 to 59 pupils 
has become the most popular type, taking th: 
lead in 1930 and accounting in 1935 for 8 
percent of all school bus construction. Almost 
no school buses for more than 60 pupils were 
produced in 1928, but since 1931 a consistent 
gain has been registered until in 1935 mor 
than a thousand vehicles of this kind wer: 
placed on the market. Reports from othe: 
sources tell of the use in certain localities of 
buses intended for 100 or even 125 pupils. 

This trend has a definite bearing on the 
problem of pupil safety. Even under the most 
ideal circumstances in other particulars, the 
mere size of a bus may constitute a hazard 
A traffic engineer makes the following com 
ment with reference to the matter: 


The school authorities should restrict the maxi 
mum capacity of the buses to a reasonable amount 
consistent with the motor, chassis, brakes, tires, etc 
and with the possibilities of proper control in the 
bus. Some school buses are being constructed with 
capacities of upward of 100. Any such capacity seems 
entirely inappropriate for a school bus for suc! 
reasons as the following: 

(a) In general, there is no one in the bus with 
authority to maintain discipline except the driver. It 
is quite impossible for anyone to expect the drive: 
to maintain discipline among such a large numbe: 
of children and operate the bus properly. Even if 
the bus patrol members are available, it is not 
deemed wise to attempt to maintain discipline with 
their aid over any such numbers. 

(b) Buses which are constructed by untrained 
persons would be likely to be especially dangerous 


{ 210] 








vhen the capacity is too large. They often would 
ick the necessary knowledge to insure proper venti- 

n, heating, braking capacity, power for hills, etc. 

Any one accident could involve a very large 
umber of casualties with buses of excess capacity 
tside from the humanitarian aspect, it i8 a very 
practical question as to whether insurance coverage 
would be adequate for any such number and still 
e of a price that could be paid by the operator of 
such a bus. 

d) Buses of excess capacity must be large and 
especially where not made by competent manu 
facturers would be generally hard to maneuver 

(e) There would be a distinct problem in loading 
ind unloading in safety any unduly large group of 
hildren.® 


Believing that large school buses are haz 
ardous, Connecticut limits the size of school 
buses to a capacity of 55 and forbids the car 
rying of more than a capacity load. Indemnity 
companies hesitate to write insurance for buses 
with a capacity over 55, and would favor legal 
restrictions limiting school buses to 40 or 45 
pupils.® 


8 Memorandum on School Bus Safety (dated May 29, 1936) from Burton W 


Department of the American Automobile Ass n 
’ Statement made in correspondence by an official of the Hartfc 


Probably no sins 
is the proper max 


the driver’s skill, age of tl 


Road conditions, 


1 


nunil j 
pupils, and othet 


| , 
considered, In one 


ie limit can be established 
mum for all communiti 


} 


| | 
related factors should 


instance a bus designed f 


60 pupils may be operated more safely than 
nother which can accommodate only 30. Be 
fore purchasing any equipment or letting an 
contract, howev: school authorities will d 
vell to use th question: Is this bus too | ( 
to be driven fely on the route for whi 


is intended ? 
The National S 


ee 
lowing advice: 


A school bus should never carry a lo 
that which is prescribed by the manufacturer 


ifety Council ofters the fi 


id excec n 


\ one 


ton chassis (designed to carry a “pay load” of one 


ton in addition to the body) is recommended f 


buses with 
a one and one-half 


a seating capacity up to 25 children; 


ton chassis for a bus seati 


from 25 to 35 children; and a two ton chassis for a 


bus seating 35 to 50 « 


*hildren 


No more than 60 


dren should be carried ina school bus except in very 


Mar dir 


wd Accident and Indemnity Company 


FIGURE III 























EE ——————— = — = ———— 
| 7 
_—=———-_ 


6,000 | 


1928-1935 


























NUMBER OF SCHOOL BUSES 
OF VARIOUS SIZES PRODUCED 
BY BUS MANUFACTURERS 








1928 1929 1930 1931 


In this chart 2 “small” bus is one intended for fewer then 40 pupils; “medium 


Source: Annual reports in the February issue of Bus Transportatic 


[ 211 ] 












‘or 40-60 pupils; “large,” for more 


1924 


then 60 pupils 





unusual cases.” The inside height of bus bodies 
should be not less than 60 inches. ... The bus 
chassis should be especially built for the transporta- 
tion of people—that is, a motor coach rather than a 
truck chassis. This will give the chassis sufficient 
strength; it will provide for a lower center of 
gravity making it less liable to tip than a truck; it 
will provide for greater comfort than a truck; and 
will prove equally or more economical in the long 
run." 


Type of Construction 


‘lwo states, Florida and Utah, now require 
all school buses to be equipped with steel 
bodies. The State Highway Commission in 
Oklahoma reports that an effort to secure leg- 
islation requiring steel construction will be 
made in the 1937 legislature of that state. In 
several other states the purchase of buses with 
all steel bodies is strongly urged by state edu- 
cation departments and other authorities. An- 
other common recommendation is that bus 
bodies be purchased from reliable bus body 
manufacturers rather than from relatively in- 
experienced, independent workmen. A _ few 
states wisely prohibit the use of welded frame 
extensions or other improvised modifications 
of frame or chassis. 


Brakes 


With the exception of Wyoming, the gen- 
eral motor vehicle laws or official rulings of 
all the states contain some more or less definite 
regulation as to kind of brakes that may be 
used on vehicles operating therein. Such laws, 
of course, apply to school buses. Twenty-two 
states and the District of Columbia specify 
stopping distances at given speeds; for exam- 
ple, a stopping distance of 30 feet for vehicles 
moving at the rate of 20 miles per hour.’? 
More than half the states require two separate 
means of applying the brakes. In Alaska, Cali- 
fornia, Colorado, and New York official rul- 
ings require all school buses to be equipped with 
four-wheel brakes. The brake regulation gen- 
erally regarded as a proper model for state 
legislation, or official rulings, is that which ap- 
pears in Section 124 of the Uniform Vehicle 
Code: 


(a) Brake equipment required. 


Every motor vehicle . . . when operated 
highway shall be equipped with brakes adeq 
control the movement of and to stop and hol 
vehicle, including two separate means of a; 
the brakes, each of which means shall be effec: 
apply the brakes to at least two wheels. If thes 
separate means of applying the brakes are con 
in any way, they shall be so constructed that f 
of the operating mechanism shal! not leave the 
vehicle without brakes on at least two wheels 


(b) Performance ability of brakes. 


1. The service brakes upon any motor 
. shall be adequate to stop such vehick 
when traveling 20 miles per hour within a dist 
of 30 feet when upon dry asphalt or concrete 
ment surface free from loose material whe: 
grade does not exceed 1 percent. 

2. Under the above conditions 
shall be adequate to stop such vehicle... w 
a distance of 55 feet and ... to hold such v 

. stationary on any grade upon which opera 

a 

4. All braking distances specified in this s¢ 
shall apply ... whether such vehicles ar 
loaded or are loaded to maximum capacity. 

5. All brakes shall be maintained in good w 
ing order and shall be .o adjusted as to operate as 
equally as practicable with respect to the wh 
on opposite sides of the vehicle.” 


the hand 


Unlike the foregoing regulations, many 
those now in effect are too indefinite to serv: 
their intended purpose. Especially in the cas: 
of school buses some clearer specification is 
needed than that the brakes must be “ade 
quate,” “sufficient to control,” “‘efficient,’ 


“serviceable,” or “in good order.” 


Tires 


Worn or inferior tires are hazardous on 
any motor vehicle, particularly on a schoo! 
bus. When a tire blows out, it has the effect 
of applying a brake on that wheel. The vehicl 
is almost certain to sway before the driver can 
offset the unexpected resistance, and in the 
case of a heavy conveyance especially, may be 
thrown entirely out of control. Moreove: 
frequent tire trouble is a source of delay and 
annoyance that can and should be eliminated 
Good tires, properly inflated, are absolute}; 
essential to safe pupil transportation. 


10 Italics are ours. A maximum capacity of 60 is recommended also by H. P. Blome, o?. cit., p. 7. 

™ National Safety Council. School Buses: Their Safe Design and Operation. Chicago: the Council, 1935. p. 3-4. 

12 The states in which stopping distances are specified are: California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Louisian 
Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New Hampshire, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rh« 
Island, South Dakota, Texas, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin. 

13 U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Public Roads. Uniform Act Regulating Traffic on Highways. Washington 
Government Printing Office, 1934. p. 30-31. (Act V of the Uniform Vehicle Code) 


_ ¢ 


{ 212} 




















Safety Glass 


In Alaska, the District of Columbia, and 
+ least twenty-eight of the states, school buses 
nust be equipped with safety glass.'* In some 
ases this requirement hinges on a general law 
pplicable to all vehicles. In others, 


special laws or special rulings for school buses 


motor 


ive been adopted. No equipment standard 
r school buses is in more general use. A 


itisfactory regulation covering this point is as 


ollows: 


a) On and after — — (date) no person 
shall sell any new motor vehicle nor shall any new 
notor vehicle be registered thereafter which is de 
signed or used ...as a school bus unless such 
vehicle is equipped with safety glass wherever glass 
is used in doors, windows, and windshields, 

“safety glass” shall mean any prod- 
fabricated, 


c) The term 
ict composed of glass, so manufactured, 
prevent shattering 


ind treated as substantially to 


ind flying of the glass when struck or broken or such 
ther or similar product as may be approved by 
the commissioner [of motor vehicles]. 

1) The commissioner shall compile and publish 
a list of types of glass by name approved by him as 


meeting the requirements of this section. 


Identification: Color of School Buses 


It is quite generally agreed that a distinc 
tive, uniform color for school buses is a de- 
sirable safety precaution. ‘This enables the 
passing motorist to recognize a school bus at 
mce and to drive with unusual care when 
near it. Yellow or orange with black trim and 
lack lettering are colors widely used and 
recommended by the National Safety Coun- 
cil?® and the American Automobile Associa- 
tion.’ The following regulation is typical: 

The body of the bus should be painted golden 
orange color. The inside of the bus should be painted 


gray. 

Michigan also requires school buses to be 
painted uniformly but uses a different color 
scheme: 






14 California, Coloradc, Delaware, Lllinois, Indiana, Iowa 
Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North 





1% U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Public R 

16 National Safety Council, op. cit., p. 6 

17 Memorandum from the American Automobile Associat 

18 Kentucky State Board of Education. Manual on Put 
Board, 1936, p. 9. { Regulations similar to this are in effe 
Oklahoma, Utah, and West Virginia. 





Care 


South Carolina, Utah, Vermont. Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisc: 


entucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan 

lina, North Dak Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Rhode I 
nsin. 

Safety and I » Denartment. Tune 

ransport m. i 1] Bulletin. Vol. 4. N t Lf 
Alaska, Ca I ia. Marvland. M Nace 


19 Extracts from Ch. V, Part II, Act 319, P. A. 1927 
2 The Order of United Commercial Travelers of America 
June 18, 1936, from the Supreme Counselor of the organization 


311) School di i rds; fa 
rwned l us, ‘ ! ij I» di ) / nl, ent roeémeni ‘ 


Every sch y] owned bus here: 





hereafter repainted shall be painted as follows: ‘I 









superstructure or top of the bus constituting tw 

fifths of the body area shall be painted blue, unde: 

which shall be a line of white constituting one-fift) 
the body area which shall extend over the | 

of the engine, and the base of the bus const 

two-fifths of the body area shall be red in col Phe 

name of the scho listrict shall be painted in black 






on the white line at the back, front and sides of the 
shall be the duty of the 
ind the district board 
» enforce 





ntenden 
of educa 





super 


bus. It 
public instruction 


tion of each school district in this state t 







provisions of this section. 











(312) Privat 
rs of buses no 


pense. Sec. 28. In the event that owner 









in operation for the transportation of 

iren wish to re paint their school buses in the ( 
colors and desi they shall apply to the ird 
of education for paint for that purpose, and 1 






board of education shall be required to fui 





said paint iree of expense to the owne! 


on non-school bus 






Es, j Pati) 





(314) Restrictions 


Sec. 30. Buses, not engaged in the ti 





insportats 


full time, il 






school children, either part time or 





these same 





not be permitted to be painted in 





firm or corporation 





and design person, 






ntravention to 
| 


ity of a misdemeano 


iting any bus in co 


of this act, 






1] 
Will be gul 


to the Michigan law 


everal legislatures during the 





Bills simila 
troduced into 
most recent sessions. ‘he idea is said 





originated with a traffic officer in California, 


district and 






who time in his 





1 


tried it for a 

5 ] 1} } | nus 
found it helpful SCHOOL DU 
dents. Thus introduced, a large national or 


in preventing 








ization is now actively promoting legislat 
to make red, white, and blue the standard 
colors for school The org 

rightly holds that uniform painting o 








buses.7° nization 





I T USE 





thruout the nation would be of distinct advan 







tage, because then persons traveling trom on 

| | 
state to another would always know a school 
bus for what it is. They claim further, how 






sufh 


‘ | 
and 


ever, that yellow or orange buses are not 


ciently distin 





partly because of du 





mud, and partly because many other vehicles 
are painted a similar shade. On this point tl 





ere 




















is considerable difference of opinion. Many of 
those long concerned with highway safety be- 
lieve that yellow and black buses are distinc- 
tive, and that, on the whole, these colors are 
more satisfactory than any other combination 
thus far suggested. 

The relative merits of various color com- 
binations should be investigated thoroly, using 
research technics similar to those employed by 
the United States Bureau of Public Roads 
and the United States Bureau of Standards 
in testing the effectiveness of different road 
signs. In this way the visibility of different 
colors could be determined objectively for 
buses operating in all kinds of weather and 
against various landscape backgrounds in au- 
tumn, winter, and spring. The durability of 
the colors could also be taken into account— 
an important factor when buses are not painted 
at frequent and regular intervals. Until such 
research has been done, it seems doubtful 
whether the use of yellow and black school 
buses should be discouraged. This is the com- 
bination selected for road signs because of its 
high visibility under all weather conditions 
and against various backgrounds. These are 
also the colors now used on school buses thru- 
out eight states and in many districts in other 
states. In California, where the red, white, 
and blue combination was first employed, 
medium chrome yellow with black trim and 
lettering has been the uniform standard for 
school buses since July 1933. 


Identification: Lettering and Other Devices 


More than half the states have laws or regu- 
lations with respect to the lettering or other 
identifying signs to be used on school buses.”! 
In the great majority of cases the words 
SCHOOL BUS must be printed “in large letters”’ 
on both front and rear. Often the phrase 
“large letters” is accurately defined as, for 
example, “unshaded letters not less than 5 
inches in height.” ** In several states the name 
and number of the school district must appear 
on the sides of the bus. In one state, the sign 
SCHOOL BUS, on the rear, is followed by the 
phrase STOPS AT ALL RAILROAD CROSSINGS. In 


“1 Among the states with such regulations are: Arkansas, 


another, the signs read SCHOOL BUs 
TION. Where school buses are privately o 
and are exempt from the usual requiren 
that the body be painted yellow, they are of; 
required to display a prominent school 
sign on front and rear while carrying « 
pupils. Black lettering on a yellow background 
is recommended for such detachable signs 
In Mississippi, school buses are ident 
by means of the unique device described j; 
the following excerpt from the state law: 


All persons, firms, or corporations when trans 
porting school children on the public highways o{ 
the State with motor drawn or other vehi 
whether said driver be the owner of said vehi 
or whether said vehicle is furnished by the count 
or school district, or some other person, shall eq 
said vehicle with two red flags to the fore and ty 
to the aft. Said flags shall be not less than eightee; 
inches wide and twenty-four inches long, with th 
word “School” on each of said flags in capit 
letters and said flags shall be continuously 
played while the school children are being trans 
ported or taken on or discharged from said n 
vehicle. ... 

It shall be unlawful for any other person 
equip a vehicle with flags similar to or like ¢| 
flags required herein for the school transport 
Wek 


The value of this device or of any system 
lettering depends, of course, on its visibilit 
under different lighting conditions, which i: 
turn depends on factors such as size and 
amount of contrast between symbol and bac! 
ground. 


Mounting 


In the purchase of school conveyances, it 
highly important that the proper wheel bas: 
be selected for each length body and that th 
bus body be mounted correctly. Improper dis 
tribution, particularly too much overhang, 
makes steering more difficult, reduces the ef 
fectiveness of the breaking system, increases 
tire and body maintenance costs, and impairs 
the riding qualities of the bus.*° In New York 
Oklahoma, and perhaps in certain other states 
at least two-thirds of the bus body must rest 
ahead of the rear axle. Automobile engineers 
point out that in addition to the foregoing 
standard, the overhang should not exceed 45 


California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, [llinois 


Indiana, Towa, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jerse) 
New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, Texas, Utah, Washington, and West Virginia. 

22 The height of letters required varies from one state to another, ranging from 4 inches in California to 6 in New Jers 
The National Safety Council recommends “letters at least 5 inches high.’ 


*3 Section 6640, Code of 1930. 


*% “Overhang”’ refers to that part of the bus body extending backward from the rear axle. 
* Memorandum from the transportation engineer of the Automobile Manufacturers Association, April 20, 1936. 


[ 214} 













percent of the wheel base, and that less than 


45 percent overhang is preferable.*® To illus 
-the maximum body length ** for a 200 


9 


trate 
inch wheel base would be 22'% feet, or 2/0 


inches, the body mounted with a 90-inch over 


hang. 


Power 


The power of a school bus motor should 
be proportionate to the capacity load of the 
vehicle and to the road conditions involved. 
Lack of adequate power may cause unneces 
sary delays, result in undue engine wear, and 
create trafic hazards on hills where the bus 
cannot proceed at a reasonable speed. Act V 
of the Uniform Motor Vehicle Code suggests 
that the motive power be sufficient to propel 
the fully loaded vehicle at not less than 20 
miles an hour on any grade upon which it 
regularly operates.“ In communities of flat 
terrain, power enough to ascend a 3 percent 
orade at 20 miles an hour would be sufficient. 
In hilly regions, satisfactory performance on 
a 5 or 6 percent grade is often needed. In the 
state of New York the following regulation 
applies: 

The power plant shall be of a type and capacity 
approved by the manufacturer for the particulai 
conveyance loaded to capacity. Power shall be 
ample to provide satisfactory performance in all 
gears when operating with a governor set at 30 
miles an hour. Proper piston displacement of motor 
and rear axle gear ratio should enable bus loaded 
to capacity to take a 3 percent grade in high gear 
on a first-class paved road.” 


Service and Emergency Doors 


More than a fourth of the states have laws 
or regulations pertaining to school bus doors 
which are similar in general outline to the 
recommendations of the National Safety Coun- 
cil. According to these standards, the service 
door should be located opposite the driver on 
the right side of the bus and should be under 
his control exclusively. Folding units or slid 
ing doors are recommended; the “sedan” type 
is disapproved. The minimum horizontal clea: 
ance should be 24 inches. Lower panels as well 
as upper should be of glass, in order that the 
driver can see the roadside and any pupils 
standing near the bus. Enclosed steps with 


2% Jbid. Tables showing correct body length in proportion 
Association, Transportation Building, Washington, D. C 


27 “Body length” is the distance from back of cowl to the end of the floor 
28U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Public Roads 
2”New York State Education Department, Rural Education Division 


Albany: the Department, 1936. p. 5 


to wheel base ca 


[ 215 ] 


risers not exceeding 10 inches should be pro 
vided. White steps and step-well lights are 


+ 


desirable. A channel of rubber hose at 1 
jambs should protect children’s fingers from 


injury. For the same reason the control lever 


1¢ doo1 


should be free from holes or notches, and 
should have no parts that come together with 
a shearing action. ‘There should be no outsid« 
handle on the service door nor should it be 
possible for a pupil to open the service doo 
by leaning against it. 

Placing the service door at the center rear 
was almost the standard practise a few years 
ago, and even yet is not uncommon. Experi 
hown, however, that this is a haz 


ardous arrangement. There is danger of the 


ence has s 


door coming open and of children falling out 
while the bus is traveling along the highway 
Moreover, such doors are too tar trom the 
? 


to 


driver’s direct supervision. It is too easy 
start the bus before all are properly loaded 
and the door securely closed. The outside steps 
and hand rails often placed at rear service 
doors are another source of danger, tempting 
the venturesome pupil to “hang on” for a ride 
outside the bus. 

Besides the service door, every safe school 
bus has an emergency exit. It is recommended 
that the emergency door be located on the left 
hand side of the bus, at the rear. It should have 


a horizontal clearance of at least 22 inches and 
should be clearly marked, “Emergency Door.” 


It should be fastened in such a way that it 


can be readily opened by almost any pupil but 
will not likely be accidentally released. This 
door should swing outward and it should be 
possible to open it from the outside of the bus 
There should be no steps at this exit. 

A school bus should have no doors except 
the two recommended above. A door at the 
left of the driver’s seat is not only unneces 


sary but weakens the body of the bus 


Other Safety Standards 


The safety of a school bus does not depend 
solely on the important equipment standards 
already discussed but to a considerable degree 
on the quality of many other parts and on 
the presence or absence of equipment of many 
btained from the Automobile Manufacturers 


op. cit., p 


. 
3 
School Bus Requirements and Recommend 


1ttons 








other types. ‘able 2 lists certain other safety 
standards and the states in which each regu- 
lation or a similar one is known to be in effect. 
Many of the items included in this table are 
so important that they might well be required 
in every instance. 

In communities where heavy snowfalls oc- 
cur, charcoal heaters or heaters not dependent 
on the bus engine should be carried for emer- 
gency use. Blankets, a shovel, an extra storage 
battery, a small sending and receiving radio, 
a flash light, matches, food, and water should 
also be included in the emergency kit.*° Lack 
of such equipment has been extremely serious 
in a few cases where buses have been marooned 
in winter storms. 


Maintenance of Bus Equipment 


There must be frequent inspections of eq, 
ment and immediate attention to needed 
pairs if school buses are to be kept in 
operating condition. In Massachusetts 
West Virginia, schoolboards are required 
have each bus inspected by a competent 
chanic once a week; in Florida and N 
York, once a month. In California, Colora 
Connecticut, Illinois, Kentucky, and ©) 
school buses are subject at all times to 
spection without previous notice by the 
highway patrol. In New Jersey, parts of O! 
and Pennsylvania annual inspections are m 
before the opening of schools. All buses 
taken to county seats, or other designat 


® Burnett, Hugh. ‘Safety Measures for the School Bus.’? Nation’s Schools 15: 49-50; May, 1935. 


TABLE 2.—MISCELLANEOUS STANDARDS FOR SCHOOL BUS EQUIPMENT AND 
THE STATES HAVING EACH REGULATION OR A SIMILAR ONE 





Equipment standards 


1 


Every school bus should be equipped with: 
Speed control governor set at 30 miles per hour 
Headlights and a rear light 


Stop light, or lights 


Interior lights 

Reflectors and /or clearance lights........... 
Directional signaling device 

Interior rear view mirror 


Power driven windshield wiper 


Adequate heater; not connected with the exhaust........ 
Approved roof ventilators. .......... 


Exhaust pipe, without leaks, extending at least to the rear of the bus 


Window guards (grills or screens) 


Bumpers; so attached to frame as to discourage or prevent pupils 


from riding on them 


Traffic guard rails to resist impact in case of sideswipe accidents... 


Horn; in good working order 
Speedometer 


Strong front posts, but narrow enough not to obstruct the driver's 


vision to the front and sides 


Gasoline tank mounted, filled, drained, and vented outside of the bus 


body 
Fire extinguisher 


Tools for making ordinary minor repairs 
Skid chains 


oc cs ceueaen aed ds boned suc 


Extra light bulbs and/or fuses 
First aid kit 


States * 


New York 

All the states 

Calif., Colo., Conn., Ind., Mass., 
N. Y., R. I., Utah, and W. Va 

Calif., Conn., Ky., Mass., N. Y., Okla., R. I., and I 

Conn., Ind., Mass., Minn., N. Y., and R. I. 

Calif., Ind., and Utah b 

Ark., Calif., Fla., Ky., Mass., 
R. I., and Utah 

Calif., Colo., Conn., Ind., Ky., 
N. Y., Okla., R. I., and W. Va. 

Calif., Conn., Minn., N. J., N. Y., 

Conn., Mass., Minn., N. J., N. Y., R. L., 

Calif., N. J.. N. Y., and W. Va. 

Conn., N. J., and R. I. 


Minn., Mo., N 


Minn., N. Y., 
Mass., Minn., N 


Ohio, and Ut 
and Uta 


Colo., Mass., Minn., N. Y., Okla., and W. Va. 
Ky., Mass., and Okla. 

Calif., Colo., Fla., Ky., Minn., Utah, and W. Va 
Calif., Ky., R. I., and Utah 


Mass. and Okla. 


Calif., Colo., Conn., Ky., Mass., Minn., N. J., Ok! 
R. IL., and W. Va. 

Calif., Conn., Ind., La., Mass., Minn., N. J., N. ‘ 
Okla., R. I., Texas, and Utah 

Ark., Calif., Fla., Okla., Utah, and W. Va. 

Calif., Colo., Mass., Minn., and Utah 

Ark., Calif., Colo., Minn., Okla., and Utah 

Okla. 

Ark., Calif., Colo., Mass., Minn., Okla., and Utah 

Minn. 

Ind. and N. Y. 





Conference, 1936. 127 p. 


Sources: Motor vehicle laws; bulletins of state departments of education and state highway commissions ; and Nati 
Highway Users Conference. Equipment Requirements for Motor Vehicles. Highway Users Series, No. 13. Washington 


. BD Cus the 


* Altho care has been taken to list for each regulation all the states in which it applies, the listing may be incomplete becaus 


of the limitations of the sources used or recent changes in state regulations. ; 
> Twenty-two other states require directional signaling devices on all vehicles so loaded or constructed as to make the ordinar) 


hand signal invisible. 





[ 216 ] 





points, for inspection by the county superin- 
endent of schools, a representative of the state 
motor vehicle department, and sometimes other 
state officials. In Indiana the state highway 
police department conducts school bus inspec 
tions in each township. In a number of states 
the driver is held responsible for the condition 
‘f his bus, is required to make daily inspection 
f essential safety features, and must file re- 
ports certifying that the bus and its equipment 
ire in good condition. 

In sixteen states, and in certain classes of 
cities and towns in four other states, periodic 
inspection of all motor vehicles is required. 
\uthorized service stations check on such items 
as steering mechanism, wheel alignment, 
brakes, lights, horn, and windshield wiper. In 
some cases an annual inspection is required; 
in others, two or three inspections per year. 
In New Jersey the check-up is made “upon 
proclamation.” ** 

When buses are privately owned and ar- 
rangements for their repair and maintenance 
are the responsibility of the owner, the school 
authorities must see that certain equipment 
standards are satisfied. When the buses are 
district owned, schoo! authorities must carry 
full responsibility, setting up their own sys- 
tems for inspection and repair. The best main- 
tenance plan for a given school district will 
depend entirely on local circumstances. In 
some cases the best arrangement seems to be 
to patronize one or more of the local garages. 
In other cases, the employment of one driver 
mechanic seems advisable. Such an individual 
serves as bus supervisor, inspects and cares for 
ill equipment, and makes all ordinary repairs. 
Still other districts have had excellent results 
from entrusting school bus equipment to their 
high school’s own department of auto me 
chanics. If such departments are in charge of 
expert mechanics and are well equipped, this 
plan has much to commend it. Whatever the 
arrangement, should frequent 
attention from well-qualified mechanics. In 


buses receive 
too many cases the situation is comparable to 
that found by Jackman in his study of trans- 
portation in certain consolidated school dis 
tricts: 

Delaware, 


81 The sixteen states are Colorado, Connecticut 


® In addition, a special ‘“‘brakes test’’ 


financial aid for 
Montana 


providing 
Minnesota, Missouri 


% Among the states 
Massachusetts, Michigan 
and Wisconsin. 


New 


Maine, 
New Mexico, New York, Pennsylvania, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, and Wyoming. Illinois, Iowa, Oregon, 
require periodic inspection in certain classes of towns and cities. 

is required of all school buses during the fir 
83 Jackman, M. F. Transportation in Consolidated Schools. Master’s thesis, Univer 

transportation purposes are: 


Tersey, New York, Per 


Too few schools have set up a regular program 
I 


of maintenance. As a result the equipment is being 


operated in very poor condition and is subject to 


3 


unusual wear. 


The Cost of Safe Equipment 


Few will deny the importance of safe school 
bus equipment or disagree with, at least the 
intent of, the standards suggested in this sec 
tion. Many will assert, however, that the cost 
of such equipment is prohibitive for their own 
communities. And so it may be, if the local 
district is one with limited resources and is 
carrying all, or nearly all, the financial burden 
for its school program. Available funds must 
be used for teachers’ salaries, for school build 
ings, and for other school purposes as well as 
for transportation facilities. A district may be 
forced to use unsatisfactory equipment for the 
same that it 
building or engages low salaried teachers. In 


reason uses an obsolete school 
that case the best that can be done is to make 
the equipment just as safe as is possible un 
der the circumstances—to take every possible 
safety precaution. 

But the existence of such school districts, 
even in large numbers, does not argue for 
lower school bus standards. It merely indi 
cates the need for better distribution of the 
cost of education; it suggests an important 
area in which the need for state aid is urgent. 


When both the the local 


assume their fair share of the cost of convey 


state and district 


ance the public will be justified in demanding, 


without exception, safe school transportation 


for every pupil. 
states 


third of the 


some part of the cost of transportation or dis 


Approximately a pay 


tribute funds which may be used for this as 


well as other school purposes.** In some cases 
the distribution is made on a pupil-mile, bus 
mile, or pupil-day basis. In others, the district 
is allowed a fixed sum for each pupil trans 
ported, or a certain fraction of the sums ac 
tually paid out for transportation purposes. 
Relatively few states, however, have systems 
of state aid which assure to every community 
the means necessary to provide safe equipment. 


New Hampshire, New Jerse 


sachusetts New y 
and Tennessee 


Maryland. Ma 


t ten days of December and Marc! 
ty of Nebraska, 1934. p. 4 
Connecticut, Florida, Indiana, Maine 


nsylvania, South Carolina, Texas, Vermont 


217 | 





IV. Safe Transit Practises 


Given a safe conveyance and ar experienced, 
duly qualified driver, the chances of accidents 
to pupils are greatly reduced. Yet other risks 
are involved which require proper regulation 
and supervision. Among these are the risks as- 
sociated with incorrect driving practises on the 
part of school bus drivers, the hazards created 
by drivers of other motor vehicles, and hazards 
which the pupils sometimes create by their own 
indiscreet behavior. To a large degree, these 
risks are personal in character and can be elim- 
inated only by the constant exercise of vigi- 
lance and good judgment by each individual. 
Certain useful safeguards can be set up, how- 
ever, in state traffic laws, in the driving regula- 
tions for school bus drivers developed by state 
and local authorities, and thru the proper su- 
pervision of pupil conduct. It is with these 
safeguards that this section is concerned. 


Crossing the Highway 


One of the most serious transportation haz- 
ards, probably the pupil’s Enemy Number 1, is 
that brief walk which he takes across the high- 
way either to get to the bus in the morning or 
to get home after leaving it in the afternoon.’ 
Accidents occurring at this time are common, 
and a high percentage of them are fatal. 

One important safeguard that can be in- 
troduced is a state law requiring the passing 
motorist to stop when approaching a school bus 
that is receiving or discharging pupils. Eleven 
states now have such laws.? In these states, the 
driver is required not only to stop, but to wait 
until the children are out of the road and the 
bus has started on, before he may proceed. In 
other states, passing motorists must come to 
a full stop, but may then proceed “with cau- 
tion.” * In Arizona, Colorado, Delaware, IIli- 
nois, Oregon, and Virginia the driver of an- 
other vehicle need not stop, but must slow 


down to 10 or 15 miles an hour. Counting 
these regulations, however, less than half 
states have set up this minimum safeguard.‘ 
States in which a stop is required by law n 
find the Ohio plan of enforcement helpful! 


We receive many license numbers every day, 
in by drivers and school heads. These are che: 
thru the Bureau of Motor Vehicles and a lette 
warning with a copy of the law is sent to the own 
of said registration. Also many special patrols ar 
ordered into territories where a great number 
violations are occurring and of course the uniformed 
man will cite the violator in such cases. Hows: 
due to our limited number of patrolmen on th: 
roads, we must of necessity use the educational 
plan. The number of repeat violations have been 
very few.® 

The passing motorist is not always at fault 
The bus driver must assume considerable re 
sponsibility and should exercise whatever 
pervision is required to guarantee safe cross 
ing of the highway. Pupils, too, must follow 
safe practises. On certain points there is gen 
eral agreement: 

1. The school bus should load and discharge pas 
sengers at the extreme right of the road or hig! 
way.° 

2. Pupils should be loaded and unloaded only at 
designated stopping places.’ 

3. Buses should not stop on curves or hills to let 
pupils on or off unless the road is visible at least 
500 feet in both directions.® 

4. The driver should always give the prop: 
signal before stopping.® 

5. Pupils should not stand in the roadway while 
waiting for the bus.” 

On other practises, one in particular, agree 
ment is far from complete. Should pupils cr: 
the road in front of the bus, or behind the bus 
In two states, Arkansas and Utah, they are 
required to “pass behind rather than in front 
of the bus.” In Alaska, California, Kentucky, 
Oklahoma, and Wisconsin they must pass “in 
front of the bus.” 


1 This was reported as the leading hazard by the Massachusetts Special Committee on School Buses (authorized by t 


legislature in 1931). It is so regarded also by the State Highway Patrol in Ohio. 
Ohio, 


2 Alabama, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Nebraska, 


South Carolina, Texas, and West Virginia. Maryland 


also has a similar law effective in Montgomery, Frederick, and Talbot Counties only. 

® California, Florida, New Hampshire, New York, and Washington. ' 

4 The laws on this subject in California, Delaware, Florida, Illinois, and New York cannot be enforced unless the bus is painted 
a distinctive color or lettered in the approved manner to identify it as a school bus. 

5 Memorandum for school bus drivers prepared in the Ohio Department of Highways, State Highway Patrol, 1935. 

® This is a state regulation in Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Kentucky, Indiana, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Utah. 

t Children able to cross safely at one point on the highway may be taken unawares by traffic hazards at some other point 
particularly on hill roads or winding roads. This regulation is in effect in several states, for example in Utah by authority of th: 
state road commission, and in California and Oklahoma by ruling of the state boards of education. 

8 Kentucky, Oklahoma, and West Virginia are among the states where this regulation applies. 

®In the regulations of the Ohio Department of Highways, the Territorial Board of Education of Alaska, and other central 


agencies. 


1 In the regulations of the West Virginia State Department of Education. 


[218 ] 





} 


he bus 


[hose who favor crossing behind t 
gue that the pupil has the best possible view 
§ the highway when standing just back of the 
eft rear wheel. He can see any car approach- 
ng from the rear and its driver can see him; 
ie } 
jirection, for it will be on the other side of 


can see a vehicle coming from the opposite 


the road and not obscured by the school bus. 


It 


It is further argued that if a pupil is stand 


ng at the left front wheel, he is likely not to 
see another car which is following immediately 
behind the bus, ready to dart round as he starts 
to cross the road. 

Granting the obvious weight of this argu- 
ment, proponents of the other plan say that 
the driver must share responsibility in the 
matter and that he cannot do so if pupils are 
vehind the bus. On the other hand, if pupils go 
to the front of the bus, he as well as they can 
watch for traffic hazards. He can require pupils 
to 
sure that they cross in safety. With this plan, 
too, there is no excuse for loitering in the high- 


wait for his signal to cross, thus making 


way as the bus goes on. Either plan is superior 
to no plan at all, for there is some advantage 
merely in uniformity of procedure. 

California’s experience with these two plans 
is significant. Until recently the rule was to 
cross the road behind the bus. In the three- 
year period 1933 thru 1935 under this regula- 
tion, there were four fatalities and nine serious 
injuries to pupils crossing the highways. ‘The 
rule was then changed to crossing in front of 
the bus, and during the past school year no ac 
cidents of this type were reported. 

If the latter plan is used, pupils coming 
toward the bus should wait until the driver 
has made sure that traffic conditions are satis 
factory and has given the signal for them to 
cross, then cross the road promptly in front of 
the bus and get on. On leaving the bus, pupils 
should walk around in front of it, wait fo: 
the driver’s signal, then cross. On occasion, 
the children should even be escorted to safety. 
In any case, the bus should not start until all 
have safely crossed the highway. Especially in 
states where other vehicles are required to stop 
for school buses loading or unloading pupils, 
this plan seems to afford maximum protection. 


4 National Automobile Chamber of Commerce. Fact 
mobile Chamber of Commerce, 1929. p. 84 

122U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Public R 
Government Printing Office, 1934. p. 19. (Act V of the Unif« 

18 These states are: Arizona, Arkansas, California 
Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi 
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, U 


ina 


] 


i 


rn 


Color 


tal 
in 


Railroad Crossings 


road orade Cl 
it 207.000 are 
signals, o1 
haz irdous 


ly tor 


bus ac 


ngs, 


] 
unusual sO 


motor venhicies, 


‘ ] 4 
nine school ciden 


New York Times 
193] and 1935 were crossing accidents 
One 


as , 
ell signal was operating; 


uses. Iw 
reported in the betwee! 


T¢ 


ie occurred 


>. 


rossing wher« the 


unprotected crossing. In one 


th 


other, 


the 


at an 


an 


impact of jllision tore the body of 


S « 
1¢e chassis and tossed both parts 


Ac 


the bus from tl 
to the top of a fifteen foot embankment. 


dents of this ty 


pe ar 
! a 


frequently a | 


e especially tragic be 
ot children 


either killed or seriously injured. 


irge number 


As a means of eliminating such crossing 
cidents, the adoption of the following law 
recommended by the National Conference or 
Street and Highway Safety: 


(a) The driver of any school bus cart 


ing any school child, before crossing 
any track tracks of lroad, 
such vehicle within 50 feet but not less than 10 feet 
rail of 
and 


it grade 
} 


or a rai shall stop 


from the nearest such railroad and while 
shall look both 
along such track for any approaching train, and f 


stopped listen in directi 
signals indicating the approach of a train, except as 
hereinafter provided, and shall not proceed until he 


can do so safely 


(b) No stop need be made such 
a 
trathe 


crossings 


it 
trafhe 
at 


any cI 


police officer or a control signa 


where 


lirects to proceed 3, 4 a street railway 
within a hi | 


siness or res 


grade 
district. 


At lea 


require school buses to stop at 


1 
+ ’ i 
dll Cat 


st twenty-nine of the states 


railroad cro 
ings—some thru state laws similar to the above 


the 


others thru regulations of state school or 
officials. In Arkansas, Connecti 
Mississippi, North Dakota, Oklahoma, 

West Virginia the bus must not proceed until 


a responsible pupil assigned to this duty has 


road ut 


ind 


gone from the bus to the tracks and 
to the driver. There are states, however, 
school buses are not required to stop at rail 


] 


road crossings unless by regulations of the local 


school author ifie 


>. 


; 


Figures of th Indusir 


Uniform Act R 
1 Vehicle Code) 
udo, Connecti 
Nebraska, New 
Virginia, Was! 


Delaware, Florida, Idaho 
North Dakota. Ohio 


and West Virginia 


Ve 


ngtor 


rk 


[ 219 ] 





Overcrowding 


‘The overloading of school buses represents 
a hazard in school transportation which can- 
not be minimized. Overcrowding results in un- 
necessary shoving, jostling, and pushing while 
the bus is in motion and often is the source of 
physical injury as well as annoyance to pupils. 
The scuffing which overcrowding encourages 
may distract the driver’s attention, causing him 
to lose control of the wheel. Crowding at the 
front of the bus or even in the aisles impedes 
the driver’s view. Many would agree with the 
state department of education in Georgia that 
this should head the list of transportation risks. 

One case is reported where 62 children were 
carried regularly in a 25-passenger bus and on 
some days as high as 76 pupils were packed into 
it.'* This was the result of combining 5 routes 
into 3 in the interest of “economy.” Another 
case is reported where overloading created a 
real hazard. An overcrowded school bus began 
to sway because of the heavy load. The chil- 
dren picked up the rhythm of the swaying and, 
by applying their weight in unison, caused the 
bus to sway more. The bus was thrown out of 
steering control and a serious accident was nar- 


rowly averted as the driver brought it to a stop. 

Eight states mention in their regulations 
that overcrowding is forbidden, but seldom is 
overcrowding defined, except perhaps to say 
that “‘pupils shall not be permitted to sit or 
stand where they obstruct the driver’s view to 


715 


side or rear. Massachusetts and Rhode 
Island are exceptions, restricting the total 
load to not more than 25 percent beyond 
the rated seating capacity of the vehicle. Regu- 
lations of this type might well be established 
by other state and local authorities. Kentucky 
disapproves of any load “exceeding that pre- 
scribed by the board of education. The board 
of education should be advised by the manu- 
facturer.” 
Safe Driving Speed 


About 23 percent of all the motor vehicle 
accidents that occurred during 1935 are at- 
tributed to fast driving. Nearly 31 percent of 
all those killed in motor vehicle accidents were 
in accidents caused by excessive speed. 


‘ Reported by G. B. Butterfield in a letter of July 13, 1936. 


% This regulation is in effect in California and Oklahoma. 


16 Other useful lists of driving rules are available from: (1) The Public Utilities Commission of Ohio—a handbook for trt 


Relatively few of the states have estab] 
maximum speed limits for school buses , 
than those for all highway traffic. Some n 
tain that this is not a matter for special leg 
tion. Be that as it may, some means sh 
always be found to prevent speeding and ¢! 
reckless practises associated with it. Oklah 
restricts the speed of school buses to 25 m 
per hour; Colorado, Connecticut, Massa 
setts, Mississippi, Rhode Island, and Virgi: 
to 30 miles per hour; and Ohio and the ‘Ty 
tory of Alaska to 35 miles per hour. Arka: 
Utah, and West Virginia have general reg 
tions to the effect that drivers shall procee 
a “careful and reasonable” rate or shall : 
attain “excessive” speeds. 

In the absence of adequate state regulati 
local school authorities can exercise cont 
in the matter in either of three ways: (1) 
local regulations supplemented by proper 
ministrative supervision, (2) by making ¢! 
maximum speed limit part of the driver’s « 
tract, or (3) by installing speed control gov: 
nors on the motors of all school buses. 


Further Suggestions on Safe Driving 


A few of the fundamentals of safe drivi: 
have been listed by the National Association 
of Motor Bus Operators in their “Ten Com 
mandments for Safe Driving.” '® These su 
gestions are listed in Figure IV. A self-rating 
scale for drivers, used by the Oklahoma Stat 
Highway Commission, is given in Figure V 
School bus drivers as well as others should find 
it helpful to check their own practises agair 
these general driving standards. 

Table 3 is a rather comprehensive list of t! 
operating rules adopted specifically for school 
bus drivers in one or more states—in a fev 
cases as suggested rules; generally as compu! 
sory regulations. Of course, they vary in deta 
from one state to another. The wording of ea 
rule listed is based on that of some state lav 
or official ruling—one believed to be typical! 
Column 2 lists the states in which each regu 
lation or a similar one is known to be in effect 
For the sake of completeness, the regulations 
discussed in earlier paragraphs of this sectior 
are also included in this table. 


truck 


drivers; (2) The Fifth Avenue Coach Corporation of New York City; and (3) The Greyhound Bus Company. 


[ 220 } 








FIGURE IV 








/ 





TEN COMMANDMENTS FOR SAFE DRIVING 


Source: Adapted from a poster prepared and distributed by the National Association of Motor Bus Operators 




















FIGURE V 





SAFE DRIVING EXAMINATION 


The maximum score for each point is indicated in the column at the right. Give yourself wh 
ever proportion of this perfect score you honestly believe you deserve. A total score of 90 or 
more rates you as an_ excellent driver; 80 to 90, good; 70 to 80, fair; under 70, poor. 


Your Perfect 


score score 


1. Do you always drive at a reasonable speed, giving due con- 
sideration to traffic, road conditions, weather, etc.? 10 


9. Do you make sure that your car is at all times in good order, 
particularly as regards brakes, steering gear, lights, wind- 
shield wiper, and tires? 


. Do you refrain from passing other vehicles on the brow of 
hills, or on curves? 


. Do you make it the rule never to cut in and out of traffic? 

5. Do you drive only when you are in full possession of your 
faculties? 

. Do you give the right of way to annie pemieiione 

children and the aged or infirm’ ee ee ee 


. Do you at no time let your attention aa ‘ik thru 
conversation or sightseeing ? 


. Do you slow down when handicapped by approaching 
headlights? 


. Do you always give proper and adequate hand signals before 
turning, slowing down, or stopping?............++e00e 


. Do you strictly observe all traffic lights, stop signs, and warn- 
ing signals? 


. Do you approach intersections, particularly blind inter- 
sections, with your car under complete control? 


. Do you get into the left lane before turning left il into vibe 
right lane before turning right?................45. 


. Do you pull into traffic only after looking and signaling?.. . 


. Do you make way when a car wishes to pass, instead of 
speeding up? 


. Do you keep at an adequate stopping distance from the car 
ahead? 


. Do you sometimes let the other fellow have your ‘‘right of 
way in the interest of safety? ..............e cece eens 


. Is your rear vision mirror O. K.?. 2... 2c cee eee eee 
. Do you park your car so as not to interfere with traffic? - 


100 


Research Division, Nationa! Education Associati on 





Source: Adapted from one of the safety leaflets of the Oklahoma State Highway Commission. 














[ 222 ] 











TABLE 3.—REGULATIONS PERTAINING TO THE OPERATION OF SCHOO! 
BUSES AND THE STATES IN WHICH THESE REGULATIONS APPLY 










Operating rule 













from driver, pupils shall cross the 1 1 in front of the 
t behindit. The bus must 
crossed. On occa n, the 






scort pupils across the road 





rT) ere P er vehicles s ll ston r slow dowt u 


hool bus that has stor 






brought t 



























| before crossing any railroad, and s l proceed 
| ver has made sure that no train is approaching Ariz.. Ar ( sf n., Del., I 
| 
| 
| , , “ 
| Bus shall not carry an overload exceeding 25 percer r 1 

ting capacity (or in excess of the number approved by the 
| Af 

nanufacturer or by state authorities ( G 
No pupil shall be allowed to stand where he interferes with the vision 
the driver to the front, sides, or rear . Ark., ( ( , Con: Ky Maine, M 









s shall not be driven faster than 30 miles per hour, and mor lowly 






when crowded traffic, bad weather, poor roads, 


ncountered (rate varies from state t« 












The driver should carefully check the conditiot the bus (brakes, 
“ar, tires, lights, fuel supply, et 









No start shall be made i » brakes are known or thougl » be loose 


r otherwise faulty Alaska, ¢ Ky., Okla., and 1 












Drivers shall observe all traffic laws and the general rules of the road 
practises such as those listed in Figures IV and \ Al Cal Cor I M 








Pupils must not be permitted to ride outside of bus Ark., M 1R.I 
Pupils must not be permitted to get on or off the bus while it is moving; 









doors shall be ciosed while the bus is m 








upils should be received and discharged 
the extreme right of the road, where the highway may be clear 
seen for 500 feet in both directions 
























Bus shall be brought to a full stop before entering any thru way... Ky., N. ¥ Okl 
Bus should not be stopped near the crest of hills or on curve Ky., Okl Ww. \ 
Driver should give proper signals before stopping and shall stop as far 
off the pavement as conditions will permit Alaska, ‘ Ky., M O} O 
Driver should give proper signals and use proper traffic lanes when 
making turns ss Alash Ly... Sou. BN. V4. O \ 
Driver should avoid jerky starts, sudden turns or swerves, 1 abrupt 
stops . . . Alaska, ¢ _K M Okla., W. Va., 
chool bus should not pass another v« n hills or curve inless 
the road is visible and clear of other vehicles or obstructions for at 
least 500 feet ahead.. _— , , , Alask I O , and Ok 
Buses should run at least 75 yards apart laska, A K nd Ok} 
Buses must not be driven backwards on school grounds Conn., Ky., Mass., Okla., W. Vase, and W 
Skid chains must be used when roads are slippery Alask K Ok 


setting 





Driver must not leave the bus without stopping the engine ar 
the brakes 





















The bus should not be le. in gear when it is standing A] : 
Gas tank must not be filled while children are in the bus 3 Ark., ¢ , Colo., Conn., Ky., M ,N. ¥ 





3us shall not be operated with clutch disengaged except when coming 





to a stop 








Driver should adhere closely to the established schedule Alas sc. Ky., Miss., 


Driver need not wait longer than 2 minutes for any pupil unl 





observed as making an effort to meet the bus A k I Mi , and W. \ 
A regular space in the bus should be assigned to each pupil Ark., Del., Ky., Miss., Okla., and W 
No person other than a pupil, teacher, or schoo! official shall be per 






mitted to ride in the bus without written consent from the superin- 
tendent of schools 





TABLE 3.—REGULATIONS PERTAINING TO THE OPERATION OF SCHoo) 
BUSES AND THE STATES IN WHICH THESE REGULATIONS APPLY (Con; ) 


— 





Operating rule States ® 


1 


No one other than the driver shall be allowed to occupy the driver's 
Alaska, Ark., Ky., Utah, and W. Va 


Alaska, Ark., Calif., Colo., Ky., N. Y., Okla., 
W. Va. 
\ trailer must not be attached to a school bus..... Alaska, Calif., Colo., Conn., Ky., Mass., 
Utah 
Driver must maintain discipline on the bus, reporting cases of dis- 


obedience or flagrant misconduct to the school principal Alaska, Ark., Calif., Conn., Del., Ky., Mas 


N. Y., N. Dak., Okla., W. Va., and Wis. 
Driver should indulge in no unnecessary conversation while bus is in 


motion 
The use of tobacco, alcoholic liquors, and profane language in a school 


bus is forbidden 


Calif., Colo., R. I., and Utah 


Alaska, Ark., Calif., Colo., Conn., Del., Ky 
Miss., Nebr., N. Dak., Ohio, Okla., R. I., and 

Driver shall maintain the same standards of personal conduct that are 
expected of teachers 

Without permission from the superintendent, no pupil shall be per- 
mitted to leave the bus except at his regular stop 

No loaded weapon should ever be permitted in the bus............. 


Alaska, Conn., Ky., Mass., and W. Va. 


Alaska, Ark., Ky., and N. Y. 

Alaska, Calif., Colo., Conn., Ky., Mass., Ut 
W. Va. 

Alaska, Calif., Colo., Conn., Ky., Mass., Ok 
W. Va. 

Alaska, Ky., and Okla. 


Driver must not permit dogs or other animals in the bus........... 


Driver shall attain reasonable efficiency in first aid treatment 

The bus schedule should be posted in the bus and subject to change 
only after parents have received advance notice of the change 

‘Safety drills’’ should be conducted, using the emergency door 

‘In case of doubt, STOP” 

No bus shall operate with a broken window, except to finish the route 
and in case of emergency when repairs cannot be made at once .... 


Alaska, Ark., Ky., amd W. Va. 
W. Va. 
Ky., Ohio, and Okla. 


Colo. 





® The Territory of Alaska is included in this table. Altho care has been taken to list for each regulation all the states in y 
applies, the listing may be incomplete because of the limitations of the sources used or recent changes in state regulatio 





incident. In Ohio the law requires any veh 
carrying school pupils to come to a full st 
before crossing a railroad track. The st 
board of education recommends further 
a pupil get out of the vehicle and flag 
crossing. In a recent safety campaign, 
Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad Company | 
a careful check-up made on all crossings 


Safe Practises for Pupils 


‘There are a number of transportation haz- 
ards over which the driver of the school bus 
can exercise little or no control. In these situ- 
ations pupils must carry the responsibility for 
their own safety. Again, it is impossible for 
the driver to do what is expected of him with- 
out the cooperation of the pupils. Because of 


these facts, several state departments of edu- 
cation have developed regulations for pupils 
who ride in school buses as well as for school 
bus drivers. Some of these are listed in Table 
4 alongside the states having each regulation 
or a similar one. 


Law Observance 


In view of their responsibility for the safety 
of others, school bus drivers should be exem- 
plary in obeying highway laws. That this is 
not always the case is shown by the following 


Ohio for one day.'*? Three hundred and fort 
vehicles carrying school pupils crossed the C 
& O. tracks that day. Sixty-six drivers, o 
nearly 20 percent, disobeyed the law requiring 
a stop at railroad crossings. In only 40 of th: 
340 cases, did a pupil act as flagman. It 
such violations that often end in disaster. N 
only the laws requiring a full stop at dangero 
points along the highway, but speed limits an: 
all other safety regulations should be observed 
without exception by all drivers of school cor 
veyances. 


17 Bentley, L. G. ‘“Making Crossings Safe for School Buses.” The Rail 19: 18; July, 1934. 
[ 224 } 





V. The Selection of Safe Routes 


tho the careful, skilful driver rarely has 
4 s ’ od 


cident even on a defective highway, bad 
ids are sometimes the cause of unavoidable 


idents. Many school buses must travel roads 


it are too narrow, roads that are improperly 


led and surfaced, or roads having sharp 


ns, steep inclines, ‘‘blind corners,” 


’ 


unpro- 
cted crossings, or other hazards which make 
fe driving extremely difficult if not impos 
le. Something of the extent to which road 
zards exist is suggested by the fact that of 


> 


3,250,000 miles of roadway over which 
itomobiles may travel in the United States 
tt more than 1,000,000 miles are surfaced, 
sing that term to include all such materials 
is sand-clay, gravel, chert, and crushed lime 

1e as well as concrete, macadam, and other 
rd surfaces.t Driving hazards abound on 


bile Manufa 


TABLE 4.—RULES FOR PUPIL CONDUCT AND THE STATES IN WHICH 


ining two 
million miles, and are not unkn 
the surfaced 
A survey of 
in 1934 showed 


roads were be 


Poor dirt 
Poor gravel 
Medium dirt. 
Medium gravel 
Good dirt 
Good 

/ 


Paved roads 


| 
gravel 


\ similar 
route in Georgi 


miles of unimproved 


RULE APPLIES 








Regulation pertaining to pupil conduct 


Enter t 

Do not try t 
sf s 

Do not extend head or arms 

Be courteous to the driver 

Respect and cooperate with t 

Obey the driver as you woul 

Remain in the space to which yo 

See that your conversation is 
classroom conduct is expect 
tones 

Do not call out to passers-by 

Help keep the bus clean, sanit 
ibuse bus equipment 

Make sure that the road is clear and g 
must cross the road to or from the bus 

Cross streets only at intersections 

When crossing the street ghway lo 
WALK—do not run 

Do not ride on the running board, fer 
hang onto the outside of the vehicle 

Carry on no unnecessary conversation with t 
in motion 

Do not open bus windows without permissio1 

Do not leave the bus without the driver's « 
at home and at school 

Do not loiter in or around the bus wl 

Keep out of the driver's s 


b 


"The Territory of Alaska is included in 
which it applies, the listing may be incomplete 








the total mileage. Of the remainder, 32,972 
miles had been graded and to some extent 
improved, but only 6,914 miles, or 9.8 percent, 
were hard surfaced. 

Defective bridges constitute a serious haz- 
ard in.many communities. Roads have fre- 
quently been rebuilt, leaving the old bridges 
to serve until more time and money become 
available. According to the bridge engineer 
of Allegany County, New York: 

Thousands of children are crossing unsafe 
bridges in heavy buses every day of the school 
year. ... 1 was under a bridge last spring, mak 
ing an inspection, when a bus load of laughing 
school kids was hurtled over my head by a thought- 
less driver. The bridge was posted for three tons 
with a speed limit of 15 miles an hour. The load 
was far in excess of three tons and the speed of the 
bus must have been at least 40 miles an hour. . 
The old structure creaked and sagged, but merci- 
fully it held... . It is an appalling thought that a 
bus load of school children might at any moment 
be sacrificed because of our indifference to the 
problem of antiquated bridges.’ 


The problem of bad roads is especially seri- 
ous in the case of school transportation because 
of certain factors inherent in the job. The 
need for consolidated schools and pupil trans- 


portation is greatest in sparsely settled rural 
communities where roads tend to be least satis- 
factory. Sometimes the best road from a pupil’s 
home to the school can hardly be used because 
it does not fit in with the remainder of a 
necessary route. Frequently, there_is no suit- 
able road which can be used. 


Route Surveys 


The safe routing of school buses is a complex 
problem, involving such specific questions as: 
When is a road bad enough that it should not 
be traveled by school buses? How can the 
relative merits of one route over another be 
determined objectively ? What does the quality 
of a road and the existence of certain specific 
road hazards suggest with reference to the 
type of equipment that should be used ? What 
safeguards can be set up against unavoidable 
road hazards? 

In answering these and similar questions 
school authorities need definite information 
about any proposed bus route, facts which 
usually can be obtained only by making a care- 


ful route survey to determine: (1) the leno 
and general character of the route; 
kinds of road traversed; (3) the conditio; 
each road; (4) a complete list of specif 
hazards; and (5) an evaluation of the 
for the purposes of the proposed pupil +; 
portation. 

Surveys of this type can be made | 
principal or superintendent of schools, 
operation with a well-qualified bus driy 
highway or transportation official. The : 
facts should be collected systematically 
a survey form similar in purpose to th 
reproduced in Figure VI. The su: 
should determine distances, driving time, 
specific road hazards by actually driving th 
bus over the route. Even the established sch 
bus routes should be resurveyed from time 
time, particularly before the opening of sc! 
each year and at any time during the 
when a new driver is about to begin his 

When adequate information has been 
piled about all the roads that might pos 
be used as part of a proposed bus route, sc! 
authorities face the problem of selecting t! 
which is safest and best. They must consider 
directness of route both as a matter of econ 
and in order that pupils need not spend 
necessary time on the road. But first of 
they should consider pupil safety, for dang: 
ous short cuts are never justifiable. They m 
take into account stretches of road that m 
be satisfactory under ordinary conditions | 
are extremely hazardous or impassable 
times. They may need to work out cert 
alternate routes. Frequently they must see! 
the cooperation of highway officials in elim 
nating certain hazards; sometimes, of t! 
children’s parents in caring for roads adjacent 
to their own farms. They may find it necessa: 
to purchase equipment built especially for ce: 
tain road conditions—perhaps a lighter vehic|: 
a shorter, more flexible one, or one with 
more powerful motor. In every case, it is thei: 
duty to warn bus drivers of the road hazards 
involved, and to make clear to them the 
operating instructions that shall be followed 
Finally, they must work out a time schedule 
which permits the kind of safe, careful driving 
that will be expected. 


2Colburn, H. E. “Forgotten Bridges.” Reader's Digest 29: 53-54; September, 1936. 
[ 226 ] 








FIGURE VI 





THE SCHOOL BUS ROUTE 
ounty 


. The Route 
A. From 
B. Check which 
1. Actual route. 
2. Potential route 
C.. Length of t es to nearest 
1. Dist ance rom scnoo! to n 
9. Additional distance trave 
D. Number of bus or rout 
E. Name of driver 
F. Check here if route | 





. Class or Kind of Road 
A. Hard surfaced.... 
B. Gravel or re ; 
+ Sand, clay, or top s 

Graded...... 
E Unimproved. . 


insite of ed 

A. Satisfactory (broad 
well surfaced) 

B. Narrow (less than 

C. Rough and bumpy 

D. Needs surfacing 


. Consecutive Summary of Hazards 
Kind or nature Distance fron 
of nazara°® beginning 


b The following key may be u 
Blind curves 
Narrow bridge 
Unguarded bridge , 
Unsafe approach 
Needs repairs 
Bad culve ; 
Deep ditch or wash 
Unguarded f : 


ene Status with Regard to Transportation 


A. Well adapted in present condition 
ahs passable at all times 
Impassable after prolonged rains 
Treacherous after any rain 
Could be well adapted by change: 
Hazardous at all times. ... 

Totally unsuited for transportatior 


yn, National Educat 


Source: Morphet, Edgar L. ‘The Influence of Roads on School Transportation and Consolidation." American School 
Board Journal 85 : 64; August, 1932. 














Transportation Maps 


‘The transportation map is a useful device 
to portray the essential facts about the school 
transportation system. ‘The transportation 
manual in Kentucky suggests that the map 
contain the following items for information: * 


1. The location of the schoolhouse 

2. The points of the compass. 

3. The various bus routes, shown in different 
colors. 

4. The type of road surface on each portion of 
the bus route, and code symbols to show the condi- 
tion of the road.‘ 

5. Arrows indicating the direction in which each 
bus travels. 

6. Every driving hazard on the route, with at- 
tached suggestions for taking care of it.5 

7. The home of each driver, indicated by a square 
with a capital “D” beside it. 

8. The point where the first child is picked up, 
indicated by the letters “FP.” 

9. Each house from which children are trans- 
ported, indicated by a circle at its exact location. 

10. Each bus-stop, indicated by a triangle, and 
the number of children getting on at the stop indi- 
cated on the inside of the triangle. 

11. The time the bus arrives at each designated 
stop. 

12. All alternate roads over which buses can be 
run. 


Maps of this kind are almost indispensable 
to the proper administration of pupil transpor- 
tation. They are recommended by the state 
departments of education in Oklahoma and 
several other states. Specific transportation 
questions often arise. Was the driver of Bus 
Number 3 justified in running off schedule 
today ? How did the rain last night affect Sec- 
tion 7 of Route Number 2? About when will 
this bus have to change to the longer, alternate 
route and go on the new time schedule? Should 
the Bronson children meet the bus at Stop 4, 
or at Stop 9 on the lower road after it has 
made the loop thru Beaver Falls? A set of 


Ky.: the Board, 1936. p. 30. 

* Possible code symbols for this item are: 
OK—-Satisfactory. Road in good condition for its type. 
F—Fair. Always passable, but needs repairs. 
IR—Impassable after prolonged rains. 

SR—Slippery and treacherous after any rain. 


H—Passable but always dangerous. Numerous read hazards. 


NG—Totally unsuited for transportation. 


In this item, however, and items 5 to 12, a system of code symbols other than that given can readily be devised. Any cl 


defined symbols will be satisfactory. 


good transportation maps is the principa 
superintendent’s best and most 
source of information on questions su 
these. 


cony 


Waiting Stations 


Unfortunately the school bus cannot s 
the door for every pupil transported but 
meet at some distance from their homes 
living off the route. One common practise 
has much to recommend it is to have 
pupils, whenever possible, meet the bus at 
home of someone living on the route. ‘| 
makes it unnecessary for pupils to wait 
the highway where they so often forn 
habit of playing in the road. It has the 
tional advantages of adult supervision \y 
waiting and of protection from inclen 
weather. Where such arrangements cannot 
made, shelters ought to be provided 
weather conditions are unusually favor 
The laws of most states permit, and in 
cases require, school authorities to build 
ters wherever they are needed. 


Time Schedules 


The time schedule should be definite 
consistent with safe driving practises. \Ii 
over, it should not require pupils to start f 
home or arrive there at night at an unreasor 
able hour. In some districts, no child is | 
mitted to ride longer than thirty minutes 
ing to or from school. In many cases, rout 
must be so arranged that no pupil is on the 
longer than an hour. Regulations usually st 
the time when the first pupils on the route ma) 
be received, and sometimes the hour by whic! 
the last pupils shall be returned to their homes 
Whenever possible the pupils loaded earliest 
the morning should arrive at their homes first 
on the return trip, rather than subjecting ¢! 
to a long ride both morning and afternoon. 


8 Kentucky State Board of Education. Manual on Pupil Transportation. Educational Bulletin, Vol. 4, No. 2. Frank 


1 


5 See Figure VI for the code symbols used by Morphet to indicate road hazards. 





VI. Safety Promotion 


Safety in pupil transportation requires a con 

yus and varied program of safety pro-no 
in. The general public, and most school bus 
vers and pupils, need to be aroused to the 
mportance of safety and to acquire certain ad 
litional safety habits. Even the best drivers 
nd the most careful pupils need to be re- 
iinded of the hazards involved and of the safe 
practises which they know, but sometimes fail, 
to observe. This section describes briefly some 

the devices used in highway safety promo 
tion by local school systems and by state de 


partments of education and other state agencies 


Teaching Highway Safety in the Elementary 
School 


The chances of serious injury to children 
vho ride school buses are reduced materially 
vhen pupils learn in school how to assume 
their 
School bus experiences can be used as the basis 


roper responsibility for own safety. 


for a large number of safety lessons both in the 
irly grades and in the later ones. In the begin 
ning, emphasis can be laid on such basic safety 
practises as those given in Table 4. In the late: 
grades further emphasis can be laid on these 
vasic habits and attitudes as needed, and the 
program can be broadened to correspond with 
the maturity and interests of the pupils. 
Instruction of this type should occupy an 
important place in the larger program of safety 
education. Numerous opportunities for it will 
be found in connection with regular classroom 
activities. It rightfully enters into many units 
of instruction and lessons in civics, health work, 


1 White House Conference on Child 
Safety Education in Schools. Monograph IIIC 
specific objectives for each grade and refers to 

? Headquarters at 20 N. Wacker Drive, Chicago. Of 
entitled Safety Education in the Rural Schools. (1929, 38 p.) 

* Headquarters in the Mills Building, Washington, D. C 

“ Headquarters in the Pan-American Building, Washingt« 

5 Headquarters in the National Press Building, Washingtor 
prepared by the Conference in cooperation with the As 

® Headquarters at One Park Avenue, New York City 
the Elementary School (1926, 142 p.) 

7 The teaching aids developed by the Oklahoma State 
Commission may be cited as one outstanding illustration 
Department of Public Instruction, 1936. 84 p 

8 For example: Bailey, R. R. Sure Pop 
{ Brinkerhoff, G. I., and Rowe, C. Safety ; 
Roller Bears and the Safeway Tribe. New York: Macmillan 
ictivities for Element ind Junior High hools. C 
Safety Town Stories. New York: Lyons and Carnal 
in the Elementary School. Boston: D. C. Heath ar 
Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1933. 165 p. { Nelson, 
elementary schools) New York: McGraw-Hill Box 
(Five volumes on health luding safety) New 


Health and Protectio 
New York 


suitable material 


} 
the 


spe 
pec 


sociatik 


dee 
De 


and th 


First Stori 


¢ 


n 


C 


ial 


D 


D 


n for Childhood 


if 


read ng, 


h hru extracurri 


Games, stories, songs, 


lramatization s, excursions, demor 


a 


tions, safety fil ind slides, and assembly 


Il 
grams of various types are among the in 
tional devices tnat 


instruction 1s usually 


in be employed. Altho 


more or less incident 
1 1 1 ° ° 1 1 
her school activity, the Work §S 


inne d 


tematic, 


to some oft 


ve carefully pl in such a way that 


Ye continuous and eftective 
The broad objectives of safety edu 


+] 


he rades as outlined by the 
committee « of the W 
House Conference on Child Health and P 


1° 
tect e applicabdie to 


ele mentary 


yn ifety education 


ion a sarety instru 


, , . 
which cente Dus experiences 


satety 


1. Habits of 


. . ' 
Consciousne the 


a responsibility fo1 
»f others. 

3. A spirit of 

social significant 
4. 


>. 


regulations 
of 


community 
ot 


A respect for 
An 
a knowles 


rstandin the causes 1CK 


Ive of 


unde 


and how to meet them 


Helpful teach materials are now Lil 
able from such agencies as the National Safety 
Council,? the American Automobile Associa 
tion,? the Highway Education Board,‘ the 
National Highway Users Conference,® the Na 


tional Bureau of Casualty and Surety Under 


ng 


writers,° and from a few of the state depart 
ments of education and motor vehicle depart 


ments.” Handbooks, manuals, supplementary 


readers, and other materials are also available 


SO 


from standard publishers.® 


Safety Education 


1¢ 


entury Co., 1932 


ind method 


interest 


Cc 


C. See espe 1 Highway Trans; 


y the etin entitlec 
Educatior 1935, 52 


ially the book 





Instruction in Highway Safety at the High- rules of the road if some of his passenge 
School Level alert to any irregularities. 

One of the early classes in automobile 
ing and highway safety, including actual! 
tise in driving, was given in the state < 
high school at State College, Pennsylvan 
1933 by Amos E. Neyhart. The work 
eminently successful. In the summer of 
Neyhart reported that not one of the studen: 
in his classes had been involved in an accid: 
a splendid showing in view of the fact 
31.9 percent of all motor vehicle accidents 
to drivers who are in their first year of di 
experience. So rapidly has the movement s; 
that by 1936 more than a thousand high schools 
were conducting special classes in driving, 
thousands of others were including highw 
safety in more general safety courses.’ [| 
work has been endorsed and actively promot 
by governors, highway commissioners, and 
superintendents of public instruction.’® |: 
being offered in every high school in India: 
and New York, and in several schools in New 
Jersey, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, De! 
ware, Minnesota, Iowa, Colorado, and Mic! 


Lessons in safety based on school bus experi- 
ences and correlated with regular classroom 
activities should not cease when pupils enter 
high school. On the contrary, in the study of 
civic and social problems, in health courses, 
science classes, and in other fields, the many 
opportunities for effective safety education 
should be capitalized. The broadened program 
of extracurriculum activities, too, affords new 
opportunities for safety promotion. At this level 
greater attention can be paid to the underlying 
causes of accidents, to the reasonableness of 
various rules for safety, and to the respon- 
sibility of an individual not only for his own 
safety but also for that of others. 

Still another type of high-school instruction 
is having its effect on safety in pupil transporta- 
tion, namely, special courses on the proper care 
and safe operation of an automobile. The pupils 
riding in school buses who study safe driving 
are said to be better able than the rest to pro- 
tect themselves from injury and to look out 
for the safety of others. They are more fully 
conscious of traffic danger; they have “the &@n. 

¢ . a We: ° : . . acces IV] . iohw 
safety habit.” They distinguish more quickly Many of the classes on driving and highwa 
between safe and unsafe practises on the part safety are limited to ordinary classroom act 
of school bus drivers and passing motorists and _ ties such as textbook study, discussion, explan 

. . 4 ° ». 23 7>no nun 
thus when the occasion demands are better able _ tions, and demonstrations.’* In a growing n “4 
to take unusual precautions. They appreciate a ber of Cases, however, the classroom instructior 
driver's problems and are less likely to distract is being supplemented with actual practis 
his attention or otherwise interfere with safe operating an automobile on the highway. 
driving. They quickly recognize specific road Special Materials for Safety Promotion 
hazards and shun dangerous situations. More- State departments of education and oth 
over, a school bus driver tends to observe more agencies make liberal use of bulletins, leafl ian 
carefully the traffic regulations and common posters, road signs, windshield stickers, and jae 
oe memes 2 : essa’ 
® Stack, Herbert J. “Schools Are Teaching Safe Driving.”’ Parents and the Automobile. New York: Bureau of Publica mat 
Teachers College, Columbia University, 1936. p. 57-62. <e 
Among the vigorous champions of driving instruction in high-school classes have been Governors Herbert H. 1 tion 
of New York, Harold G. Hoffman of New Jersey, Wilbur A. Cross of Connecticut, and E. W. Marland of Oklahoma ; Co +s 
sioners Charles Harnett of New York, Michael A. Connor of Connecticut, and J. M. Gentry of Oklahoma; and State Su 
tendents Floyd I. McMurray of Indiana, Charles H. Elliott of New Jersey, and Agnes Samuelson of lowa. 

1 A regulation recently announced by the state department of education. ine ee ; 

12 Suggestions on effective demonstration work are given by E. F. Willis in “The Use of Lantern Slides in Teaching 1 
Safety,” The Educational Screen 15: 5; January, 1936. ; ae 

The following state departments have issued manuals or courses of study on safety education: Alabama, Calif 
Connecticut, Georgia, Indiana, Iowa, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, N 
Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Utah, and Wyoming. See, for example, Connect 
Intelligent Driving. Hartford: the State Department of Education, 1936. 32 p. Other helpful sources are: American Autom 
Association. Sportsmanlike Driving. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1936. (A teaching manual and five bulletins suit 
for classroom use.) § Automobile Manufacturers Association. Automobile Facts and Figures. New York: the Association, ! 
96 p. (Revised annually) { Detroit Board of Education. Lessons in Traffic Safety for Secondary Schools. Detroit: the Boa 
1936. § General Motors Corporation. We Drivers. Detroit: the Corporation, 1935. 36 p. { International Harvester Compa 
1 Drive Safely. Chicago: the Company. 61 p. 4 National Safety Council. Accident Facts. Chicago: the Council. (Iss 
annually) { National Safety Council. Good Driving: A Manual for High Schools. Chicago: the Council. { National Safet 
Council. Safety Education (A monthly magazine issued by the Council.) § Neyhart, Amos E. Driver Training Manual, Washingt 
D. C.: the American Automobile Association, 1936. { Travelers Insurance Company. Highway Hazards. Hartford, Conn.: ( 
Company. (Monthly safety lessons forwarded on request.) § Travelers Insurance Company. Live and Let Live. Hartford, Cor 
the Company, 1936. 40 p. { Travelers Insurance Company. What’s Wrong With These Drivers and Pedestrians? Hartford, Conr 
the Company. (A picture test involving the prompt recognition of road hazards.) { Whitney, Albert W., editor. Man and ¢ 
Moter Car. New York: National Bureau of Casualty and Surety Underwriters, 1936. 256 p. 


[ 230 ] 














printed materials in carrying their mes 
school 


] 


iCs 


n safety to school bus drivers, 
and the general public. Official ru 
culations for drivers and rules for pupil 

duct are often distributed in a form suitable 
permanent display in the school bus. 
Arkansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, New 

lersey, and New York are among the states 

‘, which departments of education have re 

ntly issued manuals or other bulletins on safe 

The Safe ty Bulletin, 


r-page monthly publication issued by the 


transportation. 


] 
{ 


[linois Division of Highways, is a unique d 
including 


e. 
ce for promoting highway safety, 
the sate operation of school buses. 

Newspaper and magazine articles can also 
ye used to advantage in safety promotion, not 
by state but by local 
school officials and interested the 
safety of school children.’ 

The motor vehicle department of Maryland 
n 1935 developed a film in the interest of 


authorities also 


others 


nly 
in 


greater safety in the transportation of school 
pupils. This film, entitled “Safety for Schools 
f Maryland,” depicts the careful selection of 
yus drivers, instructions to bus drivers, school 
boy patrols assigned to each bus and to the 
ntersections near each school, motor vehicles 
stopping in rear of buses that are loading or 
discharging pupils, standard color and letter 
ing to make buses more prominent, instructions 
to school pupils, and other safety suggestions. 
Contests and Special Recognition for Safety 
Work 

Various agencies seek to promote safety by 
conducting contests. Pupils, or perhaps the 
general public, are invited to submit plays, 
essays, posters, slogans,'® or other ideas or 
materials which can be used in safety promo 
tion. In at least two states, certificates of recog 
nition are issued by state authorities to school 
bus drivers without known violations of driv 
accl 


ing regulations and having perfect “no 


dent” records. (See Figure VII.) 
Safety Conferences 
\ccording to reports from state departments 
ot education, one or more safety conferences 


for school bus,drivers and school ofhe1 | c 
been held in twe f the thirty-six é 
reporting.'® Sometimes these conterence ( 
planned and carried out by the state de 
ment of education, department of n 
vehicles, or tl highw commission, 
working independently ; sometimes they are tl 
, , 1 
esult of cooperat planning. They may d: 
| } 
Irom an entire state ¢ i large region within 
1 11 
state, or they may serve a small area such as a 
single count \ 1dance may be voluntary o1 
; : , 
required. lhe eftectiveness of such conference 
depends ot n the proport on of 
drivers reached and on the quality of the pro 
. | 
crams. County conterences, similar to those 
: é, ‘ rer 
ntroduced in O] should prove helpful 
, ~ | ] | | f ‘ n 
l’o line up ill the school buses for inspection 
) | le 3 hetemns _ } 
and to bring tog ler Dus drivers, school ad 
} 1 } ] tat 
hoolboard members, and state 


muinistrators, sci 


offici 


Tor a < ynsider 
the foundation for ette 


Training 


ials ation of ti insportation 


problems should lay 


tive safety work thruout the year. 


classes for school bus drivers, similar in genera 
to those which the Grey 
To! 


high 


purpose and charactet 
hound Bus C 


?.° ° 11 
drivers, might well 


ympany has arranged 


be conduct ted by state 


way departments and other state agencie 


School Bus Patrols 


The recommendations of the Natior 
Safety Council with respect to school bu 
patrols have been incorporated into the safety 


bulletins of several state departments of edu 


cation and are being followed in many con 
munities. This plan provides that the princi 
shall appoint two patrols for each bus—two 
} } : ] + ¢ " 
bovs, or a boy and a girl. In an ideal situatior 


pupils will be chosen who because of their size 
ind personality ve the respect of their cla 
mates and who, in addition, live near the end 


of the route. Even if the natural leaders do not 


of the route, it may be ad 


live near the end 

visable to appoint them to serve while on the 

, : ; 

bus, with assistant patrols to take charge to 

the remaind: f the period. he Coun 

points out that a bus patrol is a moniter in the 
sense of that word “one who ad 


: ° 
aictionary 


\ ises or caut He only helps the ariver 





8 Public Transportation of School Pupils. Little Rock: Ark ite D I 
Pupil Transportation. Frankfort Kentucky State Department of P Inst t { Tran 
Pupils in Massachusetts. Boston: Massachusetts State Depa Educat { Pupil Trap ' 
York. Albany: New York State Department of Education, 1 ipple Bus Req 
dations, April 15, 1936. 9 Pupil Transportation. Trenton: Ne Je State D I Ins 
* As an illustration see the article referred to in footnote 2, section V of 
5 See: Shea, Patrick F. Accident Prevention. Bost D. C. Heath and C 6 
1 Arizona, Delaware, Florida, Indiana, Towa, | ina, M Minn J New York, | 


West Virginia. 
17 See ‘Improving School Transportat 










protect pupils from danger and at all times 
must cooperate fully with him. He must not 
act independently or try to assume the driver’s 
authority, for it is the latter who is responsible 
for pupil safety. If two patrols are appointed, 
one usually is assigned to a seat at the rear of 
the bus, the other near the front. Their duties 
include the following: 


1. At the school building assist the driver in 
seeing that pupils enter and leave the bus in an 
orderly manner. 

2. See that all pupils are on board and seated 
before the bus leaves the school building. 

3. Warn children not to get on or off buses in 
motion, 

4. Caution children not to move about within the 
bus while it is in motion. 

5. Keep aisles free from books, lunch baskets, 
and other objects. 

6. Report to the driver any serious violations of 
rules such as tampering with the release on the 
emergency door. 

7. Caution children not to extend hands or heads 
from the bus windows. 

8. Report to the driver any attempts at “hitching” 
on the part of bicycle riders, roller skaters, or 
others. 

9. Leave the bus and serve as flagman at any 
railroad crossing where the driver does not have a 
clear view of the tracks in both directions—or at 
all crossings, if the state law requires this of some 
pupil. 


FIGURE VII 


State of Ohio 


Diploma 


Be It Known That: 


School 








Governor's School Safety Program 


To Whom These Presents May Come 


Has this day been awarded this Certificate for Meritorious Service 2 
in the interest of Safety for the school children of © 


10. Descend first at each pupil station 
small children on and off the bus and to 
other ways as needed. Children coming to Pri 
bus will not cross the highway until th 
taking his signal from the driver, beckons es 
come. In the evening when children must croce , Wi 
highway to reach their homes, the patrol sh oard 
company them around the front of the bys + \rivel 
point just ahead of the left front wheel. Th a 
a safe interval in traffic occurs, and at a sig) 
the driver, he will direct them to cross. If traf 
heavy, he may need to accompany small ch 


rtal 
th 


ave | 
torm< 


Some 


Attendants 


In some cases an adult attendant re: 
accompanies the driver, assisting him in n 
the same way that bus patrols would do. § 
times on unusually large buses, and often 
case of buses carrying physically hand 
pupils, the attendants are paid employ: 
other cases parents serve as attendants 
voluntary basis, perhaps taking turns to | 
the burden. 

Even under the best conditions, a sch: 
driver’s responsibilities are heavy. H 
efforts need the support of safety educat 
the schools, of numerous safety remind 
bulletins, posters, contests, and conferen 
and of competent bus patrols or adult 
tendants. 


stron 
\ ehic 
cont 
porte 
cles 

Mor 
f si 
scho 


own 


CERTIFICATES 
AWARDED FOR 
SAFE DRIVING 


’ 
vate. 
own 
chec 


with 











STATE OF WEST VIRGINIA 


35 
SCHOOL BUS QPERATARS SAFETY CLUB 





County dv 1 
under Rules and Regulations approved by the § : om, State 
Commission, and State Department of Public Safety, without — levelvieg perm pal 

or property damage during said period of employment; and bs, in recognition Uc 
pg td awarded this Certificate for 


Safety in Transportation 
Autborized by: af 7 ? 











Research Division, Nationa! Education Association 





Mt x— A! 





Gh kh 
er 


State Road Commissioner 


State Supt. Free Schools 








VII. Business Practises 


Prudent business management has an im- 
sortant bearing on safe pupil transportation. 
Without sound business practises, a school- 
ard is unlikely to obtain the most competent 
irivers and the best equipment available, or to 
have from its employees the most faithful per- 
formance of duty of which they are capable. 
Some of the business problems affecting pupil 
safety are considered in this section. 


Bus Ownership 


Whether a school district should purchase 
ind operate its own buses or contract with 
private owners for the necessary transportation 
of its pupils is a problem with several important 
ingles. Before action is taken in any school 
istrict careful consideration should be given 
to any legal restrictions and to questions of 
init cost and administrative management. To 
this discussion, however, only one question is 
ertinent: Which type of ownership, generally 
speaking, results in the use of safer equipment ? 

Altho no final answer can yet be given to 
this question, the now available 
strongly favors the use of district owned 
vehicles. One school district changed from the 
contract plan to district ownership and re- 
ported that safer and more comfortable vehi- 
cles were provided at lower cost than before.' 
More conclusive evidence is found in a survey 
of school bus equipment in 69 consolidated 
school districts in Minnesota in 1934. District 
owned vehicles were used in 13 districts, pri- 
vately owned buses in 39 districts, and jointly 
owned? in 17 districts. The vehicles were 
checked on 30 important construction features 
with the following result: 


evidence 


District Jointly Privately 
owned owned owned 
Number of buses inspected. 42 55 148 
Maximum defects possible, 
checking on 30 construction 
ee 1260 1650 4440 
Actual number of defects 
CO ee 144 381 1351 
Percent of deficiencies..... 11.4 23.1 30.4 


Table 5 shows the frequency with which 
certain kinds of specific defects were found in 
the district owned and privately owned buses. 


Department of Education, 1934. 8 p. (mimeo.) 


1 Finch, H. A. ‘School Bus Ownership Gives Better Service at Lower Cost.”’ 
2 In such cases the usual plan is for the school district to own the bus body, and the driver or contractor, the chassis 
8 Engum, T. C. Survey of School Bus Construction in Sixty-nine Consolidated Sch Paul: § 





Affecting Pupil Safety 


err a ; ; 
Vehicles jointly owned were less satistactory 
+] 


than the former but more satisfactory than the 
latter. ‘Che survey report points out that 
whereas 
Among the district owned vehicles only two cou 

be reported as not being substantial, . one-third 
of the privately owned buses were of inferior con 
struction. Many of these were built of soft woods 
wall boards, and other fragile material. ... In 


twenty-five cases the bus compartment was built in 


back of the driver’s cab. When the buses are 
structed in this manner the drivers have no oppor 


tunity either to observe or control the discipline of 


con 


‘ 


the pupils. In fifty-three cases the buses were 
the 


were 


narrow. Obstructions were on floors in mar 
The district 
pacity loads but did not overcrowd to the extent t 


percent of 


conveyances Carrying ca 


the others did. Twenty-one the private 


overcrowded; 9 percent of the 
In most of the districts employ 


buses to convey pupils, the drive 


motor buses were 
district owned. 
ing private motor 
are usually engaged by the bid method. The contrac 
tor accepts the job at a low figure in competition 
with his neighbors in the community. It then becomes 
impossible for him to furnish the type of equipment 
essential to the safe and comfortable transportatio! 
of pupils. Thus, an inferior conveyance is furnishe 
[he district saves money in cost of operation at th 
hazard of the health, life, the pupi 


and limb of 


TABLE 5.—DEFICIENCIES IN SCHOOL 
BUS CONSTRUCTION IN THE CASE 


OF CERTAIN DISTRICT OWNED AND 
PRIVATELY OWNED VEHICLES 





District Privately 
owned buses owned buses 
Type of defect 
Percent 
defective 


Percent 
defective 


1 2 3 
Vehicle unsafe because or i 
respect to: 
Fragile construct 5 
Width (usually too 1 19 


Ventilation : 
Windshield wiper 19 
Seating arrangements 7 
Emergency door ) 19 
Steps 

Handrails 

Door controls 


0 16 
29 is 


SCHOOL BUS sigt ’ 
Overloading 9 I 
Service brakes 2 10 

9 2 


Emergency bra 
Adapted from: Engum, T. C. Survey of School Bus Constru 
tion in Sixty-nine Consolidated School Districts in Minnesota 


St. Paul: State Department of Education, 1934. Table II, p 








Nation’s Schools 14: 59-61; August, 19 


| Districts in Minnesota. St tat 


€ 





Except where school buses are district 
owned, safe equipment should be guaranteed 
by covering all the important safety standards 
in the specifications on which the bids are let. 
A description of acceptable equipment can also 
be written into drivers’ contracts. 


Bids and Applications for Employment as 
School Bus Driver 


The nature of the contract will ya 
what according to the type of service i; 
If the district provides and maintains the , 
ment, the contract will relate only 
matters as the duration of the agreemen: 
pensation, and whatever is thought mn 
with respect to working conditions, sc! 
and the duties and responsibilities of the , 
If this is not the case, the contract will ; 


specify the kind and amount of equipn 
be provided and the condition in which 

be maintained, as well as the more sim, 
line of driving practises. The important 
from the standpoint of pupil safety, is the e) 
ence of a definite written contract whi 
mits no neglect or carelessness with res; 
any essential safety precaution. If no u: 
contract is provided for statewide use, th 
district should develop a satisfactory) 
terms of local needs. Where a standard 
is employed it may be advisable in son 
stances to insert certain provisions which s 
plement those laid down by state auth 


The state law in some instances will not 
allow a schoolboard to enter into any contract 
for pupil transportation except on the basis of 
open competition in which bids or applications 
are received from any responsible person or 
firm.* Wherever specific legal provisions exist 
they should be followed in every detail, for any 
irregularity in the form of procedure may 
jeopardize a contract. Even in the absence of a 
law requiring the board to advertise for bids, 
or to give public notice of vacancies for school 
bus drivers, it is good policy to hear the claims 
of all interested parties and award the con- 
tracts, without favoritism, to the most satis- 
factory applicants. 

In New Jersey and Ohio, each bid for a 
transportation contract is accompanied by a 
questionnaire filled out by the applicant. ‘The 
New Jersey questionnaire contains evidence of 
the driver’s financial responsibility and_ his 
qualifications and experience as a driver; it 
indicates something as to his personal habits, 
and describes the equipment offered and the 
route to be followed. The Ohio inquiry also 
covers health status, including a certified state- 
ment from a physician that the applicant is in 
good health and free from certain specified 
handicaps. A cash deposit must sometimes ac- 
company each bid as a pledge that it is made in 
good faith by one who is in a position to enter 
into the proposed contract. 


Bonds 


The requirement of a surety bond f 
faithful performance of the terms of a 
tract is a practise widely followed.® From : 
standpoint of pupil safety, it is an important 
administrative control, giving the schoolbo 
an effective means of enforcing whatever safe: 
standards the contract provides—safe e 
ment, proper maintenance, safe driving | 
tises, regular schedule, etc. In some case 
law requires a minimum bond of $250 
Minnesota, or perhaps $1000 as in Montan 
In others the amount of the bond is a cert 
percent of the sum named in the contract, e. g 
in Arkansas, 10 to 25 percent. In at least 
state (New Jersey), the contract must 
accompanied by “a suitable bond for th« 
amount of the contract.”’ Again, the size of th 
bond may be left to the discretion of the sc! 
board, the legal requirement being only a ger 
eral one to the effect that a “satisfactory 
sufficient bond shall be posted.’’* In the absenc 


Drivers’ Contracts 


Some form of contract is necessary wherever 
transportation is provided. Nearly always con- 
tracts are in writing and in many states they 
are uniform in character, following a standard 
outline developed by state authorities.° 


* For an example of this type of legislation see New Jersey P.L. 1933, Ch. 383. (Quoted in Pupil Transportation. Ti 
New Jersey State Department of Public Instruction, 1935. p. 3-4.) 

5 In at least the following states, uniform contracts either are definitely required or are available for use and ha 
recommended by state departments of education: Arkansas, California, Delaware, Florida, Iowa, Mississippi, New J 
New York, North Dakota, Washington, and West Virginia. In a number of other states the law requires written « 
and names some of the provisions which must be inserted. For an example of a brief contract see that of Californ 
detailed form, see that of Delaware. 

®In the following states, and perhaps certain others, surety bonds are regularly required: Arkansas, Minnesota, 
Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, Obio, and Tennessee. 

7 Ohio Public Laws, Section 7731-33, as amended June 6, 1935. 


[ 234 ] 











+ a bond, certain school districts seek to ac The Personal Liability of Bus Drivers 








lish the purpose which such a bond might 
Si - ye : Just as the courts are divided on the qu 
rve by providing in the contract that the first aii : ) 
, . Of district liability, they I divided on 
month’s salary will be held back until the end ‘ Se wae 
vear question of personal | ability To! employe: s ol 
t the year. : ; 
,; : the district such as bus drivers ‘lo 
Because schoolboards sometimes confuse the Me CURIE us drivers. In Fle 






judgment was rendered against a school 





oses of surety bonds with those of insur 





pury 
ince, the distinction between the two should be 





1, ae peer 
driver when an accident occurred trace 






a defective grill covering one of the window 





learly drawn. A bond is not a form of insu 
ince. Regardless of its size, it affords virtually 





[In lowa a driver was relieved of liability, alth 





the accident in question resulted from a di 





10 protection to pupils or to the general public 
fective door latch which he neglected to put 






yr any injury or damage sustained in a school 






tT 


proper repair. \t present no gene! il rule. o1 


trend of opinion, clearly prevails. 






us accident. A bond is only a financial pledge 






that the driver, or contractor, will fulfil the 





‘rms of his contract. For this reason, a mod 


ite-sized bond should prove entirely satisfac 


Insurance 













In at least four states public liability 






j 


ince must be rried either by 





, , 
the di 


Liability of Schoolboards 





In certain states schoolboards are liable for the school district—on every motos 
- : : ° ice : nil tran ’ t ) 7 
injuries and losses sustained in school bus acci ised in pupil transportation. In Rhode | 






the ordinary $5,000-$10,000 public Liability 





dents; in others, they are not. In California the 


he Sey eral 


} } 


policy is required in the case of vehicles 


t 





iw specifically imposes liability on t 
ten pupils, and for larg 
25,000 policy.'® Massachu 


setts, New York, and New Jersey also specify 


different amounts of liability insurance f: 


p rting fewer than 





school districts of the state, authorizing them 





Duses, a $10,000 Ss 





to insure their school buses and declaring that 





the premiums for such insurance are a proper 


















: irge from public funds.§ In New York and 
Washington there is no specific law comparable vehicles of various sizes.'* The upper limit is 
to that of California, but court decisions have $50,000 in Massachusetts and New York 
granted the possibility of district liability. De- $40,000 in New Jersey. New York also re 
; cisions have hinged on such questions as ulres insurance against property damage by) 
whether or not the injury was due to any negli policies ranging from $1000 in the case of 
gence, and whether or not the injured person small buses to $5000 for the largest vehicle 
' was guilty of contributory negligence.® There Florida and West Virginia require all private 
: are probably other states, too, in which the contractors to carry insurance and permit 
courts would impose liability on any district school districts to purchase insurance if they 
’, which failed to carry the insurance authorized wish to do so. Colorado, Minnesota Ne 
, or required by the state laws. In several states, braska, Vermont, Washington, and Wyoming 
however, the courts probably would be slow in 4T€ among the states authorizing schoolboards 
admitting school district liability, holding that t® Carry sult ible insurance. The California 
the schoolboard is an agent of the state immune law, already cited, makes liability insuranc 
from any suit for damage or injury. Decisions virtually mandatory thruout that state. 
ot this type, involving school bus accidents, In Wisconsin, Missouri, Arkan 1 Ken 
‘ robably in other states as well, 





have been rendered in at least two states, South tucky, and | 
Carolina and Oklahoma.'® insurance covering property damage or pu 






























8 California Scho Code, 1931. See ] 36 Civil C 
® See M. M. Chambers, editor. Second Year bk of Sch I ] +. 1 4 Union High Sci ) 
King County, 160 Wash. 121, 294 Pac. 998 
° Sherbert 1 District No. § 169 S. C. 191, 168 S. I 1; Wrigh t j District N 






Allen, 


Burnett vz 





12 Hibbs v. Independent School District of Green Mour r 5 N.W 
Transportation regulations adopted by the Rhode Island eB ! I A t 1 
144 Massachusetts Public Law, Acts of 1932, Ch. 271, Se f New York \ e and Traffic Law l i 






1934. § Regulations of the New Jersey State Board of Educat 
1 Only school distr ed valuation of 





liability is not legally necessary but is recog- 
nized as a proper safeguard. In Missouri and 
Arkansas the state departments of education 
strongly urge at least the minimum protection 
afforded by a $5,000-$10,000 policy. In Ken- 
tucky, schoolboards have been exempted from 
“legal liability” but the courts have recognized 
a “moral responsibility,” with the result that 
$5,000-$30,000 policies are strongly urged in 
the transportation manual issued by the state 
department of education. 

In a few instances school districts have been 
forbidden to use public funds for the payment 
of premiums on liability insurance.'® The argu- 
ment advanced has been that in the absence of 
liability an insurance premium is an expendi- 
ture for a service which the board is not 
authorized to provide. Few interpretations of 
this kind have been rendered ; and even in such 
cases, the board probably could have required 
its drivers to carry adequate insurance, so long 
as it was done at the drivers’ expense. 

Proper insurance should serve in some meas- 
ure as an incentive to drivers to operate their 
buses as safely as possible. They know that any 
insurance claim will be carefully investigated 
and that any negligence on their part is likely 
to be exposed. Further than that, the assurance 
of some financial compensation in the event of 
unavoidable accidents seems but a reasonable 
type of pupil safeguard. A schoolboard, in 
every case, should determine what the law is 
with respect to insurance and should conform 
to the law in every particular. If the law is 
silent on the matter and no interpretation 
limits the board in using its discretion, ade- 
quate insurance seems indeed a “moral obliga- 
tion.” ‘7 Because schoolboards are often de- 
clared to be exempt from liability, however, 
every insurance policy should carry a clause 
waiving the right of the company to refuse 
payment on any claim on the basis of original 
non-liability of the schoolboard. 


Administrative Reports on Pupil Tra; 
tation 


Adequate supervision of pupil transpo: 
is possible only when the responsible au: 
ties keep themselves informed on what is 
done. In well-managed systems the follow; 
reports are required: (1) a report from 
driver at frequent intervals to the prin 
superintendent, or transportation manage 
whom he is directly responsible; (2) a re 
from the driver to local school authoritie 
to the proper state highway officials of 
accident involving property damage or 
sonal injury; (3) weekly reports from | 
cipals and transportation managers to 
superintendent of schools; (4) frequent 
ports from the maintenance department 
head mechanic, to the superintendent 
schools; (5) monthly reports from the sup 
intendent of schools to the board of educat 
and perhaps to the state department of ed 
cation; and (6) an annual report from 
superintendent of schools to the local sch 
board and to the state board of education. 

Forms now in use for such administra 
reports are available in the transportat 
manuals of state departments of education 
Arkansas, Kentucky, and New York and 
unpublished form from the departments 
education in certain other states. 

In adopting or developing report forms, 
in using those already at hand, care needs to 
taken that information on the cost of transp: 
tation is not emphasized to the exclusion 
information about pupil safety. Adherence t 
schedule, condition of roads and equipment, 
the nature of minor accidents, and many other 
facts relating to pupil safety should be re 
corded as systematically as cost and milea 
figures. Such reports not only have a whol: 
some influence in preventing accidents, but 
they also serve as the surest foundation fo: 
necessary administrative changes. 


16 For example, an opinion rendered by the attorney-general, School District No. 2, Lake County, Two Harbors, Minnesot 


1927 


7 Kentucky State Board of Education. Manual on Pupil Transportation. Educational Bulletin, Vol. 4, No. 2. Frankfort, 
<y.: the Board, 1936. p. 20. 





VIII. Implications of This Study 


Analysis of the regulations and practises of 
the various states with reference to safety in 


pupil transportation has indicated certain areas 


where further work is urgently needed. 


Effective Cooperation 

Since state and local authorities must share 
the responsibility for safe pupil transportation, 
considerable attention should be given to the 
machinery and procedures which make for ef 
fective cooperation. ‘The state is responsible 
for adequate minimum standards and for gen- 
eral regulation and supervision. It is the duty 
of local school authorities to carry out state 
regulations and to adopt other pupil safeguards 
as needed. This calls for the closest possible 
cooperation between local school authorities 
and state agencies. Less directly, perhaps, it 
implies the need for close cooperation among 
various state agencies, especially, state depart 
ments of education, motor vehicle departments, 
highway departments and commissions, state 
highway police, and state councils or commis 
sions on highway safety. With the possible ex 
ception of a few states, closer cooperation 
among these agencies could readily be devel 
oped. A plan now in use in one state seems to 
merit wider use. There a coordinating com 
mittee, with representatives from each state 
agency concerned, has been created expressly to 
promote safety in pupil transportation. 

Another improvement urgently needed in 
many states is a clearer definition of authority 
and function for all the agencies concerned 
with pupil transportation. Effective coopera 
tion is difficult, to say the least, when the vari- 
ous departments and commissions are uncer- 
tain as to their jurisdiction, or when two or 
more agencies seem to have the same duties. 


Appropriate State Laws 

At present, legislation relating to the opera- 
tion of school buses is quite meager in a number 
of states. In the interest of safety, laws of this 
type ought to be examined from time to time 
with a view to enacting needed amendments 
and supplements. A definite policy should be 
developed, too, with respect to the scope of 
safety legislation. Some states enact laws that 
prescribe safety standards and practises in con- 
siderable detail; other legislatures confine 
themselves to general laws, delegating to one 
or more state agencies the authority to develop 
and enforce the more detailed regulations. The 


latter plan is usually favored, it the general 


laws not only confer sufficient authority, but 


make it mandatory for each agency to exercise 
| 


the control with which it is entrusted 
Adequate Supervision 


Safety in pupil transportation can be assut 


only by careful and continuous supervision by 
state and local authorities. Even the more d: 
tailed safety laws need to be supplemented by 
appropriate rules and regulations. State aget 
cies and local school authorities should adopt 
whatever standards and regulations properly 
come within their jurisdiction. Laws and 
standards with reference to drivers’ qualifica 
tions, equipment, routes, and operating prac 
tises must be enforced. 


Altho 


without adequate information about the trans 


effective supervision is impossible 


portation program, the situation in many states 


} 


is similar to that described in the following 


tot 


quotation from correspondence with one stat 
department of education: 


Transportation of school children is a local dis 
Much of the in 
formation requested is not reported to this office 
I might state further that in attempting to secure 
further information I have consulted with the Stat 


trict’s responsibility in this state. 


Director of the Department of Motor Vehicles and 


with the Attorney General. 


Safe Transportation as a Factor in School 


Consolidation 


Safe transportation is basic to the success of 
the consolidation program. Granting the ob 
vious educational advantages of consolidated 
schools over those of the one-room type, the 
consolidated school 


question of whether a 


should be established in a given community 


properly on the 


often hinges very financial 
ability of the community to provide safe trans 
portation. The consolidation of schools in dis 
tricts that are forced to use ramshackle equip 
ment, employ drivers at less than a living wage, 
and establish routes over dangerous highways 


tends to discredit the consolidation movement 


Frequent Evaluation 


School authorities ought frequently to take 
stock of their own efforts on behalf of pupil 
safety and consider other safeguards that might 
be introduced. Figure VIII is a checklist which 


can be used in such appraisals. 


[ 237 ] 





FIGURE VIII 








A CHECKLIST OF IMPORTANT SAFETY STANDARDS AND PRACTISES 


Check each standard 
or practise used 


In selecting a school bus driver, the successful applicant is required to: 
1. Enter a bid, or application, in competition with all others who care to apply [See page 234] 
. Hold a regular driver's license issued by state authorities [See page 206] . et 
. Hold a special license (e.g. chauffeur’s license or bus driver's license) [p. 206) 
. Present evidence that his Saver’ s license has never been revoked [p. 207] 
. Pass special driving tests [p. 206] 
. Cite reliable references who i vouch for his driving skill [p. 207] 
. Have a satisfactory experience record in driving a vehicle of comparable size [p. 207] 
. Be between the ages of twenty-one and fifty-five years [p. 205-06] 
. Pass a thoro physical examination (including tests of vision and hearing) [p. 207] 
10. Present satisfactory evidence of good character and wholesome personal habits [p. 207] . 
11. Enter into a written contract covering essential features of the service [p. 234] 
12. Post a satisfactory surety bond for faithful performance of the contract [p. 234] 


Vehicles used as school buses must be satisfactory with respect to: 
1. sis mam enough to prevent overcrowding; small enough that size is not a hazard 
p. 210 
. Type of construction—Bus bodies strong enough to withstand turnover (no improvised 
frame extensions and frail, home-made bus bodies permitted) [p. 212 
. Brakes—Four-wheel brakes, in good condition, sufficient to stop the bus within 30 feet 
when traveling on a dry pavement at 20 miles an hour [p. 212] 
. Tires—All in good condition and properly inflated, including a spare tire [p. 212] 
. Safety glass in windshield, doors, and windows [p. ‘913] 
. Distinctive coloring (preferably uniform thruout the state) and a prominent SCHOOL 
BUS sign displayed on front and rear [p. 213-14] 
. Mounting—At least two-thirds of the bus body resting in front of the rear axle and the 
overhang, in no case, exceeding 45 percent of the wheel base [p. 214] .. 
. Power—Suffcient to propel loaded bus at 20 m. p. h. on any grade regularly used <3 om. 
. Service door—Folding or sliding type located at the right front corner [p. 215] . 
10. Emergency door, preferably on t the left side at the rear [p. 215] 
11. Suitable devices for heating and ventilating the bus [p. 216] . 
12. Proper lights, signaling devices (including horn), windshield wiper, ‘and mirrors [p. mi 
13. Window guards (grills or heavy screens) |p. 216] er: 
14. Traffic guard rails (to protect in case of side swipes) and bumpers [p. 216] 
15. Fire extinguisher, first aid kit, and other emergency accessories [p. 216] . . 


Equipment is maintained in good condition by requiring: 
1. Daily inspection of brakes, tires, lights, etc., by bus drivers [p. 217] 
2. Thoro inspection at frequent intervals by a competent mechanic [p. 216] ... 
: Periodic inspection of brakes, etc., at authorized inspection stations [p. 217] 
. Inspection at any time by members ‘of the state highway patrol [p. 216] 
. Frequent and specific reports to proper authorities on the condition of each bus [p. 236] . . 


Laws or regulations with respect to school bus operation: 


1. Require a full stop at railroad crossings [p. 219] 

2. Prohibit a load in excess of rated capacity [p. 220] 

3. Restrict speed to a safe maximum (probably about 30 miles an hour) [p. 220] . . 

4. Provide that pupils be received and discharged only at regular stops [p. 218] 

5. Direct pupils who cross the highway to pass in front of the bus [p. 218-19] 

6. Require drivers to report all accidents to the proper local and state authorities [p. 236] . . 
7. Specify, in eonsieediie detail, other safety regulations for drivers and pupils [p. 221-24] . . 
8. Are written into the driver's contract, if considered essential to pupil safety [p. 234] .... 


Each bus has at least one (usualiy two) boy patrol to assist the driver [p. 231-32]. . 
School bus routes are carefully selected after a survey of all available roads [p. 226]. . 
Waiting stations are designated and, when needed, shelters are provided [p. 228]. . 
us — require a minimum of time on the road, but allow for safe driving 

p. 228 
School bus experiences are used by teachers as the basis for safety education 

[p. 229-30] 
Drivers are made safety conscious thru posters, bulletins, conferences, contests, 

etc. [p. 231] 
Adequate liability and property damage insurance is carried on all buses [p. 235-36]. ( ) 


Research Division, National Education Association 





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ae 






























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AT VARIOUS SPEEDS 




















THINKING DISTANCE BRAKING DISTANCE