MAR 13 1936 RESEARCH BULLETIN OF THE. NAT IONAL VOL. XIV = No.2 EDUCATION MARCH - 1936 ASSOCIATION The Preparation of Teachers’ Salary Schedules Part Il: Drafting the Schedule Published by the RESEARCH DIVISION of the NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. RESEARCH BULLETIN o¢ 1: Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November President, AGNES SAMUELSON NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Executive Secretary, WILLARD E. GIVENS The payment of the $5 membership fee of the National Education Association entitles one to receive for one year the Research Bulletin, the Journal, the An- nual Volume of Addresses and Proceed- ings, and certain other publications of the Association. One dollar of each $5 mem- bership fee is for a year’s subscription to the Research Bulletin. The Research Bulletin may be subscribed for separately at $l per year. Copies may be pur- chased at nominal cost, and in quantities at a reduced rate. 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Address communications to the Research Division, National Education As- sociation, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. CONTENTS [NTRODUCTION QueEsTIONS OF PoLicy IN DRAFTING THE SALARY SCHEDULE............. Basic Classification of Salaries—Position or Preparation Minimum Salaries Maximum Salaries Increments Requirements for Continued Professional Training Sex as a Basis for Variations in Salary Teaching Efficiency and the Salary Schedule Differentials for Special Teaching Services Salaries of Principals and Other Officers Summary SUMMARY OF PROCEDURES AND POLICIES IN SCHEDULING TEACHERS’ SALARIES... Preliminary Steps Personnel and Responsibilities Studying the Facts Policies Governing the Salary Schedule Organization and Format of Schedule Financing the Schedule Putting the Schedule into Effect REFERENCES TO TWENTY-TWO LocaL StupIES OF TEACHERS’ SALARIES........ ST dS oe ei ds ethene caevtd eur adwatrseeres 98 Introduction The January 1936 Research Bulletin? dis- cusses administrative procedures in the prepa- ration of a salary schedule and calls attention to the types of information on salaries which frequently are studied. This bulletin deals with a further stage of the process of schedule- making. In setting up a salary schedule for teachers, as in any other problem where human and economic factors are present, a number of decisions must be made on the basis of judg- ment. Altho progress has been made toward objective procedures in scheduling teachers’ salaries, no formulas which have been devel- oped provide wholly objective bases for an- swering the questions which arise. The neces- sity still remains for a careful study of con- ditions, and a choice, among possible courses of action, of the policies which seem most likely to accomplish the purposes to be served by salary schedules. Certain basic decisions are already made when it has been determined to have a schedule. The adoption of a salary schedule presupposes that salary classes will be set up, that the basis for assigning employees to those classes will be a matter of public knowledge, and that each salary class will pro- vide for progress from an initial salary to a higher salary, the basis for progress also being a matter of public knowledge. Before the actual formulation of the sched- ule can be completed, however, decisions must be reached on the adoption or rejection of cer- tain principles of salary scheduling, and on the interpretation of those adopted. Principles such as these have been proposed: “School years and subjects are of equal importance in the de- 1 National Education Association, Research Division. “‘The Preparation of Teachers’ Salary Schedules: Part I: Admi: velopment of children and should there} so recognized in salary schedules.” 2 “‘s schedules should recognize the value of : ing.’ * “Salary schedules should be ad to cost of living and to living conditi “The minimum salary should be a wage.” * “The schedule should avoid o\ ing beginning teachers at the expense of ; ers with long records of successful rience.”’° “Maximum salaries should be enough to justify looking upon teaching career, rather than as a temporary or ‘st: stone’ job.” ® “The salary schedule should ¢ courage the professional growth of tea while in service.” * ‘‘Persons in the same | of position should receive equal salaric equivalent training and experience.” ° “\[er:: should be recognized and rewarded.” * Are such principles as these to be ace: in the school system for which the schedule is trove being prepared ? And if they are accepted, whit do they mean in a salary schedule, in terms of dollars and cents? These are real ques: when salary schedules are being prep This bulletin presents evidence that may those responsible for drafting schedules clarify their thinking on these issues. A brief closing section summarizes thie «is cussion of the preparation of teachers’ salar) schedules given in this and the preceding bulle tin. The summary is given in the form o! itemized list of procedures which may p: useful in a local school system in consid: plans and checking progress in the prepara’ of a salary schedule. In supe! amot tend of tl mort supe the tion If e a th and Fact-Finding Procedures.” Research Bulletin 14: 1-48; January, 1936. ® Lewis, E. E. “Des‘rable Principles of Teachers’ Salary Schedules.”” American School Board Journal 80: 45-46; May, | % National Education Association, Salary Committee (E. S. Evenden, chairman). Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trends in Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1923. p. 73-75. (Published also as the May, 1923, Research Bulletin of the National | tion Association.) “Clark, R. C. “Principles Underlying the Minimum Teachers’ Salary.”’ American School Board Journal 80: 55-56 ruary, 1930. 5 National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. The Economic Welfare of Teachers. Sixth Yea Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1931. p. 34. ® Evenden, Edward S. “Fundamental Principles of Grading Teachers’ Salaries.” Proceedings, 1921. Vol. 59. Washine' D. C.: National Education Association, 1921. p. 817-20. printe sions Conte 56 Pp Admi sched conte t Long Beach, Calif. Stef and Salary Survey of the Long Beach City Schools. (By E. H. Staffelbach.) Long Beach: Aft Teachers of Long Beach, 1935. p. 15. * Munzenmayer, L. H. “Constructing Salary Schedules.” Nation’s Schools 12: 38; September, 1933. [ 52] Questions of Policy in Drafting the Salary Schedule A study of the provisions of 150 recently salary schedules * and the content of il salary studies* suggested ten ques- which appear to be particularly difficult nswer in setting up a salary schedule. The ns deal with the following topics: Basic classification of salaries—position or preparation Recognition of training Minimum salaries . Maximum salaries Increments Requirements for training Sex as a basis for variations in salary . Efficiency ratings and the salary schedule . Differentials for special teaching services 10. Salaries of principals and other officers. additional professional continued professional \ questionnaire to superintendents of school systems where a salary schedule recently had wen adopted included a section which asked respondents to indicate the three questions in the list of ten which had been most difficult to answer in framing their local schedules and to suggest other topics which were more con- troversial. Table 1 quotes the ten questions in full and shows for each the number of superintendents who included that question as among the three most difficult. A few superin- tendents checked four or five questions instead of three; their replies are included, thus in- creasing the total of the frequencies. The few additional questions mentioned in the replies are also listed. lt appears from Table 1 that every one of the ten questions has proved to be particularly hard to answer in certain school systems and that no one of the ten stands out as strikingly more difficult than the others. There were 212 superintendents checking the ten questions; the possible frequency in checking any ques- tion as difficult thus ranged from zero to 212. lf each of the questions had been checked by a third of those replying, or approximately ‘The 150 salary schedules represent school systems of all sizes. seventy, it would have seemed to indicate that on the whole the questions were of nearly equal difficulty. The actual range of frequencies was from 39, or 18.4 percent, on the question relat ing to salaries of principals and other officers, to 94, or 44.3 percent, on the question re garding the amounts to be paid as maximum salaries. The inquiry to superintendents included an other question, the answers to which throw some light on the issues raised by the ten ques tions, which reads as follows: “If a new sched- ule were to be prepared now in your school system, how would you vary from the former procedure in organization, personnel, points of emphasis?” No answers were suggested for checking; space was provided for writing in replies. The replies from the 43 superintend ents who answered this question by mention ing items connected with the content of the schedule are presented in Table 2. The sug gestions made most frequently are related to the questions on efficiency, type of schedule (single salary or otherwise), and recognition of professional training. The discussion which follows deals with the questions in turn. A section is devoted to each of the ten questions except the second, on recognition of professional training, which is included in the section on basic classification of salaries. The discussion of each question is organized as follows: first, a brief statement of the scope of the question and of the rela- tive difficulty assigned to it by the superintend- ents of schools replying to the questionnaire ; second, a section on “present practise’ which gives evidence as to the way the question is being answered in existing salary schedules; and third, a section on “opinion and studies,” which calls attention to recommendations of the National Education Association, and cites the points of view expressed in the local salary studies and in publications by individual stu- dents of the problem of salary scheduling. They were selected on the basis of availability (in printed or mimeographed form) and date (1928 or later). A list of the 150 schedules and a report on certain of their provi- sions is given in: National Education Association, Department of Superintendence and Research Division. Organization and Content, Teachers’ Salary Schedules. Educational Research Service Circular No. 6, 1935. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1935. 56 p. See also: National Education Association, Research Division. ‘“‘The Preparation of Teachers’ Salary Schedules: Part I: Administrative and Fact-Finding Procedures.” Research Bulletin 14: 7-8; January, 1936. * The 22 studies report on statistical investigations of teachers’ salaries in local school systems and propose new salary schedules for adoption. A list of the studies is given on page 97 of this bulletin. For information on organization and statistical conten. of the studies, see: National Schedules: Part I,” op. cit., p. 21-37. Education Association, Research Division, “The Preparation of Teachers’ Salary ” For copy of the questionnaire, list of 222 school systems submitting usable replies, and@abulations of findings on other questions, see: National Education Association, Research Division, “The Preparation of Teachers’ Salary Schedules: Part I,’’ [53] op. cit., p. 9-20, 43-44. *[-—-2U9W a]ZuIs UkY) Sateles JayFIY AAleda1 UW pateW [jeYys ‘[—épepraoid aq aAvay [eoNeqqes pynoys !{— Zsae[Rs YBiy-Joluas pue ‘-so1uNf ‘Are]UIWA]I UIaMjaq ArysuONe[al 94} aq [|BYS JeYM | [—ZSi9YIva} PasO]OD JOY spew aq [BIUDZeyIP [[eYys *[—_¢s[eae] Ares ayetidoidde uo peseid aq siayoea, [[eYys UOOs MOY !{—ZadIAJaS BuO; 30y pred aq sjyunowe ejxa [[eYys ‘satjdar ¢—Z,LysIP jo Azyiqe jelouRUYy 0} Pajdepe aq ajnpayos UBD MOP :sUOTJsaND 19qIO q ‘000s © OOSZ ‘A AnoIyy ‘Q00‘OT 3 OOOS ‘AL Anois) Q00'OE ©) OOOO! ‘ITT Anes ‘Q00‘OOT 91 OOO‘OES ‘IT Anosy ‘Suonejndod ur OOO‘OOT J9AO saiqId ‘7 Anois) :smojjoy se sazues uoNeindog » all ol 9 j caeencereunss JaMsue ON t 6 ¢ 5 ’ q SuoTsanb 4941 sl of st : gSIaYjO dANeIISIUIMIpe pue AiOSIAJadNS Jay 30 pue sjediouud 0} pred aq [TeYys solEyTes JEU AA “OL 9¢ 67 “g°'o}e ‘sJaydea} UONeIISUOWap ‘sjusUIIIedap jo SspRay ‘sIO[asUNOD SB YONS ‘s}UsUTUTISSE feseds JO satjNp B1IXe YIIM SJBYIRI} 10j 398 aq [[BYS Salreles [eIDods JO S[eENUsIAYyIpP YAMA “6 £7 os £7 ga[npeyos Aieyes ay} UO ssaiZ0Id § Jayove} & SUIUIULIa}ap UI pasn aq ssuNes Adus oye [[eyS “sg “Lz 6s 1¢ “***gy10M Jenba 10J Sateyes [enba pred aq suonroylyenb sejruis jo uaWOM pue Ue [TeYS *Z “eZ 1s st éS[PA1ajUI pezeIs Je Futures) JBuUOIssajoid JBUONIPPe aindas 0} S1ayoea} [aduI0D 0} SB PesIAap O8 aq a[Npaeyos ayi |TeYS * m4 3 69 *gAreles UINUIIXeM 0} WINUITUTUT WOIJ ZuIssazZ01d ul aq 340y) []BYs SJUsUTaIOU! AuPUI MOP * > oF $6 ; 3 4 gsauejes wiNnuixeu se pred aq [[eys sjunoure yey AA * “Pe tL or 4 ¢Sjuswaim ber winur -Tulw 34} UPY? JayBIy BZulures} Peuotssajold Jo uoNtuso9as ul pred aq squnowe eIpxa [TeYS * ‘OF . gadAj (Areyes-o]3uts) uonrredaid ay} jo 10 3dA} uONIsOd ay Jo aq SalIETes JO UOTIBOYISSE]D SIseq By? [TRUS * or 6 Z 9 A II yus2Ieq Jequiny A vlII Te0L pus AI III puel ——— ee Ill pue ly sdnoi5y dnoiy sdnoiy sdno1y dnoiy sdnoig uonsend uoyuew jo Aduenbesj ul uoWsenb jo qury I[NIBIp se uoysenb Zuyws sotjdes yo sequinyy ATLINAIAA GALdOGV NAA AAVH SA INGAHOS AAVIVS AAAHM SWALSAS NI STOOHDS dO SLNA “GNALNIXAdNS Ad GALAOdAA SV ‘SHIAVIVS SHAHOVAL AO ONITINGAHODS AHL NI SNOILSANO LINDIdAdAIG—I ATAVL Basic Classification of Salaries—Position or Preparation Shall the basic classification of salaries be { the position type or of the preparation single-salary) type?” The question may over- simplity the situation by suggesting that only evo choices are possible. It is true that there two main types of salary schedules: |. Position schedules, in which the basic groups wre established in terms of school positions, such as high - school The y-school teacher receives the elementary-school ementary - school teacher, junior reacher, senior high-school teacher. elemen- salary, whether he is the graduate of a two-year normal school or the holder of a doctor's degree. [his is the traditional type of schedule, in which salaries are lowest in elementary school and high- est in senior high school. 2. Preparation schedules, also known as single- salary schedules,’ in which the basic groups are established in terms of the amount of professional training which the teacher has completed. The col- lege graduate receives the salary scheduled for col- lege graduates, whether a teacher of kindergarten hildren or of seniors in high school—the‘ higher the professional qualifications, the higher the salary. Within these two basic classifications there are many variations. A number of schedules which recognize both position and preparation are regarded in this bulletin as a subgroup of the position type as described above and are re- ferred to as: Position-preparation schedules, in which the basic groups are in terms of elementary, junior-high or senior-high teaching, with variations within groups to recognize differing levels of preparation. The basic classification of salaries was re- ported as difficult more often than any other question by the superintendents in cities of Groups IV and V, and ties with the fourth question for first rank in Group III (see Table 1). Altho given a lower place in Group I cities, it takes second rank when the entire 212 replies are considered, being mentioned by 40.6 percent of those reporting. The fact that the question receives relatively slight con- sideration in Group I may be due to the fact that salary schedules have been in effect in those cities for many years, and the basic classification has become rather definitely fixed in an accepted pattern. The question of pay- ing extra amounts in recognition of profes- _ 7 Altho the term “‘preparation schedule”’ this bulletin to refer to the same type of schedule seems to be more sional training higher than the minimum re quirements was rated as difficult by 30.2 per cent of the superintendents replying. The factors of experience (recognized as a basis for salary increments in all schedules), TABLE 2.—POINTS WHICH WOULD BE EMPHASIZED IN A NEW SALARY SCHEDULE, AS REPORTED BY 43 SU- PERINTENDENTS OF SCHOOLS IN SYSTEMS WHERE SALARY SCHED- ULES HAVE BEEN ADOPTED RE- CENTLY Groups Group Iand II*_ III Groups Proposed new emphasis IV and V Total 1 2 3 4 Recognition of efficiency, in dividual merit Single-salary schedule favored Recognition ol training Differential for outstanding teachers Higher maximum Lower minimum; maximum Longer time to go from mini- mum to maximum Larger increments Reduction from maximum in case of decreased efficiency Less emphasis on additional training ver Require summer school work at stated intervals Higher training requirements Change from single-salary to position type favored Elimination of rating as sal ary determinant One minimum salary for ele mentary and teachers Allow salary credit for ex perience elsewhere Differential for married men Evaluation of additional training submitted for salary credit Health examination Salaries on 12-month basis Recognition of extracurricu- lum work... . reiides Differentiation on basis of teaching load Differentiation on dependents Higher minimum Increments on basis of ex- amination More increments Smaller increments Increments larger in years of service additional higher high-school basis of early Total replies oer 4 ® For population ranges, see Table 1. ‘ accurately descriptive, “single-salary schedule’”’ i [55] sex, and merit are not regarded in this discus- sion as affecting the basic classification. ‘They are treated in subsequent sections of this bulle- tin. Present Practise In 1930-31, when 1162 school systems re- ported to the Research Division of the Na- tional Education Association on provisions of the salary schedule in effect, 197 schedules, or 17 percent, were of the preparation type and the remaining 83 percent of the position type.” Many of these schedules reported on in 1930- 31 had been in effect for many years. The 150 salary schedules of recent adoption (1928 or later) studied in the preparation of this bulle- tin include a higher proportion of preparation schedules. As shown in Table 3, there are 104 position schedules and 46, or 30.7 percent, of the preparation type.® Salary classes provided in position sched- ules—The typical classification in position schedules provides three salary levels, one each for elementary, junior-high, and senior-high positions. None of the 150 schedules examined follows the plan which once was common of paying the lowest salaries in the first grade and TABLE 3.—BASIC CLASSIFICATION OF SALARIES IN 150 CITY SCHOOL SAL- ARY SCHEDULES, BY POPULATION GROUPS AND BY YEARS Position type Prepara- Groups ;* year of - ————— tion type adoption Position Position- (single- only preparation Total salary) Total 1 Yee Group II Group III Group IV...... Group V Total 69.3 30.7 100.0 15 23 27 33 20 X 33 10 15 il 14 8 13 11 13 19 74 104 46 150 Percent... 49.3 69.3 30.7 100.0 gradually increasing the amounts f, grade. Seven schedules, however, have rate salary class for kindergarten te 14 others have a separate salary class applies only to kindergarten assista; teachers of one-session kindergartens: . schedules provide higher salaries in Gra: or Grade VIII. Of the 59 schedules mention junior high-school teachers, 12 jn the junior-high teachers in the same class as senior-high teachers. Four p schedules provide a salary class for college teachers. Some position schedules, especially +! the larger cities, provide salaries for list of professional employees other than lar teachers, setting up separate salary for each. A few of the schedules studied 8 Inglewood, Calif. Salary Policy for Teachers of Inglewood City Schools. Inglewood: Board of Education, 1935. p f See also: Cross, Henry A., and DeSilva, Lionel. ‘“‘The Inglewood Teachers’ Salary Policy.’ American School Board 91: 24-25; November, 1935. ] * National Education Association. Proceedings. 1920, p. 25; 1921, p. 27; 1922, p. 45. ” National Education Association, op. cit., 1922, p. 45. 1 National Education Association, Salary Committee (E. S 1923. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1923. p. 73, 78. . Evenden, chairman). Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trend } 12 National Education Association, Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher (B. R. Buckingham, chairmar The Teacher's Economic Position: Facts and Recommendations. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1935. p. 88. (Published a as the September, 1935, Research Bulletin of the National Education Association, 13: 252.) ; 13 A list of the 22 studies is given on p. 97. The studies are referred to in this bulletin by name of city only, without fur! bibliographical citation. “4 Chicago, Lexington, Los Angeles, New York Citizens (as a first step preparatory to the later adoption of a prepara’ schedule), New York Board of Estimate, Pittsburgh Citizens, Pittsburgh Teachers, San Francisco Citizens, San Fran Teachers, and Springfield. San Francisco Citizens, p. 25. [58] n of the complete preparation schedule. he following statement is representative: It has been thought wise not to recommend too irastic a change in the existing salary plan. The izle salary schedule is recommended for con- nued study by the personnel division, in recogni- of the probability that educational authorities Chicago will sooner or later find it desirable to jopt such a provision. The schedules recommended represent a modification of the existing pro- sions in the direction of a greater recognition of training. If they are adopted, the teacher’s salary vill be determined not only by type of school and length of service, but also, partially, by the amount f training completed.”*® The remaining twelve studies schedules of the preparation type. The follow- ng statement from the Watertown survey is illustrative of the recommendations in jus- tification of this type of schedule: propose The proposed schedule accepts the principle of the single salary schedule: that it is equally im- portant that a teacher be well trained for work in the kindergarten, elementary, or high school. There may have been a time when it required teachers f greater ability and training to educate adolescent than vounger children. With the accumulation of scientific knowledge the large importance of the education of children has become better inderstood. Therefore, under the proposed salary schedule, an elementary teacher with four years of profes- sional preparation will receive the same salary as a iigh school teacher with the same amount of train- ng. This will permit a teacher to work at the par- ticular level where he is likely to render the greatest service uninfluenced by salary considerations. rhe incorporation of this principle into the sched- le will give Watertown a well-trained staff. It will nake impossible a situation such as now exists in which, in some groups, the less well-trained teachers are receiving the higher salaries. his does not mean that elementary school teach- ers in Watertown will immediately receive the same salaries as high school teachers. The average high school teacher in Watertown has had two years more training than the typical elementary school teacher, and therefore, will receive a sub- stantially larger salary. The schedule does open the way, however, to any teacher to prepare fully for service at his chosen school level and to receive recognition in salary of such preparation.” early Chicago, p. 305. Watertown, p. 190-91. “See the list of references on the single-salary schedule Individual opinion—There appears to be less emphasis on the issue of the single-salary schedule in recent discussions of salaries than was to be noted a decade ago.'* Several writers discuss the relative advantages and disadvan- tages of the preparation schedule, neither rec ommending nor discouraging its general use.'® Elsbree emphasizes the importance of a criti cal evaluation of the professional preparation which is recognized as a basis for differences in salary: Superintendents of schools have been so delighted by the alacrity with which teachers have met the training requirements for increased compensation that they have frequently lost sight of the fact that the character of the training received is even more important than the quantity. This situation can be largely controlled through careful attention on the part of superintendent, principal, and supervisors to the courses taken by teachers. This does not mean rigid prescription of subject matter; it does mean a careful evaluation of the teacher’s preparation at the time of selection and subsequent supervision of her program for further study. To do this intelli- gently, the superintendent must be familiar both with the courses offered in colleges and universities and with the needs and weaknesses of individual teachers. In no other way can the board of education be assured that additional training will result in improved teaching.” The arguments in favor of the single-salary plan emphasize the value of retaining teachers of superior ability and qualifications in the elementary grades, the incentive to pursue further training which such schedules provide, and the economic desirability of providing sal aries which are commensurate with varying investments in training.*! The following state- ment by Lewis is illustrative: Teaching in one grade or subject is just as im portant a service, and requires approximately equivalent skill, as teaching in any other grade or subject and should be so recognized in the schedule of salaries. The same kind of pre-service and in- service training is not required of all but like amounts are required. We are beginning to realize that teaching in the lower grades is as highly a skilled service as teaching elsewhere. This is borne out by modern psychological, psychiatric and med in: National Education Association, Research Division rhe scheduling of Teachers’ Salaries.”’ Research Bulletin 5: 186-89: May, 1927. For example, see: Clark, R. C. “Principles of Advancing the Salaries of Teachers.’ American School Board Journal 80: 41-42, March, 1930; 50, 142, April, 1930. 7 Cooke, Dennis H. Problems of the Teaching Personnel. New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1933. p. 270-72. 1 Elsbree, Willard S. Teachers’ Salaries. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University 1. p. 55-59. “ Elsbree, op. cit., p. 58. See also: Los Angeles, p. 17: = For example, see: Ball, C. C. “In Defense of a Single Salary Plan.” W W., and Capps, A. G. “Unfair to Whom?” Nation’s Schools 15: 33-34; April, 1935 Springfield, p. 102; Yonkers, p. 33. 1935 © Carpenter Résumé Nation's Schools 15: 39; March § Grover, Elbridge C. ‘Brief t Studies on the Single-Salary Schedule.”” American School Board Journal 91: 26, 75: July, 1935 [ 59] ical opinion. The training of young children is in the opinions of a number of experts a more im- portant service than the training of the same chil- dren when they are older. No salary schedule should deprive any level of the service of its finest teachers. Advancement to higher grades or other types of positions should not be used as an incentive. The expert should remain in the field of his specializa- tion. Every grade should be dignified by the re- tention of its specialists and they should be paid as well as equal service would be paid elsewhere.” The arguments on the other side claim that training alone is an inadequate basis for evalu- ating a teacher’s worth to the system; that there is no proof of superior service from ele- mentary-school teachers who have advanced training, as compared with those with two or three years of training; that high-school teach- ing is more difficult and deserves a higher com- pensation; and that the added expense of a preparation schedule therefore cannot be justi- fied.** Engelhardt suggests that the single- salary schedule is at present less effective than it would be if a plan were developed for greater differentiation among teachers in the kinds of duties assigned to them. He says: Administrative genius must devise some plan of school organization in which the teaching processes may be carried on to provide occupation for edu- cational workers with varying amounts of profes- sional preparation and different levels of compe- tence. In this type of organization the superior teacher will have under his direction a number of persons of different levels of training and _ skill. Thus, the schools of the future will be organized to profit by and make efficient use of the one-year, the two-year, the three-year, the four-year, as well as the five-year trained persons. These people of varying degrees of ability and training will not be employed at the same task, but the work associated with teaching will be so differentiated that each person may be occupied at a level which challenges his best abilities and at a salary commensurate with the services rendered. In such a scheme of things the single salary schedule will have significance, devices to measure teaching ability will have validity, and intelligence will cor- relate with teaching accomplishment.” Researches by Morris and Bowles—An evaluation of the preparation schedule was made by Morris, who studied factors jp th salary schedule, cost of salaries, and admin). trative practise in a group of approximate! fifty single-salary cities, making compariso,. on certain items with a group of cities hayip position-type salary schedules.2° He foun, that the teachers in the first group were som what better trained altho training require ments were not significantly different betwee, the two groups of cities. The figures on cos showed no significant differences between +) two groups in percent of total current ex penses going to teachers’ salaries. The sing}, salary cities showed considerably greater jp creases in salaries paid elementary-schoo| teachers from 1919-20 to 1925-26, and slich+|, greater increases in high-school teachers’ a! aries, than were reported by the other group of cities. There was some evidence that salar costs were being kept down, in the single salary cities, by increasing the number of pupils per teacher. The percent of men teachers in- creased equally in both groups of cities in the period from 1920 to 1926. The following statements are quoted from the summary of Morris’ study: ep The single salary schedule as now operated \ not sufhce. Its measures are inadequate and inequi- table especially from the standpoint of the bette: teachers. The number of years of college training is not a fair measure of a teacher’s worth. Ther are two primary faults inherent in’ this measur The first is that no college can guarantee that the training given will produce an efficient teache: The second fault is that there is such a divergence: in the quality of the training secured by different individuals at different institutions. ... Perhaps the most serious indictment that may be made against the single salary as it is being oper- ated is that attention is given chiefly to the amount of training alone and that too little attention is b ing given to the kind of training secured.” Bowles studied the operation and effects of the single-salary schedule from 1923-24 to 1930-31 in Newport News, Virginia, com- paring it with a neighboring city where a pos! tion schedule was in effect, and with other cities in the state.27 The conclusions from his stud) include the following statements : * Lewis, E. E. “Desirable Principles of Teachers’ Salary Schedules.’’ American School Board Journal 80: 45-46; May, | * For example, see: McGinnis, W. C. “The Salary Schedule.’’ School and Society 31: 61-62; January 11, 1930. ‘ Sh Se R. D. “The Salary Question: Is It Fair that High School Instructors Are Paid More Than Elementary Teachers?” Vation Schools 15: 25-26; January, 1935. % Engelhardt, Fred. “Differentiation in Classroom Teaching.’’ Educational Administration and Supervision 16: May, 1930. ® Morris, Lyle L. The Single Salary Schedule. Contributions to Education No. 413. New York: Teachers College, Colum! University, 1930, 79 p. * Morris, Lyle L., op. cit., p. 72, 77. *7 Bowles, Rosewell Page. The Operation and Effects of a Single Salary Schedule. Contributions to Education, No. 518. N York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932. 140 p. [ 60 ] sala mos cent thir Gre 1or thor ing mal quir arie com oth mul nize maj hig] pai for side arie furt sala The changes which took place with respect to the composition and qualifications of the teaching rps while the single salary schedule was in opera- von were desirable. Better prepared teachers were eecured, equally well-trained teachers were pro- ded at every stage of the children’s development, eeachers were placed upon a professional basis shich provided equal opportunity for careers in sitions in which the most effective work might be lone: these certainly are desirable changes. The most significant difference found between the single salary city and the regular salary cities was the degree to which the training of the teachers in the former exceeded the training of teachers in the atter.... In this instance and during the particular period 115-16, 121, 123 * Bowles, Rosewell Page, op. cit., p Minimum “What amounts shall be paid as minimum salaries?” ‘This question was rated among the most difficult in salary scheduling by 34.9 per- cent of the school officials reporting. It ranks third in frequency among the ten questions for Groups III, IV, and V, but is ninth in rank for Groups I and II. To answer the question, thought must be given to the standard of liv- ing which the young teacher should be able to maintain, and the professional preparation re- quired of new appointees. The minimum sal- aries being paid in comparable and _ possibly competing school systems, the opportunities in other occupations, and the ability of the com- munity to finance the schedule must be recog- nized. The disadvantages of a low minimum may be balanced against the advantages of a high maximum. The relative amounts to be paid in elementary and secondary schools, or for different levels of training, must be con- sidered. The question of fixing minimum sal- aries needs to be considered in relation to the further problem of establishing the maximum salary.” Present Practise The most recent comprehensive figures on minimum and maximum salaries scheduled for of the operation of the single salary schedule, the schedule had not'caused any greater increase in in struction costs than had taken place in the regular salary city.... Ihe percentage of men teachers increased in about the same amount in both the single and the regular salary cities during the period of this study.... The mended to superintendents of schools as being a of better trained, more efhcient, satisfied teaching staff. With careful single salary schedule principle is recom means economically securing a adaptations to suit local conditions, refinements of means for measuring a teacher’s worth, and a con- tinuing study of the operation and effects upon the teaching staff the superintendent of schools should be able to get desirable results from inaugurating a single salary schedule.” Salaries the Re search Division for the school year 1930-31. city teachers are those reported by Table 4 reports the medians of the minimum salaries scheduled in that year, for 1162 cities reporting. It should be remembered that half of the school systems paid lower minimum sal- aries and half paid higher salaries than the figures shown in Table 4. Relative amounts in three school divisions The relative position of teachers in elemen tary, junior high schools, and senior high schools as to minimum salaries is also shown in Table 4. The beginning teacher, in 1930- 31, typically was paid from 11 to 14 percent more for service in junior high school than in elementary school. For high-school service the difference above elementary-school salaries was from 21 to 27 percent. When compared with corresponding figures for 1922-23, it appears 1930-31 nearer the level of senior-high salaries but that junior-high salaries in were senior-high salaries were not so far above ele- mentary salaries as they were in 1922-23. Relative amounts for varying levels of train- ing—The minimum salaries reported in ‘Table 4 are organized on the basis of position. Fig- ures are given in Table 5 on minimum salaries for the different training levels in the 46 ‘Common practise in other school systems, salaries paid in other occupations, and the limitation of financial resources are considerations in fixing both minimum and maximum salaries. For discussion of these tonics, see Research Division. “The Preparation of Teachers’ Salary Schedules: search Bulletin 14: 1-48; January, 1936. * See section on “Maximum Salaries’’ in this bulletin. ‘National Education Association, Research Division. 163-226; May, 1931. “Salaries in City School Systems, National Education Association Part I: Administrative and Fact-Finding Procedures Re 1930-31.’ Research Bulletin “igures on minimum and maximum salaries were collected by the Research Division in its 1932-33 salary study but were not summarized; they were not collected at all in 1934-35. The administration of salary schedules during those years was af- lected by depression conditions so as to make figures on salary schedule provisions unreliable [ 61] TABLE 4.—MINIMUM SALARIES PAID TEACHERS IN ELEMENTARY, JUN- IOR HIGH, AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS, 1930-31, AND INDEX OF RELATIONSHIP, 1930-31 AND 1922-23 (ELEMENTARY = 100) Group Group Group Group Group II School division; year Ill IV Vv 1 2 3 4 5 6 Medians of minimum salaries scheduled, 1930-31: Elementary......$1 Junior high...... 1, Senior high....... 1, ,227 $1,084 $1,068 $1,056 $ 390 .234 1,187 1,195 507 1,344 1,294 1,288 999 1,135 1,269 Index of relationship, 1930-31: Elementary Junior high. . Senior h 100.0 113.8 124.0 100.0 111.1 121.2 Index of relationship, 1922-23: Elementary. . Junior high Senior high. . Read table as follows: In Group I cities the median of minimum salaries scheduled for elementary teachers in 1930-31 was $1227, for junior high-school teachers, $1390. If the ele- ementary salary is given the value 100, then the junior high- school salary has a value of 113.3, or is 13.3 percent higher than the elementary salary. Similarly read figures for other positions and population groups. The figures on index of relationship for 1922-23 are similarly computed, on the basis of figures not reproduced in this bulletin. Source of figures: Based on information reported in: National Education Association, Research Division. ‘Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trends in 1923.’ Research Bulletin 1: 139-251; May, 1923; and National Education Association, Research Division. “Salaries in City School Systems, 1930-31.” Research Bulletin 9: 163-226; May, 1931. * For population ranges, see Table 1. ~ 100 111.9 132.4 100.0 113.6 133.6 100.0 108.4 124.8 100. 113. 130. . 100 113. « 423. preparation schedules among the 150 given special study for this bulletin. Table 5 reports the median of the minimum salaries at each level of training, and the index of relationship, with the 2-year training level as the point of reference. For this small group of schedules, the minimum salary at the 4-year training level is $266 above the 2-year level, a difference of 25.5 percent. This relationship is very similar to that shown between elementary and high- school salaries in Table 4. The 5-year level is $373 above the 2-year level, or 35.8 percent higher. Recognition of experience in fixing initial salary—The minimum salary is not necessarily the initial salary. Many schedules include pro- visions for the evaluation of previous expe- rience for the purpose of placing new teachers at the appropriate level of the salary schedule; TABLE 5.—MINIMUM SALARIES Pajp IN 46 PREPARATION SCHEDULES AND INDEX OF RELATIONSH|p (TWO YEARS’ TRAINING — 100) Number Level of training of schedules* Median of minimum salaries 3 2 years err ae 3 years salt ; 34 4 years (or bachelor's degree) . 43 5 years (or master’s degree)... 35 $1,042 1,141 1,308 1,415 * Two schedules reported monthly salaries only report definite amounts of minimum salaries include all trainifig levels. 62 of the 150 recent schedules refe: a practise. In some of these systems thy appointed teacher may not be placed the third or fourth step of the schedule: give full credit for previous experience. | general purpose of such provisions is to e: a local school system to employ expe: teachers who would be unwilling to « beginner’s salary. Standiford, reporting 0; visions of salary schedules in 148 cities 20,000 to 50,000 in population, noted the ¢ lowing practises with regard to eval previous teaching experience :* Full value Full value up to 2 years Full value up to 3 years Full value up to 5 years Full value up to 6 years Full value up to 8 years Full value up to 10 years Full value less one year Half value Partial value according to judgment of superintendent No value Opinion and Studies National Education Association—No | report of the National Education Asso: has mentioned a specific amount as a recon mended minimum salary for teachers. Suc! recommendation was made in 1923, when the Salary Committee suggested $1200 as a min mum salary for the teacher with 2 years professional training in Group V_ citi « Standiford, Francis Wilbur. Principles Governing Salary Schedules in Cities of 20,000 to 50,000. Chicago: Univer Chicago, 1930. Master’s thesis, ms. p. 64. 5 National Education Association, Salary Committee (E. S. 1923. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1923. p. 78. Evenden, chairman). Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Tre: [ 62] Higher rates were recommended for larger «stems, $1300 for Groups IV and III, $1400 for Group II, and $1500 for Group I, with iifferentials upward for higher levels of train- ov. The figures in Table 4 show that this dest standard is still far from realization. lhe Department of Classroom Teachers of National Education Association, in its xth Yearbook, states two principles which ate to minimum salaries: \ fundamental principle in the payment of teach- s that even the teacher with the minimum quali- ms required by law should receive at least as ch as it will cost her to live at the minimum ssandard necessary for the maintenance and im- ement of her efficiency....In many school sys- s the cost of maintaining a minimum comfort .andard of living for the single woman living away m home may be used satisfactorily to determine » beginning salary for teachers with the minimum jualifications. Whether or not a school system should pay more than this amount to its beginning teachers ill depend upon... the calibre and training of the ginners whom it desires to recruit; the degree competition from other systems; and the financial ility of the community.... Che schedule should avoid overpaying beginning eachers at the expense of teachers with long rec- rds of successful experience.°® The Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher, reporting in 1935, suggests that minimum salaries be established as follows: X [It is recommended that the minimum salary for teachers be tentatively established at a figure not less than one and one-third times the total annual cost of appropriate necessities for an inexperienced teacher without dependents, and living apart from relatives but not maintaining a home. Thus, if the cost of appropriate necessities for an inexperienced teacher in a given community were found to be $900, the recommended minimum salary would be not less than $1200. This amount would permit the average veginning teacher rooming and boarding in that ‘ommunity to pay for all necessities out of 75 per- cent of income, and to have left 10 percent for sav- ng, 5 percent for giving, and 10 percent for better- ments. However, if the salary so determined were found to be significantly less than the average income ob- tainable by inexperienced persons of equivalent abil- ®* National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1931. p. 20, 33-34. ity and training in other lines of work, it might need to be raised in ‘order to attract the kind of individ- uals desired as teachers. Some communities will wish to raise the minimum still further so as to attract the best inexperienced persons available.’ “Appropriate necessities,” as the term is used by the Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher, rent, operation, interest, house health, transportation, and miscellaneous items. The include food, clothing, taxes, average amounts used for these purposes in 1932-33 by 430 single women teachers room- ing and boarding were reported to the Com- mittee as follows: Imount Food, rent, and house operation $521 Clothing 222 DOmCs 2.45. eae 26 Interest , ae 7 Health see ars 113 Transportation . seit i 132 Miscellaneous ? Total necessities The figures just given, for this group of expe- rienced teachers, do not include aid to depend- ents, gifts, donations, education, recreation, and savings, which totaled $788 in addition to the cost of necessities. Cost of living at appropriate standard as a basis for the minimum salary—One standard which is proposed frequently in connection with the minimum salary is that the beginning teacher’s salary, at the very lowest, shall not be less than twice the average cost of board and room.® This represents a bare subsistence wage, to which varying amounts are added for savings, training, and other purposes. The Nashville survey calls attention to the subjec- tive elements that enter into the determination of the subsistence wage: Shall it be the “subsistence wage” computed on the average cost for room and board of such white teachers as board or live at home, that is, two times $545.00 or $1090.00? Or shall it be the “subsistence wage” computed on the average cost for such teach- The Economic Welfare of Teachers. Sixth Yearbook 7 National Education Association, Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher (B. R. Buckingham, chairman). The ker’s Economic Position: Facts and Recommendations. Washington, D. ¢ ) * National Education Association, Committee on the Economic For example, see: Chicago, p Los Angeles, p. 25-27, 70: Nashville, p. 239; Yonkers (55 percent), p. 16. Cost of Living. Stanford University, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1933. 94 p. 300; Cincinnati (average cost of housing and food as 60 percent), p. 37; >.: the Association, 1935. p. 87. (Research Bulletin Status of the Teacher, gp. cit., p. 96. (Research Bulletin 13: 27 77 Lexington, p : ¢ Also: Eells, Walter Crosby. Teachers’ Salaries and { Harry, David P. Cost of Living of Teachers in the State of New York. Contributions to Education, No. 320. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 3. 184 p. | Woods, Roy C. 85; January, 1933. “A Technique for the Determination of Teachers’ Salary Schedules.’’ Kadelphian Review 12: [63] ers as support families and keep house, that is, two times $1,353.00 or $2,706.00? The answer to this question involves profound educational and socio- logical considerations which have probably never been faced by any American commonwealth or city. It must, however, be frankly admitted that data essential to a satisfactory answer are not avail- able.” The New York study accepts the principle that average expense for food and rent should not exceed 55 percent of the basic annual salary of the “indispensable teacher’ who, for the elementary school, is judged to be the unmar- ried woman living away from home; and for the high school, the married man with a wife and one child.1! The 55 percent standard is not aimed at for the first year, but after six years of service for the elementary teacher and after eight years for the high-school teacher. The Chicago study suggests that the consid- eration of teachers’ salaries should not begin at the minimum or maximum salary but at the average level for the competent teacher who has passed the probationary period and has not yet acquired any special superiority.’* It mentions the following items which this aver- age salary should provide: basic subsistence ; provision for emergencies; reasonable comfort and decency in living standards; and profes- sional culture and study. Differential on basis of professional prepa- ration—The desirability of recognizing differ- ing levels of professional preparation by amounts large enough to make a return on the investment in training is recommended frequently. A number of these recommenda- tions have been summarized by Eells.** Ross, Reeves, and Russell estimate that additional training of one year justifies an added salary ” Nashville, p. 231. ™ New York Citizens, p. 146-48. 12 Chicago, p. 298-99. 148 Eells, Walter Crosby, op. cit., p. 80-81. of $75 per year, in the schools of Kentuck Almack and Lang on a different basis work it out as $126 a year.?® Elsbree estimates th»: an added year of training warrants an jp- crease of $200 in annual compensation.2® St{- felbach, by including the factors of investmen:. deferred earnings, depreciation over a perio! of 30 years, and risk, arrives at a figure oj $234.17 The Cleveland study estimates average cost of professional preparation ¢ $700 a year; the total cost of 4 years’ train ing with accrued interest, $3177; and thy amount per year to amortize the investment jy 36 years, $217.18 The proposed Los Angeles schedule allows $109 for an additional] of training ;'® the Nashville survey, $69.°° The average of the seven estimates of a fair salar) allowance for each additional year of protes- sional preparation is $147. The wide ranve of the estimates, from $69 to $234, is due largely to differences in (1) estimated cost of initial training, (2) rates of interest allowed, and (3) number of years allowed to amo: tize the investment. In the hypothetical salary schedule pro- posed by the Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher, the salary differential for each successive year of training is on)\ $100 in the first year of service, while for teachers of ten years’ experience the corre- sponding differential for each year of training is $600.72 Relationship to maximum salary—Several writers have suggested that salary schedules in the past have tended to overpay the in- experienced teacher at the expense of the teacher of proved competence who is follow- ing the teaching profession as a life work.* 14 Ross, Clay C.; Reeves, Floyd W.; and Russell, John Dale. “A Technique for the Local Determination of the Adequacy Teachers’ Salaries.’’ American School Board Journal 78: 48-50; February, 1929. 18 Almack, John C., and Lang, Albert R. Problems of the Teaching Profession. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1925. p 46 Elsbree, Willard S. Teachers’ Salaries. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. p. 100. 1? Staffelbach, Elmer H. California Teachers Salaries. San Francisco: California Teachers Association, 1932. p. 21. See also: Long Beach, Calif. Staf and Salary Survey oj the Long Beach City Schools. (By E. H. Staffelbach.) Long Beach: Affiliated Teachers of Long Beach, 1935. p. 16-17. 18 Cleveland, p. 40. #® Los Angeles, p. 82. ®” Nashville (half of amounts allowed for investment in training to teacher with two years of preparation, first year o! service), p. 239. f 21 National Education Association, Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher, op. cit., p. 88. (Research Bulletin 13: 252.) = For example see: San Francisco Citizens, p. 27. York: Century Co., 1925. 287-88. 32: 719-23; May, 1931. { Lewis, Ervin Eugene. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staff. New { Norton, John K. “Major Trends in Teacher Salary Scheduling.” Teachers College Record [ 64] Cubberley, in commenting on certain weak- nesses of salary schedules, says: Another defect, and one that tends to keep teach- ing from becoming a professional service, is that the beginning salary is frequently too high and the maximum salary is reached too soon. These condi- tions tend to attract into teaching many who use it merely as a well-paid temporary employment, thus increasing the turnover in the teaching ranks. The beginning salary need not be high, if the service in- crements continue for a long time.” The Chicago study also suggests that the minimum must be thought of in its relation to the upper end of the scale: A definite amount of money in the salary fund may be distributed over a wide range or compacted within narrow limits. The lower the low end, the higher the upper end may be. The compacted distri- bution is suitable to a group whose characteristics and whose needs vary but little. The wider range has certain applications which indicate that it fits the teaching situation better.™* Methods used in local studies for establish- ing minimum salaries—Few of the 22 local salary studies indicate the mathematical proc- esses used in arriving at the minimum salaries recommended. The Los Angeles study sets the minimum for high-school teachers by compari- son with the average minimum salaries for comparable cities.*° The minimum for elemen- tary teachers is based on the salary of the old schedule, plus $109 which is estimated as the amount necessary to amortize in thirty years the cost of an additional year of professional preparation which was added to the entrance requirements in 1930.6 The Nashville report uses the following method for determining the initial salary of a teacher without experience, with 2 years of preparation :*° Cost of room and board for twelve months multiplied by two (“subsistence wage” ) Savings, ten percent of “subsistence wage” Reimbursement, two and a half percent of capital invested in training and accrued interest ($750 a year plus $112.50 ac- crued interest) $1,092.00 109.20 Interest at six percent for one year on cap- ital invested in training and acerued in terest. (This item is reduced yearly as investment in training is amortized ove period of 40 years) 5.75 Initial salary $1,338.26 In similar manner the initial salaries of inexpe- rienced teachers with 3, 4, 5, and 6 years of training are determined. As indicated on page 64, the New York Citizens study arrives at the proposed mini- mum salaries by working downward from a computed basic salary.** The average expendi- ture for food and rent reported by the “indis- pensable group” of high-school teachers—the married man with wife and one child—was $2169. Taking this amount as 55 percent, the basic salary of $3900 was computed. Accord- ing to the report, the committee then “decided that there should be four beginning increments of $192 per year followed by increments of $252 and that high-school teachers should ar- rive at the basic salary after eight years of serv- The minimum salary was established ice.” 29 by this method. A similar process was used in fixing salaries of elementary-school teachers. The Lexington salary study shows that $1074 approximately twice the median cost of board and room for local teach- represents ers for one year, suggesting that without other considerations this figure would seem to repre- sent the appropriate basic salary.°° However, it is pointed out that the young teachers ap- pear to receive some assistance from parents and relatives and are less likely to have de- pendents than the older teachers. Mention is made also of the desirability of setting the maximum salary at a higher level than in the past. The minimum salary recommended then is slightly less than twice the cost of board and room, $1000 for white teachers and $850 for negro teachers. The salary ratio of 100 to 85 for white and negro teachers is main- tained thruout the proposed Lexington sched- ule, based on a consideration of the relative *® Cubberley, Ellwood P. State School Administration. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1927. p. 656 * Chicago, p. 300. * Los Angeles, p. 74. * Los Angeles, p. 17, 82. * Nashville, p. 239. See also the formula based on subsistence, training, improvement, experience, teaching-load, and efficiency, pro, osed in: Almack, John C., and Lang, Albert R., op. cit., p. 248-49 *3 New York Citizens, p. 147, 156. * New York Citizens, p. 147-49. * Lexington, p. 29. [65] living costs for the two groups of teachers and “the general tradition of the South that negroes and whites are not to be paid equiva- lent salaries for equivalent work.” ** Altho it is possible that at some future time a mathematical formula for determining teach- ers’ salaries will be developed which will gain general acceptance, there are wide differences among the proposals so far made. The more typical procedure for fixing salaries at present appears to be that stated by the San Fran- cisco Citizens Committee : The fact remains and must be conceded initially that no matter how fully the data are investigated and tabulated, no matter how thoroughly each factor of an ideal salary schedule may be analyzed, the tinal result cannot be a scientific, mathematica mula for the only solution of the problem setting up of a salary schedule is after all a ; of human relationship; each situation must |; proached in the light of its peculiar conditions the facts studied and analyzed in such fashi to temper conclusions by practical considerati: The various aspects of a problem involving delicate task of appraisal of intangibles mak, possible to reach somewhat varying conclusions \;; almost equal justification. There is no way of pletely reconciling these differences. We could no more than give the data available the c¢! scrutiny, testing and adjusting tentative concly: with the aid of expert opinion. The decisions rea by us and embodied in the recommendations of :! report may not be proof against criticism but feel confident that in the main they are ac and just.” ® Lexington, p. 25-27. See also: Caliver, Ambrose. Education of Negro Teachers. National Survey of the Education of | Vol. IV. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1933, No. 10. Washington, D. C.: Government | Office, 1933. p. January, 1934. 41-43. { Cooke, Dennis H. ‘Adequacy of Teachers’ Salaries.” Peabody Journal of Education 2 * San Francisco Citizens, p. 4. See also: Morrison, Henry C. The Management of the School Money. Chicago: | of Chicago Press, 1932. p. 219-314. Morrison claims that “the whole apparatus of cost of living, desirable culture levels of training, measured merit, which are the customary criteria in use in determining salaries’ is the wrong approach. He en instead low risk and retirement pay economic factors which belong naturally to the socialized services. Maximum Salaries “What amounts shall be paid as maximum salaries?” Ninety-four of the superintendents replying to the questionnaire, or 44.3 percent, stated that this question was among the three most difficult to answer. It was either first or second in frequency in all population groups. Among the factors to be considered in estab- lishing the maximum salary are the upper levels of salaries in other school systems and in other occupations, the cost of an appropriate standard of living for the mature teacher with typical adult responsibilities, recognition of level of professional preparation, relative amounts to be paid in different school posi- tions, the increased value which years of expe- rience bring to a teacher’s services, and re- sources for financing the schedule. When dif- ferentials are made for sex and for merit these provisions affect the maximum salary. The maximum salary is perhaps the most important economic factor in determining whether com- petent persons will decide to devote them- selves to the teaching service of a community as a professional career. Present Practise A mounts; relationships among salary classes —The medians of maximum salaries paid in [ 66] cities of various sizes in 1930-31 are rep: in Table 6, also the ratio of other maxim salaries to the amounts scheduled for eleme: tary-school teachers in 1930-31 and 1922-2 When Table 6, on maximum salaries, is con pared with Table 4, on minimum salari: it is noted that the relative positions of aries in elementary, junior high, and seni high schools are almost the same, whether mi: mum or maximum salaries are considered Groups I and II. In Groups III, IV, and \ the difference between elementary- and hiv! school salaries is slightly greater at the ma» mum than at the minimum salary. Table 7 shows the relative position of ' maximum salaries in each classification of + single-salary schedules. These figures ma\ compared with Table 5. It appears that differences between the lowest and the hig est levels of training are less at the maxin than at the minimum salary. Relationship of maximum salary to mum—An important question in connection with the maximum salary is the amount 0! difference between the lowest salary and ¢!: highest. Table 8 gives this information elementary, junior-high, and _— senior-!ii¢) teachers, using index numbers with the m: , salary as 100. The table shows a marked inge between 1922-23 and 1930-31 in the ‘ange between minimum and maximum sal- ies. In Group I cities, for example, maxi- im salaries paid elementary teachers in 1922- 23 averaged only 52.6 percent higher than » minimum salaries; by 1930-31 they were $5.8 percent higher. Similar increases are shown for other school divisions and other groups. Supermaximum maximum salaries in Table 6 are derived from tabulations in which the highest salary sched- ied is recorded as the maximum. In many cities this amount is a “supermaximum”’ which may be from $100 to $1000 or more above » maximum salary attainable by all teach- +s who render satisfactory service. A study t certain salary schedule policies in 1930-31 vealed that a supermaximum salary was pro- salaries—The figures on { TABLE 6—MAXIMUM SALARIES PAID TEACHERS IN ELEMENTARY, JUN- IOR HIGH, AND SENIOR’ HIGH SCHOOLS, 1930-31, AND INDEX OF RELATIONSHIP, 1930-31 AND 1922-23 (ELEMENTARY = 100) Group Group Group Group Group School division; year Is II Ill IV Vv 1 2 3 4 5 6 Medians of maximum ilaries scheduled, 1930-31: Elementary Junior high Senior high 729 $1,611 $1,411 ,008 1,854 1,657 .253 2,097 1,983 Index of relationship, 1930-31; Elementary Junior high Senior high Index of relationship, 1922-23; Elementary 100. 100.0 100.0 100.0 1 106.6 114.8 i 128.1 135.5 Junior high : 108. 110. Senior high 32. 122. 141. Read table as follows: In Group I cities the median of iximum salaries scheduled for elementary teachers in 1930-31 was $2280, for junior high-school teachers, $2671. If the ele- entary salary is given the value 100, then the junior high- ol salary has a value of 117.1, or is 17.1 percent higher than the elementary salary. Similarly read figures for other sitions and population groups. The figures on index of rela- nship for 1922-23 are similarly computed, on the basis of res not reproduced in this bulletin. irce of figures: Based on information reported in: National lucation Association, Research Division. ‘Teachers’ Salaries 1 Salary Trends in 1923.’ Research Bulletin 1: 139-251; 1923; and National Education Association, Research vision. “Salaries in City School Systems, 1930-31.” Re- rch Bulletin 9: 163-226; May, 1931. For population ranges, see Table 1. TABLE 7.—MAXIMUM SALARIES PAID IN 46 PREPARATION SCHEDULES, AND INDEX OF RELATIONSHIP (TWO YEARS’ TRAINING = 100) Median of maximum salaries Number Level of training of schedules* Index 2 : 4 2 years pareaib ace ; 3 38 100.0 3 years... ; =e 36 : 102.9 4 years (or bachelor's degree) . 44 : 114.3 5 years (or master's degree)... 38 122.9 } * Two schedules reported monthly salaries only; others did not include all training levels. vided in 44.1 percent of the 1153 city school systems reporting.t In some school systems the supermaximum is available only to the select few who have demonstrated outstand- ing ability. In others, where the supermaxi mum appears to be a more or less automatic scale of additional increments beyond the no: mal maximum, given to any teacher who meets certain training requirements, the supermaxi mum tends to become the normal maximum for all teachers. supermaximum, as reported by 509 school sys- tems in 1930-31, are as follows: The bases for granting a Additional training, in 66.4 percent of the cities Superior rating and performance, in 57.0 percent of the cities Extra duties, in 55.4 percent of the cities Length of service, in 30.0 percent of the cities Written examination, in 0.6 percent of the cities Opinion and Studies National Education Association—The reso- lutions of the National Education Association for more than seventy years have been urging adequate compensation for teaching. Altho the resolutions do not refer to the maximum sal- ary, the continuing emphasis has been on sal- aries which shall be commensurate with the professional standards and demands on teach- ers, factors which are related to the level of the maximum salary. A resolution in 1898 is typical: We are glad to recognize that the schools exist solely for the education of the pupils, and not as a means of support for teachers; yet, because of the increasing demands made upon teachers, and the exacting character of their preparation and work, it is in the public interest that their compensation be so adjusted as to encourage them to make teach- National Education Association, Research Division. ‘Administrative Practices Affecting Classroom Teachers: Part If: The Ketention, Promotion, and Improvement of Teachers.” Research Bulletin 10: 45; March, 1932 [ 67 ] ing a life work, and to secure recognition for long- continued service and efficiency.” The 1923 report of the Salary Committee ° includes a number of principles which have been widely quoted.* Each of the three gen- eral principles, if acted upon in setting up a salary schedule, would tend in most commu- nities to raise the level of maximum salaries: . Salary schedules should tend to make teach- ing a profession. . Salary schedules should serve to secure and retain competent and desirable people as teachers. . Salary schedules should assure a maximum of service and professional growth from all teachers.” TABLE 8.—INDEX OF RELATIONSHIP OF MAXIMUM SALARY FOR TEACH- ERS TO MINIMUM SALARY, 1930-31 AND 1922-23 (MINIMUM SALARY=100) Index of relationship, minimum salary = 100 School division; year — Group Group Group Group Group Is Il Ill IV Vv 1 2 3 4 5 6 Elementary: 1930-31 1922-23 152. 141. 137. 131. 161.9 139.5 184. 163. Junior high: oe ere , 183. 1922-23... 156. 169.2 155. 146. 141.6 129.7 134. Senior high: 1930-31 1922-23 156.. 134.5 174.1 162.8 158.4 135.6 183. 149.5 Read table as follows: In 1930-31 the median of maximum salaries scheduled for elementary teachers in Group I cities was 85.8 percent higher than the median of minimum salaries for the same position. In 1922-23 the maximum was 52.6 per- cent higher than the minimum. (The figures for 1930-31 are based on those given in Tables 4 and 6. When the minimum salary of $1227 is given the value of 100, the maximum salary of $2280 then has the value of 185.8, or is 85.8 percent higher than the minimum for the position. The figures for 1922-23 are similarly computed, on the basis of figures not reproduced in this bulletin.) Similarly read figures for other positions and population groups. Source of figures: Based on information reported in: National Education Association, Research Division. ‘Salaries in City School Systems, 1930-31.” Research Bulletin 9: 163-226; May, 1931; and National Education Association, Research Division. “*Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trends in 1923.” Research Bul- letin 1: 139-251; May, 1923. * For population ranges, see Table 1. ® National Education Association. Proceedings. 1898, p. 35. The relationship of maximum salaries + propriate standards of living for teache; emphasized in the Sixth Yearbook of the J), partment of Classroom Teachers, which m this recommendation: The maximum salary offered should be at sufficient to support a family of average size genuinely cultural standard of living. This does _ mean that teachers should be paid different amoyy: according to the number of dependents they | It means, rather, that because the raising 0; family is a normal and desirable function, it sh be adequately provided for at the upper levels the salary scale. If this is not done, many petent persons will either be driven from th: cational profession, or prevented from maintaining their maximum efficiency.° Che desirability of providing a supermaxi mum salary for outstanding service is also ommended in the Sixth Yearbook: The salary schedule should be sufficiently flexib! to care for special cases of unusual merit.... It js wise to make provision for special cases of obvious|y unusual success in teaching. One way of meeting this need is to establish one or more supermaximum levels above the normal maximum, for persons who deserve additional reward for preeminently yalu- able service.’ Using cost and standard of living as a basic criterion, the National Education Association Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher offers the following suggestion for determining maximum salaries: It is recommended that wherever financial! sources permit, the maximum salary for teachers be tentatively established at a figure not less than twice the total annual cost of appropriate necessi ties for an experienced teacher, these necessities to include the maintenance of a home and adequate provision for the average number of persons de- pendent upon such teachers for support. Thus, if the cost of appropriate necessities for an experienced teacher in a given community were found to be $1750, the recommended maximum salary would be not less than $3500. This amount would enable the average teacher maintaining a home in that community to pay for all necessities, including the maintenance of a home for himself and dependents, out of 50 percent of income. 3 National Education Association, Salary Committee (E. S. Evenden, chairman). Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trends in ! Washington D. C.: the Association, 1923. 115 p. 4 For example, see: Closter, p. 119; Jacksonville, p. 83; Lynn, p. 157; Also: Lewis, Ervin Eugene. Personnel Problems 0! the Teaching Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. p. 284-88. & National Education Association, Salary Committee, op. cit., p. 71-77. ® National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. The Economic Welfare of Teachers. Sixth Yearbook Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1931. p. 33. 7 National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers, of. cit., p. 35. [ 68] However, if the maximum arrived at in this man- ner were found to be less than the average income received by persons of similar ability, training, and experience in other occupational groups, it might need to be increased somewhat in order to attract persons of the calibre needed in teaching. Some com- munities may find it desirable to raise the maximum still further in order to attract the very best teach- ing talent available.® Relationship of maximum salary to mini- mum—It is frequently urged that the maxi- mum salary should be substantially larger than the beginning salary.® The San Francisco study recommends that the maximum salary be double the salary of a beginner.’® Cubberley suggests that the maximum salary should be from two to two and a half times the mini- mum and that it should be reached after 18 or 20 years of service.’ Of the schedules rec- ommended by the 22 studies, 18 meet the suggested standard of providing maximum sal- aries twice as large as those at the minimum. In three of the preparation schedules the maxi- mum is nearer three times the minimum (Fort Worth, Holyoke, Watertown). Supermaximum salary—An opportunity to place a few teachers of outstanding qualifica- tions at a salary above the general level of teachers, thus adding a desirable element of flexibility in the administration of the salary schedule, is provided by salary. As defined by Elsbree, the supermaxi- mum salary provides one or more additional salary steps beyond the normal maximum “for the elect few who are fortunate enough to qualify for it.” ?* Since the supermaximum thus is necessarily limited in its application, he urges that the normal maximum should first be established at an adequate amount before considering a supermaximum salary. Nine of the 22 local salary studies recom- mend a supermaximum salary. In two studies the supermaximum is based on extra training (New York Citizens, San Diego); in two on outstanding service (Closter, Lexington) ; and in the others (Chicago, Pittsburgh Citi- zens, Pittsburgh Teachers, San Francisco by a supermaximum Teachers, Yonkers) on both training and serv- ice. The Chicago study agrees with those for Lexington, Pittsburgh Citizens, and Yonkers, in specifying that the supermaximum salary be made available only to a relatively small pro- portion of the staff. The use of written examinations as a meas- ure of a teacher’s professional preparation, to be considered as a factor in determining whether or not a teacher shall pass from the maximum of one salary group to the next salary group, or to a supermaximum salary, is mentioned in several local studies.'* ‘The signi- ficance of such a policy, already in effect in Chicago, is discussed in the Chicago survey, but is not recommended for use in the pro- posed schedule. Methods used in local studies for establish ing maximum salaries—The studies for Los Angeles and Nashville report in some detail the mathematical processes used in arriving at the maximum salaries recommended ; the New York study indicates that the maximum salary was fixed in relation to a computed basic sal- 14 ary ** but does not explain the calculation in full. In the Los Angeles study twelve possible amounts for the maximum salary of high- school teachers are computed, on the follow- ing bases: 1. Salaried employees, National Bureau of Eco- nomic Research study, 1927 . Los Angeles positions, professional workers in private employ. Los Angeles positions, non-professional workers in private employ. . U.S. Board, 1930. Los Angeles Fire Department, privates. Government Personnel Classification second class professional salaries, . Los Angeles Bureau of Engineering, assist- ant engineers. . Los Angeles union scale, skilled trades. United States family incomes, median of in- come class $2000 to $5000. . The cost of living, Los Angeles high-school man teacher, standard family of 3.5, $2836 plus 10 percent for savings. R. Buckingham, chairman). The : the Association, 1935. p. 87. (Research Bulletin 8 National Education Association Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher (B Teacher’s Economic Position: Facts and Recommendations. Washington, D. C 13: 251.) ®* For example, see: Hart, F. W., and Peterson, L. H ’ “Professional Salary Scale Forms.’’ American School Board Journal 80: 42-43; June, 1930. {Lewis, E. E. ‘“‘Desirable Principles of Teachers’ Salary Schedules.’’ American School Board Journal 80: 45-46; May, 1930. { See also references cited in paragraph on “‘Relationship to maximum salary,” on’ p. 64 of this bulletin San Francisco Citizens, p. 27. 11 Cubberley, Ellwood P. Public School Administration. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1929. p. 396 12 Elsbree, Willard S., op. cit., p. 67. 13 Chicago, p. 279, 313; New York Citizens, p. 118-19; San Francisco Teachers, p. 94 4 See page 64 of this bulletin, for explanation of method of computing basic salary in New York study. [ 69 ] I'wice the cost of rent and food of the stand- ard family of 3.5 ($1521 x2). . Average normal maximum paid in cities studied. . Median normal studied.” maximum paid in cities In the case of average or median salaries, 13.6 percent is added to arrive at the computed maximum, and for positions typically requir- ing less than five years’ professional training (the requirement for Los Angeles high-school teachers) $109 is added for each additional year of training to bring the salary to a five- year training level. The twelve salaries are averaged to arrive at the maximum salary proposed for Los Angeles high-school teachers, $3330, which is used as a point of reference for fixing all other salaries in the schedule. A computed maximum for each of 79 ranks or positions in the Los Angeles school system Los Angeles, p. 74. © Nashville, p. 236-41. then is presented, based on the ratio oj} maximum salaries for the ranks named the maximum salaries of senior high-s teachers in sixteen comparable school sys:. and in Los Angeles. The proposed sched recommends maximum salaries which are stantially the same as the computed m mums for all groups except kindergay: teachers, elementary teachers, junior hi: school teachers, counselors and registrars high school, attendance officers, and certain ministrative and supervisory officers. In the proposed Nashville schedule maximum salary is determined by adding $s\\ (the median total amount of increments | in comparable cities) to the computed mi: mum salaries, making an adjustment of alloy ance for interest on account of partial 1 bursement of capital invested in preparation Increments “How many increments shall there be in progressing from minimum to maximum sal- ary?’ The one basis for variation in pay which is used in all salary schedules for teachers is experience, recognized by additional amounts in salary. The increases are so frequently granted on a yearly basis, beginning with the second year of experience in the school sys- tem and continuing until the maximum is reached, that they are often called “annual increments.’ Sixty-nine, or nearly a third, of the superintendents replying to the question- naire, ranked the question on the number of increments among the three most difficult in salary scheduling. Several indicated in their replies that a related inquiry on the amounts of the increases was assumed as a part of the question. Salary increments are usually dis- cussed in connection with recognition of the value of years of teaching experience, so that the amount is sometimes adjusted on that basis. The granting of the increment may be con- ditioned on the meeting of certain require- ments as to professional preparation or teach- ing efficiency. According to another point of view, the salary increment is not a reward for service but a device for getting a teacher from the bottom of the salary schedule to the t) at a rate of progress which will recognize +} advancing needs of the individual as he grows older. Present Practise The number of increments provided classroom teachers in 150 recently adopted schedules is shown in Table 9. The median number is 8 in elementary schools and 9 in high schools, with the larger school systems tending to provide more increments. It wi) be noted that 5 schedules provide 15 or mor increments in elementary schools, and 9 sched ules provide 15 or more in high schools. ‘|! number of increments is not always the sam as the number of years over which increment: are provided. In schedules from several citic- on the Pacific coast the first increment is c« layed until after the second or third year o! service, and in a few schedules the last few salary steps are spaced out over several years In one city the raises continue indefinite!). at widening intervals of time.' Amount of increments—Table 10 show: that in two-thirds of the schedules the amoun: 1 For description of schedule in Providence, Rhode Island, which provides an indefinite maximum, see: Stoddard, A “Old and New Principles of Salary Schedule Making.’’ American School Board Journal 81: 43-44; October, 1930. [70] ‘the increment is uniform thruout. In those amounts range from a median of $104 in hich vary the amounts, the division is almost Group I to $57 in Group V in elementary between those which provide larger schools, and from $108 to $58 in the high W equal raises in the early years of service and those schools, which provide larger raises in the later years Approximately a third of the cities set up of service. The median amount of the incre- conditions, concerning either training or effi- ments provided in the schedules in which the ciency, for the granting of increments. ‘These amounts are uniform thruout the teacher’s are referred to in more detail in later sections period of service is indicated in Table 11. The of the bulletin.’ TABLE 9.—NUMBER OF SALARY INCREMENTS GIVEN FOR EXPERIENCE TO TEACHERS WITH BASIC QUALIFICATIONS, 150 SALARY SCHEDULES Elementary schools High schools or 2 years’ training) or 4 years’ training) Number of increments —_——— - Groups Group Groups Groups Group Groups I and Il Ii IV and V Total land II Ill IV and V Total 2 6 7 8 9 Total number of schedules. . Median number of increments j Number of increments not stated. . For population ranges, see Table 1. TABLE 10.—PLACING OF INCREMENTS GIVEN FOR EXPERIENCE TO TEACHERS WITH BASIC QUALIFICATIONS, 150 SALARY SCHEDULES Elementary schools (or 2 years’ training) High schools (or 4 years’ training) Groups Group Groups Total Groups Group Groups Total I and Il IV and - - I and Ill IV and IIs Number Percent II V Number Percent 2 7 Amount of increments uniform thruout period bee ee Larger increments in early years of T Total number of schedules. . 100.0 3 NV Gerke abd cess a. 4 * For population ranges, see Table 1. TABLE 11—MEDIAN AMOUNTS OF IN- CREMENTS GIVEN FOR EXPERI- ENCE TO TEACHERS WITH MINI- MUM QUALIFICATIONS, SALARY SCHEDULES IN WHICH §INCRE- MENTS ARE UNIFORM * Number of schedules Group” _ Ele- High mentary school Median amounts of increments Ele- mentary High school 2 3 5 Group I ‘ 10 12 Group II P 23 23 Group Ill . 23 23 Group IV : 21 18 74 Group \V 12 9 7 58 104 Total 89 85 Amount not stated 3 2 * Based on the schedules in which increments are uniform, referred to in Table 10; elementary-school salaries in 92 schedules; high-school salaries in 87 schedules. ” For population ranges, see Table 1. Opinion and Studies National Education Association—The Sal- ary Committee of the National Education As- sociation, in its report of 1923, makes the following recommendations on the granting of increments: Salary schedules should assure a reasonable rate of progress from the established minimum salary to the maximum provided in the schedule. Salary increases or increments should be of sufficient size to be perceptible in the teacher’s annual budget... . This increase should approximate 10 percent of the salary....Increases should vary in number and amount for teachers with varying amounts of train- ing and experience.* A recommendation regarding the number of increments is given in the Sixth Yearbook of the Department of Classroom Teachers: The incentive offered by increments in salary should be spread over a large proportion of the teaching career. The maximum of most schedules is reached too soon. The number of years during which increases are provided in most schedules ranges from five to fifteen. Probably the increases should be continued over a period of from twenty to thirty years.‘ The Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher recommends a hypothetical salary schedule of the preparation type which pro- vides ten increments in each salary class.° The * National Education Association, Salary Committee (E. S. 1923. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1923. p. 74-75. teacher who begins teaching at one of the lower training levels and by pursuing add; tional training is transferred to a_highe, salary class receives additional increments. ‘|’}, annual increases are larger in the salary classes provided for the higher training levels: example, the teacher with two years’ trainino receives a uniform annual increment of S5() and the teacher with five years’ training re ceives a uniform annual increment of $20), Scheduling of increments in the 22 oc, salary studies—The number of incremenss recommended in the 22 local salary studies averages 10 when the positions or classes })a\ ing fewest salary steps are counted, and |2 when the positions with the largest number of increments are averaged. Six schedules pro vide 15 or more increments. In the San Fra; cisco Citizens schedule, providing 19 increases the first is given in the fourth year of service. The proposed Fort Worth schedule spaces out the later salary steps, taking 27 years to grant the 16 increments provided for the 5-year training level. In 13 of the proposed sched ules, the increases are granted without qualifi- cation; in 6 it is recommended that certain increments be conditioned on additional train- ing, outstanding service, or both; and in 3 others the increments may be withheld if ser\ ice is unsatisfactory. Fourteen of the 22 recommended schedules provide that the salaries increase more rapid)) in the later years of service, increments of fou or five different sizes being provided in several schedules. In three schedules the increases vary in size thruout the period of service. Five schedules give uniform increments classes; four of these are preparation sched ules which give smaller increments—$/75 0: $100—for the 2-year and 3-year levels of train- ing, and larger amounts—$125 to $175—at the higher training levels. The provision of higher increments for the higher training levels or for the higher paid positions is typical ot the other schedules as well. Increments as a recognition of the value of teaching experience—Discussions of increments in the 22 salary studies make frequent refer- ence to the value of continued years of expe- within Evenden, chairman). Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trends in * National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. The Economic Welfare of Teachers. Sixth Yearbook Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1931. p. 34-35. ® National Education Association, Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher (B. R. Buckingham, chairman). 7%’ Teacher's Economic Position: Facts and Recommendations. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1935. p. 88. (Research Bulletin 13: 252.) [72] ence. It is frequently suggested that expe- rience alone does not add materially to teaching eficiency after from five to ten years of service.® On the other hand, it is conceded that thru study and experimentation, a teacher may con- tinue thruout his period of activity to improve the quality of his teaching. ‘That the continua- tion of efficiency may depend in part on a stimulating supervisory program is also men- tioned. It is sometimes recommended that incre- ments should be larger in the first few years, because that is the period when experience idds most to the teacher’s efficiency. The argu- men: to the contrary is advanced more often, to the effect that the early increments should be small until the teacher has passed thru the novice stage.’ The New York Citizens study states this position: The Committee proposes that beginning teachers shall receive small annual increments for three or four vears. This recommendation is made because of the fact that there are many teachers who remain in the system only a short time. These teachers have no real interest in teaching as a profession, but are ising it as a means of livelihood while preparing for another profession, or as a temporary source of income. It is the belief of the Committee that the greatest possible proportion of the total moneys available for teachers’ salaries should be reserved for those who wil! make this type of public service their permanent professional interest.* Increments as deferred compensation—The theory that increments are not to be justified on the basis of increased efficiency but on the basis of deferred compensation has been sug- gested. Scates holds that the granting of incre- ments is based on psychological factors, giving the young teacher assurance that his future salary will be large enough to meet increasing needs as he advances in age.® Brink recognizes the principle of deferred compensation, citing the example of the doctor, whose larger in- come in later years comes not from increased Teachers (1929), p. 57; San Francisco Teachers, p 7 Holyoke, p. 402; Jacksonville, p. 84; Lynn, p. 8 New York Citizens, p. 137. ® Closter, p. 116; Lexington, p. 31; Los Angeles, p. 61; N eficiency but thru becoming established as an active member of his profession.’° He believes that the question is not whether each increase corresponds precisely to an increased value, but whether a life’s work is too fully or too meanly repaid. Morrison also denies that gradations in salary represent rewards for meritorious service. He says: We teachers enjoy salaries which are incidental to our professions and not to us as individuals Graded are determined by the conditions which it is necessary to set up in order to secure a rather than by individual Hence, whether it be in the public-school service o1 salaries profession our worth. in the university, our salaries commonly move up in terms of length of satisfactory service, not be- cause length of service necessarily makes us any more valuable, but because that is the only way to secure a teaching profession which offers finan cial prospects." Number of years for granting increments Altho there is difference of opinion as to the reason for granting increments, there seems to be general agreement that it is desirable to extend the payment of increments thru the greater part of a teacher's career of service.** Norton which he observes toward an extension of the comments as follows on the trend number of years in progressing from the mini mum to the maximum: The tendency to draft schedules so that long and successful experience promises continued advance ment to a salary at the professional level should The example of the medical profession shows that the initial financial reward of a need not be high to attract capable recruits provided an ulti- mate reward of substantial amount is possible. Much may be said in favor of salary schedules which im ply that the professional growth of a teacher con tinues until the time of retirement.” do much to professionalize teaching service. service Increments as multiples of a smaller unit Several studies** have proposed a form of schedule in which the annual increments for Jashville, p. 236-39; New York Citizens, p. 114-15; Pittsburgh 90; Springfield, p 160; Nashville, p. 237. 80; Yonkers, p. 34 ® Scates, Douglas E. ‘‘Needed Changes in the Single-Salary Schedule.”’ Educational Research Bulletin (Ohio State University) 11: 337-42; October 26, 1932 1 Brink, Laurence B. ‘“‘Automatic Salary Increases for Teachers.” School and Society 33:402-3: March 21, 1931 ™ Morrison, Henry C. The Management of the School Money. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932. p. 256 12 For example see: Cooke, Dennis H p. 281-82. Problems of the Teaching Personnel { Elsbree, Willard S. Teachers’ Salaries. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. p. New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 108. 1933 { Also Lexington, p. 31; Nashville, p. 237-39; San Francisco Citizens, p. 24 18 Norton, John K. ‘Major Trends in Teacher Salary Scheduling.” Teachers College Record 32: 719-23; May, 1931 14 For example, see: Cincinnati, Ohio. Survey Report of the Cincinnati Public Schools. (Bess Goodykoontz, director.) Report iio. 64. Cincinnati: Bureau of Governmental Research, 1935. p. wood City Schools. Inglewood: Board of Education, 1935. 43 p. (Osman R. Hull and Willard S. Ford, directors.) Los Angeles: Board of Education, Survey of the Pasadena City Schools. (Harold A. Stone, director.) Los Angeles: California Taxpayers’ Association, 1931 257-60 { Inglewood, Calif. Salary Policy For Teachers of Ingle- { Los Angeles, Calif. Survey of the Los Angeles City Schools 1934. p. 313-15. Pasadena, California p. 71 [73] experience are not a fixed amount, but mul- tiples of a small unit which is used in provid- ing variations within the schedule, above a fixed basic salary. The Inglewood schedule re- ferred to on p. 58 follows this plan; the sal- aries for the first two and the last two steps are scheduled as shown in the right-hand column. The proposed schedules of this form all have been of the preparation type, with certain increments conditioned on training and service requirements. The distinctive features of the plan, however—the basic salary and the small increment unit, the amounts of which can be changed independently of each othe: the essential framework of the schedul. mains unchanged—might be applied to type of schedule. Year of Group Group teaching I Il Ill b* b+-33i* b+8i b+-42i Group b+150i b+155i b+-108i + b+89i 5 b+113i b+94i *For 1935-36, “b,” the basic salary, is $1400 the increment, is $4.50.° 15 Inglewood, California, op. cit., p. 20. Groups I-IV in the schedule are based on years of professional training. The tation teacher receives 25 increments above the regular schedule; $200 less than the regular schedule. the research teacher, 12 increments; the assistant ¢ Requirements for Continued Professional Training “Shall the schedule be so devised as to com- pel teachers to secure additional professional training at stated intervals?” Fifty-one super- intendents, or slightly less than a fourth of those replying, checked this question as among the three most difficult in salary scheduling. The practise of requiring teachers to attend summer school or undertake other study in order to make normal progress on the salary schedule represents one of the methods used to carry out the purpose of encouraging the professional growth of teachers while in serv- ice. Such provisions do not offer a reward for additional study, such as is given by adopt- ing a preparation schedule or establishing ad- vanced salary classes for preparation above the minimum, but they provide a penalty for fail- ure to carry on such study. Present Practise Thirty-three of the 150 schedules analyzed require teachers to attend summer school or give other evidence of professional study at stated intervals. There are only three of the number in which the practise of requiring con- tinued training is not associated with some other provision for recognizing professional preparation. The typical plan is to require the comple- tion of a certain number of professional study credits every 3, 4, or 5 years to receive incre- ments and to remain at the maximum of the schedule after it is reached. Seven schedu limit the required training to the period when the teacher is making progress from the mi: mum to the maximum salary; the others con tinue the requirement during the entire per! of service, providing for ‘decrements’ tual reduction of salary) or non-reappoin: ment if the requirement for study is not met In several schedules such items as the to! lowing are accepted in lieu of part or al! ot the academic credits required : 1. Professional activity such as: a. Especially valuable work on curriculu committees b. Special research projects c. Creation of professional materials 2. Educative travel. It is frequently stated that college courses other professional growth activities shall be approved in advance in order to be accepted as meeting the requirement for continued study. Opinion and Studies No reference is found in the recommen: tions of the National Education Association or its committees to the policy of requirine continued professional study. It has been dis cussed in the local salary studies and by | dividual students of salary scheduling. The schedules recommended in five of the 22 salary studies (Chicago, Los Angeles, San Diego, San Francisco Citizens, San Francisco [74] ers) provide that additional training be red at certain steps in the schedule in to reach the maximum, but none of them ludes a requirement for continued train- ifter the maximum jis reached. [he argument in favor of limiting advance- it to those who continue their professional ly rests chiefly on the claim that salary ncrements which occur automatically do not encourage teachers to better their professional raining or to keep in touch with educational | Hart and Peterson make the fol- lowing statement of the principle underlying rogress.? the policy : [he rapid and continuous advances in the sci- nce of education are such that the preparation of i teacher, however satisfactory at the time, is soon nadequate. The teacher should, therefore, be ex- pected to keep pace with the advances in his field, and salary increases beyond stipulated points on the salary scale should be conditioned upon evidence of such advance. Conditioned upon satisfactory service, salary in- creases should be automatic for a specified number if years, at which point the increases should cease, ntil evidence of additional preparation or growth is approved and recorded to the teacher’s credit. Coercion in requiring teachers to take addi- tional professional courses is opposed by Me- Ginnis, who helieves that the results are meas urable only in terms of points of credit and not in actual professional growth. He says: What about the effect of the compulsory profes sional improvement plan upon educational democ racy, group-directed cooperation and inspirational leadership in the school system? Educational ad ministration and supervision through the applica tion of rules and regulations and super-imposed authority never have produced good results, and there is no very good reason in the evidence at hand to expect that they will do so in the case of professional improvement of teachers... . Even if the taking of professional courses whil in service does represent professional improvement, compulsion is not necessary. Common sense, as well tells us that, other things being equal, a person will do as an understanding of the laws of learning, better the thing he wants to do, and over which he of choice, than he will do something else. He will also do better the thing exercises freedom he wants to do if coercion is absent. In Massachu setts the percent of teachers who took professional courses in service in 1927 was greater in a city in which there were no school board requirements than in any other Massachusetts city.... These courses were sponsored by the Principals Club and the Teachers Club. Enrollment was entirely voluntary The individual No salary increases were involved. only co was the coercion of and pride in achievement. ercion rrout group Los Angeles, p. 61. See also: Long Beach, Calif. Staff and Salary Survey of the Long Beach City Schools. (By | Staffelbach.) Long Beach: Affiliated Teachers of Long Beach, vols. (By Walter Crosby Eells.) Fresno Hart, F. W., McGinnis, W. C. 1935. p. 21 City Council of Education, and Peterson, L. H. ‘Professional Salary Scale Forms.’ “Professional Improvement and Salaries.”’ f Fresno, Calif. Salary and Cost Study of Fresn 1932. p. 75-76 American School Board Journal 80: 42-4 School and Society 29: 545-47; April 27, 1929 Sex as a Basis for Variations in Salary “Shall men and women of similar qualifica- tions be paid equal salaries for equal work?” Altho this question has been a lively one for many years, it ranks sixth among ten difficult problems in the scheduling of teachers’ sal- iries, according to the questionnaire replies. Fifty-nine superintendents, 27.8 percent of those reporting, rated the question as among the three most difficult. The proportion is somewhat less in the large cities, somewhat larger in the cities of Groups IV and V. In some states there are legislative standards which require equal pay for men and women teachers.1 When the replies are omitted from states where equal-pay legislation is in eftect, the proportion of superintendents regarding the question as difficult is slightly higher, 30.1 percent. Many conditions enter into the an swering of this question—local customs and policies, salaries paid men in other occupations, the supply of men teachers available for ap pointment, and the cost of an appropriate standard of living for a professional man and his family. Present Practise Information published by the Research Divi- National Education 1930-31 sion of the Association shows that in equal salaries were 1 Elsbree has reported that, in 1930, laws requiring equal pay for men and women teachers were in effect in the District Columbia and the following ten states: California, Louisiana, Maryland, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, Oregon ngton, and Wyoming. (Elsbree, Willard S. Teachers’ Salaries. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University Texas, Wash 1931. p. 45 Summaries of state school legislation since 1930 make no reference to any recent laws requiring equal pay [7 ] scheduled for men and women in high-school positions in 45.2 percent of the large group of city school systems reporting.* The propor- tion varied among cities of different sizes. Equal salaries for men and women were paid in 84.5 percent of the cities in Group I, 57.8 percent in Group II, 39.5 percent in Group III, 36.5 percent in Group IV, and 40.0 per- cent in Group V. The 150 schedules of recent adoption studied for this bulletin include 59 from states where equal-pay legislation is in effect. Of the remaining 91 there are 54, or 59.3 percent, which make no difference in salary between men and women. Of the 37 that do make such a difference, 6 merely specify that the schedule applies only to women teachers; 2 apply the differential only in the beginning salary. In ) or three times as large for married men as for single men. The following distribution shows the amount of difference at the maximum sal- ary, in favor of men, in 28 schedules which give the figures on an annual basis: Number of Schedules Amount of Differential Less than $100 $100—$199 ~ > 400— 499 600— 699 790 or more lrwrnwne th Lk The percent by which the maximum salary for men exceeds the maximum for women is indicated in the following distribution: Number of Schedules 1 schedule 9 schedules Amount of Differential Less than 5% 5.0%— 9.9% 10.0% —14.9% 15.0%—19.9% 20.0 %—24.9% 25.0%—29.9% 30.0% or more | NMUuUNN™ 28 The median differential is $200; the median percent of difference in favor of men is 12.6. 2 schedules the differential applies only to married men; in 3 the differential is twice Opinion and Studies The problem of equal pay for men women has received attention by the Nativ, Education Association for a number of was considered in most of the 22 salary stu and has been discussed extensively by indi, ual writers. The related problem of fan allowances as a salary schedule device also been considered. National Education Association—The §; resolution of the National Education Asso: tion recommending equal pay for men and women teachers, passed in 1914, was worded as follows: The Association regards efficiency and rather than sex, as the principle on which app ments and selections should be made, and therefor: declares itself in favor of the political equality the sexes and equal pay for equal services. Resolutions expressing the same point of view were adopted in 1924 and 1929, and are in cluded in the Platform for 1934 and 1935 The report of the Salary Committee, in 1923, includes the following recommendation and comments: Schedules should be based primarily upon the salaries which will attract capable women. There is no logical economic or social justitica- tion for providing a salary schedule for men diffe: ing in its provisions from the schedule provided fo: the women in the same city holding the same pos tions. Whether or not salary distinctions betwee: men and women shall be made, however, is a mat ter for local consideration and local settlement Provision has not been made in the schedules sug gested... for different salaries for men and women because of the growing tendency not to make such distinctions. When, however, it is desired to mak: such a difference, the difference should be expressed in terms of a flat sum which the men should receive over and above the salary which they would be en- titled to in the proposed schedule.° The Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher, proposing a hypothetical salary schedule of the preparation type, makes this comment with regard to its application to women and men: One such schedule might be used for women, and a different one for men, or the same one might be used for both men and women. In the latter case, the necessities used as the basis for the minimum salary 2 National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘Administrative Practices Affecting Classroom Teachers: Part I]: The Retention, Promotion, and Improvement of Teachers.’’ Research Bulletin 10: 43; March, 1932. 3 National Education Association. Builetin of the National Education Association, September, 1914. p. 21. * National Education Association. Proceedings. 1924, p. 55; 1929, p. 1135; 1934, p. 185; 1935, p. 211. 5 National Education Association, Salary Committee (E. S. Evenden, chairman). Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trends in ! Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1923. p. 74. [76] should be those of the single women without de- endents and not maintaining a home, while the necessities used as the basis for the maximum salary should be those of the married man maintaining a home and supporting dependents.° Arguments opposing and favoring equal say—A number of the conflicting opinions on sex as a factor in fixing salaries have been sum- marized in the following statement: [he arguments in favor of higher salaries for men are listed somewhat as follows: 1. If salaries of women teachers are raised to the level of those paid men teachers, great increases in taxes will be necessary. 2, On the other hand, if salaries of men teachers are reduced to equal those of women, many capable men teachers will leave school work for other occu- pations. 3. Our public schools are already suffering from overfeminization. Growing children should have contacts with both men and women teachers. 4. The supply of men teachers is limited; higher salaries must therefore be paid to secure their services. The arguments on the contrary side have been stated thus: 1. Equal pay for equal work is a growing practise and is fundamentally sound. 2. Salaries should be based on service rendered and not on extraneous questions, such as sex. 3. The assumption that men are the only ones who carry the burden of dependents is fallacious. 4. Women are rapidly attaining equality with men in other occupations and in other aspects of life.” Local salary studies—Only two of the salary schedules recommended by the 22 salary studies propose a differential for men teachers. The Lexington study points out that there is no justification, from a theoretical point of view, for discriminating against women in the sched- uling of salaries, but insists that there is a need for men of ability in the teaching service, which cannot be met without paying salaries which will attract the type of men desired.® In the Springfield study, the Teachers’ Com- mittee on Salary Schedules recommended that salary differentials on the basis of sex be elimi- nated from the salary schedule.* The report ® National Education Association, Committee on the Economic Teacher's Economic Position: Facts and Recommendations. Washington, D. C.: 252.) 7 National Education Association, . cit., p. 42. § Lexington, p. 37-38. ® Springfield, p. 73, 90-92. Research Division, “Administrative mentions on one side the economic argument competition with other occupations and high cost of paying the high enough to attract men teachers the other the social argument women teachers salaries and on -the decline in morale when women are required to do the same kind of work at a decidedly lower salary than men receive for similar work. The sched- ule which was finally adopted, however, in- cludes a differential for men in the high-school salary class based on four years of training, but provides no differential at the five-year training level. Other local studies claim that from the so- cial and psychological standpoint it is desirable to have children taught by both men and women and mention the economic problem involved in paying equal salaries to the two sexes, but do not recommend a differential for men.'® The small percent of men in the teach- ing personnel is deplored; it is suggested that at least 25 percent of the staff should be men." The persistence of the position schedule, with its higher salaries for high-school teach- ers, is explained in part by the fact that men are regarded as essential in high-school teach- A statement from the San Citizens study is illustrative: ing.?* Francisco In establishing salaries for secondary school teachers we kept measurably in view the purpose of making the field of secondary school classrooms inviting to men instructors. Our statute justly lays down the principle of equal pay for equal service, without regard to sex. Our recommendations con- serve this principle and still, by adequate compensa tion, encourage proper balance between men and women instructors in the secondary schools Several studies make reference to the exist ence of state laws requiring that women and men be paid alike. The San Francisco Teach- ers study, in calling attention to the Califor- nia law, gives a brief summary of the evolu- tion of the equal-pay principle: Two reasons have sustained the practise of pay- ing men teachers higher salaries than women teach- ers; one, the fact that men as a rule have been in Status of the Teacher (B. R. Buckingham, chairman). The the Association, 1935. p. 88. (Research Bulletin Practices Affecting Classroom Teachers: Part II,” 1 Holyoke, p. 381; Newburgh, p. 164; New York Citizens, p. 108-9; San Francisco Teachers, p. 92; and Yonkers, p. 7. 11 For example, see: Holyoke, p. 376; San Francisco (recommends 50 percent of men in secondary schools), p. 29 1 Los Angeles, p. 31. 43 San Francisco Citizens, p. 28-29. positions of authority as board members and execu- tives; the other, an indirect operation of the law of supply and demand. It is an indisputable fact that women teachers of equivalent training can be had for less money than men. The range of open- ings in commerce, industry, and business has, until very recently, been very much more restricted for women than men. This situation is rapidly chang- ing and promises fair to alter this play of supply and demand in teaching. It is no longer seriously contended that men are better teachers merely by virtue of being men, and therefore deserving of higher salaries. There are types of situations and positions in a school to which men are better suited than women, in fact necessary; on the other hand there are situations and positions to which women are better suited. The matter therefore resolves itself into the necessity of having both men and women teachers. The principle of equal pay for equal work has been recognized in California and made effective by law." The recent Cincinnati survey mentions the difficulty of securing accurate evidence on num- ber of dependents; shows that practise in the larger cities is strongly in favor of the equal- pay principle; and offers the following recom- mendation : On the basis of the information now at hand, the survey staff does not feel justified in recommending a salary differential on the basis of sex. Rather the staff reaffirms the principle that equal pay should be given for equal qualifications and services. When one of the sexes is able to demonstrate that it has greater qualifications or gives larger educational service than the other sex, that will be the time to give a salary differential to that sex.” Individual opinion and research—Recently published individual discussions of this prob- lem emphasize the claim that, as a matter of expediency rather than justice, school boards will find it necessary to pay higher salaries to men than to women in order to increase the number of capable men in the teaching pro- fession.'® San Francisco Teachers, p. 92. Hathaway presents figures to show +! aries of women are typically much lowe; men’s in industrial occupations, even similar grade of work, concluding that <); differences should be recognized in the : ing profession.*7 Ludeman reports a sty the salaries paid men and women te. during the period 1905-1930 in some 50) schools in the Middlewest, showing tha; salaries for men have been higher thru period and that the disparity is not tend); grow smaller.** McGaughy has been pay: ularly emphatic in opposition to the policy equal pay, stating it as his belief that: —- The major obstacle to scientific schedule-\.\; is now found in the state laws which make ey pay for men and women mandatory, and in th sentimental acceptance by the teachers themselye. that this principle is sound professionally and « nomically. We believe that there is no sound arg ment, professional or educational, in favor of pay ing men teachers higher salaries than women. \\; are not better teachers; they do not render mo: valuable service; even if they have more depend ents, that is not a sound argument for paying then higher salaries. The one insurmountable fact whict makes it absolutely necessary, economically, to p men higher salaries is the inexorable working of the law of supply and demand. So long as our p: fessional and industrial organization remains as now is, there is bound to be a greater demand fi the services of able young men than for the services of equally able young women....No board of ed cation has the moral right to pay women teach: higher salaries than the economic demand for th: services justifies. To do so is just as pernicious to waste public money upon some other project { which there is no such well-organized, sentiment propaganda.” Among those who accept the policy of equ pay for equal work are Lewis 7° and Reede Reeder states the principle as follows: Granted that qualifications and services are equa women teachers should receive the same pay % Cincinnati, Ohio. Survey Report of the Cincinnati Public Schools. (Bess Goodykoontz, director.) Report No. 64. Ci: Bureau of Governmental Research, 1935. p. 254. 1 For example, see: Clark, R. C. “The Principles Underlying the Maximum Salary.’’ American School Board Journa 47-48; May, 1930. { Elsbree, Willard S., op. cit., p. 37-50. Board Journal 82: 60, 124, 126; February, 1931. { McGaughy, J. R. “Equal Pay for Equal Work?” American S$) { Scates, Douglas E. “Needed Changes in the Single-Salary Schedule.’ £« tional Research Bulletin (Ohio State University) 11: 337-42; October 26, 1932. 17 Hathaway, Arthur H. “Should There Be Salary Distinctions Between Men and Women Teachers?” American School ! Journal 79: 45-46; July, 1929. See also: Cleveland, Ohio. Cleveland Teachers’ Salaries. (T. C. Holy, director.) Bureau of Educational Research Monogr No. 16. Columbus: Ohio State University, 1932. p. 54-59. States that most of the members of professions with which teachi usually compared as to income are men; that when women teachers are compared with women in other professions the dis; in salary is much less than when salaries of men are compared. 18 Ludeman, Walter W. “What of Equal Pay?’’ American School Board Journal 82: 60, 133; June, 1931. 1 McGaughy, J. R. “The Movement Toward Scientific Salary Schedules.”’ Teachers College Record 30: 752-59; May, 192 ® Lewis, E. E. “Desirable Principles of Teachers’ Salary Schedules.”’ American School Board Journal 80: 45-46; May, | * Reeder, Ward G. The Fundamentals of Public School Administration. New York: Macmillan Co., 1930. p. 125-27. [78] on, Right and justice demand this parity. A dif- ent schedule for the two sexes brings never-end- « trouble with both the women teachers and the «. If to secure a larger number of men teachers « deemed expedient to pay them larger salaries, et the extra pay be given them for special duties, wich as administering a department.” Family allowances—In_ considering the cost of an appropriate standard of living for teachers it is often pointed out that cost varies with the needs of the individual and that the man teacher who marries is at such an eco- nomic disadvantage that it is impossible for him to maintain a suitable living standard for his family. This fact has led some students the problem to recommend a system of family allowances, administered by the state.** The provision of a larger differential for married than for single men is closely related to the plan of granting family allowances. Several of the 22 local salary studies mention family allowances as a possibility, but none of them incorporates such a provision in the sched- ules proposed.2* The comment in the New York Citizens study is representative : It is the belief of the Citizens’ Committee that the number of dependents which teachers have must be taken into consideration in determining salary schedules, but only to the extent that the uniform salary paid to all teachers with and without de- pendents shall be high enough that the indispensable teaching groups who have dependents may live comfortably and respectably. To allow differentials in salary on account of varying numbers of dependents would most cer- tainly defeat the very purpose which the proponents if this plan hope to achieve.... Under such condi- tions married men with children would find it in- 2 Reeder, Ward G., op. cit., p. 127. *3 Elsbree, Willard S., Teachers’ Salaries, op. cit., p Teachers College Record 36: 490-96; March, 1935 The salary schedule adopted recently in Garden City, New York $.3-360; creasingly ditheult to secure employment in com- with young men and unmarried women equally well qualified to do the actual job of teaching.... Teachers should be paid upon the basis of their teaching ability, measured as ob- jectively as can be done, and not on the basis that are charitable institutions o1 are in some peculiar way to be held responsible for administering the State’s obligation to provide for its own progress and perpetuity.” petition who are boards of education Family allowances are provided in teachers’ salary schedules in several European countries, including Austria, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, and Holland.*® Swift’s studies de scribe in some detail the plan of supplementary allowances to school functionaries in France. He makes this comment: Expenditures for personnel include salaries, in demnités, and pensions. One of the most significant characteristics of the French system of paying public employees and one most deserving the thoughtful consideration of American students of and educational problems is the careful endeavor on the part of the government to ensure to each employee an income adjusted to his legitimate individual needs. This is done, first, by providing a fixed and stable salary, traitement, based upon the recipient's professional qualifications and consequent official classification; second, by maintaining an extensive system of supplementary allowances, indemnités, designed to cover almost every unusual situation or obligation which may befall a functionary.... The most significant, and to the American mind the most noteworthy indemnités, are those designed social to ensure to teachers and other school employees, satisfactory living and family conditions and to as- them in times of illness and dire necessity. Included in this group are supplementary allowances for living quarters, for residence or differences in cost of living, for children, and for illness, including maternity allowances for women.” sist and “The Future of Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Sched § Scates, Douglas E., op. cit contains the following provision for family allowances Upon application to the Superintendent (form to be supplied by the Board) and with the approval of the Board of Education 1 family allowance may be granted to any classroom or special teacher under conditions such as, to a married teacher with wife ) a widow with dependent children, where a maximum of $300 for such dependent wife and a maximum of $100 for each hild under 18 years of age may be allowed. No application will be considered where the yearly income of the dependent or ependents is more than $300.” ** New York Citizens, p. 120-21; Pittsburgh Teachers (1927), p. 43 Springfield, p. 92-94. See also the recommendation against allowances for dependents in the Sixth Yearbook of the Department of Teachers, quoted on p. 68 of this bulletin. New York Citizens, p. 120-21. * “Family Allowances for Teachers in Certain Foreign Countries.” Swift, Fletcher Harper. European Policies of Financing Public iustria. University of California Publications in Education, Vol e 1934. 343 p. ** Swift, Fletcher Harper, op. cit., p. 40-42. ; San Diego, p. 74; San Francisco Citizens, p. 94; and Monthly Labor Review 35: 1355-57; December, 1932. Educational Institutions. I. France. Il. Czechoslovakia. II] 8, Nos. 1-3. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press [79] Teaching Efficiency and the Salary Schedule “Shall efficiency ratings be used in determin- ing a teacher’s progress on the salary sched- ule?’ Altho this question refers to formal efficiency ratings, the discussion will call atten- tion also to other methods of recognizing merit as a basis for salaries. The problem of basing salaries on efficiency has been the subject of much argument. In the actual preparation of salary schedules, however, the question is ninth in frequency of mention among the ten ques- tions. Fifty superintendents, 23.6 percent of those replying, checked this issue as among the three most difficult. It is third in rank in Groups I and II, but lowest of all in Group III, and eighth in Groups 1V and V. The evaluation of a teacher’s efficiency enters into many phases of personnel administration. It is considered in determining whether he shall stay on after the first probationary year; it enters into decisions affecting assignment, extra duties, and promotion. When the pur- pose of a salary schedule has been stated in terms of encouraging professional growth, and retaining the most competent, it seems logical that some systematic recognition of efficiency should enter into the fixing of the amount of salary paid. But it does not appear that methods of measuring efficiency which have been devised so far are accurate enough to be generally satisfactory for use in the adminis- tering of salaries. The use of efficiency ratings as a device for supervision, apart from the salary schedule, does not come within the scope of this study. Present Practise Several ways in which merit or efficiency is recognized in salary schedules have been noted. The most complete dependence on efficiency ratings is found when the size of the annual increment depends upon the teacher’s rating for the previous year. The plan of rewarding meritorious service which seems least formal- ized is that which authorizes the school board, by special action in individual cases, to pay salaries above the regular maximum to teachers of “exceptional merit” or “conspicu- ous efficiency.” Information collected in 1930-31 from 1()77 school systems of all sizes shows that in systems, or 10.6 percent of the total, on an efficiency scale were among the 4 fact which automatically determined a teache; place on the regular salary schedule.' The of “superior ratings and performance’ as one of the bases for granting the supermaximum salary was reported for 290, or 57.0 percent of the 509 cities in which a supermaximum was scheduled.” In the 150 recent salary schedules,