RESEARCH BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION VOL. XIll - No. 5 NOVEMBER-1935 ASSOCIATION BETTER READING INSTRUCTION A Survey of Research and Successful Practise Published by the RESEARCH DIVISION of the NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. RESEARCH BULLETIN o Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November President, AGNES SAMUELSON The payment of the $5 membership fee of the National Education Association entitles one to receive for one year the Research Bulletin, the Journal, the An- nual Volume of Addresses and Proceed- ings, and certain other publications of the Association. One dollar of each $5 mem- bership fee is for a year’s subscription to NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Executive Secretary, WILLARD E. G the Research Bulletin. The Resea Bulletin may be subscribed for separat: at $1 per year. Copies may be pu chased at nominal cost, and in quantities a reduced rate. Those entitled to rece the Research Bulletin regularly are ask¢ to report at once any change of residen giving old as well as new address. Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. Copyright, 1935 by the National Education Association Director of Research: William G. Carr; Associate Director: Frank \W. Hubbard Assistant Directors: Richard R. Foster, lvan A. Booker, Howard A. Dawson Executive and Editorial Offices 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. ‘ Purchasing Copies Additional copies of this issue of the Research Bulletin may be obtained at the following prices, postpaid if remittance accompanies order: Single copies, 25c. 2 to 9 copies—10% reduction. 10 to 99 copies—25% reduction. 100 or more copies—331%4% reduction. Orders for Research Bulletins not ac- companied by remittance are subject to transportation charges. Make checks pay- able to National Education Association. Subscriptions The Research Bulletin may be received regularly thru a special subscription at $1 per year. Many of the early issues of the Research Bulletin are already out of print. ‘The special subscription at $1 | year offers an opportunity to maintain complete file of future Research Bulletir Reproduction of Material in Research Bulletins Material appearing in the Resear Bulletin is copyrighted. However, D partments and regularly affiliated organ zations of the National Education Ass ciation may reproduce parts of thes bulletins for the advancement of educatio: These departments and organizations need no authority other than this notice previou to such reproduction. In other cases app! cation for the release of materials is re quired. Address communications to th Research Division, National Education As sociation, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. sel mite ase 5 MINING READING ACHIEVEMENT j MINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION THE READID PROGRAAS LIST OF TABLES Number of Replies at Each Grade Level and the Average Training and Experience of the 4 Teachers Reporting : \ »xximate Date of Publication of the 1356 References Consulted Methods of Determining Reading Readiness as Reported by 288 Successful First-Grade Teache es + Specific Abilities Used as Definite Objectives by 288 Successful First-Grade Teachers wa What Pupils Encounter First in Reading | , Problems Especially Troublesome to 288 First-Grade Teachers i First-Grade Promotion Standards in 155 Cities wa Percent of Teachers in Each Grade Who Make a Conscious Effort to Develop Certain Readin \bilities P i , 9. Percent of Teachers in Each Grade Who Never Use Certain Types of Reading Instruction j Suggestions on How to Develop a Satisfactory Reading Vocabulary 1® 11. Percent of Teachers in Each Grade Who Teach Certain Types of Special Lessons rT 12. Percent of Teachers Who Use Each of Six Methods of Providing for Individual Differences | 3 Certain Common Defects in Reading Textbooks Reported by 1527 Successful Teachers La 14. Extent to Which Reading Tests of Various [ype s Are I sed by 1527 Successf il Teachers : \verage Number of Standardized Reading Tests and Informal Tests Given in Each Grade F 1527 Successful Teachers. ; : Number of Thousand-Word Units Read by Pupils in Classrooms Where Instruction Varies Efficiency ..... ; ads : mites Rate Standards for Various Grades Proposed by Different Students of Reading Problems 18. Average Time Allotments for Reading Instruction as Reported in Eight Different Investigations 19. Extent to Which Departmentalization Is Used in 154 Selected School Systems 1). Daily Periods of Instruction and Pupils Taught Daily by 1527 Teachers of Reading ; 21. Courses of Study in Use in 161 Selected School Systems. ' 22. Supervisory Practises in Communities of Various Sizes - LIST OF FIGURES I. Relative Importance of Six Types of Reading Instruction in the First Grade II. Phases of Reading Emphasized in Each Grade by a Group of Successful Teachers lil. Relative Importance of Six Types of Reading Instruction in Each Grade from I to VI , IV. Supervisors’ Opinions as to [ypes of Instruction Which Receive Too Little, or Too Much, Atten | tion in the Various Grades ; (< V. Improvement in Eye-Movement Habits During the First Six Grades ' x VI. A Lesson Plan Made Out According to a Standard Form pola . ' VII. Percent of Teachers in Each Grade Who Use the Selections in Reading Textbooks in the Order ot “4 in Which They Are Given.......... + ne eee eo, n. ; VIII. Percent of Teachers in Each Grade Who Use Newspapers and Magazines in Teaching Readi od i IX. Relative Value of Nine Devices for Stimulating Interest in Outside Reading, According to the US rs Opinions of 1527 Competent Teachers ren bs I X. Extent to Which Various Methods Are Used in Checking Up on Pupils’ Outside Reading e i XI. Grades in Which Reading Instruction Is Thought by Supervisors to be Strongest; le Satisfactory Se ie eek aoe ue ; : 5 XII. Percent of Teachers in Each Grade Who Make Use of Three Types of Library Facilities XIII. Average Number of Books Available on a Given Date in 1527 Classrooms X{V. Extent to Which Test Scores Are Presented to Pupils Graphically to Show Individual Achie\ CONTENTS gE FOUNDATIONS IN: READID IVE ANALYSIS O LEACHIN METHOD 5 OF INSTRUCTI ment; Progress of the Whole Class.. ' XV. Average Number of Books Which Pupils in Each Grade Are Expected to Read Least FOREWORD HE ResEARCH Division of the National Education Association has not made it a practise to conduct investigations relating to the details of class- room procedure. Representing the entire profession, it has been concerned for the most part with problems of general educational policy, including such fields of inquiry as teacher personnel, school finance, and curriculum. How- ever, the present bulletin on methods of teaching reading in the elementary grades, marks a commendable departure from this general policy. It deals with classroom procedures, but with procedures in a field broad enough to command the interest of all teachers directly or indirectly. Elementary teach- ers are concerned directly with problems of reading method. ‘Those who teach at higher grade levels see their work conditioned daily by the reading habits which their pupils have acquired. Teachers in the elementary school are searching constantly for better methods of teaching reading. Whenever the occasion is presented, they express strong interest in their work in this subject and genuine concern about problems of reading instruction. The following questions, taken from teachers’ actual in quiries, are typical: How can children be kept interested in learning to read? How can pupils be trained to make regular and rhythmic eye-movements ? What is the best method of teaching phonics? How can pupils be taught to grasp the central thought of a paragraph or selection? How can rate of reading be increased ? Where can I get references to help me find interesting materials? What are some good ways of teaching children to read with good expression? How can lip movement be eliminated ? How can drill be made interesting to children? This issue of the Research Bulletin offers help on questions such as these. It is primarily a teaching handbook, suggesting appropriate objectives, ma- terials, and procedures. It does not always answer the question: What is the best way? But it suggests one or more effective ways to attack many of the most difficult teaching problems. In addition, the bulletin is a yardstick with which teachers can evaluate their own practises. They can use it to compare their procedures with those followed by a group of highly competent teachers. They can consult it to discover wherein their methods do, and do not, conform with practises recommended on the basis of research findings. It will justify its exist- ence if it serves only to stimulate this wholesome type of self-criticism. Altho addressed specifically to teachers of reading in the elementary grades, the bulletin should be helpful also to supervisors and administrators, in developing and evaluating their programs of reading instruction. It is well adapted to use in teacher-training classes, for it is not only a treatise on method but also a guide to the most helpful literature on reading instruction. Wittarp E. Givens, Executive Secretary, National Education Association. [ 274] os latte publi peop! enous schoc intel! exten The and 9 happ an ey exper Re of th befor spons Chil of th contr read there find é | tener ee Introduction The ability to read is a basic accomplish- ent scarcely less important for a child in the m modern world than learning to walk and talk. [he social order as it exists today relies on reading more than we often realize. Deprive mankind of the ability to read and all written records become useless. Without it, property rights, contracts, and every other social and eco- nomic agreement can be attested only by word of mouth. Without it literature becomes mean- ingless, history is legend, and science an occult mystery passed on from master to apprentice. Whether the process of learning to read is “the scourge of infancy” as Rousseau termed it in his day, or an interesting and delightful adventure, depends largely on how it is taught. In the hands of an artist teacher, reading is in truth a magic carpet, introducing pupils to strange regions and new experiences while they are in school and becoming a source of life- long satisfaction and enjoyment. Poorly taught, reading is a disagreeable school task, to be laid aside as quickly as possible when school days are over. All too often reading instruction is of the latter type. It is estimated that the “reading public” consists of not more than fifty million people out of nearly twice that many old enough to have graduated from the elementary school. In a democracy, especially, this situation is serious. For altho reading is not a cure-all, we need not expect to manage public affairs intelligently until we as a people read more extensively and more efficiently than at present. The good citizen must be able to read rapidly and well in order to keep abreast of current happenings, in order to take full advantage of an ever-growing store of recorded thought and experience. Reading has long been regarded as the heart of the curriculum, and today, more than ever before, efficient reading instruction is a re- sponsibility of first importance in every school. Children must be taught to read better, in view of the larzer demands for reading which now confront us. They must acquire the ability to read without waste of time and energy, for there are many other activities which also must find a place in an already crowded curriculum. [2 During the past few years rapid strides have been made in improving teaching methods in this field ; but further progress can be achieved. Furthermore, the best classroom practises need to be adopted more widely than at present. The Present Study Purpose and scope of this bulletin—This study is concerned with the problem just men- tioned ; that is, it seeks to encourage wider use of effective classroom procedures. It examines the problems which teachers find most trouble- some and when possible offers help in their solu- tion. It draws upon two sources of information. First, it reviews the practises of a group of unusually successful teachers, not on the as sumption that these practises are faultless, but because they represent a high type of reading instruction whose practical value has been dem onstrated in actual classroom situations. Sec- ond, to support and supplement this summary of progressive practise, the bulletin brings to- gether important research findings, and recom- mendations from the general literature on reading instruction. Reading instruction covers such a broad field that certain arbitrary limits have been fixed for this study. First of all, the inquiry is limited to reading instruction in the first six grades, the field of elementary education common to schools organized under the 8-4, the 6-3-3, and other plans. Teachers in Grades VII and VIII, or in junior high schools, should find the bul- letin helpful as a background for their work. They will find in it, also, practises as appro- priate for the grades they are teaching as for the earlier grades. But, of course, teachers in grades beyond the sixth will need to rely heavily on other sources, which deal specifically with reading instruction at the junior high- school level. In the second place, this study is limited to regular class instruction. Diagnosis and special remedial teaching are important parts of the work of nearly all teachers of reading, but it did not seem possible to give adequate consideration to these problems in the present investigation. 75 | The inquiry relating to successful teaching practises—As a first step in selecting a group of teachers whose work in reading is out- standing, thirty-five deans and professors of education, including a number of the recog- nized authorities on reading instruction, and all the state superintendents and commissioners of education were asked to suggest a few of the schools or school systems which, to their knowl- edge, were doing unusually good work in read- ing. ‘he superintendents and supervisors in the schools recommended were then informed of the plan of this study and were asked for assistance in collecting the data. Cooperation was obtained from 203 schoo!s or school sys- tems. A questionnaire was then submitted to the supervisory officer in charge of reading in- struction in each of these schools, inquiring into administrative and supervisory practises affecting reading instruction and asking for supervisors’ opinions with reference to a few important teaching problems. In addition, each supervisor was asked to select a few of the most efficient teachers in the school or school system—from one to three at each grade level, depending on the size of the school system— and to distribute to them a questionnaire for teachers. This questionnaire, relating to class- room practises, was filled out by the teachers thus selected and returned to the Research Division of the National Education Asso- ciation. The school systems participating in the study represent forty-three states. Nearly four-fifths are city school systems; the remainder, rural, with the exception of ten laboratory schools or training schools in connection with depart- ments or schools of education. Of the reports from cities, about one-third are from cities over 100,000 in population, one-fourth from cities 30,000 to 100,000, and the remainder from TABLE 1.—NUMBER OF REPLIES AT EACH GRADE LEVEL AND THE AVERAGE smaller cities. Table 1 shows the nun reports tabulated from teachers in eac! and indicates the level of training and ence of the 1527 teachers who coopera Altho there is every reason to beli those who participated in this study | ported more effective reading practis those employed in the average school, : is made that they are the nation’s most teachers and supervisors. ‘here may ers whose work is more effective than any member of this group; there are | hundreds whose methods compare fa with those reported here. Furthermo bulletin does not attempt the difficult impossible, task of selecting best practis the various ones reported. Instead it de averages, percents, average ranks, and group measures, even tho this plan te: feature the work of the average membe: group of outstanding teachers. The w scribed is not represented as the id rather as practical reading instruction perior quality. The bulletin emphasizes, perhaps mo it should, the formal aspects of readi: struction. It does not reflect as clearly as be desired the recent tendency to base ' instruction on children’s experiences integrate the reading program with oth« activities. The reason for this emp! clear. The questionnaire method lend best to the description of practises that some extent uniform. It is not well ada; the description of any teaching prog: which formal instruction is minimized for example, as a reading program wh velops the necessary habits and skills by making reading an essential part of pupil activi' other subjects or fields of interest. TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE OF THE 1527 TEACHERS REPORTING Average number Number Average number special courses Average number of years’ training taken in the years’ teaching Grade level teachers beyond high school teaching of reading experience 1 2 3 + ) I Pr eer er Pe A eRe ee ee 288 3.1 2.9 10 II ss ode eDs'e os dawn Sedan cebaneea ies 260 3.1 2.7 8 Il , occ aaba thee eadeenedie 270 3.0 2.3 7 IV ‘ es ae SN eR ee 225 3.1 1.9 6 _ fp = ae nite ode «smenhate qanedeameoes 229 3.1 1.9 6 VI nd b02.e cca Chek Mele ess hee eekh 255 3.2 2.1 6 [ 276 ] ove! tain autl tion stud C of t in t of t tion ing | urvey of the literature on reading in- ~To supplement the findings of the naire study outlined above, a compre- eview was made of books and articles to reading instruction in the elemen- hools. Special attention was given to studies, but the recommendations and tions given in general treatises on read- ng method were also noted. ‘Table 2 sug- ests the scope of this analysis and shows, in ear periods, when the various books and iticles appeared. ‘The increase in the number f titles for each five-year period indicates a srowing interest in reading instruction. ‘The lifference is too large to be accounted for wholly by improvements in bibliographic ser- ce during the same period. TABLE 2.—APPROXIMATE DATE OF PUBLICATION OF THE 1356 REFER- ENCES CONSULTED Number Period of titles 1 2 Pree to 25s 6 a5 sab ee . 23 19001~10G5..4 6a. aia Sit cine Likes aa 8 1906-1910... hae ia pewneos ; 16 1911-1915 . eam . . ; 58 1006-1988: vidaik siti cicbhiciweotese eee ee ee ‘ 143 1921-1925....... itp : eae er . 326 a Ay Cn ; herd 457 1931-1935 (incomplete for 1935)......... 325 T ] 1356 It is believed that the findings and recom- mendations cited in this bulletin are among the most important and most practical ones from the literature on reading. Nevertheless, they should not be accepted uncritically. The problem of selection has been a difficult one, and a considerable amount of adaptation and interpretation has been unavoidable. More- over, the studies themselves are subject to cer- tain limitations. Many of the suggestions of authorities on reading are based on observa- tion, experience, and opinion; many research studies are inadequate or inconclusive. Organization of the bulletin—An outline of the general objectives of reading instruction in the elementary grades forms the final part of this introductory statement. The next sec- tion of the bulletin deals with teaching read- ing to beginners, setting forth specific aims, ind describing various classroom activities and teaching practises. Then follows a compara tive analysis of teaching methods in the various grades, intended to serve not only as a guide to appropriate procedures in a particular grade but also as a progress chart, giving teachers perspective with reference to the relationship between their own work and that of others. The remaining sections deal with the ma terials of instruction, the measurement of reading achievement, and the administration and supervision of the reading program. A general overview of the study is provided by the brief summary of findings and recom mendations given on p. 324-25. Use of the bulletin—Students and teach ers in service who have made no extensive study of reading problems should find this bul letin helpful as an introduction to reading methods. But it attempts to offer more than an introductory presentation; it has been pre pared as a handbook for teachers to use in planning a year’s work, in selecting appro priate materials and procedures from day to day, and in evaluating their work in read ing. It is a source of ready reference for ad ministrative and supervisory officers concerned with the improvement of reading instruction, and for curriculum committees at work on courses of study in reading. Each section of the bulletin might well serve as the basis for study and discussion in one or more faculty meetings. The references listed at the end of each section and in the footnotes can be used to locate quickly most of the best references available on almost any phase of elementary reading. In order to make the bulletin as helpful as possible in individual and group study, certain study helps have been prepared for use with it. These include: (1) a list of suggested study activities for groups of teachers and for indi- viduals, (2) a series of topics suitable for talks, panel discussions, or special study, (3) a number of questions for study and discus sion based on each section of the bulletin, and (4) a list of problems on which research is needed. Bibliographies are also available on almost any special problem such as “Reading Readiness.”’ The study helps or special bibliog- raphies will be supplied on request by the Re search Division, National Education Associa- tion, 1201 Sixteenth St., Washington, D. C. 77] The General Objectives in Elementary Reading The broad objectives of reading instruction fall into a simple classification when ap- proached from the pupil’s point of view. His purpose is twofold: (1) to learn to read; and (2) to read to learn. Of course, when read- ing is properly taught, the child pursues these objectives simultaneously. From the _begin- ning he acquires rich and varied experience thru reading and all thru his school career he learns to read more effectively. Four growth stages—To reach these goals, the pupil, during his elementary-school career, passes thru four rather definite stages of growth, periods which cannot be rigidly de- fined or taken as inflexible divisions of the teaching program, but which may be used as helpful teaching guides.’ They are: 1. The preparatory period (kindergarten and early part of the first grade) to provide the child with whatever background experiences and vocabu- lary training he needs before reading instruction begins. 2. The period of initial instruction (first grade) in which the child is introduced to reading as a thought-getting process and learns to read inde- pendently simple passages in primers or first readers. 3. The period of rapid improvement in reading ability (normally in Grades II and III) distin- guished by the establishment of correct ey: ment habits, rapid growth in word recogniti marked improvement in al! the attitudes and skills used in oral and silent reading. 4. The period of reading to learn (Gra V, and VI) in which the pupil cultivates a of reading interests and tastes, begins to « what he reads, further improves his basic habits, learns to find and use books effective uses reading to extend and enrich his experienc; There is considerable overlapping in + periods. During each one, teachers must st: to refine and perfect the habits and ski veloped in the last and lay the foundations { the growth which is to follow. Moreover any class group there will be pupils represent ing two, or even three, different stages progress whose special needs and interests n be recognized. Again, the individual pupi! ma be at one stage of advancement in one p!| of reading and at different stages of pri in other phases. Yet these growth periods dicate in broad outline the major emphas correct reading instruction. The next section of this bulletin is cerned with reading instruction during first two stages of growth. sections apply to teaching practises in al! elementary grades, but more particular!) those followed during the third and fourt! growth periods. Selected References on the Objectives of the Reading Program 1. ANDERSON, CHARLEs J., and Davinson, IsoseL. Reading Objectives. New York: Laure! Book Co., 1925. Ch. II, “The Objectives of Reading Instruction,” p. 11-25. 2. BrueckNer, Leo J. “The Analysis of Skills in Reading.” Elementary English Review 5: 109-12; April, 1928. 3. CuTRIGHT, PrupENCE, and Riepett, ADALINE. “A Survey of Primary Reading Ac- tivities.” Elementary English Review 8: 54-59; March, 1931. 4. Dotcn, Epwarp W. “Goals in Intermediate Reading.” Elementary School Journal 35: 682-90; May, 1935. 5. Gist, ARTHUR S., and Kinc, WiLi1AM A. The Teaching and Supervision of Reading New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1927. Ch. II, “Reading Objectives and Thei: Attainment,” p. 11-47. 6. NATIONAL SociETY FoR THE StTupy oF EpucatTion. “Essential Objectives of Instruc tion in Reading.” Report of the National Committee on Reading. Twenty-fourt! Yearbook, Part I. Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Publishing Co., 1925. p. 9-19. 7. Smitu, Nira B. American Reading Instruction. New York: Silver, Burdett and Co., 1934. 287 p. 8. Smitu, Nixa B. “Functional Reading Objectives.” Educational Method 12: 427-32 April, 1933. ' Adapted from: National Society for the Study of Education. Report of the National Committee on Reading. Twenty-! Yearbook, Part I. Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Publishing Co., 1925. Ch. 3, p. 21-73. The Committee also recognizes a fifth growth period identified with Grades VII to XII, a period for the refinement of specific attitudes, habits, and tastes. Teachers grades beyond the sixth should consult the yearbook for further information about appropriate aims, materials, and teachio procedures. [ 278 ] The remainin veloy maj grad iém, tion alon hile CnuC spon roon Laying the Foundations in Reading Practises in the teaching of reading during the preparatory period and the period of initial truction are matters of direct and immediate ncern to teachers in the kindergarten and the primary grades. Indirectly, these prac- tises concern other teachers as well, for they determine in large measure the reading achieve- ment which pupils later attain. The Preparatory Period Specific aims—The same national commit- tee which defined the general objectives of reading instruction in terms of growth periods also suggested the specific aims appropriate for each period. According to their analysis, the child during the preparatory period should acquire : 1. Wide experience, along the lines of his in- terests; experience which will enable him to understand the stories and activities about which he will read. Reasonable facility in the use of ideas, in conversation, and in doing simple reasoning. . Sufficient command of simple English sen- tences to speak with ease and freedom. . A relatively wide speaking vocabulary. 5. Accuracy in enunciation and pronunciation. . A genuine desire to read." : lL oOurt! Use of a pre-primer period—Altho the de- velopment of reading readiness is one of the major purposes of kindergarten training, first- grade teachers also are interested in the prob- lem, for often they must delay formal instruc- tion for a while and encourage development along the lines indicated above. In many cases children enter the first grade with no kinder- garten training. Other pupils have had a cer- tain amount of kindergarten training, but still are not ready to learn to read. Ninety-five percent of the first-grade teachers who re- sponded to the present inquiry into the class- room practises of successful teachers make use of a pre-primer period to assure reading readi- The length of the period varies with the needs of the pupils; sometimes it lasts only a few days, sometimes several weeks. ness, \ few of the important activities engaged in by teach Activities of the pre-primer period ers and pupils during the pre-primer period are listed below, arranged according to fre mention in trom the 288 quency of reports successtul first-grade teachers who cooperated in this study. 1. Providing various experiences as a basis for and interest ing toys, pets, parties, and activity projects stories; e. g., trips excursions of various types Making periences. charts about children’s own ex Games to develop word recognition. Use of action words and sentences Matching words with pictures and objects Story telling. Display and discussion of pictures Dramatization Use of workbooks and seat work of other types. Making booklets 11. Learning the names of labeled objects in the room. 12 2. Learning nursery rhymes. 13. Following printed directions. 14. Reading to children. 15. Drawing and handwork. 16. Singing and rhythm games. 17. Informal conversation and free play. 18. Flash-card exercises. 19. Looking at books in the “reading corner.” This list would have to be extended greatly to include all the activities mentioned in the questionnaire replies. Many related activities, and numerous variations and adaptations, are suggested by these general categories. When reading instruction should begin- One of the crucial issues in first-grade teach ing is the question of when to introduce the children to reading. The teacher must be able not only to cultivate reading readiness thru appropriate experiences and activities, but also to determine accurately when the pre-primer period has served its purpose. Numerous sug gestions on how to determine reading readi- are available in books and articles on In general they correspond ness primary reading.” 1 National Society for the Study of Education. Report of the National Committee on Reading. Twenty-fourth Yearbook Part I. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1925. p 2See especially: National Society for the Study of Education, op Education 3 Union (now the Association for Childhood Education). Points of View on the Problem of Reading Readiness { Clark, Hazel, and Shank, Spencer. ‘‘Supervising a Reading Readiness Program.”’ Reading Readiness of First Grade Entrants.’’ Childhood the Union, 1929. 27 q Holmes January, 1927 Margaret C Investigation of { International Kindergarten Washington, D. C Principal and Super- c#., Dp 215-21; The vision. Tenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association, 1931 p. 460-70. [ 279 ] to the practises listed in Table 3 based on re- ports from 288 successful first-grade teachers in reply to the question, “How do you deter- mine when a child is ready to read?’ Among the definite which teachers may watch for are the following: * symptoms Attitudes: Joy in the use of books. Sense of responsibility toward group activities; spirit of cooperation. Carefulness in handling books; people’s books. respect for other Interest in the environment of home, school, and community. Realization of the pleasures and values found in reading. Self-reliance; little need of encouragement. Persistence in carrying out activities begun. Knowledge: Rich fund of meanings related to child interests. Knowledge of sevéral simple stories, some folk- lore, and many nursery rhymes and poems. An adequate vocabulary. A bilities: To express meanings or desires in good oral sentences. To listen attentively to rhymes and stories and comprehend them. To follow a line of thought. To retell a story told or read to the group. To recall experiences. To repeat brief rhymes or messages correctly. To supply missing words in familiar rhymes and stories. To sense emotional coloration in stories heard. To anticipate what comes next in stories. To carry on activities that will develop reading interests. To dramatize simple stories. To follow oral directions. To classify pictures or other objects. To recognize and distinguish forms. To discriminate between sounds. To recognize reading situations—signs, labels, names of objects, own name, titles of pictures, etc. To handle books properly, turning the pages with care. Bulletin, 1931, Doris M Pa. The Metropolitan Readiness Test. World Book Co., Test. Southern California Book Depository, Hollywood, Calif. Schools, Curriculum Department. 1 Reading Readiness Chart, a diagnostic chart accompanied by definite teaching suggestions: To Accompany the Child Development Readers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1935. “Measuring Reading Readiness.”” Elementary School Journal 34: 656-66; May, * Among the readiness tests available are: The Betts Ready to Read Tests obtainable from the Keystone View Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. It is generally agreed that reading tion should be postponed until the mental age is at least six or perhaps one-half years. It is important, too, be free from defects of Several good tests of reading readi: available, some measuring the child’s information and experiences, others his distinguish differences in word-fo: follow directions.* Intelligence t preschool children also, such as the P Cunningham and others of similar useful in determining children’s ment turity. Smith found that word-m ability was an excellent criterion of re showing a correlation of .87 with the vision, or \ ment made by 200 first-grade pupils.’ \ emphasizes length of children’s senten: criterion of maturity.° She suggests to 100 samples of children’s sente: taken, and the average number of wo sentence be used as one indication of n TABLE 3.—METHODS OF DETERMIN ING READING READINESS AS RE PORTED BY 288 SUCCESSFUL FIRST GRADE TEACHERS Evidence considered Interest (pretending to read; looking at pictures; children's inquiries; etc.) . . Reading readiness test results. at ten oa ott wend 0, 6. Ability in oral expression... . . Sufficient background; adequate range of experi- Ability to match words ....... Chronological age. ........... Physical condition (including muscular control) Kindergarten teachers’ — Len Ability to concentrate. — Social adjustment........... ® Adapted from: U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. The Activity Program and the Teaching 0! No. 2. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 95 p. Also, Lee, J. M.; f Clark, W. W 1934. MI 4 The Lee-Clark Reading { The Minneapolis Reading Readiness Scales. Minneap { Reading Aptitude Tests (by Marion Monroe). Houghton Mifflin Company, Bost Hahn, Julia H. First Grad Pp. XX-xxvi. Two other tests are described in: Berry, Frances M. “The Baltimore Reading Readiness Test.’’ Childhood Education 3 January, 1927. York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1930. 55 p. 5 Smith, Nila B. November, 1928. { Deputy, Erby C. Predicting First-Grade Reading Achievement. Contributions to Education, No. “Matching Ability as a Factor in First Grade Reading.’’ Journal of Educational Psychology | * Nice, Margaret M. “‘Length of Sentences as a Criterion of a Child’s Progress in Speech.” Journal of Educational P 16: 370-79; September, 1925. [ 280 ] ~~. The Period of Initial Instruction 4 Specie aims—During the initial period of reading instruction rapid progress should be made in: \ssociating meanings with written or printed symbols. Developing a thoughtful reading attitude. Interpreting simple passages, thus securing new experiences thru reading and enlarging the meanings of familiar words. 4. Acquiring a sight vocabulary. 5. Developing independence in the recognition of simple but unfamiliar words. 6. Establishing basic habits, speed and accuracy in word recognition, a wide span of recognition, along the lines, and accurate return sweeps of the eyes from the end of one line to the correct such as regular progress beginning of the next.’ Abilities developed in first-grade classes— More than 50 percent of the first-grade teach- ers participating in the present study make a conscious effort to develop the specific abilities listed in Table 4. All except the last ability listed are goals of achievement in more than three-fourths of the classrooms. TABLE 4.—SPECIFIC ABILITIES USED AS DEFINITE OBJECTIVES BY 288 SUC- CESSFUL FIRST-GRADE TEACHERS Percent of The ability to: teachers e yates “ Pav : cote Recognize words in groups; i. e., in phrases or ight units... , 96.5 Recognize both words and word-groups more quickly ; , 95.1 Follow printed directions. Siw 87.8 Rec ize words of which the pupil alre ady knows the meaning... . an 86.5 Get the meaning of new ‘words from context 83.7 Find the answer to fact questions re Observe punctuation marks 52.4 Teaching emphasis—Phases of reading in- struction emphasized by the same group of teachers afford further insight into appropriate first-grade objectives. The first row of sym- bols in Figure II, p. 292, emphasis falls in a majority of the 288 class- Twelve pairs of contrasting items are shows where the rooms. included, such as mechanics vs. meaning; com- prehension vs. rate. Each symbol shows the percent of teachers who emphasize the first of ’ National Society for the Study of Education, op. cit., p s of attitudes, skills, habits, and knowledges see R aders. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1935. p. xl-xliii. Hahn, Julia I the pair, the Second, and the percent who place equal emphasis on both. More than 75 percent of the group emphasize comprehension more than rate, assimilative reading more than < .° sory reading, and directed reading more than tree reading. Prevailing practise among these teachers also favors strong rly (1) greater en phasis on meaning than on mechanics, (2 more oral reading than silent reading, and (3 more extensive use materials than factual of literary ‘a , materials. Sixty-nine percent of the group place equal emphasis on habits and at titudes. Agreement on other pairs is less com plete, particularly the last, where 36 percent use basal texts more than other books, 32 per 32 percent make equal Also in the intensive cent use them less, and use of texts and other materials. case of extensive reading vs. read ing, +4 percent emphasize the former, 37 pet latter. ‘The figure cent the suggests certain trends, but the lack of agreement is enough to that class should suggest teaching emphasis in any given be determined on the basis of the abilities of the children needs, interests, and Teaching emphasis that results in excellent pupil achievement in one case may be inap propriate under other circumstances. Type s of instruction attached to six Figure 1 shows the relative importance types of Oral instruction instruction by 288 first-grade teachers. reading is given the highest rank; and drill nificant, too, in phonics, the lowest. It is sig that every first-grade teacher re ported the use of oral reading and 98 percent of drill for each of the other types, 6 to 11 percent of the use word recognition ; whereas the teachers reported that they do not give instruction of this kind. This comparison is not intended to suggest that separate periods are provided for the various types of instruc word study, and one o1 tion. Oral reading, more types of silent reading, are often included in a single class period. Adapting Mention has been made procedures to each situation already of the fact that teachers must adapt their practises to the circumstances under which they are working. This is true in setting up objectives and out- the general plan of instruction; but it in selecting and applying lining is especially true 36. For another helpfu! outline of first-grade objectives given First Grade Manual To Accompany the Child Development { 281 ] specific classroom procedures. Success in teach- ing is not achieved as success in cooking, by fol- lowing recipes. One group of pupils may learn rapidly when reading is introduced in a certain manner. For another group the same approach may be wholly inappropriate. Procedures should be adapted to the needs of the child, in no case attempting to fit the child to a certain method of teaching. ‘This pre- caution should be kept clearly in mind in con- nection with the suggestions on method which follow. The approach to reading—Table 5 shows how 288 successful teachers make the approach to reading. The majority teach pupils first to recognize complete sentences, but nearly a third use short paragraphs as the first unit of recognition. A very few begin with phrases, still fewer with words, and only one with the letters of the alphabet. More than three- fourths teach pupils to read printed symbols first, but only a fifth teach pupils to print be- fore script writing is introduced. Studies in educational psychology show that words are not recognized by first noting ® For a brief review of such studies see p. 295-97 FIGURE I TABLE 5.—WHAT PUPILS ENCOUNT Ep FIRST IN READING Elements introduced first 1 The first unit of recognition Short paragraphs Sentences Phrases Words Letters of the alphabet Symbols pupils are taught to read first Printed symbols.... . Script writing : Both, from the beginning Symbols pupils are taught to make first Printed symbols Script writing ; Both, from the beginning Based on questionnaire replies from 288 succ: grade teachers of reading. separately each letter, then grasping the ing.* For that reason, the alphabet of approach is not the natural one. Likey it has been found that, especially in th: beginning, children recognize whole sent and sometimes groups of sentences, more Oral reading Drill to develop word recognition Silent reading to develop specific skills Silent reading to teach pupils how to apply skills Silent reading for appreciation Instruction and drill in phonics RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF SIX TYPES OF READING INSTRUCTION IN THE FIRST GRADE Average rank Research Division, Nationa! Education Association Based on the average rank of each type of instruction from ratings by 288 successful first-grade teachers. Since the rankings were made on the basis of “most important = |" down to “least important importance of each type of instruction is the difference between its average rank and 6, the lowest rank. 6," the relative [ 282 ] u) nk single words or phrases. Sentences are irregular in general appearance, thus rding more cues to recognition. Moreover, isier to associate an idea with a group of |s—for example, “Close the door, John” in to associate the meaning of an isolated such as “door” with the group of letters W f which it is composed. Even when teachers ( h have considerable skill in building up a sight 1 vocabulary of isolated words, as some do, there is a tendency for pupils introduced to eading by this method to become word-by- word readers. being able to grasp the meaning of each word encountered, instead of being able to get the They tend to Their criterion of success is idea expressed in a sentence. call out in an expressionless monotone, “The- of srouping the words into correct thought units, “The little red hen found some corn.” ® It should not be inferred trom the foregoing paragraph that pupils do not need to learn the alphabet. Individual letters and their are important, but they are to be learned after the child has made considerable progress in learning to read simple passages. little-red-hen-found-some-corn,” instead sounds Children who make rapid progress in reading ‘ften learn most of the letters and their sounds quite incidentally, requiring a minimum of special teaching. Slow learners require more drill. Teachers should take note of the pupils who need special attention and, at the appro- priate time, give whatever drill is necessary for mastery of the alphabet. Teaching children to read printed materials before they read written sentences is a prac- tise favored not only by the successful teachers who assisted with this study but also by edu- cational psychologists and experts in the field of reading instruction. Moreover, there is considerable evidence that teaching children only to print while in the primary grades, that is, to use manuscript writing, results in more See especially: Buswell, Guy T. Fundamental Reading Habits 1922 er 4 Grill, Erma G. “Manuscript Writing and Its Value to a Sight-Saving Child.” Educa Keim, S. Lucia. “The Present Status and Significance of Manuscript Writing.” Printing vs. Cursive Writing in Ti lonographs, No. 21. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. September, 1931. { Long, Howard H., and Mayer, Willa C. rapid progress in reading. Several ad for this method of writing En P i. 1 } wes are claimed said to have been advocated first by an lishwoman, M. M. Bridges, in 1899: 1. It is more legible because of simplicity i definiteness of letter form. 2. The beginner learns only one alphabet 3. It is especially helpful to a child with vis defects. 4. It reading, since children do not have to master an additional set of symbols for each word 5. The motor words in the form encountered in books aid the pupil in word makes possible more progress in rapid processes involved in printing same in which they are recognition. [It is claimed also that manuscript writing an aid in spelling, that pupils learn to write in manuscript style more easily than they learn cursive writing, and that it encourages greate neatness. On the other hand, cursive writing is used so generally that pupils must eventually and, in nearly all cases, to Manuscript writing is slower And finally, there is a certain amount of difficulty learn to read it in that -at least for many individuals. write style. involved whenever the transition is made from We are manu manuscript to cursive writing. con the merits of script writing as a system of writing, but only That this eftect cerned here, not with with its effect on reading. wholesome seems to be an established fact. If manuscript writing is used in the beginning experimental results thus far reported suggest the fourth grade as an appropriate time to change to cursive writing. A limited amount of experimentation ha also been carried out with reference to the influence of the use of the typewriter on be The in these experiments seem ginning reading. excellent results in reading obtained to justify further trial use of this method. Specific suggestions on method—During the pre-primer period, children learn to recognize 4 Study of Their De lementary I 150 p lopment. Supt tional Method 9: 407-12; April of Educational Research Beginning Reading 15 Instructior Journal Journal of Educational Research 24: 350-55; December, 1931. { Voorhis, Thelma G. The Relative Merits of Cursive and Manu script Writing. Lincoln School, Research Studies. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. 58 p ae Arnold, Esther W. “The Transition from Manuscript to Cursive Writing.” Elementary School Journal 33: 616-2 \ Spencer, Herbert L. An Experimental Study Showing the Relative Influences of the Typewriter on Various Pha i Re ing Ability Among Elementary-School Pupils. Doctor’s thesis, University of Pittsburgh, 1 } § Unzicker, Cecilia E. An E ‘ mental Study of the Effect of the Use of the Typewritcr on Beginning Reading. Contributions to Education, No. 610. New York Teachers College, Columbia University, 1934. 96 p. a number of words at sight—at least their own names, the names of other children in the room, the names of certain objects in the classroom and in their immediate environment, and certain action words entering into their play. First of all, they read from the bulletin board, the blackboard, and elsewhere, as needs aris¢ in connection with their work and play. ‘The teacher begins to “talk” to them by print- ing on the blackboard her greetings, directions, and plans for the day. Later she makes use of a special period for directed reading. In the first special reading periods, the ma- terial used may be either a standard type ob- tained from a publisher of children’s textbooks or material developed by the teacher. For those who develop their own blackboard and chart materials, the following suggestions by Pennell and Cusack should be helpful: 1. The story should be one in which the chil- dren are keenly interested. 2. There should be a central idea. 3, There should be a good opening and a good closing sentence. 4. Correct sequence of sentences should be ob- served. 5. The sentences should be short and of fairly uniform length. 6. The vocabulary should consist largely of words already known to the pupils. 7. Words and phrases should be repeated fre- quently, but in different situations. 8. Phrases should not be divided at the end of lines. 9. The writing or printing should be large, legible, and bold. 10. The spaces between words should not be too great.” In presenting material to beginners, Hahn recommends a general procedure consisting of four steps: (1) the introductory reading of the whole story, (2) a practise period, (3) rereading and using the story for a specific purpose, and (4) individual and group activi- ties.'* With reference to the first step she says: The introductory reading of the whole story should be accomplished as quickly as possible under the leadership of the teacher who introduces new words and phrases in such a way that the thought is kept uppermost in the child’s mind ail time, . . . The introductory period is not period. New words and phrases... ars duced only in order that children may m telligently thru the story. . . . If the context pictures or a question do not bring out the wo the teacher supplies it and leads the childr fully over the difficulties which might ot! interfere with the understanding of the sto teacher does not, at this stage, expect the cl to master the new words altho some of then do so. After the children have read the who! lection silently from beginning to end have grasped the thought, practise on and phrases is necessary for many chil before they can reread the story fluent! themselves. Sometimes this is given du the same class period as the introductory ing; sometimes in a later period. Games volving show-me-the-word-that-says, act games, flash cards, and exercises in identif words in new arrangements and com tions are among the many types of p: which may be provided. No more pr should be given than the pupils really ne Following the practise on words phrases, pupils should be prepared to re the story for individual or class enjoyn for the entertainment of others outsid: class, or to acquire specific information t used in carrying out related activities. In ' case the reading should be a relatively smoot and independent process. As a final step, individual or group act ties are provided in which the pupil makes of the vocabulary in new reading situations The use of workbooks or mimeographed sea‘ work, construction, drawing, dramatizat games, and numerous other activities can used to supplement the regular reading |« Neither the foregoing method nor any ot is equally appropriate on all occasions. ‘| ers should adapt this plan to their own t ing situations. It is especially important them to select the devices which they ca: most skilfully—devices which are at the time best adapted to the purposes at hand to the abilities, meeds, and interests of pupils, 18 Adapted from: Pennell, Mary E., and Cusack, Alice M. The Teaching of Reading for Better Living. Boston: H Mifflin Co., 1935. p. 192. ™ Hahn, Julia L. First Grade Manual To Accompany the Child Development Readers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co p. 11-14. For other outlines of procedure see other recently published teaching manuals; also, Pennell, Mary E., and ‘ Alice M., op. cit., p. 147-259. {| Parker, Samuel C. ‘“‘How to Teach Beginning Reading.’’ Elementary School Journal 22 104-17, 175-88, and 254-68; September to December, 1921. { Buswell, Guy T., op. cit., 150 p. [ 284 ] res ust ations Zirbes *® points out eight common mistakes q beginning reading, which teachers will do well to avoid: Busy-work remotely related to reading Beginning too soon, especially with the chil dren of foreign-born parents. Reading in concert as a regular routine 4. Teaching “the,” “in,” “of,” etc., in isolation [Teaching the A-B-C’s to babies who should be playing. Ignoring pupils’ current interests for a story in the book. One-paragraph reading. Too little continu ous silent or oral reading. 8. Stereotype procedure of any kind. By way of general advice, Meriam'" sug vests that teachers: (1) be informal; (2) develop reading ability thru normal activities in which reading functions; (3) watch for good phrases and expressions used by the chil- dren and place same on blackboard ; (+) write well; (5) individual 6) be patient—tell the child what a word regard the identification of each word as relatively unimportant; ; “70 times 7; and (7) expect slow progress it first. Phonics—Nearly all authorities in reading wree that amount of practise in word analysis, that is, children should have a certain phonetic training. Without it, they are handi capped in the presence of unfamiliar words ind may, on the one hand, depend on the teach er to tell them the new words, or, on the other, resort to random guesses. ‘The issues are: When phonetic What letter sounds should be taught? What should instruction begin? methods should be used? On these questions wreement is less unanimous. Altho in 1925, systems of reading analyzed by Gates ** sug seventeen of twenty-one ’ first two weeks and all of them within the first six, the better practise seems to be to post pone phonetic instruction until considerable The Na tional Committee on Reading suggests that it be delayed “until the child has established the progress in reading has been made. habit of thought-getting, has a reasonable stock of sight words, and has begun to note freely gross similarities and differences in words.” Experiments indicate that phonetic training is relatively ineffective during the first half of Grade I.'° A sight vocabulary of 50 to 100 words is an essential prerequisite. The selection of the phonetic elements to ye taught is a problem that merits the careful study of every primary teacher. he number of sounds that might be taught is legion, but Many sounds are learned incidentally by nearly all Moreover, much more frequently than others in the word The list of they are far from equal in importance. children. certain sounds occur which children encounter. sound to be taught, therefore, should be selected with care, using the results of the phonetic analys« that have been made. The basic list of pho netic elements selected for use in the fit grade in Winnetka as a result of the study Vogel, Jaycox, and Washburne follow ] All the short vowel sounds 2. All simple consonant sounds 3. The rule for lengthening the wel be final ‘‘e.’ +. The phonograms: ce, ed, ing, er, ea en, ay, oo (as in good), 00 (moon), a? (cow OX show), i//, st, th, sh, and With respect to teaching methods, most thorities recommend that teachers: (1) be gin phonetic instruction with an analysis of the words in children’s sight vocabularies; (2 set aside separate periods for teaching phoni gested the introduction of phonics within the 3) teach the easiest sounds such as “‘m” and » Zirbes, Laura Present Practices in Teaching Reading as They Affect Child De ent { Better Beginning ir ng for Young Children. Bulletin of the Association for Childhood Education. Washington, D. ¢ Association for Childhood | ation, 1932. p. 2-7 %® Meriam, Junius L. ‘‘Avoiding Difficulties in Learning to Read.’’ Educational Method 413-19; April, 1 ’ Gates, Arthur I., and others. “Problems in Beginning Reading.’’ Teachers College Record 26: 578; March, 1925 18 National Society tor the Study of Education, op. cit., p. ‘ Sexton, Elmer K., and Herron, John S The Newark Pho Experiment Elementary School Journal 28 1928. { Garrison, S. C., and Heard, M. T An Experimental Study of the Value of Phor ’ Peabody Journal of Edu -14; July, 1931. * Important studies of this type are: (Atkins, Ruth E, “An Analysis of the Phonetic Elements 1 Basal Reading Vocabulary Elementary School Jourr 6-606; April, 1926. { Burbank, E. D. “Phonetics in the Elementary Grades for Teachers of Normal Children.” Volta ] 113-16, 217-20, 274-78, and 323-27; March to June, 1920 ‘ordts, Anna D. ‘‘Facts for Teachers of Phonics.”’ Elemer English Review 3: 116-21; April, 1926. ‘ Sartorius, Ina C. Generalization in Spelling. Contributions to Education, N 4 New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. 65 p W. “The Commonest Syllables.”’ Journal of Educational Resear Vogel, Mabel. “A Revised List of Phonics for Grade II.” Elementary School Journal ) : { Vogel, Mabel; Jaycox, Emma; and Washburne, ( A Basic List of Phonics for Grades I and II.” Elementary School Journal 23: 436-43 February, 1923. § Washburne, Ca { Washburne, Carleton W 14: 199-205: October. 192 ee Tune 19 [ 285 ] “s” before the difficult ones such as “b and “yp”; (4) give different children different amounts of phonetic instruction, according to their needs; (5) adopt a definite system of phonics—of which there are several; (6) carefully relate the work in phonics to a rich reading program; and (7) in all phonetic training, deal with words as units, the teacher underlining or covering up parts of words to emphasize phonetic elements. Materials of instruction in the primary grades—Suggestions on evaluating and select- ing children’s books, a description of the ma- terials in use in the classrooms of 1527 com- petent teachers, teachers’ criticisms of ma- terials being used, and a list of helpful guides to children’s literature are given in a later section of this bulletin.*‘ For that reason, the discussion here is limited to certain findings from the present questionnaire study: (1) a review of the difficulties reported by a group of successful teachers in providing suitable primary reading materials; and (2) a list of some of the special types of reading material which they find helpful in Grades I and II. The leading difficulties in providing suitable materials named by 288 first-grade and 260 second-grade teachers are listed below accord- ing to frequency of mention: 1. Finding a sufficient amount of easy reading material. . Lack of funds to obtain needed materials. . Finding materials appropriate for slow learners. 4. Finding materials bearing directly on a par- ticular teaching unit. 5. Problems of administrative routine, such as supplementary readers in use by other teach- ers when wanted. 6. Finding factual books easy enough for pri- mary children. 7. Finding beneficial seat work. 8. Finding a variety of material with similar vocabulary. 9. Necessity for making appropriate materials. 10. Finding enough story-book type materials. 11. Finding materials adapted to the interests and abilities of different children. 12. Securing up-to-date materials. wd Similarly, the following types of special ma- terials were mentioned as most helpful in first- and second-grade teaching: % See p. 309-14. 1. Workbooks. 2. Seat work, such as, word builders, s builders, mimeographed cises, etc. 3. Flash cards—word, cards. 4. Reading charts—published charts perience charts prepared by pupils. . Pupils’ booklets, . Children’s newspapers. . Visual aids. . Bulletin board displays. 9. Phonetic charts. 10. Games and puzzles. 11. Picture dictionaries. 12. Written directions and action sent« blackboard. 13. Graphs showing pupils or classes. read-and-d phrase, and teache onrnwM progress of ind Special difficulties in beginning read First-grade teachers who participated i: study were asked to list a few of the tea problems which they had found most difl during the year just closing and to state what they had done to solve each pr Table 6 lists the problems mentioned b than five teachers. Word-by-word reading stands out problem most frequently encountered. eliminate this tendency, teachers repo following devices: (1) provide phrase (2) have pupils read silently first to get thought, then orally; (3) mark off, in way, appropriate thought units; (4) us: materials; (5) have pupils read, then what was read from memory; (6) preparatory word study; (7) give pu; motive for reading—let them read to fin something; (8) commend pupils for re in a conversational way; (9) emphasize s (10) encourage pupils to look ahead, | a wider eye-voice span; (11) discontinue flash cards; and (12) compare the good ers to a train which “‘stops at stations on! Several devices were mentioned repea in connection with the different kinds oi ficulty in oral reading; for example, (|! tensive practise in both silent and oral ing, (2) the use of easy material, (3) ger audience situations, (4) reading for a de! purpose, (5) thoro preparation before ing, (6) training in phonetics, and (7 correction of faulty habits of English u [ 286 } \)ramatization was mentioned frequently as_ tensive study of the question, involving 136 St er . ~ - - . ' ticularly helpful in developing good ex carefully matched pairs of right- and left in and voice control. Accuracy is pro- handed children, the latter made the fewest S noted by word and phrase drills. Repetition reversals in every test situation provided.** ften be eliminated by covering each word Apparently, the difficulty cannot be attributed . on as it is called, or if the pupil is read- to left-handedness, but is one experienced in € . . , . » from the blackboard, by erasing each word some measure by nearly all children. There are is read. One teacher tells her pupils that tests to discover what letters or words a pupil etition in reading is like “going back home _ reverses and to discover in any given case how to start over, every time one comes to a traffic serious the difficulty is.** he »? Methods of eliminating reversals in reading , - 2 7 . . . . . o ) 2Q \ number of teaching devices were also Mentioned in the questionnaire replies from 285 ntioned frequently in connection with the ‘successful first-grade teachers were: (1) give a various difficulties centering around word ; recognition. Extensive reading of easy ma- “ . ae TABLE 6.—PROBL LLY il, flash-card drills, word games, keeping OBLEMS ESPECIA sei ; : a ; ‘ "y 9 ? ¥ YE word lists, and exercises in noting likenesses TROUBLESOME TO 288 FIRST-GRADI d ind differences are among the procedures most TEACHERS a ol ‘ften listed. The two devices used most in ; | . ° Number sacha teaching pupils to cope with new words are en at tin lifficult drill in getting new words from context, and mentioned raining and drill in phonics. Special atten- ; " tion to initial and final letters, the use of pic- \ ' tures and picture dictionaries, recognizing 72lems relating — one Word-by-word reading 8 known words within longer, unknown words, Sleidiistieer ethical she call alana — ind the development of pupils’ self-confidence ~r 2 sPuonper p ws! ‘a ~ ‘ . © epetition of word r phrases ’ l ire other important methods used in develop- Expression and voice control in oral reading 9 . °° rT. sti yns—Wwo same, or similar, ean ~— ng accurate and rapid word recognition. The —o Kael P drills teachers’ reports stress the importance of va- — probiems relating t ret t riet I ac nods in us neid, tor so *upils’ inability t gure it new or fferer , ty in teaching method this field, f Pupils’ inabil ; much dependenc | lac P . words 59 . onan much dependence must be placed on repeti- Lash af tn adeaue sites , e eas tion that, without variety, vocabulary study Confusion of similar words to 4 Difficulties in recognizing and iterpreting ab s unusually dull. stract words 1 - . ability to recognize known words in nev \ problem of method often mentioned was —— . ne ee ee - p that of eliminating the tendency to interpret Reversals. . 15 id out letters or words in reverse order, for example, *#er problems: ae ee “ »-rT Ls. ae Vocalization 52 ng ontusing “was” and “saw.” This rather com- friay cara 36 speed mon difficulty in the early stages of reading trans mrnemnge ~ ’ : , . - Irregular progress along the line and inaccurat¢ to us has been thought by some to be associated with return sweeps of t { left h- ~ 2, oe , = : : Eye span too narrow 5 left-handedness. heir hypothesis is that the + eho atl er we 0 brain centers which control motor responses Lack of interest on the part of pupils... ond | ¢ ‘ ae Difficult transitions: print to script; chart n left-handed persons are so closely identified books; one type size to another; et 19 t wit . . : . Y ° Pupils read too slowly aA wo a > > with those used in reading that the result is -temamseoig theese + ¢ . . - - i confusion and a tendency to make reversals Span of attention too sh . ‘ . Guessing 11 in reading. Many, however, refuse to accept Incorrect interpretation of letters 9 t} , . . ‘ Lack of phonics 8 his explanation. In the most recent and ex- ee eee ™ CI — = Dearborn, Walter F. ‘‘Teaching Reading to Non-Readers.’’ Elementary School Journal 3 266-69: December, 192 A Orton, Samuel T. “The ‘Sight-Reading’ Method of Teaching Reading as a Source of Reading Disability.”” Journal of Educational Psychology 20: 135-43; February, 1929. usage Phillips, Albert J. “Relation of Left-Handedness to Reversals in Reading.’’ Elementary English Review 11: 9 11 Apri’, 1934, See also, Crider, Blake. ‘‘Lack of Cerebral Dominance as a Cause of Reading Disability.” 39, 270; February, 1934. * Phillips, Albert J., op. cit. Also, Teegarden, Lorene nal Research 27: 81-97; October, 1933. “Tests for the Tendency to Re “I Childhood Education ersal in Reading.’’ Journal of Educa- training in the discrimination of form, size, and color; (2) play games involving left to right responses; (3) increase the amount of phonetic training, with special emphasis on initial letters; (4) cut down on the amount of silent reading, and increase oral reading; (5) teach pupils to do typewriting first, in- troducing writing later; and (6) provide practise exercises using kinesthetic stimuli to help establish correct recognition. Kinesthetic practise exercises are carried out in the fol- lowing manner.*® The troublesome word is written on the blackboard. The pupil traces it, pronouncing it as he does so. ‘This is done several times, until the pupil thinks he can write it from memory. The word is erased. The pupil tries to reproduce it from memory, immediately and at intervals thereafter. “Two important elements in exercises of this type should be noted. First, the pupil pronounces the word while tracing over it—not the let- ters in the word. Second, the pupil repro- duces the word from memory, not from copy. Not only reversals in reading but also other difficulties in word recognition can sometimes be corrected by special exercises of this sort. In eliminating undesirable habits, such as vocalization (lip-movement) or line follow- ing, setting up the correct ideal and praise for worthy achievement are of primary import- ance. Individual progress charts are often used to advantage. ‘To decrease vocalization, some teachers have pupils place fingers on lips, use sentence flash cards, provide more silent reading and less oral reading, or emphasize speed of reading. ‘The use of line markers is by far the most common device used to pre- vent pupils from pointing out each word. Another simple device to prevent pointing is to have the book held in both hands. ‘The use of line markers, and reading from charts following a pointer, are favorite methods of obtaining regular progress along the line and accurate return sweeps from the end of one line to the beginning of the next. Reading comprehension is improved by (1) having pupils read to find out something definite, (2) silent reading followed by some form of self-expression such as dramatiz or drawing, (3) read-and-do exercises (4) opportunities for enriched experi: The last named item is also important moving language handicaps. Flash-car, ercises and exercises in finding words phrases quickly on the page are widely in increasing the eye span. Memorizatio; prevented by presenting the words of fan stories in a variety of new arrangements combinations. Interest in reading can veloped, among other ways, by providi: abundance of attractive materials, n reading a pleasant experience, and by n reading necessary for the accomplishment something the child wishes to do. Difficulties pertaining to the interpret of letters in the alphabet may take the of identifying some over-potent letter \ particular word. For example, the pup call every word containing the lette: milk. Another common difficulty is caus: confusing capital and small letters. A type is identified with children whose school learning has focused their attenti: firmly on letters, instead of on ideas and Such difficulties usually require exercis careful observation and much individu struction. First-grade standards for promotion merous studies have shown that the | cause of non-promotion in the primary —particularly the first—is lack of satisfa progress in reading. Because of the larg cent of failure at that level a few schoo abolishing grade lines in the primary de; ment, classifying pupils according to achievement but not in grades, and promoti! pupils only from the department. Since schools, however, still classify pupils by and continue to fail large numbers of | because of reading, the promotion stand set for first-grade pupils merit considerati Reed’s analysis of these standards in is one of the best summaries of practise available.*° Her findings with respect t: amount of required reading, size of ai *5 Orton, Samuel T., op. cit. See also, Fernald, Grace M., and Keller, Helen B. “The Effect of Kinaesthetic Factor Development of Word Recognition in the Case of Non-Readers.’”’ Journal of Educational Research 4: 355-77; December Keller, Helen B., and Fernald, Grace M. ‘‘Remedial Work for Non-Readers.” Problems of the Elementary S« hool Principa Light of the Testing Movement. Second Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: Department of Elementary School Principals, Education Association, 1923. p. 345-46. Na 8 Reed, Mary M. An Investigation of Practices in First-Grade Admission and Promotion. Contributions to Education, N New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927. 136 p. [ 288 ] itiz itor SCS an eriences ‘ard ey ( otable reading vocabulary, and the amount indicated. The range begins at } } + Zero in ¢ phonetic knowledge expected in each half case, because there was always one or more : ; gpa ape ee xe ae ; : { the first grade are given in Table 7. For cities having no requirement with respect h item the range and average amount is_ each of the respective items TABLE 7.—FIRST-GRADE PROMOTION STANDARDS IN 155 CITIES Averags Range Requirement for promotion Low first High first* Low first High first I 2 3 4 5 er of: I rs pupils must read 2.31 g9 0 to 10 0 to 10 First readers pupils must read 1.80 51 Oto § 0 15 Supplementary readers pupils must read 2.50 50 Oto 12 0 15 Words required in the reading vocabulary . 168.7 00 0 0 to 850 0 163 Phonograms pupils are expected to know 25.0 > 0 to 62 i 1S0 P tic families pupils must know el 15.0 30.0 0 to 40 0 0) Source: Reed, Mary M. An Investigation of Practices in First-Grade Admission and Promotion. Contributions to Ed \ ). New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927. p. 111. * These requirements are in addition to those listed for the low first grade Selected References 1. BAMBERGER, FLORENCE E. “Developing Primary Reading Skills.” Normal Instructo) and Primary Plans 38: 22, 66; June, 1929. 2. BERGMAN, W. G., and VrEELAND, W. “Comparative Achievement in Word Recogni tion Under Two Methods of Teaching Beginning Reading.” Elementary Sch Journal 32: 605-16; April, 1932. 3. BILDERSEE, Dorotuy. Teaching in the Primary Grades. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1932. 332 p. 4. BusweLt, Guy T. Fundamental Reading Habits: A Study of Their Development Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 21. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922. 150 p. 5. Corpts, ANNA D. “Facts for Teachers of Phonics.” Elen ntary English Review 3 116-21: April, 1926. 6. Corpts, ANNA D. Word Method of Teaching Phonics. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1929 328 p. 7. GATES, ArtHUR I. New Methods in Primary Reading. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. 8. Harpy, Marjorie. “Real Learning in the Primary Grades: Learning to Read Normal Instructor and Primary Plans 37: 24, 100-3; April, 1928. 9. Harpy, Maryjorigz. “Right Attitude Toward Books and Taste in Reading in Primary School.” Elementary School Journal 27 : 745-50; June, 1927. 10. Huser, Mir1tam B. “Teaching Beginners to Read—An Integrated Process.” Elemes tary English Review 5: 116-18; April, 1928. + r 11. Meek, Lots H. A Study of Learning and Retention in Young Children. Contributions to Education, No. 164. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1925 96 p. 12. MerIaAM, Junius L. “Avoiding Difficulties in Learning to Read.” Educational Met! 9: 413-19; April, 1930. 13. PARKER, SAMUEL C. “How to Teach Beginning Reading.” Elementary School Journal 22: 15-30, 104-17, 175-88, 255-68; September to December, 1921. 14. PENNELL, Mary E., and Cusack, Atice M. The Teaching of Reading for Bette: Living. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1935. 469 p. 15. SLOMAN, Laura. Some Primary Methods. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927. 293 p. 16. Storm, Grace E., and Smirnu, Nira B. Reading Activities in the Primary Grades Boston: Ginn and Co., 1930. 376 p. 17. Westey, Marion J. “The Approach to Reading.” Childhood Education 5: 183-87; December, 1928. [ 289 | Comparative Analysis of Teaching Methods This section of the bulletin deals with read- 3. To secure rapid growth in habits of int ing instruction in the various grades from ] ‘"t¢TPpretation. to VI mae ota Yr tthe the ttathion of 4. To increase the rate and accuracy to VI, presenting side by side the teaching ob- 4) and silent reading. jectives and classroom practises followed in the 5. To develop desirable habits of interp: several grades. The teacher of reading in one oral reading. grade, for example the fourth, will find it help- 6. To continue training in the skilful use o! ful to watch for special references to fourth- 24 introduce pupils to the use of libraries grade work and to take special note of the Specific aims of the period of wide column (or row) in each table and figure which applies to fourth-grade teaching. Inter- 1. To provide rich and varied experience niall , aie alee © , reading in practically every field of thought grade comparisons should also be made espe- experience for which pupils are prepared— cially by those who teach in one grade only. biography, geography, travel, science, and : . ‘ 2. To st then interest in entertaining, i: Objectives of the Reading Program ee tive, and worthwhile reading. ( Specific aims—Specific objectives appropriate 3. To secure continued growth in habits telligent interpretation corresponding to the g for use during the stages of growth known * saute ath meee have attained. the preparatory period and the period of initial 4. To further improve and refine the ha instruction have already been given. Those recognition in both oral and silent reading outlined by the National Committee on Read-_ ticularly, to increase the rate of silent readi ing for the two remaining periods identified 5. To improve the quality of oral interpr. and establish correct standards for various with elementary grades are as follows: reading shiuations Specific aims durina th . ‘ aes 6. To develop skill in the use of books, im ees during the period of rapid growth the use of dictionaries, encyclopedias, and \ in fundamental attitudes, habits, and skills references, and to acquaint pupils further wit . : , . . s i igent use of library facilities.” 1. To provide a rich variety of reading experi- intelligent use © eid ence, ; ae 2. To stimulate keen interest in reading whole- Specific abilities : developed by 2 some books and the habit of reading independently teachers—Table 8 indicates some of the for pleasure and information. portant reading abilities which the 152; ' See “Laying the Foundations in Reading,”’ p. 279 and 281. _ ® Adapted from: National Society for the Study of Education. Report of the National Committee on Reading. Twent Yearbook, Part I. Bloomington, Ill: Public School Publishing Co., 1925. p. 46 and 56-57. TABLE 8.—PERCENT OF TEACHERS IN EACH GRADE WHO MAKE A CONSCIOUS EFFORT TO DEVELOP CERTAIN READING ABILITIES Percent of teachers in each grade The ability to: I Il ll IV Vv 1 2 3 4 5 6 Recognize words in groups (i. e., in phrases or thought units)........... 97 94 83 76 62 Recognize both words and word-groups more quickly.................. 95 92 83 73 59 Follow printed directions. . Trt 91 90 89 87 —— words of which the pupil ‘alre ady knows the | meaning. ine Sa 87 83 71 60 43 Get the meaning of new words from the context................6...45. 84 94 86 93 91 Find the answer to fact questions. ... oS ae er ee 90 90 92 89 Observe punctuation marks....................55. b0éeret nee 52 71 72 69 63 Adapt the method of reading used to the purpose at hand ko iy denied bile 44 55 64 66 71 Get the general point of view expressed, or “total meaning,"’ ina selection. 42 64 76 83 89 } Adapt the method of reading used to the difficulty of the material at hand. 41 55 64 67 58 Find the main idea in a paragraph................... Sdiqes doe 31 61 80 94 94 96 Pay particular attention to important ‘elements i ina sentence. tuavan 19 29 32 36 42 Relate what is read to a topic or theme........ SP Ay A 19 33 54 60 66 73 Make an independent organization of materials....................... 14 20 40 47 61 72 Follow the author's organization of a selection. ye 10 23 33 37 45 52 Make use of transitional words, thus keeping pace with “ turns of thought. + 6 12 20 24 28 3 Number of teachers’ reports on which the percents are based............ 288 260 270 225 229 Read table as follows: Of the 288 first- grade teachers reporting, 97 percent make a conscious effort to develop the abil he words in groups; the same ability is stressed by 94 percent of the 260 second-grade teachers; 83 percent of t! third-grade teachers; etc. Based on questionnaire replies from 1527 successful teachers of reading. [ 290 } 91 73 72 ) ww teachers who participated in this study ke a conscious effort to develop in their pils. The grade level at which each ability jeveloped by the largest percent of teachers licated by bold-faced numerals. Thus in lumn 2, the bold-faced numerals, 97, 95, and 87. indicate that the recognition of words in ps, the recognition of words and word- ps more quickly, and the recognition of words of known meaning are teaching objec more commonly adopted in Grade I than ny other grade. Other abilities listed are greater favor in a grade beyond the first: for example, following printed directions in Grade Il; and in Grade VI, the last four abili- ties listed in the table. The ability which is featured most prominently in each grade is indicated by the percents underscored. In Grade I, the number underscored is 97 (also one of the bold-faced numbers referred to ibove), identifying the recognition of words in groups as the ability developed by the largest percent of first-grade teachers. In Grades IV, V, and VI, the ability to find the main idea of a paragraph outranks all others. Abilities listed 1s important in every grade include: (1) get ting the meaning of new words from the con- text; (2) finding the answers to fact ques- tions; and (3) following printed directions. Other abilities, for example word recogni- tion, diminish in importance from grade to grade, or increase in importance, as in the case of the ability to organize materials read. Using the percents given in Table 8, teachers in any grade can rank the various abilities for that grade. Or, by noting the abilities used as ob- jectives by more than 50 percent, or perhaps 75 percent, of those reporting, they can readily discriminate between abilities which successful teachers believe are of major and minor impor- tance for the grade involved. Teaching emphasis Figure Il shows what phases of reading instruction are being em phasized by teachers of unusual ability. Com prehension is emphasized more than rate by the great majority of teachers in every grade The same is true of assimilative reading as compared with cursory reading. There are a number of significant changes in emphasis, as children pass from grade to grade. Among those which should be noted are the pronounced increase in emphasis on silent reading, and the more gradual but consistent increase in em phasis on free reading, sight reading, and on the use of books other than textbooks. Types of instruction—Figure III indicates the relative importance in each grade of six types of reading instruction according to the teaching practises of 1527 successful teachers. These teachers were asked to evaluate each type of instruction by assigning the rank “1” to the type used most, “2” to the next, etc. The figure shows the average rank of each type of instruction in each grade. The increasing importance of the various types of silent read ing in the later elementary grades and the de creasing importance of oral reading, drill in word recognition, and phonics stand out clearly in the diagram. Silent reading to develop spx cific reading skills ranks relatively high in all the grades. Phonetic training is rated lowest in every grade. It should not be inferred from Figure II] that the various types of reading instruction are given in separate periods—one for oral reading, one for word drill, etc. Any well conducted reading period is likely to include a certain amount of word study, opportunity for oral reading, and practise in one or more types of silent reading. Table 9 shows what percent of the teachers in each grade report that they never use the TABLE 9.—PERCENT OF TEACHERS IN EACH GRADE WHO NEVER USE CERTAIN TYPES OF READING INSTRUCTION Type of instruction - Oral reading........ ‘ Jrill to develop word recognition ent reading to develop specific skills nstruction and drill in phonics.. leat reading for appreciation. ...... lent reading to teach pupils to apply skills DN=nYy Number of teachers’ reports on which the percents are based Percent of teachers not using each type of instruction; Grade I II lil IV V VI 2 3 + 5 6 7 0.0 0.4 0.4 0.9 0.0 0.4 2.5 ye 3.3 11.0 13.4 1 0 5.8 3.6 0.4 0.9 1.0 6.2 4.5 8.5 35.3 44.8 4 ) 6.4 0.9 :.2 2.0 0.5 0.8 3 3.3 1 ‘2 0.5 0.4 288 260 270 225 229 255 f 291 FIGURE II PHASES OF READING EMPHASIZED IN EACH GRADE BY A GROUP OF SUCCESSFUL TEACHERS red Oral Mechanics Rate Habits Sight Reading Directed Reading rece . . . . . . | Silent Meaning Comprehension Attitudes Prepared Reading Free Reading ¢ .f e e “4 We 2@¢ 47 > 1S 4 i % wu ' . a s “— — a 1.> ‘in 44 24 2 49 __17 26 22 HPs 3 9 33 4 ‘ 32 a® i+ 58 “es 7 s° 6 ey? : | | | 68 85 i St 57 5,0 ‘s “eS : 64 = 19 HP 16 IV ’ “ % 86 83 54 4,/e +> 1’ 13, $4 ‘S 37 2? 26 V 33 80 89 84 = 47 4,5 20 + Vaid 14 Sé \5 34 2 30 Vi ar —. 82 30 51 44 Recreatory Socialized Extensive reading reading reading . . . Work-type Individual Intensive reading reading reading N w > -| on a aw La wy ~_ -| “+ al — o ~. J ~ \ \ 7 + nw rl Ne + ~ IN a il a + 14 w ws IV 83 x ob I 7 V ii4 Nu 4 Vi 76 \y —] + @ m) re) Assimiletive Reading of Reading from reading factual materials basa! text . . . Cursory Reading of Reading from reading literary materials other books a ® w Nn wo ~ - + ? w wm + es & r PY a) vw 2% a 4 : ow nN ’ ° + Ww wr ~ ‘le? ai s6 43! 2 ad | ss Research Division, Nationa! Education Associet | | Read chart as follows: In the first grade, 52 percent of the teachers place greater emphasis on oral reading than on silent reading, 34 percent give equal emphasis to both, and |4 percent emphasize silent reading, 64 percent meaning more than mechanics, 25 emphasize percent place equal emphasis on these factors, and |! percent emphasize mechanics. Interpret other pairs in the same way—for all grades. Based on questionnaire replies from 1527 successful teachers of reading—225 to 288 in each grade. [ 292 ] DE ding 1g 7 18 16 various types of instruction. Altho Figure III] shows that oral reading decreases in impor tance from grade to grade, some use of it is made by nearly every teacher in every grade. On the other hand, instruction in phonics, which is used to some extent by nearly all teachers in the first three grades, is never used » one-third to one-half of the srades beyond the third. Since it is often helpful to know not only teachers in hy ) the procedures that are considered best but ilso the pitfalls most likely to be encountered, Figure LV is introduced at this point. Based on replies from 144 of the supervisors who pat ticipated in this study, it indicates the grade level where teachers, as a general rule, are believed to overemphasize and underemphasize each type of instruction. In this case the super- visors are reporting, not the work of their best teachers, but the general tendency among all the teachers under their supervision. Many supervisors recommended neither more nor less extensive use of the various types of instruc- tion, believing apparently, that in their own school systems a well-balanced program is be- ing carried out. A much larger percent recom- mended more emphasis on the various types of instruction than less. The types of instruction cited most frequently as requiring less atten tion were oral reading, especially in Grades II] and lV, and drill to develop word reco; nition, especially in Grades I and Il. Types of instruction believed by many supervisors to be in need of greater emphasis include: silent reading to teach pupils how to apply reading skills and silent reading for appreciation, espe cially in Grades IV, V and V1; silent reading to develop specific skills and free reading, in all the grades; and drill to develop word recog nition and instruction and drill in phonics, pat ticularly in Grades II and III. Proper balance reading—One ot oral and _ silent debated between the most issues in the field of reading instruction is the place of oral reading in the total program. Until a few overemphasized in the great majority of schools. years ago, oral reading was Even yet, there are thousands of elementary classrooms in which instruction in oral reading is virtually the only kind that is given. Such a policy, of course, is indefensible, and wherever this condition exists, steps should be taken im Silent type that pupils will use most. Hence, the mediately to correct it. reading is the greater part of their training should be in silent reading. ‘he remedy lies, however, not in the FIGURE III RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF SIX TYPES OF READING INSTRUCTION IN EACH GRADE FROM | to VI Grades Average rank 1 il iL iV Vv vi ° Lae | , Silent reading to teach pupils pee POC ..|% how to apply skills. iF — << ee Se ae a | ~ Silent reading to develop spe- , | cific skills, | eg -—~ “i is ‘ata | ~ Silent reading for appreciation a FT a al ——_—_ Oral reading. it coe al Drill to develop word recog 4+t nition, — ; 5 f+ ais ae ‘ ‘ VO Se O] yrde d act Zz ar ituatioy nate nd thei; VOTds In unt of more o; OLNItior ond t! Or W the ldret int 5. Pupils often identify words by fixing at tention on some minute detail, such as a tall middle letter, the dot over an “i,” or the tail he 6. Names of objects which would seem to be of great children are easy for them to learn. Distribution of practise periods is impor Ihe first interest to not always tant in securing retention. repetition should come within twenty-four hours after a word is first presented, and at intervals there- after until recognition is established. Pupils re new words el member about 70 percent of countered for twenty-four hours but only about 50 percent if there is no repetition within ninety six hours. 8. Pupils improve rapidly with practise in their ability to learn new words. One group words on learned nearly twice as many new the fifth day as on the first.~ dee esper ially Zes ‘Table of the National Committee on Reading wit 10 summart he recommendat reterence to what should be done in « } grade to develop a meaning vocabula nd promote accuracy and independence in w« recognition, 2 sai J ’ De Crutches Ability to read _ silent without pointing, using line-markers, movin the the the lips, or resorting to use of othe “crutches” is another of fundamenta or basic, reading skills. Efficient silent read ing habits cannot be established until such artificial devices are abandoned. Methods of breaking up such habits are suggested els« where in this bulletin.?” 4. Corre ct laboratory habits—Thi investigations, educational ps\ eve-movement Gates, Arthur I., and Boeker, Elois« A Study of Ir Stages in Reading | Pre-School Children Teachers ¢ Record 24: 469-88; November, 1923. Meek, Lois H. A Study of Learning and Retention in Young Children. Con Education, No. 164. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1925 6p " Wiley, Will I Difficult Wor Beginner.”’ Journal of Educational Research | 27 'See p. 288. 8.29 April 1 ? 8 TABLE 10.—SUGGESTIONS ON HOW TO DEVELOP A SATISFACTORY READING VOCABULARY Grade for which the suggestion is offered Teaching suggestions I II ITI IV V VI 1 2 3 4 5 6 ow to develop a large meaning vocabulary Extension ot pupils’ actual experiences and their experiences thru reading xX Xx X Repetition of new words in connection with additional experiences X Use of new words in a variety of activities and situations Detection, by the teacher, of inaccuracies in children’s expr n Use of context as a cue to word meanings X xX Pupils trained to know when they should ask for help g word x x Practise in the use of synonyms XK xX x Practise in classifying words. \ x xX Use of vocabulary tests \ x x X Recording individual difficulties as a basis for remedial work and provision individual differences, as needed \ X XK ‘ On how to develop accuracy in word recognition Teaching, as sight words, a list of words from the children’s speaking vocabulary i X X x Identification, by pupils, of gross differences between words the sight lis X Use of books deferred until pupils are ‘‘ready'’ to read X Introduction of phonics when pupils begin to note gross similarities and differ ences in the form and sound of words X Definite instruction in phonics, adapted to individual need ‘ xX x Early attention to pupils’ inaccuracies in oral and written expression xX x Practise in arranging words alphabetical]; x x On how to develop independence in word recognitior Having pupils approach the reading lesson with definite que ns or purposes in mind. ‘ X X X X xX Use of markers at first to limit attention to one line Focusing attention on a relatively short unit, i. e., sentence or paragraph. X X X x Instruction on different ways to attack new words X X X Telling pupils words they cannot be expec ted to dec ipher x xX xX Establishment of self-confidence X X X X As little interruption of thought as possible X X X Emphasis on meaning—not words x X X xX \ Instruction and practise in applying phonetic knowledge X X X Giving whatever word-drill is needed in separate periods—not pupils are reading for the thought Adapted from: National Society for the Study of Education Yearbook, Part I. ort « Bloomington, I1I.: Public School Publishing Co., 1925. p. 91-96 it a time when Rep Reading | mmiltee on [ 297 ] chologists have determined the manner in which the eyes function in reading and have noted the differences between the eye-move- ments of good and poor readers. As one reads, the eyes move along the line in a series of rapid shifts and momentary pauses. The shifts are lightning-like movements, so rapid that the eye sees nothing until it comes to rest.°° The pauses, called fixations, altho differing greatly in length, usually average about three-tenths of a second. About 5 to 6 percent of the total reading time is required for the shifts between fixations, leaving 94 to 95 percent for perception.*' When read- ing is done efficiently, the eye-movements are regular and somewhat rhythmic and the re- turn sweep from the end of one line t beginning of the next is made quick accurately. Poor reading, on the other is marked by a large number of fixati: pauses ; the movements are quite irreg first to right, then to the left to look at some word passed by—and on the : sweep, the eye often fails to find the ning of the next line. When reading is taught effectively, movement habits improve rapidly durin, elementary-school period. Growth stand suggested by Buswell’s study are give: Figure V. Grades I, II, and III stand « the important ones in establishing co eye-movement habits. 4 % Dodge, Raymond. “The Illusion of Clear Vision During Eye-Movement.” Psychological Bulletin 2: 193-99; Jun { Holt, Edwin B. “Eye-Movement and Central Anaesthesia.” Harvard Psychological Studies 1: 3-45; January, 1903. * Erdmann, B., and Dodge, Raymond, op. cit. { Tinker, Miles A. ‘Eye Movement Duration, Pause Duration, and R Time.” Psychological Review 35: 385-97; September, 1928. FIGURE V IMPROVEMENT IN EYE-MOVEMENT HABITS DURING THE FIRST SIX GRADES Average number z m Il il per line ° IV EMENTS 2 REGRESSIVE MOV 5.9 Average duration of fixations in 25ths of « second Research Division, National Education Association Adapted from: Buswell, Guy Thomas. Fundamental Readi ng Habits: A Study of Their Development. Supplementary Educational Monographs, Number 2!. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922, p. 26-36. [298] ine ti lick], ther | xatior regul ook a he ret he be vely, uring standa give! nd out June nd Rea ——____. ~~ J Classroom teachers, of course, cannot easy or familiar materials, thru the development determine with absolute accuracy the eye- of larger reading vocabularies and greater fa movement habits of their pupils. Buswell miliarity with language forms, thru the elimi iwgests a practical technic, however, for nation of vocalization, line following, and othe observing general improvement and discover- faulty reading habits, and thru the keeping ot ing gross irregularities.°** Whenever faulty individual progress charts.** eve-emovement habits are discovered, teach Among the factors known to exercise con ers should regard them as symptoms of some _ siderable control over the individual’s rate of fundamental difficulty—not as causes of reading are: (1) size of the reader’s vocabu poor reading. They are to be eliminated by lary, (2) power of comprehension, (3) famili finding and correcting the real difficulty, not arity with the field, (4) the reader’s purposé by attempting to “pace” the eye-movements (5) ability to concentrate, (6) the rate ot as some have attempted to do.** In other fixation-accommodations, and (7) speed ot words, desirable eye-movement habits are association.” not developed by direct teaching, but are a The improvement of comprehension—Meth byproduct of correct reading instruction. ods which have been recommended for the im 5. Reading as thought-getting—Another provement of reading comprehension, as a re fundamental in silent reading is the habit sult of their effective use in classroom experi of looking upon reading as a thought-getting ments, include: (1) improvement of the read process. Unless emphasis is placed on sen- ing vocabulary; (2) emphasis on meaning vs tence interpretation instead of on word recog- mechanics in oral-reading instruction; (3) nition, word-calling instead of true reading training in reading with a definite rhythm of can be expected. expression, i.e., in thought units; (+) develop [he improvement of rate of reading—Nu- ment of the habit of always reading to: merous experiments have shown that very few specific purpose; (5) practise in reading for people, children or adults, read at their own variety of purposes; (6) frequent use of test maximum rates. By devoting special attention and the keeping of individual progress charts ; to this phase of reading, rate can be improved and (7) instruction and practise in finding the onsiderably in most classrooms without loss central thought, following directions, answet n comprehension. Significant gains in rate ing fact questions, reproducing as many idea have been achieved thru the use of flash-card as possible from a selection read, and outlinin lrills and short exposure exercises of other or otherwise organizing, ideas gained fron types, speed drills, and extensive practise with reading.*® “ Buswell, Guy T. Fundamental Reading Habits: A Study of Their Develot nt 21. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922. p. 142-47. %3 Tinker, Miles A. “The Role of Eye Movements in Diagnostic and Remedial Reading.”’ School and Society February 3, 1934. % See especially: Book, William F. ‘The Development of Higher Orders of Perceptual Habits in Reading.’’ Journal tional Research 21: 161-76; March, 1930. {| Breitwieser, J. V. “Training for Rapid Reading.” Application of Psychol Education. Research Studies 4-7. Berkeley: Bureau of Research in Education, University of California, 1922. p. 15-17. {¢ scar T. Methods of Increasing Speed in Silent Reading Thru Class Instruction. Unpublished master’s thesis, Department Education, University of Chicago, 1923. { Gray, Clarence T. Types of Reading Ability as Exhibited Thru Tests and Laborat Experiments. Supplementary Educational Monographs, Vol. 1, No. 5. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1917. {| Oberholt Edison E. “Testing the Efficiency of Reading in the Grades.’’ Elementary School Journal 15: 313-22; February, 1915. { O'Bric John A. “The Development of Speed in Silent Reading.” Report of the Society's Committee on Silent Reading. Twentieth Yea 00k, Part II. National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1921. p. 54 { O’Brien, John A. Silent Reading. New York: Macmillan Co., 1921. 290 p. % See especially: O’Brien, John A. “The Development of Speed in Silent Reading,”’ op. cit. p. 54-76. { Hulten, C. I Study of the Speed of Upper Grade Reading.”’ Journal of Educational Research 10: 141-48; September, 1924. { Traxler, Arthu he Relation between Rate of Reading and Speed of Association.” Journal of Educational Psychology 25: 357-65; May, | ‘Wager, Ralph E. ‘“‘Fixation-Accommodation Rates as Factors in Reading.’’ Journal of Educational Psychology 15 j December, 1924. ® See especially: Alderman, Grover H. “Improving Comprehension Ability in Silent Reading.’ Eleventh Annual Confer n Educational Measurements. Bulletin of the Extension Division, Vol. 11, No. 3. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University, 1 28-37. { Germane, Charles E. “Outlining and Summarizing Compared with Rereading as Methods of Studying.’ Repor e Society’s Committee on Silent Reading. Twentieth Yearbook, Part II. National Society for the Study of Education. Bloo1 ington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1921. p. 103-12. { Gray, Clarence T. “‘The Anticipation of Meaning as a Factor Reading Ability.”” Elementary School Journal 23: 614-26; April, 1923. { Holmes, Eleanor. “Reading Guided by Question Careful Reading and Re-reading without Questions.’’ School Review 39: 361-71; May, 1931. {Knoche, Selma L. A Stud the Rhythm of Expression of Thirty High School Pupils. Unpublished master’s thesis, Department of Education, Univer Chicas, 1923. 1 McCarty, Pearl S. “Increasing Comprehension in Silent Reading.” School Review 39: 758-66: December, 19 { Springsteed, Clara B. “Improving Speed and Comprehension in Reading.’’Journal of Educational Method 5: 48-52; Octobe 25. Yoakam, Gerald A., and Truby, Charlotte. ‘‘The Effect of Certain Practise Exercises in Reading University of Pitt burgh School of Education Journal 1: 60-61; January-February, 192¢ , [ 299 ] Among the factors which influence compre- card catalogs and library guides is given hension in reading are intelligence, vocabulary, in Grades V and VI. ability to organize, rate, memory span, freedom Lesson plans—The use of some type ot from lip-movement, environment, amount of _ nite lesson plan is all but universal amor practise in reading, regularity of school attend- teachers whose practises are reviewed ance, width of the recognition span, motivation, bulletin. Some use lesson plans of more | and reasoning ability.*? one type, for example, a plan for a m Factors which often account for errors in work and plans for each day. The lesson interpretation are: pupils’ faulty language most in favor is the one outlining a wu habits, preconceived ideas, the introduction of work covering an indefinite period of irrelevant facts and ideas, or disregard of im- About 55 percent of the teachers make portant modifying elements.** this type. Next in popularity is the week lesson plan, used by more than one-third of The Classroom Practises of a Group of teachers reporting ; then the daily plan Successful Teachers by one-fourth to one-third of the group. S: ter plans and monthly plans are used rath Special types of reading lessons—Some of infrequently—by about 5 percent of thos the special types of reading lessons employed plying. by the successful teachers who participated in Altho the use of some kind of definite the present study and the extent to which they — ten plan is reported by nearly all the tea are used at each grade level, are indicated in the quality or degree of helpfulness of the | Table 11. Nearly all teachers in all grades give being used varies greatly. Sometimes the \ special lessons on the proper use and care of ten plan may be only a statement suc! books and, except in Grade I, on the use of the ‘Have pupils read ___————s Reader, p. 85-! index and table of contents.*® Instruction on use test questions, p. 175.” In other cases : the use of glossaries and dictionaries is often detailed plams are developed. The one given in the third grade and usually in all follows, actually taken from a teacher’s grades beyond the third.*° Encyclopedias are book, is of the latter type. It is present used, for the most part in Grades IV, V, not as a model plan, but as an example and VI.*' Very little instruction on the use of _ relatively complete teaching outline. * Hilliard, George H. Probable Types of Difficulties Underlying Low Scores in Comprehension Tests. University Studies in Education, Vol. 2, No. 6. Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1934. 60 p. 88 Thorndike, Edward L. ‘“‘The Understanding of Sentences: A Study of Errors in Reading.’’ Elementary School J 8-114; October, 1917. { Maryland State Department of Education. Silent Reading. Maryland School Bulletin, V« more: the State Department of Education, 1924. 88 p. ® Helpful teaching suggestions along this line are given by Vilda Barker in ‘‘Informal Testing of the Use of B Libraries.”” Elementary English Review 10: 143-45; June, 1933. * Most authorities agree that instruction on the use of the dictionary should begin no later than Grade IV. For a of opinion see: Dolch, Edward W. “The Use of the Dictionary.’’ Elementary School Journal 30: 669-74; May, 1930 For teaching suggestions for each of the Grades II to VI see: Pickard, Vera E. “Training Children to Use the Dict Elementary English Review 10: 139-42, 150; June, 1933. “1 For suggestions on method see: Raddatz, Agnes, and McAlister, Gladys M. “The Use of Encyclopedias in the | School.”’ Elementary English Review 10: 146-47, 160; June, 1933. TABLE 11.—PERCENT OF TEACHERS IN EACH GRADE WHO TEACH CERTAIN TYPES OF SPECIAL LESSONS Percent of teachers; Grade Type of lesson - I Il Ill IV Vv \ 1 2 3 4 5 6 instruction on the proper use and care of books ome ; 97 97 97 96 90 How to use an index or table of contents. .... : 68 91 94 93 90 The use of chapter and sectional headings. . : 38 59 69 78 79 How to use the dictionary. ....... ee 10 7 36 87 93 How to use the glossary or appendix... : ; 4 4 40 75 84 How to use encyclopedias. ...... - , 0.7 2 13 45 74 The use of a card catalog in the library 2 5 7 13 34 The use of library guides to books and periodicals 0.3 0.8 2 12 23 Number of teachers’ reports on which the percents are based 288 260 270 225 229 [ 300 ] Cn €\ e of non ore ft mont son | unit OT Ce USE Week d of t in, . oen l ratne hose I TAIN SAMPLE LESSON PLAN ‘ LESSON TYPE—Silent reading; developmental. MATERIALS—‘‘How Jerry Got His Nickname,”’ Reader, p. 130 : | INTRODUCTION—'‘I know a story about a queer little family. It was not a family of people. One day the mother warned her children about something dangerous. But one child did not mind; he did the very thing he was told not to do. What usually happens when children do not mind?” MorivE FOR READING—‘ Would you like to read about this family ? What would you like to find out about them?” Write on board children’s questions, such as: What kind of a family was it? Who was the naughty child? What did the mother warn the children about ? How was the naughty child punished ? MASTERY OF DIFFICULTIES—Phrases on board: a queer family tiny squeaks near our pantry it means danget STANDARDS TO BE RECALLED 1. Try to get new words by reading the rest of the sentence; look at the first letter; see how the word ends. Ask for help if necessary. z Keep lips closed while reading. 3. Do not point. RECALL OF MOTIVES—Refer to questions on the blackboard SILENT READING Distribute books Pupils find story in table of contents and turn to it. Then read silently, teacher giving help as needed and watching to see that standards are remembered. CHECK ON COMPREHENSION—Use mimeographed test. THE TEST Draw a line under the right answers 1. It was a family of: dogs mice cats 2. ‘These were the ones in the family : Jerry Mother Tatty Auntie Daddy Merry Kitty John 3. Mother told them: not to eat too much not to get their hands dirty not to go near the little house 4. This one was naughty: Kitty John ‘Tatty Jer ry 5. This is how the bad one was punished: he had no dinner he lost his tail his mother put him to bed 6. What was the bad one’s nickname? Bob Bobtail Bobby © This plan for a second-grade reading lesson was submitted by Mary G. Moor icher in the Rountree field, Mo . 301 Lesson plans should be adapted to the teach- er’s own habits of thinking and doing. They will vary in style and content according to the materials used and the reading situation in- volved. In any good plan, however: 1. The plan is focused on specific outcomes. 2. It lists the materials to be used. 3. It outlines the activities to be carried out. 4. It suggests the sequence to be followed. 5. It often carries a few important questions or items of special information. 6. It is relatively brief, legible, and so well organized that it can be followed readily. A few school systems have standardized plan books calling for certain definite facts about each proposed lesson. Figure VI show such form, filled out by a first-grade te Order in which textbook selections a —In the lower grades many teachers u selections in reading textbooks in the o: which they appear, but in the higher gra regular sequence is seldom followed. | VII indicates the trend of practise in thi ter. When selections are not used in the given, choices are made most frequently s the work in reading will correlate with in other subjects. Other factors taken int count, listed here according to frequen use, are: (1) seasons and special days pupils’ interests, (3) pupils’ needs, (4) FIGURE VI Grade: One. O Subject: Reading. beaver?" Work Assigned: "Topsy and the Beavers," “ . Reader, "Draw a picture of Topsy." The effective plan is to the teacher what the blueprint is to the architect Date: April 20. Lesson Type: Developmental. Results: p. 88. Remote Aim: To inettinn the ability to get thought with accuracy, facil- ity, and reasonable rapidity. Immediate Aim: To read and understand the story "Topsy and the Beavers." Procedure: Introductory Questions: "Did Topsy like being a kitten? What did the rabbits say to Topsy? Describe Topsy." New Vocabulary: (On blackboard) "The big woods," "to the water," "in the sun," "at work," "cut down,” and "wet paws." Find story in table of contents. Read to find out what the beavers did. Oral reading, children choosing own Stopping places. Questions on content: "How did the beavers build their O houses?" "What did Topsy do?" "What did Topsy tell mother A LESSON PLAN MADE OUT ACCORDING TO A STANDARD FORM (This plan was submitted by Mary Katkin, teacher in the Oxford School, Fairhaven, Mass.) f 3027 wal we jificulty, (5) teacher’s specific aim for the (6) relation of the stories to each other, ind (7) remedial work. issroom use of newspapers and magazines he extent to which children’s newspapers magazines are used in each grade in the ooms of successful reading teachers is indi- d by Figure VIII. In the upper elementary les, particularly, they are used extensively. ses made of central libraries—The percent f teachers in each grade whose pupils make use of central libraries is indicated in Figure XII, p. 31 8 Going to the library to select books home reading is the type of library activity reported most frequently. Library periods un der the direction of a trained librarian, free reading periods in the library, story hours, and periods in which stories are read to children ire other plans often mentioned. Stimulating interest in outside reading Figure 1X shows the relative merits of certain methods of stimulating interest in outside read- Among the many helpful articles dealing with this problem are: Bilger, Estelle S Developing Re 1934. { Colburr October, 1 Cutright, I ’ Reading and the School Library 1: 16-17; Elementary School Journal 28: 666-72; May, 1928. e Teaching of Recreational Reading.”’ I yyved to Stimulate Interests in Reading.”’ National Education Association, 1925. p. 360-66 Elementary School Journal 29: 132-37; School Review 37 44 A successful reading club is described by William A. King in “The Development Pupils.’ The Elementary School Principalship. Fourth Yearbook. Washington, D. ( ing, according to the opinions of 1527 capable teachers. Altho, in general, the methods that rank high at one grade level tend to rank high at all levels, there are certain devices which seem better adapted to some grades than to others. For example, interesting displays of books, and reading contests, are rated considet ably higher in the early grades than in the later ones. On the other hand, pupil recom mendations and booklists are rated slightly higher in the upper grades than in the lowe ones. Five of the methods stand out as clea superior to the other four.’ Several teachers mentioned the use of read ing clubs as a means of stimulating interest in 4 organized like other school clubs, with pupil officers and the outside reading.*4 These are teacher as sponsor. The club meets at inte: vals, usually about once a week, and pupils report to each other on the books they have ] been reading, read orally their favorite sele tions, or perhaps dramatize a story. ! Intere I 1, Evangeline. “Guidance in Voluntary Read Prude nce, and Bruec kner, Leo J 2 Measure ment of the I} ect October, 1928. { Rasche, William F Method 124-31, 204-14, 293-303; January to April of Outside Reading of Elementary Schox Department of Elementary School | 29-36 FIGURE VII ORDER IN WHICH Order given in text j PERCENT OF TEACHERS IN EACH GRADE WHO USE THEY ARE GIVEN e | THE SELECTIONS IN READING TEXTBOOKS IN THE | | | | | | | | | 4 a 75 100 Percent Research Division, National Education Associat Based on reports from 1527 successful teachers of reading—225 to 288 in each grade. tT seneneanel —-—— e—— [ 303 ] Methods of checking up on outside reading —Teachers have several different methods of determining how much their pupils read out- side the classroom and what they derive from their free reading. Certain methods are used more frequently than others and practise varies from grade to grade. Figure X shows for each grade the percent of teachers participating in this study who use various checkup devices “frequently,” “occasionally,” or “never.” The black portion of each circle shows the percent of teachers using the method frequently; the shaded portion, those who use it occasionally ; the unshaded portion, those who never use the method. Both oral and written reports be- come increasingly useful from the first grade to the sixth. It is in the upper grades also that teachers make greater use of checkups with librarians and watch recitations more closely for evidences of outside reading. Tests on out- side reading, especially end-of-semester tests, are not very generally employed. The confer- ence with parents on pupils’ outside reading is a popular device for occasional use, but few teachers use this method frequently except in the lower elementary grades. The report to the class is used more or less frequent nearly every teacher in every grade. A number of te: ichers have their pupil pare written book reports according to a st ard form, of which the following is ty; BO TITLE OF BOOK______- NAME OF AUTHOR__- DATE FINISHED __-_~ OK NOTES I LIKED THIS BOOK BECAUSE THE BEST PART OF THE BOOK TELLS Providing for individual differences methods commonly used by successful tea to provide for differences in pupils’ inte: needs, and abilities are summarized in 12. Five of the six methods listed are in general use, and apparently, teachers ordina ** This form, developed for use in the second grade, was supplied by Helen E. Shaw, teacher in the Pinckney Sch rence, Kans FIGURE VIII Percent of Teachers 100 ye —_—_—— —_— PERCENT OF TEACHERS IN EACH GRADE WHO USE NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES IN TEACHING READING 4 Magazines —_— 9 L hee aaa IV V VI Grade Research Division, National Education Association Based on reports from 1527 successful teachers of reading—225 to 288 in each grade. quently | e. pupils p; toast nd S typical] ces— Ihe teachers interests in Table In quite rdinaril\ chool, Law a ———_<__ SE FIGURE IX — RELATIVE VALUE OF NINE DEVICES FOR STIMULATING | INTEREST IN OUTSIDE READING, ACCORDING TO THE OPINIONS OF 1527 COMPETENT TEACHERS Grade Interesting Book Displays Grade Pupils’ Recommendation to Each Other $<<€is:- €<«2Z:2: = Referring Pupils to Stories Similar to One They Like Use of Contests ! | i ll WW it IV IV Vv Vv vi vi Reading Part of a Story, Then Making It Available Book Reports $< 2.2 's - S$<<€ic:- Developing Interest in a Topic So That Pupils Will Seek Information on It Use of Rewards ! i i it it il iV iV Vv Vv Vi Vi A. 7 i. L. +. A. i‘ A PT 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 re) 7 6 5 a 3 2 1 fe) Average Rank Average Rank Grade Use of Book Lists 1 tI il iv Vv vi = 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 O° Average Rank Resear ch Division, National Education Associa The length of any given bar in this Figure is based on the average rank assigned to the method which it represents by the teachers of a particular grade. The longer the bar, the more helpful the method is considered by the teachers who cooperated in this study. FIGURE X EXTENT TO WHICH VARIOUS METHODS ARE USED IN CHECKING UP ON PUPILS’ OUTSIDE READING | GRADE ! Il Hl IV V Vi Oral Reports Frequent Tests = 6OC08C Pupil Reports to Class Teacher Watches Recitations Check up with Parents Check up with Librarian Legend - GE) C3 Percent of teachers using the method occasionally CT) Percent of teachers who never use this method esearch Vivision, Nationa! Education Association Based on reports from 1527 successful teachers of reading—225 to 288 in each grade. ” use about four out of the five. ‘Teaching by the individual contract” plan is practised in a few schools, somewhat more often in the upper elementary grades. The percents in this table uegest that individual mewhat less attention in the upper grades than in the lower ones, thus raising the ques- tion as to whether teachers of reading in the upper grades are making adequate provision for the individual pupil. Relating reading to other subjects—F rom 80 differences receive to 90 percent of the teachers in the various srades reported they had a definite plan for relating reading instruction to one or more other subjects in the curriculum. The subjects with which reading was most often correlated systematically were the social studies, English, arithmetic, and hygiene. The amount of time devoted to reading instruction in connection with these subjects varied greatly. In some cases there was only a 10-minute period one day a week; in others, there were daily 30- minute periods. On the average, about 40 min- utes a week was given to reading in connection with hygiene, about 50 minutes per week to reading and arithmetic, and about 65 minutes per week to reading and English. The average amount of time devoted to reading instruction in conjunction with the social studies increased from grade to grade—from about 70 minutes per week in Grade I to 135 minutes per week in Grade VI. Difficult teaching problems—One of the questions on the inquiry form filled out by the 1527 successful teachers who cooperated in this study was, “List a few of the problems in the teaching of reading which you have found most difficult during the current school year.” The problem mentioned by the largest num- ber of teachers in every grade was the lack of Other sufficient or suitable reading materials. problems mentioned frequently by te: all the grades were: 1. Creating interest and good taste in iding 2. Developing good habits of oral reading 3. Improving comprehension in reading 4. Building a larger reading vocabulary 5. Increasing rate of reading. 6. Providing for individual differences . Overcoming faulty language habits and de veloping greater facility in expression 8. Eliminating faulty habits—parti larly vocalization, line-following, habit of guessing. reading and the 9. Developing accuracy in word recognition t 10. Teaching pupils to read in thought units In the first and second ‘grades, other problems often mentioned were: (1) the physical, men tal, or social immaturity of pupils; (2) pupils’ absences; (3) short attention span; (4) the transfer of pupils from one school to another : (5) providing appropriate drills and seat work; and (6) unreasonable expectations and lack of understanding on the part of uninformed or overambitious parents. In Grades III to VI, lack of training in phonics, developing the ability to use reading skills effectively in study, developing flexibility in reading habits, and eliminating superficial reading, were some of the additional problems listed. Relative efficiency of reading instruction in the various grades—Numerous suggestions on classroom procedure have been stated or im- plied in the foregoing summary of classroom practises and research findings. In evaluating these suggestions, teachers may well raise the question, At what grade level does reading in struction tend to be at its best, and at what level is it least satisfactory ? The best available answer to this question is found in the opinions of supervisors of reading with reference to the work of all teachers of reading in the school TABLE 12.—PERCENT OF TEACHERS WHO USE EACH OF SIX METHODS OF PROVIDING FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Method Group pupils according to ability...... Require different amounts of reading....... aa ane Use different materials......... ‘ Give individual help............... Use different teaching methods...... oe seach by the “individual contract” plan. Number of teachers’ reports on which the percents are based Percent of teachers who use each method; Grade I II Ill IV Vv VI 2 3 4 5 6 7 96 92 88 R3 76 83 85 82 81 84 76 81 82 82 82 5 R3 90 84 81 73 68 82 80 82 73 J ) 4 4 7 6 288 260 270 225 »29 systems represented in this study.*® ‘hese least satisfactory in Grades 1V, V, or \ opinions are set forth in diagrammatic form in these observations are correct and typi Figure XI. More than three-fourths of the the general situation, teachers in the replies indicate that reading instruction is grades should be unusually self-critical strongest either in Grades I, II, or III and _ on the alert for improved methods of teac! ““It should be noted that these opinions refer to the work of all teachers of reading in the school systems re not to the work of the few superior teachers who reported their classroom practises. FIGURE XI ———., es GRADES IN WHICH READING INSTRUCTION IS THOUGHT BY SUPERVISORS TO BE STRONGEST, LEAST SATISFACTORY Percent 50 Least Satisfactory Strongest Vv VI Grades Research Division, National Education Association Based on questionnaire replies from 140 supervisors of reading in school systems where outstanding results in reading are being achieved. Selected References . Dotcu, Epwarp W. The Psychology and Teaching of Reading. Boston: Ginn ai Co., 1931. 261 p. . Gates, Artuur J. The Improvement of Reading. rev. ed. New York: Macmilla: Co., 1935. 668 p. 3. Gates, A. I. Interest and Ability in Reading. New York: Macmillan Co., 1930. 264 | . GERMANE, CuHartes E., and GerMANE, Epitu G. Silent Reading. Chicago: Row, Peterson and Co., 1922. 384 p. . Gist, ArtHur S., and Kine, Wititiam A, Teaching and Supervision of Readin New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1927. 337 p. . McKer, Paut G. Reading and Literature in the Elementary School. Boston: Houg! ton Mifflin Co., 1934. 592 p. . O'Brien, Joun A. Reading: Its Psychology and Pedagogy. New York: Century Co 1926, 308 p. . Patrerson, SAMUEL W. Teaching the Child to Read. Garden City, New York: Double day, Doran and Co., 1930. 524 p. . PENNELL, Mary E., and Cusack, Atice M. The Teaching of Reading for Bette) Living. Boston: Houghton Mittlin Co., 1935. 469 p. . Smitu, Nira B. One Hundred Ways of Teaching Silent Reading, for All Grades Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York: World Book Co., 1925. 149 p. . TuttLe, FLrorence P. Oral and Silent Reading Practices. New York: Longmans Green and Co., 1931. 246 p. 2. YoAKAM, GERALD A. Reading and Study. New York: Macmillan Co., 1928. 502 p [ 308 ] factory Materials of Instruction The teaching problem mentioned by the largest number of the teachers who took part in this study was that of “providing sufficient and suitable reading material.” ‘he para- graphs which follow are concerned with the selection and evaluation of children’s books and with the way in which a group of successful teachers obtain and use reading materials. The Selection of Reading Textbooks Teacher participation—Teachers are not always permitted to use the textbooks they pre- fer, but the trend is toward greater dependence on teachers’ judgments in this important mat ter. Of 154 school systems having superio1 reading programs, 29 use textbooks adopted on a statewide basis; 102 use texts adopted on a local basis ; 20 use books selected locally within limits prescribed by a state-adopted, optional list; and 3 have no adopted textbooks, teachers being entirely free to make their own selection. Wherever textbooks are adopted locally, teach ers usually are called upon for assistance. In only 2 of the 154 school systems, where super visors reported on this item, are reading text books selected by the board of education, and in only 15 is the selection made by the super intendent, the supervisor, or the two working cooperatively without the help of teachers. ‘The following procedures in textbook selection are mentioned in the replies from supervisors where texts are adopted on a local basis: Trial use. & 2. Use of a score-card. 3 Extensive analyses (new words per page, total vocabulary, etc.). Several teachers, working independently, rank samples in order of merit. Conferences, after examination of samples Checking with a list of defects in the series to be abandoned—those which constitute the reason for changing. Analysis of methods recommended or im plied by the materials of the text. Comparison with local syllabus and word lists. Visits to schools using the books under con sideration. 1 See especially: Waterman, Ivan R., and Melbo, Irving R ng.” Elementary School Journal 35: 662-74; May, 1935 School.”’ Journal of Educational Method 7: 400-11; June, 1928 Just as teachers are being called on to select or help to select reading textbooks, they are being asked also to select library materials. This was true in 128 of the 165 school systems which reported their practises in selecting books for school libraries. In about three-fourths of the cases, some use is made of booklists of one or more of the following types: 1. Lists issued by libraries. 2. Lists prepared and published by authors Lists issued by state departments of educa or appearing in courses of study. Lists compiled in the local school systen Publishers’ booklists Lists appearing in newspapers and maga zines. Lists prepared by national organizations 8. Reading 9. Lists pul circle lists. lished by universities. 10. Lists found in reports of research studies 11. Lists compiled from records of pupils reading Many of the procedures and criteria suggested earlier with reference to the selection of text books are « jually appropriate in selectins brary materials. Several of the lists of dren’s books which teachers will find most ful are given on p. 314. Research relating to the selection of read textbooks—Reading materials need not be « uated merely on the basis of general impre sions and unsupported opinions. Books can be compared with each other quite objectively and judged according to a number of definite and reliable standards. A number of helpful check lists and score-cards have been developed. But far more important than these are the nu merous research studies which define appropri ate reading materials in terms of children’s in terests, needs, and abilities, and show, thru care ful analyses, the qualities that are and are not desirable in children’s textbooks. The next few paragraphs deal with certain factors which should always be taken into account in select ing children’s books, presenting some of the most significant research findings with refer ence to each factor. A Plan of Procedure for the Evaluation of Textbook { Power, Effie L. Library Service for Children. Chi Library Association, 1930. p. 31-32. { Simpson, Mabel E. “An Analytical Study Basal Reading Texts for { Mead, Cyrus D A Score Card for Rating Prir Educational Administration and Supervision 15: 427-30; September, 1929 Excellent score-cards, available only in mimeographed form, have been developed in the schools of Me Lincoln, Nebraska; and Berkeley, California (Elementary Department Bulletin No. 12, February 26, 1930) [ 309 | Children’s interests—-Whether or not a book and girls up to the age of eight or nine is interesting to children is determined in part Children like stories involving action an by its physical make-up, in part by the types of venture, surprise, beauty, humor, and r material presented in it, and to a considerable able achievement. ‘They prefer stories in degree by the nature of the topics covered. the characters display kindness, brave: Bamberger found that small children prefer: good judgment, and those which end h Given these qualities, a story appeals t 1. Books that are not too small—at least 5 by dren whether it be a myth, folk tale, fair, 7 inches. sane of ficti i sala ol aes 2. Books with bright colored bindings—espe- pues ction, ort © POCsAL GF on actual | cially blue, red, and yellow. Stories about animals or about children 3. Books without the word “Reader” in the title. high in interest appeal. Girls are more 4. Books with numerous illustrations. to be interested in an account of boys’ 5. Pictures with a high : a- . , gh degree of color satura tures than boys in the adventures of tion. : : ‘ 6. Pictures involving humor and action. Children, especially those in the early g 7. Stories in a familiar field. like stories and poems which repeat the 8. Relatively few lines on a page, and margins phrases or sentences over and over.® ‘Th at least 1 inch wide." lowing criteria, developed by a group of ; ’ : £ I as their own guide in selecting and eva! Lewerenz found that the general appearance : a . materials, reflect certain vital pupil int and physical make-up of books has more in- fluence on girls than on boys.* , ; G il ki hil ; 1. The story must deal with something w venerally speaking, children show someé tn Sinaiinn shine what greater interest in prose than in poetry 2. It must be written in words we can and prefer narratives to factual selections, stand. descriptions, and other types of prose.* Their . If it states facts, they must be accurat ; : ‘ ; . If it tell story >dly > to interests vary considerably according to age ies eer wappeeneny tom ; $ ld hild . ; must not be overdrawn. and, among older children, according to sex. 5. It must become more interesting as th Differences in interests are also found among proceeds. children who differ greatly with respect to 6. It must be written in good English. mental ability, home environment, health and physical development, emotional endowment, Among the qualities that detract from and reading ability.© There is no signifi- dren’s interests are overmaturity, abstract cant difference between the interests of boys lack of action, unreality, gloominess, mono! > w ® Bamberger, Florence E. The Effect of the Physical Make-up of a Book Upon Children’s Selection. Johns Hopkir sity Studies in Education, No. 4. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1922. 162 p. Related investigations include: Martin, Helen. Children’s Preferences in Book Illustrations. Western Reserve | Bulletin, New Series, 34, No. 10. Cleveland: Western Reserve University, 1931. 58 p. { Mallinger, Bonnie E. Children in Pictures. Contributions to Education, No. 516. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932. 52 p Lesley. ‘‘“Modern Trends in Book Illustration for Children.” Elementary English Review 9: 89-94, 98, 110; April, 19 * Lewerenz, Alfred S. “‘An Experiment in Evaluating Books Read and Enjoyed by School Children.”” Los Angeles Ed Research Bulletin 9: 10-14; September, 1929. *Green, Jenny Lind. Reading for Fun. Boston: Richard G. Badger, 1925. 205 p. { Gates, Arthur I.; Peardon, C and Sartorius, Ina C. ‘‘Studies of Children’s Interests in Reading.’”’ Elementary School Journal 31: 656-70; May, 1931 Arthur M. Children’s Interests in Reading. rev. ed. Chapel Hill, N. C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1926. 10 5 Terman, Lewis M., and Lima, Margaret. Children’s Reading: A Guide for Parents and Teachers. 2nd ed. New \ Appleton and Co., 1931. 422 p. { Gates, Arthur 1. /nterest and Ability in Reading. New York: Macmillan Co., 193 { Jordan, Arthur M., op. cit., 103 p. { Huber, Miriam B. The Influence of Intelligence Upon Children’s Reading ! Contributions to Education, No. 312. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. 39 p. { Johnson, B “Children’s Reading Interests as Related to Sex and Grade in School.” School Review 40: 257-72; April, 1932. { Coast, A “Children’s Choices in Poetry as Affected by Teachers’ Choices.’”’ Elementary English Review 5: 145-47, 159; Ma { Lewerenz, Alfred S., op. cit., p. 10-14. * Belser, Danylu, chairman. “The Reading Interests of Boys.” Elementary English Review 3: 292-96; Novembe Also: Terman, Lewis M., and Lima, Margaret, op. cit., 422 p. 7 Outstanding investigations of children’s reading interests in addition to those already cited include: Dunn, Fa Interest Factors in Primary Reading Material. Contributions to Education, No. 113. New York: Teachers College, C University, 1921. 70 p. { Dowell, Pattie S., and Garrison, K. C. “A Study of Reading Interests of Third Grade Su! Peabody Journal of Education 8: 202-06; January, 1931. { Garnett, Wilma L. “A Study of Children’s Choices in |! Elementary English Review 1: 133-37; June, 1924. { Grant, Emma B., and White, Margaret L. “A Study of Children’s ( of Reading Materials.”” Teachers College Record 26: 671-78; April, 1925. { Huber, Miriam B. “Children’s Interests in Po Teachers College Record 28: 93-104; October, 1926. { Mackintosh, Helen K. “Recent Data on Children’s Interests in Pox Elementary English Review 8: 18-20; January, 1931. { Uhl, Willis L. The Materials of Reading. New York: Silver B and Co., 1924. p. 97-160. 8 Smith, Lois Z., and Bradbury, Dorothy E. “How Do Young Children Respond to Animal Stories Containing Single S ment, Verbal Repetition, and Ideational Repetition of Content?’’ Childhood Education 7: 18-22; September, 1930. ® Green, Jenny Lind. “When Children Read for Fun.” School and Society 17: 390-92; April 7, 1923 [ 310} ine \ nm an d re $ in Very d ha; Is te airy ual ¢ lren ore an m racti mot iterary style, stories of too great length, ooks that duplicate too much of the con + of books previously read.*° abulary difficulty—In reading material, care should be taken selecting chil select books in which the general level of ibulary is appropriate for the children who - to use them. The range should be as wide ; possible without going beyond the pupils’ ability. There should be enough new words to provide for pupil growth but not enough to -reate undue reading difficulties. New words should be repeated often enough to permit thei: istery. The number of repetitions necessary for mastery depends, of course, on the vividness of the countered. Gates points out, however, that the situations in which the words are en typical reading text with new words in the ratio of 1 in 10 to 1 in 17 is difficult even for the brightes ils..' He offers the following he brightest puplis. e offers the tollowing pothesis as to the number of repetitions re quired by children in the primary grades for he mastery of an ordinary new word: Children six to Probable number n and one-half rs old with an I. Q. of: of repetitions re quired for master) of new words The findings from more than thirty vocabu lary studies are now available for the guid ance of those concerned with textbook selection Three of the best known word lists are: 1. Gates, Arthur I. Reading Vocabulary for 1 Primary Grades. rev. and enl. ed. New York: Bu reau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1935. 30 p. 2. The International Kindergarten Union. 7 Vocabulary of Children Before Entering the First Grade. Washington, D. C.: the Union (now the As sociation for Childhood Education), 1928. 36 p 3. Thorndike, Edward L. The Teacher's Word Book. rev. ed. New York: Bureau of Publications, leachers College, Columbia University, 1931. 182 p.¥ Grade placement—General vocabulary difh culty and certain other factors can be used to determine the proper grade placement of chil dren’s reading materials. Bruner regards chil dren’s interests as a fairly safe criterion in di Others take into account difficulties in comprehension Beat propose methods for determin termining correct grade placement.’ or difficulties in sentence structure. and Johnson ing grade placement in terms of the percent of polysyllabic words. Lewerenz has developed a technic in which the proportion of words be ws b, Sey ginning with the letters ‘‘w, | Tob) . . . 1 120 + 20 and “e’ serves as a criterion of difficulty. 10- 30 110-119 ais Pressey and Lively ** and Patty and Painter 90-109 35 | : 80-89 on recommend grade p lacement in terms of th 70-79 45 range and average difficulty of the words in a 60-69 ; 55 random sample, to be computed from the Uhl, Willis L. Scientific Determination of the Content the Elementary School Course in Reading. Universit f W n Studies in the Social Sciences and History, No. 4. Madison, Wis.: the University, 1921. 152 { Kibbe, Delia I c others. “Duplicate Material in Elementary Readers.” Elementary English Review 4 41; February, 1927. { Wil Maud I Repetition of Material in Elementary Readers.’’ Elementary School Journal 28: 622-26; April, 1928. { Cooper, Ru ng of Content in Elementary Readers.” Elementary Schoo ‘Gates, Arthur I., op. cit., 264 p * Among the many helpful references on the vocabulary o Brown, M. Ethel. “A Mastery Vocabulary in Primary Reading.” the Testing Movement. Second Yearbook. Washington, D. C Association, 1923. p. 296-306. { Dolch, Edward W. Re { Gregory, C. A. “The Reading Vocabularies of Third-Grade ( { Harring, Sidney. ‘‘What Primer Shall I Use Next?”’ EF Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1925. p. 186-93 18 Bruner, Herbert B. “‘Determining Basic Reading Materia hers College Record 30: 285-309; January, 1929. { Claren Reading Selections on the Basis of Interest.’”” Educational 4 Cavins, Lorimer V. A Study of American Poems by Me ns for School Use. Unpublished doctor’s thesis. Department « vorson, George P.; and Brueckner, Leo J. “‘A Study of One School Journal 29: 284-95; December, 1928. 25: 533-46; March, 1925. T Ha 5 Bear, Mata V. Length of Words as an Index of Difficulty in Silent Reading Chicago, 1926. 77 Pp. 6 Johnson, George R. “‘An Objective Method of Detern 3-87; April, 1930. 17 Lewerenz, Alfred S. “The Measurement of the Difficulty of Reading Material Educational Rese City Schools) 8: 11-16; March, 1929. 18 Pressey, S. L., and Lively, Bertha A. “A Method for idministration and Supervision 9: 389-98; October, 1923 ” Patty, Willard W., and Painter, William I. “A Techni Educational Research 24: 127-34; September, 1931 [ ety for the Study of Education. Report of the National Committee on Reading. Twenty-four 1 Selke, > t Beginning Books in Reading.’’ Journal of Educational Research { Kyte, George C. “Calibrating Reading Journal 32: 542-4 March, 1932 f reading textbooks e especially Problems of the Elementary School Principal in Department of Elementary School Principals, Nat il Educa uling and Word Meanings. Boston: Ginn and Cx l *hildren.”” Journal Educational Research 7: 127-31; } lementary School Journal 32: 207-13; November, 1931 § Nat " th Yearbook, Part I. Bk Erich. ‘‘A Comparative Study of the Vocabularies « Iw 22: 369-74: December, 1930 ls Through a Study of Children’s Interests and Adult Jud ce R. Stone gives a critical evaluation of this method Gra Method 10: 225-3 January, 1931 for the Purpose of Gradin § Cutright, | ans of Standardized Tests yf Education, University of Chicago, 1924 Factor in the Grade Placement of Reading Material Elementar Material.”’ Elementary Sc/ urna Unpublished master’s thesis, | lining Reading Difficult Journal of Educational R h weh Bulletin (1 \ Measuring the ‘Vocabulary Burden’ of Textbooks.’’ Edu jue for Measuring Vocabulary Burden of Textbook lourna 311 | weightings of the words in the sample given in Thorndike’s Teachers Word Book. More complex methods than any of these are pro- posed by Vogel and Washburne *° and by Gray and Leary.*' Vogel and Washburne’s method was used in compiling the widely known Win- netka Graded Booklist. ‘The factors which proved most significant in Gray and Leary’s study were: (1) number of different, hard words; (2) number of easy words; (3) per- cent of words that are monosyllables ; (4) num- ber of personal pronouns; (5) average number of words per sentence; (6) percent of differ- (7) phrases; and (8) percent of simple sentences. General make-up of children’s books—Size and kind of type, color and texture of paper, and other matters of format and typography should be taken into account in selecting chil- ent words; number of prepositional dren’s reading materials. In this field also, a large amount of research work has been done. ‘There are certain general printing standards to be considered.** The type face should be legible.*® The type should be large enough to prevent eye-strain, and somewhat larger for children in the primary grades than for older pupils.** The best type size for each grade level is still an open question, but the most generally accepted view is that first books in reading should be printed in 18- to 24-point type; later books in smaller type, but not smaller than 12 point for any grade. Fatigue is said to in- crease rapidly as size of type is reduced.”° Lines should not be too long, and the smaller the print the shorter the line should be. Gress recom- mends a line of approximately forty letter spaces of whatever size type is used.”° For chil- dren’s books set in 12- to 18-point type, it is usually recommended that lines should by 80 to 100 millimeters, that is, about 3 inches in length. In selecting books for t! grade, particularly, one other point sho noted. These books are sometimes set irregular margins in order that each line n be a clause, phrase, or convenient thought wit The advantage claimed for this style is ap; ent; the question is, Do the irregular ma (particularly lefthand mai hinder the early establishment of regula: movements? Research which plan is better, but the weight of o; seems to favor regular margins rather thai venient thought units.” Other important factors in the select irregular studies do not reading textbooks—How well the organi: of a book is adapted to a particular tea program, the literary quality of the selé used in it, the value of the study helps inc! and the interest which it creates in othe: and reference materials are factors which s be considered carefully in textbook select The Reading Materials Used by 1527 Successful Teachers Teachers’ criticisms of reading texth According to the opinions of 1527 succes teachers, the most common defects in re textbooks actually in use in their classroon those listed in Table 13. Other faults, tioned by teachers in the primary grades, w selections too easily memorized, wrong id and monotonous stories. Teachers in the up; grades complained of lack of suitable si helps, poorly graded selections, and mate) having no literary value. ® Vogel, Mabel, and Washburne, Carleton W. ‘“‘An Objective Method of Determining Grade Placement of Children’s R Material.” Elementary School Journal 28: 373-81; January, 1928. *1 Gray, William S., and Leary, Bernice E. What Makes a Book Readable? Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 193 = Bacon, Russell. “Typographic Guide Posts.’’ American Printer 87: 44-46; September, 1928 Edmund G {| Gress, Art and Practice of Typography. New York: Harper and Bros., 1931. 202 p. 1 Sherbow, Benjamin. Making Type Work. New Century Co., 1916. 129 p. *3 For information about the most legible type faces see: Gress, Walter B. ‘‘Legibility of Type Faces.” American Print 76-77; April, 1929. { Rothlein, Barbara E. ‘The Relative Legibility of Different Faces of Printing Types.’’ American of Psychology 23: 1-36; January, 1912. { Frazier, J. L. Type Lore. Chicago: the Author, 1925. p. 90-94. *4See: Blackhurst, J. Herbert. ‘Hygienic Standards in Type and Format of Reading Materials.” Elementary English } 5: 101-07; April, 1928; also, “Size of Type as Related to Readability in the First Four Grades.”’ { Buckingham, Burdette R. ‘‘New Data on the Typography of Textbooks.” The Textbook in 700; December 16, 1922. School and Society \¢ Education. Thirtieth Yearbook, Part II. National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School P ing Co., 1931. p. 93-125. % Griffing, Harold, and Franz, S. I. “On the Conditions of Fatigue in Reading.” Psychological Review 3: 513-30; 18 6 Gress, Walter B. ‘What Shall the Measure Be? Is There an Ideal Length of Line?” American Printer 88: 56-5 1929. 23: 1-7; January, 1931. ** Dearborn, Walter F. The Psychology of Reading. New York: Science Press, 1906. p. 38. { Gates, Arthur I. ‘““‘What Do We Know About Optimum Length of Lines in Reading?” Journal of Educational Re Investigations Relating to Reading. Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 28. Chicago: University of Chicago Press p. 196. { Huey, Edmund B. The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. New York: Macmillan Co., [312] 1908. 412 p { Gray, William S. Summar 9 uld be tron Library facilities—Figure X11 shows the _ library. Where this is done, books are obtaine C 2 + j . a 7 . x but 3 to 4 eenes of library facilities available to the teach on the average, about six times per year, oO > fir : . . ’ ’ for th rs who cooperated in this study. Classroom from 18 to 2+ books is the usual number nid ; a t should ‘hraries are reported by nearly all the teachers, | rowed at any one time. 'S *t wit , . . ’ ry I “a ” irticularly in the primary grades. About halt Supervisors seem to prefer classroom libraric pee is -an have their pupils use a central library, rather than a central school library servin oug init . Lied: —. ; | ight either a school library or a nearby public library, the pupils in the building, at least in the first © IS appa the percent gradually increasing from grade to four grades. Approximately 90 percent of the oe SOE rade. About three-fourths of the teachers regu supervisors taking part in this investigation margins rly obtain books in quantities from a central favored the classroom library in Grades I and irly gular ey, not nit cain TABLE 13.—CERTAIN COMMON DEFECTS IN READING TEXTBOOKS REPORTED — BY 1527 SUCCESSFUL TEACHERS r than Rank according to frequency of mention; Grade ort: Defects electi I 11 ni IV V v1 ganiz , 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 r teaching — — select Not adapted to children’s interests.......... 1 1 1 1 { Z Contains words used infrequently in other books ) t 5 Ss « } inch lf Vocabulary too large.... ‘ : 3 ? ) —_ New words repeated too few times... 4 6 ther VUUE Poorly illustrated. sen ot 5 3 3 3 I : ich shi Poor make-up....... es . 6 6 6 , Not adapted to children’s experiences ] 5 4 { 1 slectior Vocabulary too small. . 8 8 8 8 g . Too much repetition..... i 9 10 12 11 11 ! Stories too long or too short P , 10 9 9 9 9 ) ut-of-date 11 11 10 10 10 10 = by 1527 Sentence structure too difficult...... ami ‘ rr 12 12 11 12 12 1 Based on reports from 1527 successful teachers—225 to 288 in each grade. tho seanen FIGURE XII n reading rooms a [ Its, men | PERCENT OF TEACHERS IN EACH GRADE WHO es, wert | 19 idea | MAKE USE OF THREE TYPES OF LIBRARY FACILITIES he uppe | le stud Classroom Libraries Central Libraries Books in Quantities naterta | n’s Re | | Grade 35 LS } 1 I nd G : | New \ rT 1 Printer 7 sn Jon ; ow WN Th ish Re IV IV 1V y 16 {mer Vv Vv Vv 1 P Percent of a Vi vi vi . Teachers | 57; M © 20 40 60 80 i00 0 20 40 60 80 1000 20 40 60 80 100 | Res Research Division, National Education Association | mmar Based on reports from 1527 successful teachers of reading—225 to 288 in each grade ess, 1 | II, 78 percent in Grade III, and 55 percent in _ by reading classes, but Figure XIII sho Grade IV. For Grades V and VI more than average number of books available, a half preferred the central library—54 percent given date, in 1527 classrooms.*® These for Grade V and 60 percent for Grade VI. ages suggest the importance of a generou More important than the source of reading _ ply of reading materials. Apparently, te materials is the number and kind of books avail- whose work in reading is outstanding obt able. In the present inquiry it was not possible one way or another, a large number of ; to determine the quality of the books being used priate children’s books. *8 The reports on which these averages are based included books belonging in classroom libraries and any books opta a central library which happened to be in the classroom at the time FIGURE XIII AVERAGE NUMBER OF BOOKS AVAILABLE ON A GIVEN DATE IN 1527 CLASSROOMS General Reading Reference Works Pp aie ; pu T Oe vv AA a Ne Each Completed Symbol = 10 Books. Research Division, National Education Association Selected References . Beust, Nora, compiler. Graded List of Books for Children. Chicago: American Libra: Association, 1930. 149 p. (New edition in press.) . International Kindergarten Union (now the Association for Childhood Education Selected List of Poetry and Stories for Children in Kindergarten, First, and Second Grades. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1928. 23 p. 3. Jounson, Epna, and Scott, Carrie E., compilers. Anthology of Children’s Literature Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1935. 914 p. . National Education Association, Department of Elementary School Principals. Ele mentary School Libraries. Twelfth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Association, June, 1933. “Research Studies of Booklists and Reading Interests,” p. 453-518. . Sears, Minnie E. Children’s Catalog. 4th ed. rev. New York: H. W. Wilson Co., 1930 877 p. Also, Cumulated Supplement, 1932. 106 p. . Unt, Wituis L. The Materials of Reading. New York: Silver, Burdett and Co., 1924 386 p. . Wiikrnson, Mary S.; WeEEpon, VIVIAN; AND WASHBURNE, CaRLETON. The Rig/i! Book for the Right Child. New York: The John Day Co., 1933. 357 p. [ 314] Determining Reading Achievement ds of tests used by teachers whose work ‘standing—Insotar as the present study is u »presentative, reading tests constructed by wchers for use only in their own classrooms used by nearly all teachers in all grades. ily two-thirds of the first- le teachers and more than three-fourths of and second- he teachers in Grades III to VI also use stand- ardized reading tests. In about one-fourth of the cases, citywide tests are administered, that is. tests constructed by supervisory officers, with or without the assistance of teachers, for use in ill the schools in the system. In about 10 per- cent of the cases, tests are constructed by the principal, or a committee of teachers, for use in all comparable classrooms in the same build- ing. These facts, shown in Table 14, suggest the important place that testing occupies in the total reading program. Apparently most of the teachers selected to take part in this investiga tion us¢ not only the tests which they prepare but also at least one other type of standardized or semi-standardized test. —Table 15 shows the average number of standardized and tests, Number of tests given per year informal reading respectively, which teachers use in the various grades. In general, standardized tests are given two or three times per year; informal tests thirty to forty times a year, or roughly once a week. The administration of reading tests—Stand ardized tests are used in the great majority of cases In a uniform testing program involving the whole school system. Approximately two thirds of the replies indicated that they wer: used only in that way. In about one-fourth of the cases, standardized tests are used in uniform testing programs ; and, in addition, teachers us« them more or less extensively in their teaching. Only about 10 percent of the teachers use them solely to measure achievement in their own classrooms, without reference to the work of other teachers in the same school system. When uniform testing programs are being carried out, 50 to 60 percent of the teachers reporting say that they themselves are respons! ble for administering the standardized tests In 15 to 20 percent of the cases, the tests are administered by the principal or the superin tendent, and in about 10 percent, by supe visors. Occasionally they are administered by a special examiner, the psychologist, or some other teacher. Types of test exercises which teachers find most helpful pletion and multiple-choice tests are rated as Except in the first grade, com the most valuable types of informal classroom tests, with true-false and matching exercises ranking third and fourth, respectively. In the first grade, matching exercises are rated as the TABLE 14.—EXTENT TO WHICH READING TESTS OF VARIOUS TYPES ARE USED BY 1527 SUCCESSFUL TEACHERS Kind of test Tests prepared by teachers for use in their own classrooms Standardized reading tests Tests prepared for citywide use Tests prepared tor use thruout a given school building Number of teachers’ reports on which the percents are based Percent of teachers using tests; Grade Ill IV 4 TABLE 15.—AVERAGE NUMBER OF STANDARDIZED READING TESTS AND INFORMAL TESTS GIVEN IN EACH GRADE BY 1527 SUCCESSFUL TEACHERS Kind of test 1 Standurdized reading tests Informal reading tests Average number given per year; Grade Ill IV V 4 5 most helpful type; then true-false, multiple- choice, and completion in the order named. The essay test is rated far below all these types by the teachers of every grade. Uses made of test scores—An average of 55 to 65 percent of the teachers in the various grades enter the scores from certain reading tests as part of the pupils’ permanent records. The extent to which test scores are presented graphically to pupils to motivate their work is indicated in Figure XIV. Graphs showing in- dividual achievement are the ones most teach- ers select for frequent use. The percent of teachers making frequent use of graphs of both types increases considerably between Grades I and V1. How test results are most helpful—The teachers who participated in this study agree almost unanimously as to the ways in which reading tests contribute to classroom instruc- tion. The use of tests in diagnosing reading difficulties is given the highest average rank by the teachers in all six grades. Other ways in which reading tests are helpful, listed in the order of importance assigned to them by the teachers in every grade, are: classifying pupils according to reading achievement, determining the initial ability of pupils in order to p! room work to best advantage, esta! goals of achievement, motivating the y a class, and, least important of all, det ing pupil progress. Since we are so of clined to think of tests almost wholly i: of the last named function, every teach well reexamine this phase of the work ing the question, Am I| using reading effectively as possible, not merely as a c! but as a means of understanding my pu; planning my work? Troublesome testing problems—Ther close agreement in the opinions of teac! the various grade levels with respect testing problems that are most troubl: Listed according to difficulty on the b teacher opinion these problems are: . Obtaining test materials. . The clerical work involved. . Constructing informal reading tests. . Interpreting test results. . Selecting appropriate published tests . Administering tests. . Finding adequate time for tests with terfering with other necessary activi Standards of achievement which t employ—From 168 of the school systen FIGURE XIV EXTENT TO WHICH TEST SCORES ARE PRESENTED TO PUPILS GRAPHICALLY TO SHOW INDIVIDUAL ACHIEVEMENT; PROGRESS OF THE WHOLE CLASS Test Scores Used to Show Individual Achievement Progress of the Whole Class Test Scores Used to Show Percent Wt IV VO OVE Grad Research Division, National Education Association — Based on reports from 1527 successful teachers of reading—225 to 288 in each grade.’ [ 316 ] in this study, approximately three- fourths of the supervisors report that norms , standardized tests are set up as criteria, o1 randards of achievement, for pupils in the is grades. In about two-thirds of the ses, the course of study in use sets forth cer- n definite abilities and skills that pupils in each grade are expected to develop. In about 45 percent of the schools represented, local norms on standardized tests are used instead of, or in addition to, published norms. ‘Thirty-six percent of the reports indicate that the amount of material covered is used as one important standard of achievement. From these percents it is obvious that definite standards of two or more types are often used as goals of achieve- ment. On the other hand, even among these schools, where outstanding results in reading ire being achieved, 15 percent report that no standards have been efinite or objective dopted. a See especially: Field, Helen A. Extensive Individual Reading 2 { Hilliard Teachers College, Columbia University, 1930. 52 p Aid in Improving Certain Reading Abilities.’ 6-12; June, 1932. { Hunt, C. W. “Extensive Reading February 28, 1920. { O’Brien, Ida vement of Reading.’’ Educational Method 10: 346-49; Katharine; and Miner, Pauline. Practice In School, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1925 Educational News Bulletin (Western State A Factor in Developing Reading “A Comparison of the Use of Intensive March, 1931 n Grades V and VI by Extensive Reading.’’ University of Kansas Bulletin of Education Exercises and Checks on Silent Reading in the 6060 p. Amount of treading expected in the vari The number of books which teachers grades expect the average pupil to read varies not only frem one grade level to another but also from classroom to classroom in any given grade. Certain teachers in every grade from the first pupils to the sixth that their average read not more than 5 books during the yea repor t Others report a standard of 30, 40, and some times 50 books per year. Figure XV shows the average number for each grade, increasing from 8.6 in Grade I| to 17.8 in Grade VI. Thess standards indicate clearly that the teachers who cooperated in this study look upon extensive reading as an essential element in correct read ing instruction. This is in harmony with the findings of several research studies, showing the superiority of extensive reading to intensive study and drill, except in the case of very slow learners.' Washburne points out that “on the ‘ontributions to Education, No. 394. New George H Extensive Library Reading vs. Specific Dr Teachers College, Kalamazoc Ability School and Society 11 Training and of Wide Reading in the { Scruggs, Sherman D. “Improving Reading Ability 3-10; April, 1931. { Zirbes, Laura Primary Grades. New York vs. Class Reading. ¢ FIGURE XV Each Completed Symbol = | Book. AVERAGE NUMBER OF BOOKS WHICH PUPILS IN EACH GRADE ARE EXPECTED TO READ Grade Research Division, National Education Association average, when a pupil has completed about 15 books on his grade level he will have raised his reading level to the next higher grade.””” Zirbes has proposed a standard for pupils’ reading at various grade levels, based not on the number of books read—which is at best a variable criterion—but on the number of thou- sand-word units.* On the basis of her observa- tions of practise, she classifies schools accord- ing to the amount of reading pupils do in each grade, in the manner indicated in Table 16. It may be helpful in interpreting these standards to recall that an ordinary third reader contains about thirty thousand-word units ; earlier read- ers a smaller number; advanced readers, 60, 70, and sometimes more than 100 units. Proposed standards for rate of silent read- ing—Rate standards are usually expressed in one of three ways: (1) number of words per minute; (2) number of words per second, or per 100 seconds; or (3) a point score on a read- ing test without specific reference to number of words or time units. Since all standardized rate tests have norms showing the rate formance expected of pupils at various grade levels, these need not be reviewed It may be helpful, however, to bring some of the rate standards, expressed in per-minute, which have been proposed time or another by various research w This is done in Table 17. There is cor able discrepancy among the recommend and none are based on recent investig The standards proposed for the sixth gy Gray, Courtis, Oberholtzer, and Star lower than O’Brien’s standard for fourth pupils. O’Brien’s standards, however, n somewhat higher than most classes can pected to achieve, for he was one of th successful early champions of rapid silent ing. Gray’s proposed standards are pri representative of satisfactory achievement wit out undue emphasis on rate of reading. Other standards of achievement—Norms the various standardized comprehension vocabulary tests undoubtedly constitute best available standards for pupil achieveme: * Washburne, Carleton W. ‘‘How to Fit Reading to Each Individual Child.” Individual Instruction 1: 2-7; Decen 4 Zirbes, Laura. Comparative Studies of Current Practice in Reading. Contributions to Education, No. 316. Ne Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. p. 80-93 TABLE 16.—NUMBER OF THOUSAND-WORD UNITS READ BY PUPILS IN CLASSROOMS WHERE INSTRUCTION VARIES IN EFFICIENCY Number of thousand-word units pupils read; Grade Type of instruction I Il il IV Vv 2 3 4 5 6 100—200 300-550 700 + 10-15 25-30 35+ 20-35 40-65 70+ 30-55 60-130 150+ 50-100 150-275 300+ Traditional Unprogressive. . Superior .... Comparative Studies of Current Practice in Reading. Contributions to Education, No. 316 p. 92. Source: Zirbes, Laura. York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. TABLE 17.—RATE STANDARDS FOR VARIOUS GRADES PROPOSED BY DIFFERENT STUDENTS OF READING PROBLEMS Words per minute; Grade Standards proposed by: Ill IV v 3 4 5 O'Brien*® ee eee oe ine ae bine hin 236 278 Brown*® pas eeu : a ale ; 7 - 213 269 Gray» sineanoweneeesian veuneen ; 90 138 180 204 Courtis*.. is inn ke eee aus ’ J +s , 160 180 NNO. . svawcenweheeehes ; sewer —_ ail 138 156 186 Starch*... Tee T oe PTET Te Tr 108 126 144 168 * Quoted in Silent Reading. Twentieth Yearbook, Part II. National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomingt Public School Publishing Co., 1921. “‘The Development of Speed in Silent Reading,”’ Ch. 4, p. 73. > Quoted by Clarence R. Stone in Silent and Oral Reading. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1926. p. 21. © Oberholtzer, E. E. ‘‘Testing the Efficiency of Reading in the Grades.’’ Elementary School Journal 15: 313-22; February [ 318 ] these phases of reading. Other standards, each of the growth stages in reading which «mewhat less objective perhaps, but important characterize the elementary-school period are none the less, are sometimes defined in terms set forth in the Twenty-fourth Yearbook of f new abilities acquired, correct habits estab- the National Society for the Study of Educa lished, and wholesome attitudes developed. The _ tion.* These deserve the careful attention of all lesirable levels of achievement at the end of _ teachers of reading. 4 National Society for the Study of Education. Report of the National Committee on Reading. Twenty-fourth Yearbook, Part I nington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1925. p. 44, 54, and 62-64 Selected References Briccs, THomaAs H. “‘A Dictionary Test.” Teachers College Record 24: 355-65; Sep tember, 1923. Burcess, May A. “The Measurement of Silent Reading.” New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1921. 164 p. Dewey, Josepn C. “Consistency of Pupil Response on Tests of Reading Comprehen sion.” Elementary School Journal 34: 533-36; March, 1934 GATES, ARTHUR I. “A Series of Tests for the Measurement and Diagnosis of Read ing Ability in Grades 3 to 8.” Teachers College Record 28: 1-23; September, 1926 Gates, ArtHuur I. “A Test of Ability in the Pronunciation of Words.” Teachers College Record 26: 205-19; November, 1924. . JORGENSEN, ALBERT N. “Use of Diagnostic Tests in Teaching Silent Reading.” mentary English Review 9: 86-98; April, 1932. McAwnutty, ELLEN A., and CLark, WILLis W. “A Study of Primary Reading Tests.” evement Los Angeles Educational Research Bulletin 10: 6-16, 2-10; January-February, 1931 MapseENn, Iver N. Educational Measurement in the Elementary Grades. Y onkers-on Hudson, New York: World Book Co., 1930. 294 p. Monroe, Marion. Children Who Cannot Read: The Analysis of Reading Disabilitics and the Use of Diagnostic Tests in the Instruction of Retarded Readers. Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1932. 206 p. OpELL, CuHarves W. Educational Tests for Use in Elementary Schools. University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 24, No. 49. Urbana: the University, 1927. 44 p. RAGUSE, FLoreNce W. “Qualitative and Quantitative Achievements in First Grad Reading.” Teachers College Record 32: 424-36; February, 1931. Rock, R. T., Jr., Reading Tests for the Primary Grades. Catholic University of America, Educational Research Bulletin, Vol. 2, No. 4. Washington, D. C.: Catholic Education Press, 1927. 36 p. SANGREN, Pau V. Improvement of Reading Through the Use of Tests. Kalamazoo: Extension Department, Western State Teachers College, 1932. 207 p. SHANK, SPENCER. “Student Responses in the Measurement of Reading Comprehen- sion.” Journal of Educational Research 22: 119-29; September, 1930. Simpson, Mase E. “Qualitative and Quantitative Standards of Attainment in Read ing, Grades 1-6, abstract.” Reviewed in Elementary School Journal 29: 728-30; June, 1929. SmitH, Henry L., and Wricut, WENDELL W. Tests and Measurements. New York: Silver, Burdett and Co., 1928. p. 196-234. Witson, Guy M., and Hoke, Kremer J. How to Measure. New York: Macmillan Co., 1928. p. 121-67. I 3 orms ion ‘ute the The Administration and Supervision of the Reading Program Reading as a separate subject—In 99 percent of the school systems cooperating in this study certain definite periods are set aside for reading instruction in Grades I and II; or in other words, reading is taught as a separate subject. Only 1 percent of the schools are attempting to develop the basic reading habits incidentally, thru activities centered primarily on some other objective. In 97 percent of them, reading is also taught separately in Grade III. In Grades IV, V, and VI the percents drop slightly lower, but only to 94, 93, and 90, respectively. Time allotments—The present investiga- tion made no inquiry into total time allotments for reading instruction in the various grades, but this has been done in a number of earlier studies. Table 18 brings together the findings of eight investigators. Holman’s findings in 1931 differ little from those of Holmes in 1919. The averages are slightly lower for 1931, ex- cept in Grade VI, but in no case more than 33 minutes a week, or about 6 minutes a day. The most generous time allotments of all for reading in Grades I and V, and among the highest for Grades II, III, IV, and VI, are those reported by Bagley and Kyte in 1926. The lowest averages found by any inve were reported in 1923. These data off: support to the statement often heard that less time is given to reading instruct than was given a few years ago. Apparent several years it has been customary to to 80 minutes a day to reading in G gradually decreasing that amount to 3 minutes a day in Grade VI. Types of reading periods—About 37 of the teachers whose practises are sun in this bulletin have class periods in w! reading activities are carried out. This period provides opportunity for re study, and free reading. Class periods type are used about as frequently at one level as another, i.e., by a little over a t! the teachers in all the grades. The length of reading periods of this type from 96 minutes in Grade I down to 45 n in Grade VI. In Grade I, about half of th is devoted to recitation or group readi: Grade VI, aboue one-third of the peri: pervised study shows the opposite trend ; about a third of the class period is supervised study in the lower grades and TABLE 18—AVERAGE TIME ALLOTMENTS FOR READING INSTRUCTION AS N) REPORTED IN EIGHT DIFFERENT INVESTIGATIONS Date Average number of minutes per week; Grade Average ' Investigator Scope of study of ——_—— --—_— — _- - of minut study I I Il IV v VI week, per 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ~ 9 10 ~ Holmes*® — — eae F 1919 412 364 291 237 195 181 . Kirk. aa 31 schools....... 1923 325 250 250 125 125 125 2( Ayere a 47 cities...... Te . 1924 430 413 339 250 185 165 ) IG cneesend eee s _ ‘ 1924 jiahe vive oon eu oe tvs Bagley and Kyte*. . 2600 teachers’ programs 1926 454 377 305 244 197 180 Mann't + sige AS cones ‘Per . 1926 388 348 293 212 168 149 26f Armentrout*..........4 33 schools. ...... ‘ 1927 346 317 298 219 156 141 24 ) Holman® Ss sac-ench ees 1931 379 331 270 224 185 181 2¢ 5 * Holmes, Henry W. “Time Distributions by Subjects and Grades in Representative Cities.’’ Minimum Essential mentary School Subjects—Standards and Current Practices. Fourteenth Yearbook, Part I. National Society for the Education. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1919. p. 21-27. > Kirk, H. H. “Time Distribution by Subject and Grade.”” Elementary School Journal 23: 535-41; March, 1923 © Ayer, Fred C. “Average Time Allotments in 49 Large Cities Compared with Seattle.”” The Elementary School Curr ; 7 Second Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: Department of Superintendence, National Education Association, 1924. p. 139-4 4 Latham, Ray. ‘“‘Time Allotment in Grades 1-6 in the Elementary Schools of 60 Cities.” The Elementary School Cur Second Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: Department of Superintendence, National Education Association, 1924. p. 142 - * Bagley, William C., and Kyte, George C. The California Curriculum Study. Berkeley: the University of California p. 89. * Mann, Carleton H. How Schools Use Their Time. Contributions to Education, No. 333. New York: Teachers Columbia University, 1928. p. 23. ® Armentrout, Winfield D. A Comparison of Time Allotments of Subjects in Elementary Training Schools and Elem Public Schools. Colorado State Teachers College Bulletin, Series 26, No. 4. Greeley, Colo.: Colorado State Teachers 1927. p. 3. . * Holman, Julius W. ‘“‘A Study in Time Allotment in the Elementary School Subjects in Missouri.’’ School and Commun ’ 17: 161-65; April, 1931. [ 320 ] the upper grades. ‘he remainder of the om one-sixth to one-fourth of the period, | either for free reading or for undirected \pproximately one-third of the teachers the single reading period distribute class ystematically to recitation, study, and reading. Two-thirds follow no regular, natic plan, but distribute the time of each lass period as seems best under the circum- stances. [wo other types of class periods are about equally common—reported by 31.7 and 31.6 percent ofsthe teachers, respectively. ‘The first arrangement consists of a class period in which recitation and study are combined, but with separate periods for free reading or other spe- ial reading activities. The second involves a of separate periods, each set aside spe- ily for a particular kind of reading ac- such as recitation, supervised study, or reading. For the most part, these perieds ire 20 to 30 minutes in length regardless of orade level or type of activity involved. Teaching situation—Teachers who teach reading and no other subject are greatly in the minority in the school systems covered by this inquiry. Of 154 supervisors who reported on this item, 137 (or about 90 percent) said that no teacher in the system teaches reading only. Seven reported that a very few of the teachers under their supervision—less than 5 percent— teach reading only; 7 reported 5 to 19 percent ; and 3 reported 20 percent or more. Specializa tion is possible most often in the upper ele mentary grades. Only 2 of the 154 school sys tems had any first-grade teachers giving ful time to reading instruction, and only 3 had full time teachers of reading in Grades II and III In Grades IV, V, and VI there was one full-time teacher of reading in 11, 15, least and Seventy-seven percent of the first-grade teachers cooperating in this study 18 cases, respectively. and from that up to 96 percent of the teachers in Grade VI teach reading and all other sub jects. These facts suggest, and Table 19 shows that departmentalization is not widely practised in the elementary schools touched by this study The practise of classifying pupils into groups homogeneous with respect to reading ability is followed in about three-fifths of the school sys tems reporting. In about one-fifth of them, how ever, pupils are grouped according to reading ability only in certain schools or grades, and in 22 percent of the cases, pupils are never classi fied on this basis. Other facts pertaining to the reading pro grams of the 1527 teachers participating in this Table 20. portrayed there is probabiy quite representative study are set forth in The situation of elementary schools generally. Use made of systems of instruction—Replies were given by 163 supervisors as to whether o1 TABLE 19.—EXTENT TO WHICH DEPARTMENTALIZATION IS USED IN 154 SELECTED SCHOOL SYSTEMS Percent of pupils in departmentalized classes None 1-24 percent of pupils 25-49 percent of pupils 50 percent or more 100 Percent of school systems reporting various amounts of departmentalization; Grade Ill IV VI 4 5 7 0 68.0 53 9.3 13.3 12.7 15 4.8 5.3 9.3 8.0 3.9 13.4 18.7 23.4 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Based on reports from supervisors in 154 school systems where outstanding work in reading is being done TABLE 20.—DAILY PERIODS OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS TAUGHT DAILY BY 1527 TEACHERS OF READING Teaching program 1 Numoer of daily periods for reading instruction Number of pupil-groups taught reading daily Number of pupils taught reading daily... . Average number per teacher; Grade not a particular system of teaching was in use in the schools under their jurisdiction. Nearly 60 percent replied that none was followed. However, a definite system was being used in one or more grades in sixty-eight cases, and twenty-seven different systems of instruction were listed in this connection. In view of the manner in which the schools were selected for participation in this study, it would seem that excellent results are possible, not only for teach- ers with original ideas and an unusual amount of initiative, but also for those who follow the plan laid down in the teaching manuals of many of the current textbooks in reading. Cooper’s analysis of ten widely used systems of teaching beginning reading showed that there is no agreement on a single best procedure.’ The trends or prevailing practises which she was able to discover were: 1. Few negative suggestions are offered in modern teaching manuals. . Pupils are to be given practise in reading as the adult does, without goading or teaching. . The “intrinsic method” of teaching word recognition is recommended in a larger num- ber of cases than isolated word drills. . There is an increasing emphasis on indi- vidual needs. . The trend is toward simplified vocabularies, based on scientific word lists, with ample repetition of words. 6. Fewer and simpler phonetic elements be mastered. Courses of study in use—Table 21 ind the types of courses of study used i; selected school systems located in comm of different sizes. It shows, also, the perc: relatively new courses and the extent to courses of study classroon cedures. Courses of study prepared fo: wide use are followed more often in sma! and rural communities than in the large: Only about half the courses in use ar than five years old. In every case save one, \ the course of study in use is being fo! closely, the supervisor reports that it is a ¢ course—a_ satisfactory procedures. guide for class eg. Supervisory practises—Table 22 ind the general scope and character of super\ programs as reported by 172 supervisi reading in schools where outstanding result reading are being achieved. About three-tift! of the supervisors encourage a high degree of uniformity in classroom procedures in the case of all teachers in a given grade. Nearly a f. of them outline the work which teachers are t do rather specifically. Apparently, the largest measure of supervisory control is exercised small communities. ' Cooper, Ida M. “A Comparative Study of the Organization for Teaching of Ten Beginning Reading System of Educational Research 28: 347-57; January, 1935. TABLE 21.—COURSES OF STUDY IN USE IN 161 SELECTED SCHOOL SYSTEMS Course of study Location of school systems Cities Cities Cities over 30,000- under 100,000 100,000 30,000 3 4 Whole grou; 6 Number of schools using state course............ Number of schools using course developed locally Number ot schools using both state and local course. Number ot schools using ”o course of study... Number 0 16 31 33 1 11 1 2 Number Percent 33 0.5 105 65 17 6 Total 33 62 161 Percent of schools whose course of study has been developed | within the last five years sé Percent of schools in which co closely . . Percent 55 52 TABLE 22.—SUPERVISORY PRACTISES IN COMMUNITIES OF VARIOUS SIZES — Cities Cities Cities Supervisory practises over 30,000- under Total 100,000 100,000 30,000 | 1 3 4 AMuNIties aeseeenn ewes are : i Percent f school systems where | a high Suton of uniformity in class- ercent of m procedures is expected of all teachers in a given grade ; 69.0 to which Percent )f supervisors who outline the work to be done rather speci- _ fic ally 4 om pro- Percent of supervisors who from time to time send out supervisory bulletins on reading f 29.0 Average number of supervisory bulletins sent out per year by the lall citjec supervisors using them........... : : 4.8 for state. rer ¢ are 1e, wher. Selected References tollowed ANDERSON, CHARLES J. The Development of a Supervisory Program in Reading Sa 200d New York: Laurel Book Co., 1928. 48 p. lassroon 3ROWNING, Mary; Howarp, Bonnie C.; and Moperow, GERTRUDE. “Supervisory Reading Program.” Educational Method 11: 32-38; October, 1931. indicates 3. Burton, WILLIAM H., editor. The Supervision of Elementary Subjects. New York: YerVisory D. Appleton and Co., 1929. Chapter 4, “The Supervision of Reading,” p. 132-91 risors of . CHANDLER, T. C. “Procedure for Scoring Reading Lessons.” Chicago School Journal 12: 24-26; September, 1929. Cox, Rosk M. “The Development of Score Cards for Evaluating Silent Reading Les sons in the Intermediate Grades.” Teachers College Journal (Indiana State Teach ers College) 3: 301-22; July, 1932 Gates, Artuur I. Reading for Public School Administrators. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. 126 p. rS are to . Gist, ArTHUR S., and Kinc, WittiAm A. Teaching and Supervision of Reading largest New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1927. 337 p. cised in . Gray, WittiaM S. A Summary of Investigations Relating to Reading. Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 28. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1925 275 p. Gray, WiLviaAM S., and WuHIppLe, Gertrupe. Improving Instruction in Reading: An Experimental Study. Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 40. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933. 226 p. Harris, Jutta M.; Donovan, H. L.; and ALEXANDER, THOMAS. Supervision and Teaching of Reading. Richmond, Va.: Johnson Publishing Co., 1927. 474 p. Herriott, M. E. How to Make a Course of Study in Reading. Educational Research Circular, No. 42. Urbana, Ill.: Bureau of Educational Research, University ot Illinois, January 4, 1926. 37 p. Moore, ANNIE E. The Primary School; the Improvement of Its Organization and Instruction. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1925. 340 p. Otto, Henry J. “Implications for Administration and Teaching Growing Out of Pupil Failures in First Grade.” Elementary School Journal 33: 25-32; September, 1932. Pierce, Paut R. “The Administration of First-Grade Reading ina Foreign Industrial Community.” Elementary School Journal 32: 774-84; June, 1932. ScHENK, Orto. “A Demonstration School in Reading.” The Principal and Supervision Tenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association, 1931. p. 282-89. Simpson, Maser E. “The Development of Standards in Reading an Important Func tion of Supervision.” Educational Method 2: 420-29; June, 1923. Witcoxson, Mary. “Kindergarten-Primary U nification.” Elementary School Journal 27 : 447-50; February, 1927. YoAKAM, GERALD A. “The Supervision of Instruction in Reading,” Educational Method 15: 3-10: October, 1935. esult ~ In ree-niit egree otf the case a fourth grour Summary This bulletin has been concerned primarily with the teaching methods of a group of un- usually competent teachers of reading. It has compared and supplemented these practises with research findings and the recommenda- tions of leading authorities on reading instruc- tion. Briefly outlined here are some of the im- portant characteristics of the work reviewed and a few ot the leading suggestions from the literature on reading. Growth stages—During the first six grades, pupils pass thru four stages of growth in read- ing ability: 1. A preparatory period (kindergarten and early part of Grade 1) to develop interest in, and ca- pacity for, learning to read. 2. A period of initial instruction (Grade 1), in which pupils learn that reading is a thought-getting process and acquire the ability to read simple pas- sages independently. 3. A period of rapid growth (Grades II and III) in the fundamental reading attitudes, habits, and skills. 4. A period of wide reading (Grades IV, V, and VI) to cultivate new interests, extend and enrich experience, refine the reading abilities already ac- quired, and lay the foundation for effective study habits. Objectives and_ teaching emphasis—The acquisition of an adequate vocabulary of sight words, the establishment of correct eye-move- ments and other desirable basic habits, and the development of the ability to read independent- ly, are important goals in the lower grades. Growth in power to comprehend, appreciate, and evaluate materials, and to use reading in pursuing other activities are the leading ob- jectives in the upper grades. Oral reading is properly emphasized during the early growth stages; but emphasis should be shifted to silent reading as soon as rate of reading approaches the pupil’s rate of normal oral expression. Methods in beginning reading—Both the practises of successful teachers and the find- ings from research studies indicate that chil- dren should not be introduced to reading until they have attained the mental, physical, and social maturity of the average child of six to six and one-half years. Language habits should be well developed; children should have a wide range of general information and _in- terests ; they should really want to read. When this point is reached, reading should be in- troduced as a thought-getting process in which pupils learn first to associate an idea group of symbols, then to identify th: and symbols themselves. “UVhru much in reading and a limited amount of att to word analysis in separate periods ing to individual ments are established, a basic sight vo needs- “correct eye is developed, and considerable independ reading is acquired. During this tin especially important for pupils to read-t out-something; not just read-the-next-s' Teaching methods in the various q Types of instruction and classroom pro in the various grades should be select the basis of the abilities and attitudes developed. Lesson plans should be out carefully, using materials suggest pupils’ interests and needs rather than quence of a particular textbook. Ch newspapers and magazines can be used vantage in classroom instruction, especi Grades IV, V, and VI. It is in these also that pupils should acquire strong, nent interests in outside reading as a activity. This can be accomplished viding attractive materials relating t in which they are interested, by havin; recommend to each other the books t! joy, by reading parts of interesting stori¢ in numerous other ways. In all the ample provision should be made for indi differences and care should be taken relate reading instruction with other s and activities. Classroom problems th particularly troublesome include (1 ) ulating interest in reading, (2) adapti: struction to individual differences, (3 veloping independence in reading, (4) d oping good habits of oral reading, (5 creasing rate of reading, (6) developing curacy in word recognition, (7) buildir larger sight vocabulary, (8) improving prehension, and (9) eliminating lip-moven Reading textbooks—Since teachers a pected to assume large responsibility selection of children’s books, they need familiar with the best sources of materia with reliable methods of evaluating Excellent booklists and score-cards are able and are widely used by successful t ers. According to research studies, the books for children have the following qua! [ 324 ] make-up—Children like numer phy sical colored bindings, raclive interesting titles, strations, pictures involving humor and ac ,d margins, legible type, and not too much iterial ON a page. Interesting selections Children are especially adventure sted in stories involving action, beauty, humor, and remarkable achieve S¢ it. If these qualities are present, stories of all myths, folk-lore, fiction, ete. enerally speaking, they prefer prose to poetry. ey like stories about animals or about children. —appeal to them Balance—Books with various types of selec- ns are more attractive than those of uniform style. should extend merit—The material 4, Literary enrich experience, create new interests, or de new appreciations. {ppropriate vocabulary and Che vocabulary should cover as wide a range Sentence struc it possible without going beyond the pupils’ ability about 35 repetitions of new words are re " ed for mastery, new words should be repeated ten. Vocabulary and sentence structure should be propriate for the grade level of the pupils. Correct typography—White paper without gloss considered best for children’s books. The type ild be simple in style and large enough to pre nt eye-strain. According to standards widely a to 24-point ted, first-grade books should be in 18 and those for later grades in nothing smalle1 in 12-point type. Likewise, it is considered good ictise to set the lines 3 to 4 inches in length smaller the type, the shorter the line—and to ake both the right- and left-hand margins even. \mong the most common defects in reading textbooks are: they are not adapted to chil lren’s interests or experiences, the vocabulary is too large, and they are poorly illustrated. majority of supe facilitie s—A class1 oom Library isors prefer libraries to central school libraries in the first four grades. ‘The practise is widely followed of obtaining from some central library 18 to 24 books at a time Teachers who make this irrangement usually books Teachers whose work is out tor classroom use. obtain about six times a year. standing keep a generous supply of reading In the present naterials in their classrooms. study the average number of books suitable for general reading ranged from 62 in Grade | to 106 in Grade VI. The total number ot books, including supplementary readers and reference books, ranged from an average of 217 in Grade I to 393 in Grade VI. The Read- measurement of achievement rooms of successful teachers. One informal ng tests play an important role in the class- test per week and two standardized tests per [ 325 ] +h are about Mle average number given ective tests are rated higher rue-Taise @xXercis , , particularly mat ng and tr 4 in the lower grades and completion and mul tiple-choice exercises in the upper grades. L¢ are said to be most helpful in diagnosing read ing difficulties, in classifying pupils, and in « of tablishing standards of achievement. Standards of achievement—Veachers whos« work is outstanding require wide readin the part of their pupils: an average of 8. books per year in Grade I, up to 17.8 en, ee eee ee VI. Pupils should attain an averag minute in Grade ite of about 90 words per I, increasing to something more than 200 in Grade VI—in other to Be words per sec nd. The administrat reading program—Reading is taught as a sep } every school systen and in nearly grade tron From 75 to 80 minutes a day art words, averages ot ion and supervision of the : “e rate subject in virtually all cases, 1n every one to SIX. instruction ¢ | umount decreasin o about 30 to 40 minu Vl. Extensive use is bein iven to reading in Grade I, th a day in Grade made of combined periods in which provisi instruction, supervise undirected study of ] ae ding. Relatively few tea reading is made fo1 study, reading assign ments, and free re ers give full time or even a majority of the time to reading instruction, except in Grad V and VI where departmentalization is mor 7 } common than in the lowet orades Pract ses systems of 1n struction being followed, the kind and quality Vary with respect to greatly ot courses of study in use, and the scope and program, character of the supervisory Kew, if any, of th 11 trends and procedures outlined in this bulletin Variations in method are equally valid under all circumstances. Al lowance should be made for justifiable varia izes reported here; nume1 tions from the avet Ous adaptations In yrocedures should he made in the light of each situation. To achieve su cess in teaching reading is not unlike a cro country tour. Ordinarily it is best to follow some well-known highway; but often there is more than one good route, and occasionally time and energy can be saved by turning off into by-roads. So in using this bulletin, teach ers must select wisely among the suggestions 1 ottered and from time to time enter fields where they must rely on other guides and on their own resour¢ efulness. Te: LESSON to be drawn from the history of scientific studies of reading is perfectly clear. As investigation proceeds, there must be active co- operation between scientists, school officers, and teachers. The scientist must continue his labora- tory studies, discover fundamental differences in reading processes and habits, outline the prin- ciples which determine effective methods of teach- ing, and develop methods of investigation which can be used in the classroom. Administrators must provide agencies for dealing effectively with the mental processes and habits discovered in the labo- ratory, for applying the instruments of investiga- tion which are available, for checking the results of teaching, and for discovering additional prob- lems for study and investigation. Teachers must be zealous students of reading problems, must apply the results of scientific studies in improving and refining their technique of teaching, and must make use of scientific methods in the daily study of classroom problems. Only through continuous and whole-hearted cooperation on the part of all the agencies interested in reading problems can we hope to attain an adequate solution of both the theoretical and the practical issues involved. —William S. Gray.