RESEARCH BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL VOL. XII - No. 5 EDUCATION NOVEMBER-1934 ASSOCIATION Modern Social and Educational Trends Published by the RESEARCH DIVISION of the NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. RESEARCH BULLETIN oF tH Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November President, HENRY LESTER SMITH NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Secretary, J. \W/. CRABTREE The payment of the $5 membership fee of the National Education Association entitles one to receive for one year the Research Bulletin, the journal, the An- nual Volume of Addresses and Proceed- ings, and certain other publications of the Association. One dollar of each $5 mem- bership fee is for a year’s subscription to the Research Bulletin. The Research Bulletin may be subscribed for separately at $1 per year. Copies may be _ pur- chased for 25 cents, and in quantities at a reduced rate. Those entitled to receive the Research Bulletin regularly are asked to report at once any change of residence, giving old as well as new address. Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. Copyright, 1934 by the National Education Association Director of Research: William G. Carr; Associate Director: Frank W. Hubbard Assistant Directors: Richard R. Foster, lvan A. Booker Executive and Editorial Offices 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C Purchasing Copies Additional copies of this issue of the Research Bulletin may be obtained at the following prices, postpaid if remittance accompanies order: Single copies, 25c. 2 to 9 copies—10% reduction. 10 to 99 copies—25% reduction. 100 or more copies—33%4 % reduction. Orders for Research Bulletins not ac- companied by remittance are subject to transportation charges. Make checks pay- able to National Education Association. Subscriptions The Research Bulletin may be received regularly thru a special subscription at $1 per year. Many of the early issues of the Research Bulletin are already out of print. The special subscription at $1 per year offers an opportunity to maintain a complete file of future Research Bulletins. Reproduction of Material in Research Bulletins Material appearing in the Research Bulletin is copyrighted. However, De- partments and regularly affiliated organi- zations of the National Education Asso- ciation may reproduce parts of these bulletins for the advancement of education. These departments and organizations need no authority other than this notice previous to such reproduction. In other cases appli- cation for the release of materials is re- quired. Address communications to the Research Division, National Education As- sociation, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. CONTENTS FOREWORD INTRODUCTION I. If. III. 4 XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. POPULATION HEALTH AND VITALITY Home AND Famiy Lirt Position OF WOMEN ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION LABOR CONDITIONS OCCUPATIONS WEALTH AND INCOM! INVENTION AND DISCOVERY COMMUNICATION gl aie a ae a TRANSPORTATION (GOVERN MENT CRIME AND PUNISHMEN’ Pusiic FINANC! NATURAL WEALTH LeisurE-limMe ACTIVITIES... \ RELIGION SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS | 243 266 ) 2609 284 FOREWORD HANGE has been a characteristic of human society from the beginning. Racial groups merge, populations shift their geographical environments, new leaders rise to displace the old, ideals are reinterpreted, history is rewritten in conformity with research, recreational pursuits are diversified, and methods of communication are improved. These are but a few indications that the world has never been a static place. But, altho change itself has been ever present, it has moved with varying speeds and with differing social implications. Today changes come upon us with accelerating rapidity and they affect more quickly the lives of all. Thus we find new and severer strains placed upon the basic institutions of our civilization. Where the home, the government, the church, and the school fail to make adjustments to new conditions, social problems increase in number and intensity. If we were living in another age, we would probably attribute our social difficulties to supernatural forces and resign ourselves to some unknown fate. But just as mankind has found that many of the once mysterious natura! forces can be utilized to increase the happiness and security of the human race, so there has come the hope of controlling society thru education. Social problems have revealed themselves as man-made and therefore not beyond the possibilities of the human mind to understand and to solve. So within recent years there has been an increase of scientific interest in the problems of society. Skilled students have utilized the technics of science to analyze and to record the nature of social processes. Others have interpreted these facts thru the medium of the forum, the periodical, the book, the news- paper, and the radio. More than ever before, people generally are trying to understand the art of social living. Educators must participate in this renaissance of social thinking and action, particularly as social changes affect education. The 1932 report of the Committee on Social-Economic Goals of the Na- tional Education Association contains this significant statement: ‘Education needs its own machinery to gather continuously and interpret simply and fear- lessly the salient facts of the moving social-economic scene.” The need recog- nized by the Committee is obviously important and equally obviously difficult to meet. This Research Bulletin is a venture in the direction of a publication which tries “to interpret simply and fearlessly the salient facts” of the social conditions of today. J. W. Crastresr, Secretary, National Education Association [ 244 ] Introduction Society is changing in many ways. In spite t of recent developments in education, the schools still lag behind social change at many points. A multitude of suggestions of varving degrees of specificity and wisdom have been made bringing the schools more closely in harmony with social purposes and needs. Teachers, both as citizens and as members of their profession, should familiarize themselves with the basic facts concerning these social trends, and should give careful consideration to the various pro posals that have been made to improve both social conditions and the educational program. Nature of Existing Social Data One does not need to delve very deeply into number of generalizations which should be kept in mind in the use of bulletins of this type. Some of these existing social data to discover a will be discussed briefly in the following para- graphs to emphasize the necessity for cautious and suspended judgment. 1. Objective social evidence is often unre- liable and incomplete—This fact is apparent in all of the social studies. For example, it is often necessary to rewrite history because of the dis- covery of previously unknown manuscripts, the excavation of a buried city, or the proof of for- gery in an important document. In much the same way the unraveling of the phenomena of American society is hampered by materials of doubtful authenticity and by incomplete rec- ords. Even our statistics of population, crime, health, occupations, and other fields make diff- cult the tracing of trends over decades or cen- turies. Altho estimates may be used to fill in the gaps, they are seldom entirely satisfactory. 2. Social change does not always mean uni- versal progress—lIt is assumed sometimes that a change invariably means a general social ad- vance. While a change may mean more happi- ness and security for some people, it may not be a forward step for many others—perhaps not even for a majority. Technological unemploy- ment is a case in point. Are machines and scien- tific technics advancing at such a rate that peo- ple are losing employment more rapidly than they can be absorbed by new occupations ? The fact that persons of good judgment and wide knowledge are ranged on both sides of this question indicates that social changes do not insure progress for many within society. Other trends are similarly debatable e social progress is often uneven. 3 ] rj us factors in oct 11 4 Wm sint an intricate pattern with many mutt influ ences and cComron factors Be ist ot the limited number of things which the mind can think upon any one time we try to analyze the factors in a problem under study so as to i. few details. This may cause us to tocus on become enmeshed in facts, to oversimplify, and to lose the sweep of social processes. We may also become so engrossed in certain details as to overemphasize their relative importance to the total problem. The reality of this danget se obvious in the present bullet hove is | Is ODViOUS In the present Dulietin, where it has been necessary in the available space to present only a few outstanding facts. Each section of this bulletin is a “snapshot” when it should be 1 talking motion picture. instability social trends emphasizes the than the stabi ify of While it is true that all elements of flux, some change sO slowly as to ve rel itively ysis of rathe r $0¢ tal Structur elements tatic. [The govern society are in a state of 1 } veneral outlines of basic units such ment and education remain the same for long periods. Hence, it is possible to discuss the stabi- lizing characteristics of society and to show that iT ad . all movements have their periods of compara tive rest. To present a true picture of society, one needs to discuss both the passive and the active stages. However, for purposes of discus sion, there is value in emphasizing unrest and movement, if we clearly understand that these phenomena constitute only one important as- pect of the picture. The Viewpoint and Arrangement of the Bulletin It is possible to be fairly definite and specific in dealing with the many facts of social change. When, however, one turns to discussions of educational policy in the light of these changes, These differences result from variant philosophies of and of the differences of opinion become evident. education relation of organized [ 245 ] schools to society as a whole. Some believe that the schools should leave controy ersial issues alone; others urge that an unbiased presenta tion of both sides of such issues should be of fered; still others insist that teachers should not hesitate to urge children to accept opinions in accordance with the teacher’s own social viewpoint. The Research Division obviously cannot in terest itself in promoting any one of these vari- ous philosophies. The sections on educational implications are intended to raise questions and to suggest points of view more frequently than to advance detailed educational policies with respect to the problems under discussion. The purpose of the bulletin, so far as the treat ment of educational implications is concerned, is not primarily to inform or to convince; its purpose is to stimulate thought, to provoke dis- cussion, and to encourage the analysis of social conditions as a basis for modifying educational policies. The arrangement of the bulletin has been de- signed to bring the social facts and their pos sible educational implications to the attention of the reader almost simultaneously. Trends and conditions in each of the larger social areas, such as population, transportation, and eco- nomic organization, are presented in a highly condensed statement which is supported by a pictorial chart' on the same topic. Immediately thereafter the educational implications of social tendencies in this particular area are discussed. In this manner seventeen areas of social life are discussed in succession. The bulletin concludes with a summary of general educational implica- tions brought out in the various sections. In each section the basic sources of informa- tion are placed in the first footnote. No effort has been made to document each statement of social data because the reader who is interested in details will find the examination of the sources a relatively easy task. The second foot- note in each section includes suggested readings in educational publications. A special effort has been made to include books and bulletins which discuss the educational implications of social change. Important Sources of Information In the preparation of this publication, ticular attention has been paid to the report monographs of the President’s Research Com mittee on Social Trends. The chief report the committee, Recent Social Trends, has beet used in the single volume form.* Page and chay ter references apply to both the single and double volume editions. It will be obvious that the discussion of herein has frequently depended cial trends upon Recent Social Trends for facts and cita tions. This is to be expected, for nowhere el does there exist the same full and careful con pilation of social data. To resurvey the origin researches would have been uneconomical. T] frequent references to Recent Social Tre should increase the use of that basic report teachers’ conferences, social studies classes, and other educational groups. Educators already have found the volume of fundamental impor tance. In fact, because of the requests of the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Edu cation and of other educators, the publishe produced a single volume edition for school use Other major sources of data include the pul lished reports of various branches of the fed eral government. The studies of the Bureau of the Census in the fields of population, manu factures, and crime have been referred to fré quently. Use has been made of data collected by the Children’s Bureau, the Women’s Bureau, the Department of Justice, and the Depart ment of Agriculture. The discussions of educa- tional implications have utilized the publica tions of the federal Office of Education. Other important guides in the preparation of this bulletin are listed in the selected references at the end of this introductory statement. While the foregoing sources have been invaluable, the Research Division has availed itself of many other contributions as revealed, in the foot- notes. To all of these an acknowledgment of appreciation is made with the hope that the their use present publication will increase among educators. 1 The pictorial charts are designed to present oply general trends and conditions. Graphs in this form usually depend upon “round numbers’’ and are not therefore numerically exact For detailed statistics consult the references given in the footnotes of each section or, when necessary, communicate with the Research Division. 2 President’s Research Committee. Recent Social Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. 1568 p. Also numer monographs available from the same publisher setting forth fuller treatments of the topics in the major report [ 246 ] Acknowledgment of Personal Assistance This bulletin is an effort to increase the active interest of teachers and of students in studying and improving social conditions. For this re son the Research Division has not hesitated t ask a number of well-known authorities t read the preliminary drafts of the bulletin and to make criticisms and suggestions. However the Research Division assumes responsibility for this publication in its present form. Sections were read and criticized by the fol lowing: F. W. Burgess, Paul H. Douglas C. Luther Fry, Meredith B. Givens, Ernest R. Groves, Clarence Heer, Edward R. Johnson, Emory R. Johnson, Frank Lorimer, David J. Saposs, Edwin H. Sutherland, J. F. Steiner, Frederick G. Tryon, Carroll H. Wooddy, and Mrs. Chase Going Woodhouse. The pictorial graphs were prepared by the Headquarters Staff of the National Education 1 Association with the assistance of Rudolf Modley, who was an assistant of Dr. Neurath of the Vienna Museum between 1923 and 1930. How the Bulletin May Be Used There is a growing interest among groups of teachers in the social and economic problems of today. It is believed that many of thes groups will find the present report a usefu guide for further study. This bulletin may be useful in connection with the professional meetings held by princi pals and superintendents. Usually these con ferences devote most of their time to a con sideration of administrative and teaching prob lems in education. The present publication sug gests that a number of these professional prob lems are a part of the social conditions in the community. Broadening the scope of the discus sion to include social problems should result in teachers meetings that are professionally and socially more worthwhile. Students in high schools are showing an in creased interest in the study of social conditions. Often classes utilize the community as a labora ory tor first nd examination of social prol lems. | hat this movement has not spread more rapidly r id nla e pa t t ac quac r ins tional materials: Eft mec this shortage of materials have beer ide | city school svstems." educational avencie ind othe f Ips Lhe present bullet ! \\ ul plement the existing classroom matt pictorial graphs suggest the possibilit f stu dents making workbooks that are illustrated by Cart I harts, and diag im Selected References | ) supplement this bulletin the Tolowins + list of some of the fundamental treatments of American civilization and educatior ncluded hese pu ylications have been writtel y au thors with divergent social ind educationa philosophies Study groups usin} the present bulletin as a guide will find that the followin list contains a wealth of useful supplementary materi ApAmMs. JAMES |] Our Business Cia ] New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1929. 306 p AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION, COMMISSION ON rHE SoctAL Stupies. Conclusions and Recommen lations. New York: Charles Scribne Sons, 1934 Baciey, W 1AM C. Education and Emergent Man New York: Thomas Nelson and Sor 1934. 238 p BeARpD, CHARLES A. America Faces the Future. Bos ton: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1932. 416 | Bearp, CHarces A. The Nature ft Social Sci- ences. Part VII, Report of the Con sion on the Social Studies, American Historical Association New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1934. 236 p. Bearp, CHARLES A. A Charter for t Soctal Sci ence Part I, Report of the Commission on the Social Studies, American Historical Association New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1932. 122 p Bove, Boyp H. Modern Educational Theories. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927. 351 p Briccs, THomMAs H. The Great Investment; Second ary Education in a Democracy. Cambridge; Harvard University Press, 1930. 143 p BRUNER, HERBERT B. Some Suggestions for the Study of Modern Problems. National Crisis Series. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University 1934. 66 p. CHASE, STUART Tragedy of Waste New York Macmillan Co., 1927. 296 p. 8 For example: The Menace of Crime, Current Probl Series. No. 4, 1932, Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa 4For example: The Story of Writing (No. 1, 1932, 64 p.), The Stor Numbers (No. 2. 1932 ) Ru i the Road (No. 6, 1933, 32 p.); Committee on Materials of Instri Amer Council on Education, Washingt . 4 T The Changed Scene in Industry and Transportation (1 p.), In Reli Debtors (1933 ) p.), Unemp nt Relief and Public Works (1933, 29 p.); National Crisis Serie Teachers College. ( a University. New York. N. ¥ q J Government or More? (1933, 22 p.), Collapse or Cycle? (1933, 23 p Exploring the Times Booklets, American Library Associat Chicago, Ill 5 For example: Land Utilization and State Planning, Unit Study Booklet, No. 19, Modern Problem Serie American Edu- cation Press, Columbus, Ohio ional Planning in the United States (Series IV, No. 1, 1929, 24 p.), Ame an ¢ Association, Inc., Washington, D. C Economic Re University ‘OLUMBIA UNIVERSITY COMMISSION. construction. New York: Columbia Press, 1934. 250 p. ‘ounTs, Georce S. The American Road to Culture. New York: John Day Co., 1930. 194 p. ‘ounts, Georce S. Dare the Schools Build a Neu Social Order? New York: John Day Co., 1932. 56 p- = — os CusperLey, ELtwoop P. Changing Conceptions of Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1909. 70 p. Dewey, JoHN. Democracy and Education. New York: Macmillan Co., 1916. 434 p. Dewey, JoHN. Sources of a Science of Education. New York: Liveright, Inc., 1929. 77 p. Dewey, Joun. The Way Out of Educational Con- fusion. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1931. 41 p. FRANK, GLENN. America’s Hour of Decision. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1934. 263 p. Harap, Henry. Economic Life and the Curriculum New York: Macmillan Co., 1927. 188 p. Harper, MANLY. Social Beliefs and Attitudes of American Educators. Contributions to Education, No. 294. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927. 91 p. Hart, J. K. A Social Interpretation of Education. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1929. 458 p. Hoover, Herpert. The Challenge to Liberty. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1934. 212 p. Jaspers, Kari. Man in the Modern Age. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1933. 243 p. Jenninos, Herpert S., and crHers. Suggestions of Modern Science Concerning Education. New York: Macmillan Co., 1917. Jupp, Cuartes H. Education and Social Progress. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1934. 285 p. Jupp, CHarces H. Problems of Education in the United States. Recent Social Trends Monograph. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. 214 p. Kanpet, Isaac L. The Dilemma of Democracy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1934. 79 p. Kivparrick, WiLt1AM H. Education and the Social Crisis. New York: Liveright, Inc., 1932. 90 p. Kicpartrick, WittiAM H. Education for a Changing Civilization. New York: Macmillan Co., 1926. 143 p. KiLpatTrick, WILLIAM H.; Dewey, JoHN; Bope, Boyp H.; and otHers. The Educational Frontier. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1933. 325 p. LipPMANN, WALTER. Public Opinion. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927. 427 p. Lynp, Ropert, and Lynp, Heren. Middletown. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1929. 550 p. Martin, Everetr D. The Meaning of a Liberal Education. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1926. 319 p. MerriaAM, Cuarces E. Civic Education in The United States. Part VI, Report of the Commission on the Social Studies, American Historical Association. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1934. 196 p. Morrison, Henry C. The Evolving Common School. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1933. 62 p. [ 2+ ASSOCIATION, COMMITTEE ON AMERICA. The Socia Washington, DD. (¢ NATIONAL EDUCATION SociAL-EcONOMIC GOALS O} Economic Goals of America the Association, 1933. 22 p NATIONAL EDUCATION A3SOCIATION SUPERINTENDENCE. Social Change and Educat Thirteenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Association. (Available February, 1935, approx mately 448 pages.) NEWLON, Jesse H. Educational Administration Social Policy. Part VIII, Report of the Commis Historical DEPARTMENT sion on the Social Studies, American Association. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons 1934. 301 p. OVERSTREET, HARRY. We Move in New Directions New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1933. 284 p Pace, Kirsy, Editor. Recent Civilization. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co.., 1928. 357 p. PRESIDENTS RESEARCH COMMITTEE ON SOCIAL TRENDS Recent Social Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. 1568 p. ProsseR, CHARLES A., and ALLEN, CHARLES R. Have We Kept the Faith? New York: Century Co., 1929. 429 p. Rucc, HArRo.p. Culture and Education in America New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1931. 404 | Rucc, HArotp, The Great Technology. New York: John Day Co., 1933. 308 p. Gains in American Rucc, HAROLD, and KRUEGER, MARVIN. Social Re construction. New York: John Day Co., 1934 140 p. SNEDDEN, Davip. Toward Better Educations. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University 1931. 427 p. TERPENNING, W. B. Village and Open Country) Neighborhoods. New York: Century Co., 1931 493 p. THOMAS, NORMAN. America’s Way Out. New York Macmillan Co., 1931. 324 p. TUGWELL, Rexrorp G. Industry’s Coming of Age. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1927. 274 p S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, OFFICE EpucaTion. The Development of Social Intelli gence Through Part-time Education. Vocational Education Bulletin, No. 173. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1934. 67 p. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, OFFICE EpucaTion. Vocational Education and Changing Conditions. Vocational Education Bulletin, No. 174. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office. (In press.) WALLAcE, Henry A. New Frontiers. New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1934. 314 p. Wuire House CONFERENCE ON CHILD HEALTH AND Prorection. Addresses and Abstracts of Commit- tee Reports. New York: Century Co., 1931. 365 p. (Also numerous monographs available from the same publisher.) WoeE.reL, NorMAN. Molders of the American Mind. New York: Columbia University Press, 1933. 304 p. OF U. OF U. 8] tion the OX] mis- ‘ical ons, AGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION 1880 if viet ULL f' ene LULL 60 and OOPTHAOPARRAN SS. ctttHENE: Each symbol represents 3 percent of total populat I. Population Opinions difter as to the social, economic, and political significance of population changes. Dis- cussion today centers about declining birth rates, restriction of immigration, geographical distribution of people, racial fusion, and other population problems with various economic and social implications. Growth The population of the United States has been characterized by a rapidity of growth usually found in relatively young countries, In 1776 the total population of the thirteen colonies was two and one-half million, or about the same as the present population of a single state such as Tennessee, Alabama, Iowa, or Oklahoma. In recent years there has been a gradual slow- ing down of the rate of increase. ‘he recent an nual increase has declined from the high point of two million per year in 1923 to about nine hundred thousand in 1931. If present trends continue, the total population is expected to reach about 145,000,000 by 1950. The child population under the age of twenty increased from 33,681,074 to 47,608,991 be- 1 Based upon: U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Vol. I. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931 New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. Chapters 1, 9, and 15 { Garth, Thomas R. Race Psy { Lorimer, Frank, and Osborn, Freder Macmillan Co., 1933. p. 137-40 “The Evaluation of Races,” p. 204-21 Characteristics of American Groups.”’ p. 99-176. New York: Macmillan Co., 1934. 461 p zation. New York: Macmilian Co., 1932. p. 291-93. f United States. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. 415 p tween 1900 and 1930. Sixty-seven percent of this gain took place between 1900 and 1920 ) while only 33 percent of it occurred between 1920 and 1930. In this latter period the nun ber of children under the age of five years a tually dec reased 128,840, ot W hic h 66,464 were In 1930 there were fewer children under five years of age than in the five- to nine-year group in the age group under one year [his con dition did not exist in any census report prio1 to 1930. These figures reflect the decline in birth rate. The rate of increase of the white population was more than twice that of negroes between 1900 and 1920, but the rates have not greatly differed between 1920 and 1930. A volving small numbers, the rate of increase of tho in Mexicans, Indians, and Japanese has been more rapid than that of whites since 1920. In generaly 1 however, there has been a drop in birth rateg among the foreign-born residents Geographical Distribution and Density The Westward Movement from the thirteen original states across the continent has been Cens Popu Number and Distribution Inhabitant | § President Research ttee. Recent ial Trend { Schwesinger, Gladys. Heredity and Environment. New York hology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1931. Chapter 1 k. Dynamics of Population. Part I Measurable { Landman, Jacob H. Human Sterili Thompson, Warren S and Whelpton, P. K. Population Trends in the [ 249 ] much discussed in American history. Less atten- tion has been given to the northward migration of negroes, the depletion of rural areas by the movement to cities, the shifting of population from the center to the edges or suburbs of met ropolitan areas, and the recent concentration of population in certain sections of the country. In 1900 about 60 percent of the total popula- tion lived in rural communities of less than 2500 persons, while in 1930 the proportion was only slightly more than 40 percent. The rural-farm population declined about 1,200,000 between 1920 and 1930. One reason for this shift was the improvement of agricultural methods and machinery with the subsequent decline in de- mand for workers; another was the attraction that city living conditions held for some farm- ers. Between 1930 and 1932 the shortage of urban employment reversed the trend, as shown by the net gain of the farming areas of over 760,000 persons. In 1933, however, the trend reversed again with 227,000 more persons leav- ing the farms for the cities than there were re- turning to the farms. Concentration of population in metropolitan areas (i.e., cities over 100,000 population) is now accompanied by a shifting of homes and services to the suburbs. This trend outward is producing new patterns with reference to fac- tors such as sex, age, and economic status within the congested areas. For example, in 1930 the distribution of children in all but four of the 96 metropolitan districts showed a higher pe: centage under fifteen years of age outside of the central city than within it. The drought during 1934 has renewed th« suggestion that some sections of the country are poorly suited for habitation and use, while othe: areas should maintain larger populations. That this is more than a theory is shown by the shifts in population which took place between 1920 and 1930. Sixty percent of the increase in that period took place in five well-defined areas These districts are: (1) the Atlantic seaboard in the vicinity of New York; (2) the Great Lakes region; (3) the metropolitan areas of Alabama, Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, and Tennessee; (4+) the cities of Missouri, Oklahoma, and Texas; and (5) the metro politan districts of the Pacific coast. Quality Changes in the quality of the population are dificult to measure but some significant facts are available. Tests of intelligence, whethe: measuring heredity or environment, have re vealed that a high birth rate is often associated with low levels of intelligence and inferior eco- nomic status. Often the opponents of unrestricted immi gration have contended that it lowered the quality of the population. This assertion in volves the complex and unsettled controversy concerning racial superiorities. The problem of URBANIZATION OF THE POPULATION Each symbol represents 10 percent of total population URBAN (8,000 and over) immigration is less acute today because of the present quota system and the restrictive influ ence of temporary executive orders affecting immigration and deportations. Since 1931 more persons of foreign birth have been leav- ing the United States than have entered. The eugenics movement, aimed at the im- provement of the racial stock, has been partly responsible for the trend in favor of the sterili- zation and the segregation of defectives. Educational Implications * The declining birth rate will give the edu- cational “system the opportunity to integrate and to enrich the program. Heretofore a major problem has been one of housing and provid ing minimum essentials for a rapidly expand- ing school population. The increase in the rela- tive proportion of adults will doubtless cause some shift of school efforts into the field of adult education. The movement of population from the cen- ter to the fringe of metropolitan areas, is force ing the extension of school facilities into the suburbs. In many instances the city and rural educational facilities may be merged and ef- forts directed toward an iuategrated educa- tional program covering an entire county or larger subdivision of the state. With these movements of population older social controls tend to deteriorate. By means of traveling schools and libraries, correspondence courses, visiting teachers, nurses, bus transportation, and other practises, the harmful educational effects of a mobility may be partly overcome. The educational disadvantages suffered by some states and many rural areas must be removed. With a mobile population, some com- munities that maintain excellent schools, ac quire citizens with inferior knowledge as to health, housing, and culture. The better schools often do not reach the shifting child population during the impressionable years. In the long run it will pay us dividends in human welfare if every child is guaranteed an excellent educa tion regardless of residence and mobility. 2 For further educational implications cunsult: Bonar, J. Theories of Population from Raleigh to Arthur Your New York Greenberg Publisher, Inc., 1931. 253 p. { Dublin, Loui Are There 7 Many of 1 New Outlook 161 March, 193 § Engelhardt, N. L., and Engelhardt, Fred. Planning School Building Program New York: Teachers College, ¢ bia Uni versity, 1930. Chapters 1, 2, and 3 on forecasting population changes, p. 1 {| Gosney, Ezra S., and Popenoe, P. B. Sterilization for Human Betterment. New York: Macmillan Co., 1929. 202 p. {| McKenzie, R. D. The Metropolitan Community. New York: McGraw-Hill! Book Co., 1933. 352 p. § Ogburn, William F., editor. Social Change and the New Deal, Chica University of Chicago Press, 1934. Chapters on “Agriculture and Rural Life” and “‘The Tennessee Basin,” p. 59-71, 81 { Punke, H. H ‘Educational Implications of a Mobile Population.’’ Elementary School Journa 514-26; March, 1933. {§ 1 Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Metropolitan Districts; Population and Area. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1932. 253 p. {| Whelpton, P. K. “Populations; Trends in Differentials of True Increase and Age Compositi Social Changes in 1929. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 193 p. 870-8 Reprinted from American Journal iology, May, 1930.) REPLACEMENT RATE OF WHITE POPULATION NECESSA RY~2.. fe o- (3 / ia “ees See) 900000000 1000000000000 OO0000000 ; ADEE (onoaegg Children under 5 for each 20 white women of ages 20 to 44 {251 ] A ee INFANT MORTALITY 1883 1903 1933 Deaths under one year per 50 births ORes Div, Nat Educ II. Health and Vitality * There has been a growing demand, partic- ularly in the past thirty years, for social meas- ures to increase the physical well-being of in- dividuals. The crowding of people into urban areas has increased the dangers from communi- cable diseases. The increased emphasis upon efficiency in a machine age has put a premium on good health. Yet ignorance, indifference, and low economic status keep many from receiving necessary medical and dental care. There have been marked improvements in the field of medical care. While the number of physicians per 100,000 in population has decreased from 173 in 1900 to 126 in 1930, the skill and training of the individual physi- cian have improved. Within recent years the extensive use of anesthesia, aseptic surgery, bac- teriology, radiography, and other applications of scientific knowledge has resulted in at least twenty-five recognized fields of specialization among physicians. Whereas 3,456 nurses were graduated at the beginning of the century, 25,000 were prepared for service in 1930. Within thirty years the number of clinics has multiplied 60 times. Since 1873 the number of hospital beds has increased from 35,000 to approximately one million. At the same time 1 Based upon: President’s Research Committee. Recent Social Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co Current Social Problems. New York: American Book Co., 1933 { Committee on the Costs of Medical Care, Ray Lyman Wilbur, chairman. Medical Care for the 12 and 21. {§ Gillette, John M., and Reinhardt, James M Chapters 12, 13, and 14. the equipment of hospitals and clinics has made possible the steady improvement of the quality of service. ‘Today close to one million and a half persons are either directly or indirectly en- gaged in the promotion of health. The increased participation of the govern- ment in the promotion of physical well-being is another marked trend. Today twenty-five agencies of the federal government are con- cerned with problems of public health, and the budget of one of these, the Public Health Sery- ice, increased almost sevenfold between 1910 and 1933. State and local governments have entered into scientific research, the control of communicable disease, the operation of clinics, the collection of vital statistics, and similar serv- ices. Beginning with the first state diagnostic laboratory in 1894, this movement has in- creased until there are fulltime directors of such activities in forty states today. Between 1923 and 1931 the number of hospital beds maintained separately and jointly by city and county governments increased about 37,000, or to a total of 153,072. As a result of the foregoing medical ad vances, and because of the improvement of water supplies, food inspection, drainage sys- 1933. Chapters American People. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932. p. 2-35. [ 252 ] tems, and other conditions, there has been a significant decline in illness and death due to disease. Smallpox, typhoid fever, diphtheria, tuberculosis, and malaria are the fields of great est gains. The number of deaths due to dia betes, cancer, and heart ailments is increasing: Deaths and injuries from automobiles have in- creased to alarming totals. While authorities do not agree as to trends, the number of adults known to be suffering from mental defects and impairments is larger today than in 1900 Some of the greatest gains in health have been made with children. It has been estimated that the life expectancy at birth was about 35 years in 1789 as compared with about 60 years in 1929. In 1900 about 51 percent of all deaths were among children under the age of five all deaths were in this age group. There has been a rapid years; in 1928 only 27 percent of decline in infant mortality from gastro-intes tinal diseases. Deaths of children from automo bile accidents have increased until they are ex ceeded only by deaths trom tubercul SIs ind heart disease. Brief notice only can be given here to othe trends of great social significance: (1) the concentration of medical skill and medical facilities in the cities and wealthier states; (2) the lack of financial support of governmental agencies in areas not adequately served by pri- vate practise; (3) the increased cost of skilled medical services; and (4) the incomplete co ordination of efforts among those engaged in the promotion of health. Educational Implications * The scientific progress in the health move ment makes available an evergrowing body of information for instruction in hygiene. The medical profession has pointed out frequently the lag between the growth of scientific knowl- edge for the alleviation of suffering and the understanding of the population in matters of private and public health. Much is being done today in schools to teach the advantages of per +} ne dangers ot sel sonal cleanliness, lf-medica tion, the prevention ot communicable diseases, the care of the human body, the possibilities of proper diet, the need for exercise, and the truth about nostrums and quackery. More can be done along all of these lines, not only with children, but with the adults reached thru pa ent-teacher meetings, school publications, and the personal attention of teachers and nurses The possibilities in the field of accident pre vention have received increased attention in re cent years \ broader school program of activi ties is reachin back into the home where most accidents occur. Death and in trafhic are instruction given within classrooms of the min jury from street responding to the straining influences of pupil trafhe pat: greatest opportunity tor future Perhaps the service lies in the early detection, prevention, and treatment of mental and physical handi caps. The efttorts of parent-teacher groups to eliminate certain handicaps before a child enters school need to be widely extended. Systemati physical and mental tests thruout childhood will help teachers to deal intelligently with in lividual differences in pupils. The possibilit qaividual diiterences 1n puptlls. le possIDUity of reducing mental and emotional maladjust | ments by better handling of competition, marks, disciplinary practises, testing, and other practises will be explored carefully by teachers. Schoolhouse planning will doubtless con tinue to profit by the advances made in the fields of heating, lighting, and sanitation. It will be found so architecture, ventilation, cially unwise in the light of scientific evidence for pupils to continue to attend school in build- ings which fail to meet health standards as to drinking fountains, play spaces, and toilet facil- ities, and which are not safe against fire, tor- nado, and earthquake hazards. 2 For further educational implications consult: American Child Health A ation. 7nfluence of Social and Economic Factors on the Health of the School Child. New York: the Association 32. 144 p. American Child Health Associat Principles and Practices in Health Education. New York: the Association, 1930. 485 { Beers, C. W. The Mind that Found Itself Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 192 { Brammell, P. R Health and Physical Education. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1932, No. 17. National Survey of Se dary Education. Washington, D. ¢ Government Printing Office, 1933. 98 p. { Davis, E. C. Methods and Techniques Used in Surveying Health and Physical Education in City Schools. Contributions to Education, No. 515. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932. 162 { Martens, Elise H. Adjustment of Behavior Problems of School Children. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Office of Educat Bulletin 1932, No. 18. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1932. 78 p. | National Committee Mental Hygiene Psychiatric Examination of a Child. New York: the Committee, 1926. 7 p. {[ National Education Association, Research Division “The Principal and Progressive Movements in Education.” Research Bulletin 7: 56-66, 96; March, 1929. { National Education Association and American Medical Association 251 p. { Sydenstricker, Edgar. Health and Environment Conference on Child Health and Protection. The C. E. A. “Health.” In Whither Mankind. New York Children Physically Fit for School.’’ Parents’ Magazine 9 Health Education, rev New York Schoal Health Program Longmans. Green and ( 1928. p. 187-207. § Wynne, S. W 21; September, 1934 Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 19 McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. 217 p. § White House New York: Century Co., 1932. 400 | { Winslow, ‘Making [ 253 | RATIO OF MARRIAGES TO DIVORCES DIVORCES MARRIAGES ~N ~N eo _— 1932 TREND TO APARTMENTS IN NEW CONSTRUCTION FAMILIES PROVIDED FOR in apartments in houses fevccccey ~~! a) ~ o = 1928 ent of families provided for in new con nts 10 perc Each symbol represe [ 254] The role of the family in society has been undergoing change for centuries. Religious functions have been transferred largely to the church, handicraft to the factory, much of the formal education of the young to the school, and defense to the police and other armed forces. There still remain vestiges of these functions within the home, but the major re- maining activities are those of rearing chil dren, developing character, promoting social contacts, and providing for leisure. A relatively larger proportion of the popu tayed t than at the beginning of the century. *The per- cent married was 55.7 in 1900 and 60.5 in 1930. Out of every 1,000 young people 15-19 years of age, fifteen more were married in 1930 than in 1890. Seventy-three more per thou- sand were married in 1930 than in 1890 of the lation over 15 years of age is ma oday cS S age group 20-24 years. There has been a small decline in the size of families during the past thirty years. In 1900 the average size of family was 3.67, in 1920 it was 3.58, and in 1930 it was 3.57. When analyzed in terms of rural or urban residence, changes in family size become more significant. On the average, farm families have increased in size while those in the largest* cities have decreased. if ¢ A significant trend in am years has been the influence upon family life of the applica tions of science and invention. Between 1920 and 1930 the number of domestic consumers of gas increased almost twice as fast as the number of families. Labor in the home has been reduced thru the development of such electric appliances as irons, percolators, washing ma- chines, vacuum cleaners, and refrigerators. Century Co., 1931. 161 p. Social Science, Vol. 160. Philadelphia: the Academy, III. Home and Family Life’ 1 Based upon: Seligman, Edwin R. A. Encyclopedia of the Social Scien New York: Macmillan Co., 1931. \ VI 65-73 i President’s Research Committee. Recant Social Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. Chapte { Ogburn William F., editor. Social Changes in 1929, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930. p. 1017-26. { Gillette, John M., and Reinhardt, James M. Current Social Problems. New York: American Book ( 1933. p. 539-70. § U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Marriage and Divor 1932. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1934. 29 p ®£ For further educational implications consult: Cooper, William J., spor 1 Symposium on the New Home-Making Edu cation. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 193 No Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1933. 56 p. { Groves, Ernest R., and Ogburn, W. F. American Marriage and Family Relationships. New Y Henry Holt & Co., 1928. 497 p. {§ Hanna, Paul R. “Adjusting the Home Economics Program to the Present Ecor c Situation Teachers College Record 34: 386-97; February, 1933. § Lindquist, Ruth. The Family in the Present Social Order; A Study of Needs of American Families. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Pre 1931. 241 p. § Miller, Eller Education for Family Living in a Changing World.”’ Journal of Home Economics 26: 1-5; January, 1934. {| National Congre f Parents and Teachers. Parent Education. Fourth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the National Congress, 1934. 268 f Pierce, H. W Junior High School and Home Membership.’’ /unior-Senior High School Clearing House 241-49; December 3. § President’s Con- ference on Home Building and Home Ownership. See particularly Planning for Residential Districts (1932, 227 p Farm and Village Housing (1932, 293 p.), and Homemaking, Home Furnishing, and Information Services (1932, 238 p.). Washington, D. C National Capital Press, Inc. § Watson, G. B. ‘Education for New Homes and New Economics.” Journal of Home Economics 25: 651-59; October, 1933. { White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. Tie Home and the Child. New York § Young, Donald, editor. Modern American Fami Annals of the American Academy of | tical and 256 p [ 255 ] ‘These innovations have combined with the small size of families and other factors to give women greater freedom from home duties. In many instances this available time has been utilized by business and by industry shown : by a 60 percent increase between 1920 and 1930 of the number of married women gain fully employed. The number of divorces is often cited as an evidence of the disintegration of the home. In 1900 there were 20 divorces for every 10,000 married persons, as compared with 36 in 1930 v Educational Implications Should public schools continue to accept the Y the home? Thru adult education it may be possible carried by responsibilit ies formerly to return to the home some of the responsibility various for maintaining or supplementing phases of child care. In cooperation with both public and private agencies, school authorities can work for the enrichment of family life. The school may be come a recreational and community center at tended by young and old alike. Child guidance clinics can be developed to help parents unde stand and prevent the problems of childhood. There is a possibility also that high schools and colleges will enter more directly into the work of preparing young men and women for marriage and parenthood. Courses in child care, psychology, sex education, sociology, fam will in- crease in number to supplement the existing 1n- ily budgeting, purchasing, probably struction in home economics. School activities on the elementary level may include more op portunities for developing attitudes and unde standing of the individual’s role in family life. MORE WOMEN GAINFULLY OCCUPIED Gaintully employed 1880 _ Of CONTROL OF FINANCIAL POWER BY WOMEN OOOOOO Net income Ownership of stock (55 corporations) ili) ili) Life insurance death claims Each symbol rep Changes in the home and in family life have had their influence on the part played by women in the nation’s life during the past three decades. Released from many of the responsi- bilities of the household, they are finding places for themselves in new occupational fields and are participating to an increasing degree in lo- cal, state, and national activities. Between 1900 1930 the women gainfully employed increased from 206 to 253 per 1,000 women sixteen years of age and over. The proportion which employed and number of women were of all gainfully occupied persons increased from 17.7 percent to 21.9 percent during the same period. Also the ratio of mar- ried women who work to the total number of married women increased from 5.6 to 11.7 percent since 1900. Domestic and personal types of services continue to include the largest proportion of women workers. The proportion of women in professions is increasing, altho 95 percent of all professionally employed women are found today in teaching and nursing. Women’s earn- ings are low and usually smaller than those of men engaged in similar work. The educational status of women has shown steady advances. Before the nineteenth cen- tury it was generally argued that, since women were to become homemakers, they needed little education beyond the elementary school. In 1900 the 36,051 women students in colleges represented 34.6 percent of the total enrolment in higher education. By 1930 the percent of women students had increased to 41.4 and the total number to 311,842. The legal status of women has shown some general improvement. The first mothers’ aid bill was adopted in 1911 and by 1930 the movement had spread to 44 states and the Dis- 1 Based upon: Ogburn, William F., editor. Social Changes in 1929. Chicago 4 President’s Research Committee. Recent Social Trends John M., and Reinhardt, James M. Current Social Problems. New York ment of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Women in Gainful Occupations, | Breckenridge, S. P Printing Office, 1929. 416 p. Book Ce Economic Activities. New York: McGraw-Hill University of Chicago Press, 1934. 153 p. 2 For further educational implications consult New York: the Association (353 W. 57th St.), 1931. 102 p. American Association of University Women Journal 27 for Women, 1932. 200 p. Professions. Ann Arbor: Bureau of Business Research, University of Michigan, 1‘ Department. The Woman Power of the Nation. New York 4 Ogburn, W. F. “Outlook for the Trained Woman.”’ q U.S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau. Women at Work; A Century of Industrial Change. Washington ment Printing Office, 1933. 51 p. IV. Position of Women’ Women in the 1933 American Woman’s Association. The Trained Woman and the Economic {| Beard, Mary R 11-21; October, ings of Women in Business and the Professions. Ann Arbor: Bureau of Business Research, University of Michigan {| Institute of Women’s Professional Relations. After College, What? Bulletin No { Manson, Grace E. Occupational Interests and Person the Federation (9 E. 40th St.) American Association of University Women Journal [ 257 ] trict of Columbia. Until late in the nineteenth century the married woman had no property rights. By 1930 only 9 states made restric tions upon the property rights of the wife which did not also apply to husbands. Recognition of equal rights in the guardianship of children prevailed in only 14 states in 1900 but had spread to 39 states by 1930. There still exist in a few states legal restrictions of married women which do not apply to single women. In the field of equal legal rights women’s o1 ganizations show an increasing interest. Educational Implications * The employment of an increasing numbe of women in gainful occupations has accelerated the pressure on higher education for specialized training. Universities will continue to en rich the training offered to women students for nursing, public health, welfare work, teaching, and other lines of social service. In secondary education, courses in homemaking, secretarial work, commercial art, nursing, and designing will prove increasingly attractive to those who will eventually seek employment. Perhaps the greatest need, with the develop- ment of vocational education for women, will be for the improvement of guidance services. In terms of available employment there is at present overcrowding in certain occupations. The women outside the home is already leading to the development of public and private organ ized educational opportunities for young chil- dren. The present kindergarten and nursery school movement may result in the creation of continued employment of married a primary unit preceding the present elemen- tary school. ‘These units may function more as child-study classes and guidance clinics for par- ents, than as formal classes for children. University of Chicago Press, 1930. p. 1091-96 New York: McGraw-Hiil Book Co., 1933. p. 679, 709-50, 770. @ Gillette, American Book Co., 1933. p. 539-620. { U.S. Depart 1870 to 1920. Washington, D. C Government Twentieth Century; A Study of Their Political, Social, and 364 p. { Branch, Mary S. Women and Wealth. Chicag Crisis College and Alumnae in Contemporary Life.’ und Manson, Grace E. Earn 1930. 215 p. 4. Greensboro, N. C.: North Carolina College ality Requirements of Women in Business and the 1.409 p. § National Civic Federation, Women’s No date. Part I, 24 p.; Part II, 39 p 27: 146-52; April, 1934 -. = Ge 1935. § Elliott, Margaret, ern- NET INCOME OF NON-FINANCIAL CORPORATIONS i aft potenti | co. 200 largest corporations -~ BOO@OOOOCE -~ SOOSOOOOOE m GOOOG OOOO Each circle represents 10 percent of net income O©Re STOCKHOLDERS IN AMERICAN CORPORATIONS ret L Each symbol represents 2 million stockholders The material development of the United States has been closely associated with organ- ized commercial groups. The earliest perma- nent settlements were made by trading com panies. In the period preceding the Civil War vast business enterprises involving furs, land, railroads, steamboats, and mining kept pace with or preceded the Westward Movement. Even in 1900 three-fourths of our manufac- tured products came from factories owned by groups of stockholders, and since then concen tration has gone steadily forward. In 1900 there were 20 bank mergers, 172 in 1920, and 735 in 1930. In 1919, in manufacturing and mining fields, 438 organizations disap- peared thru mergers; in 1928, about 1,000 went out of existence by the same route. Pub lic utilities disappeared by various types of con- solidation at the following rates: 22 in 1919, 426 in 1923, and 585 in 1928. By 1930 one- fifth of all retail trade was transacted by chain stores. In addition to merging and purchasing, the practise of establishing holding companies has been a method of concentrating control. In 1930 subsidiaries of holding companies sup- plied 72 percent of the nation’s electricity, 42 percent of the gas, and 31 percent of the trac- tion services. The present high degree of concentration is shown further by the fact that in 1929 two hun- dred corporations out of a total of 300,000 non-financial companies controlled almost 50 percent of the corporate wealth and received 43 percent of the non-banking corporate in- come. It has been estimated that if these cor- porations continue to grow at their average annual rate for the years 1909 to 1929, they will control half of the wealth by 1950. The growth of large corporations represents primarily an expansion in administrative and 1 Based upon: Berle, A. A., and Means, G. C. The 1933. 396 p. { President’s Research Committee. Rece q Atkins, Willard E., and Wubnig, Arthur. Our Economi: ¥ Beard, Charles A., and Beard, Mary R. The Rise of Vol. II, p. 176-77, 573. 2 For further educational implications consult: Bonbright, James C Public Significance and Its Regulation. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., and Warburton, Clark. America’s Capacity to Consume. Washington, D. C. R. S. “Education of the Forgotten Man.” Journal of Adult Education 4: 378-82 America’s Capacity to Produce. Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institution, 1934 V. Economic Organization’ Modern Corporation and Private Property nt Social Trends. N World. New York imerican Civilization managerial Accompanying this ten dency to limit the number powers. of administrators, there has been a movement to expand owne! ship by increasing the number of stockholders. Since the World War the savings and other financial resources of the general public have been increasingly tapped by sales of commercial stocks and bonds. Between 1913 and 1931 the number of stockholders in each of our largest railroad, steel, and telephone companies in creased approximately three-, four-, and eleven- fold respectively. People other than those with the 100,000 largest incomes received 22 per- cent of all corporate dividends in 1916 and 45.8 in 1927. Educational Implications * The growth of the number of corporations, their increasing financial power, and the ex- pansion of the number of owners provide vital materials for the school curriculum. Examina- tion of the history of particular corporations is illuminating as to the ethics which have often characterized our developing economic struc- ture. From such studies students will under- stand why government has often found it neces- sary to intervene in the interest of the happi- ness and security of the general public. Further exploration should be made into legislation and into the types of governmental machinery that have been developed to supervise business. It will be increasingly necessary for educa- tion to help students to understand the prin- ciples of wise investment. The stock market crash in 1929 revealed in many cases the fail- ure of the American people to distinguish be- tween investing and gambling. The federal government’s efforts to prevent unwise specula- tion and unsafe investments should be thoroly understood by those who will eventually be members of the investing public. Macmillan Co., Chapter 5. 22, and 23. p. 35-37; New York York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933 Harper & Bros., 1934. Chapters 17, New York: Macmillan Co., 1930. Vol. I, New and Means, Gardiner C. The Holding Company, Its 1932. 398 p. {f Leven, Maurice; Moulton, Harold G.; : the Brookings Institution, 1934. 272 p. { Lynd, October, 1932. { Nourse, Edwin G., and others. 608 p. {J President’s Conference on Unemploy- ment, Committee on Recent Economic Changes. Recent Economic Changes in the United States. Published for the National Bureau of Economic Research. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1929. Analysis. Ed. by J. G. Frederick. New York: Business Bourse, 1931. 221 p Stryker, R. E. American Economic Life and the Means of Its Improvement. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1931 [{ 259 ] The Swope Plan: Details, Criticisms, {| Swope, Gerard and 2 V. Munro, Thomas; { Tugwell, Rexford G.; 737 p. CHILDREN 10 TO 15 GAINFULLY EMPLOYED Each symbol represents 5 percent of all children 10 to 15 years old VI. Labor Conditions ° Even as late as 1880 the United States em- ployed 50 percent of its working population in agricultural pursuits. With extensive indus- trialization the status and problems of labor have undergone rapid change. For years the demand for an increasing supply of labor in industry stimulated immigration and drew women and children into gainful employment. Shifts in the types of work and the introduction of intricate machinery have seriously disturbed employment and decreased the demand partic- ularly for child labor. The rapid rise in the production of goods has been accompanied in general and with many uneven advances by better wages, a higher standard of living, and shorter hours of employment. Of course, since 1930 the trend toward higher living standards has been checked or reversed. The trend in income is one indication of the changes in the purchasing power and the stand- ard of living of the wage earner. In manufac- turing groups the average annual income rose from $558 in 1910 to $1358 in 1920 and dropped to $1325 in 1928. Employees of pub- lic utilities received on the average $655 in 1910, $1662 in 1920, and $1558 in 1928. Farm labor averaged $336 in 1910, $810 in 1920, and $587 in 1928. The “real earnings” of em- ployed wage earners, expressed in index num bers with the year 1914 as the base 100, were 96 in 1890, 97 in 1900, 101 in 1910, 106 in 1920, and 132 in 1928. The condition of labor has been improved, not only by wage increases but by a widespread reduction in the hours of work. Between 1890 and 1928 the hours of work per week in certain industries declined as follows: building, 52.0 to 43.5; cotton goods, 62.8 to 53.4; marble and stone, 54.7 to 44.0; and woolen goods, 58.9 to 49.3. Under the codes of the Recovery Ad- ministration, the most frequent provision is for a 40-hour week. There has been a decline in the number of children employed. Of the age group between 10 and 15 years, 18 percent were gainfully occupied in 1890 as compared with 5 percent in 1930. Except for employment in agriculture, children under sixteen years of age constitute less than 1 percent of those employed in the major occupational groups. The NRA codes forbid the industrial employment of children under sixteen years of age and, in some of the more hazardous employments, the minimum age has been raised to seventeen or eighteen years. Children in agricultural areas have not 1 Based upon: President’s Research Committee. Recent Social Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. Chapter 16. q Atkins, Willard E., and Wubnig, Arthur. Our Economic World. New York: Harper & Bros., 1934. p. 289-314. [ 260 ] iS been similarly protected from early employ- ment. Of great significance has been the improve- ment of labor conditions thru state legislation. Workmen’s compensation insurance was made compulsory in five states in 1911 and by 1929 similar laws existed in 44 states. Beginning in 1923, old-age pension laws had spread to 17 states by 1932. In 1908 the first state law limiting the hours of work by women was up held by the United States Supreme Court. By 1930, 44 states limited the working day, 16 states prohibited night work, and 18 states re- quired one day of rest in seven. Minimum wage laws for women began in 1912 and within a short time such laws had been passed in 14 states and the District of Columbia. In 1923 a ruling of the United States Supreme Court made these laws ineffective in all but Mas sachusetts and California. The growth of labor organizations has been an important factor in the improvement of laboring conditions. In 1890 about 300,000 persons held membership in labor unions. Due to pressure to increase production, increased cost of living, unsatisfactory working condi- tions, and other factors, the membership in trade unions increased to 2,184,200 by 1910. By 1920 the total membership increased to over five million but declined during the years of prosperity. Under the stimulus of the depres- sion and the NRA, the present enrolment prob- ably exceeds the 1920 membership total. Trade unions, however, enrol only a small portion of the fifty million workers in the United States. Farm hands, unskilled laborers, office em- ployees, and professional workers have not been included to any large extent in labor organiza- tions. A primary aim of the foregoing legislation and labor movements has been to insure eco- nomic security to workers. To many the re- cent depression has demonstrated the relative ineffectiveness of the steps taken so far. They believe that the insecurity of labor will be elim- 2 For further educational implications consult Deal. New York: Macmillan Co., 1934. 178 p Maurice; Moulton, Harold G.; and Warburton, Clark Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 385 p Beard, Charles A., and Sm { Chase, Stuart. Men and Machines. New York { Hoffman, M. David. Status of Voluntary Teachers’ Organizations in Cities Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1930, No. 36. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, America’s Capacity to Consume, Washington, D. C 1934. 265 p. § National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. The Economic Welfare of Teachers. Sixth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1931. 244 p. § Nourse, Edwin G., and others. America’s Capacity to Produce Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institution, 1934. 608 p. {| Soule, G. H. The Coming American Revolution, New York: Macmillan Co., 1934. 314 p. § Soule, G. H. A Planned Society. New York: Macmillan Co., 1932. 295 p. {| Tugwell, Rexford G., and others. American Economic Life. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 193 p. § U.S. Department of Lal Bureau of Labor Statistics. Unemployment-Benefit Plans in the United States and Unemployment Insurance in Foreign Countri¢ B tin 544 [ 261 ] inated\only by economic planning and control on a national basis. Of the many plans pro- posed, the NRA, the AAA, and the Tennessee Valley project have been put into actual opera tion. Educational Implications ho pass Since a majority of the students w thru the educational system will eventually be employed, and will be affected by conditions outside as well as within their own occupa tions, they should understand laboring condi tions. Classes in the social studies will find value in the discussion of state participation in improving the status of wage earners. Among the problems that might be considered are old age pensions, workmen’s compensation, mini slative enact mum wage laws, and similar leg ments. Attention can be given to industrial disputes, strikes, lockouts, and other issues. Such study ought not to be limited either to the side of labor or to that of employers, but should be concerned primarily with the welfare of the general public. The purposes and activities of departments, labor arbitration state labor boards, and industrial relations committees are also subjects which young citizens may examine with interest. To make these problems real, students may be taken in groups to visit local factories, labor meetings, conferences of business groups, public utilities, and the residential areas of all eco- nomic levels. The work of agencies for social welfare, such as the community chest, should be a part of the investigation. From surveys such as these many classes will be able to pre- pare tentative proposals for the amelioration of conditions and the improvement of industrial relations. Whether or not such proposals are practical for immediate application, they may, at least, stimulate thought both inside and out- side the classroom. th, G. H. The Future Comes; A Study of the New Macmillan Co., 1929. 354 p 100,000 Population or More. U. S. Dept. of the 1931. 42 p { Leven : Brookings Institution CHANGING OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION 1930 Agriculture Each hgure represents 2,500,000 gainfully employed Manufacturing and Mining SSA Se) \\ AS SS WS Trade and Transportation All Others Nat Ed VII. Occupations’ Urbanization, mechanization of industry, modern invention, rapid transportation, and improvement in communication have been major influences upon the occupations. So far as those employed are concerned there has been a shifting in the relative importance of occupa- tions and a specialization within occupations. At the same time there has been, even in nor- mal times, a persistent if not an increasing prob- lem of unemployment. Approximately 40 percent of the population of the United States are customarily engaged in gainful occupations. If women working as housewives in their own homes are included, the percentage of the population at work is about 60 percent. The proportion of children between the ages of 10 and 15, gainfully em- ployed, has decreased from 18 percent in 1900 to less than 5 percent in 1930. At the opposite end of the occupational age scale the percentage of employed persons between the ages of 45 and 64 has increased 2 percent. In recent years, altho statistical data are conflicting, the prob- ability is that strict hiring rules discriminate against workers who are above 45 years of age. The attractiveness of urban life, modern agricultural methods, and other factors have reduced the proportion of gainfully employed persons engaged in agriculture from 36 percent in 1900 to 21 percent in 1930. Mining, manu- facturing, and the mechanical industries fur- nished employment to an increasing number of persons until 1920, when about 33 percent of the country’s workers were in these occupa- tions. Improved methods of production reduced the number of necessary workers in these fields so that in 1930 only a little over 30 percent of the working population were so engaged. The proportion of workers in the growing oc- cupations of trade, transportation, and clerical work increased from 19 percent in 1900 to 29 percent in 1930. A study of occupational distribution over a long period of time shows that there is a definite shift from manual productive occupations to the supervisory and clerical occupations. Whereas in 1870 those employed in actual pro- duction of goods amounted to 75 percent of all employed persons, by 1930 the proportion had dropped to 50 percent. There has been a decided tendency, also, toward specialization. Obviously no picture of occupations is com- plete without some attention to unemployment. The federal census in 1930 reported 3,187,647 persons as unemployed who were able and will- ing to work. The percent of male workers un- employed in certain groups were: coal miners, 21.5 ; building laborers, 24.1 ; laborers in manu- 1 Based upon: President’s Research Committee. Recent Social Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. p. 268-324. { Ogburn, William F., editor. Social Change and the New Deal. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934. p. 54-56. { 262 ] facturing, 16.4; semi-skilled oper 14.6; and cooks, manufacturing, mates of the total number of unemploye the depression years differ. According to ot # LUOT 19 30) and { American Federation unemplove numbered 13,689,000 in 700,000 in 1933. Educational Implications It is important for educators to ip the shifting nature of occupations. In tl many vocational guidance programs have based upon an occupational distribution sumed to be static. ‘he shifting nature of ployment calls for continuous and extensive surveys of opportunities in each comm veCauUuse + Nationwide studies are necessary mobility of the population means tha adults do not live in the areas where tended school. So far as possible this vocational inforn tion will be supplied to each student so that he may know the types of workers required is each field, the personal qualities necessary for success, the possibilities of placement, and the likelihood of changes in occupation because of » technological improvements. Pupils will need to know about the studies of employers’ opin ions which show that the demand is increasing for adaptability as well as for specialization in training. Employers also are anxious to have new employees who have had many social ex periences which enable them to cooperate with others. The findings of such studies clearly indi cate that guidance is no longer a task solely fo: specialized counselors and experts. All teachers will find increasing opportunities for helping students to develop well-rounded, capable per sonalities. Research also indicates that much re sponsibility must be placed upon students for self-discovery, self-inventory, and self-guidance. nal implications consult: Clark, Harold 18-26 I 1933 i Walter Guidan U. S. Dept f ® For further educat People to Do All of the Work.’’ Occupations 12 School and Society 38: 485-90; October 14 Schools 13: 13-17; June, 1934. { Greenleaf No. 19, 1932; “Optometry,’’ No 1934.) Printing Office, 1931-34. { Hall, O. M 27-42; February, 1934. {§ Ickes, H. L. “The Old Order “Summer Schools for Workers in Industry.’ Progressive F tion, Department of Superintendence. Character Education q National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘Tea 1931. {J Peffer, Nathaniel. New Schools for Older Students Programs of Guidance. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Off Printing Office, 1933. 144 p. ary “rton or the >> her 1934 Interi “How Occupational Trends 1 Changeth.”” Occupati 12: 5 lucation 9: 503 ] I Tenth Yeart Demand : New Education, B s De inning wit! 1] } | Wil aouovotiless ¢ nciple: “Know th his own potent the needs and now available are dependent econom amount ' 14 ] +: 1] ern ite, Cathlon Will h ive | duc ition W count these changes. nce er vely with those ager lal in 2 Ladvoratt , o.4 ' n closest contact with employn only ticeship training. New emphasis the ret! } +9 Wlll Nave ain o! workers as occu] social and scientifi under particularly employ ment ot 7 } 1° help of re-educational facilities on here declining ty pes funct in sustaining moral =e ] + lation, as well as in the t are no longer need¢ * influence ] i + who have specialized l special problem oOo! t } icner supply to demand, standards be lowered and may status of the teacher materia Planning ( pational Distribut q Cof ; D. “Education nge, Guidance of Une Must Chemistr -ducation. Wash and a B March Are eview York > pre the Te e\ wn training. Without some ' ional nomi VIII. Wealth and Income ' Except for periods of economic depression the general trend of wealth—the total value of the goods owned by the people of the na- tion—has been to increase consistently with population growth. The total wealth of the United States in current dollars increased from 85.5 billions of dollars in 1900 to 488.7 bil- lions in 1920; it fell to 317.2 billions in 1921, reached 361.8 billions in 1929, and declined to 247.3 billions in 1932. The distribution of wealth varies widely between individuals and sections of the coun- try. Some contend that wealth has tended to become concentrated in the hands of a few, while others hold that there is little evidence that any radical change in the distribution of wealth has taken place in the past several dec- ades. In 1926, a study of estates by the Fed- eral Trade Commission indicated that 59 per- cent of the wealth was owned by 1 percent of the people; 81.9 percent was held by 5.3 per- cent. It was also reported that for the period investigated (1912-23) there was an apparent trend toward a wider distribution of wealth. National income, consisting chiefly of the ' Based upon: U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Wealth, Public Debt, and Taxation, 1922 { U.S. Department of Commerce. National Income, 1929-32 D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1924. p. 18. salaries, wages, interest, rent, and dividends the American people, is usually more estimated than wealth. The total income of 27.2 dollars in 1909 increased to 60.2 1918 and then to an estimated high point of 83.0 billions in 1929. During the from 1930 to 1933 inclusive, the estimates in billions of dollars varied as follows: 70.3, 54.6 39.4, and 40.7 respectively. The per capita in come in current dollars has been estimated as increasing from $300 in 1909 to $642 in 1919 and $683 in 1929. Since 1930 the annual per capita income varied as follows: 1930, $571; 1931, $440; 1932, $315; 1933, $324. According to the federal income tax returns for 1930, only 3,707,509 persons out of about 50 million gainfully employed had large enough incomes to pay a tax. Seventy-five percent of those reporting received $5000 or less in 1930. It is estimated that in that year the average wage earner received between $1500 and $2000, while the average farmer received about $1000 in cash income. Recently published estimates of the distribu- received by accurately national billions of billions in rour year Washington Washington, D. C Government Printing Office, 1934, p. 10. { National Industrial Conference Board. Conference Board Bulletin. ‘National Wealth and National Income,”’ No. 62, p. 493-500, February 20, 1932; “National Income in 1931 and 1932,”’ 7: 13-15, February 20, 1933; “Estimating the National Wealth,” 7: 33-35, May 20, 1933; “Revised Estimates of National Income,’”’ 8: 1934; “National Income and Its Elements,”’ 8: 33-40, May 10, 1934. Income. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1926. p. 58. Clark. America’s Capacity to Consume. Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institution, 1934. p. 87-88. Wubnig, Arthur. Our Economic World. New York: Harper & Bros., 1934. p. 157-67. 15-16, February 20, q U.S. Federal Trade Commission. National Wealth and | Leven, Maurice; Moulton, Harold G.; and Warburton q Atkins, Willard E., and { President’s Research Committee. Recent Social Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. p. 228-32, 860-61. ESTIMATED GROWTH OF NATIONAL WEALTH Pe) 1. Each symbol represents 50 billion tion of national more than 42 per United States of the national incon treme, 2.4 percent about 29 percent of are students of this problen during the past decade the inequ tribution of income has been With income as a basis, to divide the total population int economic groups. [The groups and the pr of the total population in each follow: we 0.6 percent; well-to-do, 1.8 percent; con able, 5.9 percent; moderate circumstan 13.7 percent ; minimum comfort, 35.7 percent —t * shag . . and to apply intelligence and subsistence and poverty, 42.3 percent :; earning a ll 1g ntortunately Educational Implications of unskilled and poorls trained wo! states where chools are poor and Economic conditions attecting wealth and tends to ounteract the venencia come make necessary courses in economics that excellent state school programs will meet the needs of the average person. Such Fluctuations of the national income ; courses should stress actual conditions and ontinuous. and often serious, effects upon BOE GT a eee = : ns trends rather than abstract theory and should <-hool support. While school administrato1 provide an understanding of economic institu will continue to profit from more efficient tions and develop the ability to participate methods in budgeting and purchasing, there is intelligently in the shaping ot public policies. need tor sta ylitv in the income ot education “For further educational implications consult: Carr, W. G. Sch Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1933. 106 p. { Douglas, Paul H. Real Wag Mifflin Co., 1931. 682 p. { Kilpatrick, William H., and other The Edi 1933. Chapter 2, ‘‘The Social-Economic Situation and Educatior ) the Economic Status of the Teacher. Report. Washingtor ciation, Department of Classroom Teachers. Economic W tion, 1931. 244 p. {f National Education Association Bulletin, Vol. XIII, No. 2: March, 1935. (In preparation the Public Schools. Washington, D. C.: the Association, | p. 37-44 DISTRIBUTION OF THE NATIONAL INCOME Each circle represents 2 percent of income in 1929 Each man represents 2 percent of the population i ee 2. — dy jem Tn cing a PATENTS ISSUED tir i a 1846- 1850 1866- 1870 1896- 1900 1926- 1930 EE NEE Each symbol represents 20 thousand patents issued wT WW IX. Invention and Discovery ' Invention and discovery contribute to social change by creating a new environment to which man must adapt himself. Inventions may be mechanical or social. The radio is a mechani cal invention; the sponsored radio program, a social invention. The social invention usually follows the mechanical invention and repre- sents an effort to adjust to the new conditions that have been created. The delay between the invention or discovery and man’s adaptation to it is called by sociologists “cultural lag.” It is this lag that causes many social problems. In recent years inventions and discoveries have increased rapidly. During the five-year pe- riod 1900-1905 there were 143,791 patents issued in the United States. In the five-year pe- riod ending in 1930 there were 219,384 patents. Further appreciation of the influence of inven- tions since 1900 is gained from a mere listing of a few outstanding achievements: airplane, oil-burning steamer, radio-telephone, television- photograph, tungsten lamp, gyrocompass, radio broadcasting, and radio-television. Findings in the fields of chemistry and natural science also have produced many economic and _ social changes. Among the important discoveries since 1900 are the following: cellophane, shatter- proof glass, adrenalin, insulin, and vitamins. Ways of living today have been changed not only by the foregoing, but by hundreds of inventions made prior to 1900 and put into widespread use since that date (e. g., the auto mobile, 1880-87; automatic telephone, 1887 moving pictures, 1892; X-ray, 1895). Under the influence of such inventions today life moves at a faster pace, ideas and customs tend to be standardized, and the general standard of living is higher than in 1900. Perhaps the influence of invention can be made more striking by referring to the 150 so cial effects of the radio listed in Recent Social Trends. Among some of these new effects are the following: regional differences in cultures less pronounced, the penetration of city culture into villages and rural areas, the diffusion of culture between nations, the increased popular- ity of music, the revival of many old songs, the improvement of safety in air travel thru the radio beacon, the teaching of lessons to pupils, the dissemination of agricultural information to farmers, the speeding up of machinery for the detection of criminals, the bringing of church services to invalids, the employment of many artists for radio programs, the distribu- tion of political information to voters, the elimination of rural isolation, and the provi 1 Based upon: Mumford, Lewis. Technics and Civilization. {| President’s Research Committee. Recent Social Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 364-435. § Beard, Charles A., and Beard, Mary R. The Rise of American Civilization. New York: Macmillan Co New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1934. p. 53-54, 112, 221 1933. Chapters 2 and 3 1930. Chapter 30 [ 266 ] sion of a creative outlet for youth in amateur broadcasting. Under the strain of mechanical and social changes there has been considerable discussion of “the domination of ‘the machine’ ”’ and “the growth of power.” Mechanical developments have become to many a collective, personalized monster that destroys life, liberty, and the pur- suit of happiness. It is true that the available horsepower per agricultural worker has in- creased from 2.5 in 1900 to 7.4 in 1930; that water power has increased sevenfold in the same period; that machines today supply the equivalent of 100 slaves per person. But it must be remembered that before the horse was domesticated man himself was the basic power unit. Gradually thru invention power was sup- plied by water, steam, and electricity. Freed from drudgery, men have been able to produce more, to live on a higher plane, to develop the arts, and otherwise to enrich the lives of larger numbers of people. Apparently the proper so- cial use of the power, science, and technic developed by a machine age is the real problem to be settled. Educational Implications * One of the most obvious effects of new dis- coveries upon education is the rapid growth in knowledge. This fact accounts in no small part for the constant lengthening of the period of schooling. Courses have multiplied in number and content, and teachers have become increas- ingly more specialized. These tendencies, how- ever, increase rather than diminish the neces- sity for a common area of civic, vocational, and cultural education. Such social integrating edu- cational experiences are a necessity even in adulthood. The rapidity of change means that even greater stress will be placed upon teaching youth to think in terms of principles and proc- esses. Habits, routine learning, tradition, and authority will continue to prove inadequate guides in modern life. The aim of education must stress the development of adaptable per- sonalities capable of making adjustments on the basis of changing individual and social needs. 2 For further educational implications consult May, 1934. { Bruce, G. V. “Energy; Octeber, 1933. { Chase, Stuart. Men and Machines of Educational Confusion. Cambridge: Harvard University New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1934. Chapter 1( Brown, C Kilpatrick, William H. Education for a Changing Civilization. New York: Macmillan Co., 263 p. 1078 Aiserican Band Wagon. New York: John Day Co Day Co., 1933. 308 p. Hope of a Cultural Democracy.’ The enrichment of classroom activities thru the use of devices and inventions has lagged far behind practical scientific applications. Few schools have the visual aids to teaching which might be expected in a highly mechanized age. Recent improvements and lowered costs, how- ever, have tended to increase the use of stere opticons, balopticons, and other devices for the projection of still pictures. Teachers have developed technics for using these machines, not only for commercially developed pictures, but to show to their classes the artistic and scientific achievements of individual pupils. That school systems will need to expand their libraries of flat pictures, motion picture films, and phonograph records in order to keep abreast of rapid changes, appears to be inevitable. “~—One of the most promising fields for exten- sive school development is the use of the labora- tory method to study the nature of the learner and the learning process. One illustration may be taken from the studies that have been made of eye movements while pupils are reading. Thru the development of various devices it is now possible to photograph the eyes as they move across the printed page and to determine with exactness the movements and fixations. From these experiments it has been possible to discover faulty reading habits and to develop methods for teaching pupils to read fluently and efficiently. Another illustration is the experi-| mental use of the phonograph to record oral | speech. With the permanent records thus devel- oped, teachers have been able to give careful study to speech difficulties. Equally important has been the possibility, thru these phonograph records, of enlisting the active interest of pupils in making improvements. The foregoing examples merely touch upon the possibilities of research methods in educa- tion. The increase in use of these methods will require the training of a skilled personnel ca- pable of dealing with the complexities of the learning process. It will mean also the trans- mission to each classroom teacher of sufficient appreciation of research so that he will know when to avail himself of the services of the specialist and how to utilize the findings in his daily activities. “Educatior Machine Utopia.”’ American Review 167-70; Junior-Senior High School Clearing House 8: 82-85 New York: Macmillan Co., 1929. 354 p. § Dewey, John. The Way Out Press, 1931. 41 p. {] Judd, Charles H. Education and Social Progress. rhe Solution of Education Problems thru Scientific Studies,’’ p. 229-76. 1927. 143 p. {J Merz, C. The Great { Rugg, Harold O. The Great Technology. New York: John lL 267 ] CIRCULATION OF DAILY NEWSPAPERS wie ee eee Each symbol represents 5 millio TELEPHONES AND RADIOS PER FAMILY i> enon = eos \*e nagtent Each symbol represents 1 million families, or telephones, or radios [ 268 ] At the beginning of the century the estab- lished agencies in communicaticn were the tele- graph, the cable, and the postal service. To these have now been added the telephone, the radio, and television. By these means, and the recent development of newspapers, periodicals, news agencies, and the motion pictures, isola- tion has been broken down, distance annihi lated, and cultural patterns changed. In 1900 postal delivery service was supplied in 796 cities; in 1931, in 3,098 cities. Rural free delivery, established in 1896, served 6,890,- 687 families in 1931. The total number of telegraph messages doubled between 1902 and 1927, while the population increased about 62 percent. Wireless messages transmitted by com- mercial companies grew in number from 154,- 617 in 1907 to 3,777,538 in 1927. Amateur wireless stations increased from 1,228 in 1913 to 18,994 in 1930. The most spectacular development has been that of the telephone system. In 1900 there were 1,355,911 telephones in the United States. In 1930 there were 20,201,576. To many persons the telephone is a necessity, and failure to have one carries with it a peculiar type of isolation. Between 1902 and 1927 the aggregate number of calls multiplied sixfold, or to a total of over 29 billion. The growth in per capita calls increased from 64 in 1902 to 246 in 1930. The number of daily newspapers declined from 2,514 in 1917 to 2,268 in 1931, or about 10 percent, due largely to consolidations, but circulations have increased steadily. The growth of the number of cities with only one newspaper has increased from 353 in 1900 to 913 in 1930. One of the most effective agencies for mass 1 Based upon: President’s Research Committee. Recent Social Trends. New York and 8. { Ogburn, William F. Social Changes in 1929. Chicago For further educational implications consult: Charters, W. W. Motion Pictures millan Co., 1933. 66 p. (Combined with Getting Ideas from the Movies, by Perry W. Holaday and George D G Darrow, Benjamin H. Radio, the Assistant Teacher. Columbus, Ohio Frederick L., and others. The Educational Talking Picture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Democracy and Education. New York: Macmillan Co., 1916. 434 p Macmillan Co., 1933. 288 p. { Freeman, Frank N., and others 391 p. { Koon, Cline M. The Art of Teaching by Radio. U.S Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1933. 92 p National Planning.” School and Society 40: 111-17; July 28, 1934. : the Association, 1929. 47 p. { National Education Association, Department on Propaganda in the Schools. Washington, D. C of Elementary School Principals. Aids to Teaching in the Elementary School ciation, 1934. 416 p. { Orton, William A. America in Search of Culture. Boston: Little, chairman. “‘To What Extent Does Radio Broadcasting in the United “Destiny Listening In,” p. 244-64. { Overstreet, Harry A States Need Public Regulation?’”’ Panel Discussion. Journal of Adult Education 6 of Motion Pictures to Standards of Morality.’’ School and Society 39: 414-15; March 31, 1934 a Means of Instruction in Government.’’ American Political Science Review 27 munication.” In The Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Vol. IV. New York X. Communication’ { 269 ] impression is the radio. In 1932 the estimated number of receiving sets in the country was over 16,000,000. The daily audience is esti- mated at 37,000,000 persons. In influence upon social attitudes and public opinion, the radio's nearest rival is probably the motion pix ture, with 100 million in weekly attendance. Educational Implications The improvement of communication offers possibilities for the enrichment of education. In time, the radio will bring to every class room the voices of statesmen, the languages of foreign nations, and descriptions of events of worldwide significance. Even today the radio places hundreds of children at one time under the instruction of master teachers and brings many small schools the musical satisfactions of great symphony orchestras. It appears probable that these contacts will increase in number and value. Pupils and teachers in many communi ties and countries could thus exchange expe riences and discuss their mutual problems. But if the levels of culture and ideals are to be advanced, education has still another im portant responsibility in connection with com- munication facilities. The ease and rapidity with which impressions may be spread place a dangerous tool in the hands of political dema gogs, cranks, and unscrupulous advertisers. Students must be taught to read their news- papers with caution, to evaluate news reports, and to check important facts by consulting sev- eral dependable sources of information. Thé) type and quality of radio programs must be studied and discriminating tastes developed. Propaganda in every form must be scrutinized | so that it may be known for what it is, and ap- propriately handled in the educational program. i McGraw-Hill Book Co., 19 Chapters 4 University of Chicago Press, 1930. p. 991-1001 ind Youth; A Summary. New York: Mac Stoddard, 102 p.) R. G. Adams and Co., 1932. 271 p. J Devereux 1933. 222 p. § Dewey, John { Forman, Henry J. Our Movie Made Children. New York Visual Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1924 Dept. of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1933, No. 4 § Morgan, J. E. ‘‘National Culture—By-Product or Objective of {| National Education Association. Report of the Committee Thirteenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Ass« Jrown and Co., 1933. Chapter 13 78-85; June, 1934. {J Peter, C. C Relation {| Rutherford, G. W Radio as 264-73; April, 1933. Sapir, Edward Com Macmillan Co., 1931. p. 78-80 em age ; op eee Ra Se es? > a ay Modes of transportation have been one of the important influences in the development of the American people. The characteristic isola- tion of sections of the country prior to 1800 was swept away by the development of the steamboat and the railroad. Agriculture and in- dustry were revolutionized, and migration streamed westward to round out the continent. Within the twentieth century the street rail- _ way, the automobile, and the airplane have in- ‘creased mobility, convenience, and social con- tacts. Urban and rural communities have been brought so close together as to increase the pos- sibility of larger governmental units. The period of great railroad development preceded and immediately followed the Civil War. In 1900 there were 193,346 miles of track, and in 1930 a total of 249,052. Between 1900 and 1920 the total number of passengers carried doubled. Since that time there has been a gradual decline, chiefly because of competi- tion with the automobile. Compulsory registration of motor vehicles became nationwide in 1913. At that time there were about one million passenger cars as com- pared with 22,366,313 in 1931. The total num- ber of miles of highway in 1904 was 2,151,379; 1 Based upon: President’s Research Committee. Recent Social Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co { Ogburn, William F. Social Changes in 1929. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930. p. 991-1001. and Beard, Mary R. The Rise of American Civilization. New York: Macmillan Co., 1930. p. 636-40 XI. Transportation * by 1930 it had increased 40 percent to 3,009,- 066. Surfaced roads increased in the same pe- riod from 153,645 to 693,559 miles. Today the per capita mileage traveled in passenger auto mobiles (2,697 miles) is twelve times the per capita mileage traveled on steam railroads. While the airplane has not yet become a com- mon carrier for most people, the development of the air mail and the speeding up of com- munication are significant general influences. In 1926, passenger air service covered 3,715 miles. By 1931 it had been extended to 45,704 miles. —The number of passengers increased from 5,782 in 1926 to 522,345 in 1931. Air mail routes were extended from 4,713 miles in 1927 to 23,488 in 1931. Today the American people are sending annually about a hundred million pieces of mail by the air routes. The rush of the various modes of transpor- tation to cover the field has often resulted in competition and duplication of equipment. A recent trend has been toward an improvement of services by consolidation and integration. In 1925 the steam railways operated only 375 buses as compared with 1,759 in 1930. Street railways are utilizing buses to reach new sub urban areas and sections where electrical cars 1933. Chapter 4 { Beard, Charles A. {| National Automobile Chamber of Commerce. Automobile Facts and Figures. New York: the Chamber, 1934. 96 p. TRAVEL TIME FROM PITTSBURGH TO PHILADELPHIA 1812 1851 1934 Each square equals 1 hour Each milestone equals 24 hours Nat. Educ. A © g { 270] are impractical. The cooperation of steam rail- ways and airplanes has shortened transcon tinental transportation to a matter of hours The problem of rapid transportation for short distances within congested metropolitan areas demands further ingenuity in the integration and improvement of existing facilities. Educational Implications ° Improvements in transportation have con tributed to the enrichment of education. It is possible to send books, supplies, and equipment more rapidly into isolated areas. Trained teach- ers are willing now to go into communities which formerly were unattractive because of in- accessibility. Modern systems of highways and improved motor buses make it possible to bring children to better schools. Educators are better able to meet together in conventions, to observe personally promising school activities, to at- tend colleges for advanced study, and to work together cooperatively on mutual problems. School children are able quickly to exchange letters, pictures of local scenes, samples of re- * For further educational implications consult 23: 79-82; March, 1934. of the Interior, Office of Education, Pamphlet No. 45 Pupil Transportation.’’ Nation’s Schools 13: 19-22; February, and Consolidation.” American School Board Journal 84: 53 Department of Superintendence. Critical Problems in School Administration {| National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘The Outlook for Rural Education.” Rese tion, 1934. 384 p. 9: 229-304; September, 1931. Washington, D. C.: the Association. Education 11: 311-16; April-May, 1934. Boutwell, William D. {| Covert, Timon. Larger Units for Educational Washington baugh, Walter S., and Covert, Timon. School Administrative Units 34. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, January, 1933. 25 p 1934 { Morphet, E. L. June; and 85: 64; August gionalproducts, and other aids which introduce reality into the classroom. tended to ] 1 laS also Improved transportation accelerate the demand for larger units of school, as well as for larger units of governmental ad and _ specialists ministration. Administrators are able to cover a wider area with ever greater effectiveness. It may be expected also that en- largement of the unit of administration will be accompanied by a trend toward larger units for taxation. There is at present a definite shift small local dis ing of school from tricts to the state, and the necessity of federal support support is urged by many. Cheaper and more rapid transportation offers many possibilities for teacher training thru travel. Teachers who have visited foreign lands will be able to bring their pupils a clearef understanding of the characteristics, aspira tions, and interdependence of various peoples: The exchange of students, instructors, and edu- cational literature should contribute much to international goodwill and to the improvement of educational technics. Going Places.” National Education Association Journal dministration—A Potential Economy. U. S. Dept D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1933. 43 p. { Deffen U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Office of Education, Pamphlet No {| Farnesworth, B. K. “State Policies Relating to “Influence of Roads on Transportation 1932. { National Education Association Twelfth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Associa- rch Bulletin “The Revival of Travel.’’ Progressive { Rothschild, John PASSENGER AUTOMOBILE REGISTRATIONS BaBea BoBaae Each symbol represents 2,500,000 cars poral tre: Sie biks EMPLOYEES IN FEDERAL EXECUTIVE SERVICE t mii . nee ee Each symbol represents 50 thousand employees f f an rf rf XII. Government’ Changes in government have come so rapidly in recent years that it is difficult to tell to what extent some of the present practises are to be- come permanent in character. However, in the changes over a number of years, two definite trends are discernible: the increase in number of governmental functions and the growth in centralization. The increase in governmental functions has arisen because of such economic and social needs as are discussed in this bulletin. Increased federal activities may be illustrated by fhe crea- tion of federal boards to deal with various problems: Reserve Board (1913), Trade Com- mission (1914), Tariff Commission (1914), Power Commission (1920), Radio Commis- sion (1927), and the Farm Board (1929). The new boards and commissions created to meet the present economic crisis are too numer- ous to mention here. Increased state activity in social problems is shown by the following facts. In 1900 there were 2 state civil service commissions, and 11 in 1930; in 1923, one state had an old-age pension law, compared with 17 in 1931; in 1911 there were 5 state workmen’s compensation acts and in 1931 there were 44. In county and other local affairs there has been some loss in the number of functions because of the shifting of responsibilities to the state. At the same time, local governments have tended to spend more money on the activities retained. Increased governmental activity is also in- dicated by the total expenditures, altho this change reflects in part the fluctuations in the purchasing power of money and increases in the population. Only a few examples will be given. The federal expenditures (in current dollars) for agricultural experimental stations increased almost fourfold between 1915 and 1930, and, in the same period, costs for exten- sion work multiplied 15 times. State expendi tures (in 1915 dollars) for highways increased almost sixfold between 1915 and 1929; for education and libraries, twofold; for recrea- tion, fourfold ; and for conservation of natural resources, twofold. Costs of government in cities over 30,000 in population increased 90 percent (in 1915 dollars) between 1915 and 1929. The increase in federal and state functions and the shifting of responsibilities to larger units have been accompanied by some centrali- zation of authority. The granting of federal funds to the states for highways, for vocational education, and recently for relief purposes has 1 Based upon: President’s Research Committee. Recent Social Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. Chapters 25, 27, and 29. Book Co., 1933. p. 11. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1934. 577 p. { White, Leonard. Trends in Public Administration. Recent Social Trends Monograph. New York: McGraw-Hill! { Wooddy, Carroll H. Growth of the Federal Government, 1915-1932. Recent Social Trends Monograph [ 272] er 8 w been accompanied by certain requirements States have also increased their direction of lo cal governments in finance, education, high ways, and welfare. This tendency has gone so far that there is a demand to abolish local governments, particularly the counties, by es tablishing the state as the unit for public ad ministration. 2 Educational Implications * The school curriculum at all levels must in clude social studies courses that approach criti cally the essential problems of living together, which are also the problems of government. Ac cepted institutions of government should be studied from the point of view of their efficiency in existing situations. Interest in public adminis tration should be stimulated and well-trained young Americans encouraged to seek in govern mental activities a life work that offers op portunity for personal satisfaction and for so cial service. Institutions of higher education will need to enlarge and to enrich the courses offered advanced students in the field of gov ernment. Adult education classes, discussion groups, and forums for the study of governmental problems, if organized extensively, will help to overcome civic apathy. With an understand ing of current problems will come a coopera tion in their solution—a unity of purpose that can be obtained in no other way. Reorganization of school administration on the basis of larger units will logically follow the strengthening of state government at the expense of local government. Educators must be alert to safeguard essential values in the process of such centralization. They need also to be constantly on guard against the results of pressure brought on state legislatures to pro- cure the passage of school legislation represent- ing the interests of special groups. Of the critical problems which arise from the centralization tendencies in governmental structure one is the relationship which should * For further educational implications consult: American Hi sions and Recommendations. New York: Charles Scribner’s Son Handbook of Adult Education in the United States. New York { Judd, Charles H. Education and Social Progress. New York and Professional Management of Schools,” p. 128-51. {| Kilpatrick, Wil York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1933. p. 213-56. § Merriam, C of the Commission on the Social Studies, American Historical { National Council for the Social Studies. The Social Studies Curriculum. Fourth Co., 1934. 227 p. { National Education Association, Departme tion. Twelfth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1934 Department of Superintendence. Social Change and Education, TI able in February, 1935.) exist Metween education and government. It has peen ¢ learly rec ogni red tor years that edu cation is a state function and that boards of educ ition act under state authority \\ hile this State the does exist, the common practise has been for direct administration to be exet cised Dy the people thru local boards of « huca tion. There is genuine danger that further con centration ot powers of direct administration in the hands of state officials may seriously im pair local initiative. Io oftset this condition it has been proposed that the state sh | seek to devel efhciency and economy in adminis tration so long as it does not interfere with the right of local communities to cond experi 1 1 , ments ooking to an increase in the etrective ness of instruction. State ofhcers wi extend their control over external matters such as the determination of the accepta ty oft school building plans, the type of financial a counting to be employed, the sort of reports to be made, and the safeguards to be provided for school fund \t the same time there v prol ably continue to exist local variation in curri ulums. in methods of teaching. and in the o1 vyanization of schools. Anothe aspect Oj the relation of education to changing vOVE rnmental structure lies In the ] realm of al affairs. 5ome students of govern ment recommend that school authority parti ularly in financial matters, should be central he local government. If thi taken, it might mean the decline of boards of ized in t step were education. Other political scientists, educators, and many citizens are equally certain that the independent board of education has clearly demonstrated its usefulness, particularly in its usual freedom from political control and coi ruption. While it is true that there is no good reason for maintaining many of the very small school administrative areas, educators will need to be alert to preserve the desirable conditions which have developed when the schools are in- dependent of general local governmental au- thority storical As ition, Commission on the S i tud Conclu s, 1934. 168 jf { Ascher, Charle Political Ed ition In : American A ation for Adult Education, 1934. p. 146-51 Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1934. Chapter ¢ Lay Management 1 H and others. The Educational Fr ier. New harles E. Civic Education in the United States. Part VI, Report I Association. New York: Charles Scribner’s Son +. 196 j Yearbook. Philadelphia: McKinley Publishing nt of Superintendence. Critical Problems in Scho 4dministra Chapter 3,4,and 9. {J National Education Association nirteenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Association Avail a Mh * i 5 . . 3 ARRESTS BY AGE GROUPS fff _. eet ~8 Pee ~"# Pf rere | f Each man represents 5 percent of arrests reported to federal government, 1933 XIII. Crime and Punishment ’ Statistics on crime and juvenile delinquency in the United States lack uniformity, accuracy, and completeness. It is, therefore, difficult to determine the full significance of present trends. Existing evidence does indicate a gradual in- crease of anti-social and illegal behavior as a result of many factors working together. A large portion of those arrested for crime are young men. The number of laws defining and punishing criminal acts is increasing at the average rate of about 2 percent a year. Most of these enact- ments since 1900 have dealt with the health, safety, morals, and economic interests of the public and the conservation of natural re- sources. As a result, crimes against property and persons have declined in relative number. The invention of the automobile has brought with it unlawful acts of theft, of interstate transportation, and of street traffic. The regula- tion of liquor, drugs, and narcotics has in- creased further the possibility of violations of the law. Because of changes in the law, and for nu- merous other reasons, there has been an appar- ent increase in the number of young criminals. Today about 50 percent of the arrests reported to the federal government are for persons unde! 30 years of age, and 20 percent are for those under 21 years. A study made of the 240,871 persons whose fingerprint records were filed in 1933 with the U. S. Department of Justice re vealed 15 percent as 15-19 years of age and 24 percent as 20-24. Between the ages of 15 and 34 the percent of arrests is roughly twice the pro portion that these age groups are of the total population. The number of juvenile delinquents brought before courts was about 200,000 in 1928. Re cent reports to the Children’s Bureau indicate that the number of court cases is declining steadily in spite of widespread economic malad- justments. This trend may be due to the in- creasing practise of handling juvenile cases without formal court procedures or to the pre ventive work of the schools, social agencies, and police departments. A serious development has been the increase in organized crime. Gangsters and racketeers engage in crime for profit as members of effi- ciently operated groups. Aided by the automo- bile and excellent highways, criminal gangs 1 Based upon: National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Report on Criminal Statistics, 205 p.; Report on the Child Offender in the Federal System of Justice, 175 p.; Report on the Causes of Crime, Vol. I, 390 p.; and other reports ir this investigation. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. Chapter 22. Problems. New York: American Book Co., 1933. Chapters 27 and 28. { President’s Research Committee. Recent Social! 7 Gillette, John M., and Reinhardt, James M. Current Social q U.S. Department of Labor, Children’s Bureau. Juvenile Court Statistics: 1931. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1933. 62 p. [ 274] =o we ~~ WS extend their operations into small towns and rural communities. Alliances have sometimes developed in large metropolitan areas between the racketeer, the police, and public officials. Partly as a result of this condition there is an increased participation of state and federal agencies in police work. The recent application of scientific know! edge and methods to the problems of crime is significant. Police departments are availing themselves of fingerprint technics, chemical analyses, automobiles, radios, teletypes, and other specialized aids. Court procedure has been altered by the methods of psychology, psychiatry, medicine, and social work. Courts and prison officials are influenced by these sci ences in their use of probation and parole, and in the social readjustment of offenders. Educational Implications ~ The school should be able to influence many of the environmental factors associated with criminality and delinquency. Research has in dicated that the teacher in the classroom influ ences significantly the attitudes, ideals, and pre- judices of pupils. A modern and socially useful curriculum properly adjusted to individual needs is important. The guidance of special aptitudes, hobbies, and recreational interests thru extracurriculum activities must be en- riched in spite of the criticism of “fads and frills.” Equipment and personnel to diagnose physical and mental disabilities need to be ex- tended so as to reach every child. Cooperative efforts between the teacher, the parents, and Various constructive community agencies must be made so effective as to prevent or to remedy tendencies toward anti-social conduct. Recently public schools have placed new emphasis upon the development of character. In some instances, increases in the amount and the quality of direct moral instruction have proaches has been the thoro study of child nature and needs, followed by a complet adjustment of class management, school a ministration, and instructional activities. In short, every aspect of school life has been re quired to contribute constructively to the devel opment of wholesome personalities One great need is for the coordination of the efforts of the school with those of other pub lic agencies, such as the juvenile court officers, social workers, health authorities, and police Exact and complete records covering the en tire school life of each child are necessary Disintegrating factors, such as slum and other delinquency areas, should be studied to deter mine the possibility of improving conditions thru school activities and public opinion The foregoing educational trends are pos sibly but parts of a future comprehensive so cial program thru which society will assume a more active interest in the welfare of chil dren and of young people. The Children’s Charter, with its demand for more wholesome communities, simply emphasizes what is known about the formation of ideals and attitudes. Even excellent schools are rendered less effec tive by grossly anti-social motion pictures, radio programs, magazines, newspapers, and othe unwholesome influences of the typical commu nity. With employment opportunities for youth becoming less abundant, society must choose between allowing its young people to drift o1 directing their energies into activities which are individually and socially worthwhile. Are they to be transported to camps and employed at t yublic works ? Are they to be sent to specializec publ ks? Are they to | t to specialized semi-penal institutions as foreign countries have been forced to do with their “wild” boys? Are they to be given an opportunity for con tinuing until maturity under publicly financed educational programs which will develop their individual potentialities while conserving the been tried. One of the most promising ap- values of home and community life? For further educational implications consult: Copeland, Royal S. ‘‘Crime and a Revised National Policy Education Educational Record 15: 275-83; July, 1934. { Copeland, Royal S. ‘Educat 1 Prevention of Crime.’’ Official Report. Wash ington, D. C.: Department of Superintendence, National Education Associat 4. p. 79-88. {§ Heaton, Kenneth L. The Character Emphasis in Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 193 415 4 Hubbard, Frank W Who Is the Criminal, Society or the Individual?’’ National Education Association Journal 8-29: Apr 1 @ Lawes, L. E. “The Challenge to the School.’’ Proceedings, 1932. Vol. 70. Washington, D. C National Education Association, 19 57-60 { National Education Association, Research Divisior Crime Prevention thru Education Research Bulletin 1 l l September, 1932. {| National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘Education for Character; the Social and Psychological Background.” Research Bulletin 12: 40-80; March, 1934. Also, ‘‘Education for Character; Improving the School Progran Research Bulletin 12: 85-141; May, 1934. {§ Neumanr 370 p. § Thom, Douglas A. Normal Youth and Its Everyday on and Crime Prevent ¥ Thrasher, F. M. ‘‘Juvenile Delinquency Henry. Lives in the Making. New York: D. Appleton and ( Problems. New York: D. Appleton and Ci Journal of Educational Sociology, 6: 500-509; A XIV. Public Finance’ No other trends in modern American life interest us so much as those that touch our pocketbooks. ‘The American citizen, therefore, has a keen interest in changes affecting the burdens imposed by taxation and he is making that interest felt by membership in tax leagues, taxpayers’ strikes, and similar activities. The aggregate tax bill increased 355 per- cent between 1913 and 1930. Of this increase (in current dollars) 80 percent is attributable to the expenses of four governmental functions. Nearly 28 percent of the increase is accounted for by war costs; education accounts for about 21 percent; rural highways, for 18 percent; and municipal functions other than education, for 13 percent. With the increase have come shifts in sources of tax receipts and in the distribution of the tax burden. ‘wenty years ago public revenue was derived almost entirely from the general property tax, excise taxes on liquor and tobacco, and customs duties. By 1930 the income tax had become established as a leading source of revenue, and excise taxes had declined in rela- tive importance. The sudden decrease in reve- nue from the income tax and general property tax, due to the depression, has been followed by the adoption or the extension of excise taxes such as those on tobacco, gasoline, electricity, ! Based upon: President’s Research Committee. Recent Social Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. Chapters 7, 2 of Representatives, Committee on Ways and Means. Double Taxation. Washington, D. C and 26. @ U. S. House Printing Office, 1933. 328 p. 2 See page 277 for footnote. SOURCE OF TAXES _. @@@0e0 ~ @4 es OK Motor Vehicles All Others Each circle represents 10 percent of total amount collected Ok and alcoholic beverages. These taxes are in many cases imposed both by the federal gov ernment and by the states. The present trend toward larger units of governmental administration may relieve the tax situation in cases where shifting popula tion, a small tax base, or tax delinquency makes it impossible for the local unit to function ade quately. Federal and state aid and the sharing of tax revenues by state and local government are present attempts to handle the problems. There is apparently a growing demand fo: a reorganization of our tax system so as to stabilize governmental income and to coord nate federal, state, and local taxation, wit larger units, equitable distribution, and com I ) I petent administration. Educational Implications * The failure of the existing tax systems t provide adequately for education was brought into sharp focus by the current economic de pression. In many states, communities with small resources found unable to meet the costs of schools thru local taxation. This condition was not, of course, wholly the result of the depression. In many cases rapid changes in population or in tax resources had already brought about the necessity for partial themselves 75 Government 1930 OOVOYH OOd { 276] in aV- of ‘he ces le- ng nt to ht to state support. But the financial crisis served to emphasize the fact that school finance is no longer a strictly local problem. Some of the ways in which adjustments have been made are the enlarging of school districts with accom panying economies in administration, state con tributions to school support, either by equaliza tion funds or other forms of state aid, or by specially allotted taxes, and grants from the federal government, most recently thru the Federal Emergency Relief Administration. It appears that the schools will draw thei: support from much larger units of taxation in the future than in the past. There is an in- creasing tendency to utilize personal and cor poration income tafes, general sales taxes, and chain store taxes for the purpose of state school support. But many state tax systems need exten sive reorganization to insure financial stability of school funds, equitable distribution of the costs, and reasonable educational opportuni- ties for all children. On the other hand, there ize and ‘to direct their schools more efficiently One lesson arising from recent economi difficulties is that citizens often hold attitudes toward taxes which are at best only partly cor rect. It is common for people to feel that tax payments are contributions for which the tax payer receives nothing in return. Actually, how ever, taxation is the method by which citizens in our democracy purchase collectively essential services which they could rarely aftord nd viduals. ‘There is, obviously, a respon resting upon education to help youth and en adults to understand the essentials of taxation What types of taxes are levied in the local com munity and in the state? How does the typical citizen pay his taxes? What proportion of th individual’s tax payments are utilized for police and fire protection, for schools, and for the other activities of government ? How were thes¢ essential services paid for during the early years of the nation? These questions are but a few of those which might be discussed more rests upon educators the obligation to organ- widely in the classroom and in public forums * For further educational implications consult: Carr, William G. School Finan cl Economy Series. Sta ty Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1933. 106 p. {| Judd, Charles H. Problems in Education in the United States. Recent Socia Trends Monograph. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. Chapter 6, ‘‘Proble: f Finance p. 138-68. J Lutz, Harley I and Carr, William G. Essentials of Taxation. Suggestions for Study Groups. Washington, D. C.: National Educat A 1933. 14 p. § Mort, Paul R. State Support for Public Education. National Survey of School Finance, Office of Educatic S Dept. of the Interior. Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education, | 404 } | National Education Ass Department of Superintendence. Critical Problems in School Administration. Twelfth Yearbook. Washington, D. ¢ the A i tion, 1934. Chapter 3, ‘“‘The Financial Support of Public Education | National Education Association, Resear D “Five Years of State School Revenue Legislation, 1929-193 Research Bulletir 1-4 January, 1934. { National Ed Association, Research Division. School Revenues and New Methods of Taxation. Studies in State Educational Administrat N Washington, D. C.: the Association, January, 1930. 12 p. Also in the same serie te Corporation Income Tax an } to School Revenue Systems, August, 1932. 20 p. { National Education A und Departme per J Commission on the Emergency in Education. Report of National Conference on the Financing Education. Wast D. ¢ the Association, 1933. 78 p. {] National Tax Association. ‘Second Rep I Model te of St Local Taxation.” Proceedings, 1933. Columbia, S. C.: the Association, 1934. p. DISTRIBUTION OF TAX COLLECTIONS 1913 1930 (EE eo / { ( ( ) 2 ( yf Wear ree Education NED es Highways Cities over 30,000 i Other “ NJ Each circle represents 500 million dollars { 277 ] SRL I tate le + Sg NII LAND UTILIZATION me 1600 iy gy 1879 Wy il) yy 1930 CROPS PASTURE Each symbol represents 200 million acres XV. Natural Wealth ' The natural wealth of the United States consists of minerals, power resources, agricul- tural lands, and forests. The use made of these resources affects the economic life of the coun- try and the standard of living. Altho our nat- ural endowment is a generous one, there has been increasing interest in its proper use and the possibilities of its exhaustion. In the field of mining the problem is not one of absolute exhaustion, but of future increase in cost thru depletion of the richer and more accessible deposits. The supplies of iron ore are sufficient for many decades, yet a leading au- thority forecasts a decline in the rich Lake Superior ores within twenty years. Reserves of copper, tho still great, are so far depleted that some of our most famous districts can no longer compete with the newer mines of Africa. Crude oil reserves, according to expert esti- mates, are about 30 percent exhausted, tho fortunately chemists have now found ways to recover both gasoline and lubricants from oil shale and from coal. Reserves of coal are enor- mous, nominally sufficient to last 4,000 years at the present rate of production. Yet in coal mining also a period of increasing cost is antici- pated, hastened by the present spendthrift ex- 1 Based upon: Gillette, John M., and Reinhardt, James M p. 55-75. {| President’s Research Committee. Recent Social Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., ploitation of the richer deposits. In the anthra- cite mines, costs are already increasing and the same condition in many of our finest bituminous fields is only a matter of time. To a country more dependent than any other upon cheap metal and fuel, the conservation of mineral resources is a major national concern. The lines of attack in combatting the effects of mineral depletion are the prevention of waste in mining—which is still very large—the im- provement of methods and machinery, and economies in use. Slackening of population growth will retard the present increase in con- sumption, and recovery of scrap will create a working capital of metal, which is used over and over again, increasing with the years and thereby reducing the drain upon the mines. By these and other means, the engineers hope to offset the effects of depletion. At the same time, exhaustion of the more accessible deposits has already forced a migration to newer fields. These shifts have significant influences upon the housing, cultural opportunities, and eco- nomic status of the workers. The early policy of the federal government of selling arable lands for revenue depleted the timber and mineral lands by the end of . Current Social Problems. New York: American Book Co., 1933 1933. Chapter 2 4 Beard, Charles A., and Beard, Mary R. Tha Rise of American Civilization. New York: Macmillan Co., 1930. p. 574-77, Vol. II q Ogburn, William F., editor. Social Changes in 1929. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930. p. 881-87. { Leith, Charles K World Minerals and World Politics. New York: Whittlesey House (330 W. 42d St.), 1931. 213 p. { Arnold, Ralph, and Kem- nitzer, William J. Petroleum in the United States and Possessions. New York: Harper & Bros., 1931. 1052 p. { 278 ] Lf? { Li7_t rr the nineteenth century. Two centuries ago 800 million acres of virgin timber existed in the United States. Today 100 million acres are bearing virgin saw timber. On only about 300 million acres is the forest increasing appreciably. Agricultural lands have been used without care to prevent the depletion and erosion of the soil. Federal authorities have estimated that more than 17 million acres which were formerly cul- tivated have been destroyed by gullying so that this land cannot be profitably reclaimed. Ero- sion has removed about one-third of the surface soil from one-fourth of the cultivated land. Unless steps are taken to terrace sloping land and to improve crop practises, it is estimated that 100 million acres of crop land will be unfit for cultivation by the year 2000. The maximum of land fit for crops in 1929 was 973 million acres. In that year about one-third was in crops, another third required only plowing, while the rest needed irrigation, drainage, ot clearing of forests. Definite movements are under way to remedy some of these conditions. Rotation of crops and other improvements in farm technic have made it possible to produce more food on fewer acres. Replanting of forests, dramatically emphasized by the recent proposal to plant a belt of trees from Canada to Texas, will do much to replen- ish lumber supplies and prevent soil erosion. The development of national parks and forest reserves not only conserves their resources, but enlarges the opportunities for public recreation. Our experience in the depletion of agricul- tural and mineral lands has stimulated public interest in the proper use of water power re- sources. In 1902 water-driven machinery had a capacity of 2,050,000 horsepower; in 1930, a capacity of 14,885,000 horsepower. Surveys by the federal government indicate a potential Shoals, Boulder Dam, and Grand Coulee indi cate an increase in vovernmental direction, if not control, of the nation’s power resources Educational Implications The school has an important responsibility in developing and sustaining a public opinion in favor of the proper utilization and conservation of natural resources. The long history of selfish and reckless exploitation of natural wealth by private interests is a proper topic for study in social studies classes. The experience and prog ress of foreign countries are also illuminating. Older students and adults may examine thru research the economic and social eftects of soil erosion, forest fires, depletion of mineral-bear ing areas, and similar problems. The question of public ownership of water power is a topic of utmost importance in any complete school curriculum Universities and other research centers have many opportunities to help. Mining technology may still be improved, waste in the recovery of minerals can be reduced, consumption of products can be made more efficient and, where needs exist, synthetic substitutes must be de veloped. Research in chemical fertilization of soils, the | revention of erosion, and the nature of plant bacteria has offered, and will continue to ofter, opportunities for socially worthwhile contributions The utilization of land has a direct bearing upon the problem of school support. Suspension of mine operations, migrations from marginal lands, destruction of private torests, and re version of farm lands to public ownership re sult often in tax losses. The burden upon some districts and states has become acute. Large tax units and federal aid will be essential if their capacity of 38 million horsepower. The growth educational opportunities are to be improved of legislation and the developments at Muscle or even maintained 2 For further educational implications consult: Nourse, Edwin G., and othe {merica’s Capacity to Produce. Was! D. C.: Brookings Institution, 1934. Chapter 1, ‘‘Agriculture’’; Chapter 2, ‘‘Coal and Coke’’; Chapter 3, “Petroleun Chapter 15, “Electric Power Utilities’; p. 31-157 and p. 313-39 § Ogburn. Williar I editor. Social Change and the Ne Deal Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934 The Tennessee Basin,’’ by T. J. Woofter, p. 81-89. { Roosevelt, Franklin D Looking Forward. New York: John Day Co., 1933. 279 p. § Roosevelt, Franklin D. On Our Way. New York: John Day ¢ 1934. 300 p. { Smith, D. H. Forest Service; Its Histor Activities, and Organization. Institute for Government Research Service Monograph of the U. S. Government, No. 58. Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institution, 1930. 268 q U. S. Depart ment of Agriculture. Proceedings of the National Conference on Land Utilization, Chicago, Illinois, November 1 1, 1931. Wash ington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1932. 251 p. § U.S. Library of Congress, Division of Bibliography elected List « References on the Conservation of Natural Resources in the United States, 1912. Supplement, 1924 [ 279 ] 7 RP ES. w. ot eee _ ie: =a 7 £2 eer < ae es XVI. Leisure-Time Activities ' Leisure time is no longer a privilege of the few. The steady decline of the hours of labor in industry and business prior to 1930 has been accelerated under the recent industrial codes. Applications of science in the home and on the farm have given new hours of freedom. ‘The postponement of gainful employment for many young people has increased the need for recrea- tional opportunities. These are but a few indi- cations of the spread of leisure time. Commercial interests have not been slow to utilize this free time. Whereas radio broadcast- ing scarcely touched the home a few years ago, today at least 40 percent of all families own receiving sets. Attendance at motion picture theaters has doubled since 1926, reaching the stupendous total of 100 million per week in 1930. There is widespread interest in com- mercialized football, baseball, and other sports which satisfy a desire for passive participation. There is a growing demand for active par- ticipation in sports and recreation, as shown by the increase in the number of public play- grounds, community centers, parks, swimming pools, golf courses, and play spaces. Parks in cities over 30,000 population have increased from 76,566 acres in 1907 to 258,697 acres in 1930. Public recreational facilities are still in- adequate in small towns and rural areas. Na- tional parks had 198,606 visitors in 1910 as ' Based upon 912-57, 975. *See p. 281 for footnote. President’s Research Committee. Recent Social Trends. New York compared with 2,774,561 in 1930. Between 1920 and 1930 the number of visitors to na tional forests increased sixfold. ‘The automobile has increased the possibility of recreation in family groups. Pleasure travel of all types has been estimated as costing at least 6 billion dollars a year. Automobile touring alone accounted for an expenditure amounting to $3,200,000,000 in 1930. Of this amount, about 20 percent was required for actual trans portation costs, while the remainder went for meals, lodging, and amusements. The recorded number of persons using publi: libraries is 20 million. In 1929 publishers sold 1,133,855 books on the arts and 4,048,227 books on poetry and drama. More than 45 mil- lion copies of novels were sold during that year. School libraries with more than 3,000 volumes increased from 947 in 1923 to 1,982 in 1929. Circulation of periodicals advanced from 5,571,000 at the beginning of the century to 33,366,000 in 1930. This increase in periodical circulation has paralleled the growth of enrol- ment in secondary and higher education. Educational Implications ” The two outstanding trends in recreation are the growing interest in active participation and the increase in the types and number of com mercialized devices for passive participation. McGraw-Hill Book Ci 1933. p. 388-8 AVERAGE WORKING DAY IN INDUSTRY Each clock face represents 2 hours Based on the textile industry of Massachusetts [ 280 ] In meeting the demand for active recreation s contribution es . the schools have a responsibility which must be ‘ onsist large . met in cooperation with playgrounds, com pr t standards of tastes and appre munity centers, and other public agencies. Stress tions. By cooperation between schools and . needs te be placed upon those activities which parent-teach« roups, motion picture idio ] may be carried over into adult life. Enrichment programs, and publications will be made more t in the school’s recreational program should in socially constructive. In this connection tl - clude debating, drama, hobbies, and othe school’s eftorts will not be limited to preach : tivities which contribute to the use of leisure ment and social pressure, but w time for intellectual and cultural pursuits. Th utilize the radio, the motion picture, and oth extended use of excursions and journeys will devices as integral parts of the educational not only introduce more reality into education &'am. The emphasis upon tea but will encourage active outdoor life. branch - ae Soe . needs. For example, changes in the t hin If schools are to encourage active recreation FE 1s.) 1 = = \ . , ° ot ngiisn Vill encourage extensiv¢ rea nn } and games, they should have both indoor and :; ‘a ; creative writing, and free dramatization outdoor play spaces. A survey in 1926-27 of 410 \ ie ? a ‘ ; ar oa A special problem for education Is t cities showed 48 percent of the cities failing to :, ie physical and mental health of teachers. It Is idle to talk ot de VC loy ns ( ire time interests in children if teachers are unable . : motion ( report gymnasiums or playrooms. In 1929 a survey in cities of 30,000 to 100,000 population showed that 20 percent of the elementary RS Se ; ; } | | I : | , : Or UNWILLING 0 participa e in artistu ind Tes . > locke avo dc: h the ioh : ‘ ee i : schools lacked playgrounds; half of the hig! reational pursuits. The present tendency to in schools did not have playgrounds or athletic . crease the teaching load and to require teachers fields. Io meet this condition several states ta carry many extra welfare responsi ilities is ° ‘ ‘ — j have passed legislation setting up minimum re- dangerous to teacher health and in mam cased quirements for school plavgrounds. It is likely seriously weakens the effectiveness of the ind that such standards will be widely adopted struction For further educational implications consult: Biddle, W. W Adult Ed I f | for Cleveland.” Progressive Education 11: 28 3: Apr 1934. § Bower, W im C. Character Through Cr el Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930. 276 p. §[ Glueck, Eleanor T. The Community Use of Schools. Baltim W & Wilkins, 1927. 222 p. { Harap, Henry Planning the ( for Le ¢ lournal of Educationa 3 January, 1934. {] Heaton, Kenneth L. Character Building Thru Recreation, C University of ¢ Pre | : qi Jacks, Lawrence P. Education Through Recreation. New York: Harper & B 1932. 155 p. § Lundberg, G. A 6 H for Leisure.”” Teachers College Record 34: 569-79; April, 1 3. § Nash, Jay B Leisure Threat or P ‘ , nior E High School Clearing House 7: 517-73: May, 1933. § National Recreation Ass The New Leisure ¢ ; New York: the Association, 1933. 326 ; q Steine 2 imericans at |} | ent § ul Trends Mor N ; \ 1 McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933. 201 p. {§ Zook, George | Public Education and N il Welfare.”’ Official F rt. W 5 D. C.: Department of Superintendence, National Educatio Associatior ' VISITORS TO NATIONAL PARKS AND NATIONAL FORESTS ) 4% | Parks Forests Fy \ : 4% P Are “A by 4 a at a A An ‘ até AW RH 1920 CO) © LJLTS i 1930 Each figure represents 1 million visitors RELIGIOUS AFFILIATIONS nee ee ff Protestants Roman Catholics Each figure represents 5 million persons =—=_— == Not affiliated ff VALUE OF CHURCH EDIFICES } _BO@@O@OU Each circle represents 500 million dollars 229 a peg CF) ot ee . XVII. Religion Organized religion is apparently holding its _ states tod t the practise started M12 own materially, tho in the realm of ideas and ‘Tenden iway from denomin belief it is passing thru a period of profound toward unity and cooperation have takes unrest. The Census of Religious Bodies for Kighteen den nations were In 1926 showed church membership increasing at gers between 1916 and 1926. the same rate as the national population, while church wealth and church expenditures were Educational Implications increasing more rapidly than the national in Ihe chief role of education. in tl come. Ihe depression years show a higher rat religious trends, will be to increase of membership increase. tive efforts with organized churches it The degree to which the church is actually lishing the character and ethical value meeting the spiritual needs of its members, the quired by our modern civilization. The part religion is playing in their everyday ( pressures brought about by changes in is something that defies measurement. Studies ment. occupations, families. recreation ' of the circulation and content of leading publi other aspects of group life require frequetr cations suggest that despite its apparent mate adjustment so as to insure happiness to the rial stability religion holds a gradually decreas maximum number of people. Both young peo ing share of the interest of the people. Between and adults will need to study these pro 1905 and 1909 there were 21.4 religious articles with the highest ethical and social stand per thousand articles indexed in the Reader's n mind. To do this they must partici Guide to Periodical Literature; in 1930-31 those educational activities which will] y there were 10.7 per thousand. In 14 “intelle knowledge of proper conduct and th tual’ magazines the decline was from 396 in — tion to act accordingly. i 1905-1909 to 282 in 1931-1932. In the last Obviouslv, the memorization of cod twenty-five years the number of books on the morals will not suffice. Individuals must learn Bible per thousand indexed inthe U.S. Catalog to act in such a wav that their actions enrich decreased almost 50 percent. However, there the lives of others. Reality in learning wi was an increase in the relative number of books necessitate opportunities to participate in self on religion and science, God, Christian life, government within the school, to utilize the missions, and prayer. The emphasis in religious local community as a laboratory where i] publications today is upon economic and SOC ial contacts mav be studied. and to develo )a sense implications of religion in everyday affairs. of individual responsibility to the grou The number of children receiving religious Character education is not solely the obliga instruction today is apparently increasing. Be tion of the school: the home and the con tween 1906 and 1926 the number ot children munity have Important influences upon the de and adults in Sunday schools increased 45 per veloping characters of children. ‘The schools cent, or at a slightly slower rate than the total may increase their efforts in this field, but « ] I population. However, the number of vacation zens generally should inquire to what extent church schools increased from 3,171 in the constructive work of the school is being 1925 to almost 11,000 in 1930. Week-day destroved by non-school agencies. leachers also church schools in 45 states in 1930 enrolled will give more attention to those phases of 260,988. Cooperation between churches and contemporary life which tend either to suy schools resulting in high-school credit for ment or to counteract the wholesome activities Bible study is legal in over half of the of the classroom. 1 Based upon: President’s Research Committee. Recent nds. New York: McGraw-Hill 1 ( ( 8, and 20 2 For further educational implications consult: Artman, J. M ha I f Brought to Relig nd Character Education by the Socio-Economic Debacle (Panel discussior Religious I n 7 June . 2 t Ke th L. The Character Emphasis in Education. Chicago: University of Chica I I +1 { Hi bE. I I I Relation of Education and Religion.’ Religious Education 541-47; June { Leach, R. H Course Relig State Universities and Colleges.’’ School and Societ 7: 334 March 11, 1 ™ National Education Associat I Division. ‘“‘Education for Character.’’ Research Bulletin 12: 43-3 March, 1934 and | 83-141; May, 1934. § Nat il I cation Association, Department of Superintendence. Character Education. Tenth Yea k. Washingt D. C.: the A ation 1932. 535 p. { Neumann, Henry. Lives in the Makin: New York: D. A ton and ( l ? p. § Sockma } W Morals of Tomorrow. New York: Harper and Bros., 1931 i p | , cietietie iii. bed Se ae SIRARY 2 gt: SOREET Wp Ficagp > = ° ti + oa ae need A. Economic Preceding sections have reviewed a number of the specific trends and conditions of Amer- ican society. From these details may be drawn certain general characteristics of modern life. (1) Science and power—The applications of research to medicine, engineering, and in- dustry have profoundly modified life. There has developed an amazing accumulation of knowledge. Modern power-driven machinery has transformed the home. Freed from drudg- ery by vacuum cleaners, electric irons, wash- ing machines, and other inventions, families have more time for recreational and cultural pursuits. Many women have been free to enter gainful employment. Occupational patterns have been broken down by the decline of cer- tain types of work and the creation of new jobs. Products which once were so costly as to be possessed by few are by machinery placed within the reach of many. (2) Potential plenty—For the first time in history man can probably produce enough for all. Power combined with science has developed machinery which can turn out goods with in- credible speed and efficiency. Each decade fewer farms are needed to supply the necessary food. But the era of plenty is only a potential one. We need still to develop a distribution system which is coordinated with the effectiveness of \the production system. (3) Acceleration—In the period of agrarian dominance of American life, the rhythm of life was relatively slow. Today, with power-driven machinery, buildings are constructed more rapidly, farms plowed in less time, distance annihilated by rapid transit facilities, and mass impressions speeded by new means of com- munication. Fashions created in Paris one week are on display shortly afterwards in New York, or even in Middletown. New improvements in automobiles, radios, trains, and airplanes stead- ily demand the replacement of old equipment. Changes come upon us with accelerated rapidity Sand make life more complex for increasing numbers of people. (4+) Leisure time—Year by year mankind has been freed more and more from unremitting toil. Improvements in technology have placed increasing amounts of time at the disposal of all workers. Industry is finding less need for 4 children and youth, thereby increasing the pos- Summary and Conclusions sibilities of a lengthened period of schooling. Old age retirement systems are reducing the span of years which must be allotted to em ployment. (5) Interdependence—An industrial society requires first of all a supply of raw materials. Our silk mills depend upon Japan for raw silk, cotton mills rely upon southern fields, and steel mills require the coal of Pennsylvania and the iron ore of Michigan. The fabrication of automobiles, telephones, and other machinery calls for imports from all parts of the world. In financial matters the world is closely bound together. ‘Two cases in point are the bank failure in Austria which precipitated the 1931 financial crisis, and the recent request of the Chinese government for modifications of the American silver policy. The typical pantry shelf reveals the world’s interdependence for food supplies. In a thousand ways our daily lives are touched by the events in remote na- tions and in nearby communities. (6) Standardization—As the world becomes more closely related, ideas and ideals spread rapidly. The rhythm and ethics of life in in- dustrial nations penetrate to all parts of the world. City culture thru the radio, newspapers, and magazines dominates rural culture. Adver- tising methods of Fifth Avenue are found effective on Main Street. The moral ideals of Hollywood are displayed in every city and town and, for better or for worse, set new standards of dress, manners, and conduct. Standards of living are cast in a mold that places the auto, the telephone, the radio, and the electrical re- frigerator among the necessities of comfortable living. Overwhelmed by new additions to knowledge, people turn to the breezy news review, the anthologies of literature, and the digests of current periodicals. (7) Economic insecurity—In an agrarian society each family, and to a certain extent each individual, is largely independent. As America changed from an agricultural nation to one predominantly industrial, many people surrendered their economic independence. They took jobs created by invention and science. At first, those who rebelled against this new type of life moved out to the simplicity of the fron- tier. Today the frontier no longer exists, and youth must look to the existing industrial or- ganization for employment. The employee’s, [ 284 ] and often the employer’s, means of livelihood is dependent upon the business cycle, and eco nomic security is threatened to an extent not known in an agricultural civilization. (8) Collective action—Freedom of the in dividual in many aspects of life has been a tradition of American civilization. A peculiar type of self-reliance was required under pioneer conditions. A continent to be gained and ex ploited stimulated a race for property, power, and prosperity. But tho this phase of life has been greatly publicized, it was, and had to be, accompanied by collective action. The early colonists were able to exist only because people worked and fought together. The continent was won by the trains of covered wagons, welded together by railroads, educated by schools, and otherwise united by cooperation among groups of people. Today thru legislatures, conferences, committees, associations, and other groups, citizens are working together to advance the general welfare. (9) Centralization—Partly as a result of economic conditions and partly because of the demand for more collective action, there has developed an increase of government participa tion in everyday life. The federal government increases its control and direction of industry, agriculture, and banking. State governments increase their supervision of education, housing, police work, and other social activities. Great companies merge into larger corporations, with national and even international affiliations. Chain stores are important competitors of the independent corner stores. Credit and banking facilities reach from the smallest town to Wall Street. (10) Odbjectivity—The farmer planted his crops by certain traditional formulas until con trolled laboratory studies displaced many of these “rule of thumb” guides with scientific principles and practises. The home has sur- rendered much of its traditional domination of the individual and released youth to an ever widening sphere of influences. Experience and experiments are substituted for “arm chair” philosophy. More and more people are sub- jecting all phases of life to the pragmatic test: “Does it work?” The demand for objectivity has set the stage for clearer thinking and more efficient action in regard to the intricacies of modern life. | | B. Educational What do the foregoing social and economic changes mean to education ? No one can predi with absolute certainty. Earlier sections of the bulletin have pointed out some of the sp ( adjustments which are being, and perhaps wil continue to be, made. The purpose of th n cluding paragraphs is to generalize from thes specific educational implications. 1) Philos bhy of education If there is to ‘be an adjustment of education to a chan; ad civilization, schools need to direct their eff rts) toward broader objectives. Education has beert primarily concerned with making people lite: ate. Book learning that developed abilities to memorize, to read, to comprehend, and to recit has been of fundamental importance. Schools have been organized, teachers trained, and in structional materials prepared with book learn : = ing as the controlling factor. It is no condem wation of the past to hold that present social conditions and objective knowledge as to the nature of the learnet general philosop! make it necessary for the iy of education to be enlarged. Education must be recognized as a continuous® process from birth to death; from sunrise to sunset. It is not something that goes on for a few hours each day within the four walls of the school. Education arises from, exists in, and will continue to flourish as a part of its sur rounding social culture. It cannot be com pletely isolated from life outside of the school. (2?) Teachers he past produced capable techni Teacher training institu tions have in cians—well-grounded in knowledge and meth ods of instruction. But today societ needs teachers who are zestful and capable students of social problems. If in the future training agencies have fewer, more carefully selected students, they should find new opportunities to improve the social understanding of teachers now in service and to help school systems to keep pace with an he individual teacher the obligation advancing social order. There falls upon t to keep abreast of social trends and to partici- pate actively in life outside of school. At the same time he will need to perform his profes sional duties in accordance with good taste, high standards of scholarship, and respect for community opinion. (3) Childhood are being made about the nature and the nur- Constantly new discoveries ture of children. Educational methods that treat [ 285 ] 7 al ve rl Np es children as smail-sized adults will continue to by modern life. Thru the use of libraries lose ground. More attention will be given to laboratories, debates, conferences, and com individual differences. The influence of the early years upon later life suggests the advis- ability of further efforts to remove disabilities _and to stimulate potential talents. All of the activities of life are recognized increasingly as educational, altho not necessarily efficient and constructive. The new attitudes toward childhood forecast the hopes and the values that people generally, and educators in particu- lar, expect to characterize our future American civilization. (4) Social curriculum—lIt follows certainly that with the extension of knowledge in all fields of human life the curriculum of the schools will be greatly enriched. Thru the re- ~—casting of existing courses and the integration of all types of subjectmatter in terms of mean- ingful units, the lag between the advance of knowledge and the school’s offering will be taken up. The use of facts in social experiences within the school, such as pupil government, committees, clubs, publications, and the like, mittees, students are participating in the direc tion of their own learning. The teacher is n longer the dictator, but a guide. The social emphasis in education calls for the development of new materials, textbooks and equipment. Universities, research centers, and teacher-training institutions will assume more responsibility for developing materials which can be used to enrich the student’s read- ing. Thus, students will be constantly in touch with up-to-date and vital sources of informa tion. Every effort will be made to encourage the pupil to become so interested as to go beyond any formal assignments. Education will cease to be a list of activities bound between the covers of the course-of-study bulletin. It will become all of the activities of life thru which the pupil may improve himself. Schooling of this type will make for open-mindedness, tol- erance, and suspended judgment as well as fo: initiative and decisive action. ‘Thus equipped, SRE ere esr the public of tomorrow should be able to make more intelligent decisions in matters of public . ,will bring a form of enrichment characteristic lof but few educational programs of today. q oat igs 2 ~~ nr nica er paeree-aneva. er eearsat pipeeGRT eee Pupils will study the interrelations between the various aspects of society, noting where inar- ticulations occur, exploring the causes of difh- culty, and projecting possible improvements. In many instances this social emphasis will require new school courses and activities. Better opportunities for pupils to study home life, in- dustry, and labor conditions will tend to de- velop a higher type of social intelligence. Be- sides the addition of new units of study, there will be an increased emphasis upon the social aspects of existing courses. By tracing the his- tory of writing, of numbers, and of spoken lan- guage, there will be gains in an appreciation of the problems and progress of group life. (5) Instructional methods and materials— Since schools have been primarily places for book learning, the dominant classroom proce- dure has been the recitation. This method suc- jceeded in spreading a degree of literacy among the people. It contributed little to an under- standing of the problems of modern life. Recog- nition of the futility of the typical recitation does not minimize its contribution to American _education. But thru experiments teachers have found new methods which, while utilizing the advantages of the older procedures, promise to develop the type of thinking ability required [ policy. (6) Internal organization and management of schools—It seems likely that the present school system will extend its systematic efforts both downward to include younger children and upward to provide for adults. The units of the system may be reduced in number, and certainly will be more closely integrated to further the continuity of school experiences. ‘Types of schools may become more flexible and varied—such as summer schools for workers— to take care of the requirements of social and economic organization. The management of the school system may be expected to adjust itself to newer social needs and a broader theory of education. Artifi- cial and unnecessary distinctions between types of teaching positions will give way before the realization that all teachers are workers in a common cause. Classroom teachers, as they be- come better trained and more socially minded, may be expected to bring their knowledge of child nature and needs into the formulation of instructional policies. School systems will pro- vide further for the democratic sharing by ad- ministrators, teachers, and students of the re- sponsibilities of management. 86 | ‘ ; . l adenes j /) External ( facts and administra The schools will need to be organized so educational experiences available to children have the maximum of concreteness and ] may I figuratively level reality. Educators will walls of the schools thru excursions, journe' and extended trips. Experts and creative art will enter the schoolroom in person or by mean of the The school will not be a world set apart, with radio and the sound motion picture manners, ethics, and problems different f: those of the real world. In this breakdown of isolation the school wil integrate its program more and more w and other agencies for Thru efforts there will develop local, state, and even The layman will cooperate in these activities and libraries, playgrounds, community betterment. coordinated national programs for cultural progress. thereby obtain an understanding of public edi cation which the typical “publicity progran has not yet succeeded in giving him. The financial support of education is an ministrative problem which needs to be cor sidered in the light of social conditions. ‘he recent depression has clearly revealed that the financial problems of education are deeply rooted. If America has passed its period of greatest prosperity, people may find it difficult others to buy adequate education as well as social services. There are relatively few, how ever, who are willing to accept this assumption There is reason for believing that our national income can be increased beyond its 1929 peak, if we will make intelligent use of our natural resources, labor, and means of production. In this social advance, education, if given adequate financial support, will contribute to the voca tional efficiency of individuals and the social intelligence of people generally. (8) Character and citizenship—The Amer ican public school has always been concerned with morals and character development. It has been generally recognized that the characte: and the social intelligence of the people genet ally are the basis of a more perfect and more permanent democracy. But many of the efforts for character development were formulated under a narrow philosophy of education. Help- ful and valuable as some of these technics are today, they need supplementing in the light of 1 Quotation from The Rise of American Civilizatior Charl 1930. p. 800 ] CIAL | y Wh t emp] eis , sc1rence n CNOoOL activities Ww onstitute th niet preparation to [ f citizenship, it is not enough in itself. W expect tive it ¢ opment oT test ind whereby the ndividual ma eX] ipab ities and detects. Continuou 1d i record kee ping of these surveys WI! Py . 3 a ; | er t ] ] ‘ upon Wwhoich Telligent vocational, ¢ l na ind personal decisions may be made. It sonable also » expect that classes in te ] ] ¢ } | aevelopment may e able to contribute rie thing under favorable condition os 1} Another general trend will be the ng ot . ¢ y TO if the entire program so as to contribute constru tivel wholesome use of leisur: l here ire some who view an increase of | e time is a threat rood character. Othe v tn freedom in Opportunity for t characte Which of these edictions new ment ot will come true de pe nds largel upon the int of intelligence which the American pe to the pro lem. lt the school deve O} t lent with the maximum ability to direct their own time along wholesome lines, the threat is not serious. Io do this, the school’s program t be broadened in scope and attractiveness a gested in preceding paragraph Lhe n crafts must be taught by artist-teach vl can awake the latent talents which exi Changes in government, in economic « in zation, in labor conditions, in pop tlation, and the many other phases of life have produced many strains upon our American civilization Some educators view the situation with great pessimism, but prefer to do little or nothing lems of Others believe that if the prob living are carefully studied, the people w Still must supply the people not only with light but the way. others believe that education with considerable guidance. The prop ing from these three groups of educators are based upon diverse social assumptions and philosophies. Yet in spite of genuine difterences as to the steps necessary to meet changing social conditions, our faith in America leads to the belief that “it is the ot the or ds 7 on not t dawn: and : ; i 3 4 . HE BRIEF span of 150 years cannot | have extinguished the zeal of the people of the United States to establish justice, ® || insure domestic tranquillity, promote the general welfare,and secure the bless- ings of liberty to themselves and their posterity. Nor do we of today admit- tedly value less than did our fathers freedom of worship, of speech, and of the press, the right of petition, of a speedy and impartial trial, and the sacredness of life and liberty, against impairment without due process of law. These historic ideals still constitute the foundation upon which must rest any presentday statement of the social-eco- nomic goals of America. But the times demand a translation of these ideals into terms charged with new meaning It goes without argument that the materials of instruction concerning social and economic issues have to be drawn in large part from the moving panorama of current life. They are not easy of access in reliable form, and are extraordinarily hard to interpret with assurance. This increases the difficulty of their use by all teachers, but par- ticularly by the rank and file who have assumed little responsibility in the past for understanding the issues involved in our national life. Education, therefore, needs its own machinery to gather continuously and interpret simply and fearlessly the salient facts of the moving social- economic scene.—Committee on Social-Economic Goals of America, National Education Association.