I} peRIODICAL ROOM GENERAL LIBRARY UNIV. OF MICH. RESEARCH BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION VOL. XII - No. 3 MAY - 1934 ASSOCIATION Education for Character Part Il: Improving the School Program Published by the RESEARCH DIVISION of the NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. i \} } RESEARCH BULLETIN o 3 Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November President, JESSIE GRAY NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Secretary, J. W. CRABTRI The payment of the $5 membership fee of the National Education Association entitles one to receive for one year the Research Bulletin, the Journal, the An- nual Volume of Addresses and Proceed- ings, and certain other publications of the Association. One dollar of each $5 mem- bership fee is for a year’s subscription to the Research Bulletin. The Research Bulletin may be subscribed for separatel; at $1 per year. Copies may be pu: chased for 25 cents, and in quantities at a reduced rate. Those entitled to receive the Research Bulletin regularly are asked to report at once any change of residence giving old as well as new address. Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., under Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. Director of Research: William G. Carr; Associate Director: Frank \W/. Hubbard Assistant Directors: Richard R. Foster, lvan A. Booker Executive and Editorial Offices . 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. Purchasing Copies Additional copies of this issue of the Research Bulletin may be obtained at the following prices, postpaid if remittance accompanies order: Single copies, 25c. 2 to 9 copies—10% reduction. 10 to 99 copies—25% reduction. 100 or more copies—3314 % reduction. Orders for Research Bulletins not ac- companied by remittance are subject to transportation charges. Make checks pay- able to National Education Association. Subscriptions The Research Bulletin may be received regularly ‘thru a special subscription at $1 per year. Many of the early issues of the Research Bulletin are already out of print. The special subscription at $1 per year offers an opportunity to maintain a complete file of future Research Bulletins. Reproduction of Material in Research Bulletins Material appearing in Research Bul- letins may, with the usual acknowledg- ments, be reproduced for the advancemcnt of education. No authority other than this notice is needed previous to such reproduc- tion. In such cases a letter describing the proposed use of materials will be appre- ciated. Address communications to the Research Division, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. On request, the Division of Publica- tions will supply at cost mats of figures which appear in the Research Bulletin Fc V CONTENTS P FOREWORD ...... rita wei I. OBJECTIVES AND GENERAL PROVISIONS OF THE CHARACTER-BUILDING PROGRAM Aims of the program... a, pee General provisions for character building in public school systems Nature and scope of an adequate program........ II. BurLpDING CHARACTER THRU THE CURRICULUM General curriculum principles....... General methods of teaching and learning. Content and method in specific school subjects... . Class participation in special character-building activities Out-of-class school] activities........... Por eres ce Ill. Buasinc nears THRU wenremne GUIDANCE...... The case method a aietine the maladjusted pupil. é.ahntiraenes Counseling by teachers and principals.......... NEE EO EEC CO CE Ee et Eee PE re, a Organization of the school guidance program........ Ae Meee Specialized service outside the schools.............. IV. BuILpDING CHARACTER THRU SCHOOL AND CLASSROOM ADMINISTRATION..... Function of school administration in character building. . Influence of the schoolboard.............ccccecsece Character of the school personnel............. Contribution of school organization............. Significance of school plant administration........ Management of school and classroom......... sia Wis eee oe Relation of the school to outside agencies............ Public support of the character-building program.... be ia i A ae —y V. A Few SELEcTeD Books AND PERIODICALS ON CHARACTER AND CHARACTER EDUCATION. LIST OF TABLES . Percents of Teachers and Children Responding in Various Ways to Suggested Solutions I ah 5 Sods! dahl a Wahaa DEAD MEM Tas are tiem cunine CRRA PONE s eld awieacne 2. Percent of School Systems Reporting Various General Provisions for Character Education 3. Statements Selected by Superintendents of Schools as Best Describing Relationship between Home and School in Programs of Character Education................000000055 4. Percent of School Systems Reporting the Use of Bulletins and Course-of-Study Materials NT SONS 6544 bia 6.0 <0 0 o/9.6:d &. 0 wis Weinihincs Gein cers te ee ere ee or 5. Percent of School Systems Reporting Various Provisions as to the Use of Personnel in S50 cis adds s PMs Bae HG. NN eee bw s es ee Oe ey Cee ee 6. Average Percent of Cheating on Certain Tests in Two Types of Public School...... 7. Average Percent of Cheating in Two Types of Public School in Relation to the Occupa- i GS. i cng x0 salen se 08d eale a eta een satsarnre Seamed it san Retain a 8. Relative Frequency of Large Issues in the Moral Situations Faced by Six-Year-Old rah ot Ac ote Mats ba.de a > cb cdilews i Diev tues ect crveds I bewevedoeeers 9. Relative Frequency of Elements in Situations Leading to Intentional Misrepresentation of Fact by Six-Year-Old Children..................... Pia Se wadieMhotseenis wus amen 10. Number of Organizations to Which High-School Graduates Had Belonged during Four I I Ge SLES ales sn ony ebnevecws 5 dig) cine we a LIST OF FIGURES I, Organization of Personnel for Guidance in Thornton Township High School, Harvey, III. II. Organization and Functions of the Bureau of Educational Counsel of LaSalle-Peru Town- ship High School and LaSalle-Peru-Oglesby Junior College, Ill................... III. Proposed Organization of a Central Bureau or Department of Guidance for a Large ere e ie US gsi cock ren ececakwlbd hes caebes ses eo. ckaieky eee raya § age s4 89 93 96 96 98 101 102 109 117 119 121 122 124 127 130 130 130 131 132 134 135 137 139 140 $6 90 91 94 98 98 105 105 110 FOREWORD CONOMIC and social changes of comparatively recent date have greatly complicated the problems of human conduct and have seriously weakened the older forms of social education and control. Intelligent efforts to develop in each individual the desire and the capacity for finer social living are needed today more than ever before. The school, of course, cannot assume all or even the major share of responsibility for improving character. It will, however, be derelict in its duty if it fails to do everything in its power toward this end. In recognition of these facts, the National Education Association has re- cently given special attention to the subject of character building. In 1932 the yearbooks of the Department of Classroom Teachers and the Department of Superintendence both dealt with problems in this field. Now the Research Division, in response to a need for useful material in more compact form, has prepared two bulletins on the subject. The March 1934 issue reviewed some characteristics of modern life which have important implications for character development, and summarized available research concerning the nature of character and the psychological and social factors involved in its formation. The facts and conclusions presented in that bulletin furnish the background and general viewpoint for the present issue, which deals with the improvement of character thru the school. This bulletin does not present a ready-made program of materials and de- vices for character building. Scientific study in this field is difficult, and objec- tive evidence on many points is inconclusive or lacking. Nevertheless, in the findings of research, expert opinion, and modern school practise there is much that can be utilized in improving education for character. Using these as guides, the bulletin outlines the general type of program which seems to be necessary in the school, and makes numerous suggestions concerning the details of such a program. References for further study are included thruout the text. The present widespread interest in character development should make this bulletin particularly welcome. Together with the preceding issue, it should have a wide circulation among teachers and school administrators, among those who are engaged in the preparation of teachers, and among people generally who are interested in improving human character and the society in which we live. J. W. Crastree, Secretary, National Education Association. psy he factor deals desira letin ° ciples princi ot ch: letin pert 0 The necess for §| refer! Ar acter an ad suffic eral mind mean dame gene! mark prim: what situa nificé some but z appre acter It analy char: be w eral | phas' ature more posit 1 Backg 2 Tenth I. Objectives and General Provisions of the Character-Building Program The preceding issue of the Research Bulle- tin’ presented information concerning the psychological nature of character and the many factors involved in its formation. This issue deals with the work of the school in developing desirable character. Whereas the earlier bul- letin was concerned primarily with basic prin- ciples, this one undertakes to show what these principles probably mean for a school program of character building. In doing this, the bul- letin uses the results of pertinent research, ex- pert opinion, and current practise in the schools. The discussion of many topics, however, is necessarily brief. For further elaboration and for specific illustrations the reader is usually referred to other sources. Aims of the Program An understanding of desirable goals in char- acter growth is essential to the development of an adequate program in the schools. It is not sufficient to define desirable character as “‘gen- eral goodness” and to assume that all right- minded people agree as to what this term means. “There are, no doubt, some very fun- damental questions of conduct upon which But there are also general agreement exists. marked differences of opinion both as to the primary objective of moral living, and as to what behavior is desirable in many specific situations. “These varying viewpoints are sig- nificant for education, not only because they sometimes call for different types of conduct, but also because some of them imply different approaches to the problem of improving char- acter and personality. It is not within the scope of this bulletin to analyze in detail the various definitions of good character which have been proposed.” It will be worthwhile, however, to review briefly sev- eral concepts which have recently received em- phasis in school practise or in educational liter- ature: (1) good character as conformity to the mores of society; (2) good character as a com- posite of desirable traits and ideals; (3) good 1 National Education Association, Research Division. Background.”’ Research Bulletin 12: 41-80; March, 1934. National Education the Association, *Such an analysis is found in: Tenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: “Education for Association, 1932. character as a composite of specific habits and attitudes needed in life; (4) good character as harmonious adjustment of the personality ; and (5) good character as self-expression. These definitions overlap somewhat, but each one em phasizes something which is not necessarily im- plied in the others. All of them include impor tant values, but none seems entirely satisfac- tory as the primary objective of character de- velopment. Following the discussion of these five, therefore, is a statement of what appears to be a better and more inclusive standard, to gether with suggestions concerning subordinate objectives and the use of specific criteria for good conduct. Some General Statements of the Character Objective Good character as conformity to the mores of society—This standard for character prob ably receives the major emphasis in most school systems, altho it may not be specified in the course of study. It calls for conduct in accord with the expectations of one’s social group— doing what the majority approves. Such a cri- terion has considerable merit. Many impor tant types of behavior are approved by society because they have been proved valuable thru centuries of human experience. The older gen- eration tends to pass on to the younger the forms and procedures which it has found use- ful, and these should not be cast aside indis- criminately. People who ignore them get into unnecessary difficulties, and often do serious harm to themselves and to others. On the other hand, abject obedience to convention is as undesirable as complete non- conformity. Many practises tend to persist after the need for them has passed. In a period of rapid social change, attitudes and habits once useful may soon become futile or actually harmful. New modes of action must be tried out. Such experiments should be based upon the solid experience of the past, but they should not be unduly limited by that expe- Character. Part I: The Social and Psychological Department of Superintendence. Character Education p. 31-59 [85] rience. Important as traditional ways of liv- ing in a few situations so that it will fu, ing undoubtedly are, some additional crite- in all situations; (b) the child’s atten: rion is needed which will permit the introduc- likely to be focused upon himself or upo: tion of new ways when the old ones are no __ traits which he is exhibiting, rather than longer appropriate. the consequences of his acts; (c) the tea Good character as a composite of desirable attention is likely to be directed too traits and ideals—The concept of good char- toward the child’s overt conduct and too acter as a composite of traits, virtues, or ideals toward the underlying causes of that cond is found in many character-education pro- and (d) there is a tendency to introduce } grams and courses of study. It is a convenient generalizations before the child has had s\h- concept because it utilizes terms that are famil- cient specific experiences to give them adeq.:»; iar in everyday life. Moreover, a series of meaning. These objections do not imply + trait-names such as honesty, loyalty, self-con- _trait-names should never be mentioned or | trol, and cooperation appears offhand to be an_ ethical generalizations have no place in economical device for giving teachers and chil- character-building program. Evidently, how dren a bird’s-eye view of the entire area of ever, the primary standard for characte: character. However, certain objections have should be more flexible and more in accord been made to using such a list to represent with accepted psychological principles than is the ultimate goal of character development: the concept of general traits. (1) the trait objective tends to overemphasize Good character as a composite of specifi conformity to the conventional mores and to habits and attitudes needed in life—This det resist changes in specific modes of behavior nition also occurs frequently in bulletins and when new conditions demand such changes; courses of study in character education. It a (2) in many situations two or more traits cords more closely with the facts concerning which seem desirable come into conflict; few the nature and formation of character than if any traits can be applied rigidly and uni- does the concept of general traits. Personality versally without sacrificing some equally im- development is based upon specific responses portant value; and (3) the trait concept en- to specific situations. On the other hand, the courages the use of teaching methods that are infinite variability of life situations makes it psychologically unsound. The third of these impossible to teach children a definite response objections has several aspects: (a) a trait is for every specific moral situation which they often thought of as a distinct power or faculty may encounter. Generalization must be pro- of the mind which can be developed by train- vided for by grouping situations and responses TABLE 1.—PERCENTS OF TEACHERS AND CHILDREN RESPONDING IN VARIOUS WAYS TO SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS OF A MORAL PROBLEM Probl d ted soluti Percent of 159 teachers Percent of 177 children oblem and suggested solutions Right Excusable Wrong ee wa 1 2 3 4 3 6 7 Problem: If you and a friend or relative of yours are re- sponsible for a certain piece of work, what should be your attitude? Suggested solutions: 1. Be sure that you are not imposed upon and have to do more PR my your share. 38 1 15 24 2. Tell your partner right at the ~y that you are not going to do more than he 36 9 14 19 3. Be sure to do at least your part. 10 1 92 7 4. Do it all if your partner is lazy and shoves all the work off on you. 28 42 43 27 Read table thus: Of the Sag teachers responding percent marked the first suggested solution “right”; 38 iets marked it “‘excusable”; and 51 percent marked it Kaan ” Similarly read the figures for children and for the other thre Jones, Vernon. ‘Ideas on Right and Wrong Among Teachers and Children.” Teachers College Record 30: 529-4! Source March, 1929: [86] son four be ! teacl the solut perce to Oo The agre cate rath othe gero in te tion diffe wro E agre in © how be n chat acti ally har he : trar resp be « sucl hun ( of | per! aim It lite of 1 according to types. Moreover, situations occur for which there seems to be no single correct response, or at least no response upon which competent people can agree as the only correct one. Jones,® for example, found a lack of agree- ment among teachers as well as among children with respect to sixteen different situations in- volving moral choice. Four possible solutions to each situation were presented, and each per- son was asked to mark at least one of these four solutions “right.”” The other three could be marked “excusable” or “wrong.” The teachers agreed unanimously on only two of the sixty-four solutions, and on only fifteen solutions did as many as 95 percent agree. The percent of individuals making various responses to one of the situations is shown in Table 1. The investigator concluded that the lack of agreement among the teachers does not indi- cate that moral guidance is unwarranted, but rather that preachment is often not justified. In other words, it seems presumptuous, if not dan- gerous, to formulate character objectives solely in terms of specific reactions to specific situa- tions, when there may be room for significant differences of opinion as to the rightness or wrongness of many of these reactions. Even if it were possible to obtain complete agreement as to the correct habits and attitudes in most situations at present, who could tell how long these reactions would continue to be most appropriate? In a period of rapid social change, any comprehensive list of desirable re- actions is likely to include some which eventu- ally will become obsolete and perhaps actually harmful. As the child grows older, therefore, he should have a standard of conduct which transcends the specific habits and generalized responses which he has learned, so that he will be disposed to modify these reactions whenever such modification promises to yield increased human values. Good character as harmonious adjustment of the personality—Personality adjustment is perhaps seldom stated explicitly as the primary aim of school programs for character building. It receives major emphasis, however, in the literature of mental hygiene and in the work of many specialists in individual guidance. Ex- pressed in more familiar terms, this objective March, 1929. 3 Jones, Vernon. “Ideas on Right and Wrong among Teachers and [8 means personal happiness for the individual. Personal happiness requires the absence of in- ternal conflicts and the coordination of the individual's interests and abilities for the achievement of satisfying ends. The desirabilit of such adjustment is unquestionable, but it is necessary to inquire what kinds of conduct make the individual happy and satisfied. If he is free from inner conflicts while engaged in practises that decrease other people’s happiness, he is defective in character. He may be men tally and emotionally healthy, but he is not the most desirable type of person. Inner maladjustments often cause unsocial or antisocial behavior, and their prevention or removal is essential to the highest type of char acter. But there must be a higher criterion than that of inner adjustment—a standard re quiring the welfare and happiness of the group as well as of the individual. Ideally, there should be no conflict between the two, but when such conflicts do arise, the true happiness and real needs of the group must take prece- dence over the personal satisfaction or self- adjustment of the individual. Good character as self-expression school systems are occasionally accused of plac- Si yme ing this objective above all others—of permit- ting or encouraging children to express freely their foremost desires and impulses. Probably such accusations greatly exaggerate the facts in most cases. There is, however, a certain superficial plausibility about the doctrine of self-expression that may lead to unfortunate practises. While it is essential to provide out- lets for the fundamental drives, some kinds of outlets are preferable to others. For most peo- ple the important issue is not whether they should express or inhibit their desires, but which desires should be expressed and which ones should be inhibited in any given situation. Only if the individual’s desires were com- pletely harmonized and integrated about a supremely worthy purpose would it be safe to allow them free and full expression at all times. In any event, the goodness or badness of desires and specific modes of expressing them can be determined only by reference to some standard other than self-expression itself. Children.”’ Teachers College Record 30: 529-41 J Good Character as the Integration of Values The nature of a more satisfactory definition of the character objective has been suggested in the foregoing discussion. The Commission on Character Education of the Department of Superintendence described it as “the integra- tion of values; doing the best possible thing in each situation.” * A somewhat fuller statement of it follows: The good act is one which creates as many and as worthy satisfactions as possible for as many peo- ple as possible over as long a time as possible. The rule holds for every race and nation, every age of man. Whether child of three or maid of twenty or sage of sixty, the good character is one who con- tinuously acts in such a way that from his actions flow the results which enrich the living of all those who are affected, over as long a time as the influ- ence of his actions may persist.5 Subordinate or contributing objectives—The primary objective as just stated is so broad and flexible that it is useful only as a very general guide to the type of character-educa+ tion program which should be developed. Hea- ton has amplified it in a statement of attributes or abilities* from which the following have been adapted: 1. A growing ability to meet situations in ways that are the most satisfying to the greatest number of people over the longest period of time. 2. Freedom from unnecessary emotional conflicts or disturbances. 3. Progressive ability to meet temptations by di- recting energy into wholesome channels and inhib- iting undesirable impulses. 4. Appreciation of the taken-for-granted things of life, such as the services of home, school and community, and the gifts of nature. 5. Appreciation for the achievements, ideals, and ways of living of the race. 6. Ability to modify one’s attitudes and conduct in harmony with new truths and new experiences. 7. A scientific, critical attitude that is sensitive to social and personal defect or error. 8. Ability to direct one’s life with a decreasing amount of supervision and a maximum of inner control and motivation. 9. A growing consciousness of membership in more and ever larger groups of society. 10. Ability to cooperate with other peop! to gain the maximum of satisfaction from as. tion with them. 11. Adjustment to vocation, to leisure tin married life, to the community group, and to aspects of adult social life. 12. A feeling of obligation to render any po service to the home, school, community, nation world-society. 13. A desire for the continuous progress of j trial, economic, and political life so that all p may profit increasingly therefrom. 14. Integration or organization of the indiyid- ual’s life increasingly about larger and more wo while purposes. No such list of attributes or abilities wl] be wholly satisfactory to everyone, and per- haps many equally good lists might be pre- pared. A carefully formulated statement of this kind, however, helps to indicate the broad scope necessary in a sound program of char- acter building.” Specific criteria for good conduct—Even with the elaboration suggested above, the cen- tral aim of “doing the best possible thing in each situation” leaves room for differences of opinion as to what is the “best” thing to do in a particular situation. Are there to be no really specific objectives, no definite rules of conduct to which children must learn to con- form, no lists of habits or ideals which wil! guide children in their choice of responses to the innumerable situations of life? A wise conclusion seems to be that specific standards may be used to advantage, especial!) with younger children, but such standards should be considered as means of achieving de- sirable ends rather than as ends in themselves. The child needs to know, specifically, what kinds of conduct people generally approve. He needs to learn what ways of living have been found most useful, most beautiful, and most satisfying to the largest number of people in the past. When he is very young, he should be shown precisely what to do in many impor- tant situations. Then, thru constantly meeting situations, in which he desires to make the best * National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Tenth Yearbook, p. 55. 5 Ibid., p. 56. * Heaton, Kenneth L. The Character Emphasis in Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933. p. 6- * For a modern, detailed, and practical treatment of the fundamentals of morality, see: Cabot, Richard C. The Meaning of Right and Wrong. New York: Macmillan Co., 1933. 463 p. [88] many cernec new S old id fo fit situati teria ( ment trary ot th up th [he is ver sented have of atte some | The c need itself. not br one si possi or les Gen Di the a mati gram broas shou with extel scho the been agra upor inter ssible responses, he will form many desirable ibits and discard many unsuitable ones. Grad ne t } Ni sally he will generalize from these specific ex- l neriences, and will learn to utilize general ‘ - principles in meeting new problems. Of course ? be will need guidance in this process of learn ing. But usually the guidance should not be arbitrary. All rules of conduct, whether general or specific, must be subordinated to the ulti- mate criterion of creating and preserving as many values as possible for all persons con cerned in each situation. To the extent that new situations are different from familiar ones, old ideas, habits, and ideals must be modified to fit the new conditions. Moreover, if in any situation two or more of the subordinate cri teria conflict, as they often do, individual judg- ment and choice must take the place of arbi- trary rules and precepts. The Tenth Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence sums up this viewpoint as follows: [he objective, as it has been presented so far, is very general and very inclusive. When it is pre- sented to teachers and children, it must, of course, have a more specific point and focus. That center of attention is not to be some traits to be expressed, some rules of conduct, some ideal of truth or beauty. The center of attention is to be the situation, The need for character is all bound up in itself. It is tangible and concrete and real. It can- not be-escaped or relegated to copy books. Life is one situation after another, and each situation has possibilities of richer or poorer living, of greater or less integration of values.® the event General Provisions for Character Build- ing in Public School Systems Desirable character objectives, together with the available facts in regard to character for- mation, indicate that an effective school pro- gram for building good character must be very broad. In fact, the entire life of the school should be planned, directed, and evaluated with reference to character values. To what extent is this principle being applied in public school systems? What general provisions for the character development of children have been made in these systems ? The following par- agraphs give answers to these questions based upon the questionnaire responses of 645 super- intendents of schools and upon a review of * National Education Association, Department of Superintendence, Tenth Yearbook, p character-education bulletins and courses of study used in school systems. Altho much of the information was obtained in 1930, the data reported are believed to be sufficiently sentative of present conditions for the pury of this discussion. Phases of the school environment utilized Table 2 summarizes the 645 responses from superintendents of schools with respect to the phases of the school program utilized for chat acter development in their systems. These data indicate that most of the cities relied largely upon the regular class work and upon extra curriculum activities to stimulate characte: growth. The number using regular class work was greater than the number using extracur riculum activities in the elementary and junior high school, but not in the senior high school Separate class periods for character educa tion were provided in the elementary school by only 13 percent and in the senior high school by only 8 percent of the cities. The pet cent providing such periods was somewhat greater in the large cities than in the small ones. In only 10 percent of the systems were elementary-school pupils attending classes in week-day church schools during regular school hours, and in only 3 percent were senior high school pupils attending such classes, Definite programs of individual pupil guid ance and counseling were provided in the junior high school by 19 percent and in the senior high school by 22 percent of the systems. No information was obtained concerning such programs in the elementary school. It is not clear to what extent the school sys- tems reporting the use of regular classes and extracurriculum activities for character build ing actually had formulated definite plans for improving the character influences of these parts of the program. In response to another question, however, about one-half of the super- intendents stated that the occasions for empha sis upon character in regular classrooms were situations arising in the immediate experience of the pupils or problems growing out of read- ing and discussion in connection with regular school subjects. 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Ss sjidnd [ooyds-Arvjuawaa 107 “8 :SayosNYI [BIO] UI sjooyrs young Aq sinoy joOoyss BZuznp pajonpuos sasseo nay * sjooyss yay soruas uy “q sjooyss ysIq solunf 4] “e p:3Ul[asunod pue sduEpPINS jenplaripul jo wesZoid B ny] * Coe mere seseerebessrernsases sjooys yay so1uas UT “2 ‘oe waged ea sjooyos ysiq sorunf uy “q sjooyss Arejuauiaja uy ‘e SIITATIOV [OOYIS SS¥{I-Jo-yno NIyy * ey - Vso 52500555. g99y9s YSIy JOLUaS UT *D re sjooyas 1q sorunf uy “q sjooyss AiewusuIaja Uy “eB [UOTJEINPI Ja}Ie1VYD 10} sporiad ssid ayeredas nig] * Z Hoos YSq JojGes ay *d ty Jorn uy “q sooyds ArejyuaWaja uy “eB :syafqns se[Na1 us Sassejd nay] - sazis s Zz 118 Jo 891319 S¥9 uonerndod ur 000°00T 4040 SOnit> TE uonerndod ur auonerndod ur quonerndod ut 000°00T-000'0€ 000°0€-000'01 000°01-000°S S$91319 Og $91319 921 $9131 Zp1 euotjerndod ut 000°S-00S°2 $91319 Ob uoneyndod ut 00S°Z Jepun S91319 OZ Ul SUI93SAS [00Y4IS Jo JUdII0g suorstaoid [es9uen NOILVONGA AALOVAVH) AOA SNOISIAOUd TVAANAD SNOIAVA ONILAOdAA SWALSAS IOOHDS 40 LNADAAd—Z ATAVL desirable attitudes and conduct were not usu- ally brought to the conscious attention of the children but were supposed to be learned inci- dentally. Relation between home and school expected —The superintendents were also asked to choose from among several statements the one which, in their judgment, best described the relationship that under present conditions should be expected to exist between the home and the school in regard to character educa- tion. Of the 621 replies summarized in Table 3, a considerable majority indicated the belief that hearty and intelligent cooperation between the two agencies is essential and that the school should earnestly seek such cooperation. A num- ber of the superintendents, however, felt that the school can expect little or no assistance from the average home, and that it is profitable only to give parents enough information so that they will not oppose the school’s program. School bulletins and courses of study avail- able—Table 4 shows the extent to which the 645 school systems were using special bulletins or course-of-study materials in character edu- cation. Fewer than half of the systems had separate bulletins or outlines in this field for any one type of school, and in fewer than one- fifth were specific suggestions for character building included in courses of study dealing with the regular school subjects. Both types of materials were provided somewhat more often for the.elementary school than for either the junior or the senior high school. The special bulletins were prepared more often by outside agencies than by officers and teachers within the school system. In connection with this inquiry, and subse- quently, the Research Division received more than three hundred different bulletins dealing with various phases of character education. These varied widely in size, scope, and quality. Sume consisted of only a few mimeographed pages, while a few were more than a hundred printed pages in length. In many systems only a single bulletin had been prepared, while in others several bulletins were in use. Many were largely collections of materials and devices for use in connection with the regular subjects or in separate character-education periods. Others emphasized such special phases of the program as individual guidance, clubs and other extra- curriculum activities, classroom administration and discipline, pupil participation in school government, recreational activities outside the school, and character ratings and reports to parents. Relatively few of these published ma- terials outlined a really broad program and in- dicated definite plans for carrying it out in all phases of the school environment. It is not safe to assume, however, that the program of any particular school system is limited to those types of activity which have been described or recommended in special character-education TABLE 3.—STATEMENTS SELECTED BY SUPERINTENDENTS OF SCHOOLS AS BEST DESCRIBING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HOME AND SCHOOL IN PRO- GRAMS OF CHARACTER EDUCATION Number and percent of superintendents Number Statements of relationship Percent . The hearty, intelligent, and active cooperation of parents is vigorously and continuously sought, and this cooperation is expected to play an important part in achieving desired character educa- tion results. Parents are fully informed as to the character education objectives of the school and as to how they can cooperate most intelligently as regards their own children . The home is given sufficient information concerning the character education work of the school so that it will not oppose it. The school expects but little positive effort on the part of the home in carrying on a consistent program of character education. . The school recognizes that the typical home lacks interest in character education and is losing its effectiveness as a character training medium. The school must expect to carry the major burden of character education unaided by the home. . Combinations and modifications of the above statements. Total 621 100 Read table thus: Of the 621 superintendents of schools replying to the question of school and home relationships, 407 or 65 percent selected statement No. 1; 75 or 12 percent selected statement No. 2; 85 or 14 percent selected statement No. 3; and 54 or 9 percent preferred to combine or modify the first three statements in various ways. {91 ] Bullet ment L Schoe and Ange M Out New Edu Boz for Sta “sjooyos ysiq Jorunf ou pey Aay} yey} pezlodal SatyId eSay} JO INOW » “spooyss yay solun{ ou pey Aay} ey} Paz10dal SatjID Asay} JO OMT q *‘sjooyos yay sorunf Ou prey Aay} yey. Ppazs0da1 SaqyId aseq} JO FAIZ e “suorstaoid jo sadAjy Jaqjo 10; pu sdnoi# uonejndod s9y}0 410; semnBy ayy pear A[RIMIS “sfOoyDs YAY sJOIUAS UT asN 4OJ Way) PRY juaoied ¢] pue ‘s[ooyrs YSIY JOIUNf UI asn Joy ApNys JO SasINOd JO SUNATNG Yons pey juacied [1] ‘sjooyDs AreyUeWIa|a UI asn J0y ay, Jo suNe][Ng $9131 S¥9 S91st9 TE 891319 08 S$91319 OZT S919 Zor $91319 OFT $91319 OZT Ul SUI9ISAS [OOYIS JO 3U92DI0g NOILVONGA AALOVAVHD NI STVIAALVW AGNLS-dAO-ASANOD ANV SNILATING AO ASN AHL ONILAOdAA SNALSAS IOOHDS AO LNADUAd— + ATAVL etins. For this reason no comprehensive \r classification of such bulletins according to their scope is presented here. A few which ) represent relatively broad programs are listed 9 below ~ Boston. Course in Citizenship Through Charac- ter Development. “Grades I to VIII” and “Kinder- garten and Grade I.’ School Documents Nos. 10 and 16. Boston: School Committee, 1928 (reprint) and 1926. 96 and 105 p. Denver. Character Education in the Denver Pub- lic Schools. Monograph No. 14. Public Schools, 1929. 31 p. Kansas City, Mo. Character Building: Elemen- tary School Procedures. Kansas City School Service Bulletin, Vol. 4, No. 3. Kansas City, Mo.: Depart- ment of Education, 1931. 121 p. Los Angeles. Character and Conduct: High School Course of Study. School Publication No. 60; and Citizenship. School Publication No. 92. Los Angeles: City Schools, 1926, 1927. 79 and 148 p. Maryland. The Teaching of Citizenship in the Elementary School. Maryland School Bulletin, Vol. 8. Baltimore: State Department of Education, 1926. 262 p. Denver: Minneapolis. Citizenship Training in the Min- neapolis Public Schools: Elementary Grades. Edu- cational Bulletin No. 13. Minneapolis: Public Schools, 1928. 24 p. Nebraska. Courses of Study for Normal Train- ing High Schools: Character Education. Bulletin H. Lincoln, Nebr.: State Department of Public In- struction, 1929. 140 p.; and Gregg, Fred. M. 4 Course of Study in Character Education for School and Home. Lincoln, Nebr.: Lincoln School Supply Co., 1929. 169 p. New Hampshire. Character Education: An Outline Recommended for the Public Schools of New Hampshire. Concord, N. H.: State Board of Education, 1927. 88 p. Norfolk, Va. Character Education in Norfolk Elementary Schools. Norfolk, Va.: City School Board, 1928. 207 p. Oklahoma. Character Education: A Handbook for Teachers. Bulletin No. 131. Oklahoma City: State Department of Public Instruction, 1931. 98 p. Oregon. Character Education. Salem, Ore.: State Department of Public Instruction, 1930. 64 p. Pontiac, Mich. The Program of a Department of Character Education. Pontiac, Mich.: Public Schools, 1932. 6 p. St. Louis, Mo. Socializing-Integrating Activi- ties for Kindergarten and Grades I-VI; Socializ ing-Integrating Activities for Grades VIl, VIII, and IX; and Socializing-Integrating Activities for the High School. Curriculum Bulletins Nos. 9, 21, statement of a proposed program for the Character Outcomes in the Public School.’ Religious 10 More recent information indicates that Pontiac, still employs a special director of character education. *See also the Education 29 Michigan, is and 38. St. Louis 65, and 87 p. Utah. Character Education: Supplement to thi Utah State Course of Study for Elementary and High Schools. Salt Lake City: Pub lic Instruction, 1929. 176 p. Board of Education, 1926. 1¢ Department of These and other bulletins more limited in scope will be mentioned later to illustrate pat ticular types of materials and procedures. An other important question in connection with the of program has to do with the personnel respon Personnel responsible for the program general scope the character-building sible for this work. Table 2 has shown that school counselors were utilized in the junior high schools of 19 percent, and in the senior 9 high schools of 22 percent, of the 645 cities reporting. ‘Table 5 indicates that in most sys- tems the teachers of regular school subjects were wholly responsible for character educa- tion, especially in the elementary grades. Only about 5 percent of the cities employed spe- cially-trained teachers to assist in this work in the junior and senior high school, and the pro- portion employing such teachers in the elemen tary school was still smaller. In about 10 per- cent, persons representing some agency or agencies outside the school participated regu- larly in the character-building program of each type of school. About the same proportion had a school committee or council, composed of teachers and principals, which devoted consid- erable time and attention to problems in this field. Only fourteen cities, or about 2 percent, reported the employment of a special super- of the character-education visor or director program.’ Nature and Scope of an Adequate Program The questionnaire returns and school publi- cations referred to above indicate marked dif- ferences in the nature and scope of character- building programs in various school systems. While broad many others tend to emphasize only one or a some systems have programs, few phases of the school environment as sig Heaton, Kenneth L Emphasizing 1934, Michigan, in 104-12; April, one of State of these fourteen school systems which the only [93] ‘sjooyos ysIq Jorun{ Ou pey Ady) Jey) payiOdal satjId esaq} jo INOJ 5 “sjooyos ysIy io1unf Ou peYy Asay, yeYyY Pez10dal SatjID 9say} JO OM] q ‘sjooyds ysIy sorunf ou pey Avy} 384} paziodal saIjI9 as0q} JO PAIY » ‘suorstaoid jauuosiad jo SadA} Jayjo Joy pue sdnoiz uonejndod 1ayIO 40f SaInBy ey} PkIl AjsepWIg “sjooyos YsIy JOIUas 9y} UI aqisuodsal AjjoyM Way}, epeM jusdIed 49 pue ‘sjooyds YsIy JOIUN{ 94} UI a[qIsuodsel A]jOoYM SisqyI"a} YONS epeU jusoIed Pg ‘sjooyss AsejyUaWaja 94} Ul UONBINpe JazIVIVYD Joy aqisuodsai AjjOYM sIayIVI} Woossse]> Ie[NFe1 seq) spew jusdied 67, ‘Zurjs0del uOTVE;ndod ul OOSZ JepuN SemId OZ] 24) JO ‘SNYy) aZIqQe} proy 1 ¢7 tl 8 Il 1a PI9¥ SIq) 0} UONUa}Ae Saj0Aap UON -BNpa J9}IBIVYD UO [IOUNOD JO 39x,1WWOD [OOYDS [eI07] peAojdwa uoNeoNps Ja}2VIVYD jo JOsIAIadNS JO 10;9aIIp [eIeds - WY J0(Uas Uy “2 Wy Jorun{ Uy - :weiZ01d jooyss ay) Ut AjzejnZe1 «Buyjedionied samuesze aprsjno ae. suosiag * sjooyrs YS1y s01Uas Uy ‘> sjooyrs YysIy Jojunf uy “q sjooyss Areyuewaa uy “eB :pla Sty} Ul ysISse 0} pakodwa sisyoRe} pourest-£yspseds - sjooyrs YZIy JOlUas Uy *D sjooqes yaIy Jorun{ uy “q sjooyss Aseyusuaja uy “e :UoTeD -npa 1a}981eY2 10j aqrsuodsai Ajjoym siaqyoea} sv[NZey *] 8 Z 9 s + £ z SozIs uonendod ur uonerndod ur uonendod ur quoyeindod ur vuoeindod ur uonendod ur 118 jo 000‘001 1240 000‘001-000'0E 000‘0€-000'01 000°01-000°S 000°s-00S‘2 00s‘2 4@pun auuosied jo os 891319 $49 SO1st9 TE 891319 08 $1319 9Z1 891912 Zbl 891919 OFT 891319 9Z1 ! i Ae Ul SUI9}SAS [OOYIS JO 3UaDI190g NOILVONdGA AALOVAVHD NI TANNOS&Gd dO ASN AHL OL SV SNOISIAOUd SNOIAVA ONILAHOdAA SWALSAS IOOHDS AO LNADAAd—'s AIAVL nificant for character development. The latter practise is not consistent with present knowl- re of the way in which character develops, er with the desirable objectives of character building suggested earlier in this chapter. Unfortunately, there is little experimental evidence as to the relative character values of many elements in the school environment. As rapidly as possible further investigation should be undertaken to determine these values more satisfactorily and to provide a sounder basis for the selection of materials and methods. Even with the existing limitations of our knowledge, however, it is possible to sketch the outline of an adequate program, and to make many tentative suggestions concerning its details. The general outline is indicated here, while the consideration of details is re- served for the subsequent chapters, There is good reason to believe that every school system should strive to influence the character of children definitely thru the fol- lowing channels: et 1. Thru the entire curriculum a. Content and method in regular class work b. Out-of-class school activities 2. Thru individual counseling and guidance a. By teachers and principals b. By specialists 3. Thru school and classroom administration a. Administration within the school system b. School relations with other social agencies It will be noted that the above outline does not specifically mention separate class periods devoted to character-building activities. “To the extent that such periods are necessary and useful, they should be provided as a part of the regular curriculum. Time may well be 11 Special character-building activities are discussed in some detail on p. 102 of this bulletin taken for special character-building activities, but thére is considerable doubt as to whether administered as a entitled ‘‘Characte: they should be separate course of study Educa- tion.’”!? Whether the school system should provide special bulletins and special personnel under the heading of ‘Character Education” will depend partly upon local character influences operate thruout the life of the school, the entire school program should be thought of as the character-building program. Bulletins on the curriculum, out-of-class ac- conditions. Since tivities, counseling, and school and classroom management should contain all available sug- gestions for good character development, But if such materials are not available, and if the school program as a whole needs considerable revision in the direction of the character ob jective, special bulletins showing how to ap proach this objective may be very useful. The same principle seems applicable with respect to the personnel responsible for char- acter development. In a school system with a broad and well-developed program, a special supervisor or director of character education would seem to be unnecessary. Teachers, prin cipals, curriculum specialists, child-guidance specialists, and central administrative officers should see to it that the character objective receives major emphasis. On the other hand, some systems may find it desirable, as a stimu- lus both to the regular school staff and to the community as a whole, to set up a special serv- ice division for character education with a specially-trained person as director, whose duty is to help in the reorganization and improve- ment of the entire school program with refer- ence to character building. , I SHE MORAL has been conceived in too goody-goody a way. Ultimate moral motives and forces are nothing more or less than social intelligence—the power of observing and comprehending social situations,—and social power trained capacities of control—at work in the service of social interest and aims. There is no fact which throws light upon the constitution of society, there is no power whose training adds to social resourcefulness that is not moral.—John Dewey, Moral Principles in Education, p. 43. [95] II. Building Character thru the Curriculum In considering how the school curriculum can contribute most to good character develop- ment in children, this chapter uses the term “curriculum” to include all of the planned ex- periences which are given to the pupils, as well as many experiences which are not planned definitely in advance. The chapter first reviews a series of principles basic to the curriculum as a whole. It then presents material bearing upon general methods of teaching, content and method in specific subjects, and class partici- pation in special character-building lessons or activities. Finally, the chapter suggests ways and means of improving character thru out- of-class school activities such as clubs, assem- blies, dramatics, athletics, and student partici- pation in school government. The major em- phasis is placed upon materials and methods of group instruction and guidance. Problems of individual pupil guidance and of school and classroom administration are discussed in sepa- rate chapters. General Curriculum Principles The Tenth Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence describes an adequate charac- ter-building curriculum briefly as follows: Any curriculum that makes a sincere, intelligent, and courageous approach to the real problem of living is a character education curriculum.’ A curriculum which brings to youth a conscious- ness of the problems of life, some understanding of these problems, a sense of personal responsibility in contributing to their solution, a reasonable de- 1 National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. D. C.: the Association, 1932. p. 179. 2 Ibid., p. 192. gree of technical efficiency of procedure, and a personal life in harmony with the good of ot! is achieving the end of character education. These statements need much more ela! tion than is possible in a bulletin of this s It may be helpful, however, to review | certain pertinent principles which have }. stated or implied in the recent writings curriculum specialists and others.* These p: ciples are presented with full realization of + fact that educators are not entirely agreed in regard to all of them. In the brief statemen: accompanying each principle, an effort is mac: to resolve conflicting viewpoints so far possible. 1. A character-building curriculum will pro vide for the needs, interests, and potentialities of each individual child. This principle requires that careful attention be given to individual! differences among children, and rules out the lock-step type of educational program designed for the hypothetical “average” child. It calls for such differentiation in subjectmatter and teaching methods as will enable each pupil to make the most of his capacities and to adjust himself harmoniously to his physical and socia! environment. There is, of course, a common body of abilities, knowledges, and apprecia tions which ideally should be shared by all. Provision must be made, however, for thos: who have special incapacities and for those whose abilities and interests are greater 01 more varied than the average. 2. A character-building curriculum will con sider the requirements of adult society as wel: Character Education. Tenth Yearbook. Washington In selecting these principles, the following sources were consulted: Almack, John C. Education for Citizenship. Boston Houghton Mifflin Co., 1924. p. 80. { Bobbitt, Franklin. Curriculum Investigations. Supplementary Educational Monograph No. 31. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1926. p. 4. {] Bobbitt, Franklin. How to Make a Curriculum. Boston: Hough ton Mifflin Co., 1924. p. 7-8, 41-42, 44-59, 61-62, 280-86. {] Bonser, Frederick G. The Elementary School Curriculum. New York: Macmillan Co., 1923. p. 1-25. ] Charters, W. W. Curriculum Construction. New York: Macmillan Co., 192 p. 12-25, 97-102, 152-54. {] Davis, Calvin O. Our Evolving High School Curriculum. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y.: World Book Co., 1927, p. 140-45, 149-63, 230. %] Germane, Charles E., and Germane, Edith G. Character Education. New York Silver, Burdett and Co., 1929. Part I, p. 28-32. {| Hopkins, L. Thomas. Curriculum Principles and Practices. Chicax Benjamin H. Sanborn and Co., 1929. p. 9-11, 14-15, 27-31, 129-33, 135-37, 139-42, 193, 292-99, 304, 608-10. {] Nationa Education Association, Department of Superintendence. The Nation at Work on the Public School Curriculum. Fourth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1926. p. 10-11, 13-18, 407. {] National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Character ——— Tenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1932. p. 179-90. ] Nationa! Education Department tendence. Research in Constructing the Elementary School Curriculum. Third {| National Education Association, Research Divi 1925 Association, of Superin Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1926 (reprint). p. 18-22. sion. “Keeping Pace With the Advancing Curriculum.”’ Research Bulletin 3: 115, 117-18; September and November, ™ National Society for the Study of Education. Foundations of Curriculum-Making. Twenty-Sixth Yearbook, Part II. Bloom- ington, Ill.: Public School Co., 1926. p. 12-25, 73-75, 85-87, 154-55. {] Rugg, Harold, and Shumaker, Ann The Child Centered School. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y.: World Book Co., 1928. p. 55-67, 112-23, 128-30. {] Williams, L. A. The Making of High School Curricula, Boston: Ginn and Co., 1928. p. 184, 195-96, 201. [96] needs and interests of children. Vhere is would hool of educational theory which the curriculum almost entirely upon child rests and desires. Most authorities, how _view the growth of personality as a con ious process, whose ultimate goal is the satisfactory participation in life on the ture or adult level. The relative immatut 1f children must be taken into consideration thruout the educational system, but the basic needs of individual and social living appear to be the same for children as for adults. During the limited time spent in the school, therefore, seems unwise to permit transitory or rela ely unimportant interests of children to crowd out activities of more permanent and fundamental importance. Even more objection ible is the inclusion of activities which have no significant relation to either child or adult life. 3. A character-building curriculum will un lertake to transmit our heritage of common culture and experience; to consider contem- rary issues and achievements; and to develop generation of people who will contribute to an improved social order. Since the aim of education is to improve individual and social living, children must be given the benefit of mankind’s previous experiences and achieve ments insoiar as these are valuable for present and future living. A curriculum is inadequate, however, if it deals exclusively with past oc- currences and achievements. It must present significant issues of the present day, point out current trends in social, economic, and politi- cal life, and attempt to develop in pupils the desire and the capacity to help direct these trends for the welfare of all in the future. 4. A character-building curriculum will be concerned primarily with the values and the solution of real life problems, and secondarily with the aequisition of routine skills and factual subjectmatter. The impor- tance of fundamental knowledge and skills is not to be underestimated, but these should be selected and organized with reference to the weighing of practical needs of modern social life. ‘These practical demands are not limited to the un- thinking performance of certain actions which have received general social approval. They require the willingness and the ability to con sider relative values and to solve problems of living for which no ready-made solution is at [97 ] hand. lum must present abundant opportunities f not To meet this requirement, the curt choosing among different values, among adult values alone or childish values alons that life fo i among all values in such a way everyone will be ; TY made as rich as possible beginning to end. Such a selection of values cannot be made without the acquisition of ce: tain skills or the knowledge of pertinent facts The than major objectives, and this fact must influence latter are tools, however, rathe: profoundly the selection, organization, and presentation of subjectmatter in the curricu lum, 5. A character-building curriculum will b planned in advance, but will be flexible enough to permit the introduction of new materia and first-hand pupil experiences whenever these are available and useful. Generally speaking, those who believe that the curriculum should be limited to the spontaneous interests and ax ( hildhood curriculum cannot be formulated in tivities of also assert that such a id\ ince, They contend that it must develop from day to day in accordance with the desires of the pupils On the other hand, those who believe that edu cation should prepare for both child and adult life contend that this is impossible without organization of educa Most curriculum careful selection and tional materials in advance. workers have adopted the latter view, with the proviso that the planned program must be sub ject to interruption and modification wheneve necessary to capitalize the current interests and life-situations of the pupils. 6. A character-building curriculum will be constructed with the cooperation of all partie concerned pupils, teachers, cialists, subjectmatter specialists, and society in \ curriculum developed without the curr ulu m Spe general. aid of all parties concerned can hardly make a “sincere, intelligent, and courageous approach to the real problem of living.’’ Competent lay men should be consulted because they have knowledge of adult social needs and responsi bilities. Curriculum and subjectmatter special materials are ists are needed to insure that authentic, wisely selected, and organized fo economical learning. The assistance of capable teachers is essential because of their intimate contact with, and knowledge of, the classroom situation. Teachers may help in the actual writ eee es i ee ee ing of the formal courses of study, but even more important, they must transform the cold outlines of these courses into a vital influence among children in the classroom. Last, but by no means least, is the contribution which should be made by the pupils themselves. Without the liberal injection of their personal observations, experiences, and problems, the curriculum stream becomes sluggish, artificial, and devoid of relation to child life outside the school. 7. A character-building curriculum will be continually reconstructed and brought up to date. In a world of changing social and eco- nomic relationships, it is imperative that the curriculum be modified whenever any part of it ceases to have significant relation to life. This principle is especially important because most school systems find it impossible to effect a thoro revision of their teaching materials all at once. If such revision were possible, and if the job were very well done, the resulting curriculum might need only minor changes for a period of five or ten years. Under present conditions, however, a policy of continuous curriculum reconstruction is necessary to bring and to keep school work in close relation to life outside the school. General Methods of Teaching and Learning Altho the proper selection of curriculum con- tent is of paramount importance for character building, even the most carefully chosen sub- jectmatter cannot be expected to produce good results unless it is wisely organized and ap- TABLE. 6—AVERAGE PERCENT OF CHEATING ON CERTAIN TESTS IN TWO TYPES OF PUBLIC SCHOOL wey 4 Type of School - “rw ar we _ ae} Conventional ... te 28 34 29 31 31 Experimental .... — 24 13 15 21 Read table thus: In both the conventional and the experi- mental school, the average fourth-grade pupil cheated in 28 percent of the opportunities which the tests provided; in the conventional school, the average fifth-grade pupil cheated in 34 percent of the unities vided, whereas in the ex- perimental school t average fifth-grade pupil cheated in only 24 percent of the opportunities provided. Similarly read figures for the other grades. Source of data: Hartshorne, Hugh, and May, Mark A. Studies in Deceit. New York: Macmillan Co., 1928. Book I, Figure 62, p. 316. propriately taught. Moreover, general method. of teaching probably influence character jp ways that are somewhat independent of the subjectmatter Hartshorne and May: found an apparently significant difference jp honesty between children attending schools which employed conventional methods of struction and those attending schools whic! The new-typ used. used more modern methods. schools studied were using a project approx and were directing the children’s attention away from tests, grades, and marks, toward the pursuit of school activitics for inherent] worthwhile purposes. A comparison between two public schools with respect to the amount of cheating on certain tests yielded the result shown in Table 6. Even when the pupils in these schools were grouped according to th occupational level of their parents, the experi- mental school showed less cheating at each level, as indicated in Table 7. TABLE 7.—AVERAGE PERCENT OF CHEATING IN TWO TYPES OF PUB.- LIC SCHOOL IN RELATION TO THE OCCUPATIONAL LEVEL OF PARENTS Percent cheating relative to parental group Occupational level of parents Conventional Experimental school school . Professional, large business, managerial service, commercial WE, 6c id tlw 3 31 19 . Artisan proprietors, owners of small business, foremen, highly skilled laborers .. . 28 21 . Skilled laborers, such as plumb- ers, electricians, plasterers, me- chanics .. ieee ert — nN w 48 17 Read table thus: In the conventional school, the averay pupil whose parents were in the first occupational grou cheated in 31 percent of the opportunities provided by the tests, whereas in the experimental school the average pu; whose parents were in the same group cheated in only 19 percent of the opportunities provided. Similarly read figures for the other occupational groups. Source of data: Hartshorne, Hugh, and May, Mark A Studies in Deceit. New York: Macmillan Co., 1928. Book | Figure 63, p. 319. In view of such evidence, it will be useful to review here some of the implications of gen- eral teaching procedure for attaining the pri- mary character objective of “doing the best thing in each situation.”” Unfortunately, re- search in methods of learning and teaching has seldom been concerned directly with this objec- tive. The discussion in the following para- * Hartshorne, Hugh, and May, Mark A. Studies in Deceit. New York: Macmillan Co., 1928. Book I, p. 317-20. [98] eS eee eee — ter eae 4 COT PIR et ign oa know by a on ec At enulr mal | serva ment pract and thru thru tant repo indit ture: mad audi ture tens’ over then prot deci: actic that a ge be t of t! far mer all | 7 adv: Educ Educ ance. and Elisv Meti Adm Char Emp ciple AB Four Appi N. ' Chic Bost 1932 Hill 9 Tt Proc H. ig es] m im sare Cec Be ER. graphs, therefore, is based largely upon present Lnowledge of learning in general, as indicated by a variety of studies” and by various writings on educational method." Bobbitt’ has enumerated eight general ways in which nor- {venues of human experience mal human beings learn: (1) thru direct ob servation of countless things in the environ ment; (2) thru performance of function—the practise of activities observed in other people and considered desirable for one’s self; (3) thru reading, a form of indirect observation thru language, and probably the most impor- tant single medium of learning; (4+) thru oral report, a less frequent but important form of indirect learning thru language; (5) thru pic- tures, by which indirect visual observation is made possible, with the addition of indirect auditory experience in the talking motion pic- ture; (6) thru prolonging, repeating, and in- tensifying one’s experiences by thinking them over, telling them to others, or dramatizing them with the cooperation of others; (7) thru problem solving, in situations which call for decisions, conclusions, and plans for future action; and (8) thru generalization, observing that a number of specific instances fall under a general rule or principle, which will in turn be useful in solving subsequent problems. All of these modes of learning should be utilized so far as possible in the school. Character develop- ment will be facilitated by opening to children all possible avenues of experience. The significance of pupil activity—Recent advances in psychological theory indicate that children need to put into practise the things which they learn thru direct observation, read . 1 . 1 ing, oral report, and pictures, if these things are to function in their everyday lives. Since constructive action is the central objective of the good life, and since such action is impossible limit Nor is it sufficient for children to reach conclusions without right practise, it is insufficient to school work to activities of observation concerning the problems of life without at tempting to carry out these conclusions in con duct. There is much truth in the statement that one learns to do by doing. On the other hand, there is serious danget of misinterpreting the theory of activity. Some educators appear to place undue emphasis upon tor sake- which is not directed into worthwhile channels by careful observation or thought. Undirected activity its own physical activity physical activity, or activity directed solely by the spontaneous impulses of children, undoubt edly has its proper place, but as a general school procedure it is likely to produce chaotic and haphazard learning, and may actually interfere with the attainment of desirable character ob jectives. Subjects vs. problems or centers of interest The division of the curriculum into subjects was due originally to logical considerations and the influence of specialists in the various fields of learning. Under this arrangement effective learning was defined primarily as the memori zation and logical classification of facts. In the current wave of revolt against this inadequate scheme of education, a few educators have gone 5 For a critical summary of research on learning and teaching in general, see: National Education Association, America Educational Research Association Psychology of Learning, General Methods of Teaching, and Supervision Revi Educational Research 3: 279-368; October, 1933 6 Among the most helpful of such writings are the following: Allen, Richard D. Case-Conference Problems in Group Guid ince. New York: Inor Publishing Co., 1933. “‘The Case-Conference Method of Instruction,’ p. 7-16. Carr, William G and Waage, John. The Lesson Assignment. Stanford University, Calif Stanford University Pres 1931. 98 p. 4 Colling Elisworth. Project Teaching in Elementary Schools. New York: Century Co., 1928. 571 p. { Dougla Harl Roy. Modern Methods in High School Teaching. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1926. 544 p. Garrison, Noble Lee. Technique and Administration of Teaching. New York: American Book C 1933. 593 p. ]Germane, Charles | und Germane, Ed ( Character Education. New York: Silver, Burdett and Co., 1929. Part I, p 105. Heaton, Kenneth L. The Character Emphasis in Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933. p. 91-11 137-91. Holley, Charles I Modern Prin ciples and the Elementary Teacher's Technique. New York: Century Co., 1928 1 p. Hosic, James I ind Chase, S. I A Brief Guide to the Project Method. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. \ World Book ( 1924. 243 p. 4] Kilpatrick, W im H Foundations of Method. New York: Macmillan Co., 1925. 383 p. Minor, Ruby. Principles of Teaching Practi ipplied. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1924. 281 p. {J Monroe, W. S. Directing Learning in the High School. Garden ‘ N. Y.: Doubleday, Page and Co., 1927. 577 p. Morrison, Henry C. The Practise of Teaching in the Seconda ho Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931. 688 p. { Parker, Samuel C. General Methods of Teaching in Elementary Sch Boston: Ginn and Co., 1922. 330 p. (Reagan, G. W. Fundamental f 7 hing. Chicago: Scott, Foresman and ( 1932. 554 p. Strebel, Ralph F., and Morehart, Grover C. The Nature and Meaning of Teaching. New York: McG Hill Book Co., 1929. 273 p. Thayer, V. T. The Passing of the Recitation. Boston: D. C, Heath and Co., 1 1 | { Thomas, Frank W. Principles and Technique of Teaching. Boston: Heughton Mifflin Co., 1927. 410 p. J Wapk Dougla Procedures in High School Teaching. New York: Macmillan Co., | 34 q Wilson, H. B.; Kyte, G. ¢ ind I H. G. Modern Methods in Teaching. New York: Silver, Burdett and Co., 1924. 286 p 7 Bobbitt, Franklin. How to Make a Curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1924. p. 45-59 [99 ] Seer ese: 7 we to the other extreme, advocating the elimina- tion of subjects—even the so-called tool sub- jects—as separate categories of knowledge to be studied systematically. These workers would substitute an organization of activities around major problems or “‘centers of interest,” con- tending that the skills and knowledges neces- sary for the exploration and solution of these problems may be acquired as needed from many fields of subjectmatter. On the other hand, the available evidence indicates that the learning of important facts and skills is facilitated by some systematic instruction in reading, spelling, writing, and arithmetic, and probably in such fields as literature, natural science, and social science as well. The problem approach is un- questionably valuable in building good charac- ter, but its value probably does not warrant the wholesale scrapping of school subjects as such. The extent to which different kinds of subject- matter should be integrated instead of being taught separately is still an open question. Teaching by projects—The project method has been hailed as a significant contribution to teaching technic because it tends to identify the work of the school with activities and problems outside the school. The good project requires the solution of problems, and in addition often involves physical activity to the extent of doing or producing something worthwhile, such as constructing a miniature city in the kindergar- ten, caring for the needs of a poor family at Christmas in the elementary school, and fur- nishing a house or apartment in the high school. A project may be undertaken either by a group or by an individual pupil. For the purpose of socializing children the group project is gen- erally superior to the individual project, be- cause the former requires a certain amount of cooperative endeavor. Either type may help to build good character by giving pupils a signi- ficant purpose, stimulating initiative, placing responsibility, requiring genuine thinking, and giving the pupils a sense of worthwhile achieve- ment. There are, however, certain dangers in the method, which if not guarded against, may make its influence on character not merely in- effective but positively harmful: (1) the proj- ect selected may be artificial, having no signifi- cant relation to life and descending to the level of mere busy work; (2) even if genuine, it may require no real initiative or constru thinking; (3) if a group project, it may tt poorly planned that some or all of the | have no definite responsibilities; and may yield unsatisfactory results because « excessive difficulty, inadequate materials, supervision, or all of these handicaps. Some workers advocate the constructio: the curriculum projects instead around subjects as the basic units. A more mon practise, however, is to use the pro as one means of giving pupils significant periences in a curriculum organized in | on a subject basis. The socialized discussion—This procedu if wisely used, appears to be among the n promising for character development. At PE best, it is not merely an opportunity for de! among members of the class, but rather a sit tion in which each member makes his own cv: tribution to the understanding or solution o! problem. Each pupil should be given some s; cial responsibility. He must then be given sufi cient guidance and have access to sufficient sources of information so that he will be a to discharge his responsibility to the grou The method provides for the expression of in- dividual opinion on controversial issues, but i also requires that opinions be based upon fact: wherever possible, and that an accurate, biased report of pertinent facts be presented each member of the group. The socialized discussion has certain obvi: advantages over the traditional type of recit tion: (1) its purpose and procedure are fund mentally social; (2) it stimulates interest | giving each pupil an opportunity to contribu: to, as well as to learn from, the remainder « the group; and (3) it places a premium upo: the understanding, interpretation, and organ zation of facts, rather than upon mere rot: learning and mechanical repetition of unr lated facts. As in the case of the project, the success o! the socialized discussion depends upon seve: factors: (1) the selection of a suitable topic « problem for discussion, (2) careful plannin: and the assignment of suitable responsibilities to various members of the group, (3) th teacher’s ability to guide the discussion wisel\ / without domination, and (4) availability o: : adequate source materials aside from the regu lar textbook. 0] around m sei [ 100 } AE Wr tee Developing appreciations—Certain elements ‘ the curriculum, to be most effective in build desirable character, need to be approached with a problem-solving attitude, but rather a mood of pure enjoyment. Among such ments are music, graphic and plastic ar‘s, id certain types of literature. This viewpoint es not imply that there is no place for critical alysis in these fields, but that for most chil- en such analysis is of secondary importance. \ppreciation of a beautiful piece of literature, for example, is usually lessened rather than ncreased by requiring pupils to analyze its basic tructure or the details of its author’s style. Pupils who are interested in the production or performance of artistic works should have an pportunity to obtain the necessary technical training, but the latter does not belong in the rue appreciation lesson. Character values in rt are produced by stimulating the feelings ind emotions, rather than by teaching form and technic. Repetition and drill- there has been a reaction in some schools re As intimated above, cently against formal drill. It is asserted that hildren do not normally learn by method outside of school, that it tends to kill nterest and initiative, and that it has a generally inwholesome effect on character and person- lity. Such situations in which pupil activity is limited to such a assertions may apply to school monotonous repetition of textbook materials without adequate motivation. ‘here seems to be no good reason, however, why schools should vo to either one extreme or the other. When drill is properly motivated and guided, it is probably the most economical way of acquiring certain knowledges and skills, whether inside or outside the school. Children, like adults, can be interested in using the most effective methods in order to accomplish results which seem worthwhile to them. If they are shown that the most economical method is that of formal drill, most of them will use it and like it, even tho it is intrinsically less interesting than a project or other activity in which there is More opportunity for initiative and thinking. Not to require formal drill when needed is to deprive pupils of a valuable character-build- ing experience. Good character is not produced by always doing the thing which seems easiest or most interesting at the moment. It is devel- oped by practise in doing things which are likely. to vield the most generally) ng results ovel the longest period ort Assignments and directed study—I\n those learning activities which involve of facts, the acquisition of skills, o1 n of problems, pupils need to know in advance: (1) what they are attempting do, (2) why they are doing it, (3) how may do it most economically, and (4 v the are to know when they have done it cess fully. ‘lo acquaint pupils with these nts Is the function of the lesson assignment. N nvel is it considered sufficient merely to assign many pages or chapters in a book, or even to ask pupils to solve a certain problem. |] ( entitled to know the significance of the topic or problem under consideration, ways in which they may investigate or study it most profitab! and methods of determining the extent accomplishment. The specific nature of the as signment will vary, of course, according to the purpose of the lesson and the nature of the material involved. After an assignment has been given, it is usually advisable for the teacher to exercisé some super\ ision ove! the acti ity ot th pupils, so as to make sure that the assignment been well understood. No constructive development of character can be expected if pupils are pet mitted to work without knowing the purposes and best methods-of accomplishing their tasks. The necessity ot proceeding in the d k cvener ates indifference, fear, or rebellion na en courages slipshod work. Content and Method in Specific School Subjects As indicated earlier in this chapter, there is some question as to whether the school curricu lum should be organized primarily in terms of subjectmatter fields or in terms of problems and projects which are significant in daily life However this question may eventually be de cided, most teachers at present are called upon to use the subject organization, and ther fore interested in improving the characte: building values of specific subjects as such. The scope of this bulletin does not permit a system atic review of ways and means of effecting such improvement in each subject now taught in the schools. Suggestions concerning content, ' organization, and method in general have al- ready been given. For more specific suggestions [101] and illustrations in the various subjects, the reader is referred to a number of helpful books, bulletins, and courses of study.® In addition to the publications just men- tioned, attention should be called to the large amount of research which has been done in specific school subjects. Most of this research, it is true, has not undertaken to evaluate ma- terials and methods with reference to their influence upon the motives and conduct of chil- dren in everyday life. Nevertheless, many studies have definite significance for character building because they help to show what sub- jectmatter is needed in everyday life and what methods of teaching will enable children to master this material most economically. Such studies have been well summarized elsewhere,® and the educator is advised to consult these summaries as well as the individual studies if he is not already familiar with them. for making various Houghton Mifflin Co., ’ Books containing suggestions Education for Citizenship. Boston: Emphasis in Education, Chicago: school subjects contribute to good character are: 1924. p. 79-95, University of Chicago Press, 1933. p. 25-79. Class Participation in Special Character. Building Activities The preceding chapter has shown that some school systems provide for class participation special character-buiiding activities.'° There however, a difference of opinion among ed cators as to the wisdom of such a provision Its opponents contend that the separate co sideration of morals is at best ineffective, and is likely to be positively harmful. It is often assumed that special character-education acti: ties inevitably involve preaching by the teache and meaningless verbalizing or unwholesome introspection by the pupils. A further objection sometimes raised is that a definite time allot ment for character education is likely to be looked upon as a satisfactory substitute fo: efforts to improve character thru other subject and classes. On the other hand, the proponents Almack, John 113-32. Heaton, Kenneth L. The Charact: "| National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. The Classroom Teacher and Character Education. Seventh Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Ass: ciation, 1932. p, 71-72, 75-99, p. 247-97, Some school bulletins or courses of study suggesting ways of obtaining character values from Headmasters Association, Monograph No. 14. Denver, Colo.: High School Course of Study. School Publication No. 16-51. State Department of Education, An Outline Recommended for the Public Schools of New Hampshire. Character Education: p. 29-38. Character Education in Secondary Schools. Boston: Character Education in the Denver Public Schools. 7 Les Angeles, California. Character and Conduct: Calif.: Board of Education, 1923. (Reprinted 1926.) p. School. Maryland School Bulletin, Vol. 8. Baltimore, Md.: shire. Character Education: of Education, 1927. p. 21-27, 70-73. Oklahoma. Oklahoma City, Okla.: State Department of Education, Boston. Schools. 1929. p. 139-70, ® For summaries of research dealing with the content of various school subjects, see: National Education Association, “The Curriculum.” Review of Educational Research 4: can Educational Research Association. “Curriculum Investigations at the Elementary and Secondary School Levels,” p. Department of Superintendence. Research in Constructing the Elementary School Curriculum. Third Yearbook, M7 Neumann, Henry. Education for Moral Growth. 1932. Utah State Course of Study for Elementary and High Schools. New York: D. Appleton and Co., various subjects are p. 59-68. Denver Put Public Schools, 1929. p. 17-25 60. Los Angele ™ Maryland. The Teaching of Citizenship in the Elementar 1926. p. 96-178. New Ham; Concord, N. H.: State Board A Handbook for Teachers. Bulletin No. 13 " Utah. Character Education: Supplement to th rev. ed. Salt Lake City: Department of Public Instructior 1928. Amer April, 1934. Chapter Education Associatior 1925. p. 31-366 121-252; 135-93. ] National The Nation at Work on the Public School Curriculum. Fourth Yearbook, 1926. p. 57-378; The Junior High School Curriculum Fifth Yearbook, 1927. p. 85-454; The Washington, D. C.: the Association. Curriculum.” Research Bulletin 3: tion, Research Division. “Creating a Curriculum for ciation, American Educational Research Association. Subjects,” 440, December 1931; 1-94, February 1932. and 2: % School bulletins or courses of study which describe provisions Boston. Course in Citizenship Through Character Development. § Chicago Principals’ activities are: Committee, 1924. Chicago: the Club, Problem Solving. Detroit, Des Moines, Iowa: Elementary School Procedures. City, Mo.: Department of Education, 1931. p. 10-23, Schools. Lakewood, Ohio: Superintendent of Schools, “Grades I to VIII.” p. 24, 33-96. 1931. p. 76-82, 145-51. Mich.: Detroit Teachers College, 1927. 1 Minneapolis. Minneapolis: Bulletin No. 131. Superintendent of Schools, 1928. p. 6-8, 9-12. Education. Salem, Oregon: State Department of Public Instruction, in Character Education. West Waterloo, Iowa: Public Schools, Development of the High School Curriculum. Sixth Yearbook, | National Education Association, Research Division. 107-94; September and November, Adolescent Youth.” Research Bulletin 6: 2-79; January, tributions of Research to Junior High School Curriculum Building,’”’ p. 29-53. For summaries of research dealing with special methods of teaching in various subjects, see: “Special Methods in the Elementary School,’’ ‘Psychology of the Schoo and ‘Special Methods on High-School Level.” Review of Educational Research 1: 32 7 Detroit Teachers College. 1929, p. 35-47. State Department of Public Instruction, Kansas City School Service Bulletin. Vol. 4, No. 3. Character Building Series No. 26-40, 59-72. p. 3. Syllabus for Character Education High Schools. Lakewood, Ohio: Superintendent of Schools, 1927 (mimeographed, pages not numbered). Character Education Course of Study. Grades One, Two, Three, Four, Five and Six. Long Beach, Calif.: p. 17-160. Los Angeles, Calif. Citizenship. School Publication No. 92. Los Angeles, Calif.: Citizenship Training in the Minneapolis Public Schools: 7 Oklahoma. Character Education: A Oklahoma City, Okla.: State Department of Public Instruction, 1930. Four mimeographed volumes, p. 1928. p. 288-48 “Keeping Pace with the Advancing {| National Education Associa 1928. “Con 1925. See p. 125-61. National Education Ass« 245-323, October 1931; 1 for class participation in special character-educatior School Document No. 10. Boston: Scho Club. Character Education. Sixth Yearbook Development of Character Through Communit 1 lowa. Course of Study for Elementary Schools ™ Kansas City, Mo. Character — 2. Kansas 1928. p. 102-12. 7 Lakewood, Ohio. Character Education for Elementur for Lakewood Junior {7 Long Beach, Calif City Schools, 1929 City Schools, 1927. p. 37-124 Elementary Grades. Educational Bulletin No. 13 Handbook for Teacher 1931. p. 43-52, 68-71. Oregon. Character % West Waterloo, Iowa. Course of Stud 1930. p. 42-48. 14, each volume [ 102 ] of special class work in character building be eve that there should be some time during ch day or week when pupils are given an opportunity to concentrate on matters which re most important in truly successful living. Moreover, they assert that the objections com monly raised against such provisions are not necessarily valid. ‘They point out that group study and discussion of genuine problems in onduct and other realistic activities may be used instead of lecturing, rote-learning, and similarly dogmatic types of instruction. Finally, they see no sound reason for excessive reliance upon special character-building periods, recog- nizing that such periods, if they are to be suc- cessful, must be considered as a supplement to, rather than as a substitute for, the systematic efforts to build desirable character thru all other phases of school life. Types of Special Activity A review of school bulletins and other litera- ture on special character-education activities reveals a variety of materials and methods which are used or recommended. Some of these are similar to procedures utilized in teaching the regular subjects and in certain out-of-class activities. There are points of difference, how- ever, which make it worthwhile to discuss spe- cial character-education procedures separately. The following paragraphs describe briefly several general types of activity, and review the results of certain pertinent research studies. The activities mentioned do not exhaust the possibilities in this field, nor are they entirely distinct from one another. Many variations and combinations of them may be found in school practise. The pertinent research is fragmen- tary, somewhat conflicting, and insufficient to warrant definite conclusions as to the merits of specific procedures. Such tentative conclusions as seem justified at present are given on page 109, Class discussion and illustration of a trait ™ —This type of procedure usually begins with a generalization and proceeds to give it meaning by specific illustrations, perhaps making pro vision ‘also for application and practise of trait actions by the pupils. For example, the teache } subject of honesty and asks why 1 brings up the it is the hest policy. The children are encoul aged to give examples ot honest or dishonest acts which they have seen, heard about, or read about, and to state why these acts were desit able or undesirable. ‘The teacher may then sug ask for the children themselves can vest or illustrations of wavs in which honesty ask the children to keep records and make reports practise both in and out of school. She may even of honest acts which they perform. Sometimes the foregoing activities ire intro f moral supplemented by means « duced oO! codes, memory gems, slogans, or mottoes. A code often used for this purpose is the Chil dren's Morality Code for Elementary Schools from which the following is a condensed ex cerpt: 1\ Che Law of Reliability The Good American is Relial Our country grows great and good as her citizens are able more fully to trust each other. Therefore i 2. I will not do wrong in the hope of not being will be honest in word and in act found out 3. I will not take without permission what does not belong te me. 4. I will do promptly what I have promised to do The following are typical of the memory gems used in some schools: the gardens, the Kind hearts Kind thoughts Kind words are the blossoms, Kind are are roots, deeds are the fruits. Politeness is to do or say Ihe kindest thing in the kindest way Hartshorne and May ™ ment in the use of short general statements The study included one group of public-school chil- reported an exper concerning the importance of honesty. dren and two groups of children in Hebrew schools. After being given preliminary tests of deceptiveness, each group was confronted with 11 This general type of activity is suggested or illustrated in the following: Oklahoma. Character Education { Hand book for Teachers. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma: State Department of Education, 1931. p. 45, 47-48, 51-52. Reynolds, Mary I A Direct Plan Based on the Teaching of Traits and Rating Cards.’’ Character Education. Sixth Yearbook, Chicago Principals’ Club. Chicago: the Club, 1931. p. 115-28. Stover, John H. The Four-Square Course of Study: Good Workmanship. (Teachers’ Guide) Oklahoma City, Oklahoma: Four-Square Character Institute, 1931. p. 89-111. { Wilkinson, Gilbert H A Direct Plan for Teaching Character Through Precept and Discussion.’”’ Sixth Yearbook, Chicago Principals’ Club, p. 76-8 12 Hutchins, William J. Children’s Morality Code for Elementary Schoc Washington, D. ¢ National Capital Pres (Florida Ave., Third and N Streets, N. W.) 48 Hartshorne, Hugh, and May, Mark A. Studies in Deceit, Book I, | 7 [ 103 ] 2 A ap , ™ — ee LY ete. the phrase, “Honesty is the best policy,’ and then was given additional tests. Following these, each group was confronted with the phrase, “God loves an honest man,” and was then given further tests. Of the public-school pupils, those who attended a religious school during the week became progressively more honest on each series of tests, while those not attending religious school became progressively less honest. The children attending the Hebrew school which gave only mild religious instruc- tion showed no significant change, on the aver- age, from one series of tests to the next. The second Hebrew class, from a school giving more careful religious instruction, responded to the first phrase with little decrease in decep- tiveness, but responded to the second phrase with a very marked decrease. These results, altho not in any sense conclusive, suggest that the effect of certain procedures for improving character in public schools may depend in part upon the nature of instruction received else- where or upon other miscellaneous factors apart from the school procedures in question. Class discussion of a moral situation or con- duct problem '*—In this type of lesson the dis- cussion begins with a specific situation or prob- lem of conduct. It may proceed eventually to the formulation of a general principle, but only after consideration of many similar situations or problems. The situations used may include those arising in the everyday lives of the pupils, those arising in the lives of other people whom the pupils have heard or read about, and those which are purely imaginary but within the experience of the pupils. For example: 1. The teacher calls attention to a situation in which one or more of the pupils have made undesir- able responses, such as making fun of someone's infirmity, or leaving play apparatus out of place. The pupils are led to consider what was w with these responses, and to decide on better of reacting to similar situations in the future 2. The teacher presents an imaginary proble: follows: “Your mother tells you to come right | after school, but your teacher tells you to re: and finish some work. What should you do? children consider all possible solutions, discuss respective merits, and are led to realize that solution might be most satisfactory under ceri circumstances, while another might be best un different circumstances. 3. The teacher raises a question as to how children are meeting certain responsibilities, s as helping in the home. The children discuss extent of their responsibility for helping their p ents, and suggest specific ways in which they ca discharge this obligation more fully and effectiv: They may also consider the question of wheth they should be paid for work which they do abo the home. 4. Attention is called to some rule or proced of the school which is not working satisfactori| The children discuss the possible reasons for thi failure, and suggest remedial measures. 5. The children take stock of what they ha been accomplishing in certain of their regula school activities, particularly those requiring coo; erative group effort. They discuss the strong and weak points of the group procedure, and sugges ways of improving in the future. Several published collections of conduct problems and situations are available for scho use.!> There is, however, a need for more o! jective evidence concerning the frequency ani difficulty of various kinds of situations amon children at different age levels. Carmichael ' made a contribution in this field with his stud of the moral situations faced by six-year-old children. He collected 1256 usable descriptions of good and bad behavior on the part of 32! children, as reported by parents, teachers, sp cial observers, and other relatives and friends These 1256 descriptions were analyzed into 3065 specific situation-responses, which wer ™ The socialized discussion or case-conference method has already been referred to in the section on general method of teaching and learning, p. 100 of this bulletin. Illustrations of this technic as applied in special units for character develop ment may be found in the following: Heaton, Kenneth L. The Character Emphasis in Education. Chicago: University o Chicago Press, 1933. p. 145-50, 162-67. J lowa. Course of Study for Elementary Schools. Des Moines, Iowa: State Depart ment of Public Instruction, 1928. p. 103-10. {] National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. Sevent! Yearbook, p. 50-53. 3 See: Allen, Richard D. Case-Conference Problems in Group Guidance. New York: Inor Publising Co., 1933. 151 | 7 Charters, W. W., Rice, M. F., and Beck, E. W. Conduct Problems. New York: Macmillan Co., 1931. 5 vols., 71 p. eact A series for grades 4-8 inclusive. { Chave, E. J. The Junior: Life Situations of Children Nine to Eleven Years of Ag: Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1925. 174 p. {] Detroit. Detroit Program of Character Education: Second Report of the Detroit Committee on Character Education. Detroit: Detroit Board of Education, 1931. 191 p. {] Evans, Evan E and Hallman, M. S. Home Rooms. New York: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1930. p. 43-146. {]Germane, Charles E., and German: Edith G. Character Education. New York: Silver, Burdett, 1929. Part I, p. 192-207, 210-11. {] Hague, E. F.; Cha! mers, Mary; and Kelly, M. A. Studies in Conduct. Lincoln, Nebraska: University Publishing Co., 1928-31. 3 vols. Book I 340 p.; Book II, 404 p.; Book III, 500 p. A series for grades 3-8 inclusive. {] Long Beach, Calif. Character Education Course of Study for Grades One, Two, Three, Four, Five, and Six. Long Beach, Calif.: Long Beach City Schools, 1929. 162 p 7 Neuberg, M. J. Right Living. Series 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1927. 150 p. Teacher's Manual, 120 p. 16 Carmichael, Albert Maxwell. The Moral Situations of Six-Year-Old Children as a Basis for Curriculum Construction University of Iowa Studies in Education, Vol. IV, No. 6. Iowa City, Iowa: the University, 1927. 104 p. { 104] turn tabulated according to both the broad and withholding confession. Whe i child as a serious t d narrow moral issues involved. ‘The relat 4 equency of the ten large issues discovered in oftenses mentioned do not seem ese situation-responses is shown in [Table 8. ous to him as to adults ¢ +} Studies ot the eftectiveness ot group dts rABLE 8.—RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF LARGE ISSUES IN THE MORAL SITU- ATIONS FACED BY SIX-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN . , = sion ot social problems or moral situation t few and not very convincing. Hartshorne May '® reported an experiment in wl group of pupils in grades seven to nine spent , tee inutes ve 4 t three veel a Sihiiae ok ohee fitteen minutes per day for tl ks di situation-responses cussing problem situations with 7 H sty Moral issues involved ' P Book s a guide, while a control oup re ceived no such instruction. lests oT deceptior Mental and emotional states of individua io Riacsitiamentd menater ts | given at the end of the work, as com ed witl | ovme of p by ind duals telationship of individuals to nstitute ul - : : - } on — similar measures at the beginning, showed the thority tellectual t ty ' » of individ ] \ Intellectual integrity and growth of individ : experimental group to be superior in thre uals ; ! Working efficiency f individual ; comparisons, inferior in two, ind eg ilen Social efficiency of individuals ] 3 Physical health and growth of individual 1! to the control group in one. Bodily freedom and integrity of individuals Sexual integrity of individual “ Observance of religious rite and =dutie TABLE 9.—RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF Reed tte thes: Of the 2065 emetic situatice-ssemm ELEMENTS IN SITUATIONS LEAD tudies, 61 percent involved the mental and emotion tate ING TO INTENTIONAL MISREPRE ag ag I gy call aor degen wr Noe aay SENTATION OF FACT BY SIX-YEAR- ndividuals with constituted authority, et Some tuatior OLD CHILDREN sponses involved more than one of these issue Source: Carmichael, Albert Maxwell The Moral Situation Six-Year-Old Children as a Basis for Curriculum Constru Elements involved Percent n University of Iowa Studies in Education, V« IV, No 89 at Iowa City, Iowa: the University, 1927. Table § 61 “Less than 0.5 percent, I kT . . 17 1. Irre larit ommitted, which th The same investigator '’ made a somewhat anliak uaa ac Gane different analysis in 289 situations resulting in rene keeping, or ca intentional misrepresentation of fact by six 5. Competitive activity vear-old children, emphasizing the possibly in 5. Pleasant experience frustrate ° . ‘ . ‘ 6. Person availabl help Huential factors in the situations themselves. 7. Other ing with the Table 9 shows the percent of situations in 5 Other Bag et which each main element occurred. Of special —,°- Others. urging child | interest, altho not apparent in the table, is the — 11. Opportunity t amuse other P . . 5 12. Ol i ting fact that the five elements occurring most fre 13. Othe r tances abettir quently appeared in 97 percent of all the situa- tions observed. ee eat ee Se ee + / . involved the commission of an _ irregularit W the Dearborn '® studied the ideas of honesty — was called upon to explain; 18 oo 3 P » ‘ ‘ : tion of the d’s efforts to obtair eep r care f pl held by children in the third and fourth grades. 18 percent involved competitive activity: et e situa . . involved 1 re than one of these element She concluded that such children seem best ae: nek eilied, Mel Fo What Obje able to recognize the significance of situations cellent reBlgle g me Respene ' involving lying, and that they are more con- » Genetic Psychology 35: 73-83; March, | fused by situations involving stealing, cheating, 47Carmichael, Albert Maxwell To What Objective Stimuli Do Six-Year-Old ¢ hildren Respond with Intent M resentation of Facts?” Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychol $5: 73-83; March, 19 ? 18 Dearborn. Frances R. “What Does Honesty Mean to Third and Fourth Grade Children Journal Educationa Method 6: 205-12; January, 1927. 19 Hartshorne, Hugh, and May, Mark A. Studies in Deceit. Book I, p. 368 71 2 Forbush, W. B. The Honesty Book: A Handbook for Teachers, Parent and Other Friend Children. Ne National Honesty Bureau, 1923. 56 p [ 105 Robb and Faust ** reported an experiment involving two small groups of high-school seniors, matched according to intelligence and socio-economic status. The control group fol- lowed the regular course of study in problems of democracy, while in the experimental group the same course was supplemented for eight weeks by instruction and discussion in regard to ethical problems as presented in a special textbook.** At the beginning and at the end of the term both groups were measured by means of an ethical discrimination test, and by teacher and student ratings on various as- pects of conduct. The differences in gains were all small and not very significant statistically, but they were uniformly in favor of the group receiving the ethical instruction. The apparent superiority of the latter group was greatest on the test of ethical discrimination, and least on the ratings given to one another by the students themselves. Cressman ** studied two types of class work involving the consideration of life-like prob- lems of conduct. The experiment included three groups of seventh-grade pupils in a large junior high school. The first experimental group studied a series of conduct situations, using a published workbook ** which calls for written reactions as well as discussion by the pupils. The second experimental group dis- cussed the same conduct situations as presented orally by the teacher, without using the work- book. Both of these groups devoted one forty- minute period per week to this work for sev- enteen weeks, while a third group did not study the problems at all. A comparison of mean gains on two different tests of moral knowledge and judgment showed no signifi- cant differences between the group which had discussed the problems after oral presentati: by the teacher, and the control group whi had not studied the problems. The gro which had used the workbook showed no < nificant superiority on the test covering specific problems studied, but was definite superior to both the other groups on the mo comprehensive test. The author concluded tha: the workbook method may be somewhat mor effective than the oral-presentation method j; securing transfer of moral principles to situ tions other than those studied. Using appropriate selections from litera ture *°—In this type of lesson a story, biograph ical sketch, or some other selection having im plications for character, is presented by th teacher or by the pupils. The selection may be permitted to teach its own moral lesson, or the children may be led to discuss its implications with respect to their own lives, and to search for other stories illustrating the same _prin- ciples. Such lessons usually aim to encourage wholesome and profitable reading outside the class, as well as to emphasize character values during the class period. Collections of stories having potential value for character development are numerous and familiar to most teachers. Some of these collec tions have been prepared especially for use with children in groups.?® Probably the most com prehensive guide to children’s literature from the viewpoint of character building is the one by Starbuck, Shuttleworth, and others.27 These investigators selected and classified such litera- ture according to grade level, literary merit, type of situation presented, and the trait or general attitude exhibited. When stories are presented orally, the tech- nic of story-telling deserves careful considera ** Robb, E. K., and Faust, J. F. “The Effect of Direct Instruction.” Journal of Educational Sociology 7: 237-40: December, 1933. *2 Peters, C. C. Human Conduct. New York: Macmillan Co., 1918. 427 p. *8 Cressman, Elmer W. “Workbook Versus Oral Instruction.” Journal of Educational Sociology 7: 250-53; December, 1933 * Charters, W. W.; Rice, M. F.; and Beck, E. W. Conduct Problems. Grade 7, “What’s the Right Thing To Do?” New York: Macmillan Co., 1931. 71 p. * The use of literature as a special tool for character building is discussed and illustrated in: Heaton, Kenneth L. Thc Character Emphasis in Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933. p. 25-36, 222-33. Glendale, Calif. Moral Education. Glendale, Calif.: Committee on Moral Education, Glendale City Schools, 1927 (mimeographed). 20 p. {] Lakewood, Ohio. Character Education for Elementary Grades, and Syllabus for Character Education for Lakewood, Ohio, Junior High Schools, Lakewood, Ohio: Superintendent of Schools, 1927 (mimeographed). 67 and 31 p. * Among such collections are the following: Pitkin, Walter B., and Hughes, Harold F. The Young Citizen at Work and at Play. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1929. 209 p. { Perkins, Jeanette E. The Knights of Anytown. Boston: Pilgrim Press, 1923. 159 p. ** Starbuck, E. D.; Shuttleworth, F. K., and others. A Guide to Literature for Character Training. Vol. 1, “Fairy Tale, Myth, and Legend’; Vol. 2, “Fiction.” New York: Macmillan Co., 1928 and 1930. 389 and 579 p. [ 106 ] tion. In this field also a number of helpful references are available. The objective evidence concerning the eftect ipon character of procedures utilizing literary materials is very meager. Hartshorne, May, ind Maller * which a story was used to encourage coopera- reported a small experiment in tion among children. Studying the story of the strands of string which could be broken sepa- rately but not when bound together, followed by examples given by the pupils of other situ- itions in which working together is valuable, produced a large immediate improvement on certain tests of cooperative behavior. The pei manence of this change was not measured, however. Dearborn *° concluded from her survey of teaching honesty among third- and fourth- grade children, that the stories most useful in clarifying this concept are those dealing with experiences which the children can readily understand, and which they can match with experiences of their own. Planning and executing a class project ™\— Another special type of activity often recom- mended is the group project in which the chil- dren accomplish something of direct social value either to the class itself or to persons outside the class. Such projects may be initi- ated by the teacher, but are usually planned and executed by the pupils with the teacher as guide. Typical activities of this kind are: purchasing and caring for school play equip- ment; drawing up a set of rules to govern the use of school equipment or playground space; compositions are used in some schools as a 5 See Bone Ww A. Children Stori nd H to Tell 7 N \ Ha I ( 7 Bryant, S. C. HowTo Tell Stories to Children. Bosto Houghton Miffl ( 1924 60 7 ¢ K. | Edu ’ by Story-Telling. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. ¥ World Book Co., 191 7 Shedlock, M. I { j 1 New York: D. Appleton and C 1915. 287 p 2? Hartshorne, Hugh; May, Mark A and Maller, J Bp. S , N Co., 1929 p. 248-51 * Dearborn, Frances R. What Do Honest Mean to Th I Grade ( / Method 6: 205-12; January, 1927 8. The project technic ha ilready been described briefly it enera p. 100 of this bulletin. Illustrations and ggestions for the use f hara in: Heaton, Kenneth L. The Character Emphasis in Education, Cl ( | 1 272-80 7 Kansas City Mo. Character Buildin Elementary Scho / ur } is ( Sct I \ No. 2. Kansas City, Mo.: Public Schoo 1931. p 8-99. National | ation Associatior Depa ( Teachers, Severth Yearbook, p. 56-5 q Norfolk, Va.: Character Education in Norfolk Elementary Sc) B Norfolk, Va.: City School Board, 1928. p. 102-03 32 Further discussion and illustration of informal dramatization are the followir | ' } Young, Bess M. Plays: Dramatizations 6 Sixth Grade Children. New \ I 1 Schoo Te P ( P ( i University, 1932. 218 p. (Heaton, Kenneth I The Cheracter Emphas n Education. Chicas I Press, 1933. p. 206-21 7 Hague, E. F Chalmers, Mary: and Ke M. A. Studies in Condu Lin ‘ Publishing Co., 1932 Book 2 p. 259-68 9 Ward, Winifred. Cr tt Pramatt New York D Applet { 304 p. See also the statement on dramatics as an out-of-class activil 114 th yulletis 83 Lists of composition topics in the field of personal and tme together witl € f pupils in preparing such compositions, are available in: Heaton, Kenneth L. The ¢ racter Empi in I n. | University of Chicago Press, 1933. p. 47-55 75-8 [ 107 ] tormulatin nd executing plans tor eping rooms; desks, and lockers neat and convenient for work; planning a personal or family I a destitute budget ; caring tor the needs « family at UVhanksgiving or Christmas; giving a program for the amusement of unfortunate children in a hospital or orphans’ home; and taking steps to make a new child feel at home in the school Ol classroom. Altho there is a lac k of experimental evidence as to the influence of such activities upon the character of children, they seem promising in the light of present knowledge about learning in general Informal dramatization of desirabl habits This procedure provides tor appreciation and practise of desirable reactions and attitudes thru informal dramatization in the classroom. Activities which may be readily adapted to this purpose, especially among younger chil dren, include asking a favor in a pleasing way, closing a door without annoying the group, in terrupting a conference courteously in order to deliver an important message, disagreeing in an argument without being dogmatic and un pleasant, and answering the telephone cour teously when the wrong number has been called Such activities may be woven together in short sequences prepared by the children themselves Older children usually prefer to dramatize stories rather than everyday incidents in their own lives. The relative value of informal dramatization has not been measured. Preparing compositions on topics related per sonal or group welfare ea : { means of clarifying pupils’ thinking, and of bringing constructive criticisms or suggested solutions of problems to the attention of the class, the school, or the community. Informal talks for delivery in class or in a school as- sembly may be prepared on such subjects as “The protection of our newly cleaned walls— whose business?” or “Men who have con- tributed most to the world’s welfare.” Articles on similar subjects may be written as a basis for class discussion, or as editorial contribu- tions to the school newspaper or magazine. No studies seem to have been made as to the effec- tiveness of such activities. Talks or informal lectures by the teacher— This procedure, altho seldom mentioned in character-education programs or courses of study, is doubtless used to some extent by many teachers."* Its effectiveness probably depends a great deal upon the content of the talks and the manner in which they are delivered. Preaching is likely to be fruitless, but information on various aspects of social problems may be helpful. Eichler and Merrill * reported a rather lim- ited study involving lectures on leadership given to high-school pupils. One experimental group was given six forty-five-minute lectures on leadership qualities and technics, while a second experimental group had eleven thirty- minute conferences on the same topics. The differences in gains between these groups and comparable control groups, as measured by student ratings on leadership, were very small but they were all in favor of the experimental groups. The investigators concluded that quali- ties of leadership can be measurably improved by these types of instruction. Using character tests and ratings for self- analysis or group discussion *°—In this type of procedure, the pupils undertake to evaluate certain aspects of their own behavior, under the guidance of the teacher, by marking them- selves on citizenship sheets or rating sca This usually requires some discussion of \ specific kinds of action are included in various items listed in the scale. Occasiona each pupil is asked to compare his own « mate of himself with estimates of him w! are made by the teacher or by other pu; Formal tests of attitudes and opinions also be used as a basis for teaching thru c!| discussion of the answers given. There seen to be no objective evidence concerning merit of this type of lesson. A combination of many activities—Whil: few school systems may confine their characte building efforts to one particular type of a tivity, the more common practise probably to use several of the procedures reviewed aboy Robb and Faust *’ experimented with a con bination approach, using two home-roon groups in the ninth grade. ‘These groups wer matched on a variety of factors, and were measured by several tests of moral judgment and by self-ratings both before and after the experimental procedure was introduced. The experimental group devoted a home-room pe riod of one hour each week for eighteen weeks to various activities focused on attributes of character, including debates, discussions, dram- atizations, reports, notebook projects, story- telling, and talks by teacher and_ principal The control group had only the usual type of home-room programs, in which character was considered only incidentally. ‘The experimenta! group made slightly greater gains on two moral-judgment tests, while the control group did slightly better on a third test. On a home made rating scale the control group made a greater gain, but on a more formal rating scale the experimental group showed a greater im provement. Altho none of the differences could be considered significant statistically, the au- thors concluded that the ethical development of early adolescents may be at least slightly ac- * National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. Seventh Yearbook, p. 50. % Eichler, George A., and Merrill, Robert R. ‘Can Social Leadership be Improved by Instruction in Its Technique?” Journal of Educational Sociology 7: 233-36; December, 1933. % Character tests and rating scales as teaching devices are discussed or illustrated in the following: Heaton, Kenneth | The Character Emphasis in Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933. p. 180-82. {] Price, Frederick E. \ Direct Plan Based on Self Rating.’’ Character Education. Sixth Yearbook, Chicago Principals’ Club. Chicago: the Club, 1931. p. 108-10. Armstrong, James E. ‘“‘A Group Method for Pupils to Use in Rating Themselves on Character Traits.’’ Sixth Yearbook, Chicago Principals’ Club, p. 154-55. {]Smith,. Virginia B. “Character in the Making.” Junior-Senior High School Clearing House 7: 490-92; April, 1933. { Reed,. Frank K. “Citizenship Rating in the Junior High School.” Bulletin 2: 122-24; November, 1933. New York: Department of Secondary Education, National Education Association. (Room 1901, 130 West 42nd Street.) % Robb, E. K., and Faust, J. F. “The Effect of Direct Instruction.’’ Journal of Educational Sociology 7: December, 1933. See p. 239-40. 237-40; [ 108 ] ited thru direct and systematic procedures as those used in this experiment. Conclusions Regarding Special Character- Building Activities } Research has not yet furnished a clear-cut wer concerning the use of special materials nd methods in character building. The studies entioned above did not reveal a marked ad ntage in using any of the procedures tested. that lhe chnics of research in this field must be im results do not indicate, however. Such ne of these activities are worthwhile. oved, and experiments must be extended over ich longer periods of time, before conclusive idence can be obtained. Moreover, since spe activities of these types constitute so small part of the child’s total experience, it would not be surprising to find that they have little effect unless accompanied by appropriate activi ties thruout the life of the school and the com nunity. In spite of the lack of evidence concerning specific procedures, teachers need not feel hope sly in the dark with respect to them. Pres- ent psychological and educational theory tends, n general, to favor procedures which focus the ittention of children (1) upon relatively spe- cific responses rather than general traits, (2) ipon the requirements of particular situations rather than arbitrary rules, (3) upon situa- tions and experiences occurring in, or closely related to, the lives of the children, rather than to child life, and (4) upon practise in meeting problems of con- those which are unrelated duct rather than mere theoretical talk about onduct. The effectiveness of most procedures will doubtless depend somewhat upon the ma- turity and previous experience of the children as well as upon the insight and skill of the teacher. The discussion of a trait, for example, may be a very unwise procedure to use in the primary grades, but may be less objectionable for high-school pupils who are eager to know what characteristics are important in obtaining and holding a job. Again, one teacher may be able to lead a group discussion without forcing her opinions on the pupils, while another may destroy the value of the discussion by preach- ing or by unduly criticizing the opinions of the pupils. * National Society for the Study of Education. E Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1926. p. 12-13 tra-Curricular A Twenty Out-of-Class School Activit uish cle ween curriculum extracu ct tl L her lly inere ndency to consid matics, publications, and simil ntegral parts of the school program. | schools such act vities are not rele school hours, but are carried on during ( school day in practically the same the “regular” school subjects. Such differences as appeat between the conduct of . 1 1 ties and the conduct oft regul ¢ est considered as dif ( n therefore, pproach, and the activiti method of apy 12] os , selves should de conceived of the curri as Important ilum for character buildin i Tie reason for segregating certain types of activit for discussion here is threefold: ome them have a scope extending considerably be vond that of the usual classroom organizatio1 (2) most schools still administer them ‘extra’ activities; and (3) such at present administered, are often accompanied by special difficulties which may interfe vith the development of good characte Special Problems and Principles j j . , Special problems associated with out a activities—From an analysis of forty outstand ing publications in this field the “'wenty-fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the of Education lists nine types of difficulty which Study interfere with the success of out-of-class activi ties: 1. Extent of participation: Indi participate too little or too much 2. Anti-social practises: Secret societies and cliques have sometimes developed 3. Supervision: Teachers are unwilling to sponsor activities, are unconvinced of their value, or at tempt to dominate them. considerations The 4. Economic i » are too costly, or there is waste and inadequate account ing of funds 5. Outside interference: Outside nterests, like those of spectators and alumni, sometimes dem anti-educational lines of emphasis 6. Duplicating activities 7. Centra! control: Lack of centralized policy and control 8. Conflicting schedules 9. Unsatisfactory facilities [ 109 ] » Data are not available with regard to the rel- ative frequency of these problems or the degree of their influence upon pupil personality. Most of them, however, are probably sufficiently fre- quent and crucial to warrant careful attention by administrators and teachers. One obviously important problem is to obtain the proper amount of pupil participation in out-of-class activities. Several studies have shown the wide variation in the extent to which different pupils take part.°® Table 10 presents data on this point from a survey in a large city high school, the results of which led to the following con- clusions: 1. That there is a wide variation in the number of activities in which different individuals partici- pate. 2. That there is a difference in the number of activities carried on by sophomores, juniors, and seniors, with a wider variation in the upper grades than in the lower grades. 3. That some students belong only to organiza- tions which do not provide a small social grouping or a significant amount of participation for each member. 4. That among students participating in several activities there is a tendency to specialize in those which are similar rather than in those which would give a more varied experience.” These results suggest that, whatever the character values of out-of-class activities may be, some students do not participate enough to obtain these values, while others scatter their energies over so many activities that undesirable tendencies are likely to result. Some variation is to be expected, of course, because of individual differences in the abil- ities and interests of students, in the amount of time required by various activities, and in the extent of students’ activity in enterprises outside the school. A survey of student partici- pation in the high schools of Everett and Seattle, Washington, revealed that students who worked for pay during out-of-school hours joined considerably fewer than the average number of school organizations.‘ Heaton’s data, on the other hand, indicated that student; who were most active in organizations outside the school also participated most in the sc! activities. TABLE 10.—NUMBER OF ORGANIZA. TIONS TO WHICH HIGH-SCHOOL GRADUATES HAD BELONGED DUR. ING FOUR YEARS IN HIGH SCHOOL Number of Boys Girls organizations Number Percent Number Percen: 1 2 3 4 0 8 4.7 4 1.8 l 3 1.8 2 2 10 5.8 5 2 3 14 8.2 9 4 4 19 11.1 18 8 5 20 11.7 27 l 6 20 11.7 27 l 7 18 10.5 37 l¢ 8 20 11.7 26 ! 9 i4 8.2 24 I 10 10 5.8 12 1! + 2.3 12 5 12 3 1.8 y 41 13 4 2.3 5 ? 14 3 1.8 l 15 1 0.6 2 { 16 ie 1 0 Total 171 100.0 221 10 Average 6.2 7.1 Read table thus: Of the 171 boys studied, 8 or 4.7 percer had belonged to no organization, 3 or 1.8 percent had be longed to one organization, 10 or 5.8 percent had belonged + two organizations, etc., while the average number of organiza tions was 6.2. Similarly read figures for the 221 girls Source of data: Heaton, Kenneth L. A Study of the Rec ational Life of High School Students. Unpublished doct: thesis. University of Chicago, 1931. Chapter 2, Charts I and II. Special principles for administering out-o} class activities—The principles underlying th: utilization of out-of-class activities for chai acter building are essentially the same as those which apply to other parts of the curriculum.’ There are, however, a number of special prin ciples which will be helpful in overcoming the difficulties outlined above. Discussions of these may be found in any of the standard publica tions on extracurriculum activities. Following is a classified list of such principles from the Twenty-fifth Yearbook of the National Societ; % Ayer, Fred C. “Pupil Participation in Extra-Curricular Activities.” Twenty-fifth Yearbook, Part II, National Society for the Study of Education, p. 67-80. { Heaton, Kenneth L. A Study of the Recreational Life of High School Student Unpublished doctor's thesis. University of Chicago, 1931. p. pation in for the Study of Education, p. 81-96. 18-31. Woody, Clifford, and Chapelle, E. H. “Pupil Parti: the Extra-Curricular Activities in the Smaller High Schools.”’ Twenty-fifth Yearbook, Part II, National Society Heaton, Kenneth L. A Study of the Recreational Life of High School Students. Unpublished doctor’s thesis. Universit of Chicago, 1931. p. 30. “1 National Society for the Study of Education, Twenty-fifth Yearbook, Part II, p. 80. #2 See pages 96-98 of this bulletin. [110] aL RUE Li abt _— Stl ROANT te cates ms ow ian ur sh of de (ZA. JOL OL the Study of Education, with numbers in entheses to indicate their frequency of men among forty outstanding publications field: I. Centralization of organization and adn istration: 1. Under school direction and control (1¢ 2. Some plan of unification and centraliza- tion (6) 3. Authoritative sanction for new organiza tions (8) 4. Veto power of principal on all actions II. Supervision: 5. Supervision for all activities (11 6. Guidance and cooperative leadership rather > 0) than complete direction 7. Appreciation of value by teachers (4 8. Responsibilities for all teachers (3 9. Expert knowledge of all sponsors (5 10. Selection and promotion of teachers in part for extracurriculum efhciency (3 11. Adjustment of teaching schedules for heavy extracurriculum loads (4 III. Scope and participation: 12. Adaptation of organization to school (5 13. Gradual, not sudden development 14. Source in curriculum life of school (6 15. Higher aim than sociability only (9 16. Wide variety of activities (13 17. Leeway for individual student choice (13 18. Participation by all students (17) 19. Membership equal]ly open to all (20 20. Limitation of number to which any student may belong (4) IV. Other administrative problems: 21. Definite scheduling of organizations (¢ 22. Part of regular program (10) 23. Few if any evening meetings (4 nN 4. High school the meeting place (7 25. Students the only members (5 26. Expenses moderate (5) 27. Cooperation of homes (4). The only one of these principles which seems unnecessary and perhaps inadvisable is number 14, which suggests that out-of-class activities should always have their source in other parts of the curriculum. Such a relationship may be desirable under some conditions, but it is more * National Society for the Study of Educatior Iw the principles “4 See: Heaton, Kenneth L. The Character Emphasis in Eds { Heaton, Kenneth L. Character Building Through Recreation ‘In this connection see the section on ‘Organized recre 71-72. important that the activities have gen sonal and social value for the pupil in his « \ day lite. Character Values in Specific Types of Activity There are three ways in which out-ot- vield values for characte thru the activity program of the group thru the social experience which the act provides with other members of the grou nd 3) thru the opportunity for close friendship between the pupils and the sponsor of th | he se sources, however, do not | eld Much depends on how the activities are selected and carried on Programs conducted in the traditional academi activity." their values automatically fashion can hardly produce better results fo character than do the regular classes when materials and methods are poorly chosen Generally speaking, out-of-class programs which provide for group solution of real life problems under capable guidance, and for a tual practise in socially useful conduct, seem most likely to contribute to good character development. Social within the aa group will experience be enriched if projects are under taken on a cooperative rather than an indi vidual basis. The influence of the sponsor wi be stronger and more wholesome if he can create an atmosphere of informality without license, and if he can cuide the group without dominating it. The remainder of this section discusse briefly seven major types of activities with ref erence to tl (1) clubs, eir character-building possibilitic 2) assemblies, (3) dramatics, (4 athletics, (5) publications, (6) student par ticipation in school government, and social activities. ‘here is relatively little objective evidence as to the character influences, eithe1 actual or potential, of these types.*° The sug gestions presented here are based large! upon what seem to be sound educational theory and successful school practise. Further discussion and illustration of various points are in numerous books on extracurriculum activi 1 Yea I IT l ¢ ; ( I t of Cl 1 } hica | Chicage Pre ] [ 1 Research Bu , } T= eee err _— Fm mar oe ties *® and in school bulletins and courses of 6. Club membership should be voluntary. 1 quire membership of all pupils in clubs is to ; Clul ; an artificial situation which defeats the pu 4lubs—Several types of clubs may con- for which clubs are designed. Special clubs s tribute to good character: (1) subjectmatter be provided for backward children.” clubs, if related closely to life interests and In the traditional school most clubs needs; (2) fine-arts clubs, such as orchestra, organized without reference to membe glee club, dramatic, and poster clubs; and (3) jn the regular classes. Recently, however, n social service clubs, either strictly local or gchools have found the classroom club us affiliated with outside organizations such as jp, making the transition from a formal the Boy Scouts of America, Girl Scouts, Camp of class work to a more lifelike and hi Fire Girls, Junior Red Cross, Hi-Y, Girl Re- socialized type. Such a club may help to in serves, and 4-H Clubs. Here are a few general quce an atmosphere of freedom without end suggestions for making school clubs function gering the systematic progress of regular . in character building: work. It may also provide a favorable sett for class discussion of situations and problen study.** 1. Necessary expenses of club operation should be met by the general school program and not by arising in the school or classroom, for individual assessments. formulation of plans for improving schoo! « 2. The club should be a cooperative enterprise ditions, and for the assignment of responsibi based upon definite and worthy objectives. . : . P ges for such classroom duties and projects as | 3. The program of the club should be determined by the age, experience, purposes, and general out- look of its members. teacher and pupils may decide upon.*® In developing club programs of maxim value for character, care should be taken 5. Club membership should be kept small enough 2Void materials and methods which are lik to permit the maximum individual participation. to be more harmful than helpful. Hartsho: 4. Clubs should grow out of the life of the school. “See such books as the following: Blackburn, Lura and others. Our High School Clubs. New York: Macmillan 1928. 253 p. 4] Borgeson, F. C. All-School Activities, Vol. I. New York: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1931. 143 p. Borge F. C. Group Interest Activities. New York: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1931. 135 p. Coe, George A. Law and Freedom in School, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1924. 134 p. Cox, Philip W. L. Creative School Control. Philadelphia: J Lippincott Co., 1927. 320 p. %Deam, Thomas M., and Bear, Olive M. Socializing the Pupil Through Extra-Curricular Act ties. Chicago: Benjamin H. Sanborn and Co., 1928. 324 p. { Foster, C. R. Extra-Curricular@gictivities in the High Sc/ Richmond, Va.: Johnson Publishing Co., 1925. 222 p. {] Fretwell, Elbert K. Extra-Curricular Activities in Secondary Sc! Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1931. 552 p. (Heaton, Kenneth L. The Character Emphasis in Education. Chicago: Un sity of Chicago Press, 1933. p. 252-80. Huff, Bessie M. How To Publish a School Newspaper. New York: Mentzer, |! and Co., 1924. 325 p. {4 Jordan, Riverda Harding. Extra-Classroom Activities in Elementary and Secondary Schools. \ York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1928. 302 p. LeCompte, Pearl. Dramatics. New York: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1931. 1¢ 7 McKown, Harry C. Extra-Curricular Activities. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927. 617 p. ] McKown, Harry C. School Clu Their Organization, Administration, Supervision, and Activities. New York: Macmillan Co., 1929. 498 p. 4] Meyer, Harold A Handbook of Extra-Curricular Activities in the High School. New York: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1926. 402 p. {J Me Harold D. The School Club Program. New York: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1931. 178 p. {National Education Associat Department of Classroom Teachers. The Classroom Teacher and Character Education. Seventh Yearbook. Washington, D. ‘ the Association. p. 115-32. {National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Character Education. Te Yearbook. p. 227-33. {National Society for the Study of Education. Extra-Curricular Activities. Twenty-fifth Yearbook, | Il. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1926. p. 181-224. {] Roberts, Alexander C., and Draper, Edgar M. Ext Class and Intra-Mural Activities in High Schools. Boston: D. C. Heath and Co., 1928. 529 p. { Roemer, Joseph, and All: Charles F. Extra-Curricular Activities in Junior and Senior High Schools. Boston: D. C. Heath and Co., 1926. 333 Thomas-Tindal, E. V., and Myers, J. D. Junior High School Life. New York: Macmillan Co., 1925. p. 92-109. ] Wag M. Channing. Assembly Programs. New York: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1930. 142 p. { Wells, George C., and McAllister, Wa; H. Student Publications. New York: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1930. 180 p. *? Some school bulletins or courses of study emphasizing one or more of these types of out-of-class activities as means character development are: Kansas City, Mo. Character Buildi El tary School Procedures. Kansas City School Ser Bulletin Vol. 4 No. 3. Character Building Series No. 2. Kansas City, Mo.: Department of Education, 1931. p. 72-86. 1! Angeles, Calif.: Character and Conduct: High School Course of Study. School Publication No. 60. Los Angeles, Calif.: Board Education, 1923. (Reprinted 1926.) p. 14-15. {] Maryland. The Teaching of Citizenship in the Elementary School. Mary|ai School Bulletin, Vol. 8. Baltimore, Md.: State Department of Education, 1926. p. 72-82. { Oklahoma. Character Educati A Handbook for Teachers. Bulletin No. 131. Oklahoma City, Okla.: State Department of Public Instruction, 1931. p. 40-4 7 St. Louis, Mo. Socializing-Integrating Activities for the High School. Curriculum Bulletin No. 38. St. Louis, Mo.: Boa of Education, 1926. p. 29-53, 61-65. (Utah. Character Fducation: Supplement to the Utah State Course of Study for I mentary and High Schools. rev. ed. Salt Lake City, Utah: Department of Public Instruction, 1929. p. 125-36. “8 National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Tenth Yearbook, p. 235-36. * Operation of a class club or council as a character-building device is discussed or illustrated in the following: Beck, Pa H. “Character Education Through the Civic Club.” Character Education. Sixth Yearbook, Chicago Principals’ Club. Chicag the Club, 1931. p. 97-100. { Buffalo, N. Y. Character Building. Buffalo, N. Y.: Department of Education, 1927. p 9 Norfolk, Va. Character Education in Norfolk Elementary Schools. Norfolk, Va.: City School Board, 1928. p. 90-92. [112] i 1 May th respect to certain phases of honesty, of reported a study of the influence, organization designed to interest children the acquisition of desirable traits. Various its were listed and described, historic and vendary characters possessing them were dis ssed, and each child was expected to keep a laily record of his good deeds, including truth telling. If the child made a good record he was dvanced from rank to rank within the organi ition. [Che results of the study indicated that hovs who were members of the organization were no less deceptive than boys who were not members, either on the test taken at home on those taken at school. The girl members, iltho no less deceptive on the home test, were somewhat less deceptive on the school tests than were non-member girls. In one elemen- tary school, which strongly emphasized char- icter education and in which the organization in question had been operating in grades four to eight for several years, the pupils were less deceptive on all the tests than were the pupils of two other schools where extracurriculum activities in general, and this organization in particular, were frowned upon by school ofh- had been in the organization, the more deceptive > cials. However, the longer the children they tended to be. Moreover, increased decep- tion was associated with both rise in rank and rate of advancement in the organization. The investigators concluded (1) that the superior showing of the school in which the organiza- tion operated was not due to the influence of the organization but to other factors; (2) that the increase in deception accompanying longer experience and higher rank in the organization was due partly to a tendency to select the more deceptive children for advancement, and partly to the encouragement and practise in deception which the program of the organization pro- vided; and (3) that the unwholesome influ- ence of the program was probably a greater factor in this increase than was the selection of the more deceptive children for advance- ment. It is possible, of course, that programs of this kind have had a better influence in other localities, and that they have produced desirable results in aspects of character other than those measured in this study. Such hy- 5% Hartshorne, Hugh, and May, Mark A., Studies in Deceit, potheses, however, remain to be further in ration. In this connection a warning may well be sounded against ready-made club programs o plans for character education which hav en prepared with little understanding of pe ality development or of local school needs. O casionally these plans contain ru tions, but usually they cannot be applied safely without considerable modification eachers and administrators will do well to examine such schemes critically before inc ting them in the school program Assemblies Carefully prepared en programs tend to integrate the life of 1 developing large-group consciousn ind worthy school spirit. They may give children training in regard to proper conduct in crowds, provide them with a common body of know! edge about the school and its problems, build up an intelligent public opinion among them, and encourage successful achievement in wide variety of school and out-of-school activi ties. Certain programs may also help to raise the children’s standards with respect to musik public performance generally drama, and been sug The following types of program have gested as most likely to yield these values: 1. Programs showing the life of the school: dran atizing the meeting of the school paper staff, the work of the Junior Red Cross Club, the student council at work, school “sings” led by the glee clu 2. Musical programs, poetry contests, et by a representative from each home-reom gro 3. An assembly at the beginning of the semes participated in by representatives from each hon room group in which the school sets up the goals f the semester. 4. An assembly at the close of each semester pat ticipated in by representatives from each hom room group in which the school recounts its achieve ments for the semester and awards honors 5. Programs given by a home-room group with the rest of the school as audience. Such a progran usually includes the dramatization of a play and the singing of the class song. 6. Programs given by special departments to in terest the rest of the school in their work. Demor strations by the physical training department, style shows by the sewing classes, and science talks are illustrations of this type of assembly 4 7. Programs given by outside the school talk sionally helps to raise the standards for school per talent A speaker, a concert, or an illustrated occa D 3390.55 t [113 ] Wi | it i | i formances or to focus the attention of the school upon some particular ideal. 8. “Pep meetings” under the direction of the stu- dent council conducted by the school cheer leaders are valuable for crystallizing school spirit. These meetings should be separate from the regular school assembly. 9. Programs with a definite ethical purpose and plan.” Dramatics—Dramatization may profitably be used both as a method of teaching applicable to all pupils, and as a separate out-of-class activity for those who have special interests and talents in this field. As a method of teach- ing it has an important place in regular class work, especially in literature and the social studies. As an out-of-class activity it may be carried on by a club, used in assembly pro- grams, and presented during out-of-school hours for the benefit of parents and other citi- zens. Properly conducted, it enriches the cur- riculum for bright pupils and helps to stimu- late the duller ones by making important as- pects of human nature more vivid. Perhaps the most significant contribution of the good drama from the viewpoint of character is its solution of conflicts vividly in accordance with the human qualities and the social conditions involved. Both formal and informal dramatics should have a place in the out-of-class pro- gram.°* The following principles have been sug- gested as essential to the greatest success of dramatics in character development: 1. In genéral, dramatic activity should not be carried on for the purpose of raising money for a school fund. 2. As many children as possible should have an opportunity to participate in a play sometime dur- ing the year, either as a part of regular class work or as a member of a dramatic club. 3. Each child, so far as possible, should be as- signed the part which it will benefit him most to play.™ A thletics—Much has been written about the character values of athletic games. It is, how- } ever, a matter of common observation as we'! as of carefully collected evidence, that in ma high schools and colleges certain practises ha arisen which tend to nullify the desira character influences of athletics.°* Among these undesirable practises are following : 1. The employment of coaches because of thei; athletic record rather than for their educational fit- ness. 2. The domination of the school program by alumni associations or the sporting crowd in the community. 3. The over-emphasis placed upon athletics. 4. The “lionizing”’ of athletes. 5. Keeping pupils in school because of their va! ues to the team. 6. Newspaper publicity. 7. Exploitation of school athletics by commercial! agencies.” If athletic contests are to yield their maxi mum values for character, major emphasis must be placed upon such outcomes as the fol- lowing: 1. A player tries to make good team plays, rather than attempting to “star.” 2. A player recognizes a good play regardless of team membership. 3. A player takes the bumps and hard knocks in cidental to the game with fortitude. 4. A timid player gradually overcomes his awe of mass play. 5. A player assumes the responsibility of trying to live up to the school code of sportsmanship. 6. A player tries to develop an interest in many kinds of games, rather than limiting his interest to one or two which he already knows he enjoys. 7. A player subordinates self to the team, yet with utmost self-development for the sake of the team.” There is a definite tendency to make parti- cipation in athletic games an integral part of school programs of physical education. Among the important trends in such programs are these: ®* National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Tenth Yearbook, p. 228-29. ®2See also “Informal dramatization of desirable habits and attitudes,’ p. 107 of this bulletin. 58 National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Tenth Yearbook, p. 233-34. ® See: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. American College Athletics. Bulletin No. 23. New York: the Foundation, 1929. 383 p. Morley, E. E., and others. “Report of the Committee on Athletics in Secondary Schools.” North Central Association Quarterly 5; 332-39; December, 1930. 6: 21-30; June, 1931. { Fretwell, Elbert K. Extra-Curricular Activities in Secondary Schools. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1931. p. 420-27. ® National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Tenth Yearbook, p. 235. ® Denver, Colorado. Physical Education Course of Study, as quoted in the Tenth Yearbook of the Department of Super- intendence, p. 234. [114] prejud Sch like tl gratin studet schoo lize | schoo of lo help all li drive schor ety 0 The ited in tl prof mem nific unu: cons The accu find C den 1. Formal gymnasium exercises are giving place to organized games and rhythmic dancing 2. An increasing emphasis is being given to intra- mural games and tournaments as opposed to inte! school contests. 3. The play life of the school is being organized to include all pupils. 4. Student spectators at prejudiced in their attitudes.” athletic games are less School publications—School _ publications, like the school assembly, are valuable as inte- erating influences. They may unite the entire student body thru a common understanding of school activities and problems, shape and uti lize group opinion for the improvement of school conditions, and generally foster a sense of loyalty to the school. Good publications help to set standards and stimulate effort in all lines of school work. ‘They may promote drives and campaigns for the good of the school. They may reflect and interpret a vari- ety of student activities both in school and out. The value of publications is by no means lim ited to the students who participate directly in their production, but such students should profit even more than do the readers. Staft members and contributors are engaged in a sig nificant cooperative enterprise. They have an unusual incentive to show initiative and to do constructive thinking for the common welfare. They may learn the value of alertness and accuracy of observation. Some of them may find their future vocations in this field. Certain prerequisites for the success of stu- dent publications have been stated as follows: 1. The need for a school publication should be canvassed and the character of the publication to be attempted should be determined in accordance with the school’s needs. 2. Some person of the adult personnel of the school, capable and willing to assume the respon- sibility of directing the project, must be secured for sponsor. 3. Competent students must be secured for the po- sitions of responsibility on the publication staff. 4. Before undertaking the publication of a regu- lar school paper, the ability of the student body and the school faculty to maintain the degree of sus- tained effort required to carry the project thru to a successful finish must be determined. 5. The major problems which relate to the busi- ness management of publications . sidered in toto and properly arranged for.” must be con- 57 National Education Association, Department of 58 National 5° Jbid., p. Society for the Study of Education 133-38 Superin tendence T'wenty-fifth [115 ] Stude nf pa rrici ha fie i] Bil \¢ h } | 4G ver? The gtneral objective of student partic tion in school government is to provide | the phase of the tise in duties of citizenship. Altho this chool program is still in experimental stage, the important values which it apparently offers ha led schools thruout the country to try it in some form. A survey reported in the Twenty-fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education revealed that of 191 schools selected at random, 90 percent pro vided some type of student government. Among the other results of this study were the fol lowing: 1. Most schools utilize a student council as the chief agency of administration. Other units. such as home-room organizations, also are used as means for student participation. 2. Student participation is usually a cooperative enterprise requiring sympathetic support and con- trol by both students and faculty 3. Most of the schools have written constitutions, developed according to local needs, as a basis for the machinery of school government. 4. Usually the members of the governing body are chosen from the school at large or from home- room organizations 5. In only one-half the schools is high scholarship a requisite for eligibility to the governing body. In less than half the schools a candidate must receive the approval of the principal or the faculty 6. The governing body as a rule is concerned pri- marily with general problems of the school, assum- ing the function of disciplining students in less than one-half the schools 7. When discipline is made an activity of the governing body, the latter almost invariably acts in cooperation with the faculty. 8. One of the greatest problems is how to make effective the decisions reached by the student gov- erning body. This seems to be accomplished best by building up group opinion and school spirit thru home-room or class meetings Chere is not, of course, complete ivreement as to the desirability of student participation in school government. Some school principals, as well as some pupils, believe that student par ticipation can be nothing but a pretense of real school government, and that schools are better managed without it. In spite of the numerous difficulties, however, the belief is rather general that under careful planning and wise admin Tenth Yearbook, p Yearbook, Part II, p. 141 istration, student participation in government is an important means of educating children in the principles and practises of good citizen- ship. From the study referred to above, the fol- lowing general suggestions are offered for mak- ing this phase of school life successful : 1. Student participation should be introduced gradually. 2. The machinery for its administration should be simple. 3. The students themselves must desire in a gen- uine way to participate in the government of the school. ; 4+. The faculty must be sympathetic, patient, and willing in every way to make the movement a suc- cess. Student participation is necessarily a coopera- tive matter. 5. The plan must provide for means by which all students are given opportunities to participate in the government of the school.” Social activities—In addition to activities which involve a more or less definite program of work, there are those which consist almost wholly of social play. These also may have character-building values if properly planned and supervised. Social parties of various kinds may be held by the members of individual grades, classes, and clubs, or by the entire stu- dent body under the sponsorship of the student council or a special committee. Such affairs provide opportunity for the development of friendships in an atmosphere even more infor- mal than that of the regular club or class meet- ings. They also provide a real-life setting for the practise and appreciation of good manners in social intercourse. Dancing, playing games, attending good movies, group singing, and even the serving of refreshments may all contribute to the process of refinement and socialization. It is important, of course, that such activi- ties be planned carefully in advance, that stu- dents be made to feel responsibility for suitable conduct, and that adequate supervision be : cised by both student leaders and faculty s) sors. The Seventh Yearbook of the De; ment of Classroom Teachers gives the fo! ing list of safeguards which some schools | found successful in preventing undesi: consequences and in bringing out the values in evening dances: 1. Every phase of the dance is carefully plann Committees are made responsible for program vitations, floor and arrangements, music, deco tions, refreshments, transportation, parking, et: 2. A sufficient number of faculty sponsors responsible for general supervision. 3. Special police are present to guard grou: and machines. 4. Definite times are set for starting and clos the dance. 5. A number of parents help to sponsor the part 6. The students know and understand such p: cies as these: a. No student is to leave the hall until ¢! close of the dance. . Students are requested to return home in mediately after the dance unless permis sion of parents has been given to do othe: wise. c. School standards as to types of dancing should be maintained. d. Lights and furniture must remain as ar ranged. 7. The selections played by the orchestra ar carefully chosen, with special attention to rhythm The orchestra is instructed to change selections if conduct is not up to standard. 8. A master of ceremonies is made responsible for student conduct in general.” A few high schools are still troubled by th problem of secret fraternities and sororities. The chief objections to such groups are that they are not under school supervision, have no real relation to the program of the school, and tend to keep school life from being truly dem ocratic. Fraternities and sororities are seldom found in high schools which provide a well conceived program of social activities." National Society for the Study of Education. Twenty-fifth Yearbook, Part II, p. 139-40. *1 National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. Seventh Yearbook, p. 113. © For a discussion of this problem see: McKown, Harry C. Extra-Curricular Activities. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927 p. 169-80. 7 GROUNDS for assigning to play and active work a definite place in the curriculum are intellectual and social, not matters of temporary expediency and momentary agreeableness: without something of the kind it is not possible to secure the normal estate of effective learning ; namely, that knowledge-getting to be an outgrowth of activities having their own, instead of a school task.—John Dewey in Democracy and Education p. 228. [116] ndl\ idu on Va idanc racte lhe een lit tional ¢ howeve aspects ouidan of the cordan In 1 orobler satisfac need i tactors justme ye an mal which consid sible ¢ centra acadet The n in rec s\ mpt the ir of the Calif.: cation, Couns tion. ‘ No. 1 2 Tudge 104 p ment Reprit em C Joint Proble | Van son, ] Guidance in meeting the situations of life be given to pupils both in groups and as ndividuals. The preceding chapter has touched This deals with certain aspects of individual n various phases of group guidance. dance which seem especially significant for icter building. (he guidance program in many schools has een limited largely to educational and voca tional counseling. ‘There is a growing tendency, however, to include other equally important ispects of pupil adjustment. This broader type of program involves educational and vocational uidance, but is focused upon the adjustment § the individual’s whole personality in a cordance with desirable standards. In most classrooms there are pupils with sroblems of behavior which do not respond satisfactorily to group treatment. Such pupils need individual attention with respect to all factors which are seriously affecting their ad justments to life. Difficulty in school work may an underlying cause of maladjustment, or may be merely of which lie deeper. Individual guidance needs to consider all aspects of adjustment and all pos sible causes of maladjustment, rather than con a manifestation causes centrating on relatively limited aspects such as wcademic progress or vocational preparation. [he many case studies *? which have been made in recent years show that most maladjustments are caused by a combination of factors,*® that these factors are often not revealed by outward symptoms, and that successful readjustment of +} i 1e individual usually involves a modification of these factors. The scope of individual guidance is not lim- ited to the solution of behavior problems which III. Building Character thru Individual Guidance ’ , lave deve Ope ot curative. Close ob 11 i uldance ls preventive is Vv" pose ition and wi S( of every child necessary to keep seriou adjustments from developing. However, since the most distinctive contribution of individual . . ] +h : ] suidance lies in the discovery, diagn treatment of behavior difficulties, this section of the bulletin emphasizes these phases of the 1 WOTK. Pupils with Behavior Problems Discovering Symptoms of maladjustment some n adjustments are readily detected because they have very obvious and disturbing symptoms Others often pass unnoticed because the symptoms, altho evident, are not general recognized significant. Wickman’s study 4 indicated that teachers are most perturbed Dy the “attacking” types of conduct, and | perturbed by such unwholesome tendencies as shyness, sensitiveness, suspiciousness, unsocial withdrawing, being over-critical of others, and being unduly dependent upon the guidance of tendencies do not usually of tl others. These latter interfere the school, but psy hiatrists believe that they otten with smooth operation 1e reflect more serious underlying problems than do the aggressive and positively annoying a Of that many maladjustments great importance also is the fact ly stag tivities. eS \ child may struggle unsuccessfully with an im in their eat seem to have no outward manifestations. portant problem for a considerable time before betraying his inner conflict thru overt behavior. the The sooner such conflicts are discovered. 1 School bulletins reflecting this broader view of guidance tend nake arp distinction between livic roup guidance. For example, see: California. Guide for Counseling in the Secor School. Bulletin No. C-9. Sacram Calif.: State Department of Education, 1931. 61 p. { Dallas, Texas, Pupil Guidance Manual. Dallas, Texas: Board of Edu ation, 1931. 137 p. La Salle, Ill. History and Description of a Personnel I n. La Salle, Ill.: Bureau of Educationa Counsel, 1923-1926. 52 p. Ohio. Guidance in Ohio Schools, Its Needs and the Program of the State Department of Educa tion. Columbus, Ohio: State Department of Education, 1930. 31 p. {] Pennsylvania. General Bulletin on Guidar Bulle No, 13. Harrisburg, Pa.: State Department of Public Instruction, 1927. 127 * For samples of case studies, see such references as the following: Healy, W and Bronner, A. F. Case Stu Boston Judge Baker Foundation, 1922, 630 p. | Mateer, Florence. Just Normal Children. New York: D. Appleton and (¢ | 194 p. Ralph, Georgia. Case Studies. New York: Child Welfare League of America, 1923. 9 Reavis. W. C. Pupi , ment in Junior and Senior High Schools. Boston: D. C. Heath and Co., 1926, 348 p. Sapir, Jean. A Morning in the ¢ Reprinted from Welfare Magazme. Springfield, Ill.: State Department of Public Welfare, 1928. 14 p. Sayles, M. B. The Prol em Child at Hort, New York: Commonwealth Fund, 1928. 342 p. (Sayles, M. B. The Problem Child in School. New York Joint Committee om Methods of Preventing Delinquency (now Commonwealth Fund), 1925. 287 p. Sayles, M. B. Tére Problem Children. New York: Joint Committee on Methods of Preventing Delinquency (now Commonwealth Fund), 1924. 14¢ 1 Van Waters, Miriam. Youth in Conflict. New York: Republic Publishing Co. (now New Republic, Inc.), 1925. 293 p. JW son, M. E. Children and Their Parents. New York: F. S. Crofts and Co., 1932. 362 p ®See also the section on “Factors in Character Formation” in the Research Bulletin for March, 1934. p. 51-77 m of Publications, Commonwealth | ] 4 Wickman, E. K. Children’s Behavior and Teachers’ Attitudes. New York: Divisic 1928. 247 p. [117] easier it will be to prevent more serious mal- adjustments. Status and possibilities of testing—The ideal way to discover pupils’ needs in the realm of personality adjustment would be to administer to all pupils periodically a battery of tests and other devices for measurement in this field. Tests of physical condition, intelligence, and subjectmatter achievement are now given rather generally, but few schools are using objective measures of other phases of person- ality. Hundreds of tests have been devised, but nothing approaching a comprehensive and thoro survey of personality has yet been made possible. The tremendous complexity and con- tinuous modification of character are serious obstacles to valid measurement. Altho progress is being made, it seems unlikely that the status and needs of the whole personality can ever be discovered with the precision and economy of time now possible in the measurement of general intelligence and subjectmatter learn- ing.® The foregoing statement does not imply that available testing procedures have little value in uncovering personality difficulties. Much that is suggestive may be revealed by well- selected tests, as numerous studies show. Elonen and Woodrow,® for example, compared the scores of sixth-grade children on the Wood- worth psychoneurotic questionnaire and the Kent-Rosanoff free association test with rat- ings of the same pupils by teachers and prin- cipals on a scale of “normality of behavior.” They obtained a fair correlation (+- .48) be- tween the pathological-test scores and the rat- ings, when the factor of intelligence was held constant. The best possible combination of pathological-test scores and _intelligence-test scores yielded a considerably higher correlation (++ .73) with the ratings. Cushing and Ruch* compared a group of girls adjudged delinquent by the courts with a group of non-delinquent girls of similar age, mentality, and social status. Of the eight ; used, six appeared to be worthy of furt| experimentation. The delinquents were distinguished from the non-delinquents their greater suggestibility, a greater numbe, of symptoms indicated on the Woodworth questionnaire, a greater number of false book titles which they claimed to have read, and the inferior attitudes which they revealed on 4 moral-opinion test. Symonds and Jackson® reported a survey in several high schools near New York Cit to discover the need of individual guidance among the pupils. Two instruments were used: (1) a questionnaire designed to reveal the de gree of each pupil’s individual adjustment to the school curriculum, the social life of the school, the school administration, the teachers. other pupils, home and family, and personal affairs; and (2) a device for identifying more obvious behavior difficulties, patterned after the “Guess Who” test used by Hartshorne and May in the Character Education Inquiry. These instruments revealed two phases of ad- justment: (1) personal adjustment as shown by the pupil’s expressions of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with reference to various items in his environment, and (2) social adjustment as evidenced by the pupil’s reputation among his fellows. Low scores on the questionnaire were most frequently made by seclusive, intro verted pupils who felt unsuccessful and unap- preciated. On the other hand, the pupils men- tioned most frequently by their fellows as being queer or maladjusted were the boiste: ous, obstreperous, extroverted individuals. Symonds used the same two instruments in surveying ninth-grade pupils in another high school.’® He also made detailed case studies of some of these pupils by means of interviews, autobiographical statements, teachers’ judg ments, and other devices. Using the results of the case studies as criteria, he concluded that both the adjustment questionnaire and the identification sheet were of real value in indi- ® See also the statement under ‘Testing the effectiveness of learning,” p. 136 of this bulletin. * Elonen, Anna S., and Woodrow, Herbert. “Group Tests of Psychopathic Tendencies in Children.’’ Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 23: 315-27; October, 1928. * Cushing, Hazel M., and Ruch, G. M. “An Investigation of Character Traits in Delinquent Girls.’ Journal of Applied Psy- chology 11: 1-7; February, 1927. 8 Symonds, P. M., and Jackson, C. E. “An Adjustment Survey.”’ Journal of Educational Research 21: 321-30; May, 1930 ® See: Hartshorne, Hugh; May, Mark A.; and Maller, Julius B. Studies in Service and Self-Control. New York: Macmillan Co., 1929. p. 87-91. 2% Symonds, Percival M. “Group Methods for Conducting a Mental Hygiene Survey of High School Pupils.’’ School and Society 32: 501-6; October 11, 1930. [113 ] ating, 4 would la nalad jus Many ibove tribute t children ers ind ( itations reir ain cerning of only present marized To sp justment certain by the t are not. he made tively s! intensity some m ated, th can bes these m In ¢ pupil’s it is W his cas source: be mac have | forma Tl Th is as pre ble 11 7 Deceit. Studies worth, Service can Ed 1932. E book, \ Educati of Pub in Cas cation oj a Cc Joint ¢ Their clinics ating, at the beginning of the vear, pupils who would later be recognized by teachers as being naladjusted in some way. than Many tests other those mentioned thove may, under favorable conditions, con ribute to the discovery of maladjustments in -hildren.2! It is essential, however, that teach ers and other school workers recognize the lim ‘tations of these instruments, and that they refrain from drawing definite conclusions con cerning any individual child from the results ¥ only one or even several such tests. The present status of these measures is well sum marized in the following statement: To speak of them as tests of “emotional malad- justment” is justified only with the proviso that certain forms of maladjustment may be indicated by the test, but that certain others almost certainly are not. Moreover each measure seems, as yet, to be made up of many portions of error with rela tively small portions of “pure” emotional-difficulty- intensity. The practical consequence is that until some more inclusive and less bulky battery is cre ated, the study of individual or group adjustment can best proceed with a combination of many of these measures.!2 In case of doubt as to the significance of a pupil’s responses on a test or series of tests, it is wise to make a more complete study of his case, using a variety of procedures and sources of information. Such a study should be made also in all cases where maladjustments have been rather clearly indicated, either by formal tests or by ordinary observation. The Case Method of Studying the Maladjusted Pupil The case-study method, as usually defined, is a strictly individual approach to behavior problems. It is often difficult and time-con suming because of the importance, variety, and the underlying causes of n idjustment which complexity of must be discovered treated if a cure is to be eftected. There three important steps in making a thoro cas = ; study: (1) collection and systematic organ zation of all pertinent facts; (2) careful dias nosis on the basis of these facts; and 3 1 ri¢ T propriate treatment, utilizing all possil tors in the individual and in his environment Collection of Pertinent Facts The kind and amount of information needed in a case study depend upon the nature of the case. Usually a variety of specific facts Is essen tial to an accurate interpretation of a child’s behavior. A be investigated of outlines of factors t As a rule the se are designed for full-time counselors, but may number are available. be adapted to the requirements of busy teach ers and principals by omitting some of the details. The following condensed outline indi cates the scope of inquiry necessary in many cases of maladjustment: 1, The school history of the child: General school achievement, retardation or advancement—4+teh and—tlow-points in academie-work—Apparent causes for failures and successes—Peculiarities of action in academic work, interests, degree of concentra tion, ability to work alone, emotional disturbances etc.—Out-of-class interests—Reaction to success and problems during previous s¢ failure—Conduct mesters—Relations with other pupils, recognition among others, nature of conflicts, apparent causes for conflicts. 2. Measures of intelligence and achievement: The results of objective tests of achievement and intelli gence should be obtained whenever possible. If such scores are not available, the teacher should eval uate the intelligence and achievement of the child t Tests of personality and character are listed and described in the following: Hartshorne, Hugh, and May, M. A ’ Deceit. New York: Macmillan Co., 1928. Book I, 414 p.; Book II, 306 p. {| Hartshorne, Hugh; May, M. A.; and Maller, J. I Studies in Service and Self-Control. New York: Macmillan Co.,1929. 559 p. {| Hartshorne, Hugh; May, M. A and Shuttle worth, F. K. Studies in the Organization of Character. New York: Macmillan Co., 1 503 p. Hildreth, G. H. / h Service for School Problems. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y.: World Book Co., 1930. 317 9 National Education Association. A can Educational Research Association. ‘‘Tests of Personality and Character.” Revie f Educational Research 2: 1 1932. Especially p. 186-93. National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Character Educatio Tenth Ye book, Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1932. p. 345-404. {] Watson, G. B. Experimentation and Measurement in Reli Education. New York: Association Press, 19274 295 p 12 National Education Association, American Educational Research Associatior Tests of Personality and ( view of Educational Research 2: 183-270; June, 1932. p. 193 18 See: Clark, M. A. Recording and Reporting for Child Gui wealth Fund, 1930. 151 p. {] Culbert, J. F Fund, 1929. 235 p. Lee, Porter R.; Kenworthy, Marion | of Publications, Commonwealth Fund, 1929. p. 290-309. {] Min in Cases of Behavior Disorders in Children. Springfield, Ill.: St cation Association of a Child. New York: National Committee for Mental Hygiene, Joint Committee on Methods of Preventing Delinquency (now Commonwealth Fund) Their Parents. New York: F. S. Crofts and Co., 1932. 362 p. 9 clinics and psychopathic hospitals. The Visiting Teache Department of Superintendence. Character Education [ 119 ] dance Clinics. New York: Division of Publicatior ( r at Work. New York: Division of Publicatior ( nwealth and others. Mental Hygiene and Social Work. New York: D ion k, M. S., and Adler, H. M. Suggested Outline for History Taking ate Department of Public Welfare, 1926: 21 p. {J National Edu- Tenth Yearbook, p. 269-75. 9 Psychiatr F ’ n 1926.7 p. Sayles, M. B. Three Problem Children. New York 1924. 146 p. J] Watson, M. E. CA n and See also the psychiatric and social-history forms use upon the basis of his retardation or acceleration in school, his record of grades in previous years, and the present quality of his work. 3. Home conditions and influences: Economic, social, and educational status of the home—Mem- bership of the home, parents or foster-parents, brothers and sisters, other relatives or boarders in the home—Position of child in the family group; Is he the only child, the youngest, the lowest in mentality, the least attractive?—Type of family life, cooperativeness, conflicts, common interests, family recreations, etc—Adjustment between father and mother—Emotional characteristics of the par- ents—Responsibilities of the child in the home— Conduct of child in the home—Attitude of parents toward misconduct of children—Forms of discipline and the reaction of child to various forms of dis- cipline—Attitude of adults (other than parents) toward the misconduct and disciplining of the child; possible conflicts between relatives or board- ers and parental authority. 4. Other environmental factors: Recreational in- terests of the child, types of games, reading, motion pictures, imaginative play, etc-—Friends and asso- ciates, difficulties with them, friendships with the opposite sex, afhliations with groups, church-school classes, gangs, etc—Employment, type of work, associations, attitude toward work. 5. Physical factors: Results of examination by a physician—Health habits, eating, sleeping, elimina- tion, bathing, ete-——Unusual physical conditions, chronic ill health, recent illness or physical weak- ness which makes it impossible to compete with others in play, enuresis (bed-wetting), etc—Sex habits, unsatisfied curiosity on sex matters, mastur- bation, heterosexual interests. 6. Personal interests and peculiarities of the child: Interests and hobbies—Attitude toward other chil- dren and toward society in general—Ambitions and plans for his life—Emotional characteristics, temper outbreaks, day-dreams, fears, reaction to disappointment and mistreatment, predominant moods.'4 In collecting such facts, the case-worker needs to build up a cooperative attitude on the part of the child and others who are in regular contact with the child. Many helpful sugges- tions on this and other matters of method in obtaining information for case studies a: able in other publications.*® Suggestions for Diagnosis and Treatn General principles—lIt is impossible specific suggestions which will apply to al of maladjustment, because each case m handled individually. There are, howe, number of general principles of indivi guidance which are rather widely accept: specialists in child psychology and menta giene. Among these are the following, \ represent a combination and adaptatio: those listed in two recent publications :*° 1. A well-adjusted adult is likely to be successful in guiding children than one w! poorly adjusted. 2. The guidance worker should maintain a c! ful, objective attitude, avoiding sentimenta condemnation, and a false show of optimism 3. Diagnosis of a behavior difficulty should tak: into consideration all available data concerning child and his environment. 4. Generalizations concerning a child’s difficu! should be based upon habitual and recurring havior, rather than upon occasional occurrences 5. Remedial treatment should be directed tow basic causes rather than toward external sympt of maladjustment. 6. Remedial measures should aim to readjust child as a whole; care must be taken not to creat a new behavior problem while solving an old « 7. The child’s intelligence should be given consideration, along with other factors, in det mining the proper treatment of his difficulties 8. Successful readjustment usually requires change both in the child’s own attitudes and certain aspects of his environment. 9. The cooperation of other persons associat with the child must be obtained, especially in th home. 10. The cooperation of the child is essential, a the desired conduct must be made attractive to hi 11. The child should be informed of the coun selor’s specific purposes in his case insofar as suc! knowledge will help to enlist his cooperation. ™ Adapted from: National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. The Classroom Teacher and Chara Education. Seventh Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1932. p. 139-43. 15 See: Amefican Association of Social Workers, Jnterviews. Studies in the Practise of Social Work, No. 1. New York Association, 1928-29. American Association of Social Workers. Social Case Work, Generic and Specific. Studies in the Prac! of Social Work. No. 2. New York: the Association, 1929. {| DeSchweinitz, Karl. Art of Helping People Out of Trouble. Bost: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1924. 231 p. Lee, Porter R.; Kenworthy, Marion E.; and others. Mental Hygiene and Social Wor New York: Division of Publications, Commonwealth Fund, 1929. 309 p. 4 Richmond, Mary E. What /s Social Case Work? N York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1922. 268 p. | Robinson, Virginia P. A Changing Psychology in Social Case Work. Chapel H N. C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1930. 204 p. { Sheffield, Ada E. The Social Case History. New York: Russell Sa Foundation, 1920. 227 p. See also “Pupil accounting,” p. 137 of this bulletin. % National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. Seventh Yearbook, pv. 144-54. Natio i Association, Department of Superintendence. Tenth Yearbook, p. 251-52. W National Educa: [ 120 ] ors sh requir cases Sol litera giene ing $s book: 117? othe: pers¢ find of tl refe1 vari appe in E hens the forr diff 268 Willi of C Scho York App Sons Guidance should aim to develop greater inde ence or self-guidance on the part of the child 13, The child authoritative inations of his behavior, but should be led to should not be given his own reasonable interpretation of it. 14. The child may be told how other people have similar problems, but ordinarily he should not siven a ready-made solution of his own problem. 15. The child's should rather than his failures, situations as to give him a taste of emphasized be successes be and should inged so success Much ed by providing opportunity for substitute forms undesirable behavior may be _ elimi- ot vehavior. 17. The counselor should concentrate on éssential ters and overlook trivialities in the child’s be havior. 18. The child’s difficulties the attention of other children unless he himself likely to benefit from group interest and discus should not be called Confidences should be kept inviolate. 20. Plans for readjustment should emphasize im- mediate practical steps as well as ultimate goals. 21. Teachers and other non-professional counsel rs should learn to identify early the cases which and refer such require specialized service, should cases to the appropriate agency. Solution of specific behavior problems—The literature of child psychology and mental hy giene offers many helpful suggestions for sols ing specific types of behavior problems. Such books as those listed and on 117 ** will be especially useful to teachers and others who have not had special training in below *7 page personality adjustment. The busy teacher will find it most profitable, however, to consult one of the special bibliographies which give page references to these and other volumes under various types of problems. Such a bibliography appears in Heaton’s The Character Emphasis in Education,’® and another almost as compre- hensive is found in the Seventh Yearbook of the Department of Classroom Teachers.”° The material under forty-three former classifies different problems of elementary-school chil- Guiding the Child on the Principles of Individual Psy dren and under thirty-eight problems of school pupils. These problems were selected by a group of classroom teachers as the ones most frequently encountered in their own sch experience. Authorities do not agree unanimously) tain types of the best methods of handling cet Several different theories may ofte: cases, something of value for the treatment of a pat ticular maladjustment. It is advisable, ther fore, to learn the views of several specia rather than to limit one’s reading to a sing author. Counseling by Teachers and Principals Value of counseling by teachers and prin pals—In many school systems, classroom teach ers and principals are the only workers avail able for carrying on individual guidance. Even where specialists are employed, the teacher es pecially is an indispensable part of the guid ance It is impractical to provide enough specialists to care for all cases of pupil maladjustment. Moreover, the teacher closely and so regularly associated with pupils program. is so that his opportunity for observing their be havior and for helping in the readjustment process is not exceeded by that of any other employee in the school system. Some evidence as to the effectiveness of indi vidual counseling by classroom teachers was obtained by Germane and Germane.”' In this study 915 teachers in nine school systems re ported methods and results of treatment in 2672 cases involving 84 different kinds of di ciplinary problems among pupils. After work ing with the pupils for one semester, the teachers felt that they had attained complete success in 511 cases, partial success in 2150 1] The investigators tabulated the reasons discovered Cases. cases, and absolute failure in for the eight most frequent types of misbe havior, the procedures found most useful in Publisher. 19 icholi New York Greenberg 17 Adler, Alfred, ed l 268 p. 9 Blanton, Smiley, and Blanton, Margaret Gray. Child Guidance. New York: Century Co., 1927. 301 p. @ Burnha William H. The Wholesome Personality. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1932. 713 p. ] Gruenberg, Benjamin C., ed. Guida of Childhood and Youth. New York: Macmillan Co., 1926. 324 p. Morgan, John J. B. The Psychology of the Unadjusted School Child. New York: Macmillan Co., 1924. 300 p. (Sadler, William S., and Sadler, Lena K. Piloting Modern Youth. New York: Funk and Wagnalls Co., 1931. 370 p. Thom, Douglas A, Normal Youth and Its Everyday Problems. New York: D Appleton and Co., 1932. 368 Dp. 7 Zac hry, Caroline B. Personal ity Adjustments of School Children. New York: Charles S bner'’s Sons, 1929. 306 p. 18 See footnote 2 on p. 117 of this bulletin and footnote 27 on page 12 19 Heaton, Kenneth L. The Character Emphasis in Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933. p. 381-4 9 National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. Seventh Yearbook, p. 154-65 Edith G. Character Education. New York: Silver, Burdett and (¢ 19 Part I 21 Germane, Charles E., and Germane p. 112-57 121 | correcting these maladjustments, and_ the teachers’ suggestions for the general improve- ment of conditions which influence pupil be- havior. In spite of their limitations, these re- sults indicate that the study and treatment of individual cases by classroom teachers can be a worthwhile undertaking. Limitations of counseling by teachers and principals—Generally speaking, two difficul- ties at present prevent teachers and principals from doing more than a minor fraction of the work that needs to be done in this field: (1) lack of time, and (2) lack of adequate prep- aration. The first of these impediments is per- haps the most difficult to remedy, but appar- ently, it must be remedied if schools are to make their maximum contribution to character development. The only hope of significantly increasing the amount of time which teachers can give to individual guidance lies in reducing the number of children for whom each one is responsible.** A supplementary remedy is to relieve teachers of clerical labor in connection with scoring tests, marking papers, and sub- mitting reports to administrative officers. Such remedies are expensive but give promise of being worth their cost. The need for individ- ual counseling is one of the principal reasons for believing that the price of real education for character will be greater than that paid for public schooling at any time in the past.?° The second difficulty, lack of adequate prep- aration, can be decreased by reading, by par- ticipating in group conferences, and by taking special courses in teachers colleges and schools of education. The suggestions and references given in this section of the bulletin provide a basis for beginning such study. Even with increased time and improved preparation for individual guidance, however, teachers and principals cannot be expected to treat adequately every case of maladjustment among their pupils. Some cases require such skill, insight, and expenditure of time that the can be handled wisely and economically only )y specialists, or by specialists working in coopera. tion with teachers and principals. As sugyeste) earlier, one of the important functions of non professional counselors is to refer behay problems to available experts as soon as it be comes evident that specialized service is needed. Specialists as Counselors A review of guidance programs in school systems reveals a variety of specialists engaged in this work. These include psychiatric social workers, visiting teachers, attendance officers, psychiatrists, psychologists, educational and vocational counselors, deans, and health off cers. Relatively few systems provide all of these types. Their duties are not uniformly defined, and there is considerable overlapping among them. The next few paragraphs sum- marize the functions of such specialists, point ing out similarities as well as differences in the services which they perform. Social workers, visiting teachers, and attend- ance officers—These three types of workers have many duties in common. Their chief function is to bring about a more satisfactor) social adjustment of pupils thru the coopera tion of the school and other community agen cies, especially the home. They should be able to assist classroom teachers in solving man) problems of maladjustment which do not re- quire major attention by a psychiatrist. ‘They are also expected to cooperate with other spe cialists in the treatment of the more complex and difficult cases. The psychiatric social worker is usually asso- ciated with a clinic or with some central or district office in a large school system. The vis- iting teacher is more often found in a smaller system or attached to a particular school in a larger system.** The attendance officer, altho * See also ‘‘Class size and teaching load,”’ p. 133 of this bulletin. *3 See also “Public Support of the Program for Character Building,”’ p. 139 of this bulletin. *%* For detailed discussion of the work of visiting teachers and psychiatric social workers, see: Culbert, Jane F. The Visiting Teacher at Work. New York: Division of Publications, Commonwealth Fund, 1929. 235 p. {4 Ellis, Mabel B. The Visiting Teacher in Rochester. New York: Joint Committee on Methods of Preventing Delinquency (now Commonwealth Fund), 1925 205 p. Lee, Porter R., Kenworthy, Marion E., and others. Mentol Hygiene and Social Work. New York: Division of Publica- tions, Commonwealth Fund, 1929. 309 p. Nudd, Howard W. The Purpose and Scope of Visiting Teacher Work [in Sayles, Mary B. The Problem Child in School. New York: Joint Committee on Methods of Preventing Delinquency (now Common- wealth Fund), 1925. 287 p.] Also published separately by the Joint Committee. {| Robinson, Virginia P. A Changing Psychology in Social Case Work. Chapel Hill, N. C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1930. 204 p. [ 122] originally ants to ri lear atten lat fyndame ing his To tun woOl kers of psy ch woOl k. Ps yeh practise otten Pp trist, h in men ps) chol ing an ment. with t person him b After ment, read ju howe. adjust latter a bet viron TI the c cases learn atter weal reme cipa. the toge ploy tion Well Nati Yon Wor 193 193 Cor Co. tor Cle Vo rinally a sort of policeman who forced tru- rl Olin wnts to return to school, is finding that irregu- lar attendance is usually a symptom of more fyndamental maladjustments, and is modify ing his methods of treatment accordingly. To function most effectively, each of these workers should have considerable knowledge of psychology, mental hygiene, and social case work, Psychiatrists and psychologists—In school practise the psychiatrist and the psychologist often perform similar functions. The psychia trist, however, is a physician who specializes in mental and emotional disorders, while the psychologist is an expert in methods of learn- ing and in mental and educational measure ment. The psychiatrist is principally concerned with the more extreme and difficult cases of personality adjustment, which are referred to him by visiting teachers or social workers. After diagnosing a case and prescribing treat ment, he usually leaves the work of social readjustment to these other workers. Often, however, he holds conferences with the mal- adjusted individual in an effort to secure the latter’s cooperation and to help him build up a better attitude toward himself and his en vironment.*° The psychologist, altho often responsible for the complete study and treatment of difficult cases, is especially prepared to discover the learning capacities or disabilities of pupils. He attempts to determine the causes of academic weakness or failure, and makes suggestions for remedial treatment to be carried out by prin- cipals, teachers, and social workers.?” Where the psychologist and psychiatrist are working together, as in a guidance clinic, their func- tions are more clearly ditterentiated than where only one or the other is available. I ducational itional counselors and deans -The work of counselors tends to be more specialized than educational and vocational that of deans, but their duties are often quite similar. Usually no sharp distinction is drawn and vocational counsel between educational ing, and the same counselor gives both kinds of guidance. He studies the interests, capaci ties, and achievements of pupils and helps them to make wise choices among educational and vocational opportunities. He sometimes makes surveys of occupational opportunities, helps pupils to obtain jobs, and makes follow-up studies of success and failure among graduates and others who have left school. If no deans are employed in the school system, the educa tional-vocational counselor is often concerned also with other phases of the pupils’ personal adjustment.** The dean of boys or of girls has perhaps a wider range of duties than any other coun selor. He is usually responsible for the general welfare of all pupils of the same sex in a par- ticular school. He supervises social activities and often helps to plan and coordinate the entire extracurriculum program. He also as- sists in the adjustment of individual behavior problems, and spends much time interviewing pupils, parents, and teachers. Like the visiting teacher or social worker, he refers the more difficult problems to specialists who are better equipped to deal with them. In systems which have no special educational or vocational coun- selors, the dean’s work includes these types of guidance also. In short, he must be ready to assist with any personal problem which may arise among the pupils of his school, whether % For further information concerning the work of attendance officers see: Detroit, Department of Attendance, Cer and | ployment Permits. Reference and Procedure. Detroit: Board of Education, 1929. 72 p. {] National League of ¢ ympulsory Educa tion Officials. Proceedings of annual conventions. New York: Bureau of Compulsory Education, School Censu ind Child Welfare. Manual of Instructions for Attendance Officers. New York: Board of Education, 1927. 76 p *6 For a relatively non-technical discussion of the work of psychiatrists, see: Psychiatri Examination of a Child. New York National Committee for Mental Hygiene, 1926. 7 p. Also consult issues of the periodical, Mental Hygiene 7 For further information on the work of psychologists, see: Hildreth, Gertrude H. Psy hological Service for School Problem Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y.: World Book Co., 1930. 317 p. @ Hull, Clark I iptitude Testing. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y World Book Co., 1928. 536 p. Pintner, Rudolf. Intelligence Testing: Methods and Results. New York: Henry Holt and Co 1931, 555 p. % Watson, Goodwin, and Spence, R. B. Educational Problems for Psy hological Study. New York: Macmillan ¢ 1930. 352 p. 9 Wells, F. L. Mental Tests in Clinical Practice. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y.: World Book Co., 1930. 317 p 28 Useful references on the work of educational and vocational counselors are: Edgerton, A. H.-Vocational Guidance and Counseling. New York: Macmillan Co., 1926. 213 p. Jones, Arthur J. Principles of Guidance. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1930. 385 p. | Myers, George E. The Problem of Vocational Guidance. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927. 311 p. P tor, William Martin. Educational and Vocational Guidance. Boston: Houghton Mifflin ¢ 1925. 352 p. Rea Willia Claude. Pupil Adjustment In Junior and Senior High Schools. Boston: D. C. Heath and Co., 1926. 348 p. {See also files of Vocational Guidance Magazine. [1 23 | it be social, educational, or vocational in na- ture.*” Health officers—The school health depart- ment, in addition to caring for the general health of pupils, may play an important part in the program of individual guidance. Prob- lems of behavior are not infrequently due in part to physical disorders which can be cor- rected by proper medical treatment. In such cases the school nurse serves as liaison officer between the school, the home, and the phy- sician in charge. She confers with all persons concerned regarding the condition and needs of the child, and recommends reajustments in the child’s environment which will help to cor- rect his disability or to mitigate its unwhole- some influence upon his attitude and conduct.*° Achievements and limitations of specialists —There is no doubt that well-trained special- ists can help a great deal in the diagnosis and treatment of behavior problems. On the other hand, present knowledge is not sufficient to assure complete success in all cases. Some forms of maladjustment continue to baffle even the most capable experts, while other forms yield only partially to treatment. Much depends upon how complex and deep-seated the malad- justment is, and upon the extent to which all persons concerned cooperate to modify the fac- tors which have caused it. Greene *' obtained reports as to the subse- quent adjustment of 110 high-school girls in New York City who had received psychiatric treatment. Of this group, 68 percent were re- ported as readjusted with respect to the prob- lem or combination of problems for which they had received treatment, whereas 32 per- cent were not so readjusted. ** Further information on the work of deans is available in: Lee and others *? made an appraisal o: sults in 196 cases selected at random fro 591 children who had received clinical ' ment at the Bureau of Children’s Guida: division of the Commonwealth Fund. general results were as follows: Number Perce! Success 93 48 Partial success ...... 61 31 Failure 21 In view of the limitations of even the specialists, it is important to guard against employment of poorly trained workers \ claim to be specialists. Superficial method: child guidance are a waste of time, and inc petent counselors may do real harm both the child in need of guidance and to the wh guidance movement. One specialist writes: . . the mere establishment of a clinic does guarantee adequate service. In fact, there is a \ real danger that with untrained people, the tr: ment may descend unwittingly to the level of | nicious meddling, which is already sufhicie: widespread and has produced entirely justifia adverse criticism. It is to be hoped that as ti: goes on, there will be available more and m adequately trained people and that the informat at their disposal will be more and more scienti! cally grounded.*% Organization of the School Guidance Program The school organization for providing ind vidual guidance varies widely in different sy); tems and in different individual schools. Man of course, have no clear-cut guidance progran Some provide only for certain phases of guid ance. Others provide for all phases but lack effective coordination of the persons and ager Johnson, Mary H. The Dean in the High School. New Y Professional and Technical Press, 1929. 366 p. { Merrill, Ruth A., and Bragdon, Helen D. The Vocation of Dean. Washingt DD. C.: National Association of Deans of Women. 1926. 48 p. Sturtevant, Sarah M. “The Dean of Girls in the Secondar School." School and Society 27: 62-67; January 21, 1928. {J Sturtevant, Sarah M., and Hayes, Harriet. Deans at Work. N: York: Harper and Brothers, 1930, 295 p. (Sturtevant, Sarah M., and Strang, Ruth. A Personnel Study of Deans of Girls High Schools. Contributions to Education, No. 393. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1929. 150 p. 4 Se also, Yearbooks of the National Association of Deans of Women, Washington, D. C. *® For additional information bearing on the work of school health officers, see: Chayer, Mary Ella. School Nursing. N: York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1931, 292 p. { National Organization for Public Health Nursing. Manual of Public Health Nursi: New York: Macmillan Co., 1930. 127 p. 4 U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Health for School Childr) (School Health Studies 1.) Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1927. 74 p. { Wood, Thomas D., and Rowe H. G. Health Supervision and Medical Inspection of Schools. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1927. 637 p. ™ Greene, Elizabeth. “Results of Five Years’ Psychiatric Work in New York City High Schools.’’ Mental Hygiene 1) 542-57; July, 1927. Lee, Porter R.; Kenworthy, Marion E.; and others. Mental Hygiene and Social Work. New York: Division of Publica- tions, Commonwealth Fund, 1929. p. 140-54. % Tiebout, Harry M. “Danger Points in Child Guidance Clinic Work.’ Journal of Educational Sociology 4: 508-16; April 1931, [ 124] im consid! ge vod ( velfal other actiol every if th 3. size of phys voca 4. evel stud pup 5 spe sele me tio! cel { have caretully A few coordinated involved. systems ned and programs, but the ral tendency has been to develop various nches of guidance service separately as the eed for them was recognized. Vhe result has fren been a lack of centralized control, and considerable duplication of effort among the several types of guidance workers. Principles of The Yearbook of the Department of Superintend organization Tenth ence suggests seven tentative principles for the ganization of counseling service, as follows: 1. In a good counseling program, the primary nsideration is the greatest present and future good of the counselee which is consistent with the elfare of the school and society as a whole. Every ther factor in the situation, including the observ- nce of mass standards and requirements, the desire f a particular agent or agency for prestige, and the comfort and convenience of the worker, should be subordinated to the welfare of the child. 2. In a good counseling program, the basis of iction in any all the facts of every type bearing on the case, or at least as many individual case is f them as can be secured. 3. A good counseling program, regardless of the size of the school or city, provides for all phases of individual adjustment—including physical, mental, emotional, social, educational, and study and vocational analysis and treatment. no 4. A good counseling program provides for using every classroom teacher, as far as may be, as a student of the needs and problems of the individual pupils under his care. 5. A good counseling program provides for some specialization on the part of the professional coun- selors concerned, in order that diagnoses and treat- ments may be founded most surely upon unques tioned facts and upon theories of child study ac cepted by the leaders in each field 6. A good counseling program utilizes as many of each are needed, but, in around the child, employs only one or at most very few agents in the actual conduct of the treatment sources information about case as order to integrate the program of any one child. 7. A good counseling program is unified and co- under one In the small system, superintendent ordinated person. this medium-sized or supervisor may be assigned this task in addition to his other duties. In the large system, the impor- tance of the activity of individual counseling war- rants the assignment of a staff officer to this function may be the himself. In the system, an assistant superintendent as his sole responsibility.** * National Education Association ® Reavis, William C (National Survey of Secondary Education Depart ent ol Guidan U. § Monograph N« Programs of 14.) Superintendence. Tenth Department of Ir l'ypes Qf or mization he National Sur vey of Secondary Education revealed four gen eral types of guidance organization in school systems: (1) a centralized guidance burezu in a city system, without any special organiza tion for guidance in individual schools; (2) a central guidance bureau for the system as whole, with each school having its own organ zation for guidance; (3) a centralized d ance department, composed largely of trained specialists, within the individual school; and (4) a guidance organization within the ind hey’ vidual school utilizing regular school office and teachers as functionaries. lhe form of organization best suited to a particular school system will depend considerably upon the size system. In gen there should prob ib] and financial resources of the eral, howevet Vy ve vuldance in each school, and iftord organization fot if the system is large enough and can oye it, a central bureau whose tunction ts to supe! the guidance activities in the severa schools ind to provide certain specialized sery vise } ] Cnool, ices not available within each individual Guida NCe small school may have to depend almost en in the individual school—The tirely upon the teachers and principal for cai ot somewhat in the use guidance. Larger which they rying on its program schools vary make of teachers and administrative tants. (p. such workers are integral parts. | 126) shows a scheme in which I] rep in Figure | ‘} rure resents the guidance program of a school which a central bureau of trained specialists Is given primary responsibility for guidance, altho teachers, parents, and pupils are also en couraged to exercise initiative. If a school can have only one full-time coun selor, he will need to combine the functions ot visiting teacher, educational and vocational counselor, dean, and psychologist. If there can be several full-time workers, however, a ques tion arises as to the degree ot special Zation which should be provided. Each worker m: be made responsible for all phases of counseling for only one h of with a limited group of pupils, or phase of counseling wtih all pupils. Eac these plans has advantages. The former assures a unified approach to each case of maladjust ment, and guards against confusing the pupil terior, Office of Washington, D. ( Government Printing Office ! 14 125 | by having too many different persons deal with him directly. The latter plan makes pos- sible a higher degree of specialized knowledge and skill on the part of each counselor. If the first plan is used, the school counselors may need to obtain assistance frequently from the central guidance department of the school sys- tem. If the second plan is followed, care must be taken to coordinate the work of the several specialists within the school. Every pupil should have one person to whom he can always go when in trouble, and to whom he will invari- ably be referred first if his regular teache: unable to handle his problems. The central guidance bureau of the s system—Many school systems cannot provid more than one trained counselor, with perhaps one or two assistants, for the entire system. |p larger cities where the central guidance bureau can be more adequately staffed, the problem organization becomes important. While n single form of organization can be said to be definitely superior for all such systems, Figure III shows a proposed plan which would pro FIGURE I.—ORGANIZATION OF PERSONNEL FOR GUIDANCE IN THORNTON TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL, HARVEY, ILL. Principal r wae 2 | Dean of Director of Guidance ; Freshman Class Principal Sophomore Class Principal Freshman Home -room Teachers Sophomore Home-room Teachers Senior Class Principal Junior Class Principal Senior Home -room Teachers Junior Home -room Teachers Student Body All Classroom Teachers T | ' ! ' { i ' ‘ l i ! l ! l ! | l ! | - | ' ' ' L Special Assistants | | \ Remedial Gymnasium Instructor School Physician School Librarian Club Placement Advisers Adviser Source 17. (National Survey of Secondary Education, Monograph No. 14). p. 121. j [1 2 Reavis, William C. Programs of Guidance. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Bulletin, 1932. No. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1933. 6] Special Althe vide sO! nection ance, T such w vide both a high degree of specialization and quate service, it may be able to obtain expe: progressive centralization of responsibility. assistance from child-guidance agencies outside the system. Teachers and administrators whi are unfamiliar with the types of service Specialized Service Outside the Schools able in theit own states and communities n ] iocal weltare obtain such information from Altho a number of school systems now pro agencies, juvenile court authorities, state de vide some kind of specialized service in con nection with their programs of individual guid partments of education, state welfare or the national organizations °° which are hel ance, relatively few are adequately staffed for such work. Where the system itself lacks ade ing to promote the child cuidance movement % Names and addresses of these national groups are as follow American I atric Association (Austin M. D ision of Publication 41 Ka ecutive Assistant) 450 Seventh Avenue, New York, N. ¥ 7 Commonwealth Fur ] New York, N. Y. {J National Committee for Mental Hygiene, 450 Seventh Aver New York, N. \ FIGURE II.—ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS OF THE BUREAU OF EDU- CATIONAL COUNSEL, LASALLE-PERU TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL AND LA- SALLE-PERU-OGLESBY JUNIOR COLLEGE, ILL | Board of Educ atio n | Director (Counselor) | (Psychiatric Social Worker) (Member of Faculty) re Al?t Aisle oe Sal Psychological | Group Intelligence Tests | | Contact Interview | [ Mental Health Lectures ae: : Psychological Scholar Healthi[I ome "| Study a eo tional lor Plans SARS wee Selection for Follow-Up f ra = Seana 1 | Social Case Work | | Guidance Service ‘| Ss a? = | | Social ||Psychi-||Psycho- |/|Physical [ soctai| | Health | [ Etnicai | atric logical L Health [ Eeucational]| Vocational | examinations Hygienic Institute, La Salle Service Advisory ILLINOIS INSTITUTE hy JUVENILE S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. B 14). Washington, D. C.: Governmen Programs of Guidance. U Source: Reavis, William C. No. 17. (National Survey of Secondary Education, Monograph No p. 12 oo [127] { Be -asByvseeFt> eS Snropveces yey eS wee |FS* cates Se PSE Kea eS eH oh wee ee a | £ Gemsa - Sv» $s oe ego €S ot ees asen eet [ \ ) ad LOPSULYSEA yooqivrak Yue] uolponpy 439j2DaDY +) ‘aouapusajuuedns jo juawyedag “UO BLIOSSY uOT}BONpYA j[BuoyeN -s1n0g suayto STAT) | |Sreyt0m || sroTasunog SIBYOSRIL| |STA0T ITO SLAAION $4813 SOSINN | 59ST9U9d || -tekqa pue sfog quam || TeuoTzn50,4 Sut sour Tetoog S9stry ~orowled TOOUSS || TOOUSS || tooyos jo suveq|! -90RTd | |-Teuotzeonpy “2TSTA -pusy3iy7 otagetyodsg | | “PT YOASA I ail { al 7 J {a } USsWSoeTd snsuag 4UsTesg pue pue SturtIto tes aduBPT Ng aouepuassy Teopaotoyossg [_seasesta ] [soss0ata ] [sess] Ec q quopusy quapusy quUspuey quepuey -utazedng -utaedng “utsedng -uyzsedng queyetssy queySTssy que sTesy 3084 ST esy quapusgutaadng NOILVONGAHT £0 Auvod WALSAS IOOHOS ADAVT V XOX AONVAING AO LNAWLAVdAG 40 NVAANA IVALNAD V AO NOILVZINVONXO AasOdOUdd—Ill AANA state-sup- sists of representatives of the police, health, and welfare departments, and of the public school system. Each of these agencies contrib Public clinics—Municipal and rted psychiatric clinics are listed and de- ed briefly in the Directory of Psychiatric s in the United States.** In July, 1931, utes to the financial support of the clinical staff, the latest date for which figures are available, which works under the direct supervision of - were 674 such clinics, and all but about the school authorities.*! fifty of them were providing guidance service The service of state-supported clinics varies for children. Altho there is undoubtedly con- siderable variation in the size of staff and qual- ity of service maintained by these clinics, more than two hundred of them employ at least a psychiatrist, a psychologist, and a psychiatric in different states. In some states it consists of out-patient service in connection with institu tions for mental illness. In others the state uni versities or special state bureaus provide facili ties for examination and treatment. In Cali fornia, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Illi nois, and Massachusetts, traveling clinics visit communities in various parts of the state at in social worker.** Community clinics are by far the most com- mon. Approximately 60 percent of all cities of 150,000 population or over had such clinics in 1931.5® Smaller cities sometimes cooperate with one another in the organization of clinics, or receive assistance from outside sources. In one case Waterbury, Bridgeport, and New Haven, Connecticut, are reported as furnish- ing their own psychological and social service, while the Connecticut Society for Mental Hy- giene supplies them with psychiatric service.“ tervals during the year. Private service—In addition to the publicly supported agencies, there are numerous private clinics and individual practitioners in the field of child guidance. The range in ability and training among such workers is probably even greater than among those in public agencies. It is usually advisable to obtain information as to the standing of private organizations or In Berkeley, California, the clinic operates individuals from a reliable source, such as the under the auspices of the Berkeley Coordi- American Psychiatric Association or the Na nating Council for Child Welfare, which con- tional Committee for Mental Hygiene.‘ 8 Commonwealth Fund. Directory of Psychiatric Clinics in the United States wealth Fund, 1932. 160 p. 88 For further discussion of the work and organization Porter R.: Kenworthy, Marion E.: and others. Mental Hygiene and Social Work. New York: Division of Publications, Commonwealth Fund, 1929. 309 p. 4 Sapir, Jean A Morning in the Clinic. Springfield, Ill.: State Department of Public Welfare, 1928. 14 p. Reprinted from Welfare Magazine, March, 1927. Sayles, Mary B. Three Problem Children. New York: Joint Committee on Methods of Preventing Delinquency (now Commonwealth Fund), 1924. 146 p. 4 Tiebout, Harry M. “Child Guidance Clinics.’’ Religious Education 25: 401-06; May, 1930. %® Shultz, G. D. “Your Community Can Have a Child-Guidance Clinic.’ Better Homes and Gardens 10: 20, 5 ?: No vember, 1931. Shultz, G. D., op. cit. 41 Dickson, Virgil E. ‘‘Berkeley Coordinating Couincil.”’ Mental Hygiene 42 For addresses see footnote 36 on page 127. New York: Division of Publications, Common of psychiatric clinics, see: Lee, 13: 514-19; July, 1929, pease does not mean teaching people what they do not know. It means teaching them to behave as they do not behave. It is not teaching the youth the shapes of letters and the tricks of numbers and then leaving them to turn their arithmetic to roguery, and their literature to lust. It means, on the contrary, train ing them into the perfect exercise and kindly continence of their bodies and souls. It is a painful, continual, and difficult work, to be done by kindness, by watching, by warning, by precept, and by praise, but above all—by example——John Ruskin. 2 RP emer etn Se LOE IV. Building Character thru School and Classroom Administration Earlier sections of this bulletin have dealt with various principles and procedures for in- creasing the contribution of the school to the development of good character and wholesome personality in children. Principles of curricu- lum building, general methods of teaching, spe- cial periods for emphasizing character, out-of- class activities, and individual guidance and counseling have been discussed in some detail. Several other important factors have thus far been omitted or mentioned only incidentally. Some of these are matters of organizing and administering the school system as a whole. Some are largely matters of administration within the individual school. Others, altho subject to regulation by the school administra- tion, are primarily matters of classroom man- agement. This section deals briefly with some of the most important of these factors. Its major emphasis is upon the administrative as- pects of education for character, but wherever these affect classroom procedure directly they are considered from the teacher’s as well as the administrator’s point of view. The Function of School Administration in Character Building The fact thet administrative officers have less direct contact with the pupils than do teachers does not mean that they exert less influence. An administrative policy may affect profoundly the lives of many pupils whom the schoolboard or superintendent has never seen. The effectiveness of the school system in build- ing desirable character depends not only upon the right kind of pupil-teacher relationships, but also upon the wise planning and harmoni- ous adjustment of all parts of the system. This is the function and the responsibility of school administration. The way in which the admin- istration meets this responsibility determines in large measure the success or failure of the school as a character-building institution.* Influence of the Schoolboard The influence of school administrati. gins with the board of education. The p of the board are the foundation stones « school program. In the last analysis the termine whether or not character buildino the dominant aim of the school, and wherhe; the total school environment is favorable o, unfavorable to the achievement of this aim. The kind of personnel employed, the general organization of the school system, the admip- istration of the school plant, and the school’s relation to outside agencies are all conditioned by the viewpoint and ability of schoolboard members. However earnest and intelligent the efforts of the superintendent and his staff may be, they are like a house built upon sand with- out wise supporting policies laid down by the board. Thus a school program of education for character rests ultimately upon the sele tion of competent and conscientious board members—persons who have a sound philoso- phy of education, the ability to translate this philosophy into wise policies, and the courage to support these policies in the face of opposi tion.” Board members, of course, are at once the representatives and the leaders of the people who select them. As representatives they are expected to reflect the ideals and aspirations of the community. As leaders they are expected to interpret these ideals in terms of general poli- cies and plans for the operation of the school system. A schoolboard cannot afford to adopt policies, no matter how desirable these may be educationally, which a majority of its constitu- ents do not want or cannot understand. It can and should, however, take steps to educate the people in regard to all progressive measures which it proposes to adopt. 1 Other concise discussions of school organization and administration in relation to character education are found in the fol- lowing: Heaton, Kenneth L. The Character Emphasis in Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933. p. 339-57. National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. The Classroom Teacher and Character Education. Seventh Year- book. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1932. p. 200-18. { National Education Association, Department of Superintendence, Character Education. Tenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1932. p. 291-314. 2 For discussion and additional references on the qualifications and responsibilities of schoolboard members, see: Almack, John C. The School Board Member. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927. 281 p. National Education Association, Research Division. “The School Board Member.” Research Bulletin i1: 1-40; January, 1933. 4] Also consult the files of such periodicals as the American School Board Journal, Nation’s Schools, and School Executives Magazine. [ 130] Ck {di Studer the w when the pi functi tion © purpo: intend sponsi into e vising policie entire the s consid portar board cation super and b for ob Sch cers 1 pupils the si plans they | help 1 and | direct select: abilit: a con secon good sf ing: JN ton, D in Sch 4S Januar; 5] Educat Washir Progres 1929; ment | Januar n e Character of the School Personnel {dministrative and supervisory officers- Students of school administration agree that the welfare of the school system is best served when the board of education confines itself to the performance of legislative and judicial functions, and delegates the actual administra- tion of schools to officers appointed for that purpose. Chief among such officers is the super- intendent of schools.* Upon him rests the re- sponsibility of translating the board’s policies into effective action, and of professionally ad- vising the board in the formulation of its policies. The effectiveness and value of the entire school program depend so much upon the superintendent that his appointment is considered by some authorities as the most im- portant personnel function of the board.* The board can contribute most to a program of edu- cation for character by appointing a competent superintendent who believes in such a program, and by giving him authority and responsibility for obtaining good results. School principals and other supervisory offi- cers influence the character development of pupils in three important ways: (1) they aid the superintendent in developing appropriate plans of administration and instruction; (2) they interpret these plans to the teachers and help to put them into practise in the schools; and (3) they impress pupils to some extent directly thru personal contact with them. By selecting principals and supervisors of first-rate ability and character, the superintendent makes a contribution to character education which is second in importance only to the selection of good teachers.°® Classroom teachers—The teacher’s direct and continuous contact with pupils makes him the most important member of the school staff from the viewpoint of character building.' Not merely what the teacher says, but princi- pally what he does and what he is, may in- fluence immeasurably the pupils’ ideais and modes of conduct. Most children, especially at the younger ages, do not think of good conduct in abstract terms so much as in terms of cer- tain individuals who act in this or that manner under given conditions. Such generalizations as “honesty,” “helpfulness,” and “self-control” are more significant and stimulating to a child when he sees them illustrated in the lives of persons whom he respects and admires. ‘hus the appointment and retention of teachers who are strong in the fundamental aspects of char- acter, as well as skilled in the technics of teaching, are among the most important func- tions of the school administration.’ The administration, however, is not wholly responsible for the character and success of the teaching staff. To be most effective as builders of character, teachers must constantly strive to improve their work thru careful study of edu- cational theory and of practical school prob- lems. They must keep in close touch with community life and develop a broad under- standing of the changing social scene. Unfortunately, there are not yet enough teachers with all of these qualifications to meet the needs of our schools. Nor are there likely to be enough until standards for admission to the profession are considerably raised, until institutions for the preparation of teachers dis- cover how to do their work still better, and ® Among recent publications dealing with the qualifications and functions of the superintendent of schools are the follow- ing: National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Educational Leadership. Eleventh Yearbook. Washing- ton, D. C.: the Association, 1933. 528 p. {] National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Critical Problems in School Administration. Twelfth Yearbook. Washington, D. C., the Association, 1934. 383 p 4See: National Education Association, Research Division. January, 1933. 5 For further discussion of the qualifications and responsibilities of school principals, see such references as “The School Board Member,” Research Bulletin 11: 27-29; National Education Association, Department of Elementary School Principals. The Elementary School Principalship. Seventh Yearbook Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1928. 638 p. {| National Education Association, Research Division. ‘“‘The Principal and Progressive Movements in Education,” and “The Principal at Work on His Problems.’ 1929; and 9: 95-158, March, 1931. ® See: National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. Seventh Yearbook, p. -65-67 ’ Research Bulletin 7: 47-102, March {| National Edu- 4 cation Association, Department of Superintendence. Tenth Yearbook, p. 277-90 7 For discussion and additional references on the selection, retention, and improvement of teachers, see: National Educa- tion Association, Research Division. ‘Administrative Practices Affecting Classroom Teachers. Part I: The Selection and Appoint- ment of Teachers; Part II: The Retention, Promotion, and Improvement of Teachers.” January and March, 1932. Research Bulletin 10: 1-32, 33-76; i [ 131] until the economic status of teaching is raised to a level similar to those enjoyed by other important professions. Non-professional employees—Since pupils often come in contact with certain non-pro- fessional employees of the school, it is essential that the character of such workers be above reproach. Their language and personal habits should be such as to supplement rather than to counteract the character-building efforts of the professional staff. The appointment of clerks and custodians on a political or other basis unrelated to merit is to be condemned as a serious handicap to a program of education for character. Contribution of School Organization General aspects of organization—The in- fluence upon pupil character of different types of school organization is not definitely known. Possibly no single comprehensive plan will prove to be the most satisfactory for all school systems. It seems clear, nevertheless, that the traditional types of organization have certain inherent weaknesses which need to be over- come. Recognition of this fact has brought forth the nursery school and the kindergarten,* the junior high school,® and the junior col- lege.'” The tendency of the old elementary- school organization to perpetuate formalism and lock-step procedures has led to such ex- periments as the Dalton plan,"' the Winnetka system,'? the platoon organization,'® and the child-centered school.'* All of these newer ar- rangements are intended to develop more so- cially effective personalities in children, as well as to achieve greater efficiency in tea necessary knowledge and skills. Some of ; have had wider acceptance than others, b of them have something of value to offe; deserve careful study by administrators teachers. It is usually unnecessary and s times unwise to adopt a new plan in its tirety. It is often possible, however, to mo the existing organization in ways that are | beneficial to children and in harmony \ local conditions. A school organization which contribu significantly to the development of good ch acter must provide children with a large num ber and variety of life-like experiences. It mus: also be sufficiently flexible to permit the troduction of new kinds of experience when ever conditions demand it. No form of organ ization should be thought of as a fixed and unchangeable thing. As life outside the schoo! changes, and as more becomes known about the formation of personality, the school organ- ization will need to change correspondingly. The ultimate success of any plan depends upon the administrative and teaching person- nel thru whom it operates. Without an intel- ligent, sincere, and energetic staff, no scheme of organization can make much contribution to education for character. Size of school—The problem of providing conditions favorable to character growth varies somewhat according to the size of the school. In the small school it is often too expensive to organize special classes or to section pupils within each grade. Sometimes the curriculum must be unduly limited, or each teacher must handle too many different classes or subjects. In the large school, on the other hand, the 5 See: Hahn, Julia L. A Critical Evaluation of a Supervisory Program in Kindergarten-Primary Grades. Contributions Education, No, 495. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. p. 1-72. 4 Hill, Patty Smith, editor, The Prac- tical Value of Early Childhood Education. Washington, D. C.: Association for Childhood Education, 1934. 31 p. { National Society for the Study of Education. Preschool and Parental Education. Twenty-Eighth Yearbook. Bloomington, Ill.: Publi: School Publishing Co., 1929. 875 p. * See: Cox, Philip W. L. The Junior High School and Its Curriculum. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1929. 474 p 7 National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. The Junior High School Curriculum. Fifth Yearbook Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1927. 562 p. { Proctor, William M., and Ricciardi, Nicholas, editors, The Junior Hich School; Its Organization and Administration. Stanford University, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1930. 324 p. ” See: Eells, Walter C. The Junior College. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1931. 833 p. { Koos, Leonard V. The Junior College Movement. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1925. 436 p. ™ See: Parkhurst, Helen. Education on the Dalton Plan. New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1922. 278 p. Philadelphia South Philadelphia High School for Girls. Educating for Responsibility: The Dalton Laboratory Plan in a Secondary School New York: Macmillan Co., 1926. 310 p. % See: Washburne, Carleton. Adjusting the School to the Child. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y.: World Book Co., 1932. 189 p 7 Washburne, Carleton. “The Responsibility of the School in a Program of Character Building.’’ Religious Education 26: 61-70 January, 1931. *See: Case, Roscoe D. The Platoon School in America. Stanford University, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1931. 283 p 7 Spain, Charles L. The Platoon School. New York: Macmillan Co., 1924. 262 p. ™ See: Rugg, Harold, and Shumaker, Ann, The Child-Centered School. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y.: World Book Co., 1928 359 p. [ 132] tior pro mol ( sch nee wit per: pro clas clas gro disc tim diffi tant doe: Ma of : ove! trea 7 mit defi pen pers of 1 the teac dete acte hart trar evid in te C tion mor load ber. wor devek individual pupil may find adjustment difficult unless special provisions are made for indi- vidual guidance and counseling. While no par- ticular size of school can be specified as most favorable to all-round pupil growth, every school should have sufficient enrolment to ob- tain the highest possible degree of specializa- tion in the school staff and the broadest possible program of pupil activities for the amount of money available. Class size and teaching load—While the school should needed facilities economically, the class units within the school should be small enough to permit careful attention to the interests and problems of each individual pupil. When classes are too large, pupil achievement and classroom discipline suffer. The pupils may grow indifferent and lazy, or dissatisfied and discouraged, because the teacher does not have time to help them with their own peculiar dificulties. No teacher can perform the impor- tant functions of counselor and guide if he does not know each of his pupils intimately. Many behavior problems as well as many cases of academic deficiency can be prevented or overcome if the teacher is able to study and treat each case individually.*® The maximum size of class which will per- mit such study and treatment cannot be stated definitely for all classroom situations. It de- pends upon a number of factors, such as the personality and skill of the teacher, the nature of the subjectmatter, the methods employed, the size of the room, and the total load of the teacher. All such factors must be considered in determining the size of each class if good char- acter development is to be facilitated. Much harm may result from fixing class size arbi- be large enough to provide trarily, or on the basis of so-called scientific evidence which is concerned only with efficiency in teaching simple facts and routine skills.*® One of the contributing factors just men- tioned, the total load of the teacher, is far more significant than class size itself. Teaching load includes, in addition to the size and num- ber of classes, the amount and nature of clerical work, the extent of supervision of out-of-class activities, the amount of home visitation, and 15 See “Counseling by Teachers and Principals,’’ p. 121 other duties which may be required. The schoo! administration is responsible for distributing such work fairly, and for supplying enough teachers so that none will be overburdened. The teacher who has too much to do may be come a liability rather than an asset in a pro gram of education for character. Classification and promotion of pupils The placement of pupils so that each can work most effectively and achieve the best social ad justment is essential for good character de velopment. Poor classification not only retards otten leads to serious problems of misbehavior which the growth of desirable character; it require much time and skill to solve. The traditional organization, in which all pupils who were not promoted to the next higher grade had to repeat all the work of the same grade, is clearly out of place in a chat acter-building program. Semi-annual promo tions, special rooms and classes, and sectioning within grades on the basis of ability are some of the means devised for improving the classifi cation of pupils. No one has measured the total influence of such schemes upon pupil person- ality, and there is some disagreement as to their merits.'* Before adopting any such plan, administrators will do well to study it care fully, and perhaps to modify it somewhat in the light of local needs and conditions. In any event, it should be recognized that no plan of classification and promotion will be wholly successful if administered arbitrarily or per- mitted to operate automatically. The following suggestions may be useful in re-formulating and administering policies of classification in the light of character objec- tives: 1. Pupil needs should take precedence over ad- ministrative convenience. 2. The system should be flexible enough to permit needed readjustments. 3. Classification should be based upon a combina- tion of several factors, rather than upon a single factor such as intelligence. 4. Classification should not emphasize individual differences to the embarrassment of the less capable children. 5. No plan of classification can take the place of expert individual guidance and counseling. of this bulletin 16 Carr, William G. ‘‘New Angle of Attack Needed in Class Size Research 17 Ability grouping and other methods of providing for individual differences are Nation’s Schools 10: 27-30; November, |! discussed from the viewpoint { character development in the Seventh Yearbook of the Department of Classroom Teachers, p. 181-99 [ 133 ] Special schools and departments—In addi- tion to special classes for children who are mentally or physically atypical, some school systems provide special agencies for handling children who have especially difficult behavior problems. An earlier section of this bulletin has reviewed the work of attendance officers, visit- ing teachers, deans, educational and vocational counselors, psychological clinics, and health departments.'® Occasionally these specialized workers or departments find it desirable to remove delinquent or incorrigible children from the regular classrooms and to place them in special schools for observation and treat- ment. Examples of such schools are the Monte- fiore and Moseley special schools in Chicago,*® and the Thomas A. Edison School in Cleve- land.*° Ungraded classes for character deviates, such as those in Detroit,”* are also being tried out. These special schools and classes are not in- stitutions for the punishment of offenders. They have the dual purpose of relieving regu- lar schools and classrooms of pupils whose in- fluence upon others is especially detrimental, and of re-educating such pupils under the con- tinuous guidance of experts in personality ad- justment. Organization of the teaching staff—Another factor which may significantly affect pupil per- sonality is the superintendent’s policy in or- ganizing his teaching staff. The first require- ment of good staff organization is the proper placement of teachers. So far as possible, each teacher should be assigned the type of work which he likes to do and can do best. The sec- ond requirement is that the teachers be made responsible for constructively criticizing ad- ministrative plans which directly affect their work. If teachers are misplaced in their posi- tions, or if they are subjected to an autocratic type of administration in which they have no voice, inward discontent or rebellion may even- tually find an outlet in the classroom. On the other hand, if the staff is organized upon the principles of appropriate specialization and co- operation, the foundation is laid for the best %8 See ‘Specialists as Counselors,’ p. 122 of this bulletin. See: Stullken, Edward H. “Character Education in Special Schools.” Character Education. Sixth Yearbook, Chicago Principals’ Club. Chicago: the Club, 1931. p. 205-11. . ™® See: Cleveland. Ohio. The Special Schools and Curriculum Centers. Report of the Superintendent of Schools to the Board of Education, 1929-30 Cleveland: Board of Education, 1931. p. 71-85. Prey a Michigan. Eighty-Seventh Annual Report of the Detroit Public Schools. Detroit: Board of Education, 1 . Pp. ° kind of teacher-pupil relationship and highest type of character influence in classroom. Significance of School Plant Adminis- tration Location of buildings—Education for che acter in the school is more likely to succeed when conditions outside the school are a! favorable. For this reason the location of new school buildings should be given careful con sideration. A building should not needlessly be located in the midst of ugly or vicious su: roundings. The school’s work is impeded if the immediate neighborhood constantly per- mits or encourages pupils to practise undesir- able habits. It is especially important to locate a schoo! building where plenty of play space is avail able. Freedom to play out-of-doors without un- due crowding is essential to the all-round de- velopment of children. The necessary space cannot always be obtained economically unless the school administration develops a compre- hensive building program many years in ad vance of actual needs. Design of buildings—The contribution of building design lies in the utility, comfort, and beauty which it provides. A building whose de- sign bears little relation to the aims and activi- ties of the school program necessarily hampers pupil achievement. Children who must work in rooms which are too small or poorly lighted, heated, and ventilated, are handicapped morally as well as physically and mentally. Ugliness in a building may have undesirable effects upon pupil morale and esthetic taste. School-building design is a problem requiring the attention of both the educational expert and the architec- tural artist. Its influence upon character has never been measured, but there is reason to believe that this influence is considerable. Appearance of buildings and grounds—The appearance of classrooms, offices, corridors, and school grounds undoubtedly helps to form children’s standards of neatness and beauty. Sharing responsibiljty for keeping the school [ 134] reac still pup trar min wit infr mer sche sira beh; and ligh trea rep! gene havi earl T no | men Sucl cert may phas tain gest are 1. in cl 2. good 3. and 2 Schoo New Build: Harry L., 3 1930. Colles wauks Miffiir plant clean and in good condition may con- tribute to children’s respect for public prop- erty. If this procedure is to be useful, however, it must be accompanied by proportionate re- sponsibility on the part of teachers and custo- dians.”* Management of School and Classroom Pupil control and discipline—To some teachers and principals the term ‘“‘discipline’’ still means merely keeping order among the pupils by almost any convenient method. Arbi- trary rules are made, and punishments are ad- ministered for all infractions of these rules, without regard to the underlying causes of the infractions or the ultimate effect of the punish- ment upon the pupil. Such a conception of school discipline is definitely inimical to de- sirable character growth. Most cases of mis- behavior are matters for individual guidance and counseling, and should be treated in the light of all related factors. The aim of such treatment is the improvement rather than the repression of the guilty child. A number of general principles for handling persistent be- havior problems have been reviewed in an earlier section.”* This viewpoint does not imply that there is no place for rules of conduct or for punish- ment in a well-managed school or classroom. Such methods are necessary and helpful under certain conditions. In general, however, they may best be considered as relatively minor phases of the school’s total program for main- taining good discipline. Certain general sug- gestions for the maintenance of pupil control are as follows :** 1. The best method of developing responsibility in children is to give them responsibility. 2. The major emphasis should be placed on doing good rather than on being good. 3. It is only fair to assume that the pupil is honest and truthful until it is proved otherwise. School Architecture. New York: Macmillan Co., 1921. 724 p. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University 1932. 161 p Building Programs. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, College, Columbia University, 1928. 395 p. Spain, Charles Harry S. School Building Management. New York: Teachers L., Moehlman, Arthur B., and Frostic. Fred W. The Public Elementary School Plant. New York: Rand 1930. 602 p. Strayer, George D., and Engelhardt, N. L. Standards College, Columbia University, 1933. 181 p. 23 See “Suggestions for Diagnosis and Treatment,” p. 2% National Education Association, Department of Classroom % See p. 115 of this bulletin. *° For further discussion of school and classroom discipline, see: Mary Jutta, 2 For further discussion of the various problems of administering the school plant, see: 7 Engelhardt, N. L. Standards for Junior High School Buildings 4. Success and achievement should be the keynote in all pupil activities. 5. Teachers and administrators should respect the individuality of pupils, extending to them the same courtesy and thoughtfulness that is expected in return. School administrators generally have been experimenting with plans for giving pupils practise in self-control and self-government under wise guidance. The general conviction is that such a plan, if wisely conceived and in- telligently operated as a joint enterprise of pupils and faculty, can make a significant con- tribution to constructive school control. Pupil participation in school government has already been discusssed in this bulletin as a type of out-of-class activity.*° Among the disciplinary practises which are likely sto hinder good character development are the excessive use of threats, a militaristic type of control, the assignment of low marks in academic subjects as punishment for unde- sirable conduct, partiality or inconsistency in handling problems of conduct, an excessive number of rules and laxity in their enforce- ment, the encouragement of tale-bearing, low standards of conduct, and punishment which is out of proportion to the offense or which ig- nores the temperament of the pupil. In deciding when and how to punish a pupil, the teacher or principal should consider pri- marily the probable effect of the punishment upon the future behavior of that pupil, and only secondarily its probable effect upon the conduct of the rest of the class. Every effort should be made to apply disciplinary measures without producing feelings of bitterness and injustice, which so often form the basis for more serious misconduct in the future. ‘leach- ers and administrators should have a few defi- nite but flexible policies with regard to disci- pline, and should make sure that pupils and parents alike understand these policies. Donovan, John J., and others 7 Engelhardt, N. L., and Engelhardt, Fred. Planning School 1930. 574 p. Reeves, Charles E and Ganders McNally and Co for Elementary School Buildings. New York: Teachers 120 of this bulletin Teachers. Seventh Yearbook, p. 210. Sister. School Discipline and Character. Mil waukee, Wis.: Bruce Publishing Co., 1930. 324 p. (Sears, Jesse B. Classroom Organization and Control. Boston: Houghton Miffin Co., 1928. p. 66-98. [ 135 ] —— . ' | ; : School marks, contests, and awards—One of the school’s most difficult problems, from the viewpoint of character development, is that of motivating school work by means of marks and other awards. The difficulty lies in the fact that excessive competition for individual honors works in direct opposition to the ob- jective of developing cooperation and mutual helpfulness among children. In many schools it is still considered a disgrace .to receive low marks, while the recipients of high marks are lauded for their superior ability or effort. This attitude naturally causes many pupils to attach undue importance to the marks themselves, and to strive for high ones by fair or unfair means. Even if dishonest practises are not resorted to, self-centeredness is often encouraged by undue effort to achieve superiority over others. The same dangers are present in most contests in which awards are given for individual superi- ority. The foregoing is not intended as a sweeping indictment of all contests and awards in the schools. The desire to excel one’s fellows is natural, and within reasonable limits it may be a wholesome source of motivation for school achievement. When used as the chief means of motivation, however, it is likely to produce un- desirable qualities of character along with de- sirable qualities. Some schools are attempting to solve this problem by marking pupils accord- ing to only two or three general levels of achievement, by encouraging them to surpass their own previous records rather than the records of their classmates, and by giving marks in school citizenship or in various at- tributes of character 77 as well as in school subjects. Very few schools have eliminated school marks entirely. In awarding honors or prizes, care should be taken to emphasize service to the school and community as well as individual accomplish- ment. If tangible prizes are given, they should be mere symbols of accomplishment and should have little, if any, intrinsic value.** Testing the effectiveness of learning—\)} dangers involved in the use of school mart and other awards do not imply that no spe effort need be made to measure accurately | results of teaching. Measurement of achie\. ment and reward for achievement are essen tially different things. Measurement is nec: sary to inform teachers and pupils of + extent to which the objectives of school wo have been attained, and to reveal the speci! weaknesses which need remedial attention. knowledge of where one is succeeding and where one is failing is a prime requisite fo: economical learning and good mental health. Moreover, the failure of a school to require of pupils a high standard of achievement tends to make them satisfied with doing less than their best in the activities of life outside th school. A carefully planned program of test ing, therefore, is essential to the attainment of the school’s highest purposes.?° Within the last twenty-five years much progress has been made in developing valid and reliable testing technics. A pupil’s know!- edge of mechanics in the manipulation of lan guage and number, and his knowledge of spe- cific facts in a wide range of subjectmatter, can now be measured satisfactorily. Tests have been devised also for measuring other and more important results of schooling, such as the power of organizing and interpreting facts, the appreciation of various forms of art, and many other aspects of personality and char acter. In these fields, however, testing is stil! largely in the experimental stage. Promising beginnings have been made, but much remains to be done before teachers in their classrooms can measure such abilities and tendencies with the same validity as in spelling, arithmetic, reading, grammar, and factual information in general. This is not to say that a test should not be used until it has passed the experimental! stage. No progress is possible without experi- ment, and some insight into pupil personality 27 See the references on informal character rating mentioned on p. 108 of this bulletin, footnote 36. *8 For further discussion of school marks and other means of motivating school work, see such references as: Breed, Fred- erick S. Classroom Organization and Management. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y.: World Book Co., 1933. p. 338-65. J Douglass Harl R. Organisation and Administration of Secondary Schools. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1932. p. 313-40. {] Sears, Jesse B Classroom Organization and Control. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1928. p. 99-120. ® For further general discussion of the purposes and technics of measurement, see such references as: Holley, Charles FE Modern Principles and the Elementary Teacher's Technique. New York: Century Co., 1928. p. 216-38. { Monroe, Walter S. Directing Learning in the High School. Garden City, N. Y.:-Doubleday, Page and Co., 1927. p. 473-538. {J Morrison, Henry C. The Practice of Teaching in the Secondary School. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931. p. 63-80. {J Parker Samuel C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1920. p. 492-511. {] Reagan, G. W. Fundamentals of Teaching. Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Co., 1932. p. 215-58. { 136] lop ics | S Ipel cause and wise meas ment denc Pr prog muct name mark stitut ot re has ¢ shoul ment of th ing f to m A go will a val periet ment relati habit and | of su child thrue and items may undu each 2 | Educati tional ” Februai Fo the Te: bulletin vy be obtained from relatively imperfect neasures. On the other hand, great caution ist be exercised in the interpretation of test esults, and the results should not be given to persons who are likely to misinterpret them. lo permit test results to stamp a child’s capaci- ties as poor beyond hope of improvement or superior beyond the possibility of failure may cause serious maladjustments of personality and subsequent behavior problems. It is like- wise dangerous to assume that a given test measures a certain kind of ability or achieve- ment when there is little or no scientific evi- dence to support such an assumption.*° Pupil accounting—Pupil accounting in a program of education for character includes much more than keeping records of each child’s name, address, age, attendance, and marks. Important as these items are, they con- stitute only a small part of an adequate system of records. An earlier section of this bulletin has outlined the types of information which should be considered in the study and treat- ment of individual behavior problems.** Much of this information is useful also in prevent- ing maladjustments and in helping all pupils to make the most of their school opportunities. A good system of child accounting, therefore, will provide for specific records with regard to a variety of factors in the child’s school ex- | school perience, measures of his capacity and achieve- ment, the status of his home and his family relationships, his physical condition and health habits, his personal interests and peculiarities, and his friends and associates. The collection of such information should be begun when the child enters school, and should be continued thruout his school career. Unless a continuing and permanent record is maintained, many items may not be available when needed, or may be obtainable only by the expenditure of undue time and effort. Without such data for each pupil, the school cannot expect to achieve 8° For summaries of research studies in the field of tests and measurements, see Educational Research Association. ‘‘Tests of Personality and Character,”’ Review of Educational Research tional Tests and Their Uses.” February, 1933. its maximum influence in the development of pupil personality. No set of records is worth keeping, of course, unless it is used wisely. The purpose of records is to promote pupil progress. They must not be allowed to interfere with such progress by creating fixed ideas as to what a child can or cannot accomplish. All personal information concerning pupils should be kept confidential. It should be revealed to no one who is not concerned in the guidance of the pupils in- volved. ‘Teachers and principals must be able to interpret such information intelligently, and to use it without prejudice for the welfare of each child. Relation of the School to Outside Agencies Home and school cooperation—When life in this country was largely rural and relatively unspecialized, character education was centered in the home. Today, in a complex and highly industrialized society, the home has found it necessary to delegate some of its educational responsibilities to other agencies, especially the school. In spite of this shift, the home is still one of the most important environmental in fluences in the formation of personality and character.*® It cannot disclaim all responsi- bility for the training of children, and any other single agency which attempts to assume all or most of this responsibility is undertaking the impossible. It is essential, therefore, that there be close cooperation between the school and the home if the character-building efforts of either one are to be notably successful. In this cooperative enterprise there may be a certain division of authority and responsibil- ity, but there should be no fundamental differ- ences of opinion between the home and the school as to what constitutes right living or as to the objectives of character education. Nor should there be any fundamental conflict be- National Education Association, American Intelligence and Aptitude,’’ and ‘‘Educa- 271-342, October, 1932 1-80, “Tests of 183-270, June, 1932; 2 For a comprehensive list and description of measuring instruments in the field of character and personality adjustment, see the Tenth Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence, p. bulletin, p. 108, footnote 36. %1 See p. 119 of this bulletin. 2 For further information concerning modern systems of pupil records, see sonnel. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1929. p. 184-236. 83 See: National Education Association, Research Division. ical Background.” Research Bulletin 12: 62-65; March, 1934 “Education 345-404, and other sources mentioned in Section II of this Heck, Arch O. Administration of Pupil Per- for Character. Part I: The Social and Psycholog- [ 137] tween the methods employed by the two agencies. To the extent that such differences and conflicts exist, the efforts of both agencies will be made less effective. Mutual under- standing of sound principles and procedures is the first requisite of a successful program. The second requisite is sincere and cooperative effort to put these principles and procedures into practise. The school may help to develop such mutual understanding and cooperative effort in a num- ber of ways. Thru meetings of parent-teacher associations and similar groups the objectives and methods of education for character can be clarified. Teachers and principals can visit homes to obtain the viewpoints of parents and to discuss the problems of individual children. Parents can be encouraged to visit the schools frequently so as to see at first hand what the schuols are doing. One of the chief functions of school specialists in individual guidance and counseling is to keep in close contact with the home. Whatever methods may be used to es- tablish cooperative relations, the school staff should be prepared to take the initiative in establishing such relations.** Other community agencies in relation to the school—The need for mutual understanding and cooperative effort is no less between the school and other community agencies than be- tween the school and the home. Without the support and assistance of these other agencies, the influence of both home and school may be seriously weakened or completely nullified. Some community influences, it is true, are not within the control of organized groups with which the school can deal. The number and scope of organized agencies is so great, how- ever, that a tremendous improvement in com- munity conditions might reasonably be expected if all of them would work together along con- structive lines. One needs only to think of the potential power for good to be found in the cooperation between the school and such com- munity agencies as parent-teacher associations, service clubs, churches, welfare societies, and departments of the local government, e.g., lice, tire, and health.*® The ways in which such agencies can operate with the school are many and var Newspapers can give publicity to the aims activities of the school. Radio stations can |; to enrich pupil experience by suitable | grams. Organizations working thru the sch may enlist groups of pupils in worthy c munity projects. A business house or a fact: may occasionally be used by pupils as a labo tory for the study and practise of adult act ties outside the school. Certain agencies ma unite with the school in studying and treating community conditions which contribute juvenile delinquency. Agencies which specialize in individual guidance and counseling may « ordinate their activities with the school’s pro gram in this field. Sometimes a particular o: ganization may be given a limited amount ot time on the school program for explaining its work to the pupils, or for interesting them in matters related to character and good citizen- ship.** These are only a few of the possibilities for effective community cooperation. It is essential that the school understand the purposes and methods of outside organiza- tions, as well as that these organizations under- stand the functions and procedures of the school. Such understanding is needed in dete: mining the kind and extent of cooperation which the school should give. A serious prob lem in some communities is the attempt of ce: tain outside agencies to influence unduly the content of the school curriculum, or to use the time of teachers and pupils to further the pur- poses of these agencies primarily. There are many commendable movements and organiza tions which cannot reasonably be given time on the school program. All requests for coop eration of this kind need to be considered care- fully and handled tactfully. Decisions should always be made in accordance with the central objective of the school program, which is, or ought to be, the finest all-round development of character and personality.*” ™ For further discussion and illustration of home and school cooperation, see: National Congress of Parents and Teacher First Yearbook: Parent Education. Washington, D. C.: the Congress, 1930. 224 p. {National Education Association, Ic partment of Elementary School Principals. The Principal and His Community. Eleventh Yearbook. Washington, D. C. Association, 1932 p 227-312. National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Tenth Yearbook, p. 315-5 *% National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. Seventh Yearbook, p. 235. ® Care should be taken, however, to see that the program of any organization working thru the schools is based on sound principles and administered by competent persons. See the statement on this point under “‘Clubs,”’ p. 112 of this bulleti: * For further discussion and illustration of cooperation between the school and community agencies other than the home see: National Fducation Association, Department of Elementary School Principals. Eleventh Yearbook, p. 313-546. 7 Nationa Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Tenth Yearbook, p. 333-44, [138] mor ot e and com bros prov selis lack syst prov 3 Finar Depa 3 tion . Yearb ence. Public Support of the Program for Character Building While it is true that the schools generally need to improve their materials and methods for character building, it is likewise true that this cannot be satisfactorily accomplished with- out adequate financial support. In education, as in other fields, the public usually gets no more than it pays for. An effective program undoubtedly cost more money than is now availablé for public education. Unless the history of the American public school no longer has any significance, and unless citizens in general remain unaware of the needs of the changing social order, the character objective in education will receive an increasing emphasis in the future, and the means of achieving this objective more effec- tively will somehow be found. School adminis of education for character requires well-trained trators and teachers must take the lead in dis and conscientious teachers, modern equipment, COveting and developing such means, both ir the field of educational practise and in the field of If the people are properly acquainted with the facts, and are given reasonable assurance that a richer and comfortable and well-designed buildings, a , , , thool finance.*® broad and dynamic curriculum, and _ special w — provisions for individual guidance and coun- seling. These essentials are almost entirely . ' etng * more comprehensive program will eventually lacking in some school systems, and in most raise the general level of character and citizen- systems they are only partially provided. To ship, it is inconceivable that they will withhold provide them more completely, however, will for long the needed financial support,°° National Conference on the Education % For a concise statement of essential procedures in financing a modern school system, see Financing of Education. Report. Joint Commmission on the Emergency in Education, National Department of Superintendence. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1933. 78 p Association and 8% Among recent publications dealing with the interpretation of schools to the public are the following: National Educa tion Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. Teacher and Public {1 Handbook of Interpretation for Teachers. Eighth Yearbook Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1934. 240 p. {National Education Association Superintend ence. Crstxal Problems in School Administration. Twelfth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Department of Association, 1934. p. 211-56 1 \ 7 © CANNOT make good citizens of those who cannot see their actual relation to society and cannot therefore become conscious of their actual responsi- bilities. We may make them obedient and law-abiding, and they may even be well-intentioned and kind. But good citizenship demands a positive, constructive attitude toward society, and an understanding of the relationships involved. We cannot develop this by telling children to be good, or even by priming them with the formulas of goodness which actually were effective and constructive in the days when human society was put together in very different ways. What we do get from this attempt to fasten ancient formulas upon modern minds—and calling the process education—is not even the conservatism which seems to be our aim. When we try to teach people what to think, instead of how to think, we get such extremes of conduct as to threaten our social stability.— Edward A. Filene, Official Report, Department of Superintendence, 1934. p. 76. V. A Few Selected Books and Periodicals on Character and Character Education The following list includes references on the nature of personality, the meaning of good character, factors in character formation, and educational procedures for character develop- ment. Many other references bearing on these topics are mentioned in the preceding pages and in the Research Bulletin for March, 1934. 1, 2. . HEATON, Books ALMACK, JoHN C. Education for Citizenship. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1924. 287 p. Bower, WituiAM C. Character Through Cre- ative Experience. Chicago: University of Chi- cago Press, 1930. 276 p. . Casot, RicHarp C. The Meaning of Right and Wrong. New York: Macmillan Co., 1933. 463 p. . CHarters, W. W. The Teaching of Ideals. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927. 372 p. . Coz, Georce A. Law and Freedom in the School. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1924. 134 p. . Cox, Pum W. L. Creative School Control. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1927. 320 p. . Fisnpack, Ervin H. Character Education in the Junior High School. Boston: D. C. Heath and Co., 1928. 190 p. . GERMANE, CHARLES E. and GERMANE, EbITH Gayton. Character Education. New York: Sil- ver, Burdett and Co., 1929. Part I, 259 p. Part II, 224 p. . HarTsHoRNE, Hucu. Character in Human Rela- tions. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1933. 367 p. Kennetu L. Character Building Through Recreation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929. 230 p. . Heaton, Kennetu L. The Character Emphasis in Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933. 415 p. . Martin, Herpert. The Formative Factors in Character. New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1925. 346 p. . McLester, AMELIA. Development of Character Traits in Young Children. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1931. 126 p. . Merriam, CHARLES Epwarp. The Making of Citizens: A Comparative Study ef Methods of Civic Training. Chicago: University of Chi- cago Press, 1931. 371 p. . Mio-West CONFERENCE ON PARENT EpUCATION, 1928. Building Character. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1928. 345 p. . Myers, Garry CLevetann. Developing Person- ality in the Child at School. New York: Green- berg, Publisher, Inc., 1931. 375 p. 17 18. ). NEUMANN, [ 140 ] - Myerson, ABRAHAM. The Foundations of sonality. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 406 p. NATIONAL EpucaTION AssOcIATION, DEPART) oF CLassroomM TEACHERS. The Class; Teacher and Character Education. Se Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Associa 1932. 272 p. . NATIONAL EpucaTION AssociATION, Depart OF SUPERINTENDENCE. Character Educai Tenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Ass ciation, 1932. 535 p. Henry. Education for Mora Growth. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 19 383 p. . NEUMANN, HEnry. Lives in the Making. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1932. 370 p. . O'SHEA, M. V. Newer Ways with Childre) New York: Greenberg, Publisher, Inc., 1929 419 p. . Powers, F. F. Character Training. New York A. S. Barnes and Co., 1932. 158 p. . Ricwarps, Estuer L. Behavior Aspects of Child Conduct. New York: Macmillan Co., 1932. 299 p . SOCKMAN, R. W. Morals of To-Morrow. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1931. 331 p. . Symonps, P. M. The Nature of Conduct. New York: Macmillan Co., 1928. 346 p. . THom, Douctas A. Normal Youth and its Ever) day Problems. New York: D. Appleton and Co 1932. 368 p. . Tutte, H. S. Character Education by Stat: and Church. New York: Abingdon Press, 1930 164 p. : . Van Waters, MiriaM. Youth in Conflict. New York: Republic Publishing Co. (now New Re public, Inc.), 1925. 292 p. . Watson, M. E. Children and Their Parents New York: F. S. Crafts and Co., 1932. 362 p. . WickMaAN, E. K. Children’s Behavior and Teac/ ers’ Attitudes. New York: Division of Publica tions, Commonwealth Fund, 1928, 247 p. . ZACHRY, CAROLINE B. Personality Adjustments of School Children. New York: Charles Scrib ner’s Sons, 1929. 306 p. Periodicals . ALLporT, Gorpon W. “The Composition of Political Attitudes.” American Journal of So ciology 35: 220-38 ; September, 1929. . Bratz, W. E., and Bort, E. A. “Studies in Menta! Hygiene of Children: 1. Behavior of Publi School Children—A Description of Method Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genet Psychology 34: 552-82; December, 1927. ldre n, 1929 York 299 p. New New wery- d Co., State 1930. New v Re rents. Bp. each- blica- ments scrib- n ot f So ental ‘ublic hod mett< Britt, Marion S. “Motivation of Conduct Dis- orders in Boys.” Journal of Delinquency 11: 5-22; March, 1927. . CARMICHAEL, ALBERT M. “To What Objective Stimuli Do Six-Year-Old Children Respond with Intentional Misrepresentation of Facts?” Peda- gogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psy- chology 35: 73-83; March, 1928. 5, CLARKE, FRANK A. “Some Character Tests.” American Educational Digest 46: 225-26; Jan- uary, 1927. . Cottins, Georce L. “How Race Prejudice Is Overcome.” World Tomorrow 11: 410-12; Octo- ber, 1928. . CRESSMAN, ELMER W. “Workbook versus Oral Instruction.” Journal of Educational Sociology 7: 250-53; December, 1933. . CusHinGc, HAzet M., and Rucu, G. M. “An In- vestigation of Character Traits in Delinquent Girls.” Journal of Applied Psychology 11: 1-7; February, 1927. . Davis, JEROME. “Testing the Social Attitudes of Children in the Government Schools in Russia.” American Journal of Sociology 32: 947-52; May, 1927. . DEARBORN, FrANcEs R. “What Does Honesty Mean to Third and Fourth Grade Children?” Journal of Educational Method 6: 205-12; Jan- uary, 1927. . ELONEN, ANNA §S., and Wooprow, HERBERT. “Group Tests of Psychopathic Tendencies in Children.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 11: 1-7; February, 1927. . Fosrer, Sypi. “A Study of the Personality Make-up and Social Setting of Fifty Jealous Children.” Mental Hygiene 11: 53-77; January, 1927. . Jones, VERNON. “Ideas of Right and Wrong Among Teachers and Children.” Teachers Col- lege Record 30: 529-41; March, 1929. . Krasnocorski, N. I. “The Conditioned Reflexes and Children’s Neuroses.” American Journal of Diseases of Children 30: 753-68 ; December, 1925. . Lunpperc, Georce A. “The Newspaper and Public Opinion.” Social Forces 4: 709-15; June, 1926. - ORATA, Pepros T. “Race Prejudice.” Welfare Magaxine 18: 766-75; June, 1927. . RicH, Gitpert J. “A Biochemical Approach to the Study of Personality.” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 23: 158-75; July, 19238. . Ripoie, E. M. “Stealing as a Form of Aggressive Behavior.” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psy- chology 23: 79-93; April, 1928. . Ross, E. K., and Faust, J. F. “The Effect of Direct Instruction.” Journal of Educational So ciology 7: 237-40; December, 1933. . SHULTZ, G. D. “Your Community Can Have A Child Guidance Clinic.” Better Homes and Gar- dens 10: 20, 50, 52; November, 1931. . SHUTTLEWORTH, FRANK K. “Influence of Early Religious Home Training on College Sophomore Men.” Religious Education 22: 57-60; January, 1927. . STARR, ANNA SpIESMAN. “A Problem in Social Adjustment.” Psychological Clinic 17: 85-96; May, 1928. . SYMONDS, PercIvAL M. “Group Methods for Con ducting a Mental Survey of High School Pupils.” School and Society 32: 501-6; October 11, 1930. . Taytor, Howarp R., and Powers, Francis F. “Bible Study and Character.” Pedagogical Semi nary and Journal of Genetic Psychology 35: 294-302; June, 1928. . Tresout, Harry M. “Danger Points in Child Guidance Clinic Work.” Journal of Educational Sociology 4: 508-16; April, 1931. . WASHBURNE, CARLETON. “The Responsibility of the School in A Program of Character Building.” Religious Education 26: 61-70; January, 1931 . Watson, Goopwin. “Does World-Mindedness Depend upon Good-will or Information? Upon Character or Intelligence?” Religious Education 21: 188-94; April, 1926. . Watson, Goopwin. “Orient and Occident: An Opinion Study.” Summary in Religious Educa- tion 24: 322-28; April, 1929. . Wootston, Howarp. “Stepbrothers: A Study of Prejudice and Convention.” Social Forces 6: 368 75; March, 1928. N°? IDEA can be more erroneous than that children go to school to learn the rudiments of knowledge only, and not to form character. The character of children is always forming. No place, no companion, is without an influence upon it; and at school it is formed more rapidly than anywhere else. The mere fact of the presence of so many children together puts the social or dissocial nature of each into fervid action . Teachers take children under their care, as it were, during the first warm days of the spring of life, when more can be done towards directing their growth and modifying their dispositions, than can be done in years, at a later season of their existence.—Horace Mann, Life and Works of Horace Mann, Vol. 2, p. 119-20. | 141] EDUCATION FOR CHARACTER What is character? What are the processes and principles of character formation? What are the objectives of a school program of character building? What are the character values in the curriculum, methods, and out-of-class activities? Of what use is individual guidance in developing character? What contribution do school and class administration make to a character building program? | THESE TWO BULLETINS will help you to answer questions such as those listed above. This announcement covers both Part I and Part II in order to show the value of each bulletin in preserving the continuity of the subject. PART I THE SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL BACKGROUND Vol. XII, No.2. 40 pages March, 1934 Contents I, A New Interest in an Old Problem II. Character Building in a New Social Setting III. The Nature and Formation of Character Price 25 cents PART II IMPROVING THE SCHOOL PROGRAM Vol. XII, No.3. 64 pages May, 1934 Contents I, Objectives and General Provisions of the Character Building Program II. Building Character thru the Curriculum III. Building Character thru Individual Guidance IV. Building Character thru School and Classroom Administration V. A Few Selected Books and Periodicals on Character and Character Education Price 25 cents ALL ORDERS FOR PUBLICATIONS should be accompanied by funds in payment for same and must be so accompanied when orders amount to $1.00 or less. Orders not accompanied by funds are subject to transporta- tion charges. Discount on orders for more than one copy of the same book: 2 to 9 copies, 10 percent; 10 to 99 copies, 25 percent; 100 or more copies, 3314 percent. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. OTHER PUBLICATIONS ON CHARACTER EDUCATION— Several departments of the National Education Association have published valuable mate rials on this subject. These yearbooks and bulletins represent the work of some of the best minds in education. CHARACTER EDUCATION Tenth Yearbook—1932 Department of Superintendence 535 Pages Price $2 each THE CLASSROOM TEACHER AND CHARACTER EDUCATION Seventh Yearbook—1932 Department of Classroom Teachers 272 Pages Price $1.50 each g CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH EDUCATION Research Bulletin—-September, 1932 National Education Association 68 Pages Price 25¢ each TESTS OF PERSONALITY AND CHARACTER Review of Educational Research June, 1932 American Educational Research Association 88 Pages Price $1 each THE PRINCIPAL AND HIS COMMUNITY Eleventh Yearbook—1932 Department of Elementary School Principals 448 Pages Price $2 each SOCIAL-ECONOMIC GOALS OF AMERICA Report—1933 Committee on Social-Economic Goals of America of the National Education Association 23 Pages Price 15¢ each Order the above publications from: National Education Association 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. HE BUSINESS of the educator— . whether parent or teacher—is to see to it that the greatest possible number @ || of ideas acquired by children and youth are acquired in such a vital way that they become moving ideas, motive- forces in the guidance of conduct. This demand and this opportunity make the moral purpose universal and dominant in all instruction —whatsoever the topic. Were it not for this possi- bility, the familiar statement that the ultimate purpose of all education is character-forming would be hypocritical pretense; for as every one knows, the direct and immediate attention of teachers and pupils must be, for the greater part of the time, upon intellectual matters. It is out of the question to keep direct moral considerations constantly uppermost. But it is not out of the question to aim at making the methods of learn- ing, of acquiring intellectual power, and of as- similating subjectmatter, such that they will ren- der behavior more enlightened, more consistent, more vigorous than it otherwise would be.—John Dewey, Moral Principles in Education, p. 2-3. ee a TIT