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VOL. Xi, NO. 1 JANUARY 
Research Bulletin 
OF THE 


National Education Association 





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The School Board Member 





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PUBLISHED BY THE RESEARCH DIVISION OF THE 





NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 


1201 SIXTEENTH STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C 











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Research Bulletin of the National Education 
Association 





Published five times each year in January, March, May, September, and November 
by the Research Division of the National Education Association of the United States. 
President, JoserH Rosier Secretary, J. W. CRaBTREE 








The payment of the $5 membership fee of the National Education Association 
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Entered as second-class matter February 10, 1923, at the Post Office at Washington, D. C., unde: 
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 
1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized February 10, 1923. 





Director of Research: William G. Carr; Associate Director: Frank W. Hubbard 
Assistant Directors: Richard R. Foster, Ivan A. Booker 
Executive and Editorial Offices - - - 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. 








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CONTENTS 


Foreword 
The School Board Member and American Education 
Progress in School Board Organization 
Working with Others 
Relation of a Board Member to the Board Itself 


Relation of One Board Member to Another g 
The Board Member and Employees of the Board Q 
The Board Member and the Public 
Ethics for School Board Members 
The School Board and the Law 
[The School Board as a Corporatio 
The School Board and the State 
Che School Board and the Local Government 
Joint Action by Two or More Boards 
The School Board in Action 
The School Board Meeting 
Educational Policies 
Personnel Problems 
Business Problems ; 
Desirable Qualifications for Board Members 1( 
A Five-Inch Shelf of Books for School Board Members Inside back cover 


LIST OF TABLES 
I il le 
1. Certain Ethical Principles Mentioned in Four Codes of Ethics for School Boar 
), Administrative Details Still Carried Out Directly by Certain Boards in 1925 
3. Methods Used by School Boards in 1,000 Cities in 1931 in Managing Certain Ad 
tive Details i 
4. Legal Contracts Provided for by the Laws of Various States in 1922 and in 1928 ) 


5. Practices of School Boards in 1,000 Cities in 1931 with Respect to Their Empl 


1 Me 


6. Amount of Training and Experience Required of New Teachers in City School S 

in 1930-31 32 
7. Regulations Governing Leaves of Absence for Teachers in Effect in 1930-31 33 
8. Business Practices of School Boards in 1,000 Cities in 1931 


LIST OF FIGURES 


Figure I. Typical Order of Business 18 
Figure II. School Board Meeting in District No. 1 0 
Figure III. School Board Meeting in District No. 2 1 
Figure IV. Questions of Policy and Administrative Duties Pertaining to Leaves of A ( 
for Teachers 5 
Figure V. Two Types of Board Procedure ) 
Figure VI. Self-Rating Scale for School Board Members Inside | co" 
LIST OF CHARTS 

Chart I. Changes in School Board Organization 6 
Chart II. Source of the School Board’s Authority 13 
Chart III. Cities in Which School Surveys Have Been Mack 6 
Chart IV. Percent of Cities Having Salary Schedules 32 














FOREWORD 


OMPETENT teachers and good schools in any community indicate foresight 
and good judgment on the part of its school trustees or school directors 
Within rather broad limits the school board determines the amount of 

money that is spent for education, the kind of teachers that are employed, the 
length of the school term, and in short every fundamental school policy. ‘Thus, 
the school board member in a very real sense determines the quality of the school. 
It is therefore extremely important for school board members to be thoroughly 
acquainted with their official responsibilities. 

This issue of the Research Bulletin is concerned with the school boar« 
member and his work. The facts presented should enable school directors to 
perform their important duties more efficiently. The bulletin describes, first of 
all, the place of the school board member in the great national program of edu 
cation. It then reveals the nature of a school board by considering its origin, 
development, and legal status. It points the way to successful cooperation and 
t 


Ss 


urges the board member to be critical of his own work as school director. 
recommendations are both practical and timely with reference to school board 
meetings, educational policies, personnel problems, and business affairs. 


This publication is, first of all, a handbook for the men and women in 
active service on boards of education. They should find it especially serviceable 
because of the brief, convenient form in which the facts and principles are pre- 
sented. Likewise, busy school directors will appreciate the short list of care 
fully selected references which is termed the five-inch shelf of books for school 


board members. 


Although written primarily for school board members themselves, schoo! 
superintendents and all those who share responsibility for the direction of public 
schools should find this bulletin helpful. It will be of interest also to college 
classes in educational administration, to officers and active workers in parent 
teacher associations and other civic organizations, and to all citizens who are 


vitally interested in the welfare of public education. 


a W. CRABTREE, Sec retary, 


National Education Association. 








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The School Board Member and American Education 





Education as a National Enterprise selves, and gain an appreciation f 
things in life. 
Education isane of the |: irgest national pro ; . 
Definite information is available t 1OW 
Only five industries—agriculture, rail : ne 
: many of the foregoing objectives are Del 
s, oil, electricity, and lumber—representa . , “f 
es ' ized. For example, note the followit lange 
al investment more valuable than publi a: : - 
in American life: (1) between 1900 and 120 
| property. A million teachers and tens of |. ' 
| : life expectancy increased 18 percent and th 
1Sé ot other employees, sucn as engineers, ; ; = 
vs hare i | ri : death rate pe 1,000 inhabitants decreased 3 
todians, janitors, and bus drivers, are en ao 
, ‘ : . hi , ] percent ¢ (2) illiteracy decreased f1: 10 t 
ed in carrying out this great national pro , . a : 
ed a: B , 4.3 percent between 1900 and 1930; 3) na 


m. Agriculture, construction, railroads, and 


ili. 


xtiles are the only industries in which more 


tional wealth 


ame period ;° (4) 


increased fourfold during 


the index of the amount of 


Ss 
ple are employed.? But most important of 
; output per worker stands now at bout 1LYU 
the schools now enrol more than 25,000,000 
units as compared with 100 units in 1899; 
sand girls. Similarly, in many communities, es us 
“e : é (5) the value added to raw materials by manu 
e school is the largest business enterprise, with , 
- . ; facture has increased more than sixfold withir 
iluable property, a considerable number of ' : 
; the last thirty years;* and (6) the per capita 
ployees, and a program which reaches into 
ef? ; circulation of library books is more than twelve 
rly every home. Nationally and locally, edu- $e 
ae ; times as large as it was in 1876 Although 
n is of first importance. ; 
other social agencies helped produce the 
F : achievements, the American public-school sys 
Education and National Welfare | , 
tem deserves much credit for the progress that 


Although the scope of the educational pro- | 
am suggests its import ince, an estimate of the ( 
ie worth of education must be based on other 
nsiderations. One may properly ask, What c 
» the schools doing to promote individual and 
tional well-being ? Why do we maintain this 
xtensive program of public education? 

The aims of education help to answer these 


uestions. School _ work is directed toward the 


tt ie. 











ficient 


healthic ry 


rected 


1as been made. Along these and other lines 


ition of 


efficient 


schools are producing a n 


more intelligent, and_more 


itiZens. 


~~ 


The 
Ameri 


by a half million school | 
on 150,000 SC hool boards 


30ard Member’s Responsibility 


, ’ ; 1 
icas vast euucational im is dil 


prog! 
d members 
The efhciency 


VOdaTI 


erving 


ittainment of seven major objectives :* ; : 
sound health, (2) mastery of the tools of 0 every board member is of | Mporrancs 
thought—reading, writing, language, and num- It is truly said: 
ber, (3) worthy home membership, (4) voca- lhe school board has the future of the nation and 
tional efficiency, (5) good citizenship, (6) wise _ the progress of all of our people as its responsibility 
use of leisure, and (7) ethical character. In The maintenance of the democratic aspect of public 
ae . ‘ education is as much dependent upon the type, the i 
he clean wholesome environment of the school, : oahing : nile aa 
| ] i | 3 | } - kill _ tellige nce, the ability of school board members or 
hildren develop useful habits and skills, acquire school trustees as it is upon the quality of instruc 
] ° ° ° ° . . . ; 
valuable information, learn to think for them- tion offered to the children in the classroom 
' National Education Association, Research Division. The School susin Washington, D. ¢ : t 1930 
Ibid. 
U.S. epretmont of the Interior, Bureau of Education. Cardinal ncipbes of Secondary Education. }t 1918, No. 35 
I ington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1918 9-16 
* National Education Association, Research Division. “Investing in Public Education."’ Research Bulletin 8: 215 e! 
30. Washington, D. C.: the Association. 
*U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Fifteenth Censu f the United State 1930. Was gton, D. ( 
‘rnment Printing Office, 1932. Volume III, p. 10. Also Thirteenth Census of the United States: 1910, Volume p. 1187 
6 National Education Association. ‘‘Ten Facts on Financing Public Education Journal of the National Educa { 
26; January, 1932. 
Ibid. 
5 [bid. 
* National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘Investir I Education."’ Research Bulletin 8: 20 t 
0. Washington, D. C.: the Association 
” The term school board member will be used in this bulletin to apply 3 directors,"’ ‘‘school trus 
ials serving on committees that are charged with the direction of schools 
" California State Department of Education. California Schools. Vol No. 10; October, 1931. Sacramento, Calif.: State 


Department of Education, 1931. p 


377. 


[3] 











The efficient school director renders the 
highest type of public service. His influence 
reaches out beyond the limits of the immediate 
district and touches the very heart of the nation. 
Likewise an inefficient board member, by hin- 
dering educational progress in his own district, 
thereby impairs the whole program of national 
education. The responsibilities of the office are 
large ; the opportunities for service to childhood 
and to the nation are unlimited. 


Purpose of the Bulletin 


It is the purpose of this bulletin to present 
the fundamental principles of school board 
work. The section which follows this one tells 
how the office originated and traces some of the 
important trends in its development. The dis- 








cussion then turns to the official relations 
school board members to one another, to 1 
employees, and to the public. Following a 
presentation of important facts about s 
law, the major portion of the publication 
voted to the actual duties and activities 
school board. The bulletin analyzes som: 
the difficult problems which school boards 
counter and presents, as an aid to their s 
tion, a body of facts and principles derived f; 
a careful analysis of the literature in the { 
and the combined judgments of many con 
tent advisers.' The problems considered 

to school board meetings, educational po! 
personnel problems, and business affairs. 
final section of the bulletin enumerates s 


of the personal traits and qualities frequent 


found in capable school board members. 


! This bulletin incorporates many ideas and recommendations from the writings of prominent authorities in the field « 
tional administration. Specific acknowledgment to those whose materials are cited directly is given in the footnotes. In add 


recognition is due to many authors whose materials were used indirectly. It is not possible to list the names of all w 
helpful cooperation has been obtained. Special appreciation is expressed to the following professors of educational administr 
and more than one hundred of their students: W. W. Kemp. U niversity of California; E. E. Lewis, Ohio State University; She 
Phelps, George Peabody College for Teachers; Osman R. Hull, U niversity of Southern California; Fred Engelhardt, Univers 
Minnesota; and E. P. Cubberley, Stanford University. The valuable criticisms of the following persons who read the manus: 
wholly or in part, are also gratefully acknowledged: Professor John C. Almack, Stanford University; Mrs. Ruby Crampton, P 
dent, Association of Women School Board Members; Walter S. Deffenbaugh, Chief, Division of American School System 
Office of Education; Mrs. Henry Grattan Doyle, Member, Board of Education, Washington, D. C.; Professor I. N. Edw 
University of Chicago; Supt. T. W. Gosling, Akron, Ohio; Charles H. Judd, Director, School of Séucetion. University of ¢ 


Supt. M. R. Keyworth, 


amtramck, Michigan; Professor John K. Norton, Columbia Unversity; M. M. Chambers, | 


Educational Law and Administration; and W. W. Keesecker, Specialist in School Legisl: ation, U. S. Office of Education. 
The Research Division assumes responsibility for the general interpretations in this bulletin other than those quote 


from other publications. 














HE SCHOOL DIRECTOR is an important force in shaping the course of education. As such, 

he is also a powerful instrument in guiding the destiny of the state, the nation, and 
society. A school may add immeasurably to the advancement of human welfare. 
its administrators must be wise, energetic, and courageous. They must be directed by sound 
principles. The compensation which they receive is not in money, nor even in honor, but is 
in the consciousness of having helped as fully as possible in training young men 
for the part which they are to play in American state and national life, and for that large: 
part which America is to play in the affairs of the world.—John C. Almack. 


To do this 


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Progress in School Board Organization 


Origin of the School Board 


During the colonial period, every citizen took 


direct_part in managing school affairs. Every 
tem of school business was brought before the 

wn meeting. As towns became larger, more 

| more of the business of the town meeting 
was entrusted to officials known as selectmen. 
Providing proper schools was one of the duties 
frequently delegated to these officials. ‘Thus the 
selectmen became, in reality, the first lay repre- 
sentatives of the community charged with the 
management of schools. As towns continued to 
vrow, the selectmen were unable to attend to 
school business, town business, and church busi- 
Special school committees were_then 
reated and with that practice the school board 


proper came into existence. Colonial practice 


ness. 


| formed the background for early state laws? 


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and by a process of gradual and irregular de- 
velopment, the office of school board member 
spread to all parts of the nation. 

\]Jthough school boards vary in size, in form 
of organinations 93 and in authority, they reflect 
the adherence of the American people to one 
impottant-principle, namely, that the control of 
the public school must be separated from that 
of other governmental activities. Through this 
separation the people have sought protection for 
their schools against the changing fortunes of 
partisan politics. 


Size of School Boards 


Many of the earliest school committees had 
three members. This is practice has had an im- 
portant influence, especially in rural districts. 
Approximately 80 percent of the rural district 
boards are composed of three members.” 

The history of city boards reveals a more 
varied development. As cities increased in size, 


school boards tended to become larger. In 1902, 
New York City had a school board of 46 mem- 


! See Clapp, F. L., Chase, W. J., and Merriman, Curtis. Introduction to Education. Boston: Ginn and Co., 
The Evolution of the Common School. New Lays Macmillan Co., 
mince 1789. New York: Macmillan Co., 


E.H 
1922. p. 352-5 


bers; Philadelphia had 42 board members; 
Pittsburgh, 
and more than 50 percent of the large citi 


); Providence, Rhode Island, 36; 
es of 
the country had boards larger than 9 members. 
The average school board in 58 large cities in 
1902 had 14 members.* The tendency to reduce 
the size of city school boards in recent vei oo 
been pronounced. The first part of Chart | i 
dicates this trend. Seventeen of the 58 cities 


mentioned reduced their boards to fewer than 


ust 
1927 and the average had been 
If smaller 
included, the average board had only 6 members 
in 1927. Cities show a distinct peaserence for 
boards of 3, 5, 6, or 7 members.* 


Method of Selection 


9 members by 


reduced to 8 members. cities are 


Although school board members are chosen 
in many ways, popular election and appoint- 
ment by an_administrative officer of the | 
government are the two leading _methods.° 
However, there are many differences in meth- 
ods of election and appointment. Sometimes 
board members are chosen in a separate school 
election; at other times the school election is 
merely a part of the general election. 





cixil 





Some 
board members are chosen to represent wards 
or other areas; others are elected at large. 
appointment may rest with any one 
of a number of officials or official groups. Most 


authorities favor the election of non-partisan 


Similarly, 


board: members in a special school election to 
represent the city or district at large.* Deffen- 
baugh * writes that “‘a comparison of the data 
for 1902 with data collected in 1927 shows that 
there have been few changes in the method of 


selecting school board members.” 


Length of Term 


Authorities on school administration agree 
that board members should be elected for a 


1929. p. 75. Reisner, 
Reisner, E. H. Nationalism and Education 


1930, p. 309. 


* Counts, George S. The Soc ios Composition of nn of Education. Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 33. Chicago: 


University of Chicago, 1927. p. 


* Deffenbaugh, W. S. cham inuitiines in City School Administration. U 
Government Printing Office, 


* Counts, George S. Op. cit. p. 11-14. McGaughy, J. R. The Fiscal Administration of City School Systems. New Y« 


City School Leafiet No. 29. Washington, D. C.: 


Co., 1924. Appendix A 


' The self- -perpetuating board may be cited as an illustration of one uni 


S. De partment of the Interior, Office of Education, 
1927. p. 2-3. 
rk: Macmillan 


ue method. The board members hold office for an 


indefinite term and all vacancies are filled by vote of the board itself. 


* Deffenbaugh, W. S. The School Board in City School Survey Reports. U 
City School Leaflet, No. 2, 1922. Washington, D. C.: 


Government Printing Office 


] 


S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education 
1922. 


’ Deffenbaugh, W. S. Certain Practices in School Adminstration. p. 4 


[$] 





relatively long term, so that the entire personnel 
of the board will not change every two or three 





Trends Reveal Progress 















































7 : The school board grew natural! of t 
years. The trend in school practice reflects the ped . ¢ ne : - —. — R 
4 : : conditi *r life in New England. 
influence of that belief. As shown by the middle ue a —— 7 ™ D 
. . : ° . omce 1s deeply rooted in t undations 
bars in Chart I, the average term of office in- = ply rooted in the foundation 
Cte : 5 ‘ : American democracy. For more than two c 
creased from 3.6 years in 1902 to 4.6 years in : 
927 ; Ey . ,  turies school board members have directed 1 
1927 in the cities studied by Deffenbaugh. : . 
; schools of the nation, keeping them responsi 
Number of Standing Committees to the will of each community and relatiy: 
Large boards of education began the practice free from the control of any political part 
i eee ° . rte ee ° ry. . 
of creating many standing committees. There religious sect, or social class. The school 
was frequently a committee on finance, a com- rector is responsible today, as he has been in t 
mittee on buildings and grounds, a committee past, for keeping the schools open to every 
on teachers, one on textbooks, supplies, courses dividual and for providing the best educatior 
of study, medical inspection, discipline, truancy, service obtainable for every child in the dist: 
library, athletics, rules and regulations, griev- The school board is undergoing an evolutia 
ances, auditing, kindergartens, evening schools, which foretells greater efficiency.* It is beco 
Americanization classes. In 1917, 10 percent ing small enough to allow free interchange 
. . . . . -_e— . 
of the school boards in cities over 100,000 in ideas and to give all members an opportunit 
population reported 10 or more standing com- to enter into the discussions. Longer terms 
mittees.? The average number was 6.5. The office insure to it a greater degree of stabilit 
last pair of bars in Chart I show that by 1927 And finally, the abolition of standing commu 
this average was reduced to 3.5. Likewise, in tees frees the board from routine administ 
cities 30,000 to 100,000 in population, the tive matters, thereby giving it an opportuni’ 
average number of standing committees was to deal with fundamental policies and to ey rt! 
6.2 in 1917, and only 4.2 in 1927. ate properly the results attained. 
I 
1 [bid p. 5. 
2 Ibid p. 9-10. Deffenbaugh, W. S. Standing Committees of City Boards of Education. U. S. Department of the Interior, B Toh 
of Education, City School Circular, 1927-28, No. 2. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 4 p. . 
*Cubberley, Ellwood P. Public School Administration. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1929. See Chapter 12. Deffenb me! 
W. S. “Forty Years of City School Administration.’' American School Board Journal 82: 33-4, 116; March, 1931. MM 
CHART I iti 
7] und 
CHANGES IN SCHOOL BOARD ORGANIZATION * 
adaj 
Con 
AVERAGE SIZE OF THE | ‘902 4 MEMBERS men 
SCHOOL BOARD IN inde 
58 LARGE CITIES 7 iga7 & MEMBERS Mr 
3 
AVERAGE LENGTH OF | [902 5.6 VEARS 
TERM FOR SCHOOL 
BOARD MEMBERS 1927 4G YEARS 
S whi 
4 by 
AVERAGE NUMBER OF | '2!7 6.5 Bind 
STANDING COMMIT- Cisior 
TEES: 1927 3.5 whic! 
B lation 
Sesearch Division, National £. tucation Assh F by on 
Based on data from Oeffenbaugh, W.S. Cerfain fractices «2 City School $ 
Adminstration. United States Department of the Interior, Office of Education, é LA 
City School Leaflet No. 29. Washington, O0.C.: Government Printing Office , 1927. ™ Report, 
= $ 2s 
4 


[6] 








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Working with Others 


Relation of a Board Member to the Board 
Itself 


\ school board is not merely a collection of 


dividuals. It is a unit. Each member con 
utes his ideas and, as the deliberation pro- 
S. modifies his own opinions in the light of 
Thus at the close of 
to hold 
opinion that differs materially from that 


se expressed by others. 


e deliberation, every member is likely 


d by any member when the discussion began. 
By its vote a school board gives expression to a 
yup decision. 

[he identity of a board or committee lhe 


lation of the school board member to the 


entire board somewhat like the relation of 
tributaries to a river. A river is made possible 
its tributaries, but it is not identical with 
The Ohio, the Missouri, the Arkansas, 
and various other tributaries pour their waters 
into the Mississippi. Yet the Mississippi is not 
ely the Ohio plus the Missouri plus all the 
other tributaries. It has its own channel, its own 
characteristics, its own identity. 

Let us assume by way of illustration that Mr. 
Johnson, Mr. Smith, and Mr. 
members of a school board. The board is not 
Mr. Johnson and Mr. Smith and Mr. 


lt is a unit made up of Messrs. Johnson, Smith, 


Brown are the 
Brown. 


and Brown. Each exerts an influence in pro- 
portion to the strength of his leadership and 
adapts his own ideas as he is influenced by others. 
Consequently, board action is neither the judg 
ment of Mr. Johnson nor the aggregate of the 
independent judgments of Mr. Johnson and 
Mr. Smith and Mr. Brown. 


act, representing the group as a whole. 


It is a collective 


Board members have no personal authority— 





The simple fact explained above can scarcely 
be overemphasized. It lies at the very heart of 
school board relationships. Unless the school 
board member understands the relationship 
which should exist between himself and the 
board as a whole, he is likely to become involved 
in difficulties. He is liable to make official de- 
cisions, forgetting that it is the board 
which acts in an official capacity. 
lation between member and board is stated thus 
by one school board member : 


alone 
The true re- 


Res ‘ Anthony, A. W. “The Relation between the Superintendent 
eport, 1908. Augusta: State Department of Education, 1917 
* See Chancellor, W. E. Our Schools. Boston: D. C 


I am a member of the school com: 
ton t what authority or power have I over a 
teache ny pupil, or any janitor, or any | 
belonging to: Lewiston’s public schools? None what 
eve i individual. I may combine in the cor 
mittee with other members and have sha 
influence it when I am alone, out of t meeting 


away from the others, | have no more 


1uthority than any other citizen. Mark this, and 


not forget the distinction. If you will read the st 
utes of the State, you will find many things said a 
the com nittee, many powers defined many 
and erogatives described; but you will not find 
that the law clothes the single member with any 
power, any duty, or any prerogative whatever 

In only one instance May an indivi | i Oa! 


member exercise official authority. ‘The board 
may delegate to one of its members the autho1 
ity to carry out a specific task. In such cases the 


authority comes solely from the vote of the 


board, it applies only to the specific task 
signed, and it extends only for a limited period 
of time. The following paragraphs cite practical 
situations in which the need for united 
sometimes overlooked. 

Pledging support * No school board mem 
ber wants to pledge himself not to think. Yet 
when a board member pledges himself to sup 


given proposition in board meeting, he 


porta 
takes th: it step. By his pledge he promises not to 
listen to reason, not to consider any argument 
no matter how convincing it is, not to recognize 
any new facts or evidence that may be intro 
duced. In other words, he promises to act as 
an individual and not as a member of a board 
The board member is entitled to hold personal 
opinions, and he may properly express his pres 
ent ideas outside the board meeting. An opinion 


} 


is one thing; a decision is another. The public 


has a right to know the board member’s opinion 
about any issue. It has no right to know what 
his decision is going to be. A competent board 


member makes all his decisions in the board 
meeting. No promise influences his final judg- 
ment. He is free to adopt whatever course of 
action seems best when, after deliberation, the 


1g is held 


determine wisely all matters in issue: to 


matter is put to vote. The board meetir 
reach decisions—not to register the independent 
conclusions of the several board members 

Board 


to refuse to grant interviews 


Information concerning board action 


memobders do we 


and the School Committee."’ Reprinted from the Maine School 


‘Heath and Company, 1915. p. 80 


[7] 








concerning what the board is going to do or is 
likely to do; likewise, concerning what it has 
done. Such personal commitments are often 
embarrassing to the member himself and to the 
board as a whole. They frequently cause un- 
necessary dissension. The minutes of the board 
meeting are open to the public and to newspaper 
reporters. Official acts are recorded in them. If 
a question is at all controversial, boards find it 
good policy to delegate to one individual— 
probably to the superintendent of schools or the 
secretary of the board—the responsibility for 
announcing the board’s action. Correspondence, 
conversations, and discussions pertaining to 
board meetings should be held in strictest con- 
fidence. Such safeguards are quite essential in 
preserving harmony. 


Relation of One Board Member to 
Another 


Board members will not find themselves in 
unanimous agreement on all matters. Board 
action implies discussion and deliberation; it 
implies agreement growing out of differences. 
But when differences arise, only policies or 
courses of action should ever be involved. A 
fellow board member is not to be condemned 
because of his opinion. It is the opinion, the 
policy, the course of action that is, perchance, 
wrong. A policy may be rightly criticized and 
vigorously opposed; a fellow board member 
may not be. Every controversial issue should be 
thoroughly discussed before the board acts, but 
all differences should be purely impersonal. 

€ majority action of the board on a given 
issue should become the policy of the entire 
board until such time as the question is again 
raised for consideration. Only in the most ex- 
ceptional cases, where dishonest or corrupt prac- 
tice on the part of a majority of the board 
actually threatens the welfare of the district, 
is a board member justified in resisting board 
action. The board member’s first duty is to the 
public and, to be sure, he is obligated to carry 
to the public a complaint against corrupt action. 
Otherwise, he is obligated to support the action 
of the majority of the board. Teamwork is the 
first principle of board action. A member with 
the proper conception of his relation to the 
board will criticize neither the action of the 
board as a whole nor that of a fellow member. 





1 Large cit 
ntendent and the business ma 


the superi . Te simplif 
board and the superintendent, since a si 


je executive o 





He will present his views in board meeting 
vote according to his best judgment; but if : 
majority vote is against him, he wil! lay as 
personal opinions and cooperate with the n 
jority in sustaining the policy of the board. 


The Board Member and Employees of 
the Board 


‘ Indirect control—lIn systems large enough 

employ a superintendent of schools, the r 
tionship between the school board member 
employees of the board should be indirect. ‘] 
board has no relation with any individual e 
ployee other than the superintendent * except 
matters of contract and payment of salary. 
direct contacts are between the superintend: 
and the employees who work under his di: 
tion. The board member should not reco 
mend applicants for nomination; he should : 
supervise the work of any employee unless 
quired by vote of the board to do so in a speci! 
instance; he should not hear complaints f1 
employees; nor should he openly criticize 
employee. As long as an employee deserves | 
be continued in service, he deserves the supp 
of the board in the performance of his duties 

Self-interests of board members—A board 

W‘member is not elected in order that he may s 
real estate, insurance, automobiles, or any ot! 
commodity to employees of the board, o: 
order to increase the. demand for his profes 
sional services. Neither is he elected in order 
that his children or his friends’ children n 
enjoy special privileges. It is extremely 
ethical and in most states illegal for a board 
member to abuse his office by seeking special 
privileges for his children or by soliciting b 
ness among school employees. 

T estimonials—When a board member re 
ommends an employee to other employers, the 
testimonial should be direct and honest. He 
should not write an open testimonial of the 
to-whom-it-may-concern variety. The direct 
statement to the prospective employer is more 
effective, is entirely confidential, is more likely 
to be accurate. No self-respecting director wi!! 
write a strong recommendation to get rid of an 
incompetent employee ; nor will he write a weak 
or indifferent recommendation for a capable 
employee in order to retain his services. 





systems are sometimes so organized that there are two or more coordinate administrative officers; for examp 
the discussion, this bulletin will refer only to the relations between ‘ 
r is found in the great majority of school systems. 


[8] 


Te ee 








0 ird 
ecial 


busi- 


f the 
lirect 
more 
ikels 
will 
of an 
weak 
pable 


amp 
ven the 


; 
§ 
: 











The Board Member and the Public through the proper channels. It should give 


a ae ee = = 
r yublicity to its policies, its actions, and to school 
[he relationship between the school board gre whet ep onhadr oars —— 
— rr attairs; but this also can be done best by the 
iber and the public is implied by his rela- , , ; 

or yoard rather -mbers 
, to the board as a whole. The board should CEES SRLNCE TRS Hes eers. 

—— 


eady to hear a_ representative, to receive a 


netition or resolution, te-hear-an individual citi- Ethics for School Board Members 
zen, but a board member should pot. If Willie’s 
teacher kept him in at recess when really it was Every group of persons working in a com 


lohnny who pulled Mary’s hair, the board mon enterprise should have a set of principles to 
member should refuse to give personal con- govern their relationships to one another and to 
sideration to the angry complaint of Willie’s those whom they serve. All important service 
father. Only the board may properly hear any groups have codes of ethics. Doctors, lawyers, 
complaint. nurses, dentists, teachers, and other groups have 
Other public relationships can be inferred adopted rules for their guidance. 

from the foregoing illustration. The board Many school boards have found it helpful to 
member should be informed about school mat- work out their own codes of ethics. A few of 
ters and should be willing to serve in a lay these have been published ' and can be used to 
ipacity as a representative and defender of the good advantage for study purposes, or a school 
schools. He needs only to remember that he is board might adopt one of them. Table 1 lists 
an ordinary citizen except when sitting in a a few important principles covered by existing 
board meeting. The board should be responsive codes. Using these and other principles set 
to any legitimate movement on the part of forth in this bulletin, any school board can 
the public, provided the matter is presented readily develop its own standards. 





1 See (1) Almack, John C. The School Board Member. New York: Macmillan Company, 1927. p. 235-38; (2) Mendenhall, Edgar. 

1¢ City School Board Member and His Task. Pittsburg, Kansas: College Inn Book Store, 1929. p. 71-73; (3) “Code of Ethics 

f the Board of Education."’ Colorado School Journal 43: 16; May, 1928; (4) Edmonson, J. B., and Schorling, R. Problems of the 

High School Teacher. Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Ome oe Company, 1924. Problem 67; (5) “‘Tentative Code of Ethics for 

Superintendents and Boards of Education.’ Texas Outloo’ 16; August, 1923; (6) National Education Association, Research 
Division. “Ethics in the Teaching Profession."’ Research Bulledin 9; 1-92; January, 1931. 


TABLE 1.—CERTAIN ETHICAL PRINCIPLES MENTIONED IN FOUR CODES 
OF ETHICS FOR SCHOOL BOARD MEMBERS! 





Code Number? 


It is unethical for 





1 2 3 5 
A bo: ard of education to: 
1. Perform administrative duties properly belonging to the superintendent ‘ x x x 
- Elect to any school position a candidate not recommended by the supe rintendent ‘ ‘ x x 
Employ any candidate except on merit, or dismiss an employee except for good cause : x x 
ri Consider a complaint against a teacher that is not first submitted to the superintendent x x 
5. Withhold notice of failure to nape until so late that the teacher is handicapped in finding 
another position. ale aba vahv dia ‘ bs é dba whbedes ce eco ; x 
. Keep the public i in ignorance on “school matters. . . x x 
. Offer a wage insufficient to cover living expenses for twelve months in the « community where 
the teaching i is to be done, or to offer any other unjust or humiliating contract ; x 
8. Cffer a position to a teacher who is already under contract without first securing the consent 
of his present employer.................. ; Ds cet ie ime : méne ce ’ x 
A school board member to: 
1. Seek special privileges or private gain. . aoe he eemen x x x x 
2. Assume authority not specifically delegated to him by vote of the board : x x x 
3. Urge the superintendent to nominate a particular candidate (particularly one of the board 
member's relatives).......... piadntieaweh ceneenes-s ; fahadann x x x 
4. Criticize school employees publicly . one anne eee x x 
Disclose confidential information. . “, ee x x 
6. Fail to cooperate properly........ dha xcallnsedd aan’ % evabae aire : ; ; x x 
Make misrepresentaticns in testimonials . ; x x 
8. Place the interests of one group (e. g., one city w: ard) above the interests of the entire school 
FE : x x 
9. Withhold facts about the incompetency of any employee from the superintendent x 
7 Give personal consideration to complaints.............. . alk eee x 
. Make no effort to inform himself on school matters........ ae ‘ ‘ 4 : x 
- Announce the probable future action of the board........... : ; ae x 





' The principles enumerated in this table were derived from four of the codes cited in footnote 1, p. 9. An ‘x’ follow- 
ing a given principle indicates that it was mentioned in a particular code of ethics. 
hese code numbers correspond to the reference numbers in footnote 1, p. 9. 

















[9] 











The School Board and the Law 


Special school laws regulate the work of 
school boards. In addition, many of the laws 
governing other public corporations apply to 
school districts. Each board member needs, 
therefore, to become familiar with the school 
laws of his own state and with other important 
corporation laws that apply to school districts. 
Moreover, the interpretations of the law which 
are given by the courts are scarcely less impor- 
tant than the laws themselves. Through their 
decisions in numerous school cases, the higher 
courts of the varicus states have established 
many common-law principles which are ex- 
ceedingly important to public-school officials.' 
This part of the bulletin presents a body of 
legal principles derived from court decisions. 
It explains the legal nature of a school district 
and shows the legal relation of a school board 
to other governmental agencies, state and local. 

A number of specific cases are cited by way 
of illustration. These should be interpreted 
with due caution.” Just as laws themselves vary 
from state to state, court decisions also differ. 
Consequently, although each case cited here 
represents a point of view held by many judi- 
cial bodies, the court in any given state might 
render a different decision on any one of them. 
Collectively, they give a useful description of 
the legal status of the school district. 


The School Board as a Corporation 


School districts as quasi-corporatigns*—The 
legal term quasi-corporation applies to an 
agency that is almost the same as a_corporation. 
Strictly speaking, school districts are not cor- 
porations, but they resemble corporations in so 

many respects that they are called quasi-cor- 
porations. Laws regulating public quasi-cor- 











1 See Hodgdon, Daniel R. ““What Price L itigation,’ 


* School and Society 36: 571-73; October 29, 1932. 
The author points out a significant increase in the amount of litigation involving school boards and school districts during & 
the decade 1921 to 1931 and shows that much of it was needless. If the public-school officers had been familiar with the stat 3 
and the principles of common law relating to school districts, most of the controversies would not have arisen. 
? [If the school law does not specifically cover a particular issue or if there is some doubt as to the way a law wil! be interpre 
school boards should seek competent legal advice from the state department of education or some other reliable source. 


porations apply to them. In addition, | 
sometimes read as follows: “Any city, cour 


township, or other municipality shall 
etc.” Although neither school districts 1 
quasi-corporations are mentioned, laws of t! 
type ordinarily apply to them.* The term » 
nicipality is used at the end of the series to in 
clude all public corporations and quasi-corpo 
tions not otherwise named. 
y definition, a school board is an artifi 
person created by a general or special law 
maintain a system of education in a certain t 
ritory. Its duties resemble those of the board 
directors of a corporation. The school boa 


represents the district in forming policies, i: a 
entering into contracts, in managing propert 
aia S oe conduct of all busines 
affairs. It may bring suit against persons or cor 
porations and in turn suit may be 
against it. w 
The one essential difference between a co 
poration and a quasi-corporation is that t le 
former is organized voluntarily—for profit — 
in order to secure some benefit or advantage : 
whereas the latter is brought into existence by = 
law without even the consent of those affected 
Because school districts belong in the latt: 
class, school boards are allowed less freedom in ™ 
the performance of their duties than boards 
regular corporations. At the same time, they 
relieved of certain liabilities which regular co B of 
porations must assume. | 
Importance of absolute conformity to lau 
Legal requirements tettcr schoot hoard what 
must do, what it may do, and how its acts are 
to be performed.® A school board cannot safe! 
ignore provisions of either type. It cannot su 
cessfully contest definite legal provisions, eve! 
though all the people in the district favor its A 





















broug! 


Pus 


the 


* The following decisions discuss the legal status of the school district: Hassett v. Carroll, 85 Conn. 23; Sunset Lumber ( Bani 


Smith, 272 Pac. 1068; Waddell v. Board of Directors, 190 lowa 400; Seeger v. Mueller, 133 Ill. 86; First National Bank of \Val 
7 Whisenhunt, 94 Ark. 583; Harris v. School District No. 10, 28 N. H. 58; Daniels v. Grand Rapids Board of Education, 
9. 


4See Commissioners of Trenton v. Fell, 29 Atl. 816; Winsper v. District Township, 37 Iowa 542; 
Brown, 171 Ill. 487; Brown v. Newport Board of Education, 108 Ky. 783; State v. Wilson, 65 Kan. 237; Board of Directors v 
4 Wash. 147; Lincoln v. Brock, 37 Wash. 14; State v. Grimes, 7 Wash. 270; Rathbone v. Hopper, 57 Kan. 240; 
Trustees, 141 N. C. 143: Mavon v. School District No 34, 5 Wash. 142; Eatle v. Board of Education, 97 W. Va 
District No. 132 v. Dabney, 127 Okla. 234; Curry v. District Township of Sioux City, 62 Iowa 102. ¢£ 


* The word municipality, interpreted in a narrow sense, refers only to a city; in its broader sense, it includes all governmer . 


191 M 


Spalding Lumber | 
Peter Kin» 
Smith v. Boar gt 
434; Joint S 7 





subdivisions of the state: counties, townships, parishes, school districts, drainage districts, road districts, and al! cities, tow 4 
and villages. See American and English Encyclopedia of Law 15: 953. i... 


*Edwards, I. N, “Legal Authority of Boards of Education.” 
“Can a School Executive Afford to Ignore the Law?” 


January, 1930; 431-9; February, 1930. Alexander, Carter. 
9: 29-30; March, 1932. 


Elementary School Journal 30: 291-9; December, 1929; 372-8 cS. 
Nation's Sci ' ‘ 


[10] : 





luring 
ati 


preted 





prescriptions* with respect to such mat- 
yith respect to s 
as establishing high schools, .=pening school8 


ie proper time, making contracts of a cer- 


a St ada and i 


type, contracting debts, letting school 
S >roperty, employing an attorney, and trans- 


ting pupils to and from schooll The strict- 
ness of the court is illustrated by the following 


A rural district board borrowed $1.000/ 


built a schoolhouse. Prompt action on the 

rt of the board enabled them to get the build- 
ng erected at a very conservative figure. The 
law, however, required that notice should be 
civen and an election held before any money 

ld be borrowed for the purpose of con- 
structing school buildings. The board in this in- 
stance acted while it could and called an elec- 
tion afterwards to ratify its action. In this elec- 
tion only three dissenting votes were cast, yet 
the board was enjoined from paying the debt 
because it had been contracted illegally. 

Not all of a board’s duties are specifically 
defined. Laws @numerate some of the things 
which a board must do and some of those which 
it may do. In addition, a board may do what- 
ever is “reasonably necessary” to carry out an 
uct which is definitely authorized. Although the 
court must decide what is reasonably necessary 





sin any given case, boards may use considerable 
} discretion as to the number of teachers to be 
employed, the purchase of supplies, the length 
of a contract, and general school policies.‘ 
Liability for_damages—Although a school 


adi AB pn OA lipi t 


board must conform to law carefully, it is safe- 

. “1° ee 
guarded from liability bette 
other corporation.* An established principle of 
common law is that the state cannot be made 
the defendant in a suit in its own courts with- 
out its consent. Since school districts are invol- 








7 


se of action. Numerous court decisions 
emphasized the importance of following 





See p. 12 of this bulletin for a fuller discussion of the relation of the sch 
*See Wilkinson v. Lord, 85 Neb. 136; State of Kansas ex rel. v. Freemax, 61 Kan. 99; State ex rel. v. Meador e¢ 


untary sub-divisions of the state discharging a 
governmental function, the courts hold that, in 
the absence of permissive legislation, a damage 
suit against a school district is similar to one 
against the state itself. Moreover, they have 
pointed out that a school district has no money 
except that levied for other specific purposes 
that if damages were allowed, a series of ac 
cidents might wipe out the entire amount of 
available school funds and prevent the district 
from carrying out those functions for 
was created. 

Damages are often allowed to school em 


vloyees for injuries coming under workmen’s 


compensation acts. California, Washington 
and a few other states have laws which make a 
school board liable under other stated condi 
tions. Moreover, the courts in certain states 
particularly California, New York, and Wash 
ington—have held school boards liable for dam 
ages more frequently than those in other states 
Although the board should seek legal advice in 
case any such claim is made, it is well for board 
members to know the law and the attitude of 
the court in their own state toward this 
question. 

Damages have been allowed somewhat more 
frequently in recent cases than in the earlier 
ones.® Consequently, in the future, boards may 
be required to assume greater liability than 
they have in the past. Boards have seldom been 
required to pay damages for injury to teachers 
or other employees, to pupils, or to patrons, 
even though the injury was due to the negli 
gence of an employee of the board or to the 
negligence of the board itself. A board has 
frequently been held liable, however, when the 
injury resulted from ‘some act in which the 
board exceeded its authority, or when the in 


l board to the state 


284S.W 
= 890; Hutchinson et al. v. Stinner et al., 49 N. Y. Sup. 360; Whitney v. Stow, 11 Mass. 368; Hotch’iss v. Pluntett, 22 Aul. 535; Fol 
som v. School Directors, 91 Ill. 404; State v. School District, 42 Neb. 499; State v. Cole, 51 N. J. 277; Smith v. Proctor, 130 N. Y¥ 
319; State v. Board of Education, 35 Ohio 368; Schaut v. Joint School District No. 6, 191 Wis. 104; First National Ban f Waldron 
v. Whisenhunt, 94 Ark 583: Board of Education v. Scott, 189 Ky. 225; School District No. 14 ¥. School District N 9,12N 241 
School District No. 98 v. Pomponi, 79 Colo. 658; Hotch’iss v. Plunkett, 60 Conn. 230; Denman v. Webster, 139 Calif. 452; State 
Vilquet, 180 Wis. 109. 
+ Arkansas National Ban’ v. School District No. 99, 152 Ark. 507. See also Rural Special School District No. 50 v. First National 
Bank of Dardanelle, 173 Ark. 604 
‘ Starkweather v. Fox, 236 Mich. 57; A. H. Andre Special School District, 95 Ark. 26 a erger Vv 


School District No. 1, 122 Ore. 124; Security National Bank, et 





210 N. W. 947; State ex rel. v. Le mm, 193 N. W 


499; Nohl v. Board of Education, 197 Pac. 373; State ex rel. v. Burton, 45 Wis. 150 


‘Important court decisions dealing with the liability of school boards , 
Aimnare v. City of Chicago, 171 Ill. 332; Lindstrom v. City of Chicago, 331 Ill. 144; Bang v f rict d 
177 Minn. 454; Spencer v. School District No. 1, 121 Ore. 511; Krutili v. Board of Education, 99 W. Va. 466; Herman v. Board 
“ducation, 234 N. Y. 196; Motovich v. Independent School District, 177 Minn. 466; Antin v. Union High School Dist 


} 


Weddle v mmissioners, 94 Md. 342 


wdent School Dist 





rict iN 4 


Bs 280 Pac. 664; Whitehead v. Detroit Board of Education, 139 Mich. 490; Daniels v. Grand Rapids Board of Education, 191 Mich 
539; Donovan v. McAlpin, 85 N. Y. 185: Lane v. District Township, 58 lowa 462; Farris v. Board of Education, 122 Mich. 315 


Byrnes v. City of Cohoes, 67 N. Y. 204; Noonan v. City of Albany, 79 N. Y. 470; Inman v Tripp, 11 R. 1. 520; Ross v. City of Clin- 
j N 


son, 46 Iowa 606; Ashley v. City of Port Huron, 35 Mich. 296; Rennoyer v. City of Saginaw, 6 Mich. 534. See also Edwards, | 
Tort Liability of School Districts.” Elementary School Journal 30: 34-50; September, 1929. Woellner, Robert ( Liability 
Sct ol Boards in Cases of Accidents."" American School Board Journal 74: 49-50, 140, 142; April, 1927 
*See Weltzin, Frederick. ‘‘The New Tendency in the Tort Liability of School Districts A series beginning M 1, 1932 


American School Board Journal 84: 52 ff 


3 [11] 


anaes 








jury or loss resulted from an act of trespass 
or the maintenance of a nuisance. 

Exemption from other corporation laws-—— 
Public-school property is exempt from taxation, 
but it may or may not be exempt from assess- 
ments for local improvements. Practice with 
respect to the latter varies from state to state.* 
Boards are granted exemptions and privileges 
of many kinds. For example, in one case? a 
third party was not allowed to collect debts 
from school employees by instituting garnish- 
ment proceedings against the school district. 
In another,’ the school district was not held 
subject to the statute of limitations as a private 
corporation would have been. The decision 
stated that a school district might bring its 
suits before the court at any time. Thus, the 
exemptions of a school board compensate in 
some measure for its restricted powers. As 
long as the board is careful to conform to the 
law, the courts will protect it against inter- 
ference and imposition. 

















The School Board and the State 
The state's responsibility for education— 


Education is a state function. The supreme 
courts of all the states have stated that prin- 
ciple again and again. The school district is 








having then 
chosen in that way. It might require them ¢ 
be chosen by the governor, by a justice of th: 
supreme court, or by the sheriff in an adjoin 
ing county. Occasionally, people within a dis 
trict and school board members have the ide 


schools can be maintained by 


that “these are our schools; we will run then 
as we please. It is no one’s business what we d 
with our schools.” If schools did belong to th 
district—if the management of schools we: 
a function of local self-government—such a: 
attitude would be correct. Neither 
The schools do not belong to the district but 
to the state; school management is not loca 
self-government, but the discharge of a dut 
assigned by the state. The board member 

helping to manage a certain portion of th 
educational program of the state. Therefore 
state laws, state regulations, and the exercis: 
of state control are not to be regarded as of 
ficious interference. The board member’s first 
obligation is to the state; if he is also. respon 


Is true 











sible to the people in the district, it is because 


the state has delegated to the people a share 








in its responsibility for education, 

State control—Since education is a stat 
function, the authority of the state legislature 
is supreme within the rather _broad limits im 








a state agency. It is created by the state; its 


officers recei te; 


it is subject to change or_dissolution at any 
time by the state legislature. No other principle 


of law is more thoroughly established, yet few 
are more frequently misunderstood.‘ Ordi- 
narily, board members are chosen locally. 
They are concerned only with schools in the 
district. It is therefore natural for them to 
think of themselves as local officials looking 
after local affairs. In reality they are not local 
officials. If board members are chosen locally, 
it is because the state thinks that better public 








1 Fuller, 
Journal 32: 531-41; March, 1932. See also, 
2 Skelly v. Westminster School District, 103 Calif. 
* Richardson v. Liberty Inde 
* Morehart, G. C. The Leg 


lications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927. 96 2 Sea. H. 
Pp 
lecisions dealing with this question is so great that . complete citation cannot be given. Among thie 
e following: Board of Education v. Davidson, 190 Calif 
; Associated Schools, etc., v. School District, etc 
tate of Kansas ex rel. v. Freeman et al., 61 
Conn. 563; Scoron v. Csarnecki, 264 Ill. 305; Herold v. Parish Board of Directors, 68 So. 116; State ex rel. v. Haworth, etc., 
Robeson County, 90 N. W. 441; Hutchinson et al. v. Skinner et al., 49 N. 
« v. Board of Trustees, etc., 173 Ky. 708; State ex rel. v. Meador, 284 S. W. 890; City of Loui 
Education, etc., 154 7 316; City of Lafayette, etc., v. Jenners, 10 Ind. 70; School District Ne. 17, etc., v. Zediker 
4 N. H. 38; and Minsinger v. Rau, 236 Pa. 327. 
. 10, the section headed Jm mporianc of Absolute Conformity to Law. 


Institution. a Tll.: Public School Publishing Co., 
* The number o: 

well-known decisions are 

General v. Board of Education, 99 Mich. 404 

Detroit Board of Education, 154 Mich. Sea, 


462; McCormack v. Commissioners oj 
v. Shipman, 5 Ill. 27; Williams et. 
ville et al., v. Board 
et al., 47 Pac. 482; 
* See 
1 See Henderson v. School District 


Paulding v. Andover, 5 


E. Edgar. ‘The Law Governing Special Assessment of School Property for Local Improvements.” 
ity of cPicee To Use of Schools v. City of Chicago, 207 Lil. 37. 





posed by the state constitution. This fact ex 
plains why a school board should look to legal 


requirements rather than to the wishes « of f the 





people in the district for guidance on any is 


sue. The legislature—not the people in th: 





district—gives the board its authority, The |e- 





gal relationships of a school board are indi 
cated in Chart II. Note that the control exe: 


cised by the people in the district comes from 


the legislature. It may create school districts 
fix their boundaries, divide them, 


them, and prescribe in detail how their affairs 


shall be conducted.’ 


652. 
lent School District, 22 S. W. (2nd) 475. 
Status of City School Boards. Contributions to Education, No. 270. New York: Bureau of Pu! 
H. Legal Opinion on the Public School as a State 


. 162; Hassett v. Carroll, 81 Atl. 1013: Altorne 

142 N. W. 325; Attorney General v 
—. 90; State ex rel. v. Huntington, 8 
122 In 


44, 242 Pac. 979; School District No. 28 v. Larson, 80 Mont. 363; State ex rel. Walsh v 


Hine, 59 Conn. 50; City of Chicago v. People, 80 Ill. 384; Morse v. Ashley et al., 193 Mass. 293; Newberg v. Donnelly, 209 N. W. 572 
[12] 


combine 


Elementary Schoo! 


» # Sup. 360; Bush 


Se 


decisic 
pid 
lowing 








The School Board and the Local Govern- A school district is a separate and distinct cor 
ment _A poration from the municipality or township in 
; which it may be located, even though the territoria 
ndependent existence of the school board— extent of the two is the same.’ 
Conflicts occasionally arise between officials of 
the city government (or those of some other The illustrations which follow provide con 





vernmental agency) and the board of edu-_ vincing evidence that a school corporation is a 


cation. Certain responsibilities for education governmental agency separate and distinct from 
ire frequently assigned by law to the former all others. 

s well as to the latter. Because of that fact, Independent boundaries—A school district's 
jucation is often wrongly conceived as one boundaries often coincide with those of some 
the fields of local government similar in other public corporation, a city, township, or 
character to public parks, police and fire pro- county. Nevertheless, each boundary is inde 
tection, public health, and so on. If that were pendent of the other. For example, when county 
true, the school board would be one of the 
units or divisions of the local government. In- 
deed the state (granting to it the supreme re- 
sponsibility for education) might have made 
the school district an integral part, a mere unit 
or subdivision of the local government. How- 
ever, this is seldom the case. The school dis- 
trict is separate and distinct from any and all 
other agencies of government. Scores of court those of the local government only as a matte: 
decisions include statements similar to the fol- of convenience—not because the former is in 


{ 


es 


or township lines are changed or when a city 
incorporates new territory, the school district 
does not automatically expand to take in that 
territory unless there is a law to that effect.” 
Conversely, school districts are frequently ex 
tended beyond city, township, or county lines. 


Boundaries of the school district merge with 





lowing: any sense a part of the latter. 

| School District v. St. Joseph School District, 184 Mo. 140. See also Teeple v. State, 171 Ind. 268; Heller v. Siremel, 52 M 
309; People v. Board of Education, 39 Mich. 635; State v. Gordon, 109 Wash. 37; MacQueen v. Port Huron, 194 Mich. 328; Titu 
ville Iron Co. v. New York, 207 N. Y. 203; Wichita v. Board of Education, 92 Kan. 967; People ex rel. v. Board of Education, ¢ 
39 Mich. 635; Agar v. Pagin et al., 79 N. E. 379; Los Angeles School District v. Longdon, 148 Calif. 380; North Troy Graded Sci 
District v. Town of Troy, 80 Vt. 16; People v. Munising Township, 213 Mich. 629; Cline v. Martin et al., 94 Ohio 420; Slate v 


McGraw, 74 Mont. 152; Jarvis v. Hammons, 32 Ariz. 124; Hathaway v. Sackett, 32 Mich. 97 
State v. Henderson, 145 Mo. 329; School District No. 7 v. School District of St. Joseph, 184 Mo. 140 


° 

































































CHART II 
SOURCE OF THE SCHOOL BOARDS AUTHORITY 
ALL THE PEOPLE IN THE STATE | 
— STATE LEGISLATURE — 
PEOPLE IN DISTRICT 
| 
— THE SCHOOL BOARD }- 
Rescarch. Oturstor, Aatioral Educattonre Assi 

















[13] 








Separation with respect to financial mat- 
ter '\—T wo of the powers commonly granted to 
school boards are (I) the power to levy taxes 
ahd (2) the authority to contract debts. The 
laws of certain states fix definite limits to these 
powers for school boards and other limits for 
the agencies of local government (city, town- 
ship, county, etc.), thereby drawing a clear dis- 
tinction between them. Other states have a 
single legal limit, the law enumerating all the 
agencies to which it applies. In other states, 
where the maximum tax levy and debt limit is 
fixed only by a general law covering “any pub- 
lic corporation,” the courts have frequently held 
that neither the tax levy nor indebtedness of the 
school district was part of the levy or indebted- 
ness of the local government—that each agency 
could levy the entire amount of taxes author- 
ized or contract any debt not in excess of the 
prescribed maximum.? 

The fiscally dependent school board might, 
at first thought, seem to be an exception to the 
general principle set forth above, namely, that 
a school district is a separate corporation. But 
even in cities where the school budget is ap- 
proved by the city council, and where school 
revenues are administered by officials of the 
local government, in legal theory the school dis- 
trict is still separate and distinct, preserving its 
own identity. A number of court decisions have 
held that the city council (or other governing 
body) cannot alter the school board’s budget in 
any way unless it is specifically authorized by 
law to do so, and that the council must approve 
the budget.* In school districts where the local 
government is authorized to exercise any im- 
portant control over school affairs, it is particu- 
larly important for school board members to 
acquaint themselves thoroughly with the laws 
governing such cooperative relationships. More 
than other board members, they need especially 
to recognize the separate character of a school 
district. 

Independent duties—The_local government 
cannot take over the school board’s duties. It 
can neither interfere with the work of the 
school board nor aid it, except as the law specifi- 


























cally gives it the right to do so. The courts | 
been very strict in limiting the activities of |, 
governments solely to those specified by la 
One of the outstanding cases involving 

issue arose in Louisiana in 1896.5 The pe: 
wanted a high school, but the school board co 
not at the time establish one. The town gow 
ment was in a position to finance the enterp 
and set out to establish the high school. A « 
zen brought suit and an injunction was grant 


The court held: 


A high school is not essential te municipal ¢g 
ernment. A system of education is not a part of 
nicipal regulation, and the power of the corporat 
to establish a public school cannot be inferred { 
any power necessary for municipal existence. 


In at , raceac 8 ~ ave { 


bidden the city government even to supply { 
water to the schools | board ha 
authority l ax ir support. \ 

In 1921, a law was passed in Vermont 
thorizing town managers. Soon, one of the off 
cials elected under this law notified the boa 
of education that henceforth all requisitions { 
purchases for the school district would have t 
be submitted to him for his approval, that 
would take charge of the care, maintenanc: 
and repair of school buildings, and that 
would do the accounting of the district. His 
authority was contested in court action, ai 
from principles already set forth, the results 
can be predicted easily. The court stated that as 
a matter of policy a high degree of cooperatior 
between the city and the school district was de 
sirable and praiseworthy. It then proceeded t 
point out in no uncertain terms the line of di: 
marcation between the two and to inform t! 
town manager that he had no control-over t 
school district. The court said in part: 








The town school district is no more a department 
of the town than is the town a department of the 
town school district. Neither is, in any sense, a d 
partment of the other.’ 

At first thought, it may seem strange that 
city council is not allowed to pay even a wate: 


bill for the school board. However, complet: 


1 Fowlkes, John Guy. “What Is the Fiscal Status of a Board of Education.” Nation's Schools 5: 82-4; January, 1930. Frasier 
G. W. The Control of City School Finances. Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Co., 1922. 132 p. McGaughy, J. R. The Fiscal Admini 
tion of City School Systems. The Educational Finance Inquiry Commission. Vol. 5. New York: Macmillan Co., 1924. 95 p. 

: ucation v. Bitting, 9 N. Mex. 588; Lyon v. Stroce, 274 Pa. 541. : 1 

§ State v. Mayor, etc., 189 Wis. 84; City of Louisville v. Commonwealth, 134 Ky. 488; Esberg v. Badaracco, 210 Calif. 110; Boar 


of Education of Bowling Green v. Townsend, 140 Ky. 248. 


4 Edwards, I. N. “Legal Relation between School Districts and Municipalities.” Elementary School Journal 30: 734-45; Jun 


1930. 
5 Nelson v. Mayor, etc. of the Town of Homer, 19 So. 271. 


* Board of Education v. Alton Water Co., 314 Ill. 466; Water Supply Co. of Albuquerque v. City of Albuquerque, 9 N. Mex. 4! 


? Farmer v. Haley et al., 100 Vt. 75. 


[14] 


Sette den GVRP EP 


Bim 


Lildal 


men 
spea 
Will 


into 








De MBAR Lae 


ition between them is probably fortunate. 
rne various agencies of local ypovernments 

allowed to spend money tor educational 
poses, they would be in a position to dictate 
0] policies. The city council could say to the 
ol board, “We will pay $25,000 toward 
; enterprise, if you will agree to 
offer.” 
ugh in some_instances 


a proposition 


ch we have to Consequently, al 


voluntary 
»f the local goverment might Dx 
ers helpful to the school board, in others, it 


assistance 


on the part « 








woul l be detriment: al. — ao 


Joint Action by Two or More Boards 


School boards often find it advantageous to 
1intain and control some educational enter 
prise jointly. In such instances legal require 


ments should be carefully followed. General], 


speaking, one school board may not ; participate 





with another in a joint business session or enter 








into any contract or agreement which will tend 
To illustrate, the 
one school district to 


En ck 
to impair its separ; tity. 





court would not allow 
spend its money to complete, for their joint use, 
, partly finished building belonging to another.’ 
In another instance, one district was restrained 
from building on a site belonging to another, 
even though the latter had 
third 


abandoned it.* A 
that a_ high-school 
board and a grade-school board in the 


decision points out 


same 
! Olmstead v. Carter, 34 Idaho 276 
? Melin v. Communiiy Consolidated School District No. 76, 


* Cloverdale Union H. S. District vy. Peters, 264 Pac. 273. 
‘Information and legal advice may be obtained fron 


the State Superint 


town employ the sam 
scl ols t! t one Oa d 

th oO r the vuthority to select the ndidate 
Neither can the two boards id a 
mayjorit ote be taken ti elect t nd late 
He must be elected by each board actir is 
an independent body.* In other words, scho 
bi ards may cooperate, but each must prese ve 
its identity and ret ain control ove! those matters” 
entrusted to it until | it is abolished or merged 
with the other through | the consolidation of the 


two dist1 ICTS, 


Summary 


‘he foregoing review of selected oOurt ade¢ 
cisions has explained briefly the legal nature 


of the 


f 
> 


school board and of the di 
serves. ‘Lhe school board member 


rect a public quasi-corporation, an agency with 





limited authority but one that is separate and 


] 


distinct from all others and well 


from 


outside interference: The obligation of 
the school board to the state is immediate. Its 


relationships to other aven¢ ies of low il govern 
ment should be confined to those clearly speci 


Board 


themselves about school law and to 


fied by law. members need especially 


to inform 
recognize the importance of competent legal 


advice * when there is some uncertainty as to 


the proper course of action. 


312 Ill. 376 





on loca! sc urces of taxation; ] 


expressed in the state constitution and the 


being done.—Ellwood P. Cubberley. 





AN EXAMINATION OF the School Law of an American State wi 

state character of the school system which has been provided. 
ment and control of the schools of any district or town or city may be placed by law in the 
hands of locally elected officials ; although much liberty of action may be granted locally by 
the state sehool code; and although the large burden for the support of the schools may fall 
the schools nevertheless exist 
state school law, 
ties act as agents for the State and can do only those things which the school law px 


American State will reveal still further the 
Although the manag 


to carry out a state purpose, as 
and the local governing a ithori 


rmits of 

















The School Board in Action 


The School Board Meeting 


A school board must transact all its business 
in a board meeting. No matter how urgent or 
how trivial a matter may be, the board can- 
not dispose of the case without meeting as a 
body and taking regular action; that is, a 
board cannot legally act by each member merely 
giving his assent, one at his store, another at 
his office, one at his farm, another at his home.’ 
When the board is not in session there is no 
board. The proper conduct of the board meet- 
ing is therefore a matter of first importance. 


W hat is a board meeting?—A board meet- 
ing is essentially a deliberative assembly. It is 
the place where individual viewpoints are 
changed to group decisions. Each major issue 
coming before it involves three steps in proce- 

ure. The board must (1) hear and consider 
facts and_rec ations; (2) adopt a plan, 
policy, or course of action; and (3) authorize 
the proper person or persons to carry out_its 
decision. The school board acts in a capacity 
somewhat similar to that of a jury. The case 
is brought before a jury and argued pro and 
con by those who have carefully collected the 
facts. Not only do the jurors hear the facts 
thus presented, but they are told what the law 
provides by the judge, a man who is profes- 
sionally trained in law. The jury then reaches 
its decision and reports it back to the court. 
It does not pass sentence, or collect the fine, 
or put the culprit in jail. Similarly, the school 
board considers facts; receives the counsel of a 
man professionally trained in education, the 
superintendent ; reaches a decision ; and, finally, 
authorizes the superintendent to carry out its 
wishes or to see that they are carried out. Un- 
like the jury, the school board, because it is 
a continuing body, goes one step further and 
at some later time decides whether or not its 
policies have been wise and its decrees properly 
executed. 





Board leadership—lIt is the duty of the chair- 
man of the board to preside over its meetings, 


= 





to keep the discussion focused on the matter 
hand, to get an expression from each mem! 
of the board, to see that every question 
ceives proper attention, to keep the meetin 
from dragging. He should know somethi: 
about parliamentary procedure but more abo 
working with other people. A successful cha 
man leads but does not dominate the gro 
He is tactful but not irresolute. He knows 
that his position as chairman of the board 
not identical with that of the superintend: 
of schools—that it is his duty to preside o\ 
board meetings and not to administer or sup¢ 
vise the schools.2, Most writers agree that it 
is a mistake to rotate the office among the dit 
ferent members of the board merely for tli 
sake of passing around the honor. Good cha 
men are rare; and since one board membe: 
often makes a better chairman than any 
the others, it is well to keep that person 
service.® 


The secretary of the board may, or may not 
be a board member. If the board does not 
select one of its own members for this offic 
the duties are performed by the superintend 
ent’s clerk, the superintendent himself, or by 
whatever person the board selects. It is the 
duty of the secretary to keep in permanent 
form “complete, truthful, and legal’ minutes 
of board a ectinns Tir addition, he is fre 
quently required to assemble other facts and to 
distribute them to board members, to notif) 
each member of special board meetings, to take 
care of the correspondence of the board, t 
carefully preserve the records of the board 
and to make the minutes of board meetings 
available to the press or to the public upon 
request. 


The superintendent is the technical advise: 


of the board. Aside from presenting facts and 
RE 


recommendations, he does not take part in its 
procedures. He is not a member of the board ; 
he has _no_vote. Nevertheless, as educational 
counselor, he should attend every board meet 
ing unless it is one in which his own empl: 


1 An excellent court decision bearing on this point is that given in the case, Attorney General v. Remick, 73 N. H. 25. 
* Strayer, George D., director. Report of the Survey of the Schools of Chicago, Illinois. New York: Bureau of Publications, Tea: 


ers College, Columbia University, 1932. p 34-36. 


* Coatney, E. C. “The School Board and Its Meetings.’ American School Board Journal 79: 39-41; September, 1929. 


4 Secretaries of school boards should know how to keep records that are legally correct. See Keyworth, M. R. Legal Asp« 
for the Records of Proceedings of Boards of Education. Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1931. Also, Grill, George W. Minu 
of a Board of Education. Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1932. 


[16] 


syste! 
to mi 
true, 


place 
tl 


S other 





2 


4 





is being discussed. 


Oo! salary 


His profes 
raining and k's experience in the field 
jucation make it possible for him to pro- 
educational 


His 


advisory, 


the board with constructive 
ship which no one else can supply 
though 


ymmendations, merely 


ild have an important influence over the 
.rd’s deliberations. 

When the board should meet—The number 
meetings which a board should hold de 
is on the amount of business to be trans- 
that 
how smail the district 
and that 


|. no matter how large the district, should 


it is generally agreed 


no matter 


i. However, 
board, 
iid meet once_each month; any 
le to transact its ordinary business in not 
than two regular meetings each month. 
ial meetings may be necessary when spe 
problems arise. 
| he 
oard meetings is an important legal safe 
rd. If there is a regular schedule, no fur 
notice of regular meetings is required, 
for it is assumed that board members know the 
schedule. If there is no schedule and any board 
ember fails to receive notice of a proposed 
eeting, any business transacted at that meet- 
clerk to notify 
each board member of every proposed meetin 


is illegal.2 Requiring the 


not only gives him an unnecessary task but also 
gal risk. 

lhe day of the week and the hour should 
be arranged to suit the convenience of the 


involves an unnecessary le 


Almack * recommends that the meeting 
held toward the first rather than toward 


group. 


the end of the week. Noon meetings are fa- 
vored by certain boards; afternoon or evening 
meetings are preferred by others. 
Where the—board should 

should be a regular place for the meeting as 
well as a regular time. In most large school 
systems, the board has a special room in which 
to meet. In smaller systems, that is not always 

In such cases, the board must select a 
place best adapted to its purposes. The office 
of the superintendent is sometimes used; in 
instances a classroom is selected. 


meet — There 


other A spe- 


' Hart, F. W. and Peterson, L. H. “‘The Business of Bx 
2 See the following court decisions: (1) Beaver Creek v. 
Wis ; (3) Harding v. Vandwater, 40 Calif. 77; (4) State v 


‘0 D. cat. 
* Ibid., p. i Also Kirk, H. H.* 


[1 





adoption of a regular schedule for 


Hastings, 
Smith, 
‘Almack, J. C. The School Board Member. New York: Mac millan Cc 
“When Are eal Chamber School Board Sessions Permissible?’ 


‘Short Versus Lengthy Board Meetings. 


equipped with a table around 


the directors May 


gather and with facilities fo 
taking care of records, maps, charts, and other 
materials should be aaaiiel if possible. [1 
any event, the board should find a more appro 


priate meeting place than the post office, barbe 


shop, or general store. 

' 1 ] 
Regular board meetings should be 
accommodate not only 


There shou 


ttees, 


room large enough to 


the board but also its guests. 


space for delegations, comm: press repre 


. 1 
ives, and any interested citizens who wish 
Ordinarily, 


who wants to attemnd+* 


sentat 


to attend meetings should be open 

ft is good 

avoid even the appeat 
If the 


however, there will 


to anyone 


the board to 


policy To! 


ance of secrecy or intrigue. board carrie 


on its work as it should, 


, "ae . . 
be few visitors. W e can readily igree with 
Almack that 

the relations among board members should n« 

to such a point as to attract a mob of curiosity seekers 
looking for a free-for-all fight. If they do ich thi 
point, then it is time for a considerable n er of 


the board to hand in their resignati 


Consequently, although a few guests will often 


be posse the — place need not be large 
he meet 


1 ry a 


ing Should be called to or = Fromptls it the 


specified time and not allowed to drag. Again 


Almack offers wholesome advice: 


The board that drags out its meetings three 
four hours is not distinguished for accomplishing 
more work, nor for maintaining better schools. An 


hour and a half should be the maximum except on 


unusual occasions... . If a few congenial directors 


want to stay and rehearse the day’s news, swap a 


few jokes, and smoke a few cigars, very well, but 
business should always take precedence over social 
affairs. Let those who wish to visit do so after the 
board has adjourned.® 


A good board meeting is one that proceeds 
and with dispatch. A defi 
of business helps to produce a meet 
that 


quietly, smoothly, 


nite order 


ing of type. The arrangement of items 


differs from place to place, but the order of 


business given in Figure I is typical. The figure 


also indicates the amount of time which, under 
ordinarv circumstances, will be required for 
each part of the business calendar. 
yards of Education.”’ American School Board Journa 74: 38: April, 19 
52 Mich. 528; (2) Campbell School District No. 4 v er, 98 
22 Mi inn. 218 
a 1927. p. 81 
American School Board Journal 78: 64-5; April, 1929 
American School Board Journal 85: 23-24 ember! 








FIGURE I—TYPICAL ORDER OF BUSI- 





NESS 
Item Time in 
minutes’ 
Call to order and roll call..... 2to 3 
Reading and approval of minutes) 5 to 10 
Superintendent’s report.......... 15 to 30 
Report of special committees....| 10 to 15 
Communications and petitions... | 10 to 20 
Unfinished business............. 15 to 20 
IN cca cn, wordin'e bi be 'S 32 to 50 
PI bs occ vedas sets nan im 2 
I .wdlsaeeeieewee | 90 to 150 
1 With but two exceptions, the time allotments given here 
are taken from: Almack, J.C. The School Board Member. 
New York: Macmillan, 1927, p.92. Almack does not 
include “report of special committees’’ in his suggested 
order of business and his allotment for the superin- 
tendent's report is slightly less than that given above. 











Many boards find it a good plan to have the 
secretary, before a board meeting, supply each 
member with a copy of the minutes of the pre- 
ceding meeting and with a statement of the 
business that is to come before the board at the 
proposed meeting. If that is done, the order of 
business can be used to better advantage in the 
board meeting, each member being fully aware 
of what has been done and what remains to be 
done throughout the session. 

Although the order of business is important, 
it is by no means solely responsible for the 
efficiency of the board meeting. To work most 
effectively, a board must learn to organize its 
business, to delegate authority, to fix responsi- 
bility, to handle routine as routine, to devote its 
major attention to major problems. Ayres has 
demonstrated clearly the way in which a school 
board may lose itself in a maze of detail. He 
made a study of the work of a certain city 
school board for a period of time and found 
that only about one-twentieth of it had to do 
with educational policy—the major function of 
the board. Instead, this board was taking up 
hundreds of items of business which ought 
never to have come before it. Its work was not 
organized or properly balanced. In transacting 
2,000 items of business only 8 measures were 
defeated. On more than 2,000 roll calls there 
were only 51 disagreements about a total of 37 








““yes-minde 


topics. Ayres described it as a 
board. A certain amount of routine was grou: 
through the mill at each board meeting. ‘] 
board was working smoothly but without dire 
tion. The members were conscientious but t} 
were doing work which their superintend: 
should have been authorized to do, In su 
marizing this situation Ayres made an obser) 
tion which every board member should keep 
mind. He said, “A board that is a busy b 
ceases to be a deliberative body.” 

Discussion should be encouraged on all n 
ters of importance.” Exchange of ideas 
mutual agreement growing out of differe 
points of view is the very essence of board 
tion. Yet there should be a time limit on « 
bate in order to protect the board against t 
tirades of the member 
who takes advantage of every occasion to deliver 
oration on the rights of man, the greatness of h 
self, and the sacredness of liberty. This type ought 
to be restrained—one is tempted to say, by viole: 
if necessary.® 

The board should observe simple rules of 
parliamentary procedure, but the rules should 
be the servant of the board, not its master. 

Standing committees find little favor either: 
in present theory or practicé.* When there 
were no professionally trained school adminis 
trators, standing committees probably served 
useful purpose. When professionally trained 
administrators are employed, there is no work 
which standing committees can properly do 
Consequently, as experience has shown, stand 
ing committees tend to usurp authority belong 
ing to the superintendent and to dictate to the 
board as a whole. The greater part of 
board’s affairs should be handled by the 
entire board acting as a “committee of the 
whole.” All matters may well be handled in 
this way by school boards in small school sys 
tems, and, even in large cities, standing com- 
mittees are unnecessary. A recent authoritative 
statement on this question appears in the report 
of the survey of Chicago schools. After a care- 
ful study of the work of the Chicago schoo! 
board the survey staff recommended that the 
board of education abolish standing commit 


1 Ayres, L. P. School Organization and Administration. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1916. Chapter 2. 


1932 
* Almack, op. cit., p. 93. 


? Doyle, Mrs. H. G. “What Consiitutes a Good School-Board Meeting?” American School Board Journal, 85: 23-24; Augu 


4“Abolition of Standing Committees." American School Board Journal 78: 66; February, 1929. Carney, E. B. ‘Proper Orga 


zation of School Boards: Should Standing Committees Be Used?"’ American School Boar 


p. 6. 


[18] 


d Journal 78: 38; March, 1929. Seea 


<a. een ave 


| 


‘ 
- 
, 


ZO r 








F 
: 
ii 
i 
; 





ind that it dev te itself to the considet ition 5. Powers al duties of the sur t ! t I 


atters of major importance as acommittee “’°°" 1 perhaps, of other a ; 
cers 
e whole.’ 6. Powers and duties of other em 
rom time to time special problems are likely 7. Qualifications for emplovees 
ise: problems which the board will prefer cme de weyers — 
egate to a committee rather than deal with = <4 nial : ¢ be ath ~~ 
hodv. A_ special temporary committee in 11. Issuance of transfers to resident 
vs be appointed. Such special committees 12. Transportation of pupils 
ld be fact-finding and not policy-forming AS. SASEOS OS SRN ae Severe 
: — : 14. Reports that will be re ired 
spe ial committee can sometimes render 15 ener stment policies. 
t service by gathering facts about a 16. Public relations. 
lem. When the facts have been reported Although the board adopts its rul nd 
he board, however, the committee’s work regulations, it usually does not. and 
lone. The_board—not_ the committee should not, formulate many of them. Rules 
ld decide what the facts mean and what affecting employees “should grow out of the 
board should do. ) experien e of the men and women performin 
Rules and regulations—Many school board the service,’ * subject to the approval of the 


| that written rules and regulations tend to board. Many other rules can be forn 
ent misunderstandings and conflicts.? They wisely, only by an educational expert. It is not 
e definite expression to board policy so that the function of the board to make rules, but 
ryone may know what is expected. Since, to get rules made which it is willing to approve 
viously, it is better policy to prevent an evil It is the superintendent’s function to formulate 
rules and regulations pertaining to the school 


1 


than to correct it, a school board can advan- 


tageously exercise general oversight over a con 


siderable number of matters through its by- a 
: . that meet_with its approval. 
iws. Rules and regulations may be adopted <r 
covering those matters on which the board has_ ,. ,,—<3 EW ar 
lefini 1 following characteristics: 4 (1) they are guid 
i definite policy. ; — 7 
a P “<— . ing principles rather than mere collections ot 
Board regulations frequently deal with the 
ollowing topics : clearly that they are not likely to be misin 


terpreted; (3) they are consistent with school 


1. Organization of the board itself. I a 
, : aw : ) thev are caret , red a 

© Gatiedl itches aw ; (4) they are carefully organized and in 
3. Schedule for regular board meetings. dexed, and printed in usable form; and (5 
4. Duties of officers and members of the board. they are subject to revision. 

1 Strayer, George D., director. Report of the Survey of the Schools of C) Illia Volume I. New ¥ 
ns, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932. 

* Froseth, H. I. and Troxel, O. L. ‘“‘Rules and Regulations of School Boards of Small Cities."" American Sci urna 

85: 25-26; December, 1932. Melby, Ernest O. “‘Rules, Regulations, and Written Instructions as Administrative ¢ i mer 

an School Board Journal 74: 43-5; May, 1927. National Education Associat 


Division. Rules and Regulations Governing Schools in Cities over 30,000 in Population. Educational Research Servic 
* & . . . 
Number 4, March, 1930. Washington, D. C.: the Association 


* Morrison, J. C. ‘“‘The Value of Carefully Defined Rules and Regulat Covering the Work of the School 
Superintendent.”” American School Board Journal 72: 48-50; February, 1926 
* Melby, Ernest O. “‘A Check List for the Preparation of Rules, Regulations, and Written Instructions i mericay 
ard Journal 74: 41-2, 152; April, 1927. National Education Association, Department of Superintendence and Resear D 


and Regulations Governing Schools in Cities over 30,000 in Population. Educational Research Service Circular. Nu 4 


1930. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1930. 


r I NHE MOST COMMON means by which mismanagement and interference with the tech 
nical and professional functions of the experts of the school department comes, is 











through the attempt of school boards to manage the schools by means of standing com 
mittees. The work attempted by such committees involves professional knowledge and 
judgment which no city board of education, either as a body or through a committee, ought 
ever to try to assume.—E. P. CUBBERLEY. 








system and to reconimend—them-to the board: 
it is the function of the board to adopt those 


Effective rules and regulations embody the 


detailed instructions; (2) they are stated so 


Department of Superintendence and Research 








[19] 





ey Seteteritenve iia 











FIGURE II 


SCHOOL BOARD MEETING IN DISTRICT N2! 


Ab 


Time—11:00 P. M. 


Place—Hammond’s general store 


MR. A.—But the children from the old Bryce School can go to the new Central School. 
Ie would be better for them and cheaper too. I wish I had the superintendent’s cost figures 


to show you. 
MR. B.—Figures! Bah! Who cares about figures? I promised the folks down there that 
the Bryce School would be kept open and I’ll never vote to close it. 


MR, C.—Where is the superintendent tonight? 

MR. B.—Oh, I guess he doesn’t know we’re meeting. I know I didn’t tell him. 

MR. A.—What do you think about closing the school, Charlie? 

MR. C.—I think it’s a good idea. But Ben voted for the teachers I wanted and I don’t like 
to go against him on this. 

MR. B.—That’s right, Charlie. One good turn deserves another. 

MR. C.—Let’s not decide tonight. I’ve got to go right now. 

MR. A.—AIll right. We'll get together again before long and talk it over... 








[20] 














elt mela teh 


any 


Sheen Nima G Qvece ot gin eae 





FIGURE III 








SCHOOL BOARD MEETING IN DISTRICT N22 


— —— 


" > 
~ 


A 


o§ 
ae. FNS lags — >= 
- ® = ap 





| 





——— eee) | 
SCHOOL DISTRICT MAP 















































Time—10:00 P. M. 


Place 





Office of the Board of Education 


MR. C.—But we must think of the best interests of the whole city. 


MR. B.—I agree. Of course some patrons of Franklin School will object to its being 
closed, but the superintendent’s report convinces me that we ought to do it. 


MR. A.—There’s just one more question I’d like to ask him. If we consolidate these 
schools won’t our new building soon be overcrowded? 


SUPT.—Apparently not. Our recent building survey shows that, barring an unusual 
shift of population, the new building will be adequate for at least ten years. 


MR. A.—(After a pause) Well we’ve discussed this for over an hour. Any other comments? 
MR. C.—I move that Franklin School be abandoned. 
Motion seconded, voted upon, and carried. 


MR. B.—Mr. Chairman, I move that the superintendent give the newspapers an an- 
nouncement of our decision, making clear our reasons for the consolidation. The people 
should know where we stand. 


Motion seconded, voted upon, and carried. 


MR. A.—Any other business? (Pause) Then, as stated in our schedule, we will meet 
again in this room on February 10th, at 7:30 P. M. A motion to adjourn is now in order... 








<A TI 


[21] 











Educational Policies 


In previous sections of this bulletin, frequent 
mention has been made of the fact that school 
boards should deal with fundamental problems 
rather than routine. What are the major prob- 
lems for which the board should lay aside rou- 
tine? What type of questions may properly 
come before a school board meeting ? One of the 
important phases of school board work is the 
consideration of questions of policy and the 
adoption of a plan or course of action in con- 
nection with each. This section is devoted to 
an analysis of the school board’s policy-forming 
function. It is introduced by contrasting the 
duties of the earliest school boards with those 
of modern boards. 

Early school boards and the educational pro- 
gram—The first school committees were tem- 
porary ones. Each committee was appointed in 
a colonial town meeting to attend to one impor- 
tant matter, for example, to select and buy a 
school site. Among the many special committees 
were those appointed to visit the schools and 
see that all was well within them. Later, when 
permanent school committees or boards of edu- 
cation were established, they assumed all the 
duties which the various special committees 
were accustomed to perform. Schools were 
small; teachers had no special professional 
training; there were no trained supervisors, 
principals, and superintendents. These early 
school boards were compelled to transact every 
item of business and to supervise the work of 
the schools. There was no one else to do it. 
Their relations to school activities were quite 
direct, If board members really knew more 
Sout calves! management than the teacher-—as 
was often the case when there was so little pro- 
fessional training—this direct control was bene- 
ficial. If they did not, it was often detrimental. 
Good or bad, it was the only type of supervision 
available. 











most minute detail. 





Under such circumstances, early —scha 
boards regulated school activities down to t 
They adopted such rule 
and regulations as the following: 

Resolved that the School Master see that the glas 
be put in that is broke out by the Scholars tha 
breakes it. 

The schollars shall be instructed in their spellin 
and reading in their several classes at least twi 
in the forenoon and twice in the afternoon. 

Every schollar must be taught to pay a particula 
attention to the pauses in reading, and so to mod 
late their voice that they may read with propriet 
and understanding, and that every schollar wh« 
reading in a class shall pay strict attention to the 
book that they may be able to correct those who ma 
make a mistake in their reading so that instead o! 
reading only one sentence they may, as it were, rea 
the whole lesson and thereby gain more instructior 


Nor did school boards in those days confine 
themselves to adopting rules and regulations 
They supervised the work of the teacher. Th 
visit of the school board was a formal and so! 
emn occasion. Board members heard the pupi! 
read and spell, looked at their writing an 
ciphering books, and questioned them about 
their work. If the committeemen were no 
pleased with the work of the school, they told 
the teacher what to teach and how to teach it 


perchance, showing him how to conduct his 


classes, discipline his pupils, mend quill pens 
or mix the ink. 

Direct management no longer desirable- 
Conditions have changed so remarkably that 
direct management of school affairs is seldom 
possible today. Even where it would be possible 








it is no longer necessary or beneficial.? Schools 


have become larger and more complex. Year bj 
year the scope of their activities has been broad 
ened. Educational problems have been studied 
intensively, and a science of education has been 
developed. Specialists have been devising a new 
and better curriculum. Improved methods of 


classroom procedure have been discovered. The 


1 Foster, Henry W. The Evolution of the School District of South Orange and Maplewood, New Jersey ,1814-1927. Geneva, N. Y 


W. F. Humphrey Press, 1930. p. 51-52, 56, 59. 


? Chadsey, C. E., chairman. “Relation between Boards of Education and Superintendents.” 
of Superintendence.) Proceedings, 1917. Vol. 55. Washington, D. 


Department of Superintendence, 1932.) Cubberley, E. 
Chapter 13, “Functions of Boards for School Control,’ 
Minnesota Journal of 
Lay Control. 
p. 95. Heidelberg, H. B. “‘The School 


C.: National 
. Public School Administration. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1929 

* p. 195-219. Engelhardt, Fred. ‘‘The Board and the Superintendent. 

Education 10: 185-86; January, 1930. Hartwell, E. C. “The Relation of the Superintendent of Schools t 

" Official Report, 1928. ye of Superintendence. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1928 

ard and the Superintendent.’ 

Kraus, L. H. “Superintendent and School Board Member."’ American Sc 


(Committee Report, Department 
ucation Association, 1917. (Readopted by th« 


* American School Board Journal 78: 47; February, 1929 
Board Journal 64: 34-38; May, 1922. Ludeman, W. W. 


“A Study of School Boards.” American School Board Journal 78: 38; February, 1929. Osterheld, C. M. “Relation of a School Boar: 


to Its Superintendent.” 


American School Board Journal 79: 34; December, 1929, Roudebush, Roy R., and Russell, John Dale. 
The School Board and the Superintendent. Indianapolis, Ind.: State Department of Public Instruction, 1927. Shaw, E. O. “Func- 


tions and Relations of the Superintendent and the School Board.” American School Board Journal 76: 51-52; June, 1928. Strayer 


George 


D, “The Relation of Administrative Officers to Boards of Education.” 


First Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: Department 


of Superintendence, National Education Association, 1923. p. 159-64. 


[22] 


oe ee 





Assc 


were 


appr 
ntez 
Oar 
Year 





eacher 
not ot 
and of the 


in order to 


essional education of the modern 


a technical knowledge, only 


but also of children 


him 
yjectmatter, 
t teaching methods. Likewise, 
ninister a modern school system properly, an 
ividual must now have specialized know1- 
e that can be gained only by a long period of 
ensive training. 
[he transition from direct to indirect con- 


Largely because of tradition, it is only 


vithin recent years that school boards have paid 
nore attention to fundamental policies than to 
late as 1925 


studv of the work of 836 school boards showed 


details of administration. 


that some of them had not yet learned to dele- 


te administrative duties to those who were 


mployed specifically to perform them. Table 2 





: presents selected items from the data of that 
study ° 
p 
TABLE2.—ADMINISTRATIVE DETAILS 
STILL CARRIED OUT DIRECTLY BY 
CERTAIN BOARDS IN 1925! 
Percent 
Administrative function of boards 
performing? 
Checking supplies when received 45 
Preparing payroll asm 43 
Supervising the construction of new build 
ings..... ‘ 23 
. Se lecting supplies 22 
Rating janitors. . 15 
Selecting textbooks 14 
Nominating teachers to the board 13 
Supervising repair work on school buildings 12 
Approving payment of individual bills 12 
Rating teachers. .... 8 
. Keeping inventory of supplies 3 
Taking school census 1 
} Issuing supplies 0.4 
1Adapted from Ganders, H. S. Personnel and 
S Organisation of Schools in Small Cities. U. S. De- 
partment of the Interior, Bureau of Education 
Bulletin, 1926, No. 6. Washington, D. C.: Govern- 
ment Printing Office, 1926. p. 28-29. 
2 Based on a study of practice in 836 cities. 
a 











The facts just cited indicate that the transi- 
| tion from direct to indirect management has 
However, a recent study of school 
board practices in 1,000 cities ranging from 


been slow. 
veen sk 


“al ett 


2,500 to more than 100,000 in population shows 
that, in a large majority of cases, the modern 
: + school board delegates administrative functions 
to the superintendent.’ Table 3 presents data 


! The investigation from which these data were obt 


ait me 


ained was 


conduc 


with respect to the management of 
ministrative tails. Columns 2 8 
show the importance of admin 

thre ugi the exercise of the powe! 

disapprove. In contrast, columns 3, 5 

show th it Tew si hool boards now Ke Sé 
control over the administrative functions 

here. ‘Ihe table also shows that many bi 
delegate these functions to administrative off 
cers so completely that even approval by sep 
rate board action is unnecessary. For examplk 
although replies were tabulated from 49 citie 
over 100,000 in population, in only 20 of then 
does the school board approve res ons 


in no case does 
lhe 1Osence 


1] 1 
laliy noticeabdie 


taining to routine matters and 


make such regulations 


of direct ma 


it actually 


nagement Is espe 


the practices of school boards in cities o 
100,000 in population (column 3 
Since the school board member is no lon; 
a 
the manager of the school system but rath 
member of a directing board, an ana s of t 


function of a board of director 


ate 


at this point. 
The function of a board of dire 
average citizen is no better qualified to 


direct control of a modern school system than 


he would be to manage a hospital or a 
This does not mean that the ordinary citize 


cannot be an efhicient member of the boar: 


directors for either a school, lospital, Or a 
bank. In either case the directors need ti 
informed, but technical training is unnecessary 
Bank directors need not be bankers; directors 
of 


school board members do not have to be educa 


hospital need not be doctors or surgeons 


tors. The directors of a bank ent its admin 


istration to a man whose character, professional 
Tor 

The directors of a hospital do not select 

loy the 


training, and experience qualify him that 
work. 
the members of the hospital staff or emp 
They t! 


bovs. do not tel] the 
tonsils, or the 


elevator surgeons 


when to 
Ho \ 


absurd it would be if they thought it their duty 


how to remove nurses 


take the temperature of their patients. 


to select and purchase the surgical instruments 
the hot water bottles, and bandaging gauze! 


It is equally inappropriate for school directors 


ted by the Research Division of t! 





; Association for the Commission on Educational Leadership of the Department of Superintendence. The s nair 

: circulated in 1931. Superintendents were asked to indicate with respect to each of a series of functions: (1 er they 
were responsible for initiating, approving, or executing it; (2) whether the sc cho 1 board was solely responsible for its initia 
approval, or execution; or (3) whether it was initiated, approved, or executes 3 by the joint action of the school board he 
intendent. Fora discussion of the functions of the superintendent of s hools, wi ch may be contrasted with thos t 
boards of education, see National Education Associat ion, Department rintendence. “‘Educational Leader 


Yearbook, Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1933. Chapter 6. 





[23] 








to occupy themselves with technical or routine 
affairs. The board. of directors of any respect- 
able corporation is a policy-forming body. It is 
not created to manage the enterprise, but to 
study the needs and possibilities and outline a 
course of action; to employ trained workers to 
carry out its policies; to pass judgment on the 
results obtained. The_function of a board of 
directors is not to do, to get things 
The importance of the policy-forming func- 
tion—Adopting sound educational policies is 
the most impor 
Educational policies chart the course which the 
schools will take. If the board adopts sound 
educational policies, the schools may be com- 
paratively good in spite of administrative er- 
rors. If the policies are not correct, any amount 
of administrative efficiency cannot overcome 
the defect. Educational policies are the foun- 
dations. A house that is built upon the sand 
not stand no matter how well it is con- 
structed in other particulars. 
For that reason, a school board should devote 
a large proportion of its time and energy to the 
formulation of educational policies and delegate 
routine administrative matters to responsible 
employees. A few contrasts will show why edu- 
cational policies are the more fundamental. 
Which is more important: (1) Shall a kinder- 
garten be established? or In what room shall 
the kindergarten be placed? (2) Shall supple- 





mentary readers be provided for the secor 
grade? or What three out of the dozen or mo 


good sets suggested shall be purchased? Educa 


tional policy says whether or not there shall | 
evening schools, health clinics, and speci 
schools for handicapped children; whether t! 
school term will be nine or ten months ; wheth« 
the minimum amount of professional traini: 
for grade teachers shall be two, three, or mo 
years beyond the high school. Although the « 
ganization and operation of these special edu: 
tional services, the arrangement of the sch: 
calendar, and the selection of one of three qua 
fied applicants as a grade teacher in the Sout 
Side School are important administrative mat 
ters, they are less important than board policie 
Educational policies demand the attention « 
the board, not only because of their basic impo: 
tance, but also because they are numerous. Th 
board of education that delegates administ: 
tive matters to its superintendent does not fr: 
itself with respect to the amount of work whic 


it does. On the contrary, it merely lays aside th: 


less important duties of administration in ord: 


to assume those of greater importance. Th: 


quantity of work which school boards do an 
the importance of the service which they rende 
have increased through the years as scho 
boards have become legislative bodies. A boar 


that is tied down with administrative routin: 
cannot possibly supply the type of constructiv: 


TABLE 3.—_METHODS USED BY SCHOOL BOARDS IN 1,000 CITIES IN 1931 IN 
MANAGING CERTAIN ADMINISTRATIVE DETAILS? 






































In 49 cities In 170 cities In 430 cities In 351 cities 
over 100,000 30,000 to 100,000 5,000 to 30,000 2,500 to 5,000 
in population, in population, in population, in population, 
Administrative job the Smeal board the school board the school board the school board 
Approves | Executes Approves | Executes | Approves Executes | Approves | Executes 
oe ills ‘bid. Ca? Oe. 2 Ra oe. 2 ee 
Making regulations gov- 
erning routine matters.. . 20 0 89 7 158 15 115 2 
| Taking school census...... 10 2 77 11 185 38 141 59 
| Enforcing attendance laws. 10 0 67 5 137 12 115 8 
Determining subjects to be 2 
ES Js Biren vemdeees 27 0 97 4 228 7 161 3 
| Determining content of 
school courses.......... 15 0 69 3 148 3 113 1 
| Supervising medical inspec- 
| ER cas aan 14 0 76 4 152 12 | 108 9 
| Supervising classroom in- 
| Is tian 6 A056 ho abn 14 0 49 1 96 2 72 | 1 
| Directing civic center activ- 
Se Sears 9 0 58 3 98 8 ss 2 
«~~ oO apne 13 0 58 3 78 5 18 | 0 
| Supervising evening schools 19 0 67 5 113 3 33 | 1 

















1 Based on data collected by the Research Division of the National Education Association for the Commission on 
| Educational Leadership of the Department of Superintendence. 











[ 24] 








idership that is needed in the schools today. 
ich phase of the entire educational program 
fairly bristles with problems with which the 
hool board must deal. In order to illustrate 
it fact, and in order to bring out somewhat 
ore clearly the distinction between educa- 
nal policies and administrative duties, Figure 
|V is presented. This figure shows how many 
questions of policy arise in connection with a 
ingle phase of school management, namely, 
sranting leaves of absence to employees of the 
oard. The list is not exhaustive, merely sug- 
estive. When one stops to consider how many 
phases there are to an educational program and 
that numerous questions of policy in regard to 
h of them demand attention, the importance 
of the board’s policy-forming function becomes 
ipparent.? 
| How policies should be formed—The most 
important principle of board action with respect 
to policy making is that every policy should he 
determined only after the board has secured, 


studied, a 


@ given joint consideration to all 
pe A a Set . 





pertinent facts. As James J. Hill once re- 
marked, “Accurate and ample information is 


+ ote rard “CRee } indertal 
st step toward success In any undertak- 
No school 


uF ; 
policies without making use of adequate info 


the fir 


ing.” board can formulate sound 
mation.’ 

The superintendent of schools is in the best 
position to supply the board with facts, to inter- 
pret them with reference to local problems, and 
to make recommendations to the board. He has 
access to helpful information in many publica 


tions, such as: (1) general books and magazine 


articles dealing with school administration ; (2 
annual reports of superintendents of schools; 


} 
| 
I 


(3) regular publications of state departments 
of public instruction and state education associa 
tions; (4) bulletins and other publications of 
the U. S. Office of Education; and (5) the r 
search bulletins, yearbooks, committee reports, 
and other publications of the National Educa 
tion Association. Moreover, he can readily se 
cure the cooperation of the local library, the 


county superintendent, and all the state and 


1 For an analysis of other functions, see Olsen, Hans C. The Work of Boards of Education. Contributions to Edu ,N 
213. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. 1926. 170 p. He lists the questions of policy and 
e administrative duties that pertain to various phases of school work—the curriculum, health service, cafeterias, athletics, 
ilumni, student publications, religious education, thrift education, school gardens, social centers, transportation of pupils, mai 


enance of buildings, and more than one hundred other topics. 


2? Reeder, Ward G. The Business Administration of a School System. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1929, p 


5.90 


FIGURE IV.—QUESTIONS OF POLICY AND ADMINISTRATIVE DUTIES PER- 
TAINING TO LEAVES OF ABSENCE FOR TEACHERS’ 











. Questions of educational policy Administrative duties 
1, Under what conditions shall a leave of absence | 1. Grant or refuse leaves of absence in accordance 
be granted? with board policy. 
I ) 
2. For how lo ay a leave bsence be . 
zs > ng may a leave of absen © | 2. Grant leaves of absence of the length ap 
granted? »roved by the board 
r a | eC 4 < . 
3. Under what conditions may a leave of absence | E 
be extended? | 3. Grant extensions in accordance with board 
4, At what intervals may leaves be granted to | policy. 
the same person? , Rie : — 7 ies 
S, Uae et liti sh: syne , ; 4. Keep complete records of leaves of absence 
9. Under what conditions shall part (or all) of an ausl eran theme Galler alter @ wroeer interval 
. er ° . ° ° ¢ a or: » € eT ¢ yroper interval, 
individual’s salary be paid him while he is on 7 : is 
pay nee? ‘oe ‘ie : ; 
leave of absence? — 5. Pay that part of an individual’s salary duc 
6. [ nder what conditions shallany of the expenses him while on leave of absence 
incurred by a person on leave of absence be : ; 
paid by the district? 6. Pay such expenses incurré d by person on leave 
7. What shall be the penalty for failure to report as the policies of the board require 
for duty immediately upon the expiration of a | 7, Enforce the penalties for failure to comply with 
leave or for using a leave for a purpose other all the rules of the board of education pertain 
than that for which it is granted? ing to leaves of absence 
8. Under what conditions shall leaves of absence | . __ a - 
be cancelled? 8. Cancel leaves of absence when board policies 
9. In view of the reports submitted by the super- so require. 
M intendent, how can the policies of the board | 9, Submit to the board appropriate reports and 
: with respect to leaves of absence be improved? recommendations relating to leaves of absence 
_ ! Adapted from: Olsen, Hans C. The Work of Boards of Education. Contributions to Education, N 213 
New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1926. p. 78. 





Prot eitrd cme. + 





[25] 








national agencies listed above in securing un- 
published data. The board may properly turn to 
him for leadership and expect him to supply 
information relating to its various problems." 
Many times, however, school boards need 
information about their own school systems 
which can be supplied by none of the officials 
and agencies mentioned above. School surveys 
have been used widely to meet this need. Survey 
methods vary greatly, but the following proce- 
dure is typical. A group of competent educators 
selected by the board of education collects a 
considerable body of definite information on the 
system as a whole or on some particular phase 
of it; for example, its organization, financial 
problems, building problems, or instructional 
efficiency. The survey staff then analyzes the 
data and, in its report, recommends to the board 
any changes in policy which the findings seem 
to warrant. The extent to which the survey 
method has been used indicates its value to 
boards of education.? Chart III shows the cities 
in which facts collected in school surveys have 
served as a basis for school board policies. 
After obtaining ample information, the board 
should formulate its policies in accordance with 





certain guiding principles. Its policies sho 


place the best educational opportunities 
community can afford within the reach of eve 


person. Board policies should contribute to t 
solution of current problems but they sho 
also harmonize with the board’s distant obj« 
tives—the goals to be achieved in five, ten, 

more years. The board should use due cauti 
in making its policies conform to law. Imp 
tant and more or less permanent policies wi 
respect to situations of frequent recurrence a: 
general public interest may well be written i: 
the board’s bylaws. The board should ma 
its policies known to those most likely to 

affected by them. Although the board shou 
abide by its policies, tradition should not for 


the continuation of a policy which is-retony 
desirabte. nt 
‘he adoption of a policy, or course of acti: 
is a matter for group decision. Unfortunate! 
board policies are not always the result of gro 


action. For example, there is the board in whi 


a single member dominates to such an extent 


that his own ideas become board policies. The: 
there is the divided board, in which the majority 
group make it their business to put across the 


1 Moehlman, A. B. “Keeping the School Board Informed."’ Nation's Schools 4: 64-67; July, 1929. Simley, I. T. “Keeping 
School Board Informed." American School Board Journal 74: 102-4; March, 1927, White, M. C. “‘Keeping the School Board 


formed."* American School Board Journal 76: 72; May, 1928. 


2 Advice on how to plan and carry out a survey in any particular school system can be obtained from the superintend 


j 


of schools, the state department of public instruction, schools of education in the state, and the research bureaus of many of 


CHART III 


large universities. 





a 


} 


~ aT 








CITIES IN WHICH SCHOOL SURVEYS HAVE BEEN MADE- 





Nasewuch Dutision, Natenal Education Assh 





EE 





Based. on the city surveys listed in: Smith, H.L., and O'Dell, E.A., Bedkognyliy of Schoal Surveys. Bloomington, Indiana 
Bureau of Cooperative Research, Indiana University. 19M. 212p. 





on a ttn pm 


[ 26 ] 


ao ee ee ee 





Was 
Sche 
Sche 


tratt 


New 


Rabe ees 


ek Re et 





osite of any policy proposed by the minority 


In certain instances the superintendent 


} 


t only administers the schools but makes the 


rd’s decisions for it. In others, a party boss 


some influential person or group dictates to 


e board. Other boards have no policy; they 


so busy trying to administer the schools 


it they never get around to planning; 


things 
ist happen; and they spend their time untan- 


chance accidents. Efficient boards use none 


f these methods. ‘They are neither blind to 
onstructive suggestions nor subject to the 
lominance of others. ‘They get all the facts 
stainable; they weigh the suggestions and 


recommendations submitted ; they make use of 

e leadership of their superintendent. In addi- 
tion to all this, they 
policy freely in a board meeting where every 


discuss every question of 


ember’s rights and opinions are respected, and 
jut of that discussion, arrive at a decision which 
represents the board as a whole. 

Making 


a policy is but the 






olicies function—The adoption of 


irst step. The authority to 
carry it out must be delegated to the proper 
he must perform the service so re- 


person; 

quired ; and the board must judge how well the 

task was done and whether or not the policy 
a good one. 

Follow-up reports are therefore important. 


School boards do well to require many regular 





and special reports from their administrative 
ificers with respect to the scope and character 


of the educational service, the efficiency of the 








4 Beu, F. A. “The Biggest Job of the Village and Small City School Board.” FE 


m ( le public has 
Cuss it little has | peen 
+? ] | 
of the board as a whole in the n 
1: 
relation \t this point certain p 
] } ] rn ‘ 
ciples may be properly suggest hirs 


hould establish a definite p! 
educational policies to the pub 


board s 
preting its 


just as it plans for any other major activity 


left to chan 


in Tor inter. 


publicity is too important to be Ice 
methods. Second, the matter of presenting facts 
to the public is lar gely < an administrative fun 
tion which should be delegated to the prope: 


Third the — 


should 
educational 


person oO! persons. il 


quire simple and readable and 
financial reports to be presented to the publ 
regularly. Finalty, the program should be cor 
tinuous. iain = 
o" ud ic support for school b ird s policies 
is determined in large measure by the confidenc« 
of the people in specific plans and not by th 
confidence in the value of education general! 
People believe in education ; they question only 
the kind of education that is being given. If the 
board expects public support, it must keep the 
public informed.? 
Personnel Problems 

School boards are often large scale employers 
As such they are concerned with the selection 
compensation, tenure, and welfare of their em 
ployees. This section will discuss problems re 


lating to the performance of a num 
more important personnel duties 


50-54: September, 1930 


lucation 51: [ 


[27] 


ber of their 


instruction given in each of the several schools, Employing a_ superintendent—The school 
—_— ee =—-->-_- -—— 

divisions, or departments, and the efficiency of board’s most important personnel duty is the 
employees. A board has the right to- expect selection of a superintendent of schools.* The 
definite information and objective facts in these superintendent occupies a key position. On the 
reports and not mere vague descriptive state- one hand, he brings to the board the benefit of 
ments. The board should require the number his training and experience as an educator. He 
and kind of reports that will enable it to pass advises them on administrative problems, sup 
intelligent judgment as to the merits of its poli- plies them with facts, makes a constant studs 
cies in order that these may be reaffirmed, modi- of the school system, and recommends to the 
fied, or abolished in the light of experience. board the program best adapted to the educa 

Interpreting school policies to the public— _ tional needs of the community. On the other 
lhe school system belongs to the people. There- hand, he is the administrative officer of the 
fore, the school board is obligated to keep the board. He carries out the board’s instructions. 
public informed about its policies and about  transacts business for them, puts into effect the 
school matters generally. The relation of board program which they adopt, directs the work of 

1 See page 9. 

? National cory Association, Department of Superintendenc e. “Resolutions of the Department ficial Report, 1928 
Ww ashington, D. : the Association, 1928. p. 259. Hart . = “Cooperation between Sch 101 Boards and the Pu i merican 
School Board od 64: 51-52; March, 1922. Moehlm: in, A. B. “How Can a Board of Education Function Effi , 
Schools 2: 25-28: July, 1928. 

* Almack, op. cil., Chapter 6. “Taking Care of Employment Problems," p. 178-214. Cubberley, E. P. Publ } 
tration. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1929. p. 208-10 and 220-30. Reeder, Ward G. Fundamentals of Public School Admgici n 
New York: Macmillan Co., 1930. p. 46-50. 








all other employees, and assumes responsibility 
for the effectiveness of the entire school system. 
Hence, it is quite essential for the board to 
select the best superintendent that it can secure 
for the salary which the district can pay.* 

The board may well formulate a clear state- 
ment of the qualities which they expect the 
superintendent to have, before considering ap- 
plications for the position.? Board members can- 
not afford to depend merely on their general 
impressions about a candidate. Although the 
standards of one board will differ from those of 
another, every board will be concerned with 
standards of at least three types: (1) the super- 
intendent’s qualifications as an educator, (2) 
his business ability, and (3) his personal _quali- 
ties. Each of these factors is important and each 
may be defined in rather specific terms. 

The superintendent is first and foremost an 
educational leader. The community’s most valu- 
able possession, its boys and girls, is going to be 
trained in the schools which he directs. Hence, 
the discriminating board will examine first of 
all the educational qualifications of applicants. 
It will establish standards as to the minimum 
type and amount of professional training that 
the candidate must have; it will outline the type 
and amount of experience that seem desirable; 
it will find out what the candidate has accom- 
plished in other schools. Since the successful 
superintendent must be a good organizer, a 
good administrator, and a good supervisor,’ a 
board ought to inquire: (1) Have his previous 
schools been well planned and well organized ? 
(2) Have they been administered efficiently ? 
(3) Have they been known for a high quality of 
school work? 

In the second place, the superintendent is— 
either directly or indirectly—a business mana- 
ger. The administration of a community’s 
schools is often the largest business enterprise 
in the district. The superintendent, therefore, 
needs to be a man of unquestioned business 
ability, especially when business management is 
one of his personal responsibilities.t He should 
be able to buy economically and to recognize 
value. He should be able to manage well the 




















sums now available for education and to p! 
wisely for the future. Recommendations rela 
ing to a candidate’s business ability are helpf 
but even more reliable are the evidences of bu 
ness ability disclosed by the financial reports 
the district in which he has been workin; 
Changing towns seldom makes a good busine 
manager out of one who has managed poor! 
in another district. Conversely, good mana; 
ment in the one instance predicts good manag 
ment in another. 

Personal qualities are also very importar 
especially character.® The superintendent mu 
be able to command the respect of pupils, « 
workers, and patrons. Personality traits such 
mannerisms, language habits, personal appea 


ance, social graces, general outlook on life, and 


interest in other people often determine t! 
superintendent’s ability to work harmonious 
in the community. Good health is another fact: 
of considerable importance. Character and pe 
sonality traits must be judged largely by t 
testimonials of those who know the candidat 
although the board may get additional eviden 
through direct contacts with the applicant. ‘T! 
manner in which he presents his case is an ind 


cation of his ability and worth. A capable ma: 
will supply the board with definite informatio: 


and with the names of those who know his 


work. He will make an honest effort to show 


his ability but will neither boast nor make e) 


travagant promises. He will not bring pressure 


to bear on the board in behalf of his candidac 
An applicant worthy of consideration will pr: 


sent his case to the board and not to individua! 


board members one after another, for the cand! 
date who tries to influence board members whe: 


the board is not in session obviously does not 


know the first principle of school board action 


Boards ordinarily find better superintendents 


when they seek the man than when they depen 


on the man to seek the job. They need to collect 


as complete and accurate information concern 


ing each candidate as may be obtained. The: 


must be alert for biased testimonials in whic! 
the merits of the candidate are obviously exac 
gerated and reject all open testimonials of the 


to-whom-it-may-concern variety. A board ma 


1 Deffenbaugh, W. Ss. “The Selection of the School Superintendent.” American School Board Journal 68: 36; June, 1924 


? Anderson, Earl W. “Choosing a Superintendent.” 


American School Board Journal 84: 33-34; March, 1932, National Edu: 
tion Association, Department of Superintendence, ‘Educational Leadership."” Eleventh Yearbook. W ashington, D. C.: 


the Ass 


ciation, 1933. Especial ly Meng es 6 and 12. See also references listed in footnote 3 on p. 27 


3 Cubberley, E. P. 
dent’ ® Work.” esr. 
4 Gosling, Ww. 


Bauernfeind, H. K. er School Superintendent as Business Manager.” 
“Desirable Personal and Professional Qualities of the Superintendent.”’ 


’ Thompson, L. 
562-63; August, ses 


Administration. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1929. Chapter 15, “The Superint 


“What Qualifications Best Fit the Superintendent for His Job?" Nation's Schools 6: 37-39; August, 193 
American School Board Journal 81: 46; September, 195| 
School Executives Magazine 5‘ 


[28] 


ET, jr Gt ae oly, nine 


tled 


been 


tesy 
they 
view 
espe 
V 
posit 
arise 
that 
pens 
can | 
Treq' 
tion. 
demi 
The 
wha 
cept 





n 


I, ino Maan Fo eB Bah 


tendents.”” 


need to fortify itself against pressure com- 
from a candidate’s friends, or from frater- 
religious, or political groups that may in- 
est themselves in his behalf. 
From the applications and credentials re- 
ed, the board can doubtless select a very few 
lidates from whom the selection will be 
.de. Interviews may then be restricted to 


those who are being considered seriously. As a 
ecaution in conducting interviews, Almack? 


ves the following illustration of an undesir- 
ible method: 


Che clerk wrote to many places for applicants. 
\]| that responded were asked to call on the board, 
and. without notice to the candidates, the same date 
was set for reception of all. To the surprise of the 
a total of about forty assembled in the 
Each candidate was invited into the 
inner sanctum, where the board was in session, for 
a fifteen minute interview. When the better men 
saw the situation they withdrew, and the appoint- 
ment finally went to a relatively inexperienced and 
incompetent applicant. 


candidates, 
waiting room. 


In another instance of similar nature, five 
ipplicants came to a board meeting at their own 
expense from distances ranging from twenty- 
five to three hundred miles. Although somewhat 
surprised at such an unexpected introduction, 
all five remained for the interview. Within a 
few days each received a letter saying that the 
board and the former superintendent had set- 
tled their differences and that the latter had 
been re-employed ! Candidates deserve the cour- 
tesy of an exclusive interview and obviously 
they should not be invited to come for an inter- 
view unless the position is definitely vacant-— 
especially if they come at their own expense. 

When the board has selected the man for the 
position, the question of length of contract 
arises.” It is a matter of common knowledge 
that frequent changes in administration are ex- 
pensive and tend to produce inefficiency. There 
can be no continuity of educational policy when 
frequent changes are made in the administra- 
tion. A single school year is not enough to 
demonstrate the ability of a superintendent. 
Therefore, as long as the board has any doubt 
whatever, it should continue to look for an ac- 
ceptable candidate. When it is satisfied that the 
ight man has been found, there is every reason 

1 See Almack, op. cit., 194. 

? Alltucker, Margaret Me. 

earbook. ‘Washington, D. C.: 
School Executives Magazine 50: 334-35; March, 1931. 
* Potter, M. C. “The Board and the Superintendent.’ 


“Cooperation for Administrative Efficiency.’ 
tootnote 2, p. 22. 


- “Tenure in Present Positions and Training « 
ag 649-52; May 18, 1929. National Education Association, Department of 
the Association 1933. Chapters 6 and 9. Sha 


American School Board Journal 85: 46-47; 
American School Board Journal 84: 


why he should be employed for a period longer 


than one year. A superintendent can do his best 


work only after he has had an opportunit 
study the community and become a part of it 
Certainly there will be little educational leade 
ship in the nature of laying plans for the future 
if the superintendent’s primary concern for the 
Many 
either the three, 
Others use the 


reappointment is 


future involves his own re-employment. 
school systems use regularly 
four, or five-year contract. 
that is, 
The superintendent continues as 


indefinite contract; 
unnecessary. 
long as his appointment is mutually satisfactory, 
but not merely by one, three, or even five-year 
periods. Such a contract is terminated only fo 
some good Recent changes in the 
give the 
longer term of office. 


cause. laws 
superintendent a 
reflects 
growing sentiment in favor of longer terms of 


office is indicated by the data of Table 4. 


of various states 


This trend, which 


TABLE 4.—LEGAL CONTRACTS PRO 
VIDED FOR BY THE LAWS OF VA- 
RIOUS STATES IN 1922 AND IN 1928° 





Number of states 
having such provisions 
Number of years of contract 
1922 1928 
One year 15 ( 
Two years 2 1 
Three year 1 
Four years 4 
Five years 3 
Indefinite contract 
Median length of contract one year | three years 
1 Based on 2 ata given by Norwood, Pa H 
Legal Status of the City School Superintenden ince 
1920 Master's thesis. Nashville, Tenn.: George 
Peabody College for Teachers, 1928. Ch. 5, Table 17 











Working with the -The 
most important phase of personnel administra 


superintendent 
tion is the maintenance of proper relations be 
tween the board and the superintendent.* The 
duties of the superintendent are many; his re- 
sponsibilities are large. Since the board very 
properly holds the superintendent responsible 
for the entire school system, it owes him the 
most vigorous and persistent support in carrying 
out its policies. 

The board’s responsibility does not end when 
it has instructed the superintendent to carry 


¥f City School Superintendents." School a» Soctety 
Superintendence. *‘Educational Leadership El leventh 
n, J. R. “Turnover of City and Town Superin- 





August, 1932. Gardner, J. P 


33-34; February, 1932. See also references listed 


[29] 








out a certain task. It must stand four-square 
behind him if opposition arises. A loyal board 
is ready to accept responsibility for any act 
which it has authorized or for any administra- 
tive act growing out of its policies. Moreover, 
it is exceedingly reluctant to consider com- 
plaints relating to matters in which the superin- 
tendent has been instructed to act at his own 
discretion, unless gross abuse of that power is 
clearly evident. It insists that every complaint 
against the system or against the work of any 
employee be addressed first to the superintend- 
ent; that a complaint against the administra- 
tion be presented either in the form of a written, 
signed statement, or orally in a formal hearing 
with the superintendent present. 

The board should help to protect the schools 
from special-inrerests:-Scthools are beset by a 
veritabté army of persons, companies, or organ- 
izations seeking to further their own schemes.* 
Agents, solicitors, and representatives of all sorts 
of organizations try to show the “educational 
value” of their various projects. The school 
board’s policies with respect to such matters 
will, of course, be general rather than specific. 
They will give the superintendent considerable 
leeway in such matters but will set forth quite 
definitely the type of cooperation which shall, 
and shall not, be extended. More than anything 
else, they will support the superintendent in 
his stand against such encroachments. Demands 
will be less frequent if it is known generally 
that the school board stands squarely against the 
exploitation of the schools by agents, solicitors, 
advertisers, and propagandists. 

Finally, the board should handle every busi- 
ness transaction with its employees through 
the superintendent. It should not deal Sivettty 
with teachers, janitors, or other employees.” 
All board regulations relating to the work or 
conduct of employees should be reported to 
them by the superintendent. Moreover, since 
he is in a better position than the board to pass 
judgment on the efficiency of employees, any 
transfer, promotion, change in assignment, or 
dismissal should be recommended by the super- 
intendent, and, when approved by the board, 
carried out by him. 

According to the data in Table 5 the prac- 
tices of modern school boards are in substantial 








1 Miller, C. R. “Propagandist in the Public School. 


Association, Committee on Propaganda in the Schools. Report. Washington, D. C.: 
Association, Department of Superintendence. ‘Resolutions of the Department.” 
Teachers College Record 31: 37-43; October, 1929. 
American School Board’ Journal 81: 


Association, 1929. p. 273. Pew, M. E. “Propaganda.” 


? Dixon, John. ‘The Teacher and the Board of Education.” 


"' School Executives Magazine 50: 217-19; January, 





agreement with the foregoing recommen 
tions. The great majority of them partici; 
directly in neither the appointment, trans‘: 
nor dismissal of employees. The control wh 
they exercise is that of approval or disapproy 
However, columns 3, 5, 7, and 9 show that 
few boards still perform certain of these 
ministrative duties. The direct appointment 
janitors in cities below 30,000 in population 
one outstanding example. The dismissal of « 
ployees is another phase of personnel mana 
ment which a number of boards have not de 
gated. These, as well as the other administrat 
duties listed, rightly belong to an execut 
officer; and school boards are, for the m 
part, transferring them to the superintende: 
The personnel duties of a school board 
not unlike those of the directors of any ot! 
corporation. The directors of a life insuran 
company do not select the bookkeepers, t 
stenographers, and the insurance agents. N 
do they tell the agents how to sell insuran 
policies. They leave the selection and sups 
vision of employees to capable officials and ho! 
the latter responsible for getting results. 
Results count. Just as the board should dele 
gate to the superintendent the management o! 
personnel affairs, it should also hold him 
sponsible for the efficiency of employees. If t! 
board could administer the system effectivel) 
it would have no need for a superintende: 
Since it cannot, its participation in personn 
management can only hinder the superintenden! 
in his work. On the other hand, delegatin; 
authority without fixing responsibility is like 
to result in laxity and inefficiency. Therefo: 
the board should require the superintendent t 
submit, from time to time, satisfactory eviden: 
as to the efficiency of school employees. 
Employing sub ates—The superintend 


ent should select and recommend to the board 


the applicant who, in his judgment, is bes: 
qualified to fill each vacancy. Although t! 
board reserves the right to approve or reject 
his recommendations and may at any time ask 
him to give reasons for his choice, the superin 
tendent should be solely responsible for findi: 
and recommending those who are to be en 
ployed. He is best qualified by training and e. 
perience to select school employees. Board men 


1931. National Educat 
the Association, 1929. National Educat 
Official Report, 1929. Washington, D. C.: t 


35-36; October, 1930 


[30] 


Ra Serra CRE lie ch ante te LAIR ow 











are not only less familiar with the qualities 
make for success in school work than is the 
rintendent, but they do not have the time 
tudy carefully the qualifications of all the 
ipals, teachers, custodians, clerks, and 
employees necessary to operate a school 
m. Furthermore, if the administrator has 
voice in the selection of those whom he 
cts, employees are likely to be indifferent 

it cooperating with him. The board will ex- 

to hold the superintendent responsible for 
efficiency of employees, yet is is obviously 
ir to do so unless he participates in their 
npointment. Although a board member or any 
her citizen may properly suggest to the super- 


hen 


intendent a name that he might consider w 
making his recommendation, every nomination 
should come from the superintendent. The 
board then approves them or, if it does not ap 


rove his first recommendation in any case, 
isks him to nominate another. A board member 
the 
yoard unless the superintendent (feeling in a 


irticular instance that his 


ought never to present a nomination to 
recommendation 
would be prejudiced ) declines to nominate any- 
one for the position. 


Entering into a contract" is used in this paragraph t« 
h administrative details as filling the necessary blanks, 


refer to the board's decision that it 
securing the signature 





boar« 


Althou 


superintenden 


1 should del t tX 


t the dut 


rh the 


of finding and recom 


mending employees, it cannot lawfully delegate 
to him, or to anyone else, the authority to ente 
into a contract with them prior to board acti 
The superintendent recommends; but the boa: 
alone can legally decide to award a particula 


contract. For example, the school board may 


properly authorize the superintendent to con 
tract with Mr. A. B. Jones according to certain 
} 


designated terms. It cannot authorize the su 


perintendent to contract with an unnamed pet 


son of his own choosing. That the board cannot 
delegate to its superintendent, to one of its of 
ficers, or to a committee the initiative in enter 
ing into any contract is an important and well 
established principle of school law 

In addition to the principles set forth above 


the following suggestions relative to the ap 


pointment of school employees may be drawn 
from the best in educational practice. First 
since the school exists for the sake of children 
rather than to provide employment for anyone 
there is no such thing as a right to a job in any 
school system except that which is based on th 
efficiency of the applicant. Where the applicant 


wishes t« 


e second party, et 


TABLE 5.—PRACTICES OF SCHOOL BOARDS IN 1,000 CITIES IN 1931 WITH 
RESPECT TO THEIR EMPLOYEES 





” In 49 cities In 170 cities In 430 cities In 351 cities 
over 100,000 30,000 to 100,000 5,000 to 30,000 2,500 to 5,000 
in population, in population, in population, in population, 

Administrative job the board the board the board the board 
Approves | Executes - Approves | Executes | Approves | Executes | Approves | Executes 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 s 9 
\ppointment of: 
Assistant superintendents 35 3 86 9 65 8 3 
Business manager 23 il 84 31 66 28 23 
5 Principals... . 11 3 132 16 293 35 10 
: Teachers 37 2 133 19 307 34 23 j 
Janitors 26 4 11 19 257 5 191 ) 
B Clerks... 30 P 115 15 250 35 151 
f Health, recreational, so- 
iH cial workers 27 1 113 i¢ 220 34 99 
Attendance officers 33 121 19 31 49 138 4 
: Transfer of: 
K | Teachers, principals, as- 
4 sistant superintendents 20 1 85 4 20 11 150 
7 Health, recreational, so- 
4 cial workers 16 0 86 148 14 g 
q All other employees. . 1 2 79 9 184 21 1 
3 Dismissal of: 
Teachers, principals, as- 
sistant superintendents 34 5 31 80 62 0 
Health, recreational, so- 
cial work 24 t 107 19 45 0 
Allo ployees 20 5 102 3 1 5¢ 154 } 
7 ; Based on data collected by the Research Division the Nati Associati ( 
Educational Leadership of the Department of Superintendence. 


























lives and how badly he needs the job are second- though admittedly imperfect, is more like! 
ary considerations. Second, the board should attract and hold good teachers than the ; 


adopt (upon recommendation of the superin- 

: : ae: TABLE6.—AMOUNT OF TRAINING AND 
tendent ) regulations setting forth the minimum EXPERIENCE REQUIRED OF NEW 
qualifications for each type of position in the TEACHERS IN CITY SCHOOL Sys 
school system and shouid hold the superintend- TEMS IN 1930-31 } 
ent responsible for selecting and nominating [/ 


candidates who measure up to or exceed those 





— 


Percent of cities? requirin; 
for teachers in the 








standards. The amount of training and expe- Number of years ee 

rience actually required of new teachers in city Ele- | Junior | Seni 
school systems in 1930-31 is given in Table 6. ]} | Soo dee | eae 
This table may be used to discover whether a | Training: ete comes 

given set of standards are relatively high or Less than one year. . . 2 2 

low. Third, it is ordinarily unwise for a board || A ST m7 «| 238 

to employ a near relative of any of its members | Fel gl i Oe x anor 
or of the superintendent.’ Finally, boards || " wwe Guam Sot mee)... : | ': 
should avoid competitive bidding * for the serv- ] apne "aoe sss | 47.3 | 47 
ices of an employee. Every board should deter- | See) Bs ree ge 
mine what it can pay, adopt a salary schedule, |} _More thantwoyears...| 1.1 [3-4 4.4 








and base all offers on that schedule. | _ ¥ National Education Association, Research Divi 
sion. “Administrative Practices Affecting Classroon 


The salary schedule—Although the salary [|| Teachers.” Research Bulletin 10; 8, 13; January, 1932 
Ys > | It is somewhat more valid, of course, to compar¢ 
schedule is a business problem as well as a de- |} practice in any given city with that in cities of approx 
ae a a2 . es . mately the same size. Tables 1 and 3 in the bulletin 
vice in personnel administration, it is best dis- 
cussed at this point. 
First of all, there should be a definite salary 


schedule of some kind. A definite schedule, al- 


| cited give the percentages for cities of various sizes 
| Prevailing practice is indicated by the figures in bold 
| type. 
2 These percentages are based on returns from mor: 
than 1200 cities. 














1 See Thomas, M. J. “School Boards and Teacher Hire."’ Washington Education Journal 9: 201-02; March, 1930. 
: ? An attractive salary schedule is not to be construed as competitive bidding. The term is used here to describe the situ 
in which an applicant attempts to bargain first with one board, then the other, in order to obtain the highest possible s: 
Such procedure is neither businesslike nor ethical. 


CHART IV 


PERCENT OF CITIES HAVING SALARY SCHEDULES 


I9I9 41% 








1923 65% 


I93I 19% 


l l l l 1 LL 1 l 1 J 
oO 10 20 30 40 50 60 7O 80 90 6100 Fercent 


kescarch Owiston, National Lducation Assn 











Data from the following sources: Evenden, E.S. Jeackers’ Salaries ard Salary 
Schedules de the United States, /9/8~ 1919. Washington, 0.C.: National Education 
Association, 1919. 169 p. (Commission Series, No.6). Also, National Education Asso- 
ciation, Research Division. “Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trends, “and “Administrativ« 
Practices Affecting Classroom Teachers.” Kasearch Bulletin |: 1-116, July, 1923; 0: 
{-78, January and March, 1932. Washington, O0.C.: the Association. 








[32] 








SYS. 


liring 


Pnior 
ligh 
shoo 


ivi 
Orr 
132 


are 


tin 
res 
old 





tua 


| 
_j 


Ww 








PAs AMEN 1 la ie 


A Dy NR Bg Pd nag hice 





of individual bargaining. Teachers of the 
hest caliber do not want to ask for each in- 
ise in salary. They do not care to enter 
ol systems where that is necessary. More- 

if increases are arranged by individual 
raining, it is not the best teacher but the 
bargainer who advances most rapidly. 


lealousies due to discrimination are almost cer- 


n to arise. A definite schedule helps to me 


in efficient corps of workers and to maintain 


-h morale among them. 

he principle of salary scheduling is receiv- 
+ wider and wider recognition. A decade ago 
ilary schedules were in effect in scarcely more 
in half our cities. Now about four-fifths of 

m have definite schedules. Chart IV 
how the idea has developed. 

The one factor most commonly used in 
ing a teacher’s place on the salary schedule is 
Many also take 
nto account such factors as the type of position 
held, amount of professional training, and 
juality of the teacher’s work. 

Since a good salary schedule must take into 
count local conditions and local needs; each 


oard, with the advice and leadership of the 


shows 
fix- 


length of service. schedules 


As! There is no general agreement as to the length of period which shouk J be se 
h board should determine the plan which seems best for the district in 


rmine what the 


superintendent, can best dete 
provisions of its own salary schedule should be. 
The following core principles are widely ad- 


vocated: (1) the sal 


the best type of employee ; 


— i, 
ary schedule shot uld attract 


(2) it sl 





10 ild pro 


mote efficiency and encourage professional 
crowth; (3) it should recognize continuous 


and satisfactory service as well as superi 

achievement; (4) it should provide equal pay 
for equal training, experience, and efficiency ; 
(5) the maximum salary should be higi enough 
and the maxi! 


to retain the best teachers num 


should not be reached until the end of a con 
schedule ° 
should have a reasonable degree of flexibility. 

Other policies affecting personnel—Control 
over purely personal matters is unwise, 
policies calling for fair and just treatment often 


siderable period of service; (6) the 


but 


improve morale among employees. For ex- 
ample, regulations permitting reasonable leaves 


of absence with pay and more extended leaves 
of absence without pay dre often used to ad 
vantage. Table 7 lists certain regulations gov 
erning leaves of absence for teachers and shows 
how frequently they were in effect in 1930-31 


. Recommendations range from 10 to 25 years, 
juestion, 


TABLE 7.--REGULATIONS GOVERNING LEAVES OF ABSENCE FOR TEACHERS 
IN EFFECT IN 1930-31° 











Percent of cities with population 
on —- Percent 
of all 
Regulation granting leaves of absence Over 30,000 10,000 5,000 2,500 cities 
100,000 to to to to reporting 
100,000 | 30,000 10,000 5,000 
With full salary (or some fractional part thereof) when ab- 
sence is due to: 
EE Ee 96.5 96.3 94.0 88.8 83.6 90.2 
eS en en eccaeeee 95.3 94.1 86.5 77.2 67.4 80 
Visiting other schools..... Weta 70.6 5.5 66.9 60.4 55.0 63.2 
Attending educational meetings 63.5 70.7 65.7 63.6 64 65.3 
Other reasons............ ’ 43.6 26.6 14.1 11.7 14.2 1 
Number of cities oa which the percentages are based 85 188 399 412 402 1486 
With full salary in the case of personal illness for a period of:? 
Less than § days........... ee ; ‘ . 5.0 9.9 13.1 8.9 
to. |e 22.9 30.5 41.6 49 6 51.4 43.8 
ee ere 52.1 52.5 38.1 31.3 28.2 36.4 
PTD, occ weccccccsveveesecs 25.0 12.0 12.6 92 rr 10.9 
Number of cities on which the percentages are based 48 141 286 284 45 1004 
For a considerable period of time,’ absence being granted for: 
Professional improvement...............-..e-+5- 78.8 64.0 46.4 36.5 26.5 42.5 
_ en 60.0 37.1 18.8 14.9 9.5 20.0 
WG Kins deine eiacg0 55.3 9.8 25.8 20.6 12.4 24.3 
Number of cities on which the percentages are based 85 186 388 403 388 1450 
! National Education Association, Research Division. p Sannin Practices Affecting Classroom Te 
Research Bulletin 10: 55-63; March, 1932. Washington, D. n 
? The figures in bold type suggest a minimum stand oe Few cities have less generous provisions 
* All extended absences (those with full pay, those with part of the salary paid, and those without pay i 
in this classification, 











[33] 








Business Problems 


Many of the school board’s problems have 
to do with business matters. Some of those 
discussed in previous sections have their busi- 
ness aspects, for example, the salary schedule. 
This section directs attention to a number of 
other business problems with which school 
boards are confronted. 

Building sites—No other phase of business 
management demands greater foresight or bet- 
ter judgment than the selection and purchase 
of building sites.‘ The board needs to see not 
merely the city or district as it is today, but 
the way it will be twenty or thirty years hence. 
Many schools are handicapped in their work 
because industrial developments have grown up 
around them. Consequently, probable develop- 
ment in the neighborhood of a proposed school 
site is an important consideration. 

The board may adopt either of these alterna- 
tives in the matter of school sites: (1) it may 
purchase building sites well in advance of the 
building needs of the district, or (2) it may 
purchase sites as they are actually needed. 
Either method involves an element of risk. The 
danger in advance purchases lies in unexpected 
changes in community development. For ex- 
ample, a new industry may come into the city 
and draw a large number of people to a part 
of the city quite removed from the building 
site selected ;*> unexpected population centers 
may grow up under the stimulating influence 
of an enterprising real estate firm; the closing 
of an industry may leave a neighborhood with 
but a handful of its former inhabitants; an 
industrial area instead of a residential district 
may grow up around a building site; a quiet 
street may be converted into a noisy thorough- 
fare. On the other hand, if the board does not 
purchase its school sites well in advance, it may 
have difficulty in buying suitable property. 
When a district is well developed, land values 
are much greater. Often the price of a good 
site is prohibitive. Many boards are forced to 
buy less desirable school sites because they or 
their predecessors did not have the foresight to 





buy at the right time. Building sites co: 
iently located but with little or no play 
frequently result from this same policy. § 
boards can afford to buy only a little of 
high priced land. 

To the extent that building needs 
accurately predicted, advance purchases a1 
sirable. In large cities or rapidly growin 
tricts building surveys are advisable. By n 
of a careful survey, specialists are able t. 
termine building needs with a high deg: 
accuracy even in such districts. Where c 
tions are relatively stable, a competent s 
intendent can supply the board with en 
facts so that plans for the future can be s 
made. 

A school site should not be merely a pl: 
ground that can be had at a reasonable 
The board should raise the following quest 
about a proposed purchase: ° 


1. Is the site near the center of the territory 
the school is expected to serve? 

2. Do roads and sidewalks make it accessib! 

3. Are transportation facilities as good as ca! 
had? 

4. Is the plot large enough to accommodat 
building of the type and size that is needed and 
to provide ample play space? 

5. Are the grounds large enough to give 
building an esthetic setting? 

6. Is the plot located in an attractive vicinit 

7. Does the site have any natural beauty? W 


much landscaping be required to make it attractiy: 


from fire-hazards, danger: 


noises, 


8. Is it removed 
traffic, offensive trades or businesses, 
and malodors? 

9. Is the drainage good? 

10. Is the surface soil non-erosive? 


smo 


School buildings—School boards do not p: 


erly plan new buildings or supervise th 
construction, but they have important busines: 


duties in connection with them. 
It is the superintendent’s place to study 


report building needs, but the board decides 


what is to be done about them; that is, it 
cides whether or not a new building is to 
constructed. School board members are 
specialists in school-building design and 


‘California State Ceosctment of Education, Division of School House Planning. School Site Score Card. Sacrament 


Department, 1930. Engelhardt, N 


. L. Score Card To Be Used in the Selection of School Building Sites. New York: Teachers C: 


Columbia University, 1929. 4 p. National Education Association, Department of Superintendence and yg _—.. 
OC i 


of ene School Sites. Washington, D. C.: 


January, 1925. 
1932. 
University, 1931. 


? Portwood, Thomas B. ‘‘New San Antonio School Protected against Industrial Intrusion.” 
* Adapted from the Strayer-Engelhardt Survey Field Book. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Colut 


the Educational Research Service, October, 1926. 4 p. Ready, M 
— x of the Interior, Office of Education, Pamphlet No. 10. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Otice,, a 
. “A Score Card for Selecting the Site for a Consolidated School.” 8 


American School Board Journal 70: 


Nation's Schools 10:29; Oct 


[ 34] 


EEE 


— ae i Nema abere Bian 3 








| 
| = rrr 7“ —- ~— boat — vo ] ‘ lding tr ‘ 
: cor | ction. Therefore, competent board members 8. Is the ling attractive 
lay not attempt to plan school buildings. They exterior and interior? 
| . * « ¢} i] no . ] 
y. § lize that the usefulness of a building de ). Is the building placed well on 
le of t ds on how well it is adapted to the work 10. Is it economical in terms of the se 
° ° nder 
ng on in it, and that the one who knows ‘“"™‘ 
$ ca st about the educational needs can best plan Duties of school boards with respect to t 
S ar school building. Efficient school boards maintenance and repair of buildings should not 
vink spend their time considering plans and recom be great. Again it is the duty of administrati 
' ' s prepared by ‘cialists inste: we ' 
yon ndation — 7 specialists inst Of alhrors to report conditions and make 
ttempting to make pl: ab +h the can Meare : 
le te oe ie plans about — hey mendations. The board should decide what 
3 
ore cnow little. t 1s the function of the superin + : 
ep! . : , to be done, instruct the administrative office 
Se Cc tendent to plan, of the architect to design, of | ° See 
; : ; to see that its plans are carried out, and hold 
it si the contractor to build, and of the board to ; j akg 
Pete aes : him responsible for getting the work done ir 
en nake fundamental decisions with respect to the ae 
: : an efficient manner. 
—— plans, design, and construction. Table & «| hool | —- 
: -s able 8 shows that school boards de not 
In reaching decisions about plans for a new ‘s heir | ' eT rere 
2 . rave 19 re their ) y yrroblen t t 
. pk school building, the board may properly ask: ‘“4YS ™4@Mage Meir Du ding probe un 


le | manner recommended above. Many boards st 























1. Is the building suited to its intended purpose? engage directly in purchasing, selling, and rent 
uest eS , : a gag SNnasing, gy, an t 
s it adaptable to changing conditions an . . . “ry 
te? x 1 ing school property; in planning school build 
needstf : — = ° 
3. Is it well proportioned so as to eliminate waste? ings; and in supervising their constru on an 
, nar J : , mer ; : ' 
ne +. Is it durable? repair. This is especially true in the smalle: 
ssibl 5. Is it safe? Is it fire and storm resisting? Are cities. The practices of school boards in citie 
le ae 
there pro xits ? . ° | . 
s ca a or pS a : over 100,000 in population harmonize best with 
6. Is it well lighted; well heated; properly ven- ar ad _ 
tilated: sanitary? widely accepted principles of school busine 
10da 7. Is it well equipped ? administration. 
and 
' Betelle, J. O. “‘The Trend in School Building Design.” Architecture 65 52; May, 1932. Butterworth, J. |! re ( 
viv r One Teacher School Buildings. New York: World Book Co., 1921. 4 p. ¢ , F. L., chairman, Report of Committee or } 
pve louse Planning. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1925 p. Dresslar, F. B. American School uilding 
S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1924, No. 17. hington, D. C.: Government Pr g Off 
a 1925. 100 p. Engelhardt, N. L. and Engelhardt, Fred. Planning School Buildin zvrams. New York: Teachers ¢ ege, ( uml 
Init) niversity, 1930. 574 p. Engelhardt, N. L. Standards for Junior High School Buildings. New York: Teachers College, ¢ im 
v? W niversity, 1932. 161 p. Holy, T. C. and Arnold, W. E. Standards for Junior High School Buildings. Columbus: Burea k iti 
Research, Ohio State University, 1932. National Council on Schoolhouse Construction. Guide for the Planning of Elementar 
ractive School Buildings, Milwaukee: the Council, 1932. National Education Association, American Educational Resear sociatio! 
inge School Buildings, Grounds, Equipment, Apparatus, and Supplies.” Review of Educational Research 2: 411-16 bliography 
— December, 1932. Moehlman, A. B. Public School Plant Program. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1929. 405 p. Strayer, G. D.a 
, smo Engelhardt, N. L. (A series of score cards for school buildings of various types). New York: Teachers College, ¢ imt ers 
since 1920, 
TABLE 8.—BUSINESS PRACTICES OF SCHOOL BOARDS IN 1,000 CITIES IN 1931 
Mt pr In 49 cities In 170 cities In 430 cities In 351 cities 
“the over 100,000 30,000 to 100,000 5,000 to 30,000 2,500 to 5,000 
> the in population, in population, in population, in population, 
‘ Administrative job the board the board the board the board 
USINESS 
Approves Executes | Approves | Executes | Approves Executes Approves Executes 
dy * 
aS 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 
decides | . er 
. j 
it ae : Purchase and sale of build- 
' i ings and grounds 23 6 93 57 191 162 162 159 
3 to : Preparation of building 
3 plans 27 2 89 23 181 87 132 ] 
re y Supervision of construction 12 5 6 26 151 78 120 24 
d con Supervision of repair work i8 4 00 19 1 51 163 6¢ 
Rental of buildings and 
properties i8 5 78 3 2 61 89 
onto Selection of textbooks 28 0 106 7 188 10 130 
} Colles Selection of instructional 
ion. _ supplies ; 23 0 93 8 170 9 138 
ool I Selection of other supplies 18 0 93 15 175 12 , 146 
+ 1 Preparation of budget 28 3 116 15 154 36 184 i 
: 79-8 a. 
Oct a Based on data collected by the Research Division of the National Education Association for the Commiss 
Educational Leadership of the Department of Superintendence. 
‘olur : 
[35 ] 








Textbooks, equipment, and supplies—The 
selection of textbooks, equipment, and supplies 
is the work of a specialist. Their purchase is an 
administrative detail. Neither is the proper 
function of school boards. More important 
duties demand their attention. That this is 
recognized by a large majority of school boards 
is indicated in Table 8. In the 49 cities over 
100,000 in population, not a single school board 
actually selects textbooks and supplies and rela- 
tively few do so in the smaller cities. Questions 
of policy such as the following must be an- 
swered: (1) Are the books, the equipment, or 
the supplies really needed? (2) Must some 
need of equal or greater importance be disre- 
garded if this particular purchase is authorized ? 
(3) What should be the specifications of the 
product that is to be purchased? (4) If it could 
be purchased from either local or outside deal- 
ers, shall competition be limited to local dealers? 
(5) What evidence should the board require 
that this product represents, or does not repre- 
sent, a wise purchase? Any board that gives 
adequate attention to matters of policy will 
find little occasion to select textbooks, school 
furnishings, or the particular brand ot thumb 
tacks, paper clips, and rubber bands that are 
to be purchased. 

Policies with respect to capital gutlay—The 
purchase of school sites, the construction of 
school buildings, and the purchase of school 
equipment .equire the investment of capital. 
Often the amount is rather large. In every in- 
stance the management of capital is an impor- 














tant function of the school board. Capital in- 
vestment may mean the expenditure of a sum 
of money for land, buildings, or equipment; or 
it may mean the assumption of a debt for these 
things. In either case the district commits or 
assigns a portion of its money to this purpose. 
It is an important form of investment, whether 
it involves the use of money on hand or the 
creation of a public debt. 

This bulletin can do no more than direct at- 
tention to a few of the fundamental issues that 
every board must face and cite a few simple 
axioms of financial administration.’ 








Among the more important questions 
policy that must be settled in each case are 
following. 


1. Is an additional outlay needed? 

2. How large an outlay does the need justif 

3. How soon should it be made? 

4. How will money be obtained to make the 
vestment? 

5. Can the investment be made out of cas} 
hand? 

6. Does the need justify borrowing part or a 
the sum? 

7. Would this investment be wise in tern 
probable future needs as well as in terms of pre 
needs? 

8. If any part of the money must be borrow 
how shall the loan be arranged? How long s 
it run? How will it be paid? 

9. Does the total capital outlay of the school 
trict including the proposed investment repre 


only a reasonable proportion of the wealth of 


district? In other words, Can the district aff 
the investment? 


In determining policies with respect to ques 


tions such as those just given, the follow 
axiomatic statements may be helpful: 


1. Capital outlay should always be justified | 
demonstrable need. 

2. Capital investments should be carefully p! 
ned, well in advance of the time when the in, 
ment is to be made. 

3. Capital investments are not permanent. B 
ings and equipment do not last forever. 


4. Capital outlay should always be made in th 


interest of the whole population group and not 
the advantage of any special group. 
5. Since the postponement of any payment 


creases the amount that must be paid, it is practica 


economy to borrow as little as possible and for 
short a period as possible. 


6. No debt should be contracted in excess of | 


debtor’s ability to meet the obligation. 


7. Provision for payment should constitute an in 


tegral part of every debt arrangement. 

8. The period of indebtedness should not exc: 
the period of usefulness of the land, building, 
equipment for which the debt is incurred. 

9. Serial bonds? (i. e., an issue retired by ann 


payments) are quite generally regarded as bette: 


than term bonds®* or sinking fund bonds.‘ 


10. Stinginess is not the same thing as econon 


The refusal to make a capital investment may 
extremely costly. 


__ |For fuller discussions of the management of capital see Morrison, H. C. The Management of the School Money. Chi: 
University of Chicago Press, 1932. Chapters 1-9. Moehlman, A. B. Public School Finance. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co.., | 
Rainey, H. P, Public School Finance. New York: Century Co., 1929. Reeder, W. G. The Business Administration of a School S) 
Boston: Ginn & Co,, 1929. Engelhardt, N. L. and Engelhardt, Fred. Public School Business Admitistration. New York: Tea: 
College, Columbia University, 1927. Smith, H. P. Business Administration of Public Schools. New York: World Book Comp: 


1929 


# See Fowlkes, John Guy. School Bonds. Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Co., 1924. 


+ In the case of “term bonds'’—also called “straight bonds''—the entire issue is payable at the end of a specified peri: 
term, perhaps twenty or twenty-five years. Presumably the funds will come from current revenue. 
4 “Sinking fund bonds" are retired by payment in a lump sum at maturity with funds set aside and invested annually for 


purpose. 


[36] 


\\ 


tter 


m\ 


——— 


exhaus 


lhe foregoing list is by no means 
It merely gives a few simple truths which 
hool board can afford to disregard. School 
d members need as thorough an under 


ling of business and economic principles 
hey can acquire, especially in districts where 
school system is really a large business enter 
se. In addition, the board should avail itself 
as much expert counsel and leadership as 
ssible. 

The _se ‘hool b ud ge f 
n. It is like a blue print. 
where each part of the financial 

e placed. From the blue print a contractor 


A budget is a financial 
Bec ork 
It shows just 


“‘material’”’ 


in estimate just what materials will be needed. 
When work begins, the blue print serves as a 

le. When the building is completed, it is 
to the 


} 


idged by whether or not it conforms 


blue print. A school budget likewise serves this 

threefold purpose: (1) it shows how much 

n oney will be needed and for what = 
?) it serves as a guide in spending, and ( 

t shows how-wetttirances have been m: ina} bt 
Either a blueprint or a budget is sometimes 


Many defects are found in build- 








lisregarded. 
because the builders did not follow their 

ue prints. Likewise, many financial difficulties 
e the result of failure to follow the budget. 
Few would argue that because blue prints 
ire sometimes disregarded they should be abol- 
A builder 

blue print is not likely to do better work with- 
wut it. Clearly, the fault lies with the builder, 
The same reasoning 


who does poor work with a 


not with the blue print. 
s valid in the 


A sch 


case of a budget. 





One is an estimate of probable revenue fron 
( macy souros, The other js. an estimate of the 
expenditures that wil] be made. If the fact 
were not disregarded in hundreds of cases, it 
would be unnecessary to add that expenditures 
should not exceed revenue. 

It is the function of the superintendent to 
supply the board with facts and to recommend 
for their consideration the various estimates 
which make up the budget. It is the function 
of the board to study the facts and recommen- 

itions submitted by him and to decide what 

budget shall be. The principle is widely 

' Engelhardt, N. L. “Superior Schos - Budgets.” 


! — os School Budget Efficiently.” Nation's Schools 5: 92; 
1er School Executives Magazine 49: 310-12; March, 


2  Engetharde, Fred and Von Borgersrode, Fred. 


Stationary Co., 1924. 56 p. National Educ: 
5S: 226-346; November, 1927. Peal, A. J. 


ation Association, 
Simplified School 


finding inquiry. 
tec 


School Executit 
January, 
1930. See also the references 
Account ing Procedure for Sch S 
a University, 1927. 130 p. Fowlkes, J. G. Handbook of Financial Accounting for Schools. Eau Claire, Wis.: 
Research Division. ‘'Scl 
Accounting. Milwaukee 


accepted that a yudget is more usetu vhen it 


made out in rather great detail. Of course 
the detailed budget should be summarize 
under a few lar heads, but the estimator can 
be more accurate if he goes into considerabl 
detail in listing budget items. Another advan 
tage in the detailed budget lies in the fact that 


tion 


the board can make an intelligent modit 


of a major budget item only if it knows the 
individual items which enter into the larger one 
A school budget is neither a fad nor a uni 


S indeed 


remedy for all financial ills. It 


versal 


a useful—an almost indispensable—device, but 


it has no magical powers. It is not a guarantee 
of economy or efficient management. It is as 


good as, and not one particle better than the 





judgment of those who make and adopt 

However rood, it is valuable only t to the extent 
that it is followed intelligently. No one can 
TOTESCE every Circumstance. Consequent the 
rigorous adherence to the exact letter of 

budget might conceivably be very unwise. A 
reasonable amount of flexibility and intelligent 
adaptation should be expected. Nevertheless 
the value of the budget lies in using it. There 


d should know 


is being followed. It is the 


fore, the boar month by month 
how the budget 
function of 


the superintendent to keep them 


informed this particular. 
Accounting and auditing—Two follow 


IT) 
procedures In Sscnoo inance deserve special 


“Namely, 





auditing 
that 


of school accounting should be 


comment, accounting and 


Every school board has a right to insist 


best methods 


employed.? The method used should be simple, 


adequate, businesslike. Unless the accounting 


system is a good one, the board can hardly tell 


how well how poorly funds are being man 


Auditing the books is a procedure so in 


dispensable that it should require no de 


aged. 
fense. 
However, many public accounts go without an 
audit. ‘Too many people have the idea that an 
audit casts suspicion on the honesty of those 
That is 


its purpose. An audit is never concerned with 


om 
honesty or dishonesty. [tis an impersonal, tact 


The audit merely shows who 


who have handled the accounts. not 


spent a given sum, at a given time, for a given 


purpose. One must look beyond the audit to 


309-10: March, 1931. Lovejoy, P. ¢ iit 

Wayne. “By Their Rudgets You May Know 
listed in footnote 1, p. 36 

New York: Teachers College, ‘ un 

Eau Claire Book and 
1001 Records and Reports." Research Bulletin 

Bruce Publishing Company, 1925. 118 p 


es Magazine 50 
1930. Soper, 


lems, 


[ 37] 





. 


oe 
ee ee 





determine whether the person who made the 
expenditure was honest or dishonest. Instead 
of being a reflection on the character or motives 
of anyone, an audit is the finest_safeguard to 
the person who handles accounts. Ihe more 
honest an official is, the more anxious he should 
be to have his accounts audited frequently and 
regularly. The school board is unfair to the 
district and unfair to those who handle school 
money unless this impersonal follow-up pro- 
cedure is regularly employed. 

Protection of funds—School boards are the 
stewards of large sums of public money. These 
sums should be safeguarded as carefully as pos- 
sible. Therefore, OY officials who aE. 
should he banded with corporate bands." Like- 
wise, care should be exercised in selecting the 
bank or banks in which school funds are de- 
posited. Linn makes the following recommen- 
dations with respect to depositories :* 





1. Do not consider any bank with a paid in capital 
smaller than $25,000 (or preferably $50,000). 

2. If local banks are not equally safe, select a 
depository outside the school district. 

3. Select a bank with a record for dependable 
service. 

4. Never deposit funds in excess of 50 percent of 
the combined capital and surplus of the bank or in 
excess of 25 percent of the bank’s total deposits. 

5. Require of the bank either a surety bond or 
collateral equal to the amount of the deposit. 


Summary 


Although the work of school boards has by 
no means been completely described, some of 
the more important problems have been con- 
sidered and general principles relating to their 
performance have been set forth. Since many 
of the principles suggested apply equally well 


to duties other than those to which they ar: 
plied in this discussion, most phases of s 
board work have been touched upon, direct! 
indirectly. 

The school board has been represented 
agency concerned with (I) making decision: 
matters of school policy, (2) delegating ad 
istrative duties, and (3) making a contin 
follow-up. The importance of each phase of 
threefold task should now be apparent. I{ 
board does not adopt definite policies, the s 
system resembles a ship lost in mid-ocean 
captain, the superintendent, is without cha 
compass. His experience may enable hin 
bring it safely to port; but the risk is great 
the shippers, the captain, and the cargo. 
board must assign administrative routine t 
executive officers if it is to perform its 
major functions. The follow-up serves two 
poses. In the first place, it shows how well b 
policies are being executed. second, the 
come of present policies should enable the b 
to plan more wisely for the future. Either \ 
is sufficient to justify careful and contin 
study of the results attained. Frequent and 
quate reports from those to whom auth 
has been delegated are of first importa: 
Failure to delegate authority is the height 
folly, but giving authority without fixin; 
sponsibility is equally unwise. 

Board work may be summarized in a con 
manner by contrasting the methods of an ef] 
cient school board with those of an ineffi 
one. Figure V presents such a contrast 
school board can readily determine whethe: 
own practices with respect to each of ¢! 
items most resemble those of District A 
District B. 











' Linn, H. H. Safeguarding School Funds. Contributions to Education, No. 387. New York: Bureau of Publications, T+ 


College, Columbia University, 1929. p. 22-68. 
* [bid., p. 69-148. See especially p. 130-31. 











O UR SYSTEM of public education is the most nearly folk-made of any national system o! 
education in the world. It is the product of more than 145,000 school boards scattered 
throughout forty-eight states, and acting for their respective communities. In responsivenes 
to popular sovereignty, in adaptability to varying need and aspiration, and in richness o! 
experimentation conducive to flexibility and to progress, our management of public schools 
is without a peer.—National Advisory Committee on Education, 1931. 











[38] 














FIGURE V.— TWO TYPES OF BOARD 


PROCEDURE 








In school district “A” 


Board members consider official matters an 
time, anywhere. 


[The board meets on call wherever it is con 
venient. 

The board meeting is used to approve bills 
study catalogs, or wrangle about the best way 
to teach long division. 


There are many standing committees 


[he board has neither policies nor rules 


The board employs as superintendent almost 
anyone who has the proper license and r 
places him as soon as a cheaper man can be 
found. 


Board members “run the schools’ them 


selves. 

Board members consider themselves well 
enough informed on every question and seek 
no one’s advice. 


The board receives all applications and 
selects all employees without the assistanc« 


of the superintendent. 


Employees are given direct. instructions 
about what they are to do by'the board or 
any of its members. 

The board does not come to the defense of 
the superintendent in carrying out its policies 


Very few reports are requested and the board 
pays little attention to those received. 


New teachers are hired as cheaply as possible 
and their salaries are increased only when 
necessary. 


The board buys the “‘left-overs’’ for school 
sites. 


The board plans new buildings and supervises 
their construction. 


The board contracts debts carelessly and 
makes little effort to meet outstanding obli 
gations. 


The board takes no thought for the morrow, 
hoping that it will provide for itself. 


Board members resent the idea that accounts 
should be audited. 


The board ignores legal provisions. 


School publicity is left entirely to chance. 


1 


20. 


In school district ‘*B”’ 


Siness is transacted i 


All school bt 


meetings 


‘ 1 } 


There is a regular time and place fo 
meetings 


A large portion of the board meeting 
to decide important questions of pol 


lies 
1K 


Che board has no standing committes 
Rules and regulations are adopted cove 
the most important policies. 


The board employs the vest superintendent 
that and retains him 
definitely 


can be obtained 


Administrative duties are delegated to tl 


superintendent 


Che board frequently asks the superintend 


for information and advice 


The superintendent nominates all employe: 
to the board 


The superintendent is authorized to plac: 


supervise, and transfer all employees and t 
recommend their dismissal when neces 
The board supports the superintendent 
ally in the performance of his duties 


Ihe board requires adequate reports 
cerning busin and financial matters, e 
cational achievements, and the efficiency o 


employees 


A salary schedule attracts and holds good 
teachers 
The board acquires desirable sites for ne 


school buildings. 
The board secures the service of experts 
planning and building new buildings. 


The board borrows as little money as possibl 


for as short a time as possible. 


The board adopts and follows a budget that 


is carefully worked out by the superintendent 


All accounts are audited at regular interval: 


The board is careful to conform to school 


law. 


The board keeps the public informed about 
its policies and about school activities 





[ 39 ] 

















Desirable Qualifications for Board Members 


No other type of public service merits leader- 
ship of higher quality than does education. 
School board members should be the ablest men 
and women of the entire district. However, as 
in the case of most public officials, the legal 
qualifications for school board members are in 
most cases low, including a few general items, 
such as, a minimum age requirement, residence 
in the district, citizenship, payment of taxes, 
parentage, voting qualifications, ability to read 
and write, ownership of property, and good 
character. The best judgment of the people is, 
therefore, the real safeguard of the office. 

ucational qualifications—One of the fore- 
most educational qualifications for a school 
board member is a sound educational philoso- 
phy, an abiding faith in education, and a desire 
to provide the best educational opportunities 
possible. In other words, a correct attitude te~ 
ward education is extremely important, A good 
education is also a desirable qualification for 
members, but there is no definite standard 
which can be advocated.2, Whether the board 
member is a college graduate or only a high- 
school graduate is less important than his atti- 
tude toward education and his knowledge of 
what is best in present educational theory and 
practice. Every board member should have a 
general acquaintance with current issues in edu- 
cation ; otherwise, his educational leadership can 
hardly be constructive. 

Business-qwalifications—It is generally con- 
ceded that one of the best standards of business 
ability is the degree of success which people 
have in the management of their own business 
affairs. Therefore, school board members ought 
to be persons who have managed their own 
affairs well. Business training and business ex- 
perience constitute a Valuable type of prepara- 
tion for school board members 
joiftt responsibility for a business enterprise of 
considerable proportions. 

Personal qualifications—School board mem- 
bers need the same personal qualifications which 
make for success in any undertaking.* It may 
be assumed at once that they should be honest 
and conscientious, and have goad judgment and 

! Davis, B. E. “Board Member of 


common sense. In addition, certain trait 
character seem to be especially needed.‘ 

First there is open-mindedness or willing 
to learn; the ability to listen to reason an 
change one’s opinion. The school board me: 
who knows all there is to know about ey 
thing is not likely to exert a very helpfu 
fluence in board action. 

Ability to cooperate is also important. || 
board member needs to pull with the tean 
be loyal to his colleagues and to employe: 
the board. He should be able to give ar 
take; to lead and to follow. He will be « 
upon to support policies adopted by the 
which do not meet with his personal appr: 
He should know, especially, how to work wit 
the superintendent or any other executive off 
charged with administering school affairs 
should know how to delegate responsibilit 
others and what responsibilities should be 
gated. He should be willing to do his part 
the active work of the school board and ass 
his share of the responsibility for board act 

Courage is a third trait which is essent 
A board member is confronted with many sit 
tions which demand courageous action. He » 
often defend his point of view before ot 
members of the board. He must be able to st 
criticism. He must be ready to assume res) 
sibility for things that go amiss. He must of te: 
stand squarely against organized propaga: 
or pressure of one kind or another. 

A self-rating scale for school board mem 
—This bulletin-& r r @ belief! 
most board members would like to do ¢! 
work a little better; that they often say wit 
Burns, 


Oh wad some power the giftie gie us 
To see ourselves as others see us! 
_It wad frae monie a blunder free us 
And foolish notion. 


Consequently, it seems well to conclude the 
cussion with a self-rating exercise. Board m« 
bers will find it stimulating to see how mai 
of the questions in Figure VI they can ansv 
with an emphatic “Yes.” 


omorrow."’ Journal of Education 114: 454-55; December 21, 1931. Murphy, R. ‘‘W 


the Good School- Board Member?” American School Board Journal 85: 25-26; October, 1932. National Education Associ 
“Resolutions,”’ Proceedings, 1920 Vol. 58. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1920. p. 26. 


* Hines, J 


F. “Qualifications of School Board Members.” American Sch 


ool Board Journal 77: 38; August, 1928. 


4 Hoel, C. H. “Traits and Qualifications of Schoo! Board Members in Ohio."" American School Board Journal 75: 39; Dece! 


1927. Struble, G. G. “A Study of School 


Board Personnel.” American School Board Journal 65: 48-49; October, 1922. 


‘ The traits listed in the paragraphs which follow are presented without any intention of ranking them in the order of 


importance. 


_ _§For another rating scale for school board members see Mendenhall, Edgar. A Rural School Board Measuring Stick. Pitts! 
Kansas: Department of Rural Education, Kansas State Teachers College, 1925. 


[40] 











FIGURE VI.—SELF-RATING SCALE FOR SCHOOL BOARD MEMBERS 





Yes No 
l Do I want every child to have the best edu tional opport ties that our 
district can afford? 
2. Do I have a good general understanding about current problems in edu- 


cation? 


3. Do I help to elect the most desirable employees for our school system? 

1. Do I loyally support those who carry out the policies of the board? 

5. Am I willing to delegate administrative duties to the proper persons? ( 

6. Do I stand for a just wage for efficient service? 

7. Do I insist that all agents ol the board be held strictly responsible for 
efficient service? 

8. Do I use my influence to secure frequent and idequate reports from all 


agents of the board? 
9. Do I get facts, study them, and make my decisions in the light of them? ( 
10. Do I recognize the difference between economy and stinginess? 
1. Do I think in terms of the future as well as the present? 
) 


. Am I well informed as to the resources of the district whicl 


l present? 


3. Can I form opinions of my own and at the same time retain an open mind? 
4. Do I cooperate well with other board members; with employees; with other 
official groups; with the public? 

15. Do I work for the success of all the board's policies—even 
against my voice and vote? 

16. Do I do my part of the work and shoulder my share of the responsibility? 

17. Am I informed about the school law in my state? 

18. Am I free from the dominance of any party or-faction in my school dis 
ha radnks 4.x ease Suan . ; 

19. Do I refuse to speak or act PERSONALLY on matters whicl properly 
belong to the board as a whole? 

20. Am I conscientious about my work and prompt and re 

ance at board meetings? 


J 


LOSE idopted 


ilar vy attend- 


Total (Count the number of checks in each column 











A Five-Inch Shelf of Books for School Board Members 


The books in the brief list presented here deal directly with the school board member and his official 
duties. A more extensive bibliography can be compiled readily from the footnote references cited throughout 
the bulletin. Magazine articles written especially for school board members often appear in periodicals in 
the field of school administration, such as, the American School Board Journal (Milwaukee Bruce Publishing 
Co.), Nation’s Schools (Chicago: Nation’s Schools Publishing Co ind School Executives Magazine 
Lincoln, Neb.: School Executives Magazine Co 

1. AI MACK, JOHN C. The School Board Member. New York: Mac millan Co.., 1927 

2. Gritt, Georce W. Minutes of a Board of Education. Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Co., 193 

3. KeywortH, Maurice R. Legal Aspects for the Records of Boards of Education. Milwaukee: B 
Publishing Co., 1931. 

4. MENDENHALL, Epcar. The City School Board Member and His Task. Pittsburg, Kansas: College 
Inn Book Store, 1929. 

5. MoreHarT, Grover C. The Legal Status of City School Boards. ¢ ontributions to Education, No 
New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927. 

6. OLsen, Hans C. The Work of Boards of Education. Contributions to Education, No. 213. New York 
Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1926 








HE BOARD OF EDUCATION can serve its 

constituency best by holding its executive officer, 

the superintendent of schools, responsible for a 
high degree of efficiency in the administration of the 
school system. It should provide him, upon his nomi- 
nation, witha staff of competentassociates. The Board 
members should expect to spend their time in Board 
meeting acting as a committee of the whole in the 
consideration of the proposals brought to them by 
their executive officer. He will present matters of 
major importance for decision by the Board. He will 
seek to demonstrate by such evidence as is available 
the wisdom of the action which he advocates. The 
Board will call upon the executive officer from time 
to time for evidence in support of his efficient execu- 
tion of the policies which it has adopted. The super- 
intendent of schools has a right to expect that after 
the Board of Education has adopted a policy or pro- 
gram for the school system it will continue to support 
him in his attempt to carry it into action. The right 
relationship between the Board of Education and the 
superintendent of schools will be brought about only 
when the members of the Board cease to think of 
their function as having anything to do with the exe- 
cution of the policies which they adopt.—Survey of 
the Schools of Chicago, Illinois, 1932. 








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