Research Bulletin OF THE National Education Association VOLUME X January to November, 1932 The Research Bulletin is issued by the Research Division, a section of the headquarters staff of the National Education Association. This divi sion was created in February, 1922, for the purpose of conducting scien tific studies of special interest to members of the teaching profession Bulletin One was issued by the Research Division in June, 1922, and Bulletin Two, in November, 1922. The first number of the Research Bulletin is Volume I, No. 1, January, 1923, entitled “Facts on State Educational Needs.’’ With Volume I, No. 1, the Research Bulletin became a regular publication, issued five times each year—January, March, May, September, and November. The Research Bulletins composing Volumes I, Il, 111, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, and X are listed on the inside back cover of the November, 1932, Bulletin. RESEARCH DIVISION THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1201 Sixteenth Street Northwest, Washington, D. C. 1932 CONTENTS Foreword Introduction Training Requirements for Newly Appointed Teachers Increases in statutory requirements Necessity of adequate training The desirable minimum training What is the ultimate goal? Present practice in city school systems Comparison of survey results in 1931, 1928, and 19 Trend of training requirements in city syste! Effect of supply and demand upon standards Need for higher qualitative standards for admission Need for research | Experience Requirements for Newly Appointed Teachers Present practice in city school systems Trend of practice since 1922-23 13 Employment of Married Women as Teachers 14 Wide differences of opinion 14 Arguments against married women as teachers 14 Arguments in favor of married women as teachers 14 Opinion in educational literature 15 Che attitude of parents 16 Surveys of opinion among educators 1 Studies of relative efficiency Legal aspects of the married-teacher question 18 Present practice in city school systems 19 Trend of practice in recent years 20 Leaves of absence for maternity 0) Appointment of Local Residents as Teachers 2 Present practice in city school systems 2 Routine Procedures in the Selection of Teachers 3 Selection a function of the superintendent 23 Definite search for desirable prospects 3 Use of formal application blanks 24 Use of reference blanks and letters of recommendation 25 Personal interviews with applicants 26 Observation of classroom work 6 Written examinations 26 Physical examinations 27 Other practices. . . 27 Wide variation in plans for selecting teachers 27 Selected and Classified Bibliography 8 Questionnaire Used in Collection of Data 30) LIST OF TABLES Table age 1. Educational! Qualifications Required of Newly Appointed Teachers in 1930-31 8 2. Comparison of Educational Qualifications Required of Newly Appointed Teachers in 1927-28 and 1930-31. 10 3. Experience Requirements for Newly Appointed Teachers in 1930-31 13 4. Illness per Year among Single and Married Women Teachers in Cleveland, 1922-23 18 5. Policies Concerning Employment of Married Women as Teachers in 1930-31. 19 6. Comparison of Policies Regarding Employment of Married Women as Teachers in 1927-28 and 1930-31 20 7. Policies Concerning Appointment of Local Residents as Teachers in 1930-31 22 8. Routine Procedures Used in Selection of Teachers in 1930-31 4 a icine’ ‘ ' i ' FOREWORD N TIMES of stress we need to come back frequently to the essentials of Ame: ican educational philosophy. We need to remind ourselves and the public that our democracy is based upon complete educational opportunities fo: all children and that good teaching is an indispensable element in such an op portunity. School administration primarily exists to bring children under the influence of trained teachers possessed of a high degree of ability and character. How to attract such individuals to the teaching profession, how to retain thei: services, how to help them to improve professionally and culturally, are prob lems of first importance. They are even more important in times of adversity than in times of prosperity. This bulletin, therefore, appears at an opportune time. This is the first of two new bulletins dealing with the field of teache: personnel administration. ‘These bulletins summarize a wealth of materia! bearing on various problems involved in the development of efficient teaching staffs. They report findings from the Research Division’s latest inquiry as to current practice concerning these problems in city school systems. ‘They place the reader in touch with the best professional opinion in this important field. The present bulletin discusses practices in the selection and appointment of teachers, while the one for March, 1932, will be devoted to practices affecting the retention, promotion, and improvement of teachers. During the past ten years the National Education Association has become a great clearing-house for information and discussion of the problems involved in keeping a capable and well-trained teacher in every classroom. This bulletin and the one to follow are important contributions to the Association's program in this field. School boards, school executives, teachers, college specialists, and civic groups studying such problems will find these two bulletins particularly useful in furnishing a factual basis for their work. J. W. Crastree, Secretary, National Education Association [2] acc cei int rel: per the Trem the | in ci sion. Sept Introduction School administration is not an end in itself, but rather a means of providing a wholesome nvironment and effective instruction for chil- dren. Good administration seeks to plan, guide, nd coordinate the entire school system so that the outcomes will be of maximum value to the pupils and to society in general. Of the many specific factors which contribute to the success influential of the school, probably the most are the character and status of its classroom teachers. Sound educational administration, therefore, must give major attention to the na- ture and needs of the teaching staff. It cannot treat its teachers as if they were unskilled la- borers working by the hour or by the day in a wholly impersonal relationship with their em- ployers. Wise administration will devote care- ful study to the principles and practices in- volved in recruiting and continuously improv- Such study should cover all aspects of teacher im- ing a high-grade teaching personnel. provement: professional, cultural, economic, and social. In formulating principles and evaluating practices, of course, an objective point of view should be maintained. The pri- mary question to be answered is not What do teachers deserve as rewards for devoting their lives to a great cause? Rather, it is What poli- cies and practices will best procure and retain teachers of splendid ability, foster their self- respect and initiative, and stimulate them to improve continuously the quality of their service? That this philosophy is being increasingly accepted is attested by the many requests re- ceived by the Research Division from super- intendents, principals, and teachers, asking for reliable information on problems of teacher personnel. The lines of interest revealed in these requests have been used as the basis for 1 National Education Association, Salary Committee Trends in 1923. Washington, D. ¢ the United States.” p. 48-57. _ _2Since 1923 the Research Division has conducted a biennial survey in city school systems of the United States. The latest of these is summarized in a : the Association, July, 1923. a continuing study of theory and practice in various phases of this field. Earlier surveys by the Re searcn Dix sion In 1923 the Research Division, in cooperation Salary Committee of the National Education Association, made its first systematic with the effort to collect data on personnel practices in city Ss hool systems. Although this first in quiry dealt mainly with the larger problems of also schedule B. h teachers’ salaries and salary included certain special topics, such as_ the amounts of training and experience required of newly appointed teachers, the rating of teachers, salary allowances for summer school attendance and for professional courses com pleted during the school year, leaves of absence for study and educative travel, sick leave with pay, tenure of position, and retirement pro visions. Responses to the InquIry) were received from approximately 1,000 city school systems from 2,500 to over 100,000 in population.’ In 1928 a second survey was made of prac tices affecting teacher personnel.’ This survey included most of the special items enumerated Usable above, and several others in addition. 532 school information was received from 1, systems in cities over 2,500 in population. Scope and procedure of this stud, Because of the constant demand for up-to-date informa tion in this field, a third investigation was un plan of this survey was similar to that of the dertaken in the spring of 1931. general 1928 study, but was somewhat more compre hensive. A four-page printed questionnaire, which is reproduced at the end of this bulletin, was sent to all school systems in the 2,880 cities over 2,500 in population according to the 1920 census.* From these a total of 1,489 usable replies were received. The following summary shows how this response compares Evenden, Chairman). Report: Teacher Salaries and Salary hapter III, ‘Special Provisions Affecting Teachers’ Salaries the salaries paid teachers and other school National Education Association, employees Research Divi sion. *‘Salaries in City School Systems, 1930-31.’ Research Bulletin 9: 161-228; May, 1931. Washington, D. C.: the Association § National Education Association, Research Division. ‘' Practices Affecting Teacher Personne!."’ Research Bulletin 6: 205-56 September, 1928. Washington, D. C.: the Association. 4 At the time the questionnaires were mailed out, the names of superintendents ot schools were not available { r those com- munities whose populations had changed from less than 2,500 in 1920 to 2,500 or above in 1930. [3] with the total number of cities in each popu- much more intensive study than is possi! lation group according to the 1930 census: here, and still many points would remain u: - settled. As in most other phases of school a | | etc a Cities replying ministration, the influence of various practi . Population group | ore to a 7 upon the eftectiveness of instruction is Dé census | . } | Number) Percent difficult to measure. Moreover, actual expe a ieee a ae GEE com 5, an naking ording imited t that neve! con ter it mn minis so by litions stated ; and yoINt pre tailed eT S are ana inte rs hers rob ls o1 e of the etin. Training Requirements for Newly Appointed Teachers Specialized training for any type of work ecomes necessary when that work has devel- ped to the point where it requires knowledge ind skill of a relatively high order. When such vork is of great value to society as a whole, ind when the general public becomes aware of this fact, barriers are set up which prevent the admission of persons who are unprepared to give a high grade of service. ‘The state now examines with extreme care the qualifications of prospective physicians. Persons planning to enter the legal profession must usually meet special requirements as to character and pro- fessional training. Society protects itself simi larly in many other forms of professional and 1 business service, Increases in statutory requirements Teach- ing service is now among the fields of work in which the public insists upon some measure of protection against incompetence. This has not always been true. In our early history the formal instruction of children was considered neither sufficiently complex and difficult nor sufficiently vital to require teachers of high calibre. However, as our philosophy of edu- cation has broadened and deepened to include many different aims, services, and technical procedures, and as society in general has grad- ually realized the importance of the influences under which the child develops, minimum re- quirements for admission to teaching have been established. The oldest method of certificating persons for teaching is by examination, and for many years most states were satisfied with this type of requirement. Many states have now gone beyond this stage and are maintaining stand- ards in terms of scholarship prerequisites, either with or without the use of special examina- tions in addition. Especially within recent years great progress has been made toward higher’ scholastic requirements. As _ recently as 1921 thirty states maintained no definite scholarship standards for certification, and the four states most advanced in this respect re- quired less than one year of professional train- ing beyond high-school graduation. In 1926, however, only 15 states had no statewide scho lastic requirement for entrance, while nine required one full year of professional training beyond the high school, and four required two vears of work beyond the high school.’ ‘The tendency in certification is clearly in the direc- tion of increased training and less dependence upon examinations. Moreover, in a number of states common practice even in rural areas Is considerably above the minimum statutory re- quirements. In addition to the minimum requirements for admission to the profession, some states re quire higher and more specialized qualifications for teaching in the high school and in various special subjects. Necessity of adequate training—Competent authorities in education are now generally agreed that every state and local community should set up professional training require ments which not only will protect children from unprepared teachers, but will aim to raise teache1 competence to the highest possible level. Lewis expresses this philosophy as fol lows: Teaching, if it is to be skilled, and no other kind should be acceptable, demands a trained, experi- enced, and competent teaching personnel. ‘The product of the public school will in many cases continue to be disappointing until our children are instructed by teachers properly qualified for this important service. Making good citizens is a skilled service and cannot be performed by unskilled worker s Buckingham points out that the increased need for trained teachers is due to the growing demands of a complex society: The modern demands of society and of civiliza- tion require an everlengthening and intensive period of training for children and young people. Longer and longer grows the period of infancy—the period of dependence of the human child upon adult guid- ance. Of supreme importance, therefore, it is, that there be at the service of society as the teachers of its dependents, men and women of “‘first-rate in- tellect, morals, and skill.” . 1 Cook, Katherine M. State Laws and Regulations Governing Teacher ertificates. U. S. Departmen I Bur 1of Education, Bulletin, 1927, No, 19 Washington, D. ( Government Printing Office, 1927. p. 12-16. * Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staff’ New York: Century Company, 1925. p. 33 *Buckingham, B. R. Supply and Demand in Teacher Training. Ohio State University Studies, Vol. I N 15. Bureau of ) Educational Research Monographs, No. 4. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University [ 3-4 , March 15, 1926 1 oan Cr ieeent o most sroom reatest spon ponsi publi inde ine t to in seek ‘veral for: aders ene! thers Poin four high the im- 1925 ems mediately, even where standards have been very low. For example, the preliminary report of the recent survey of the public schools of Mis- souri recommends that after July 1, 1932, (1) in applicant for a high-school teacher’s certifi- cate of the lowest grade should have completed four years of work in a standard 4 college or its equivalent in academic or scientific courses, of which at least 12 semester hours should have been in professional education and prac- tice teaching of high-school subjects; and (2) an applicant for an elementary teacher’s cer- tificate of lowest grade should be a graduate of a standard senior high school and have com- pleted in addition thereto a teacher-training course of two years as prescribed by the State Department of Education.’ Myers sums up the consensus of expert opinion regarding quantitative standards of teacher preparation as follows: The day has passed in American education when it was necessary to try to prove that one year of training beyond the high school was an insufficient amount of training for teachers. No important rec- ommendation or proposal regarding training re- quirements for teaching has been made within the last ten years which contemplated a minimum train- ing of less than two years beyond the high school for elementary teachers and four years for high school teachers.” What is the ultimate goal?—There are some who assert that the standards mentioned above should be regarded as only temporary; that we should be satisfied with these goals only so long as is practically necessary; and that as soon as conditions permit, the minimum requirements should be increased still further. Buckingham contends that the two-year course for elementary teachers is insufficient, although it is a desirable step toward something better. He reminds us that four years of training is customarily regarded as a minimum for ad- mission to a truly professional calling. There- fore he believes that: I'he goal should be a four-year course for every teacher; and this goal should not be a visionary one. It should at this moment form part of the defi- nite plans of our educational leaders; its realiza- Almack is less certain as to the desirabuilit ot requiring more than two years as a min mum training period for all beginning ele mentary teachers. While asserting that he does not oppose four years of collegiate preparatior th lat for such teachers, he contends that it 1s worthwhile to extend the training period this fat we have no conclusive evidence It is better to set down a reasonable standard say two years—leaving it to the future to increase this minimum in the light of experience and invest gation occasionally find institutions for teacher preparation which ad On the other hand, we vocate more than four years of college train ing for both elementary and high-school teach ers. Such an institution is the Teachers Col lege of the University of Cincinnati. Follow ing are some selected statements trom one of its descriptive publications: The Teachers College operates as a fessional college within the University, maintaining a three year professional program, based upon a two years liberal arts prerequisite .... and awards the strictly professional degree of Bachelor of Education, herein conferring a degree equal in rank to the professional degrees conferred in law, engineering, etc. The oj portunity of the student to secure the degrees of Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science in Educa- tion at the end of the fourth college vear is in agree ment with the same opportunities offered to students who have transferred to other professional schools of the University. It is not a requirement that st dents secure such a degree, as taking such fails to mark the completion of the standard three-year pro fessional course in teacher trainin msidered es sential by the Tcachers College Che final vear is devoted to practice teaching related practicum instruction, and advanced courses in the University, upon the successful completion of which the student is awarded the degree of Bachelor of Education, and becomes eligible for the appro priate type of State Provisional Certificate and rat ing on the preferred lists for a intment in the Cincinnati Public Schools Present practice in city school systems—The resent practice in city school systems i preceding pages indicate the trend of compe- tent opinion concerning minimum training re quirements for teachers. We now pass to a consideration of the quantitative requirements tion should be anticipated at an early date. set up for initial appointment in city school 1 Strayer, George D., and Engelhardt, N. L., directors. ‘‘A Preliminary Report of the Survey of the Pu Is and H Institutions in the State of Missouri.’’ Eightieth Report of the Public Schools of the State of Missouri. Part 1. J son City, M State Superintendent of Public Schools, 1930. p. 140-41. 2 Myers, Alonzo Franklin. A Teacher-Training Program for Ohio. Contributions to Education, No. 266. New York: Bu 1 of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927. p. 108. $ Buckingham, B. R. Supply and Demand in Teacher Training. Ohio State University Studies, Vol. II, No. 15, B Educational Research Monographs, No. 4. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, March 15, 1926. p. 154 4 Almack, J. C., and Lang, A. R. Problems of the Teaching Profession. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1925. p. 23 5 Announcement of the Teachers College, 1931-32. University of Cincinnati Record, Series I, Vol. 27, N ( nnati, O the University, April, 1931. p. 14-15. [7] systems. Table 1 summarizes such data for from 40 percent in cities of 2,500 to 5,00) of tl nearly 1,500 cities of all sizes in 1930-31. to 72 percent in cities over 100,000 in pop each The table reveals the following main facts for . lation. with the school systems reporting: 3. More than 98 percent of all the citi: grad 1. Only 3 percent of all the cities ap- reporting now demand at least four years o} A point new elementary teachers with less than higher education of their newly appointe. mini two years of training beyond high-school gradu- teachers in senior high schools. A few requir acco ation. ‘This percentage varies from zero five years, and two cities report a minimum ence among cities over 100,000 to 5.5 among cities requirement of six years. In 12 percent of th ile, »f 2,500 to 5,000 population. Most of the cities over 100,000 in population the require t! cities in each group require just two years, ment is five years beyond high-school gradu with but about 22 percent in all groups combined ation. tion insist upon even more. Among the cities over Examination of the individual responses one 100,000 about 20 percent require three years upon which Table | is based suggests that th cons and 15 percent require four years of collegiate figures given understate slightly the require four preparation. ments for admission to teaching in cities. In In 2. Practically all cities which have junior — reporting, several cities stated that while onl) tab high schools require at least two years, and two years of college training are required ame about half of them require four years of col- officially for elementary teaching, in actual the . mt lege preparation for initial appointment in practice teachers with no more than that . these schools. The proportion having mini- amount are rarely given consideration. Simi ( . mum requirements of four years or more ranges larly, some cities have officially set four years and i and \ dra | TABLE 1.—EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS REQUIRED OF NEWLY sur APPOINTED TEACHERS IN 1930-31 ons . re ee ee ee and | Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 |#Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All cities this . | 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in | veoustin a | Number of years training re- | population population population population population P 8 we! i quired beyond high-school ExT CREE, Pee 2 sia ae Be bea ea oe 12 ; a graduation | | in | iW Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num- | Per- Num-! Per- | Num-| Per- | | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent not dl — |__| |—— |__|} —— |__| ——_| —_| —— re ‘ty 1 et 2 -.e 5 6 7 8 | 9 mies] mis pal : a ee a ee ee a : EEE SE Se we Sn Saaee Stet aca , j ) Elementary schools: | ; than one year........... Deuhiha.s ey ee . me 3 8 48 3.4 : SG Sis cach cccacdpaben fei 1 ee eS At ek 3 .. 2 1 th a SEINE 8 2s ey 85 |100.0 | 178 |100.0 380 [100.0 | 382 [100.0 | 373 |100.0 1398 |100.0 19 . a : gr : Read table as follows: Of the 84 cities over 100,000 in population which reported requirements for newly appointed pr elementary teachers, 54, or 64.3 percent, require 2 years beyond high-school graduation; 17, or 20.2 percent, require 3 years, etc. Similarly read data for other teacher and population groups. —_ This tabulation is based on the replies to question 1 of the inquiry blank reproduced on page 39. 1 One of these cities requires 2 years in the 7th and 8th grades, and 4 years in the 9th grade. 208 2 One of these cities requires 3 years in the 7th and 8th grades, and 4 years in the 9th grade. | = ; Senior high schools: | | Four or more years... .. ‘ vee 93.1 | 97.7 | 94.1 | 97.8 | 91.0 | 97.6 | 92.6 | 98.2 | 91.1 | 98.9 | 92.0 | 98.1 More than four years. .... se} ST] O08] 7.0) 6.7) 3.7] 3.9) 2.9) 2.7 1.7 | mo) 2.5) 3 Number of cities reporting....... | 87 85 | 169 | 178] 379 | 380) 376 | 382] 361 373 | 1372 | 1398 Read table as tollows: Of the 84 cities over 100,000 in population which reported their minimum training requirements for newly appointed elementary teachers in 1927-28, 97.6 percent required 2 or more years beyond high-school graduation, while 15.5 percent required more than 2 years. Of the 84 cities in the same population group which reported on this question in 1930-31, 100 percent require 2 or more years beyond high-school graduation, while 35.7 percent require more than 2 years. Similarly read the figures for other teacher and population groups. [10] shou or t pect tivel tron elem gran siral wor s1oni trovi at be light schoc prese acad what has the 1 As tion state cept also that more speci speci Vv prep such Sout beyo dem teacl scho orn Am mun state 1 Studie 2 June, 3 4 & e 1s a States ‘uture etitior eithe Since ble it rn it it our gains atives laries train ir ad ining should teachers well trained for handling one or two specific subjects in high school be ex- pected to teach other unrelated subjects eftec- tively. Thus far, however, authorities are far from complete agreement concerning what elements should constitute the training pro- cram for teachers in any specific field. The de- sirable types and relative amounts of academic work on the one hand, and of strictly profes- sional study on the other, are still highly con- troversial questions. Concerning the present standards for ad- mission to high-school teaching, Bachman says: Graduation from a standard college is, however, at best only a quantitative measure and sheds little light on what the needed preparation of a high- school teacher should be. .. . Indeed, so general are present-day graduation requirements for the usual academic degrces that it is next to impossible to tell what a graduate from any given academic college has studied, without examining the transcript of the work of the given student. As a mere quantitative standard college gradua- tion is all that can at present be imposed by most states on all new high-school teachers, but to ac- cept graduation from an academic college longer also as a qualitative standard is to ignore the fact that high-school teaching is more specialized and increasingly exacting as to becoming more and specific preparation, no less for academic than for special high-school teachers.’ With respect to this problem of academic preparation the great standardizing agencies, such as the North Central Association and the Southern Association, have offered no solution beyond requiring that “all teachers of aca- demic subjects in new schools and all new teachers of academic subjects in accredited schools must teach in the fields of their major or minor specialization in college preparation. A minor is interpreted as consisting of a mini- their highest grade high-school teachers’ ce1 tificates, 27 make no academic requirement ex cept graduation from a recognized college, and in eight others the subjectmatter requirement are very low. With respect to strictly professional prepa tion, much has been accomplished both by the accrediting associations and by the states; yet a great deal remains to be done. Bachman con tinues: The requirement of twelve to fifteen semester hours of professional preparation of high-school teachers by great regional accrediting associations shows what is deemed practical under present co! ditions. It is, however, not to be inferred that this represents either a desirable or ideal amount such preparation. Nevertheless, the general char acter of the work recommended by the North Central Association is suggestive.‘ Thirty-three states now require between 15 and 18 semester hours of professional educa tion for the highest grade of academic high school teacher’s certificate. In the other fifteen states the requirement runs as low as five and as high as 24 semester hours. In only fou: states, however, is all of this work carefull) prescribed as to the specific subjects that must immount of be studied and the approximate credit allowed in each.' Need for research Compe tent opinion based on mature experience and common pra tice is probably the best guide available on these issues to date. As yet research has littl conclusive evidence to offe1 as an d to those responsible for determining the amount and kind of training to be required of prospective teachers. The attempts at scientific work in this field are vield results of great significance to school ad encouraging and should eventual! mum of ten semester hours.’? Although a few ministrators, teacher-training officials, and states have requirements higher than this for _ teachers _ 1 Bachman, Frank P. Training and Certification of Wigh School Teachers. N ville, Tennessee: Div n ' i} Studies, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1930 p. 11 and 14. 2? Brown, Charles C. “Proceedings of the Commissi Secondary Sct ls." North Central A ition Ouarter 4: 80 June, 1929. * Bachman, Frank P. op. cit. p. 16-17. 4 [bid., p. 15. § Ibid., p. 18-20. fit 3 en ae " ete Experience Requirements for Newly Appointed Teachers Since every teacher must begin teaching somewhere without previous experience, the question of experience requirements for newly appointed teachers is of limited application. ‘ Consequently writers in the field of teacher personnel have given it only incidental con- sideration. The principal argument in favor of such requirements is that school districts which can afford to pay the higher salaries are entitled to the superiority in teaching service which the right kind of experience often brings. On the other hand, there are two impor- tant arguments against such requirements. First, the cream of the experienced personnel in the smaller and less wealthy areas is taken by the larger and wealthier centers. This pro- cess is perhaps inevitable to a certain extent so long as school districts, like persons, are permitted to operate on a highly individualistic basis economically. Inequalities in financial ability mean differences in the power to buy superior educational service just as surely as they mean differences in the power to buy food, shelter, and luxuries. Such inequalities are characteristic of American life, and in practice they have been sanctioned by the peo- ple. Nevertheless, we have a theory that edu- cation is a function of the state, to be con- ducted for the greatest good of all the people. If this theory is sound, it is difficult to see any fundamental justification for the concentra- tion of experienced teachers in a relatively few centers. A second objection to such requirements for all new teachers is that the benefit accruing to the school system from one or two years of teaching experience elsewhere is often small. Practice does not make perfect unless it is the right kind of practice. For this reason, experi- ence in ill-equipped or poorly supervised schools does not necessarily add to a teacher’s skill. Moreover, experience in teaching third-grade pupils or ninth-grade English may contribute little to the fitness of a person to teach social science in the high school. Of course such ex- perience is often better than none, but it prob- ably is not as valuable as is frequently sup- posed. Rather than select a teacher whose pre- vious experience has been outside the scope of his prospective position, the school authorities might better appoint an inexperienced rec; with excellent training, and let him obtain | first experience under competent supervision in the field he is expected to teach. The solution of this problem doubtless lies partly in giving prospective teachers a type of training which includes an adequate amount of observation and practice teaching und careful guidance. When such work is required of all students in institutions for the prepara tion of teachers, there will be less need for ex perience requirements even in school districts which try to maintain unusually high stand ards. Competent administration and _ supe: vision in the school system itself are, of course vital factors in making experience requir: ments unnecessary. Present practice in city school systems Table 3 reveals the extent to which previous experience is required of newly appointed teachers in the cities reporting in 1930-31 The main points of the table may be summa: ized thus: 1. For appointment in elementary schools 58 percent of all the cities reporting require no previous teaching experience, while 42 per- cent require at least one year. The proportion requiring no experience varies from 53 pe: cent among cities of 10,000 to 30,000 popula- tion to 66 percent among cities over 100,000. There appears to be little relationship between the size of cities and their practice on this point. The largest and smallest population groups both have a relatively high percentage of cities without experience requirements fo: new elementary teachers. 2. For appointment in junior high schools only 47 percent of the cities reporting require no previous experience, while 53 percent re quire at least one year. The proportion with out such a requirement ranges from 41 pe: cent in cities over 100,000 to 55 percent in cities of 2,500 to 5,000 population. 3. For appointment in senior high schools also, 47 percent of all the cities have no ex perience requirement. This percentage varie from 28 in cities over 100,000 to 64 in thos: of 2,500 to 5,000 population. Here a striking inverse relationship is evident between size o! cities and their practice with respect to new teachers in senior high schools. [12] ceca Ahmed on Ser ees 4. ence non in th cities expel popu \ co one \ than In be b por ti this | ing. previ with requ prep: be th 3 the head T. swee conc ~ Trend: 2 9 of th re. ain s10on a type mou und qui! for istrict Star supe! “ourse qui ems ey 10 Is oint 30-31 nmat choo . equire 2 per- ortion 3 op ypula ) O00 tween 1 this lation ntage ts ft ~hools qui it re with pe mt in ‘hools iO eX vari thos iking ze ot nev } 4. In nearly all population groups experi requirements during the past eight irs. This ence requirements are considerably more com conclusion is reached by comparing the results mn with respect to high school teachers th in ot this stud\ with thi se of the n stigation the case of elementary teachers. Among the made by the Research Division in 1923 cities having such requirements, two years of Among the cities over 100,000 the tendency experience are most frequently stipulated in all seems to be away from requiring ext ence of population groups and for all types of schools. new teachers in all three types of schools. Dur \ considerable number of cities require only ing this period the percentage of such cities one year of experience; very few require more requiring some experience dropped from 51 to than two years. 34 for elementary teachers, from /+ to 59 for In considering the data of Table 3 it should junior high-school teachers, and from 82 to be borne in mind that a number of cities re- 72 for senior high-school teachers. Among all porting no experience requirements stated that other population groups there seems to have this applies only to persons of superior train- been a slight increase in the proportion re ing. For example, a city may not demand quiring experience for appointment in senio1 previous experience of an elementary teacher high schools. In these same population groups with three or four years of training, but may (under 100,000), both increases and decreases require it of a teacher with only two years of are found with respect to the requirements for preparation. Such cases, however, appear to elementary and junior high-school teachers, but | be the exception rather than the rule. In Table most of these differences are smal 3 they are tabulated under the “no experience”’ A reasonable degree of caution must be ob heading. served in interpreting these comparative fig Trend of practice since 1922-23—No _ ures, because the sampling of cities in the 1931 sweeping statement appears to be warranted — study was considerably larger than in the sur concerning changes in the matter of experience vey of 1923. 1 National Education Association, Salary Committee (E. S. Evenden, Chairman Report: Teacher tlartes and Salar Trends in 1923. Washington, D. C.: the Association, July, 1923. p. 48-49 2 For an explanation of the assumptions and methods involved in the comparison of data for 1931, 1928, and 1923, see page 9 of this bulletin. TABLE 3.—EXPERIENCE REQUIREMENTS FOR NEWLY APPOINTED TEACHERS IN 1930-31 Cities over Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 Cities 5,000 Cities 2,500 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in os aume Number of yeirs experience population population population population population PSS required ‘ Num-| Per- | Num- Per- |Num-/| Per- Num-/; Per- |Num-| Per Num Per- ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Elementary schools: No experience - 56 65.9 113 60.8 07 52.8 236 58.0 248 62.0 R60 sas One year 9 10.6 34 18.3 79 20.1 70 ain 72 18.0 ; 18.0 Two years 20 20.9 38 20.4 99 6.3 99 | 24.3 73 1 3 ’ 22.4 More than two years 1 5 7 1.8 2 5 7 1.7 1 1.1 WEN abies Bes ¢) 85 100.0 186 100.0 39? 100.0 407 100.0 | 400 100.0 1470 |100.0 Junior high schools: No experience 8 40.6 75 46 | 141 42.4 | 182 47.4) 171 54.8 567 | 47,3 One year ; 11 15.9 36 22.1 72 21.6 57 17.8 55 17.6 231 19 3 Two years 26 37.7 47 28.8 109 2.7 103 32.0 74 23.7 359 30.0 More than two years 4 5 8 5 .. 2 i 2 3 9° 2.8 12 2°09 41 34 Total 69 |100.0 | 163 (100.0 | 333 |100.0 | 321 |100.0 | 312 |100.0 | 1198 |100.0 Senior high schools: No experience 24-| 28.2) 56 | 31.5] 154 | 41.0] 186 | 48.8] 238 | 64.1] 658 | 47.3 | One year } 12.9 42 23.6 79 21.0 | 68 17.8 | 46 12.4 246 | 17.7 | Two vears 44 51.8 75 42.1 118 31.4 116 30.5 7 19.7 426 30.6 More than two years 6 7 4 5 2.8 25 66 11 | 2.9 14] 38 aa} 4.4 Total 85 |100.0 | 178 |100.0 | 376 |100.0 | 381 |100.0 | 371. [100.0 | 1391 |100.0 Read table as follows: Of the 85 cities over 100,000 in population which reported concerning experience requirements | for newly appointed elementary teachers, 56, or 65.9 percent, do not require any experience; 9, or 10.6 percent, require 1 | year of experience, etc. Similarly read data for other teacher and population groups. This tabulation is based on the replies to question 2 of the inquiry blank reproduced on page 30. [13] an eek ae A CG A LC A ETE LE ACG TTT AEA LI te NT a ae —— os ' ' t =e Employment of Married Women as Teachers Should married women be employed as new teachers? Should single women teachers who marry be permitted to continue in their posi- tions? These questions have been the subject of much discussion and some research. Wide differences of opinion—There is a rather sharp cleavage of opinion on these ques- tions among both educators and laymen. Al- though much of this opinion can hardly be characterized as expert, it deserves considera- tion as a means of illuminating the problem and of helping school authorities see and avoid the fallacious reasoning in which many discussions of the subject become entangled. Lewis de- votes an entire chapter to this problem.' He lists 31 arguments for, and 31 against the em- ployment of married women teachers. Some of these are patently absurd or trivial, and many are only slight modifications of others in the list. Arguments against married women as teach- ers—Most of the arguments against the em- ployment of married women which merit con- sideration may be grouped under three heads, as follows: 1. Married women who teach cannot give the necessary attention and care to their homes and families. It is frequently argued that motherhood is the first duty of women and that nothing should be. allowed to interfere with it. Employment of mothers outside the home robs their children of the care to which they are entitled. It is asserted, moreover, that the state stands to benefit more by having chil- dren well cared for in the home, even if this results in some loss of efficiency in the school. The training of teachers is not wasted when they leave teaching to make a home because this training is highly useful to them in rearing the next generation. Finally, it is assumed that the proper care of a home and family takes a woman’s full time. For these reasons a married woman's place is said to be in the home and not in the schoolroom. 2. Married women in general are less effi- cient and less satisfactory as teachers than are single women. It is contended that married women teachers are usually too preoccupied the Married Woman Teacher."’ p. 173-89. ‘her own earnings. with home interests to give their best efforts to the school. They teach only for the money, o: if they do not especially need the money, they feel more independent of educational autho; ity and are not willing to assume their share of responsibility in the school. Furthermore, they either do not have time or are unwilling to obtain additional professional training, They tend to stagnate professionally. Finally, even when they are obviously inefficient, it is diffi- cult to remove them. Often they are persons of local residence, and the pressure of publi: opinion plus the influence of friends and rela tives keep the school authorities from handling them according to the best interests of the school system. 3. In the employment of teachers, persons who are dependent upon themselves for sup port should be given preference over those who have other means of support. Most married women have husbands who can support them, whereas the single woman must depend upon Hence the schools should use single women so long as the supply of com- petent ones This argument strongly to many laymen, particularly in times of business depression and consequent unem ployment among many groups, including teach- ers. It is felt that the married woman usually does not need money except for luxuries, and that in working she is really taking some more needy person’s job. This attitude is especially) common in regard to employment in the public service. The notion still persists that work which is financed by the public should be given to the persons who need it most. lasts. appeals Arguments in favor of married women as teachers—Those who support the policy of employing married women as teachers begin by rejecting the arguments advanced against the policy as largely irrelevant or without foundation in fact. They then appeal to a more vital consideration, contending that schoo! boards should constantly strive to attract and retain efficient teachers and to eliminate in efficient ones, and that this principle should be applied impartially to all teachers, whether married or unmarried. The principal argu 1 Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staff. New York: Century Company, 1925. Chapter X, ‘The Problem of [14] is eX prope teach may well child sider negle cons! who J in g won ried ers. pen¢ wor thei est 1 ence witl thin mar spec bett teac attr mat mer wor crin 3 emf cert ey, o1 they ithor share more, illing They even diffi- ‘Tsons yubli 1 rela dling t the rried hem, upon ould com- peals ‘Imes nem 2ach ually and nore ially ublic vork ‘iven inst hout Oa hool and In rs on this side of the question may be sum | as follows: There is no evidence that married women ers in general are unable or unwilling to sufficient attention to their homes and ies. Modern methods and conveniences in home make it unnecessary for a wife to spend full time at housework and related du Che problem of childbirth among mar | women teachers can be handled by grant leaves of absence during critical periods. leaching provides mental and cultural stim i, together with an increased opportunity to nderstand children, which should be valuable } the mother in providing a wholesome en vironment for her own children, Moreover, it doubtful that the school should to determine the extremely itself up as an agency 4 } roper organization of the home. The woman teacher who remains childless though married may perhaps serve society better by teaching well a group of school children than by rearing children of her own. Finally, even if a con- siderable proportion of married teachers were neglectful of their families, that fact would not constitute a reasonable excuse for barring those who are not. 2. There is no evidence that married women in general make poorer teachers than single women. In fact, it is often contended that mar ried women generally make the better teach- ers. Many of them, being economically inde- pendent, teach solely because of love for the work. Moreover, those who have children of their own often have a more intelligent inter- est in children and are better fitted by experi- ence to handle them. At least, a good teacher with children of her own usually has some thing to contribute to education which an un- married teacher does not. Moreover, with re- spect to occasional absences from duty, it is better for the pupils to be under a substitute teacher for a time than to have excellent and attractive teachers leave the system because of marriage. Finally, one of the strongest argu- ments is that the inefficiency of some married women teachers is not a logical reason for dis- criminating against all of them. 3. The school is not an agency to provide employment for needy persons with teaching certificates. The school should employ a suff- cient number of competent teachers to pet t, namely, the form well the task assigned to education of children. Its appointments should ignore the relative economic needs of appli cants for positions, except perhaps when the professional qualifications of the applicants are approximately equal. ‘The fact that many ma: ried women teachers have husbands capable of supporting them has no fundamental bearing upon efficiency of instruction in the school Moreovy 3 in which the husband does not earn enough to | there are doubtless many families support his family at a comfortable standard of living. Women are increasingly recognized a place in the economic and pro world, and have a right as having fession il tO assume their fair share of the financial responsibility for a family. asin é lucational liter ifure Opini Most of the opinion on this subject in educational lite: ature is opposed to discrimination against mat ried women teachers as a class. In a careful analysis of the problem Reeves makes the fol lowing statements: Such married teachers as are inefficient or lack professional training should, of course, be excluded But this applies to unmarried teachers as well It seems plausible to suppose a rule that will elimi nate the inefficient and non-professional unmarried teacher should be sufficient, if applied, to eliminate the inefficient and non-professional married teacher without resorting to a special rule against married teachers as a class. It should be possible adequately to protect the schools against interruptions due to pregnancy with out exclusion of the whole class of married women Would not a simple clause in the married woman's contract providing that contracts become void in case of pregnancy be as successful in meeting the objections to their services as the rule providing that contracts shall become void in case of mar riage? Such provision would save excellent married teachers for the school and would operate to cause fewer interruptions in the middle of the term than the voidance of contracts in case of marriage Any provision for the employment of married women teachers who depend upon their own efforts for the excluding married women teachers, equally well support of themselves or a family, while or better qualified, who have a husband to support them, is clearly opposed to the interest of the school Such efficiently managed industry. It is even more im a provision would never be tolerated in any portant that it not be tolerated in a school system the product of which is the educational conditior of the next generation of Americans ' Reeves, Charles E. “‘Why Discriminate Against Married Teachers?” Nation's Schools 2: 53-6; September, 1928 See also: Reeder, Ward G. The Fundamentals of Public School Administration. New York: Macmillan Co., 1930. p. 70 [15] RE Ae REESE In another article Reeves lists nine different ways of handling the married-teacher prob- lem. Most of these he believes are undesirable.'! 1. An ironclad rule excluding all married women from service as teachers in the schools. Few boards of education, even those making rules against the employment of married women teachers, go to this extreme. 2. An ironclad rule excluding all married women not employed as teachers at the time of the passage of the rule. This seems to be the form the rule against employment of married women teachers usually takes. 3. The temporary rule against employment of married women teachers. The object here is to keep a balance between the two groups of teach- ee 4. The use of married women, usually former teachers, as substitutes. . . 5. Discrimination against all married women except such as are dependent upon their own ef- forts for support... . 6. The employment of some married teachers, but the giving of preference to unmarried ones... . 7. Reserving the right, in the teacher’s contract, to demand the resignation of any woman teacher who marries during the period of her contract. . . . 8. No regulations concerning the employment of married women teachers. This is probably still the practice in the great majority of school systems... . 9. The placing of married women upon the same basis as unmarried women both as to selection and tenure, having the requirements for both classes sufficiently rigid to exclude those who are inefficient or undesirable. .... Ewing, writing in Harper’s Monthly Maga- zine, sees the married-teacher question as part of a larger one involving the traditional re- striction of personal freedom among teachers. He says: It is surprising that so little has been said in de- fense of the school teacher and her right to live her own life. For it is a lamentable fact that in any number of communities the public school teacher no more dares call her soul her own out of the school- room than she does in it. If she dresses too youthful, if she has too many “dates,” ... . in short, if her social behavior is at all out of the ordinary, she lays herself open to censure, or perhaps even dis- missal when her year’s contract expires. And finally, if she commits the indiscretion of marrying, she is more than likely to become persona non grata.” On this point Reeves comments as follows: The argument that married women should be ex- cluded from teaching because of tradition is hard to answer, simply because it is not based upon rea- son. If the tradition of a city demands that married teachers shall not be employed, one can well sympa thize with a board of education that tries to carr) out its community’s desires. ... However, the board of education should ascertain definitely whether th: tradition of the community really does demand tha all teachers be unmarried or whether the deman is merely a loud expression by a few self-interested persons in the community. When tradition is the only reason for exclusion of married women teach- ers, a campaign should be inaugurated to wean the public from such an unreasonable attitude.’ After opposing discrimination against mar- ried women on several grounds, Ewing’s arti- cle emphasizes the social and economic loss t society which this policy often involves: But the most cogent argument of all has not yer been mentioned, and that is that our public schools cannot afford to sacrifice teachers who have had extensive training and experience if the latter are willing to continue to serve the community. Indeed such teacners represent a social investment, for they have been trained by the normal schools and univer sities, institutions supported by the state or by private endowment, and as beginners they have gained their experience at the expense, let us say of the public schools themselves. An analogous s’ uation arises when young women doctors, who ha been trained by medical schools at great expense t the latter, marry and give up their profession—t the horror of the leaders of the profession, fo they, being wiser than our school heads, realiz: what an enormous loss is involved. Experience an training in any profession are the ultimate criteri and can hardly be affected by the married or un married status of the individual.‘ The attitude of parents—A few years ago in Washington, D. C., the employment of mar- ried women as teachers was made the subject of a city-wide discussion and referendum.’ It had been suggested that the policy of employ- ing such teachers be modified. Accordingly the superintendent of schools made the following recommendation: Since this question originated with the citizens and since it is a social problem affecting home life, as well as an administrative and educational prob- lem, the superintendent is of the opinion that the matter should be thoroughly discussed by the public before any final conclusion can be reached regard- ing what, if anything, should be done. The Parent-Teacher Associations and vari- ous civic groups of the city were then furnished with information concerning the policy of the Board, and were given an opportunity to Reeves, Charles E. ‘Should the Married Woman Teacher Be Disqualified?” Nation's Schools 2: 13-18; October, 1928 ? Ewing, Stephen. ‘ Blue Laws for School Teachers.” Harper's Monthly Magazine 156: 329-38; February, 1928. * Reeves, Charles E. op. cit. * Ewing, Stephen. of. cit. 5 Report ont Washington, D. C. December 21, 1927. (Mimeographed) 12 p. [16] Referendum on Married Women Teachers in the Public Schools. Board of Education of the District of Columbia, we ad ‘arr Oar r th tha lan sted the ach the study, discuss, and vote upon the question. The vote from 70 organizations was as follows: Favoring married women as public school teach- ers and as normal school students . + Opposed to the above policy. BW 7 Non-committal (“Let the board decide,” et 6 1 otal . 70 The most frequent reason given for the votes favorable to married women was that eficiency or merit and not the marital status of a teacher should be the guide. Surveys of opinion among educators—In the absence of conclusive data as to the relative eficiency of teachers, competent superintend- ents of schools are perhaps best qualified to judge the desirability and practicability of employing married women in the schools. In 1926 the American Educational Digest pre- sented a survey of opinion on the subject, based on the questionnaire responses of 954 superintendents.’ One question was: Are mar- ried women with equal training and experience as eficient as unmarried? The replies were as follows: Married women equally efficient. 597 or 63 percent Married women less efficient.... 174 or 18 percent Married women more efficient... 420r 4percent Comegituonal ........... ..... 14lor 15 percent a ee .... 954 or 100 percent In a later questionnaire study, McGinnis found considerable difference between the opin- ions of superintendents on this question and the policies of their boards of education.? Of 255 superintendents in cities of 25,000 popula- tion or more, 60 percent stated that where women teachers are not on permanent tenure the board’s policy is not to re-elect those who marry while in service, while 36 percent stated that the board has no such policy, and 4 per- cent failed to answer. In contrast, only 39 percent of these superintendents expressed the opinion that the displacement of successful women teachers when they marry is a good administrative policy, 52 percent believe it to be a poor policy, and 9 percent failed to an- swer, or stated that they are undecided. McGinnis’s study also showed that of 146 professors of education answering a separate questionnaire, only 12 percent gave the opinion that discrimination against married teachers is a sound educational policy, 86 percent be li ar ae | ) ieve that it is not a sound policy, and 2 pet cent omitted the question. . 1) . F ] t Following are a few typical excerpts fron letters received from educ itors who | irticipa ed in the foregoing study: 1. I have always felt that the only standard upon which a teacher should be retained in the scho svstem is that of efhciency and ability and willing ness to lo good schoolroom work It is not the ques tion as to whether the teacher is married I married, but more a question of her general attitude and her real worth to the school system. I, there fore, have in my school system married women who are regarded as the best teachers of my teachin corps. No one has objected to the ir presence In the classroom; neither has there been any objection on the part of the board of education, principals, and supervisors to increasing the salaries of these teach ers to the super-maximum limit As superintendent of schools I know that the married woman teacher is a source of friction \s a rule they are not among my best teachers Ihe present rule against them has increased the efficiency of this system 3. I am convinced that other things being equal, the married woman teacher is the better teache: The argument that the married teacher has more outside interests does not agree with the facts. The young, unmarried teacher's principal interest is marriage expectancy, and it is a constant, active and time-consuming interest, as it should be. The married woman teacher has less outside interests that interfere with her teaching than the unmarried one. A policy of granting leave of absence for maternity cases overcomes the tendency for child less marriages 4. A teacher should be selected on the basis of her ability to teach. I do not see that other factors should enter into the matter. If I were to choose a teacher, however, I think that if I found two teachers of equal merit, one married and the othe single, I would likely give the preference to the one who was single, but to say arbitrarily that mar ried teachers should be released merely on the basis of marriage seems to me a very poor argument Although uestion of Studie § of relative é fhic 1@nCc\ there is plenty of opinion on the « | employing married women as teachers, little scientific evidence is available concerning the relative teaching efficiency of married and un married women. Lewis reports a study in Detroit by Moehl man of the relative teaching efficiency of these 1 } two groups of teachers. he nclusion was “Employing Married Women in the Schools."’ American Educational Digest 46: 57: October, 1926. ? McGinnis, W. C. ‘‘The Married Woman Teacher.” School I Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. p. 179-80 {1 ‘Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teachins ecutives Magazine 50: 451-53: June, 1931 1 J al ap more ae a Seed that married women teachers as a which are pertinent: (1) that teaching by mar- ried women did not decrease the number of children in the families below the general average; and (2) that the ratings of women teachers in service both before and after mar- riage were generally somewhat higher after marriage. Carrothers collected data bearing upon the physical efficiency of teachers in Cleveland. He found that married women teachers were subject to more illness, on the average, than were single women teachers. The differences between the two groups, however, as shown in Table 4, were not large. It hardly seems prob- able that such small differences would affect significantly the relative efficiency of teachers in the classroom. TABLE 4.—ILLNESS PER YEAR AMONG SINGLE AND MARRIED WOMEN TEACHERS IN CLEVELAND, 1922-23' | | Single women | Married women | ie ween | Ages of teachers ee | Average Number) days of Number days of | ess | illness | — — a pom 21-3" 1,180 | 5.2 | 141 | 7.8 31-40 | ‘924 50 | 200 | 6.1 | 41-50... 525 | 4.7 | 128 6.3 | 51-70. 322 47 | 61 | $4 | All 2,048 s.1 | 533 | 6.6 | cee ee | cee =i | | 1 Adapted from datain The Physical . ee of Teach- | ers, by George E. Carrothers, 1924. p. 35. | Goodier studied a group of 95 women teachers with respect to (1) the number of days of absence per year, and (2) the number of teachers pursuing additional courses at edu- cational institutions. Data concerning absence during the five years from 1923 to 1928 led him to conclude :* 1. Married teachers were absent more than un- married teachers in four of the five years. In two of the years ... the amount was about double. group ranked a little higher than the general average of all women teachers, according to the ratings given them by principals. The same investiga- tion led to two other tentative conclusions 2. With the exception of one year, the amoun: of absence due to personal illness did not differ materially in the two groups. 3. The really significant figures... . relate absences for reasons other than personal illnes; Without exception, the married teachers missed school from three to seven times as much as those teachers who were not married. The same study revealed that in the yea 1926-27, 24 out of 80 unmarried wome: teachers continued their work at higher ed cational institutions, while only one of 15 married women did so. In 1927-28 the cor: sponding figures were 31 out of 78 sing! women, and only one out of 17 women, The evidence presented in the foregoing studies does not warrant any final conclusions as to the relative efficiency of single and ma: ried women teachers as groups. The measure ment of teaching efficiency has not yet been developed to the point where highly reliable and valid comparisons of this sort can be made. However, from the viewpoint of those who oppose discrimination against married women as a class, no amount of scientific re search comparing groups of single women teachers with groups of married women teach- ers will ever give a satisfactory answer to the problem. Such persons contend that no matte: what the results of such comparisons, ever) teacher should be handled according to her in- dividual merits. They assert that whether she is married or single, and whether married teachers or single teachers are superior in gen- eral, are questions entirely beside the point. married Legal aspects of the married-teacher ques- tion—Apparently no state has passed any legis- lation with respect to married women as teach- ers. In at least six states® and the District of Columbia, however, decisions on the question have been handed down by the courts, the chief state school official, or the state board of edu- cation. Brubacher* and Allen® conclude from their analyses of these decisions that in these states marriage is not in itself a valid cause for dismissing a teacher who is under contract or who is teaching under a tenure law which per- mits dismissal only for specified causes. It is, 1 Carrothers, George E. The Physical Efficiency of Teachers. Contributions to Education, No. 155. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1924. 2 Goodier, Floyd T. ‘‘ Another Conclusion Regarding the . 34 and 76. arried Woman Teacher.” Nation's Schools 2: 51-2; December, 1928 * Indiana, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, and West Virginia. ‘ Brubacher, John S. ‘‘The Judicial Status of Marriage and Maternity as an Obstacle to the Education of Women for Pro- fessional Careers in Public School Teaching.’’ School and Society 26: 428-35; October 1, 1927. § Allen, Ira M. The Teacher's Contractual Status. Contributions to Education, No. 304. New York: Bureau of Publications. Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. p. 73. [18] — Bed R DE OE publ miss a cli tema VW ill scho tenu crim TAI _ — # aa a ee ithe anc Sige gmp: unsafe to assume that similar de course, ions would be made in the other states if ses of this kind should come up for adjudica- tion. [he most recent decision on the subject was winded down on December 21, 1931, by the \larvland State Board of Education in re- nse to an appeal from Wicomico County. Che Board ruled that a woman teacher in the hlic schools of Maryland cannot be dis- pul issed because she marries. It also stated that Il . clause in a teacher’s contract reading, “‘If a | female teacher marries in any school year she will be expected to resign at the close of the school year,” is in plain conflict with the state tenure law. This law provides no basis for dis- crimination on account of sex or marital In 1927 Anderson found that teachers’ con tracts in cities of 18 states specified marriage | as a reason for termination of the ontract He points out that such a practice is contrary to the general court rule in states where de cisions on the question have been handed down The decisions referred to here do not mean that a board of education cannot refuse to em ploy a married woman, or that it cannot re at the termination of he fuse to reemploy he contract, On the other hand, when an unmat ried woman is employed under conditions where just and reasonable cause must be shown prior to dismissal, marriage alone is not con sidered l satistactory cause, Present practice in city, school sysferms Table 5 shows the general policy of nearly 1,500 city school systems in 1930-31 with re spect to (1) the employment of married women as new teachers, and (2) the reten tion of single women teachers who marrv. Of “a 1‘ Educational Notes and News.” School and Society 35: 15-16: January 2, 1932 2 Anderson, Earl W. The Teacher's Contract and Other Legal Phase eacher Statu Contribu s N 46 New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927, p. 117-18 TABLE 5.—POLICIES CONCERNING EMPLOYMENT OF MARRIED WOMEN AS TEACHERS IN 1930-31 Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All c 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in ll cities population population population population population reporting Policy neds a Num-/; Per- | Num-/| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-/| Per- | Num-/| Per- | Num Per ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 13 Married women employed as new teachers: awe th wie’ os 26 a 44 23.8 80 20.3 97 | 23.6 98 24.6 345 23.4 No.. , ‘ 57 68.7 141 76.2 315 9.7 314 76.4 301 75.4 1128 76.6 Total ‘ 83 ¥i00 0 | 185 |100.0 | 395 |100.0 | 411 100.0 | 399 (100.0. 1473 |100.0 Single women teachers who marry Required to resign at once 26 18.3 73 39.5 1563 39.8 117 28.7 115 28.9 4% au Required to resign at end of school year ee kins & 9.7 42 22.7 | 105 26.8 | 14 4.8) 121 10.4 418 | 28.5 May continue to teach... . 47! 56.6 692 37.3 1294 32.9 1 35.0 156% 39.2 544 37.1 May continue to teach or are required to resign at option of board sUr ees baw es 2 2.4 1 5 2 5 6 1.5 6 3 1 ..2 Total 83 (100.0 | 185 |100.0 | 392 |100.0 | 408 |100.0 | 398 (100.0 1466 100.0 Read table as follows: Of the 83 cities over 100,000 in population reporting on this question, 26, or 31.3 percent employ married women as new teachers; 57, or 68.7 percent, do not employ married women as new teachers Of the &3 cities over 100,000 in population reporting as to their policy concerning single women teachers who marry, 26, or 31.3 percent, require resignation at once; 8, or 9.7 percent, require resignation at end of school year; 47, or 56.6 percent, allow teachers to continue in service; and 2, or 2.4 percent, leave this to the option of the board in each case. Similarly read data for other population groups. This tabulation is based on replies to questions 4 (a) and (b) of the inquiry blank reproduced on page 39 1 Nine of these reported that women teachers who marry may continue teaching if employed for permane service otherwise they must resign. 2 Ten of these reported that women teachers who marry may continue teaching if employed for permane otherwise they must resign. * Two of these reported that women teachers who marry must resign at once but may later be reinstated 4 Fifteen of these reported that women teachers who marry may continue teaching if employed for permanent ser\ otherwise they must resign. 5 Nine of these reported that women teachers who marry may continue teaching if employed for permanent service otherwise they must resign. Two reported that women teachers who marry may continue to teach provided they do not marry during the school year * Three of these reported that women teachers who marry may continue teaching if employed for permanent service otherwise they must resign. [ 19 ] Eee the cities reporting in all population groups, about 77 percent do not employ married women as new teachers. The figures vary from 69 percent in cities over 100,000 to 80 per- cent in cities of 10,000 to 30,000 in popula- tion. No definite relationship is apparent be- tween the size of cities and their practice on this point. The lower section of Table 5 reveals that only 37 percent of all cities reporting permit single women teachers to continue teaching after marriage, and a number of these permit it only in case of teachers who have been elected for permanent service. More than one- half of the remaining 63 percent require women teachers to resign at once if they marry, while nearly as many require their resignation at the close of the school year. In a mere hand- ful of cities the rules make it optional with the school board in each case as to whether the teacher may continue or is required to resign. Trend of practice in recent years'\—A com- parison of the results in this study and the one made by the Research Division in 1928 indi- cates a marked decrease in the consideration given to married women as teachers by city school boards. This decrease occurred in all population groups, but the greatest differences occurred in the groups of smaller cities. Table 6 shows that the proportion of cities over 100,- 000 employing married women as new tea ers decreased from 40 percent in 1928 to percent in 1931, while the corresponding p) portion of cities 2,500 to 5,000 in population decreased from 47 percent to 25 percent in t! same period. For all cities combined, the p: centage dropped from 39 to 23. Decreases also occurred in all but the larg: population group with respect to the percen: age of cities retaining single women wi! marry, although these decreases were smalle; than those referred to in the preceding par graph. For all population groups combined the percentage dropped from 49 in 1928 to 3) in 1931. Both in 1928 and in 1931 the pe: centages of cities retaining single women who marry were higher than the percentages of cities employing married women as new teachers. Leaves of absence for maternity—A num ber of school systems have adopted leave-of- absence provisions governing cases of mate: nity among married women teachers. ‘These plans recognize the desirability of retaining successful married women in the schools, even after they have acquired children. Such pro visions are designed, however, to meet the usual objections to permitting a woman to re main in the classroom after pregnancy becomes evident and while the child still needs most of her attention. 1 See page 9 for explanation of the assumptions and methods involved in the comparison of data for different years. TABLE 6.—COMPARISON OF POLICIES REGARDING EMPLOYMENT OF MARRIED WOMEN AS TEACHERS IN 1927-28 AND 1930-31 | Cities over | Cities 20,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 | AN cities | 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in | canned Policy population population population population population | puens | a — ———— | te 1928 | 1931 | 1928 | 1931 | 1928 | 1931 | 1928 | 1931 | 1928 | 1931 | 1928 1931 1 2 3 | 4 5 6 7 8 | 9 | 10 | a | 12 | 13 Employing married women as new teachers: | | Number of cities............. 26; S8| 44] 145 | 80] 155| 97) 190] 98] S83, 345 po ee rere 39.8 | 31.3 32.6 | 23.8 | 35.5 | 20.3 | 37.3 | 23.6 | 46.9 24.6 | 39.0 | 23.4 | Total number reporting. ........ 88 83 | 178 185 409 395 416 411 | 405 | 399 | 1496 | 1473 Retaining single women who intlas ton ee oft ~| | a‘ marry: Number of cities!............. so| 47| 78 | 192 | 129/ 199| 143| 209| 156| 728| $44 eee 56.8 | 56.6 | 44.8 37 47.2 | 32.9 | 48.4 | 35.0 | 52.4 | 39.2 | 49.2 | 37.1 Total number reporting. ........ 88 83 | 174 185 407 392 411 408 399 398 | 1479 | 1466 y | ! | single women who marry. the option of the school board. Read table as follows: Of the 88 cities over 100,000 in population which reported their policies concerning the em- ployment of married women as new teachers in 1927-28, 35, or 39.8 percent employed married women as new teachers. the 83 cities in the same population group which reported on this question in 1930-31, 26, or 31.3 percent employ | married women as new teachers. Similarly read figures for other population groups and for the question of retaining 1 These figures do not include cities reporting that single women who marry may be either retained or dismissed at [ 20] | ee eM IE. Ar wi ho sent terni notic by tl of tl may reen 192! Edi ee —E 3 5 3 Regulations governing maternity leave I tally require that the teacher from duty for a considerable pericd, and allow remain away her no pay during the absence. Sometimes they included in general plans governing all pes of voluntary absence without salary. Following are excerpts from the regulations f certain school systems which grant mate Ol nity leave: Minneapolis, Minnesota Any person teaching in the Minneapolis Public hools, whether regular or substitute, must be ab scl sent from school service four months before ma- ternitv, and for one year after maternity. Written notice of the approach of maternity must be given bv the teacher at least six months before the birth Death of the child within the year and the f the child. nav terminate the leave, teacher may be eemployed, if there is a position to which she can be appointed with advantage to the service Long Beach, California 1. The conditions upon which leaves of absence are granted are: 1) That the teacher has served successfully for at least four years in the Long Beach schools 2) That the leave of absence is requested for one or more of the following reasons (a) Advanced professional and academic training. (b) Travel in foreign countries (c) Rest and (d) Maternity. b. No leave of absence is granted for one year, except in the case of maternity, when recreation. more than the leave of absence shali be for two years. teacher, principal, head of department, director, or supervisor, absent on leave, is given assur- ance by the Board of Education that upon ex- piration of the leave, he will be assigned to a position which is the same as or similar to the one held granted; > leave of absence was Superintendent of when the tana eee provided the District of Columbia I Board shall have advanced to the beginning of the fourth calen- woman emploved by the 1. Any married of Education who shall become pregnant and dar month of pregnancy shall request leave of al sence and shall be placed upon leave without salary until the child shall have reached the age of nine months 2. Such leave of absence when granted by reason of pregnancy may be terminated by the Board of Education upon application by the employee ap- proved by the Superintendent of Schools Provided: That if the baby dies at any time prior to its ninth month, the mother shall be eligible for reappointment upon her application, and upon the recommendation of the Superintendent of Schools and approved by the Board of Education 3. Upon application for reinstatement in the serv ice by any married woman absent on maternity leave, it shall be the duty of the administrative of ficers to ascertain if a normal birth has occurred and the date of such birth, and to determine the eligibility for reinstatement in accordance with the following procedure: 1. Said employee shall be eligible for reinstate ment in accordance with paragraph 4 of this section if due notice was given and leave of absence taken as otherwise prescribed in this section not less than 175 calendar days prior to the birth of such child. b. Said employee shall be ineligible for rein statement when such failure to comply with the provisions of paragraph 1 of this sec tion computed as aforesaid exceeds 45 calen dar days c. For every calendar day less than 175 calendar days and not exceeding 45 calendar days that the proper notice and leave of absence from such employee shall have been received and granted, the date of eligibility for rein statement shall be postponed 3 calendar days, provided that in applying the penalty of 3 calendar days, the months of July and Au 2 Schools is notified on or before the first day of gust shall not be counted. June by said teacher, principal, head of de- partment, director, or supervisor, that it is his 4. Such employee eligible for reinstatement shall : intention to return to the service for the next be appointed to the position for which she may be ensuing school year. qualified occurring after the expiration or termina- g d. That upon his return any member of the teaching tion of her leave of absence, in accordance with the 4 force who has been absent on leave for profes- order of making appointments in section 1, para i sional and academic training shall be given graph 1, of Chapter X, provided the application for i credit on the salary schedule the same as if he reinstatement be made within a period of two years 3 had remained in continuous service.” dating from the application of leave.’ ; 1 Minneapolis Public Schools: Charter, Rules, and Regulations. Minneapolis: Board of Education. 1929. p. 55 > 2 Long Beach, California. The Administrative Code of the Long Beach City Schools. Long Beach, Calif.: Board Education, j 1929. p. 15-16. x ; * District of Columbia. By-Laz Rules, Regulations, and Selected Statutes. September, 1926. Washington, D. ‘ Board of Education, 1926. p. 39, as amended on November 16, 1927. Appointment of Local Many school superintendents are confronted with the problem of whether to give local resi- dents preference over outsiders in filling teach- ing positions. Board members and other lay- men often urge the appointment of local teach- ers for one or more of the following reasons: 1. Local teachers often can be obtained more cheaply than teachers from outside. 2. City loyalty or pride demands that local resi- dents who are unemployed be the first to receive economic assistance through employment. 3. Family, social, and political influence is used to obtain favors for relatives or close friends in the community. The foregoing statements are reasons, but can hardly be considered justifications, for a policy favoring local teachers as a class. Fol- lowing are some of the arguments against such a policy: Residents as Teachers 1. The welfare of the schools, and not the loca tion of the teacher’s home, should govern appoint ments. 2. Local teachers are generally more difficult ; dismiss in case they prove unsatisfactory. 3. School systems need the stimulus that comes from teachers with a variety of community back grounds and experiences. Present practice in city school systems Table 7 presents data concerning the policies of city systems in 1930-31 on the question of giving preference to local applicants. Of the entire group of cities reporting, 58 percent give preference to local residents, while 42 percent do not. The practice of favoring loca! candidates is much more frequent among the larger cities than among the smaller ones; in fact, there is evidently a positive relationship between the size of cities and the proportion TABLE 7.—POLICIES CONCERNING APPOINTMENT OF LOCAL RESIDENTS AS TEACHERS IN 1930-31 Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All citi 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in ~ ne nies population | population | population | population | population reperung icy ac Num-| Per- | Num-/| Per- | Num-/ Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-/ Per- ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber cent ber | cent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 13 Preference for local residents... . . 68! | 80.0 | 1462 | 77.2 | 2424 | 60.5 | 225® | 54.7 | 1778 | 43.9 | 858 57.7 No preference for local residents. .| 17 20.0 433 | 22.8 | 1585 | 39.5 | 1867 | 45.3 | 226° | 56.1 | 630 42.3 Ree eee ree 85 |100.0 | 189 (100.0 | 400 |100.0 | 411 /|100.0 | 403 /100.0 [1488 /|100.0 Read table as follows: Of the 85 cities over 100,000 in population reporting as to their policies governing the appoint- ment of local residents as teachers, 68, or 80 percent, give preference to local residents, and 17, or 20 percent, do not give preference to local residents. Similarly read data for other population groups. This tabulation is based on the replies to questions 3(a) and (b) of the inquiry blank reproduced on page 30. 1 Of these 68 cities giving preference to local residents, 29 indicated that this preference is given only if the qualifica- tions of local residents are at least equal to those of outside candidates, 14 indicated that local residents must meet the minimum training and experience requirements; and 1 indicated that experience requirements are waived for local residents. 2 Of these 146 cities giving preference to local residents, 63 indicated that this preference is given only if the qualifica- tions of local residents are at least equal to those of outside candidates, and 33 indicated that local residents must meet the minimum training and experience requirements. + Of these 43 cities giving no preference to local residents, 3 indicated that preference is given to outside candidates, and in 2 cities more experience is required of local than of outside candidates. 4 Of these 242 cities giving preference to local residents, 96 indicated that this preference is given only if the qualifica- tions of local residents are at least equal to those of outside candidates, and 65 indicated that local residents must meet the minimum training and experience requirements. * Of these 158 cities giving no preference to local residents, 5 have a rule or policy against the employment of local residents, 3 indicated that a preference is given to outside candidates, and in 15 cities more experience is required of local than of outside candidates. * Of these 225 cities giving preference to local residents, 101 indicated that this preference is given only if the qualifica- tions of local residents are at least equal to those of outside candidates, and 60 indicated that local residents must meet the minimum training and experience requirements. 7 Of these 186 cities giving no preference to local residents, 13 have a rule or policy against the employment of local residents, 7 indicated that a preference is given to outside candidates, and in 35 cities more experience is required of local than of outside candidates. § Of these 177 cities giving preference to local residents, 76 indicated that this preference is given only if the qualifica- tions of local residents are at least equal to those of outside candidates, and 61 indicated that local residents must meet the minimum training and experience requirements. * Of these 226 cities giving no preference to local residents, 27 have a rule or policy against the employment of local residents, 14 indicated that a preference is given to outside candidates, and in 43 cities more experience is required of local than of outside candidates. [22] | | | Aelia gai? Sa ee Nadal i & ; el Na sh! aS follov trom in po JO )( So terpr tootn popu ence ence appli side giv el inter the ploy ot ¢ Aut eral fun his nar the the the nat stit ask nat sec Su] acl tel of te: te 85 lca dates 5 ere shy ot Ail, wapetghlleeniingiy. following this practice. This proportion varies from 44 percent among cities of 2,500 to 5,000 in population, to 80 percent among cities over 100,000. Some caution, however, is necessary in in- terpreting these figures. As explained in the footnotes to Table 7, many of the cities in all population groups which reported a prefer- ence for local teachers stated that this prefer- ence is given only if the qualifications of local applicants are at least equal to those of out- side applicants. In such cases the preference given probably does not conflict with the best interests of the schools. It is not implied here that administrators should discriminate against home talent as such. Rather, as in the case of married women teachers, school boards will probably do well to make appointments primarily on the basis of fitness for the job. However, if several ca pable candidates possess approximately equiva lent qualifications, there appears to be no sound reason why a local resident should not be selected from their number occasionally. ‘The danger in constant discrimination in favor of local people is that incompetence may creep in, thus gradually devitalizing the school system over a period of years. Routine Procedures in the Selection of Teachers Once the board of education has determined the quality of teachers which it wishes to em- ploy, the question arises as to the best methods of obtaining such teachers. Selection a function of the superintendent— Authorities in school administration are gen- erally agreed that the selection of teachers is a function of the superintendent of schools and his assistants. Board members are not ordi- narily trained for this task, and should limit their activity to the approval or rejection of the superintendent’s nominations. Even when the board disapproves of a candidate nomi- nated by the superintendent, it should not sub- stitute a candidate of its own. Rather it should ask the superintendent to make another nomi- nation for the position. Candidates should be instructed to send all applications to the su- perintendent, and not to the board.’ Definite search for desirable prospects—A second well-established principle is that the superintendent or his representatives should actively seek desirable candidates. A school sys- tem should not depend upon the chance receipt of applications as a means of locating good teachers.” In a questionnaire study of 188 school sys- tems in Texas, Adams found that a majority 1 See the following references: Reeder, Ward G. The Fundamentals of Public School Administration. New York: of the superintendents made an active search for prospective teachers. This practice was es pecially common in the smaller school systems. The larger systems have many more applica tions and apparently depend upon these to greater extent.” There are several sources to which the su perintendent can turn for suitable candidates Among these probably the most important are: (1) commercial teachers’ agencies, (2) ap pointment bureaus in normal schools, colleges and universities, (3) other school systems, and offices (4) appointment operated in some states by the state department of education or the state teachers’ association. Adams found that in Texas the college appointment bureau was the most popular while the commercial- ized teachers’ agency was the least popular. Table 8 shows the practice of city school systems in 1930-31 with respect to the use of two of these sources, namely, other school sys- tems and teacher-training institutions. While about 53 percent of all the cities search for prospects in other systems, 77 percent do so in institutions for teacher preparation. The pro- portion of cities going to each of these sources is much higher among the smaller cities than among the larger cities. Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. p. 117-18. Almack, John C., and Lang, Albert R. Problems of the Teaching Profession Engelhardt, Fred. Public School Organization and Administration. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1931. p. 180-85 ? Reeder, Ward G. op. cit. p. 63-64. * Adams, Logan S. “‘ Methods of Selecting and Appointing New Teac Piston 13: 85-9; February, 1927. N Macmillan Co., 1930. p. 5 ) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1925 39-40 ers in Texas."’ Educational Administralion and uper Use of formal application blanks—Although the alert superintendent will not wait for ap- plications in making his list of candidates, he questions asked on the different forms. ‘| smallest number of items was 24, while the largest number was 117. This study reve will usually find it convenient to obtain infor- that in general these questions could be cl: Whil mation about candidates on an application fied under the following heads: sie form. Ordinary letters of application are 1 ss ‘ fal : | 1. Introductory matters, such as the type of | ird usually unsatisfactory, particularly in those sion desired, the time when a position could be a ser1ot school systems where large numbers of new cepted, and the salary that would be accepted. than teachers are appointed each year. Such letters 2. Personal data, such as name, address, marital ns often omit important items of information, and Sttvs,_ physical matters (health, weight, heighy, quire ig ‘ oat etc.), date and place of birth, and race and citizen there is little uniformity in the arrangement de velig é 3 : - aaa ship; also photograph. ; of the items included. A formal application 3. Training and educational data, such as name perce blank, on the other hand, is uniform, readily and location of institutions attended, dates of a: tobac \ filed, and easily referred to at any time. tendance, year of graduation, credits and degrees \] eb 7 Py iv 268] g ing. abilit ; The number and percent of city systems re- received, course taken, professional reading, ability sites . h f insta £ es 1930-31 to teach specific subjects, and certificate held. . : : ‘ " : - 2 she porting t wha _ rae a aa wnat 4. Experience, such as nature and kind of schoo! p the are given in Table 8. This is a widespread length, dates, and place of last experience, present =» were practice in city systems of all sizes, and par- salary, and reasons for desire to change positions S quir ticularly so in the largest cities. Eighty-eight 5. References, preferably from those who have = inqu ‘ observed the candidate’s teaching. 3 me percent of all the systems reporting use some B oonly kind of formal application blank. Similar findings were reported by Wang in of tl In a detailed study of teachers’ application his study of 244 application blanks used by, cour blanks from 41 large cities in the United States, city superintendents, county superintendents, taile Nietz found great variation in the number of and teachers’ agencies.” forn H 2 H 1 Nietz, John A. ‘‘ The Current Use of Teachers’ Application Blanks.”” American School Board Journal 76: 55-6; March, 1928 syste H ? Wang, Charles K. A. ‘‘A Study of the Basic Information Utilized in Employing Teachers in the United States.” Education item 48: 355-74; February, 1928. | othe i ™ plet TABLE 8.—ROUTINE PROCEDURES USED IN SELECTION OF TEACHERS Sigal ’ 5 SITs IN 1930-31 ‘ “ to V ‘ ? — ae cp plic: i Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All cities 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in to 5,000 in revortia [ Procedures population | population population population | population P 8 —$—_—__—__} — — ee men | | | | | Num- Per- | Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- ous] ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber cent ; : -- = | — ~~ —!~—__]|—___' -- — » turt ; 1 2}; 3] 4 5 6 7 8 9 | 1 | m | 12 | 13 j ; in Sain Si i en Se Cae aeeaaee ot ¢ Definite search for desirable pros- ‘ pete ts: C fn other school systems... .. -| 29 34.1 83 43.9 | 218 54.2 | 240 57.8 | 230 57.1 800 53.5 & _ In teacher-training institutions.| 46 | 54.1 | 142 | 75.1 | 303 | 75.4 | 333 | 80.2 | 333 | 82.6 | 1157 | 77.4 |= can Use of formal application blanks..| 82 96.5 | 173 91.5 | 365 90.8 | 367 88.4 | 332 82.4 | 1319 | 88.3 ; as i Collection of information and cely 4 opinion from persons given as son: eer 74 87.1 | 160 84.7 | 330 82.1 | 355 85.5 | 337 83.6 | 1256 | 84.1 Personal interviews with appli- bla ON AS Se i ie 76 | 89.4 | 184 | 97.4] 388 | 96.5 | 302 | 94.5 | 383 | 95.0] 1423 95.2 Sra Written examinations. .......... 24 | 28.2{ 11 5.8 7 Ss , 1 0.2] 3 0.7 46) 3.1 | Ta / Physical examinations...........| 42 49.4 47 24.9.) 65 16.2 56 13.5 36 8.9 246 16.5 | Observation of classroom work sch : of applicants................. 38 | 44.7 | 101 | $3.4/ 253 | 62.9 | 252 | 60.7 | 235 | 583 | 879 | 58.8 e i Consultation with teachers’ agen- tice } cies and appointment bureaus. . 3 3.8 3 1.6 16 4.0 13 3.1] 11 2.7 46 3.1 1 Investigation of scholastic records ano | and other qualifications. ...... 9124] «| 821 81 20] 6] 8.4] 6] nel 26] 1.6 | the Other practices!................ 2 2.4 2 1.1 8 2.0 4 1.0 4 1.0 20 3.3 | r SESS eee —E eames ne —_ _ 8 Total number reporting..... 85 |100.0 | 189 {100.0 | 402 {100.0 | 415 /|100.0 | 403 /|100.0 | 1494 |100.0 84 situ } Read table as follows: Of the 85 cities over 100,000 in population which reported procedures used in selection of Pop teachers, 29, or 34.1 percent search for desirable prospects in other school systems; 46, or 54.1 percent search in teacher- | training institutions for such prospects; 82, or 96.5 percent use formal application blanks, etc. Similarly read other figures for this and other population groups. This tabulation is based on the replies to question 5 of the inquiry ‘blank reproduced on page 31. s : Includes such procedures as: Written applications outlining qualifications; try-outs given in local system; main- 71-6 | tenance of waiting list of el yibles; and oral examinations. " Bae a SS) Snes . . ; { 24] ent avis analyzed application forms from 148 S and found wide ditterences in the pro- rtion of systems asking various questions.’ While nearly every blank inquired concerning health of the candidate, only about one ird of them asked whether the candidate had serious defects of sight or hearing, while fewe: than one-half asked whether the applicant had inv other bodily defects. About one-half in quired specifically as to church affiliation and religious interest in general. Fewer than 10 percent included a question on the use of tobacco, \ll of the 148 blanks asked about the high- school, normal school, and college training of the candidate in general, but relatively few 18 in- quired about the major teaching subject; 16 were specific on any one point. Only inquired as to the minor teaching subject; and only 32 asked about graduate study. Only 38 f the blanks inquired about work in education courses, and only 8 of these required a de- tailed list of such courses. Such lack of uni formity probably means either that many school systems are including a number of useless items on their application forms, or that many others are omitting valuable items. While com- plete uniformity as to details may not be de sirable, some general agreement is needed as to which types of data are essential on an ap plication blank. Use of reference blanks and letters of recom- mendation—lf a candidate’s application is seri- ously considered, his qualifications should be further investigated. One well-known method of doing this is to obtain the opinions of com- petent persons who are acquainted with the candidate. Some superintendents prefer to re- ceive personal, informal letters from such per- sons, while others provide formal reference blanks for recording the desired information. Table 8 shows the number and percent of city school systems in 1930-31 which make a prac- tice of collecting information, in one way or inother, from persons given as references. Of the cities reporting in all population groups, 84 percent obtain such information, and the situation differs but little among the several population groups. 1 Davis, Calvin O. ‘What Qualifications Are Demanded of Teachers? 71-6, May; 46-50, June; 1929. 2 Adams, Logan S., op. cit. 3 Davis, Calvin O., op. cit. * Wang, Charles K. A., op. cit } In this connection it should be noted that general letters of recommendation ot the “lo 99 ] whom it may concern” variety are usually frowned upon by school administrators Adam’s study of 188 cities in ‘Texas shows that 65 percent of the superintendents rej type oft letter outright. Most of the responses indicated that such recommendations are prac tically worthless unless the writer is known On the other hand, 89 percent of these super intendents required personal references of ap followed up these refer plicants, and then ences. Davis. school systems, found a wide variety of types analyzing reference blanks from 85 used.* Nearly one-half were personal unstand ardized forms, while slightly more than half were more or less standardized and formal in nature. A few superintendents employed the form of a personal letter, while an even smaller number used no form of any kind, but sought their information as the circumstances and need suggested. Ot the standardized tTorms 1 more than half asked that a check be made against certain items concerning the qual In use, ities of teachers, usually according to a five point scale. Davis classifies the information re quested in the reference blanks under these heads: (1) personality traits, (2) characte: traits, (3) education, (4) teaching achieve ments, (5) professional attitudes, (6) social interests, (7) miscellaneous facts. Davis’s criticism of reference blanks in gen eral is that they are too formal and too de tailed. He also recommends the use of a three le for the point scale instead of a five-point sc: rating of prospective teachers by persons who are not expert in the work of rating. Wang’s analysis of 145 vielded similar returns. He found also that the number of items on the blanks used by su reference blanks perintendents was much larger in general than the number on the blanks used by teacl lers’ agencies. The items were classified under the following main heads: (1) personal equip ment, (2) social and professional equipment, (3) professional efficiency, (4) endorsement by persons given as references, and (5) mis cellaneous items. Nation's Schools 3: 31-4, January; 62-8, February Of the 188 Texas school systems studied by Adams, 71 percent did not use reference forms. Most of these preferred a personal letter from the candidate’s former superintendent. However, although only 29 percent were using formal blanks, 44 percent believed them to be valuable.' Dozier studied 1,132 letters of recommenda- tion in the files of the Teachers’ Appointment Committee at the University of Texas. ‘These letters, which concerned 179 different candi- dates, were written by faculty members, su- perintendents, principals, supervisors, teachers, and laymen. From this investigation the author concludes as follows: ? 1. The value of recommendations varies with the point of view and training of those who write them. 2. Great care should be exercised in the formu- lation of rating sheets for collecting data concern- ing the ability of teachers. 3. Such forms should fit the point of view and training of those who make use of them. 4. The value of recommendations depends in a measure upon the amount of detail recorded. 5. All writers of recommendations place large emphasis upon the social qualities of teachers. Personal interviews with applicants—The personal interview with candidates for teach- ing positions is now one of the most widely used procedures in city school systems. Table 8 shows that for all population groups com- bined, 95 percent of the cities employ this method. The popularity of the personal inter- view, however, does not mean that it is a simple tool which always yields reliable and satisfac- tory results, On the contrary, a good interview requires considerable skill and planning on the part of the interviewer. Steiner suggests four general rules for successful interviewing.’ 1. Keep control of the situation by carefully judg- ing the quality of salesmanship used by the candi- date as distinguished from his quality as a teacher. 2. The interview must be entirely free from per- sonal embarrassment on the part of the applicant. . .. Make every applicant so sure of a fair hearing that he can satisfactorily present his best qualities. 3. The person interviewing applicants should be able to visualize or to list the qualities which a suc- cessful teacher must have in the position which he is desiring to fill. 1 Adams, Logan S. 4. The interviewer should use a list or an outlin, of qualities on which he desires to be informed, a score card of some kind for recording the re: of the interview. Who should interview applicants? In ¢ eral this should be done by the superintenden: or by one or more delegated members of })j: administrative or supervisory staff. The Tex. study referred to above* revealed that in thy cities replying, no candidate was appointed w}\ had not been interviewed by the superintend ent. In about half of these systems board mem.- bers also interviewed prospective teachers. |p about 20 percent of the cases the board com mittee, the principal, and the supervisor assisted the superintendent in this task. Observation of classroom work—Probab)\ the best way of determining the teaching abil- ity of an applicant is to observe him teach. Steiner reports that over a period of nine years, of those teachers in his school system who were selected by correspondence alone, 75 percent were not recommended for reappointment. those chosen by means of an interview, 24 pe: cent were not reelected; while of the teachers selected after observation of their teaching none failed to be reappointed on account of unsatisfactory teaching or discipline.° Table 8 shows that although it is not so generally used as the procedures previous!) discussed, observation of an applicant’s class- room work is practiced consistently in more than half of all the cities answering the Re- search Division’s questionnaire in 1930-31. Apparently this method is somewhat more fre quent in the smaller cities than in the larger. Written examinations—The written exam- ination as a device for the selection of teachers is apparently little used by city school systems. The relative unreliability of such measures fo: predicting success in teaching limits their pra: tical value at present. This, however, is n reason why school systems should discard writ- ten examinations entirely. Further experimen- tation in this promising field is greatly needed, and perhaps it can be carried on nowhere else so well as in the school systems themselves under the direction of competent specialists » Op. cit. ? Dozier, Miriam. 1 nfidential Recommendations as a Basis for Selecting Teachers.'' Journal of Educational Research 14 4 Adams, Logan S., op. cit. + Steiner, M. A., op. cit. , 1926. M. A. “The Technic of Interviewing Teachers." American School Board Journal 76: 65-6; June, 1928. [ 26] SA mea etl NI sn the c pect 1 More quire seque is cor bined Ph tion | than centa Tabl twee centa tions smal grou O repo: stud: colle scho! out | list etc. citie wer mor para Wi éers= teac com 2 1928. But until methods of testing are developed ch further than at present, considerable -aution should be exercised in the interpreta- tion and application of test results. Table 8 indicates that only 3 percent of all the cities reporting in 1930-31 require pros- pective teachers to take written examinations. More than half of the cities having such a re- quirement are over 100,000 in population ; con- sequently the percentage for these larger cities is considerably higher than for all cities com- bined. Physical examinations—A physical examina- tion is required of candidates more frequently than is a written examination, but the per- centages are small except in the larger cities. Table 8 shows a fairly definite relation be- tween size of population group and the per- centage of cities requiring physical examina- tions. The figures range from 9 percent in the smallest population group to 49 percent in the group of cities over 100,000. Other practices—Other items of procedure reported by city school systems include the study of reports from teachers’ agencies and college appointment bureaus, examination of scholastic records, giving the applicant a try- out in the local system, maintaining a waiting list of eligible candidates, oral examinations, etc. None of these were reported by many cities, but it is probable that some cf them were presumed to be included under one or more of the items discussed in the preceding paragraphs. Wide variation in plans for selecting teach- ers—Surveys of practice in the selection of teaching personnel show a wide variety in the combinations of technics used by different 1 Wang, Charles K. A., of. cit. school systems. Wang summarizes the results of his study as follows: The practice concerning the items of information secured in employing teachers by the various school ofhcials throughout the country is very indefinite and lacking in uniformity. From the simplest method of relying upon “evidence of graduation from nor- mal school” to the most complicated process of eval- uating a stack of documents including application blanks, reference blanks, scholastic records, state- ments from former superintendents, teachers’ agency reports, and possibly other papers, as well as go- ing through personal conferences and demonstration teachings, there is an almost unmeasurable and in- describable range of variation among the various school officials. Not only do they vary from one another in their methods of securing information on their prospective teachers and in the items of in- formation they try to secure, but also they do not always follow the same procedure among them- selves for all applicants coming to their own at tention.” It is evident that much additional research will be necessary before the selection of teach- ers can be placed upon a scientific basis. There is great need for procedures of testing and rat ing which will predict future teaching success with a high degree of accuracy. Tiegs’ con- clusions from his analysis of the technics of teacher selection are suggestive on this point: It appears, therefore, that the most promising way of progress in the evaluation of teaching service, and the prediction of teaching success, must con template procedures which give an increasing em- phasis to the minutiae of teacher and pupil acti- vity; that such evaluations as are made should be based on a number of individual samplings, made over a period of time, and in each instance on a definite piece of work; and that the criterion of teaching success should become more and more a combination of definitely defined goals and methods of achieving them toward which teachers may con- sciously strive, rather than the often indefinite, in- tangible, and personal concepts of success, on the basis of which we are at present striving to make adequate professional judgments.” ? Tiegs, Ernest W. An Evaluation of Some Techniques of Teacher Selection. Bloomington, IIl.: Public School Publishing ¢ 1928. p. 79. 2. 4 ; ” 3 , | } } + ; | A] 5 a ob Selected and Classified Bibliography Training Requirements for Newly Appointed Teachers . ALMACK, J. C., and Lane, A. R. Problems of the Teaching Profession. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1925. Chapter Il, “Professional Training of Teachers,” p. 19-37. Discusses requirements for admission to the teaching profession, and recommends improve- ment in the kind of training offered before at- tempting to increase quantitative requirements above the minima now recognized as desirable. BACHMAN, FRANK P., Training and Certification of High School Teachers. Nashville, Tennessee: Division of Surveys and Field Studies, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1930. 175 p. Reviews status of training and certification of high-school teachers, and discusses obstacles in the way of raising teaching in the secondary schools to a strictly professional level. . BuckincHaM, B. R. Supply and Demand in Teacher Training. Ohio State University Studies, Vol. II, No. 15, Bureau of Educational Research Monographs, No. 4. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, March 15, 1926, 182 p. Discusses the problem of supply and demand with respect to the amount and kind of training demanded of teachers by local school systems, and the amount and type of training given by institutions for the preparation of teachers. . Cook, KatHertne M. State Laws and Regula- tions Governing Teachers’ Certificates. U.S. De- partment of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1927, No. 19. Washington, D. C.: Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1927. 296 p. A study of progress in improving state laws and regulations governing certification of teachers. . FRAzier, BENJAMIN W. “Professional Education ” of Teachers.” Biennial Survey of Education in the United States, 1928-30. Chapter XIV. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1931, No. 20. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 40 p. Summarizes progress during recent years in the field of teacher preparation. . “How Can We Regulate the Supply and at the Same Time Improve the Quality of Candidates Legally Available to Enter the Public School Service as ‘Novice Teachers’ ?” Ninth Yearbook. American Association of Teachers Colleges. Washington, D. C.: National Education Associa- tion, 1930. p. 22-50. A series of five addresses by Ambrose L. Suhrie, Joseph E. Burk, Alonzo F. Myers, Edwin W. Adams, and Charles C. Sherrod. . Lewts, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. Chapter IV, “Personnel Problems in Teacher Training,” p. 53-71. Discusses the importance of training, and the amount and kinds of training which shou demanded of the beginning teacher. . NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION, Res) Division. “Teacher Demand and Supply.” R search Bulletin 9: 305-400; November, 1931 Discusses major problems of teacher su and demand, and points out their significance ; the welfare of the teaching profession. . REEpER, WaRD G. The Fundamentals of Pu)li School Administration. New York: Macmi Co., 1930. p. 85-89. co © Presents points of view as to the amounts o{ pre-service training which teachers should hay; Discusses also the question of local versus stay institutions for the preparation of teachers Employment of Married Women as Teachers 10. BRUBACHER, JOHN S. “The Judicial Status of Marriage and Maternity as an Obstacle to th Education of Women for Professional Care: in Public School Teaching.’ School and So 26: 428-35; October 1, 1927. Reviews judicial decisions and rulings of stat superintendents on the validity of marriage and maternity as causes for the dismissal of wome: from public school teaching positions. 11. “Employing Married Women in the Schools American Educational Digest 46:57-61; Octobe: 1926. Summarizes facts and judgments obtained from 954 school superintendents concerning the status of married women teachers. 12. Ewinc, STEPHEN. “Blue Laws for School Teach ers.” Harper’s 156:329-38; February, 1928. Discusses restrictions upon the private lives of teachers, including provisions for dismissa of women who marry and the refusal of man) school boards to employ married women. 13. GoonrerR, FLoyp T. “Another Conclusion Regard ing the Married Woman Teacher.” Nation Schools 2:51-52; December, 1928. Considers the amount of absence and the tend ency to centinue professional study among single and married women teachers. 14. Housman, Ipa E. “Teachers and Marriagé School Executives Magazine 50: 502-04, 543; July, 1931. A review of fact and opinion on the subject of married women in the schools. 15. Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teach ing Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. Chap- ter X, “The Problem of the Married Woman Teacher,” p. 173-89. Presents arguments for and against the em ployment of married women as teachers, and reports trend of opinion, court decisions, and school board policies concerning the question. 16. McGinnis, W. C. “The Married Woman Teacher.” School Executives Magazine 50: 451 53; June, 1931. [ 28] «= en ills? SSI ys i varie eG AT 25. “Swe 3 rh 29 Report of practice in 255 cities over 25,000 ypulation, and of opinion among the super ntendents and professors of educatio1 Discriminate A Schools 2:53 eves, CHARLES E. “Why rried tember, inst Teachers?” Nation's 1928. [he first of two articles pre senting a thorough inalysis of the problem and some data as to ractice and opinion among superintendents of See also reference No. 18 hools. Reeves, CHARLES E. “Should the Married Woman Teacher Be Disqualified?” Nation's Sc/ 5 2: 13-18; October, 1928. The second of icher question. articles on the married See also reference No. 1 two Waits, LocAN A. “Board Rules Affecting the Status of Married Women Teachers in Ohio.” ScH val and Society 33 :867 71: June 27, 1931. \ detailed study of the status of married women teachers in Ohio. Other Problems in the Selection of Teachers \pAMS, LocANn S. “Methods of Selecting and Ap pointing New Edu ron 13 85-89: 7 Teachers in ational Texas.” {dministration and February, 1927. Superv § Discusses sources of teacher supply, appoint ment of local residents, active search for desira ble candidates, personal references, and inter- views. A R. Problems oT Boston: and LANG, Profession. ALMACK, J. C the Teaching Houghton Miffin Co., 1925. Chapter III, “The Selection of Teachers.” p. 38-58. A concise treatment of problems and pro cedures in filling vacancies on the teaching staff. Carney, E. P. ployment of Teachers.’ 76:50; ‘Principles Governing the Em Board 1 me? rT an Si 0 Journal February, 1928. Emphasizes the disadvantages of a general policy favoring home talent on the teaching staff. Davis, CALVIN O. “What Demanded of Teachers?” Nation’s 31-34, January, 1929; 62-68, February, 71-76, May, 1929; 46-50, June, 1929. Four articles describing an exhaustive study of practice with respect to application blanks and reference forms in city school systems. Qualifications Are Se hools 3 . 19 9: Dozier, Miriam. “Confidential Recommendations as a Basis for Selecting Educational Research 1926. A study of file with the Teachers’ Appointment Committee at the University of Texas. EviAssen, R. H. “Teacher Place- ment.” Review of Educational Research 1: 83-85; April, 1931. Washington, D. C.: American Edu cational Research Association, National Educa tion Association. Reviews Teachers ” Journal of 14:325-35; December, statements of recommendation on Selection and studies under these headings: re 9 o* 29 J S| tv tor selection, techr s select ind placement of teachers, qua ‘ fluenc teaching success, function of ti icement f fice, an idjusting teachers to tl tion EN RDT, FRED. Pu .) i ul ana 1dmuinistration Bosto! ( I ind ( 1931. Chapter VIII, “Personnel M ore Qualifications and Appointment 164-88 Che last part, pages 180-87, deals re spe cifically with the actual task of selecting new teachers in local school systems Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Tea 7 Staff. New York: Century Co., 1 Chay ter VII, “Problems in Selecting Teachers 115-144 Discusses the principles and methods used in selecting a high-grade teaching pers nel. Nretz, JoHN A. “The Current Use of ‘Teachers Application Blanks.” American Sc/ Board 76:55-56; March, 1928 Summarizes an analysis of teachers’ ay | lica tion blanks used in 45 large cities. Finds wide variation in the number of items include Oerter, E. E. “How Shall Teacher d Supe intendents Be Selected 2?” American Sc/ | Board Journal 82:47-48; February, 1931 \ general discussion of principles of selection Reeper, Warp G. The Fundamentals of Publ School Administration. New York: Macmillan Co., 1930. Chapter IV, “The Selection of ‘Teach ers | 55-84 A good discussion of some of the principles and practices to be followed in selecting, ay pointing, and placing teachers SHouseE, ]. B “Objectionable Practices in the Ay pointment of Teachers.” Teachers College Jour nal 2:147-50: May, 1931 Discusses four especially objecti ible prac tices in teacher selection: nepotism, patronage partisanship, and provincialism STEINER, M. A The Technic f Interview ing Teachers Imerican School Board Journa 76: 65-66; June, 1928 Considers the personal interview of real value when conducted by a skilled person. Suggests four principles of interviewing, and recording the results of an inte1 Tiecs, Ernest W. An Evaluation of Some Tec) Teacher Selection School Publishing Co., study of form for nigues of Bloomington, Illi nois: Public 1928 \ critical methods used to select teachers in large city school systems. Makes suggestions as to the most promisin Vay { progress in the evaluation of teach nd the prediction of future teaching success Wanc, CHARLES K. A \ Stud f t Bas Information Utilized in Emploving ‘Teac . the United States.” Education 48: 3 +: Fe ary, 1928 Contains data on application s, refer ence blanks and letters, persona nterviews lemonstration teaching, report f teachers agencies, and various other sour Questionnaire Used in Collection of Data THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATEY 1201 SIXTEENTH STREET WASHINGTON, D. C. June, 193! ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES AFFECTING CLASSROOM TEACHERS Professional Qualifications of Teachers 1. Educational requirements.—Check below the number of years of training beyond high school graduation required | initial appointment as teacher in your city: Required One year Two years Three years Four years Five years Beyond High School Number of Years’ Training Elementary School Teachers Junior High School Teachers | Senior High School Teachers 2. Experience requirements.—Check below the number of years of previous teaching experience require: appointment as teacher in your city: 1 for initia One year. Two years More than two years Number of Years’ | Experience Required } No experience required Elementary School Teachers unior High ool Teachers Senior High School Teachers 3. (a) Local teachers.—Does your policy give preference to the appointment of local residents as teachers? Personal Factors Related to Appointment Yes 4. (a) Married women as teachers.—Has your board of education a rule or policy against the appointment of new teache: who are married women? Yes_____. | eee (b) Does your school board require women teachers who marry to give up their positions at once? Yes No.. At the end of the school year? Yes-___.-- _, See [ 30] | ee SS Questionnaire (Cont.) Appointment and Contractual Status her Check any of the following practices which f ¥ con { of formal application blank. Ye N C t of letters fi ) g Y N Persona terview with a int N Written examinations. Ye Physical examination. Ye N Observation of classroom work of applicant. } N Other practices (please describe m of employment.—What method of employment is followed? (P licat For newly elected teachers Method of Employment sy ect I ‘ tate le r I Election for an indefinite period subject to tern it it any time Election for { anent servi Other f le » describe For teachers with experience in - Salary SCheaule 7. Contracts.—Are teachers required to sign a contract? Ye Ni Basis for paying teachers’ salarie Over how many months does the payment of a) Nine months (b) Ten months Eleven montl 1) Twe ). How often are payments of teachers’ salaries made? (a) Monthl bh) Gos ‘ : please describe 10. Promotional examinations.—Does your school system conduct written examinat teachers within the service? Yes N Ratings.—Are all teachers g as to quality of service rendered? Yes Ni Salary Schedule Features r teachers’ salar Ye Has your city a definite schec If a salary schedule has been adopted, check below the factors place on the schedule: (a) Number of years of service. Yes No (b) Amount of professional training. Yes- No Ti «ese. No (d) Position held’ (e.g., elementary, high school, etc.). Ye N (c) Ratings on efficiency scale. (e) Other factors (please describe) *Remember that this blank applies only to classroom teachers 8 ee ne 14. Questionnaire (Cont.) Salaries of men teachers.—Are men teachers paid higher salaries than women of equal training and experie: In elementary schools? Yes Ni , (b) In junior high schools? Yes No . (c) In high schools? Yes No Supermaximum salaries.—Above the regular maximum of your salary schedule do you have a supermax which regular teachers with special qualifications may be promoted? Yes No If a supermaximum salary is provided, please check below the bases upon which a teacher’s promotion fri regular maximum to the supermaximum is dependent: (a) Additional training. Yes No (b) Superior rating and performance. Yes . No (c) Extra duties. Yes No (d) Length of service. Yes . No. (e) Written examination. Yes No (f) Other bases (please describe) Indicate below the statement which describes the general situation as it affects teachers’ salaries in your city in 193] (a) The regular salary schedule will be followed as usual, with teachers receiving the customary annual increm (c) The regular salary increinents will be withheld: 1.e., teachers will receive the same salaries in 1931-32 that th are now receiving. (d) Other situation (please describe) Summer School and Travel (a Is a bonus (apart from the regular salary schedule) granted to teachers for attending summer school Yes (b) What is the amount of such bonus? (c) For how many consecutive years may it be granted?__._-- (a) Do you make any direct financial reward for educative travel? Yes...... No (b) What is the amount of such reward? Sabbatical Leave Do you grant extended! leaves of absence to teachers: (a) For professional improvement? Yes_...... No (b) For travel? Yes...... No . (c) For rest? Yes...... No....... (d) For any other purpose? What part of the regular salary is paid to teachers taking leave for professional improvement? (Check below.) eee (b) Full salary. (c) Half salary..........- (d) Full salary, less pay of substitute._._...__ -- *Not including sick leaves. See Question 23. [32] ees Bb asa Utils dn, Sm hcl Mattie nll CONTENTS ee Introduction ..... The Term of Employment for Teachers Types of laws and regulations governing duration Present practice in city school systems General principles for establishment of contractt Use of formal contracts... Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Scheduling Salary Scheduling as a Principle Salary schedule defined... .. Advantages of a salary schedul f + of teachers’ contracts il regulations Recognition of the scheduling principle in city school systems Factors Dete rmining the Teacher’s Place on the Years of service Amount of profession: al training Efficiency rating as a salary facto: Position as a salary factor Sex as a factor in fixing salaries. Combinations of factors used in determining Supermaximum Salaries..... I a aig bas eared Siw ab eie a Present practice in city school systems Trend of practice in recent years Illustrative schedules Direct Financial Rewards for Additional Training or How meet the cost of professional competency? Present practice in city school systems Trend of practice in recent years Period and Frequency of Salary Payments ; Number of months over which salary payments extend. Frequency of payments... . Regular Salary Schedule salaries Travel Sources of Information on Salaries and Salary Sche duling. . Sick Leave and Related Problems Suggested principles governing leave-of-absence policies Safeguarding pupil welfare during absence of teachers. . Conditions for granting leaves of absence with pay Amount of leave and proportion of salary granted. Financial protection against long illnesses. Safeguarding the leave-of-absence privilege against abuse. Reducing ill health to a minimum. Need for further study......: Importance of flexible administration. Extended Leaves of Absence for Professional or Cultural Improvement. . Agreement in theory... .. Present practice in city sc hool : systems. Why grant pay during extended leaves of absence? Principles governing administration of sabbatical leave Plans in effect Teacher Rating as a Means of Improvement... Rating as an efficiency measure. . . Administration of a rating system Present practice in city school systems Trend of practice in recent years Selected and Classified Bibliography List of Tables 40 40 40 40 41 4? 43 44 44 44 44 44 46 46 > I > > oe 00 00 Go Mnawaou vi or ae eee tone o 64 64 65 65 60 72 FOREWORD KK ‘ _ = T IS HIGHLY important to place a well-traifted and capable teacher in every | classroom. It is equally important to keep such teachers in the schools and to encourage them to improve constantly the quality of their work. After selecting and appointing a competent teaching staff, perhaps the most important function of school administration is to retain successful teachers and to help in crease their usefulness to the school and the community. Such a program re- quires both unusual administrative skill and adequate financial resources. Every legitimate means for increasing the economic security of good teach- ers, thus encouraging them to serve the schools longer, will contribute to economy and efficiency in education. Likewise, every useful procedure for the improvement of teachers in service, even though it costs money, will in the long run help to give the public more for its school dollar. These truths should be called to the attention of those who clamor for drastic reductions in educational revenues, The proper administration of public schools should be among the very last services to have financial support withdrawn in times of depression. This is the second of two new bulletins devoted to problems of teacher personnel administration. While the January bulletin dealt principally with practices in the selection and appointment of teachers, this one discusses prac- tices affecting the retention, promotion, and improvement of teachers. Like its predecessor, this bulletin presents information from the Research Division's latest survey of personnel practices in city school systems. These data are given additional meaning by the accompanying discussion of competent opinion and other research findings in regard to the issues involved. School boards, adminis- trators, teachers, college specialists, and other groups will find this bulletin a valuable companion to the January issue in facilitating their study of teacher personnel problems. J. W. Crastres, Secretary, National Education Association [34] | ; A at PN ral 1 ont! sentec ¢ ussit ple t recru vote ing, | ice. Tl schoc pens! with ers’ f mun ous I moti for 1 thei T ers | lems and acte syst phil requ teac incr edu late mez wal vel I era sur Pai ary brit APN ANA Aha Oe Cl CQ PEI tate Corie Temi Nil We argent aco Part 1 of this study, published in the January sue of the Research Bulletin,’ dealt with sev- ral important aspects of the selection and ap- ointment of classroom teachers. Part II, pre- sented in this issue, follows logically the dis- cussion in Part 1. Its contents reflect the princi- ple that once a good teaching staff has been recruited, wise school] administration will de vote major attention to the problems of retain ing, promoting, and improving teachers in serv- ice. The turnover among teachers in the public schools is relatively large.? This situation is ex- pensive and unsatisfactory because it interferes with the continuity and effectiveness of teach ers’ efforts both in the school and in the com- munity. In many school systems there is seri- ous need for policies governing tenure and pro motion which will provide economic security for teachers and thus encourage them to serve their communities for longer periods of time. There is also a widespread need among teach- ers in service for continuous study of the prob- lems of instruction. Uninformed complacency and habitual opposition to change do not char- acterize the teaching staff of an efficient school system. Increased responsibilities, a broader philosophy, and improved methods in education require constant adjustment on the part of teachers if they are to meet their problems with increasing success. An important function of educational leadership, therefore, is to stimu- late teachers by every legitimate and practical means to maintain a progressive attitude to- ward their own professional and cultural de- velopment. Plan and procedure of the study—The gen- eral background, scope, and procedure of this survey of personnel practices, including both Part I and Part II, were outlined in the Janu- ary Research Bulletin.2 Hence a somewhat briefer statement will suffice here. The study was conducted according to a three-fold purpose, as follows: 1 National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘Administrative Practices Affecting Classroom Teachers Introduction 1. To summarize the best available pinion con cerning certain controversial issues and the merits of various administrative practices. 2. To present up-to-date and representative in formation as to the nature or practices in city school systems, and on some points to indicate the trend during recent years as revealed by a comparison of present practice with corresponding data collected by the Research Division in earlier years.‘ 3. To give a selected and classified list of refe: ences for further information and study Information concerning administrative prac tices in city school systems in 1930-31 was ob- tained by means of a four-page printed ques- tionnaire, which is reproduced at the end of this bulletin. The same questionnaire contained all of the items for both Part I and Part II of the study. This form was sent in June, 1931, to all superintendents of schools in the 2,880 cities of 2,500 or more in population according to the federal census of 1920.5 Of these cities, 1,489 returned replies which were usable wholly or in part. The following summary shows how the number of responses compares with the total number of cities in each of the five population groups according to the census of 1930: N umber of cities| “ities replying Population group | according to 1930 census | Number) Percent Over 100,000. ... 93 | 5 91.4 30,000 to 100,000. 224 i188 83.9 10,000 to 30,000. .| 663 402 60.6 5,000 to 10,000... | 886 415 46.8 2,500 to 5,000.. 1467 | 399 re Total | 3333 1489 44.7 The percentages of usable returns from the Moreover, al- though the percentages of smaller larger cities were very high. cities re sponding were considerably lower, there is no reason to suppose that those reporting in any population group are not fairly typical of all cities in that group. As indi- cated above, the information obtained concern- Topics discussed in this bulletin Part | The Selection and Appointment of Teachers.” Research Bulletin 10: 1-32; January, 1932. Washington, D. C.: the Association ? Evenden, E. S. ‘‘The Supply and Demand for Senior High School Teachers"’ and ‘‘The Supply of and Demand for Ele mentary Teachers."’ School Life 17: 92-93; 112-14; January and February, 1932 * National Education Association, Research Division. op. cit., p. 3-4 4 For complete reports of these earlier studies, see the following references: National Education Association, Salary Committee (E. S. Evenden, chairman). Report: Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trends in 1923. Washington, D. C.: the Association, July, 1923. Chapter III, “Special Provisions Affecting Teachers’ Salaries in the United States." p. 48-57. National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘ Practices Affecting Teacher Personnel.’ Research Bulletin 6: 205-56; September, 1928. Washington, D. C.: the Association. ‘At the time the questionnaires were mailed out, the names of superintendents of schools were not available for communities whose populations had increased from less than 2,500 in 1920 to 2,500 or more in 1930. [35] .* e' ing practices affecting primarily the selection and appointment of teachers was presented in the January issue of the Research Bulletin. The present bulletin summarizes the data collected as to practices affecting the retention, promotion, and improvement of teachers. Fol- There are, of course, many other ways by | vided which teachers may be helped to achieve greate; 77 [aws efficiency and satisfaction in their work. In {act mpl nearly every factor in the school system may have some influence upon the effectiveness 0; instruction. Good working conditions, a mod TI hatio W“ hicl | hm adnett a eee lowing are the main topics included : ern and dynamic curriculum, a helpful pro it th 1. The term of employment for teachers. gram of classroom supervision, cooperative re no re 2. Teachers’ salaries and salary scheduling.’ lations between school and community,— al] reach 3. Sick leave and related problems. may play an important part in facilitating the it m +. Extended leaves of absence for professional or , 3 : 4 “s cultural improvement. improvement of teaching. Such topics, how boar: 5. Teacher rating as a means of improvement. ever, are outside the scope of this bulletin. there com The Term of Employment for Teachers the One very important factor affecting the efi- employment. The most common of these p: é : ciency of teachers is the assurance that their vides that teachers shall be elected annually. zs } positions are secure so long as they continue and that the school board shall not employ an re to give satisfactory service. Efficiency in the teacher for more than one year at a time. Ni Cal classroom depends considerably upon the eco- reason is needed for the dismissal of a teache: New nomic security of teachers, and their economic at the end of any year under this type of reou Ware security in turn rests in no small measure upon __ lation. T the promise of continuous employment. Although the probability of an efficient teacher being dismissed is not great under ordi- nary circumstances, such teachers unfortu- nately are discharged occasionally for political and personal reasons. The harm done to the effectiveness of the schools by such dismissals or by the threat of such dismissals is often much greater than the number of cases in- volved might seem to indicate. Teachers should therefore have a reasonable amount of protection against dismissal during efficiency. Types of laws and regulations governing du- ration of teachers’ contracts*—The duration of teachers’ contracts in local school systems is usually governed in one or more of the follow- ing ways: (1) by state legislation, (2) by municipal ordinances, (3) by regulations or policies of local school boards, and (4) by the provisions of the contracts themselves. All of these methods are subject to review and inter- pretation by the courts. Moreover, to be effec- tive continuously, any such regulations must be backed by public respect for the importance of effective teaching in the classroom. There are four principal types of legislation or regulation governing the term of teachers’ * This secuon is not to be confused with the Research Division's biennial survey of the salaries paid teachers and other sch : omparess in city school systems of the United States. The latest of these is summarized in “Salaries in City School Systems, 193 Research Bulletin 9: 161- 288; May, 1931. Washington, D. C.: | Aanevinition, Department of Classroom Teachers, “‘The Economic tg of Teachers.” Sixth Yearbo hapedation. 1931. —. III, * ‘Employment During Efficiency,” p. R. “Continuous Employment for the Teacher.” Journal of the National tcosion Association 20: 343-4 2 See these references National Education Washington, D. C.: the Richard R Foster, December, 1931. [36] A second type of regulation permits the . Tal school board to make contracts with teachers . wa for specified periods of more than one yea , The courts, however, generally hold that cor ail tracts of this sort must not extend over an oe reasonably long period. The laws applying t i aa ail school districts in Texas and Ohio, and ; te those applying to limited groups of districts in eal Mississippi, Nebraska, and North Dakota ar : ae clear-cut examples of this type of regulation. In Texas, contracts may be made for periods of three years or five years, according to the size of the school district. In Ohio they may be made for three years or four years, accord ing to the type of district. A third kind of regulation provides for a continuing contract between the school board and the teachers. This plan requires that the board notify a teacher by a specified date if his services are not desired for the following year If the teacher is not notified by the date sect, his contract continues automatically for at va We winifaie Ne eee ee as defined here, is distinguished from perma- nent tenure arrangements chiefly by the fact that it permits a teacher to be dismissed at the end of any year, irrespective of the reason, pro- National Education Association. hat dm 2 na te + tions. In some cities the practice is required by ided he has been notified by the specified date. Evidently the annual election plan is still Laws in Pennsylvania and Nevada are ex- the most prevalent in all except the group of unples of this type of regulation. largest cities. Its relative frequency varies from The fourth type of plan establishes a pro- 39 percent in cities over 100,000 in population ationary period of one or more years during to 67 percent in cities of 2,500 to 5,000. The which the school board may discharge a teacher plan of election for permanent service after the end of any year for any reason or for no reason. If the board wishes to reemploy the teacher at the close of the probationary period, it must place him on permanent tenure. The hoard cannot dismiss the teacher at any time thereafter except upon proved charges of in- probationary period, on the other hand, be- comes more common as the size of city in- creases. The proportion of cities using it ranges from 21 percent in the smallest population group to 56 percent in the group over 100,000. ompetency, insubordination, immorality, or One axe the other of these two a Hg ther specified causes. In case of dismissal after found in nearly 88 percent of all the cities re- permanent appointment, the teacher is entitled to a hearing, and under some laws may appeal The continuing contract plan, or election to higher authority such as the courts or the for an indefinite period subject to termination hief state school official. The tenure laws in without cause at the end of any year, is fol- California, Indiana, Maryland, New Jersey, lowed in only about 12 percent of the cities, New York, and the District of Columbia while fewer than 1 percent elect teachers for lustrate this type of protection. specified periods of more than one year. Present practice in city school systems porting. General principles for establishment of con- able 1 eager ate agree of the city tractual regulations—In any attempt to pro- : 0 syste : ,orti ine 130-3 , accora- . . ° . . . hool systems reporting in ‘ 1, accord tect teachers against unfair dismissal, it is ng to the plans they follow with respect to the . ' :; . : ; jee essential also to guard pupils against incom- ‘rm of employment for teachers. In this table no attempt is made to distinguish between ities with regard to the source of the regula- petent or undesirable teachers. A good law or regulation should aim to obtain and retain only those teachers of first-rate ability and char- tate law, while in others it is determined by ¢teT- The National Education Association, municipal ordinances, or by regulations of the through its Committee on Tenure, has sug- cal school board. gested twelve guiding principles for the adop- TABLE 1.—POLICIES GOVERNING THE TERM OF EMPLOYMENT FOR TEACHERS IN 1930-31 Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 Cities 2,500 | 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in | All cities reporting Policy population population population population population EE . —EEE . | ae | | | | | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-/| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | ber| cent ber | cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Annual election or contract for | | a 33 39.3 106 57.3 | 231 | 59.5 242 60.0 255 66.6 867 60.1 Election tor permanent service } after a probationary period |} 47 55.9 64 34.6 | 105 27.1 | 100 24.8 80 | 20.9 | 396 27.5 Election for an indefinite period | | | subject to termination at the | | | end of any year.......... | 4 4.8] 14 | F661 Si | 18.4) @ | 94:2) OF 1-12.23) 079 12.1 Election for a specified term of } | | } P more than one year..... eee! Seer 1 a6 3 2 ho Sh SD 2 5? Total ' . : 84 100.0 185 |100.0 388 100.0 | 403 100.0 383 100.0 |1443 100.0 Read table as follows: Of the 84 cities over 100,000 in population which reported policy governing the term of em- ployment of teachers, 33, or 39.3 percent, stated that teachers are elected or contracted for one year only; 47, or 55.9 per cent, are elected for permanent ¢gervice after a probationary period, etc. Similarly read figures for other pepulation groups This tabulation is based on the replies to question 6 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75. 1 In 61 of these 175 cities newly appointed teachers are elected annually * In four of these five cities newly appointed teachers are elected annually. we tion of laws and regulations affecting the term of employment for teachers. These principles are designed to guarantee the retention of teachers during efficiency, and also to provide for each community a high grade of teaching service : 1. Tenure laws should be devised and adminis- tered in the interest of better instruction for children. 2. Tenure laws should be accompanied by proper legal regulations governing training, certification, remuneration, and retirement allowances. 3. Tenure laws should be devised and adminis- tered as a stimulus to better preparation and more efficient service on the part of teachers. 4. Indefinite tenure should be granted only upon evidence of satisfactory preliminary training, suc- cessful experience, and professional growth. 5. Indefinite tenure should be provided after suc- cessful experience during a probationary period of adequate length, usually two or three years. 6. The right of dismissal should be in the hands of the appointing board. 7. Laws establishing indefinite tenure should pro- vide for the easy dismissal of unsatisfactory or in- competent teachers for clearly demonstrable causes, such as misconduct, incompetence, evident unfitness for teaching, persistent violation or refusal to obey laws, insubordination, neglect of duty, or malfea- sance. 8. The proposed dismissal of a teacher on account of incompetence or neglect of duty should be pre- ceded by a warning and specific statement in writ- ing of defects. 9. In cases of proposed dismissal, teachers sh be granted right of hearing. 10. Teachers who do not desire to continue j; their positions should give reasonable notic writing of their intention. 11. Suitable provision should be made for te ers already in service in putting tenure laws operation. 12. Indefinite tenure should be accorded to a) classes of certificated school employees on status of teacher, at least. Use of formal contracts—Formal contracts between school boards and teachers are of value, not only because they specify the amoun: of salary and the term of employment, but als: because they emphasize certain laws and regu lations, and help to impress upon teachers and their employers the binding character of thei agreement. Although such contracts are not absolutely essential, they are used in a lary majority of school systems. Table 2 shows that of all city systems below 100,000 in popu lation which reported in 1930-31, over 90 per. cent require their teachers to sign contracts Of the cities over 100,000 in population, how- ever, only about 73 percent have such a requir: ment. A few cities in which permanent tenure regulations are in effect require teachers t sign contracts only during the probationar period. ational Education Association, Committee of One Hundred on Tenure Problems. Report. Washington, D. C.: the Associa IN tion, July, 1930. 3 p. TABLE 2.—USE OF WRITTEN CONTRACTS FOR TEACHERS IN 1930-31 Cities over | Cities 30,000 100,000 in | to 100,000 in Teacher required to sign contract | PoPUlation population Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 | au isi to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in a population population population eePeTaNS Num-/ Per- | Num-/ Per- ber | cent ber | cent Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num- ber | cent | ber | cent ber Per- | Num-/| Per- cent ber cent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 |} 10! wu 12 | 13 [RE eee ere Sees 61 | 73.5 | 174: | 92.1 | 378 | 94.0 | 3899 | 93.7 | 3778 | 93.5 |1379 | 92.4 D MMak Las id3 onsen an tet aaa 22 | 26.5] 15 | 7.9] 24 | 6.0] 26 | 6.3| 26 | 6.5] 113 | 7.6 eee ital 83 [100.0 | 189 |100.0 | 402 |100.0 | 415 |100.0 403 j100.0 1492 {100.0 Similarly read figures for other population groups. This tabulation is based on the 1 ee manent tenure. Manent tenure. that the teacher must submit a letter of acceptance. hese reported ‘Two of t they are used in the case of non-resident teachers. Read table as follows: Of the 83 cities over 100,000 in population which contracts, 61, or 73.5 percent, require their teachers to sign contracts, while 22, or 26.5 percent, have no such requirement. replies to question 7 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75. ‘Four of these reported that contracts are used during the probationary period or until the teacher is under per- + Five of these reported that contracts are used during the first years of service or until the teacher is under per- * Two of these reported that contracts are used until the teacher is employed for permanent service, and 3 reported that contracts are used until the teacher is under permanent tenure, and one reported that reported concerning the question of written [38] aoe ren at ala sched defini sear nolic satio yf tl such sidet in bh knov cles A belic dv: [nd men Salar TA Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Scheduling Salary Scheduling as a Principle Salary schedule defined—The term edule” is used here in accordance with the ‘salary definition given in a previous issue of the Re- search Bulletin: By a salary schedule is meant a plan for the ment of school employees formally adopted by he Board of Education or School Committee, which , a large degree automatically determines the be- salary, the amount and number of yearly increases, and the maximum salary received by va- sus groups of teachers, principals, and other em- loyees with specified qualifications.’ ginning Such a schedule reflects the school board’s policy with reference to the financial compen- sation of those responsible for the education 1§ the community’s children. The drafting of such a plan is not simple. It involves a con- sideration of many factors, in balancing these factors, sound judgment and an intimate knowledge both of local conditions and of poli- cies and practices throughout the nation.” {dvantages of a salary schedule—It is widely velieved that a definite salary schedule is a real idvantage in the efficient conduct of the schools. Individual bargaining has often led to resent- ment within the teaching force, favoritism in the payment of teachers with personal po- and endless disagreements litical influence, ! National Education Association, Research Division May, 1927. Washington, D. C.: the Association. 2 Ibid., p. 159 * For a good brief statement on the advantages o Salaries. New York: “The Scheduling of Teachers’ Salaries." f salary schedules see the introductory chapter in: Elsbree, Willa Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931 The ule tends to eliminate the element of personal ibout salaries. adoption Of a salar sched pressure and permits the development of a broad and well-balanced policy.’ The less lurks in danger of over-standardization doubt salary scheduling as it does in every other plan for managing a large ente prise. Such dangers must be frankly admitted and faced. A machine-like plan of campensa tion which permits no adjustments for dealing with exceptional individuals or situations is a the not stagnation is the ideal condi- perversion of salary-scheduling principle. Growth and tion of a teaching staff, and the salary sched- ule, devices, should contribute to this desirable end. together with many other administrative A reasonable degree of flexibility is therefore essential in the development and administration of a successful salary schedule. Recognition of the scheduling principle in city that of the 1,479 school systems reporting on this point in 1930-31, 79 for their school systems—Table 3 shows percent have definite salary schedules teachers. This practice is among the larger cities than among the smaller ones. All of the cities from 30,000 to 100,000 in population reported that they have only 65 percent of those from 2,500 to 5,000 have much more common salary schedules, while such schedules. Research Bulletin 5: 159 rd S. Teachers’ TABLE 3.—USE OF DEFINITE SALARY SCHEDULES FOR TEACHERS IN 1930-31 a l Cities over Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All citie 100,000 in to 100,000 in to 30,000 in | to 10,000in | to 5,000 in pom ies Definite salary schedule for population population population | anal | lL cusenanen m g teachers: fences iennltalion eecccinin - — j Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | ber | « Per- Nam Per- | Num-| Per- ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent ber | cent ei Lee ae? &QF St 6] 7 67-8) 12 | 13 SS ae as a ad oe eee ee -......+.| 8& | 98.8] 180 |100.0| 330 | 82.5 | 305 | 74.2 | 264 | 65.5 |1163 | 78.6 MERA HAKES seca sus. ia geo) ee a 70 | 17.5 | 106 | 25.8] 139 | 34.5 | 316 | 21.4 TS Peiioe, (eee ——_|___} tae DRA Peete te - Ee ice ee it p00 85 100.0 | 180 100.0 | 400 {100.0 411 100.0 | 403 100.0 11479 100.0 | | | is Read table as follows: Of the 85 cities over 100,000 in population which reported, 84, or 98.8 percent, have adopted a i definite salary schedule for teachers, while 1, or 1.2 percent, has no definite schedule. Similarly read figures for other : population groups. { This tabulation is based on the replies to question 12 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75. ss Factors Determining the Teacher’s Place on the Regular Salary Schedule Factors used to determine the place of a given teacher on the regular salary schedule include: (1) number of years of service, (2) amount of professional training, (3) ratings on an efficiency scale, (4) position held, and (5) sex. Some of these factors are widely ac- cepted as desirable. Others are used in only a few school systems. The following discus- sion deals with each in the order named, and concludes with a summary of practice as to the combinations of certain factors in the schedules of city school systems. Years of service—Agreement is practically universal that successful experience adds to the skill and value of the teacher and should be recognized by increments in the salary schedule. The most desirable number and frequency of such increments, however, have not yet been agreed upon. The number of years during which increases are provided in most schedules ranges between five and fifteen. Some authori- ties, however, assert that such increases should be continued during a period of from twenty to thirty years. They contend that if the maxi- mum salary is reached too early in the teacher’s career, professional stagnation is likely to occur during the later years.t In many cases, of course, factors other than length of service ! National Education Association, book. Wa: ton, D. C.: the ) Sesoentee, 1931. p. 34-35. 2 The rating of a supervisory pages 64-66. may affect the total number of years d\ which salary increments may be received. The universal use of experience as a fac: in determining the place of the teacher on : schedule is shown in Table 4. Amount of professional training—Adm trators and teachers are coming to realize experience alone cannot be depended upo: produce high-grade teaching service. To mak the most of his experience, a teacher must | abreast of progress in educational philoso; psychology, and methods. He should also |} a thorough mastery of the materials he is tempting to teach. Thus it is that the amoun: of professional training, although less fr quently used than years of service, is nov rather common as a factor in determining teac! ers’ salaries. Table 4 shows that in 75 percent of the 1,077 salary-schedule cities reporting, th. amount of a teacher’s professional training one of the factors which automatically dete: mine his place on the schedule. The propor tion is approximately the same for each of th five population groups. Efficiency rating as a salary factor?—\i highly valid and reliable measures of a teacher: ability and performance were available, man of the problems of personnel administration including salary scheduling, would be much nearer solution. The limitations of amount: of experience and training as measures of teach tion, Department of Classroom Teachers. ‘“‘The Economic Welfare of Teachers."” Sixth \ cc device for the improvement of instruction is discussed in a subsequent sectior TABLE 4.—CERTAIN FACTORS AUTOMATICALLY DETERMINING A TEACHER’S PLACE ON THE SALARY SCHEDULE IN 1930-31 | Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 _— | 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in | All cities population | population | popula population porting | Factors! Num-| Per- | Num-/ Per- | Num-/ Per- | Num-/ Per- | Num-/ Per- | Num-/ Per- ber | cent ber | cent | ber | cent ber | cent ber | cent ber | cent 45<9F : 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9/10 | am | 12 | 23 Number of years of service... ... 100.0 | 171 |100.0 | 306 [100.0 | 277 {100.0 | 239 |100.0 |1077 /|100.0 Amount of professional training. .| 61 72.6 | 134 78.4 | 229 74.8) 211 76.2 | 175 73.2 | 810 75.2 Rating on efficiency scale ....... 5 6.0 25 14.6 32 10.5 29 10.5 23 9.64 114 10.6 ree ee 66 78.6 | 116 67.8 | 227 74.2 | 234 84.5 | 197 82.4 | 840 78.0 et x iircak kt cnnkearen 84 |100 171 {100.0 | 306 {100.0 | 277 {100.0 | 239 [100.0 {1077 /|100.0 1 For figures on sex as a factor in salary schedules, of the factors listed above, see Table 6. Read table an a Of the 84 cities over 100,000 in population which reported, 84, or number of years is a factor in determining a teacher's i the ty ey ano! = 6 percent, indicated that the amount of professional training = a determining factor, etc. a for population groups. This tabulation is based on the replies to question ‘13 of the ing reproduced eA pages 72-75. = Ay «4. see Table 5. quency of various combinations of the factors used in determining a teacher's place on the schedule. 100 percent, indicated that the In this table no attempt is made to give the fre- For combinations [40] seen cent effici a tei appa cities is pe 100, ings D to | been ratir salat in 1 not. ratit 1,07 port fa n n I Nik 1 h | } i ; ) I n the I€ y re © rea neers at hast og ility have long been recognized, Author s are generally agreed, however, that al- , : the rating of teachers may superv device, it has not yet been sufh isory refined to permit any but rather rough nctions between different grades of ISULLIA g ability. For this reason the use of _Tating c es | in the administration of the regular sal- irl edule cannot be undert: rol with great po in the outcome.! Teachers are par- ticularly resentful of anything akin to the capricious in a matter so important to them as their salaries. A suspicion that they are not »+ i a fair deal will soon undermine the ¢ fectiveness of staff of teachers. Conse- quently, although it cannot be asserted defi- nitely that the use of efficiency rating as yetting 5 any a salary factor is unwise under all Sg er et the dangers involved in this p nized and guarded against in any plan of actice should be rex el payment, Table 4 indicates that only cent of the cities having salary eficiency ratings as a factor in a teacher’s place on the schedule. apparently little relationship between size of cities and their practice on this point, but it is perhaps significant that of the 84 cities over 100,000 in population, only 6 percent use rat- ings as a salary determinant. During the three-year period from 1927-28 to 1930-31, however, there apparently has been a slight increase in the use of efficiency ratings as a factor in determining teachers’ salaries. Of 1,412 cities reporting on this point in 1928, including several hundred which did not have definite salary schedules, only 67 used ratings as a salary determinant. In 1931, of 1,077 cities having salary schedules, 114 about 11 per- hedules use determining There is re- determined in part by efficiency ratings. This small i was characterist f five popul 1 groups An M of cities re] yrted VY f | no sal ncrements to teachers rat ; doing ent tisfactory work. J] yurse is quite different from granting increments of varying amounts according to difte: degrees of merit as measured by ratings. However, if ;, a tea work is wholly unsatisfactory, he ah : : - probably ought to be dismissed trom scnool syste I Ser = | Posi n as a saiary factor oho ners : ] ¢ ] “4 ] in elementary schools be paid lower salaries than high-school teacher ining experien and other qualifications being equal! hose who answer this question in the affirmative as- sert that the work of the high-school teacher makes greater demands on time and energy than that of the elementary-school teacher that it calls for more unusual personal quali ties, and that high-school makes a hi } the limited supply of qualified teachers, especially in certain fields for this gre standards are gher schedule to be maintained lied that tial if high Formerly, high-school teaching was intrinsica than elementary-school it was also argued or im; lly more im portant instruction This vanced. view is no longer seriously ad 7 latter ‘hose who favor salary provisions which ap ply uniformly to high-school and elementary i neal school eacners demand ity, and character as high-school work, an argue that elementary iching L 24 degree of intelligence, abil 1 that as high salary discriminations between the two groups are therefore unfair and unwise. They argue also that a difterential in pay between element ary and secondary levels is a relic of the days ported that the salaries of their teachers are when teachers’ pay was fixed primarily in 1 See these references: American Educational Research Association. ‘‘ Teacher Personnel.’ Revi f Educational Research 1: 99-107; April, 1 Washington, D. C.: the Association. Chapter VII, ‘‘Teacher Rating’’ (by Russell L. C. Butsch Elsbree, Willard S. Teachers’ Salaries. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia ve versity, 1931. p. 84 Almack, John C., and Lang, Albert R. Problems of the Teaching Profe n. Boston: H ne n Mifflir 1° p. 189-9 McGaughy, James R., director. Teachers’ Salaries in New York City. Final Report of Citizens’ Committee on Teachers’ Salaries New York: Bureau of Pub lications, Teachers College, ( lumbia University, 1927. p. 105-07 ? Wherever possible in this bulletin, c ymparisons are drawn between the results he 1930-31 survey and t tw studies made by the Research Division in 1922 3 and 16 127-28. On many questions of practice this was n the items were not included in the que stionnaires used in the earlier stud r because they were not word to yield comparable results. The comparisons are not limited to exactly the same in liff irs. It is assumed that tl for each year was reasonably adequate and that, ther re, t omparisons \ lifferent years are _ The figures given here for the 1927-28 survey are slightly different fr 1 in the original repor (See “Practices Affecting Teacher Personnel."’ Resear ulletin 6: 205-56; Sept 8. Washington, D. ( I cation Association.) These differences are due primarily to the fact that eport the cities were to population as given in the 1920 federal census. For the purpose of comy 3 > present bulletin, however, the dat r 1927-28 were recalculated with the cities grouped acx t io he 1930 census. T rocedure seems justified on the ground that in 1928 the populations of most cities were probably mi arer to the 1930 census figures than to the 1920 census figures _ On the other hand, the occasional figures presente i here for the ~— 23 survey are the same as those origir (See Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Trends in 1923 Rey of the Salary mmittee, National Education Associat W D. C.: the Association, July, 1923. Chapter III, ‘Spec Pr visions i ting Teachers’ Salaries in the United St ». 48-5 which were used in the classification of cities in 1923, w il In this case it appears likely that the 1920 census figuré than the populations reported in the 1930 census. [41] terms of the grade taught, and that such dis- crimination reflects an outworn educational philosophy. Table 4 reveals that most city school sys- tems have not yet adopted the principle of the “single salary schedule.”” Of the salary-sched- ule cities reporting on this question, 78 percent make salary distinctions among classroom teachers according to the type of school in which they teach. In three of the five popula- tion groups, the position held is used by more cities than is the amount of professional train- ing as a factor automatically determining a teacher’s place on the schedule. Sex as a factor in fixing salaries—Probably no other factor affecting teachers’ salaries has received as much attention as the question of whether men and women of equal merit, do- ing similar work, shall be paid the same salary.’ The arguments in favor of higher salaries for men are usually listed somewhat as follows: 1. If salaries of women teachers are raised to the level of those paid men teachers, great increases in taxes will be necessary. 2. On the other hand, if salaries of men teachers are reduced to equal those of women, many capable men teachers will leave school work for other oc- cupations. 3. Our public schools are already suffering from overfeminization. Growing children should have contacts with both men and women teachers. 4. The supply of men teachers is limited; higher salaries must therefore be paid to secure their services. The arguments on the contrary side have been stated thus: 1. Equal pay for equal work is a growing prac- tice and is fundamentally sound. 2. Salaries should be based on service rendered and not on extraneous questions, such as sex. 3. The assumption that men are the only ones who carry the burden of dependents is fallacious. 4. Women are rapidly attaining equality with men in other occupations and in other aspects of life. Objective data against which these conflict- ing claims might be checked are limited. Some of the previous objective studies of this | lem are reviewed below. Others will be { by consulting the bibliography. Percent of men teachers—The percent of teachers in elementary and secondary schools ; between 1920 and 1928 from 14.1 percent to percent.This increase, however, has only part placed the general decline in the proportion of mey since 1880 when no less than 42.8 percent of the nation’s public school teachers were men. Condi. tions vary greatly among the states. In West \ ginia 29 percent of all teachers are men; in | only 7.9 percent.’ Dependents—In 1925 Lewis estimated “that a 90 percent of the women teaching in high schools and grade schools are unmarried and that abour «5 to 70 percent of the men are married.” “Of cours: he adds, “the fact that women are not married does not mean that they do not have other depend ents.”* A number of local studies * of teachers’ pendents have been reported but there is no recent comprehensive survey of the problem. Relative demands upon men and women teacher; Koch’ collected and classified the difficulties e) perienced by a small group of men and wor teachers in their work. His findings showed no nificant difference between the men and women respect to the number and kinds of problems re- ported. His findings, he says, support the views of Briggs that “the qualities desired of a teacher are much more characteristic of an individual than of a sex.”* The psychological literature which deals with sex differences also supports the conclusion that no striking dissimilarities exist.’ p Table 5 contains a distribution of salary- schedule cities according to whether or not men teachers are paid higher salaries than women of equal training and experience. These data are limited to teachers in junior and senior high schools, as most cities employ few if any men teachers in their elementary schools. Of the 962 cities reporting on the situation in junior high schools, 42 percent pay highe salaries to men teachers than to women teachers in such schools. Of the 1,098 cities reporting as to the policy in senior high schoois, 55 per- cent pay higher salaries to men teachers. ‘lhe discrimination in favor of men is more frequent in cities under 30,000 in population than in those over 30,000. Of 71 cities over 100,000 1A comparison of the statements by the Schoolmen’s Club of Kansas City and the Women Teachers’ Committee of C cinnati brings out clearly the various problems involved. See ‘ ‘Equal Pay for Equal Service.” American Educational Digest 45: 113-14; November, 1925. Also **Men’s and Women's Salaries in Cincinnati Schools." School and Society 24: 39; July 10, 19 2 Phillips, Frank M. Statistics of State School Systems, 1927-1928. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulleti 1930, No. 5, Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1930. p. 28, Table i1. § Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. p. 272. 4 For example, the recent salary surveys in New York, San Francisco, Yonkers, ‘Pittsburgh, and Minneapolis. § Koch, Harlan C. ‘Is There a Difference Between the Problems of Men and Women Teachers?"’ Educational Research Bullet S$: ay April 14, 1926. riggs. Thomas H. The Junior High School. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1920. p. 14. 7 Woolley, Helen Thompson. “A Review of the Recent Literature on the Psychology of Sex."’ Psychological Bulletin 7: 335-4 October 15, 1910 Woolley, Helen Thompson. ‘‘ The Psychology of Sex.” Psychological Bulletin 11: 353-79; October 15, 1914. [ 42] lone 92° wn aes 9 poe OIE wo! | AA hat ORT Re aN tt Denied Shh F58 paula eaesr al em, ab at pulation only 13 percent p junior high schools; = salaries—T to men teachers in 5 percent pay higher sa n senior high schools. ABLE f 84 cities in this population group only 5.—DIFFERE ay higher sala- laries to men teachers SeX terminin NTIATION BETWEEN TEACHERS IN 1930-31 SALARIES ns of 8) OF ; fact ors contains use , i 64° 4 7 mor used by city school sys g the place of teachers on MEN AND he various combinations of fact WOMEN perience: l xr high-school teachers Ves Total reporting teachers: This tabulation is based Men paid higher salaries than women of equal training and ex- Senior high-sc Ves n Ni Total rep g Read table as follows: teachers, 9, or 12.7 percent, i perience, while 62, or 87.3 pe school teachers and for other Cities over Cities 30,000 C 100,000 in to 100,000 in to 30,000 in population population population ities 10,000 Cities 5,000 to 10,000 in population Num-| Per Num-| Per- | Num Per- | Num-| Per- ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 12.7 59 36.4 133 19 0 113 46 62 87.3 103 63.6 138 5 ) 13 53.9 1 1900.0 62 100.0 271 ) 45 10% 13 15.5 ; 42.2 | 18 5 | 179 63.5 1 R45 100 8 12 103 36.5 R84 100.0 173 100.0 0 0.0 8 100.0 ) e 71 cities ip +} ed that 1 ( 1 n Ww rc , indicated t 1 ur 1iot paid ur Simi population groups on the replies jue 14 of the reproduced Cities 2,500 to 5,000 in population Num- t er 10 Per cent 11 Al cities reporting TABLE 6.—COMBINATIONS OF FACTORS DETERMINING A TEACHE IN 1930-31 ON THE SALARY SCHEDULE R’S PLACE Cities over Cities 30,000 100,000 in to 100,000 in | to 30,000 ir Césetheation of factors population population | population | Num-| Per Num-/| Per- | Num Per ber | cent ber cent ber cen 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Number of years of service only 1 6 3 1 Number of years of service and amount of professional train ing — ae 18 21.4 39 22.8 55 18 Number of years of service, amount of professional training, and rating on efficiency scale 14 8.2 20 ¢ Number of years of service, amount of professional training, | rating on efficiency scale, and | Position held ‘ ‘ | 2 2.4 8 4.7 9 2 Number of years of service, | amount of professional training, | and position held es |} 41 48.8 3 42.7 145 47 Number of years of service, rat- ing on efficiency scale, and Position held........... ; 3 3.6 4 3 1 Number ot years of service and rating on efficiency scale... 1 6 Number of years of service and position held. 20 23.8 33 19.3 71 3 Total 84 100.0 | 171 100.0 306 100 Read table as follows: Of the 84 cities over 100,000 in population w a teacher's place on the salary schedule is det ned by the number training; 2, or 2.4 percent, indicated that a her's place is determined professional training, rating on efficiency scale, and position held 5 This tabulation is based on the replies to question 13 of the inqu la Cities 10,000 Cities 5,000 a to 10,000 in population - | Num-| Per- t ber cent 8 9 ( 5 1.8 0 31 11.2 5 6 2.2 9 19 6.9 4/155 | 55.9 0 4 1.4 57 20.6 0 i 100.0 repo i, 18, or Cities 2,500 to 5,000 in population Num- ber 10 9 25 Per cent 11 100.0 All cities reporting Num Per- ber cent 12 13 18 1 168 15 4 45 . e ? 541 50 1 1.9 i 100.0 a a schedules. Of the 1,077 salary-schedule cities reporting, about one-half place teachers on the schedule according to a combination of three factors: years of service, amount of profes- sional training, and the teaching position held. Only two other combinations are used with marked frequency. Years of service and posi- tion held determine a teacher’s salary in 22 percent of the cities, while years of service and amount of professional training determine it in 16 percent of the cities. These three com- binations are the most frequent in all popula- tion groups, and in general the percentages of cities using them do not vary greatly from one population group to another. Of the entire 1,077 cities, 2 percent use only one factor to determine salaries, 38 percent use two factors, 55 percent use three factors, and only 5 per- cent use all four of the factors included in Table 6. Supermaximum Salaries The desirability of a flexible administration of salary schedules has already been mentioned. One of the most widely used and approved plans for doing this is the supermaximum salary. Definition—The supermaximum salary has been defined as follows: The supermaximum, as its name implies, provides one or more additional salary steps beyond the nor- mal maximum established for the majority of the teaching staff, for the elect few who are fortunate enough to qualify for it. The number of teachers who can secure this extra compensation is neces- sarily limited, either informally in practice or for- mally in the schedule itself, since otherwise the supermaximum would soon become the regular max- imum for the entire personnel. Eligibility is usually restricted to those with the greatest amount of train- ing who have already reached the normal maximum for their respective positions and who have dis- played superior teaching ability.’ The same authority cautions against allow- ing the existence of a special supermaximum to depress the level of the regular maximum to which all teachers of satisfactory ability may attain. He writes: If there is to be a supermaximum, it should be added on as a postscript after the regular maximum has been definitely and finally determined. In fact, the question of whether to have a supermaximum should not even be raised until the normal maxi- mum has been fixed, because schedule-maker, super- intendent, and school board cannot help being ; fluenced in establishing the regular maximum they. know that a supermaximum is to be included ; the schedule. A high supermaximum should neve; be regarded as a justifiable substitute for an ac, quate maximum for the entire staff.° Present practice in city school systen Table 7 shows that of 1,153 salary-schedul; cities reporting in 1930-31, 44 percent hay supermaximum salaries to which regular teach. ers with special qualifications may be promoted There appears to be no definite relationship be- tween the size of cities and the proportion using this device in their schedules. The various bases upon which a teacher's advancement from the regular maximum to the supermaximum depends in these cities are also shown in Table 7. Considerable diversity in practice is evident here. Among the entire 509 cities reporting supermaximum salaries, additional training is used most frequently as a basis, while written examinations are em- ployed least frequently. Extra duties and su- perior rating and performance are used as bases in somewhat more than half of the school sys- tems, while length of service as a factor is considerably less common. While additional training is required more frequently in cities over 30,000 than in those of smaller popula- tions, just the reverse is true with respect to superior rating and performance, extra duties, and length of service. Trend of practice in recent years—A com- parison of data concerning the use of super- maximum salaries in 1930-31 and in 1927-28 indicates some increase in the popularity of this device during the three-year period. Of 1,454 cities reporting on the question in 1928, in- cluding those with regular salary schedules and those without such schedules, 436 had super- maximum provisions for teachers. In 1931, of the 1,153 salary-schedule cities reporting, 509 stated that they grant supermaximum salaries. This increase was characteristic of all popula- tion groups except that over 100,000.* Illustrative schedules—A few schedules i! lustrating the actual operation of various bases for promotion to supermaximum salaries are presented below. They have been chosen at random and their inclusion does not imply a particular recommendation of any one of them. ! The factor of sex is not included in these combinations because its use varies somewhat according to type of school. For eer) some oes pay men teachers higher salaries than women in senior high schools, but not in junior high schools. sbree, Will * Idid., p. 106-7 S. Teachers’ Salaries. New York: Bureau of Publications, eachers College, Columbia University, 1931. p. 67 + See footnote on page 41 for explanation of the methods used in comparing data for different years. [44] Se ee ~ Specia p ysses yond | for th $2600, standa yond t tor ot! staff.’ Oak depen The n ers is is pal sala -_ | stat tea ~~ _ OCC ae nton, N. J.—Illustrating supermaxima depend- ire n professional training—The regular maxi- mym for elementary school teachers is $2400. Snactial maxima are fixed as follows: For those ssessing %4 year of professional preparation be- nd the standard normal school training, $2500; for those possessing 1 year beyond the standard, 0: for those possessing 112 years beyond the standard, $2700; for those possessing 2 years be- vond the standard, $2800. A similar plan is followed for other members of the teaching and supervisory staff.’ Oakland, California—lIllustrating dependent on training plus special performance— he normal maximum for elementary school teach- ers is $2460. A special maximum of $120 annually is paid to those meeting the following requirements: 1. At least one year’s experience at the maximum rating provided in one of the regular schedules. 2. Twenty units of credit, not heretofore counted on salary schedule, earned while in the employ of the Oakland Public Schools, these units to be in the general field of education and in the teacher’s special field—not more than one-half of these units to be in the special field—and a research study on some approved problem in education affecting the Oakland Public Schools which shall be adjudged the equivalent of a thesis for the Master’s Degree. “f> * supermaxima 3. Recommendation of supervisory staff, including principals and superintendents. 4. Application for first special maximum must be submitted to the Superintendent and adjudged by the Professional Study Board A second special maximum of $180 annually is available to those who meet the following require- ments: 1. Two years or more experience under the first special maximum. 2. A creative contribution to education made while in the the Oakland Public Schools and upon a problem directly affecting the Oakland Public Schools, such contribution to consist of the equivalent of a dissertation The tribution to be judged by the Professional Study Board.” 3 and 4. Similar to items 3 and 4 under the special maximum.* Washington, D. C.—lIllustrating supermaxima de pendent inations, plus other factors—A number of elements enter into this plan, the most heavily weighted sin gle item being the recorded ratings of the teacher's success. The normal maximum for elementary school $2200; the Corresponding figures for senior high-school teach- ers are $2800 and $3200. Junior high-school teachers 2 service of for the Doctor’s Degree. merit of this con first on success in teaching, plus written exam- teachers is supermaximum is $2¢ ' Trenton Public Schools. Salary Schedule adopted, June 6, 1930. Mimeographed. 3 p ? This board consists of the deans of two neighboring colleges of education. * Oakland Public Schools. Selection of Teachers and Schedule of Salaries Administrative Regulation Series No. 2, 1927. p. 11 i TABLE 7.—SUPERMAXIMUM SALARIES FOR TEACHERS IN 1930-31 } | ipo , Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All cities 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in | fo Se population population population | population population | P 8 Policy Bem ie PN Sat: IE. TR Saas ET abed hae alts | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- Num-| Per- Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | ber | cent ber cent ber | cent | ber | cent ber cent | ber cent ————_——<$. | | a a ee |— ~ - | 1 Lait & 48 6]|/7{|s8i{9 10 | wm | 12 13 Supermaximum salary available | to regular teachers with special | | | qualifications: | | | | , REE ee 34 40.5 75 | 42.4 165 | 50.5 134 44.5 101 38.3 | 509 44.1 OE Ee wee ee 50 | 59.5 102 | 57.6 | 162 | 49.5 | 167 | 55.5 | 163 | 61.7 | 644 | 55.9 — EE EEE EEE - _ a | Total reporting............ | 84 |100.0 177 |100.0 | 327 |100.0 | 301 |100.0 | 264 }100.0 |1153 |100.0 ——— == SE Ses | = | Bases upon which a _ teacher's | | | } | | advancement from the regular maximum to the _ super- | } maximum is dependent:! } | } | Additional training........... 30 | 88.2 56 75.0 | 101 61.2 88 | 65.7 63 | 62.4 | 338 66.4 Superior rating and perform- | | | | _ _. “Re eae 16 | 47.1 | 34 | 45.3] 90 | 54.5] 85 | 63.4] 65 | 64.4] 290 | 57.0 ee 10 29.4 | 32 43.0 95 57.6 80 | 59.7 65 64.4 | 282 | 55.4 Length of service............ 8 | 23.5] 19 | 25.3} SO | 30.3 | 45 | 34.0] 29 | 28.7 | 151 30.0 Written examinations........ 1 2.9 1 4.3 1 | 1.0 a ‘ 3 6 i, il al, amie Wa , Total number reporting | | | supermaximum salaries....| 34 |100.0| 75 |100.0| 165 | 100.0) 134 | 100.0! 101 100.0 | 509 | 100.0 stated that superior rating and performance are factors, etc. Read table as follows: Of the 84 cities over 100,000 in population replying, 34, or 40.5 percent, reported supermaximum salaries to which regular teachers with special qualifications may be promoted, while 50, or 59.5 percent, do not give super- | Maximum salaries. Of the 34 cities in this population group reporting supermaximum salaries, 30, or 88.2 percent, in- | dicated that additional training is a factor upon which promotion to the supermaximum depends; 16, or 47.1 percent, This tabulation is based on replies to questions 15 and 16 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75. 1 In this table no attempt is made to give the frequencies of various combinations of these factors used in promoting teachers to supermaximum levels. The frequencies given for each factor are independent of those for all other factors. Similarly read figures for other population groups. [45 ] *'. @. are divided into two groups. The normal maxima for the lower and higher salaried groups are $2400 and $2800, respectively; the supermaxima, $2800 and $3200. In order to be considered for advance- ment to the supermaximum, a score of at least 700 credits must be made. Credits may be earned as shown in Table 8. Direct Financial Rewards for Additional Training or Travel The recognition of academic and _profes- sional training in the regular salary schedule and in plans for granting supermaximum sala- ries has been discussed in preceding sections.* This section summarizes practice and opinion with respect to granting special salary bonuses or other direct financial rewards to teachers pursuing courses in summer schools or other- wise improving their professional equipment. The relative merits of summer schools, travel, extension courses, or other forms of profes- sional development are not discussed here.” How meet the cost of professional compe- tency ?—Professional competency must be paid for at some point. Teachers of sound scholar- ship and full professional preparation, with broad experience and contacts, cannot be ob- tained for the same cost as teachers with little training and contacts no wider than those of their local communities. As the demand for increasingly skilled service grows, the financial rewards offered must be stepped up somewhat proportionately. Good schools require good teachers ; good teachers possess aptitude, train- ing, knowledge, and cultural background ; and sonnel.” 119-20; February 3; 147; February 10, 1930. the services of persons possessing such qu cannot be purchased cheaply. However, whether the cost of maintaining y corps of able and well-trained teachers s| be met through a system of petty and picce. meal financial rewards is another question. ‘ methods probably were temporarily nece after the war. The lowered purchasing pov of salaries had forced many of the best teachers from the profession. They had been replaced in many instances by relatively unprepared ; cruits. When a school system finds itself wi: a large percentage of such teachers, the p meal method of lifting the professional prepa- ration of its teaching staff to an acceptable minimum may be desirable as a temporary ex- pedient. Ultimately the aim should be to employ none but well-prepared teachers and to maintain standards of performance in the classroom which can be met only by those who keep abreast of the best school theory and practice The keystone to such a situation must be a salary schedule which makes it economically practicable to expect first-rate people to equip themselves with the pre-service and in-service training essential for classroom work on a high level. That this view is becoming rather well ac cepted is indicated by the following quotations from a symposium on the question: Should teachers receive a bonus for professional study ?° These quotations are representative of the > ——- & See pages 40, 43, and 44. 2 For discussion of this point see: National Education Association, Research aa “Practices Affecting Teacher Per- Research Bulletin 6: 228-29; September, 1928. Washington, D. C.; the Associa 3‘*Symposium on Professional Study: Should Teachers Receive a Bonus for It?” — of Education 111: 91-92; January TABLE 8—SYSTEM OF CREDIT ALLOWANCES FOR PROMOTION TO SUPERMAXIMUM SALARY LEVELS IN WASHINGTON, D. C.1 Maximum Basis of credits Basis of allowance credits allowed Recorded success in teaching. ................... Ni i ibe aia u00:40 0 hi ORs 325 Familiarity with modern educational theory and SE eee ee ee a ees One-hour written examination..............6.0.00005 200 Educational preparation and nen training. - BS RE Ry Pe as ee ee 140 Constructive educational work................... Well-organized educational plans and investigations... . 100 Professional interest and growth. ................ Publications on educational subjects, affiliation with es professional organizations, travel................-- 35 NINN sess icin Sia Ale na Gra Gbek arin a oi Membership and participation in civic groups, lectures, and other outside contacts.................0000055 50 Assigned work other than teaching............... Assignments by superior officers.................55-+ 50 Eo n.ceashusa ss enthdiwnsiwccms Any of the above items and matters related thereto as determined through an oral examination............ 100 | SN 5595 a3 dan pce kets abbas etck+acuwcheted ds cle deeee arate Midhs } acevo 0 Kee neeenael 1,000 ' Ballou, F. W. Superintendents’ Circular No. 40. Public Schools of the District of Columbia, Wasbington, D. C. February 17, 1931. [ 46 ] I inis mend garde | roce On e b f sy wrest gardl ary § longe boar« is nol is to prope to at orde! facto main not b If woul coulc the t cravi Ther ditio Be Di ae ws of superintendents, teachers, and college erts in personnel administration : i A plan whereby teachers are encouraged to take fessional improvement courses by having their .ry increased, if properly safeguarded and ad- ninistered, . . + iS in the main to be com- nded. Such a procedure, however, -arded more as an expediency than a fundamental must be re- rocedure.” One of the chief reasons for the prevalence of e bonus-for-summer-school-attendance is the effort superintendents to use this system as a lever in wresting additional salary for teachers from a nig- gardly board of education. Given an adequate sal- iry schedule, resort to a device of this sort is no ynger necessary. And to propose that the school joard pay a bonus to the teacher for doing what is normally expected of an alert professional worker is to deny the adequacy of the salary schedule proper. If it is desirable or necessary for teachers ] } { to attend summer school once every five years in order to keep up-to-date professionally, then this factor should be a consideration in establishing the main structure of the salary schedule, and should not be superimposed as a bonus.” If we could approach our ideals in education, we would be paying our teachers salary enough so they could afford to study at first-class institutions all the time, and we would be hiring teachers with a craving for knowledge and a passion for service. Then wouldn’t have to talk about bonuses. But we are a far call from any such con- dition.® we These the bonus | plan suggest that, if used at all, it should be and other comments on regarded as a temporary expedient rather than as a continuous and basic element in the pro- gram for professional improvement. Present practice in city school systems Table 9 shows that only 19 percent of the school systems reporting in 1930-31 grant di- rect financial rewards to teachers for attend- ing summer schools, and that in no population group does this proportion exceed 22 percent. Only about 7 percent of the cities reporting grant such rewards for educative travel, and in no population group does this proportion exceed 10 percent. These direct rewards were reported as being independent of the regular salary schedule. Table 10 compares the situation among city school sys- tems in 1930-31 with that in 1927-28 regard- ing the granting of direct rewards or bonuses for attendance at summer school. Some in- crease in the proportion of cities using such Trend of practice in recent years* plans is evident in all population groups. The larger increases, however, occurred in the three smaller population groups. For all cities reporting, the proportion granting bonuses for summer school attendance increased from about 12 percent to 19 percent. '‘ Harvey S. Gruver, Superintendent of Schools, Lynn, Massachusetts ? Willard S. Elsbree, Associate Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. 3 Mary Elizabeth O'Connor, Natick, Massachusetts. ‘ See footnote on page 41 for explanation of the assumptions and methods involved in the comparison of data for different years, TABLE 9.—GRANTING SPECIAL BONUSES FOR SUMMER-SCHOOL ATTENDANCE AND EDUCATIVE TRAVEL IN 1930-31 | only for graduate work. Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | 2 One of these reported that bonus is given only for those at the maximum. | Cities over Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All cities 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in to 10,000 in to 5,000 in | senoriio Policy population | population population population population | P & io : —_ : | r Num- | Per- |Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- |Num-/ Per- | Num-/ Per- ber | cent ber cent ber | cent ber | cent | ber | cent ber cent 1 ce ey + SP ST tf es | 10 a 12 | 13 a ee | | | Bonus granted teachers for attend- | ing summer school: | | | ) ESS errr 9 | 10.7 271 14.6 8&6 21.6 91 22.4 67? 17.0 280 19.1 ES re a eee 75 | 89.3 | 158 | 85.4] 312 78 316 | 77.6 | 327 | 83.0 |1188 | 80.9 — | | | | | Total reporting........... 84 |100.0 | 185 |100.0 | 398 |100.0 | 407 |100.0 | 394 100 0 |1468 |100.0 Direct financial reward for educa- | - } | | tive travel: | Le eee on Sa) 48°) ROT 2 8.3] 32 | 10.0] 15 | 4.9] 90 oe a 2 eee 75 94.9 146 93.0 | 308 91.7 288 | 90.0 293 95.1 |1110 | 92.5 — a =" | Total reporting............. 79 j100 0 | 157 |100.0 | 336 |100.0 | 320 |100.0 | 308 /|100.0 |1200 - 0 | | | | Read table as follows: Of the 84 cities over 100,000 in population reporting, 9, or 10.7 percent, grant bonuses for summer- school attendance; while 75, or 89.3 percent, do not grant such bonuses. Similarly read figures for other This tabulation is based on replies to questions 18 and 19 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75 | 1 One of these reported that bonus ts given only for those at the maximum, and another reported that bonus is given | population groups. [ 47 ] » Period and Frequency of Salary Payments Number of months over which salary pay- ments extend—The bearing of this question upon the efficiency of teachers is probably small. Some believe that since teachers have to live for twelve months in the year, their salary pay- ments should be distributed over that period. It is particularly important that teachers have money during the summer vacation for profes- sional improvement and suitable recreation. On the other hand, if the total annual salary is adequate, teachers should be able to plan their expenditures so that enough remains to meet their vacation needs, regardless of whether the total income is received during ten, twelve, or some other number of months. Table 11 shows the practice of city school systems on this point in 1930-31. Payment dur- ing ten months is evidently the most common plan among all the cities combined, with the nine-months period a close second. ‘The former is more popular among the larger cities, while the latter is found most frequently among cities of 2,500 to 5,000 in population. These two periods for payment probably coincide with the length of the school terms in many school systems. Only 14 percent of the 1,487 systems reporting extend salary payments over twelve months. This proportion varies from 9 percent in the group of smallest cities, to 20 percent in the two largest population groups. Frequency of payments—Table 11 also shows the frequency of salary payments in these cities. About 76 percent of all those reporting pay their teachers once a month, and this pro. portion is practically the same for each | lation group. Nearly all of the others pay twi«, a month, while only 14 systems pay week|) Sources of Information on Salaries and Salary Scheduling The Research Division receives many jp- quiries concerning teachers’ salary scheduling and related problems. Every year hundreds of city and rural school systems are given help in meeting their salary problems. The ques. tions which follow are among those most « monly received. The best sources of in{ mation now available concerning these « tions are given below. If this information | not adequate, a letter may be addressed to the Research Division, definitely indicating aid desired. The Division keeps constantly in touch with sources of material bearing on teachers’ salaries and other aspects of teachers’ economic security. 1. Where can I secure general comparatix: statistics on expenditures for education ani for other purposes? Such figures are secured from many different sources and consequent!) very recent comparisons are usually impossible. The latest comparative data now available ar for 1928. These data are reported in Research Bulletin for September, 1930. 2. Where can I secure facts showing position of expenditures for salaries among other school expenditures? These facts are compiled by states every two years by U. S. Office of Education. The latest com pilation now in print is for the school yea ! National Education Association, Research Division. ‘Investing in Public Education.” Research Bulletin 8: 166-220; ‘ tember, 1930. Washington, D. C.; the Association TABLE 10.—COMPARISON OF PCLICIES AS TO GRANTING SPECIAL BONUSES FOR SUMMER SCHOOL ATTENDANCE IN 1927-28 AND 1930-31 Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All cities 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in waneetin Special bonuses granted for population population population population population —s summer-school attendance smasiatnthas mesial a a } | | 1928 | 1931 | 1928 | 1931 | 1928 | 1931 | 1928 | 1931 | 1928 | 1931 | 1928 } 1931 S. 2 3 4 5 ° 7 8 9/10 | a | 12 | 13 Number of cities............... 7 9 17 27 62 86 54 91 43 67 | 183 | 280 PUPGEE OF GHIOB. 2... wc cece 8.5 | 10.7 9.8 | 14.6 | 15.5 | 21.6 | 13.2 | 22.4 | 10.7 | 17.0 | 12.5 | 19.1 poem —— a a Total number reporting. .... 82 84 173 185 400 | 398 | 410 | 407 401 394 [1466 /|1468 | Read table as follows: Of the 82 cities over 100,000 in population reporting their policies as to the granting of bonuses for summer-school attendance in 1927-28, 7, or 8.5 percent, granted such bonuses, while in 1930-31, 9, or 10.7 percent of the 84 cities reporting, granted such bonuses. Similarly read figures for other population groups. [48] ————— Se 2 ™ fi 1 es thie it or eee eer aes 1927-28. A compilation for 1929-30 will textbook on school finance, teacher personnel published soon. The distribution of school management, or school administration in gen nenditures in individual cities has been eral. The latest publication given over en- died in alternate years by the U. S. Office tirely to the question of teachers’ salaries is of Education and the National Education As- that of Elsbree.* A previous issue of the jation. The most recent reports on per capita Research Bulletin deals with the same general sts and percentage distributions of the school field but with less attention to the detailed budget are for the years 1929-30 and 1930-31.? technics of salary schedule construction.® \ore detailed statistics are available for 1927- 4. Where can I secure data on the cost of 28% and similar figures for 1929-30 will soon living with respect to teachers’ salaries? There wailable. are at present no reliable nation-wide figures 3. Where can I secure statements of the on cost of living for teachers alone. Several eneral theory of salary scheduling? Such _ agencies, however, compile national estimates statements can be found in almost any good of the cost of living. The publications of the U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Statistics of State School Systems, 1927-28. Bulletin, 1930, No. 5. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1930. 58 p. 10c. ? Comstock, L. M. Per Capita Costs in City Schools, 1929-30. Pamphlet N 19, U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 13 p. 5« National Education Association, Department of Superintendence and Research Division. City | Ex 4 1930-31 Educational Research Service Circular No. 1, 1932. Washington, D. C.: the Association 36 p *U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Statistics of City School Systems, 1927-28. Bulletin, 1929, N 34 Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1929. 193 p. 30c ‘ Elsbree, Willard S. Teachers’ Salaries. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbdia University, IRA n National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘The Scheduling of Teachers’ Salaries."’ Research Bulletin 5: 130-92 May, 1927. Washington, D. C.: the Association. TABLE 11.—POLICIES AS TO PERIOD AND FREQUENCY OF TEACHERS’ SALARY PAYMENTS IN 1930-31 Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All citie | 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in soserting population | population population | population | population Policy Bae ae eS. Sees ‘ SN | l Num-| Per- Num- | Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-/| Per- | Num-/} Per- | Num-| Per- ber cent | ber | cent ber | cent ber | cent | ber cent ber cent 1 .-? 2 e 7 3 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Number of months over which | teachers’ salary payments ex- tend: | MIOUINE, 6 oe cdc ice secs San 1 5 | } 1 2 1 Sa 81 9.5 373 19.7 | 1274 31.7 177 | 43.0 | 2169 53.8 65 38.0 i. SR err 58 69.1 | 111 59.1 2025 50.4 | 185’ 44.9 | 147 | 36.6 03 - Eleven months............. 1 hom 1 5 2 5 1 2 5 3 Twelve months......0....0. |} 17 20.2 | 38 20.2 70 17.4 50 12.8] 37 9.2 | 212 14.3 ae | 84 |100.0 | 188 {100.0 401 100.0 | 412 1100 0 | 402 [100.0 |148 }100.0 Frequency of payments: | ’ | : ; | A Pee .| 652 78.3 | 136 72.7 | 303 | 77.1 3048 | 73.6 | 306" | 77.1 |1114 75.6 Semi-monthly.............. 15 | 18.1 r 45 | 24.1] 88 | 22.4] 106 | 25.7] 90 | 22.7 | 344 | 23.3 .. , eee 3 3.6 5 Bia 2. I 5 3 | 7 | 1 2 14 | 1.0 EEE Ee ae eet rene 1 a ra 1 CO eT ee -| 83 |100.0 187 1100.0 393 (100.0 413 1100 0 | 397 100.0 |1473 (100.0 | | Read table as follows: Of the 84 cities over 100,000 in population reporting period over which payments of teacher extend, 8, or 9.5 percent, indicated that these payments extend over 9 months; 58, or 69.1 percent, indicated over 10 months, etc. Of the 83 cities in this population group reporting frequency of payments, 65, or 78.3 percent, indicated that monthly payments are made; 15, or 18.1 percent, indicated that semi-monthly payments are made, etc. Similarly read figures for other population groups. This tabulation is based on replies to questions 8 and 9 of the inquiry biank reproduced on pages 72-75 1 Four of these reported salaries paid for 944 months. ? One of these reported that 20% of the teachers are on a weekly payment plan. * Seven of these reported 944 months, and two reported 944 months 4 One of these reported 934 months; nine of these reported 914 months; five reported optional 9 or 12 months; two reported also 10 months plan used and one reported the use of 12 months plan in a few cases. 5 One of these reported optional for 10 or 12 months; another reported that 12 months plan was used in special cases * Four of these reported 94 months; five reported 94 months; two reported also some teachers on 10 months plan; two reported also some teachers on 12 months plan; and two reported also some teachers on 10 and on 12 months plan 7 Seven reported optional for 10 or 12 months, one reported optional for 10 or 11 months, and one reported also some teachers on 12 months plan. 8 One reported some teachers on semi-monthly plan. * Five of these reported 914 months, 7 reported some teachers paid on 12 months plan, one reported optional f 10, or 12 months, and one reported also some teachers on 10 months plan. ” Five of these reported that some teachers are also paid on a 12 months plan. 4 Four also pay semi-monthly in some cases [ 49 ] '). @ U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics and of the National Industrial Conference Board should be consulted. Facts on the effect of changes in the cost of living on the purchasing power of teachers’ salaries are conveniently summa- rized in a recent publication of the National Education Association.? 5. How can I compare salaries paid teach- ers with those paid other occupational groups? The U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics fre- quently publishes figures showing the prevail- ing wage rates, especially for union labor in the various cities and districts of the nation. The publications of this Bureau are available in most city libraries. Comparisons on a na- tional basis between the salaries of teachers and of certain other occupational groups for 1928 are available in a recent publication of the National Education Association.” 6. Where can I get data on the salaries ac- tually paid city school employees of various types? Data concerning salaries paid to 368,- 418 employees in 1,632 city school systems for 1930-31 are available in the Research Bulletin for May, 1931.8 7. Where can I secure the latest information on salaries paid rural school teachers? This in- formation is collected by the U. S. Office of Education and has been published in its Bul- letin No. 6, 1929.4 A summary of a number of comparative studies of salaries paid rural and urban teachers is available in the Research Bulletin for September, 1931.5 8. How can I compare in detail the salaries paid teachers and other school employees in a group of cities of comparable size? The bien- nial salary survey conducted by the Research Division is reported in two ways. The general facts and averages are reported in one of the Research Bulletins.® For those who wish more detailed information, special salary tabula: are prepared and reproduced by a planog: ing process, These tabulations are sold cost sufficient to pay for reproduction mailing. The cost of collecting the dat the first place is borne by the Association. ‘1 who wish to make highly detailed compari should order the Special Salary Tabulati, mentioning the size of the city which is to included in the comparison and the types oj employees to be covered. A folder describing the Special Salary Tabulations will be upon request.” 9. How can I get in touch with the salar, surveys that have been made in various cit; school systems? A large number of such sur- veys have been published in recent years and are available for purchase or distribution. For a list of such surveys consult the Sixth Yeu book of the Department of Classroom Teac! ers, pages 182-86.* 10. Where can I get recent information con cerning the effect of the business depression on teachers’ salaries? This topic has been covered in a recent publication of the National Educa tion Association.°® 11. Where can I get criteria for judging state salary legislation? The Research Divi sion publishes an annual summary of schoo! legislation including laws enacted affecting the salaries of teachers.’° This legislation as it af- fects the welfare of teachers has been sum marized in a recent magazine article.** Stand- ards for judging state salary laws are proposed and discussed in the March and May, 1930, Research Bulletins.* 12. Where can I get helpful publicity ma i Education Assoc.ation, Research Division. What's Ahead for Teachers’ Salaries. Washington, D. C.: the Associati: 1930. 1 8 iid + National Education Acnginaien, 8 Research sevtten, “Salaries in City School Systems, 1930-31." 228; ca% 1931. ben mer gE D. C.: the Association J. &. ment of the 1929, No 6. Washington, D. C.: §’ National Education Association, Research Division. Consee. LL. ' Washington, D. C.: the Association. * National Education Association, 228; Meee 1931. Washington, D. C.: the Association. ? National ro gm Associa pw wate var and Come vg &.—E Em 7. Spe ministrative @ upervisory cers. n, § National ——7 Association, Department ?; € book. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1931. 244 p. * National Education Associatio nm, Research the Seperten, 1931. 42 p. " Research Bulletin 9: \¢ aad ay Office of Education. Salaries and Salary Trends of Teachers in Rural Schools. Bulleti Government Printing Office, 1929. 54 p. 10c. “The Outlook for Rural Education.” Research Division. “Salaries in City School Systems, 1930-31." Research Bulletin 9: 162 Research Bulletin 9: 230-30 tion, Research Division. Special Salary Tabulations, 1930-31—(1-A—V-A)—Salaries Pa cial Salary Tabulations, eB B—V-B)—Salaries Paid A Sine Association, 1931. $5.00 a se lassroom Teachers. ‘ The an Welfare of Teachers.” Sixth Y« Division. Childhood and the Depression: A Look Ahead. Washington, D. ‘ National Education Association, Research Division. State School Legislation, 1931. Studies in State Educational Administra tion, "Na 10. Mockingten, n, D. C.: the 4 National Education Association, Research Division Part II: Handbook.” Research Bulletin 8: 54-88 54-88; March, 1930; 90-164; Mas May, 1930. Washington, D. C.: [50] tion, February, 1932. 20 liam G. “Recent Laws That Affect the Longe 4 Siemon ly." Nation's Schools 5: 53-55; May, 1930. Plan for State School Systems. Part I: Checklis: the Association. rs 1 Be ane he rion Lie it ic mn his pi tor ol It h N00 Ol Unite of heal earner and se ness.* compe sonal profes or dez cedur' tions, to be It ° gatior absen teach loss t taugl not ¢€ of ev times Th with perso made teack the a schor conti T tion be m The not | fully 1 24 p. 2 the F the L ah Sid ON il for use in salary campaigns? A recent lication of the National Education Asso- tion showing the relationship between edu- tion and business has been widely used for purpose.’ A series of specific suggestions for observing American Education Week, av of which can be used in an all-year pro- Ca gram of school publicity, are available in a pamphlet prepared by the Division of Publi- cations, National Education Association.” Most recent textbooks on school administration and chapters on needs of the related problems contain good methods for interpreting the schools to the public. Sick Leave and Related Problems It has been estimated that more than 250,- 000,000 working days are lost annually in the United States on account of sickness.* Surveys of health conditions show that the average wage earner in the United States loses between six ind seven working days a year because of sick- ness.* Personal illness, however, is not the only compelling reason for absence from duty. Per- sonal responsibility may take precedence over professional duty when there is grave sickness or death in the home, in the case of legal pro- cedures, in response to certain religious obliga- tions, and in meeting other personal claims not to be ignored. It will be agreed that teachers have an obli- gation to reduce to the barest minimum their absence from work for personal reasons. A teacher’s absence from school usually means a loss to the school system. The pupils must be taught by a substitute whose service often does not equal that of the missing teacher. In spite of every resolution, however, teachers will at times be unable to respond to the morning bell. Two important questions arise in connection with the absence of teachers for unavoidable personal reasons: (1) What provision shall be made to care for the classes of the absent teacher? and (2) What proportion, if any, of the absent teacher’s salary shall be paid by the school board, and how long shall such payment continue? The only defensible answer to the first ques- tion is that the classes of absent teachers should be met by the best substitutes that can be found. The provision of competent substitutes should not be left to chance, but should be as thought- fully administered as the selection of regular 1 National Education Association, Research Division. The Schools and Business. Washington, D. C.: the Association, teachers. The conditions of employment of sub- stitutes should be so planned as to lead to maximum efficiency in this part of the teaching service. One answer to the second question might be that the teacher has contracted to deliver his professional service in full, and that any failure to do so should result in a proportionate reduc- tion in pay. On the other hand, the more pro- gressive school officials and citizens are gener- ally agreed that the welfare of both the teacher and his pupils is enhanced if a limited amount of absence, for imperative personal reasons, is permitted without entire loss of pay. The teacher’s efficiency is strengthened by the sense of personal security that comes with protection of his income against loss due to unavoidable emergencies. A reasonable leave-of-absence pol- icy, properly safeguarded, places the school board in the position of a fair employer who is responsive to the human element in the teacher’s relation to his profession. The improved morale derived from knowing that a few days of neces- sary absence will not be penalized by salary deduction, and the gains in teachers’ health de- rived by their remaining away from the class- room while ill have important values for the school system, Suggested principles governing leave-of-ab- sence policies—There is probably no adequate statement of the principles upon which leave- of-absence policies should be based. In most cases such policies probably have developed in a more or less haphazard fashion under the in- fluence of local custom and tradition. The fol- lowing tentative list of principles is suggested 1930 p- * National Education Association, and the Department of Superintendence. Things To Do. (A Handbook for the Schools and the Public on the Observance of American Education Week, November 9-15, 1931.) Washington, D. C.: the Association, and the Department of Superintendence, July 1, 1931. 52 p. . Riegel, Robert, and Loman, H. J. Imsurance Principles and Practices. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1929. p. 249 * Dublin, Louis I., and Lotka, Alfred J. The Money Value of a Man. New York: Ronald Press Co., 1930. p. 110. [51] Le ill by common sense and by an examination of provisions for administering teacher absence in a large number of cities: 1. The education of pupils during the absence of regular teachers should be safeguarded by pro- viding trained, capable, and well-paid substitute teachers. 2. The conditions under which leave of absence with pay may be granted should be clearly and definitely stated. 3. The remuneration of absent teachers and the number of days during which such remuneration may be received should be determined by a consid- eration of (1) lengths of absences among teachers for various reasons in the local school system, (2) the financial ability of the system, and (3) current practice in other communities. 4. Some financial protection should be provided against long attacks of illness, when the teacher’s economic security is most endangered by loss of income. 5. The plan for allowing leaves of absence should be safeguarded against abuse. 6. Constructive measures should be taken to keep at a minimum the amount of absence due to ill health (1) by testing physical fitness when teachers ar, selected and periodically thereafter, and (2) by maintaining healthful working conditions in ¢) schools. e The next few pages discuss each of these gested principles in turn, and present pertinen: data as to policies and practices in city sclioo| systems. Safeguarding pupil welfare during absence of teachers—A few cities have set up detailed rules for the administration of substitute sery- ice,t but much remains to be done in man) school systems before substitute teachers are employed with the care which the importance of their service warrants. There are two ven eral classes of substitutes: (1) tempora: emergency, or day-to-day substitutes, and (2 permanent or annual substitutes. The first class includes teachers who are paid at a flat rate per day and those who are paid in some direct pro portion to the salary of the absent teacher. In some cases the method of determining a ' For example, see: Oakland, California. Principal Rules and Regulations, 1928. p. 91-93; Minneapolis, Minnesota. Rule and Regulations 1929. p. 47-48; and Cleveland, Ohio. Administrative Code, 1925. p. 59. TABLE 12.—POLICIES GOVERNING EMPLOYMENT OF SUBSTITUTE TEACHERS IN 1930-31 Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All citi 100,000 in | to 100,000 in| to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in a Policy population population population population population reporting Num-/| Per- | Num-/ Per- |Num-/ Per- | Num-/ Per- | Num-/| Per- Num- | Per- ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber | cent | ber cent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x 9 | 10 | m | 12 | 13 All substitutes are on temporary basis, receiving a flat rate per An ii a eR ee ere. 80! 94.1 | 1652 | 88.2 substitutes are on temporary basis, receiving pay in some direct proportion to the absent |. Aree a ae 3 1.6 All substitutes are on permanent, full-time basis, receiving regular salary 354? | 88.9 | 384% | 93.7 | 33% | 85.0 |1322 | 89.4 15 3.8 | 22 5.4] 515 | 12.8] 91 | 6.1 7 EGY ‘“s 7 6 1.5} 20 | 1.4 226 5.5 16 a 36 a 466 | 3.1 monthly salary............... 1 1.2 3 1.6 Both temporary and permanent substitutes are employed. ..... 48 4.7 168 8.6 Total number reporting. .... 85 |100.0 | 187 |100.0 398 |100.0 | 410 | 399 100.0 {1479 100.0 manent full-time basis, receiving nae monthly salary, etc. according to regular salary schedule the regular teacher's salary. substitutes are paid a flat rate per day. stitutes, 44 indicated that their ey a 7 ape wenger are cities 10,000 to 30,000 in population and t Read table as follows: Of the 85 cities over 100,000 in population reporting, 80, or 94.1 percent, indicated that all substitutes are on temporary basis, receiving a flat rate per day; 1, or 1.2 percent, indicated that all substitutes are on per- This tabulation is based on replies to question 26 of the inquiry blank reproduced : 1 One of these cities reported that after a substitute remains in the same position for 3 months or more, he is paid ? Three of these cities reported that after a substitute remains in the same position for a specified period, he is paid + Four of these cities reported that after a substitute remains in the same position for a specified period, he is paid the regular teacher's salary, and one reported that elementary substitutes are paid on a temporary basis at a flat rate per day while high-school substitutes are paid monthly on a full-time basis. se ‘ Three — cities reported that after a substitute remains in the same position for a specified period, he is paid t t ‘s \ 7) these cities reported that elementary substitutes are paid 75 percent of regular teacher's salary and high-school * Out of a total of 46 cities in all population groups which reported employing both temporary and permanent sub- other in cities 2,500 to 5,000 in pop substitutes are paid in some direct proportion to the salary of the absent teacher. Similarly read figures for other population groups. on pages 72-75. a flat rate per day. remaining two cities—one in indica.ed that their temporary [ 52] a ee) ee _— man univ ona In (Om; incr sery \ pha: stitt are and subs that tim tion ( wit dea mo; but fail the sch of Th vid wh 13( 10 is ; vis nu me in int De; sn porary substitute’s pay is changed after he s been teaching in a given classroom for sev- | weeks. The second class of substitutes is mposed of those who are employed on a full- me. annual basis, with a regular monthly sal- vy, in recognition of the fact that there will be ugh absence to justify their continuous em- loyment. Table 12 shows the types of substi- tutes employed by city school systems in 1930- 31. While a few cities reported that all of their ibstitutes are on a full-time basis, and a few thers indicated that both temporary and per- inent substitutes are employed, the almost universal practice is to employ all substitutes na per diem basis for days of actual teaching. In some cities (for example, Minneapolis, Omaha, and Cleveland) the daily rate of pay ncreases with years of experience in substitute service. \ recent editorial on substitute service em- phasizes the need for outstanding ability in sub- stitute teachers if the classes of absent teachers are to maintain their standard of achievement and conduct. The solution to the problem of substitute service proposed in this editorial is that of employing substitute teachers for full time, demanding of them the highest qualifica- tions, and paying them adequate salaries. Conditions for granting leaves of absence with pay—Personal illness of the teacher and death in the immediate family are the most com- monly recognized reasons for leave of absence, but many others deserve consideration. One fairly complete list is that given in the rules of the Boston public schools, as shown in Table 13. A study of teacher absence in the Baltimore schools during 1927-28 shows the proportion of total absence due to each of seven causes.” The leave-of-absence policy in Baltimore pro- vides sick leave on half pay—65 days to teachers who have been less than 10 years in service, and 130 days to teachers who have been employed 10 years or more. Leave of absence on full pay is allowed for death in the family (4 days), visiting schools (2 days), and an indefinite number of days for attending educational meetings and for responding to court summons in cases not concerning the teacher’s personal interest. Table 14 shows the relative incidence of these and certain other causes of absence the Baltimore schools. Although the teachers’ ill health was responsible for 83 percent of the reasons other absence, nearly a fifth was fo1 than sickness. The provisions made by many school systems for leave of absence in the cas¢ of severe illness or death in the immediate fam ily would seem justified by this distribution. TABLE 13—CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH LEAVES OF ABSENCE WITH PAY MAY BE GRANTED TO TEACH- ERS AND SUPERVISORS IN THE BOS- TON PUBLIC SCHOOLS Amount of leave with Causes of absence ? Part pay Full pay 1. Personal illness 1 year 3 days? 2. Weddings o 1 day In the immediate family 1 day 3. Ordinations or entrance in to religious orders 1 day In the immediate family 1 day 4. Death in the immediate PO. ctasaaws ‘ 5 days 5. Critical illness in the im- mediate family (in each school year). ... eee 6. Attendance at the funeral of a teacher or school officer in the employ of the | city, or of a principal WS. « . Gexacue —— 1 day 7. Attendance at funerals. . 1 day When travel is required, not more than..... ie 2 days 8. To act as readers for col lege entrance examination board. cineneeeebnwes 9. Jewish holy days....... 10. Service in state teachers’ institutes, or to take part in teachers’ associations (in each school year) 11. Court attendance on school business,...... arene 12. To take promotional ex- aminations or examina tions for certificates of | qualification.......... 13. To receive a degree at a college or university..... 1 day 14. Visiting other schools 2 days 5. Physical incapacity caused by accidents which occur during the performance of duty on premises under the control of the School Com- mittee... (éietesnbdne 3 months 20 days 3 days 3 days Unspecified 1 Boston, Mass. Rules of the School Committee and Regulations of the Public Schools of the City of Boston School Document No. 14, 1926. Boston: Printing Department, 1927. p. 146. Amendments to the Rule and Regulations, Secretary's Circular No. 2, 1928-29. ». 9 ? Extended leaves of absence for study, travel or rest are not included in this table. * For directors and principals ‘Consecutive calendar days, which period shal include and may also immediately precede or im- mediately follow the day of the death. 1 «When a Teacher Becomes lll, Who Shall Take Her Place?” Nation's Schools 8: 74; July, 1931. ?Chapman, H. B. Statistical Report for the School Year, 1927-28: Absence of Teachers. Baltimore, Md.: Bureau of Research, Department of Education, 1928. Table 28. [53] a ek! When leave of absence is granted because of death in the immediate family a question of definition may arise, and many such rules have been supplemented by a list of the relatives making up the “immediate family.” A com- monly accepted interpretation is to include par- ents, husband or wife, children, brothers and sisters.! Aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews, grand- parents, and relatives by marriage are some- times included, and some rules avoid the ques- tion by providing leave of absence on account of “the death or serious illness of a relative.”’ TABLE 14.— CAUSES OF ABSENCE AMONG BALTIMORE SCHOOL TEACHERS IN 1927-28' Percent of Cause of absence total absence Se ST es gan E ED: fee Phe ng hie | Ee ee ee 83.0 | Family affairs (including illness in family). . 3.7 Deaths and funerals.................... 4.0 I, in cnnvcecvcebdas Sean se 1.4 Visiting schools. ................... rae i? INS 60.66 v05scedenes nan eer 7.2 NN tid octets dA pth bs diate ain rhe sded 100.0 1Chapman, H. B. Statistical Report for the School Year, 1927-28: Absence of Teachers. Baltimore, Md.: weg hy Research, Department of Education, 1928. able 28. Three of the many other reasons for leave of absence—visiting schools, attending educa- tional meetings, and observance of religious holidays—were given separate mention in the questionnaire. Table 15 shows the number and percent of the city school systems in 1930-31 which grant leave of absence with some salary for various specific reasons. Of the 1,486 cities reporting, 90 percent grant such leave on ac- count of personal illness, and 80 percent do so in case of death in the teacher’s immediate fam- ily. Visiting other schools and attending educa- tional meetings are recognized reasons for some leave of absence with pay in 63 percent and 65 percent of these cities, respectively. Only 10 percent, however, grant such leave for religious holidays. Other reasons, such as court summons, weddings, and funerals of friends were men- 1 Hill, Clyde 7 Report on Sick Leave for Teachers, Based w Cities in the United Sar Go Sane Tene the Association, May 12, 1930. (Typewritten) p tioned by 7 percent of the cities. In general, brief leaves of absence with so salary are granted by a larger proportion of cities in the larger population groups than jp the smaller population groups. For exam; such leave is allowed for personal illness by percent of the cities over 100,000 and by on 84 percent of those from 2,500 to 5,000 j, population. Leave on account of death in family is granted by 95 percent of the cit over 100,000 and by only 67 percent of tho from 2,500 to 5,000 in population. Comparative data indicate an increase tween 1923 and 1928 in the percentage of cit granting leave of absence with some salary on account of personal illness. Of the 972 cities reporting in 1923, 83 percent allowed sick leave with pay, while of 1,495 cities replying in 1928, 92 percent allowed such leave. The in crease was most marked among cities of 2,5()() to 5,000 in population, where the proportion rose from 69 percent to 85 percent. Between 1928 and 1931, however, no significant change in the situation seems to have occurred in an population group.’ Amount of leave and proportion of salar; granted—FEarlier in this discussion three cri teria were suggested for determining the amount of leave and the remuneration to be allowed absent teachers in any school system: (1) the lengths of absence among teachers fo: various reasons, (2) the financial ability of the local system, and (3) current practice in othe: communities. The data available with respect to the first of these criteria are of only limited application because the amount of teacher absence in an\ given school system may differ markedly from that in other systems. The studies summarized by Rogers indicate an average of 3.5 days of absence per year among women teachers «s compared with 8.4 days for women in othe: occupations.* Carrothers’ study in 1922-23 re- vealed an average of 2.1 days of illness pe teacher in Springfield, Massachusetts ; 4.9 days in Cleveland, Ohio; and 3.5 days in Denve: Colorado.* In Highland Park, Michigan, an average of 5.5 days was reported in 1927-28.° pon Returns from a Questionnaire Sent to Seventy-Six ers’ Association by the Committee To Study Sick Leave. Dallas, Texa : ." footnote on page 41 for explanation oa = assumptions and methods involved in the comparison of data for differ: 2. Washington. F. The Health of the Teacher. U. S. — ory of the Interior, Bureau of Education, School Health Studi« No. 12 #3. - ngton, D “3 : Goverment Printing myer g Nicer g arrothers, George sical E ficiency Publications, Teachers College, Columbia 5p 1924. p Allen, I. M. Amount of Annual Sick Allowed. ‘eachers. ; to Education, No. 155. New York: Bureau « Highland Park, Michigan: Prblic Schools, 1929. (Mimeographed [ 54] stuc mak ing illne Or BT =... general, it appears that women teachers absent about twice as much as men, and rried women somewhat more than single vomen.? It is not implied here that the amount ‘ sick leave allowed with pay should be deter- ned solely by the average number of days of sence in the school system. Probably the total imber of days allowed should be somewhat eater than this average, so as to meet the ds of at least some of the teachers who are inavoidably absent for long periods. , \pplication of the second criterion, the abil- ty of the school system to pay the cost of leaves of absence, is entirely a local matter. In fact, the question is often one of willingness rather than one of ability. The probable cost of a pro- posed leave-of-absence plan should, of course, be calculated. The figures collected by Rogers, Carrothers, and others as to the number of days of illness among teachers suggest that the average amount of money needed per teacher would not be large, even if full pay were granted during all absences due to illness. In Gary, Indiana, the board sets aside $30 a year for each teacher in a sick-leave fund which the teachers help administer. In Cicero, Illinois, $35 per teacher is allotted for sick leave. One superintendent who has made a careful study of the sick-leave situation in his own city makes the following recommendations regard- ing the financing of a plan of sick leave: Che total number of days of absenteeism due to illness of teachers should be determined by statistical studies, and the amount of money needed to provide substitute service for such absenteeism should be appropriated as a separate item of the budget apart from the usual appropriation for contract salary of teachers The number of days enumerated for sick leave within a system should not exceed the number of days for which substitute service has been antici pated.” Information concerning the third criterion suggested, that of current practice in other school systems, is presented in Tables 16 to 22. These tables may be summarized as follows: 1. Of the cities which grant brief leaves of absence with some salary, a large majority allow full salary for at least a part of the leave. This is true with respect to each of the causes for ab- sence listed in Table 16. The proportion of these cities allowing full pay varies from 75 percent in case of absence due to personal ill ness, to 95 percent in case of absence to visit other schools or to attend educational meetings. It is surprising, however, to discover that only about 58 percent of the cities over 100,000 in population allow full pay during sick leave. Among the other population groups, the corre sponding percentage varies from 73 to 78. 2. A considerable number of cities in each population group reported that the number of days a teacher is absent with pay for reasons other than personal illness is deducted from the total number of days allowed for sick leave. 3. Table 17 shows that of the 1,264 cities answering the question in 1931, 177, or 14 per- ‘ Carrothers, George E. op. cit. p. 34. Rogers, James F. op. cit. p. 6. * Sick Leave Allowances for Teachers."’ (Editorial.) America n School Board Journal 78: 69; May, 1929 TABLE 15.—BRIEF LEAVES OF ABSENCE WITH SOME SALARY GRANTED FOR VARIOUS REASONS IN 1930-31 : : — | Cities over | Cities 30,000 100,000 in to 100,000 in such leave in cases of death in the immediate family, etc. Si This tabulation is based on replies to questions 24-a and Leave granted with some population population salary for: ee SO | |Num-/| Per- Num-| Per- | ber | cent ber | cent | 1 PS iatseis Personal illness............. 82 96.5 | 181 96.3 Death in immediate family. . . 81 95.3 | 177 94.1 Visiting other schools......... | 60 | 70.6 | 142 75.5 Attending. educational meetings..| 54 | 63.5 | 133 70.7 Religious holidays.......... as 121.31 2 14.4 | Other reasons!......... s 19 | 22.4] 23 | 12.2 | = | | Total cities reporting 85 |100.0 | 188 |100.0 | _ Read table as follows: Of the 85 cities over 100,000 in population which reported policies concerning the granting of brief leaves of absence with some salary, 82, or 96.5 percent, grant such leave in cases of illness; 81, or 95.3 percent, grant 1 Other reasons include: Court summons, funerals of friends, weddings, and teachers’ institutes. Cities 10,000 Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in population population population All cities reporting | Num-| Per- | Num- | Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- ber cent | ber cent ber | cent ber cent de ae &.. 9 10 | 11 12 13 375 | 94.0 | 366 88.8 | 336 | 83.6 | 1340 | 90.2 345 | 86.5 | 31 77.2 | 271 | 67.4 | 1192 | 80.2 267 66.9 | 24 60.4 | 221 | 55.0 | 939 | 63.2 262 65.7 | 262 63.6 | 260 | 64.7 | 971 | 65.3 35 8.8 34 8.3 35 | 8.7] 149] 10.0 21 5.3 | 14 45 Ht 6S] Ol CG. | | 399 100.0 | 412 100.0 | 402 1100 0 1486 |100.¢ milarly read figures for other population groups 25 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75 [55 J TABLE 16—FULL PAY OR PART PAY ALLOWED DURING BRIEF LEAVES OF ABSENCE IN CITIES GRANTING LEAVE WITH SOME PAY IN 1930-31 = = Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All citie 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in po ti s Full pay or part pay only population population population population population porting allowed during leave for: Num-/| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-/| Per- | Num-/ Per- | Num-| Per- |Num- | Per 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Personal illness: | Eee oe 48 58.5 | 141 77.9 | 286 76.3 | 284 77.6 | 245 72.9 | 1004 | 74 Less than full salary.......... 34 41.5 40 22.% 89 23.7 82 22.4 91 27.1 336 | 25 Total cities granting some MRS 04 c0aepee See rene 82 {100.0 | 181 [100.0 | 375 |100.0 | 366 (100.0 | 336 {100.0 | 1340 |100.0 Death in immediate family: OE ee re 72 88.9 | 156 88.1 Less than fuli salary.......... 9 11.1 21 11.9 36 10.4 36 11.3 49 18.1 151 12 Total cities granting some Sab cvenceics wal seed 812 |100.0 | 1773 {100.0 | 3454 [100.0 | 3185 |100.0 | 271% {100.0 | 1192 |100 Visiting other schools: ee ESS ER 59 98.3 | 134 94.4 | 261 97.8 | 234 94.0 | 202 91.4 890 | 94 Less than full salary.......... 1 o.7 8 5.6 6 2.2 15 6.0 19 8.6 49 5.2 Total cities granting some | Rp HT 60 (100.0 | 142? |100.0 | 2678 |100.0 | 249% |100.0 | 221° |100.0 939 |100 Attending educational meetings: SEE cs id cncnend.e< sha 54 |100.0 | 126 94.7 | 253 96.6 | 247 94.3 | 242 93.1 922 | 95 eee Tn . eeeeen aee Sane 7 5.3 9 3.4 15 §.7 18 6.9 49 5 Total cities granting some Ns di.c aa bey bad edd 54 |100.0 | 133'° |100.0 | 262" |100.0 | 262" |100.0 | 260% |100.0 971 |100. Religious holidays: SSS ee eee 9 50.0 22 81.5 32 91.4 29 85.3 28 80.0 120 | 80.5 Less than full salary.......... 9 50.0 5 18.5 3 8.6 5 14.7 7 20.0 29 | 19.5 Total cities granting some ES ee 18 {100.0 27% |100.0 35™ |100.0 34" |100.0 354 (100.0 149 |100 Other reasons!: = SS ee 13 68.4 17 73.9 17 81.0 13 92.9 19 86.4 79 | 79 Less than full salary.......... 6 31.6 6 26.1 4 19.0 1 ae 3 13.6 20 | 20.2 Total cities granting some CI vin wd54 cRdwK cress 19 |100.0 23 |100.0 21 +|100.0 14 /|100.0 22 (100.0 sell aa Read table as follows: Of the 82 cities ofer ,000 in population which reported leave with some pay granted for illness, 48, or 58.5 percent, grant such leave wi*h ful ary, while 34, or 41.5 percent, grant something less than full salary during such leave. Similarly read figures for absencgs for other reasons and for other population groups. "i his tabulation is based on replies to questions \24-a and 25 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75. ! Other reasons include: Court summons, funerals of friends, weddings, teachers institutes, etc. a , , ? Seven of these cities reported that the number af days a teacher is absent with pay for death in immediate family is deducted from the total number of days allowed for sick leave. : d 3 Forty-two of these cities reported that thc n r of days a teacher is absent with pay for death in immediate family is deducted from the total number of days glilowed for sick leave. - : 4 hundred of these cities reported that tye number of days a teacher is absent with pay for death in immediate family is deducted from the total number of day% allowed for sick leave. ; ; , 5 hundred and fifteen of these citi rted that the number of days a teacher is absent with pay for death in immediate family is deducted from the total number of days allowed for sick leave. t Rok ‘ * Eighty-eight of these cities reported that the number of days a teacher is absent with pay for death in immediate family is deducted from the total number of days allowed for sick leave. ne . 7 Four of these cities reported that the number of days a teacher is absent with pay for visiting other schools is de- ducted from the total number of days allowed for sick leave. a. : 5 Five of these cities reported that the number of days a teacher is absent with pay for visiting other schools is de- ducted from the total number of days allowed for sick leave. . eres : * Three of these cities reported that the number of days a teacher is absent with pay for visiting other schools is de- ducted from the total number of days allowed for sick leave. . : ‘ 1° Two of these cities reported that the number of days a teacher is absent with pay for attending educational meetings is deducted from the total number of days allowed for sick leave. P : . " Five of these cities reported that.the number of days a teacher is absent with pay for attending educational meetings is deducted from the total number of @ays allowed for sick leave. ‘ ‘. 2 Three of these cities reported that the number of days a teacher is absent with pay for attending educational meet- ings is deducted from the total number of days allowed for sick leave. ey: : : 3 Two of these cities reported that the number of days a teacher is absent with pay on religious holidays is deducted from the total number of days allowed for sick leave. — : ! 4 One of these cities reported that the number of days a teacher is absent with pay on religious holidays is deducted from the total number of days allowed for sick leave. ber cent ber | cent ber cent ber | cent ber cent ber | cent | 309 89.6 | 282 88.7 | 222 81.9 | 1041 | 87.3 ot si wide ance grou amo’ ing | ited mort erall chief even prov smal Je in ¢ sick less | 6. salar used in th Fy It is shou prost there to fe leave a sm i Public 2S TA Nui permit days of unused sick leave to ac- cumulate from year to year. The proportion of cities using the cumulative plan is greater in the larger population groups than in the smaller id on 4. Tables 18 to 22 reveal that the amount of sick leave allowed with full pay varies rather widely. Ten days is the most common allow- ance among cities in the two largest population groups, while five days is the most common among the smaller cities. ‘The practice of allow- ing less than five days is uncommon and is lim- ited primarily to the smaller cities. Leaves of more than 14 days with full pay are not gen- erally allowed, although a number of cities, chiefly among the larger ones, grant 20, 25, or even 30 days of sick leave on full pay. Indefinite provisions are found more frequently in the smaller cities than in the larger ones, 5. A considerable number of school systems in each population group allow some days of sick leave on full pay and additional days on less than full pay. 6. The plan of allowing sick leave at full salary less the pay of the substitute teacher is used much more commonly in the smaller than in the larger cities. Financial protection against long illnesses— It is not to be expected that all school boards should carry at full salary every teacher who is prostrated by long and serious illness, although there are school systems finding it advantageous to follow just this policy. The plan of sick leave, however, should recognize the fact that a small percentage of teachers will be absent tor long periods because of illness. In Spring- field, in 1922-23, it was found that about 7 per- cent of the women teachers were absent more than 10 days on account of illness; and in Cleveland the corresponding percentage was about 102 The cumulative plan, whereby unused pot tions of the annual sick-leave allowance accrue to the benefit of the teacher, is frequently recommended as a way by which a teacher can build up a reserve for the long sickness which may come. This should work well, provided the long sickness does not come before the reserve is built up. It appears to be a great improvement over the plan of allowing a certain number of days a year regardless of length of service o1 previous good record of health. Table 17 re- veals an increase since 1928 in the number of city school systems providing cumulative sick leave. Of the 1,177 cities reporting sick-leave provisions in 1928, 8 percent used the cumu- lative plan; while of the 1,264 cities granting sick leave in 1931, 14 percent used the cumula tive plan. In both years the proportion of school systems providing cumulative leave was greater in the larger population groups than in the smaller ones. Among cities over 100,000, this proportion increased from 10 percent to 23 percent; while among cities 2,500 to 5,000 in population, it increased from about 3 percent to 9 percent during the three-year period.” There are a few cities in which a plan of cumulative sick leave has been merged with sabbatical leave. Among the cities reporting this plan are Pontiac, Michigan; Troy, New York: ‘ 1 Carrothers, George E. The Physical Efficiency of Teachers. Contributions to Education, No. 155. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1924. p. 63-64. ’ é ? See footnote on page 41 for explanation of the assumptions and methods involved in the comparison of data for different years. TABLE 17.—FREQUENCY OF CUMULATIVE SICK-LEAVE PLANS IN 1927-28 AND 1930-31 j | | 100,000 in population kal Sick leave with pay cumulative 1 a 2 A Number of cities. . . ; 3 ee 23 Percent of cities............ | | Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 to 100,000 in| to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in population | l Bae ) | 1928 | 1931 | 1928 | 1931 | 1928 | 1931 | 1928 | 1931 | 1928 | 1931 | 1928 | 1931 9.6 | 23.1 14.0 | 24 Total number reporting... .. as) 164 170 to 5,000 in | All cities | reporting population population population 6 7 8 | 9] 10 “ui we 13 37 Ss isi 10 27 93 177 10.9 ry 5.1 | 10.0 3.5 8.7 7.9 14.0 339 356 316 | 349 285 Jj 311 1177 | 1264 Read table as follows: Of the 73 cities over 100,000 in 1927-28 which reported sick leave with pay and also answered the question regarding cumulative leave, 7, or 9.6 percent, used the cumulative plan. Of the 78 cities over 100,000 in 1930-31 which reported sick leave with pay and also answered the question as to cumulative leave, 18, or 23.1 percent, use the cumulative plan. Similarly read figures for other population groups. [57] a a! and Schenectady, New York.' In these cities, teachers with an excellent health record are per- mitted to use the accumulated days of sick leave, with part or full pay, for purposes of professional growth. TABLE 18—AMOUNT OF SICK LEAVE AND PROPORTION OF SALARY GRANTED IN CITIES OVER 100,000 Group health insurance is being utilized in some school systems as a protection against the longer periods of absence. Disability insurance IN POPULATION IN 1930-31 Full Some Number of Full Half salary other days granted salary | salary | less pay | fraction of sub- of stitute salary 1 2 3 + 5 Pr Mbacwibaedt 11 oe Se eee 1 OS ee 25? 5? 2u 212 Bs Geec eben 3 ge SRR 18 SS 64 78 1 1 ee 15 kt ESAS es See. 30 and over .....|....... jie 2 3 No definite num- sc weceinens are eee 1 WR. «6 é0e 48 20 5 9 Read table as follows: Of the 48 cities over 100,000 in population granting sick leave with full salary, 11 cities reported between 5 to 9 days allowed, 25 reported between 10 to = _— etc. Similarly read data for other salary gro This tabalation i is based on replies to question 24 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75. ! Eight of these 11 cities grant additional days leave with something less than full 2 Seven of these 25 cities grant a ditional days leave with something less thar full salary; et = — “10 to 20 days, di ing on length o' + One of these — grants Siditional d ‘ee leave with something less than full 4 Two of these 6 dy t additional days leave with —ees less than full salary; 2 cities reported “from 20 to 60 d lays, depending on length of service”’; 1 city reported * ‘plue an additional day for each year of service.” ‘ This city grants additional days leave with some- thin Ly than full salary. his city reported “1 to 4 weeks, depending on nasil of service.” 7 One of these 5 cities grants additional days leave with something less than half salary; and 1 city re- ports “10 to 100 days, depending on length of service * One of these 7 - ~~ cc of days, de- pending on length of service. * One of these 3 cities reported “8 additional days leave, depending on h of 10 One of these 3 ci —— “65 to 130 days leave, depending on length of service." One of these 2 cities reported “one-half month to four and one-half months leave, AO te tee dane length of service’’; and 1 city reported ‘10 to 100 12 One of these 2 cities reported “10 days _» less deduction of $2.00 in elementary schools and $2.50 in high schools, is allowed, plus an in additional 10 weeks at full salary less pay of sul itute.” % This city reported * 1 additional day for each year of service, up to 15 days.” TABLE 19.—AMOUNT OF SICK LEAvp AND PROPORTION OF SALArRy GRANTED IN CITIES 30,000 TO 100 099 IN POPULATION IN 1930-31 | Full | Son Number of Full Half salary | oth days granted salary | salary | less pay | fract of sub- | of stitute | ‘sala t 1 2 SS 5 | ee SS it eee —, A 43? 1 1 OS ere 743 1 5 SE 74 1 | err ee 35 | 8 30 2 OO SS a 30 and over..... 36 | 3° 5 2 No definite num- | BS wewKed bes 4 Fentenae 3 | 1 } et i Me ctancst C8 17 “12 11 Read table as follows: Of the 141 cities 30,000 ¢ 100,000 in population granting sick leave with ful! salary, 7 reported under 5 days allowed; 43 reported between 5 oo 9 days, etc. Similarly read data fo other salary groups. This tabulation i is based on replies to question 24 ; the ay blank reproduced on pages 72-75 1 Two of the seven cities grant additional days leave with something less than full salary; 1 reported ‘'4 t 10 days, d ing on length of service’’;and 1 reported “13 to 18 days. 2 Twenty-six of these 43 cities grant additional days leave with something less than full salary; 1 grants additional days leave with something less than ful! salary, and an additional day for each year of service; 1 reported “5 to 40 days, depending on length of serv ice’’; 1 reported “5S to 15 days, depending on length « service’’; 1 “ag gta ‘5 to 30 days, depending on length of service”; rted “7 to 21 days, depending on length of euretad ; and 1 varies from 5 to 50 days. 3 Twenty-six of these 74 cities nt additional days leave with something less than full salary; and 1 re ported “10 to 20 days, depending on length of service. 4 One of these 7 cities reported ‘‘15 to 30 days, de pending on length of service,”" and 1 reported ‘15 to ys, depending on length of service and an addi tional 30 days with something less than full pay. 5 One of these 3 cities pane sd additional days leave with something less than full salary § These 3 cities <7 additional days leave with something less than full salary. ? This city reported “S to 20 days, depending on length of service § Two of these 4 cities grant additional leave with something less than half salary. * One of these 3 cities grants additional leave with something less than half salary. lo os of these 3 cities grants additional leave with something less than full salary less pay of substitute u ethic -five dollars allowed in September. Al! uctions are made during the school year. of the type carried in Evansville, Indiana; De- troit, Michigan; Omaha, Nebraska; and in Bellingham and Seattle, Washington, provides weekly benefits for illness, beginning after a waiting period varying from 3 to 14 days.’ Although the cost of such insurance in these cities is borne entirely by the teachers, the cen- 1See the next section, pages 62-64, for discussion ot extended leaves of absence f essional i . The dy —_s Ne sp eye 4, for prof or cultural improvement iso: ‘‘ Teachers’ Sick Leave Benefits at Pontiac, M Nethonal Education Association, Research Association. 1927. p. 17. ees Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, Department ichigan.” American School Board Journal 78: 132-34; January, Division. Sabbatical Leave for Public School Teachers. Washington. D. C.: “The Economic Welfare cf Teachers.” Sixth Year of Classroom Teachers. the Association, 1931. “‘Group Accident and Health Plans in Local Organizations,” p. 68-73 [58] At A ar BEA LEGA AES 0 Ger ee head ae nee ywwr i A RY 10,000 lai Ween Ot vag. bo tea oe ee 8 Rt Ely, Sais ‘| school administration in any city might ell take the initiative in the development of such a plan, and might even contribute to its pport if permitted by law. Health insurance, of course, can be pur- sed much more cheaply if there is a waiting riod of several days before disability benefits rin. For this reason, the allowance of several vs of sick leave with pay is a great help to achers in establishing financial security for long periods of illness without paying exces- sively high insurance premiums. Mutual benefit plans, if financially sound, may also serve as a means of supplementing sick-leave allowances for teachers. For example, in Phoenix, Arizona, which has a cumulative sick-leave plan allowing 10 days a year on full pay, the need was felt for further protection, TABLE 20.—AMOUNT OF SICK LEAVE AND PROPORTION OF SALARY GRANTED IN CITIES 10,000 TO 30,000 IN POPULATION IN 1930-31 TABLE 21.—_AMOUNT OF SICK LEAVE | | | | Full | Some Number of days Full Half salary other granted salary | salary | less pay | fraction | of sub- | of stitute salary 1 iki en = —_ —_—--—- | — } —_ —— | _ Unit Buses avs 221 | 1 1 aa ~ Fi evisebes 1192 1 1 | oe PS a eeup 109 | 10 37 a] ~ 2 pee “2 ie oes eee og eee ee wl 165 | 11° 7 7 ee Leda ows SS eer : iJ 30 and over..... | 1 8 3 2 No definite num- | eee | 13 3 19 3 RO a ecaate ‘| 286 36 34 19 Read table as follows: Of the 286 cities 10,000 to 30,000 in population granting sick leave with full salary, 22 allow under 5 days; 119 allow from 5 to 9 days, etc. Similarly read data for other salary groups. This tabulation is based on replies to question 24 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75. | 1 Eleven of these 22 cities grant additional daysleave | with something less than full salary; and one city re- ported ‘3 to 10 days, depending on length of service."’ ? Forty-two of these 119 cities grant additional days leave with something less than full salary; 1 city re- ported “5 to 15 days, depending on length of service"’; 1 city reported “5 to 20 days, depending on length of service’’; and 1 city reported ‘744 to 30 days.” 5 Thirty-two of these 109 cities grant additional days leave with something less than full salary; 1 city reported ‘‘10 to 28 days, depending on length of service’’; 1 city reported ‘10 to 20 days, depending on length of service’’; and 1 city reported “11 to 40 | days, depending on length of service.” | ‘One of these 6 cities grants additional days leave with something less than full salary. 5 Six of these 16 cities grant additional days leave with somethin, less than full salary and 2 cities re- ported “20 to 40 days,depending on length of service.” | * One of these 11 cities grants additional days leave | | with something less than half salary. 7 One of these 3 cities reported ‘*10 to 60 days leave, depending on length of service.” * One of these 7 cities reported ‘2 weeks plus 1 week additional leave for each year of service.” 1 Ibid. p. 81-82. AND PROPORTION OF SALARY GRANTED IN CITIES 5,000 TO 10,000 IN POPULATION IN 1930-31 Full Some Number of Full | Half | , Salary other days granted salary | salary | l¢ss pay | fraction | | of sub- of stitute salary l 2 3 4 5 Under 5 281 1 5- 9 1412 | ? i 10-14 893 9 | 64 3 15-19 2 | 20-24 7 {ie |S 2 | 25-29 ate | 30 and over | A » | 3 1 No definite num- | | | ber.... 4} 3 | 2s 6 Total | 284 | 27 | 42 13 Read table as follows: Of the 284 cities 5,000 to 10,000 in population granting sick leave with full salary, 28 allow under 5 days, 141 allow from 5 to 9 days, etc. Similarly read data for other salary groups | This tabulation is based on replies to question 24 of | the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75 } 1 Nine of these 28 cities grant additional days leave with something less than full salary 2 Thirty of these 141 cities grant additional days leave with something less than full salary; 1 city re- ported “5 to 10 days leave depending on length of serv- ice;"’ 2 cities reported “‘5 to 20 days leave depending on length of service;"’ 1 city reported ‘5 to 30 days | leave depending on length of service;"’ and 2 cities re | ported that upon recommendation of the Board of | Education or the Superintendent, additional leave | may be granted in case of prolonged illness | 3 Eighteen of these 89 cities grant additional days leave with something less than full salary; 1 city re- ported “10 days leave plus 1 additional day for each year of service;'’ and 2 cities reported ‘‘10 to 30 days depending on length of service.” 4 One of these 6 cities reported ‘10 to 30 days leave depending on length of service." and a mutual benefit association was organized with the encouragement and support of the school administration. ‘The annual dues of $7.50 provide a sick benefit of $5.00 a day, beginning after the period of cumulative leave has expired, and continuing for not more than 12 weeks. The cost of overhead administration is carried by the school system." In this connection it should be noted that most state teacher retirement systems and some city systems grant disability allowances to mem- bers who are presumably permanently incapaci- tated for further service. Many of these systems make it a practice to give the teacher the benefit of any doubt concerning the probable perma- nence of the disability. Safeguarding the leave-of-absence privilege against abuse—lIt is only fair to the large pro- portion of teachers who render devoted and conscientious service that leave-of-absence priv- ileges be safeguarded against There appears to be little evidence, however, malingering. [59] te ere ge that this is a serious problem in most school systems. Nearly every study of teacher absence reveals a considerable percentage of teachers who have rendered the year’s service with no absence because of sickness. Carrothers found that 72 percent of the Springfield women teach- ers and 21 percent of those in Cleveland missed no days because of illness in 1922-23." A study in Highland Park, Michigan, where 20 days of leave are allowed on full pay, shows that 25 percent of the teachers took no sick leave at all during the year.” Perhaps some notion as to the presence or absence of malingering in a teaching staff may be obtained by examining a distribution of the teachers according to the amount of their ab- sence during the year. Following is such a dis- tribution adapted from data in the Highland Park study referred to above: ® Number of teachers taking no sick leave...... 98 - “3 ” absent 1-5 days.......... 165 - ” " a. ee 71 " . ry . AiedS days........ 32 te ee “ " 16-20 days........ 14 ae * 21-35 daps........ 5 " “ si “ 26-30 days........ 3 ” ” - ” 31-35 days........ 2 “ ” " “ 36-41 days........ 7 Total number of teachers.................. 397 This distribution shows no tendency for ab- sence to pile up at the maximum allowance of 20 days with full pay. In fact, the number of teachers absent 21 days or longer was slightly greater than the number absent from 16 to 20 days. Evidence is sometimes found, however, to suggest that a few teachers take the maximum number of days of sick leave without adequate justification. Carrothers reports such a tendency in one of the cities he studied.* A frequently cited advantage of the cumula- tive sick-leave policy is that it reduces the ten- dency to take the maximum annual sick-leave allowance. Another safeguard frequently used is to require a doctor’s certificate if absence ex- tends beyond a specified period. In some cities a statement from the principal is all that is required as a basis for granting leave of absence, either for sickness or for other causes. Ina few systems the school nurse visits teachers who are 1 ) Carrothers, sick, both to render service to the absent teach. ers and to insure against abuse of sick-lea, privileges. The alert principal will obsery. flagrant cases of neglect of duty, and will take official action to correct such conditions. C4r¢ ful administration by principals, reasonable precaution in checking up on long absences die to sickness, and an accurate system of hea! and absence records should afford ample pro. tection to the school system. TABLE 22.—AMOUNT OF SICK LEAVE AND PROPORTION OF _ SALARY GRANTED IN CITIES 2,500 TO 5.000 IN POPULATION IN 1930-31 | Full Some Number of days Full Half salary | other granted salary | salary | less pay | fraction of sub- | of _Stitute } salary 1 Ph eee fT: 2 Under S......... | Ley Pee Os in 1262} 4 a eae ee 693 | = 128 ee rr 24 | 1 1 eee 6 _ A eee eee eee nc dns s$acd sachet ones Vas oe EEE, PCT Pee eee ee ee No definite num- | Riccceukilnds. 10 | 2 43 7 co See 245 29 54 8 Read table as follows: Of the 245 cities 2,500 to 5,000 in population granting sick leave with full! salary, 32 allow under 5 days; i26 allow from 5 to 9 days, etc Similarly read data for other salary groups. This tabulation is based on replies to question 24 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75. 1 Eleven of these 32 cities grant additional days sick leave with something less than full salary; and one city reported ‘3 to 5 days depending on length of service.” 2 Twenty-six of these 126 cities grant additional days sick leave with something less than full salary; 5 cities reported ‘‘5 to 10 days, depending on length of service’’; one city reported ‘‘5 to 15 days, depending on length of service’’; one city reported ‘‘5 to 30 days, depending on length of service’’; and one city grants an additional day's leave for each year of service. *Ten of these 69 cities grant additional days sick leave with something less than full salary; and 2 cities reported “10 to is days, depending on length of service.” 4 One of pom 3 ~ ye reported “15 to 30 days, de- pending on le of service. s One of bm 12 cities grants additional days sick leave with something less than half salary. The fact should not be overlooked that teac!- ers who attempt to meet their classes when phy- sically unfit to do so may also be abusing the sick-leave privilege by failing to take advantage of it. Teachers should be encouraged to take the day or two of sick leave that may enable them to ward off a longer attack of illness, and pe George E. Allen, I. M. om of Ph anual Sib E, Sick Leave Allowed. Highland Park, Michigan: Public Schools, 1929. Table 6. 2 bid Tables 8 and 9 « Carrothers, George E. op. cit. p. 69-72. [ 60] xaml The made’ } shoul« we meds teache fied © as foll wale» i i. & 2. B detrac dition. = 3. N applie dott SARE Ad to tea even | the te Th worki emph bullet topic. tribut folloy heati1 visior ee wnliy:, = quate exam of ov of m: load cial s the h VE .RY 000 = + TC - = Ss ‘ttendance records should not be too much emphasized as a criterion of efficiency. Reducing ill health -As -n in an earlier section, the physical exam- to a minimum ‘ion of candidates for teaching positions is red in about 16 percent of the cities coop- in this study. Nearly 50 percent of the ll erating cities over 100,000 in population require such examinations. The results of physical examinations, when made with care by a competent school physician, should be indispensable in the selection of new teachers. In Los Angeles, applicants are classi- fed on the basis of the health examination as follows :? 1. Excellent, fully serviceable. 2. Below normal, but passable, unless other marks detract considerably from applicant’s general con- dition. 3. Not serviceable for school duties of the type applied for. Adequate physical examination of entrants to teacher-training institutions would operate even earlier to debar physical weaklings from the teaching profession. The importance of happy and _ healthful working conditions for teachers cannot be over- emphasized. The bibliography at the end of this bulletin refers to several discussions of this vital topic.2 Among the environmental factors con- tributing to the better health of teachers, the following are emphasized: proper ventilation, heating, and cleanliness of schoolhouses; pro- vision for rest periods during the day; ade- quate rest rooms for teachers; periodic medical examination and nurse service; and avoidance of overloaded teaching schedules. The tendency of many school systems to increase the teaching load as an economy measure in times of finan- cial stress is likely to take heavy toll in reducing the health and efficiency of teachers. Need for further study—The preceding dis- cussion indicates that additional research and more critical evaluation of experience are neces- sary to determine the type of plan for grant- ing leaves of absence to teachers which will con tribute most to the welfare of the schools, City school officials seem to be generally agreed that of granted for imperative personal reasons, espe- some leave absence with pay should be cially for personal illness and for death in the immediate family. The general practice among city systems which grant such leave, moreover, is to allow full pay during at least a part of the absence. There is far less agreement, however, with respect to the amount of leave with pay which should be allowed for the various causes. Until this and other questions are subjected to more intensive study, information of the kind presented in this section may be helpful to ad- ministrators in formulating or modifying leave- of-absence policies. Although not conclusive, this material offers a better basis for policy- making than does unsupported individual opin- ion. Importance of flexible administration—lt is unlikely that even the best plan for granting leaves of absence can be made to work auto- matically with a high degree of success. ‘The successful operation of such a plan requires in- telligent and sympathetic administration. Wise leadership in explaining to teachers the purpose of the plan and the ultimate result of its abuse will do much to create a cooperative attitude on their part. Furthermore, the importance of administering leaves of absence on a human rather than on a mechanical basis can hardly be overemphasized. Nothing has yet replaced the human touch in personnel administration as an effective builder and of morale among workers. Given wise leadership and a staff of high-grade, professionally-minded teachers, it should be possible to operate effec- tively any well-devised plan for administering conserver high leaves of absence. ' Wood, Thomas D., chairman. The Teacher's Health: What Some Communities Are Doing To Conserve It. Monograph No. 4 School Health Bureau, Welfare Division. New York: Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., about 1928. p. 13. ? See particularly references numbered 32, 34, 36, 40, 42, 44, and 46. [61] ' } Agreement in theory—School administrators generally agree that one means of encouraging a right professional attitude is the adoption of regulations which encourage, or at least make it possible for teachers to take leaves of absence for study, travel, or other approved means of improving their professional equip- ment. Present practice in city school systems—This generally accepted theory, however, but par- tially finds its counterpart in practice. Table 23 indicates that of the 1,450 city school sys- tems reporting, about 42 percent grant leaves of absence for professional improvement and only 20 percent grant leaves for travel. These low percentages are due principally to the situ- ation in the smaller cities. In many of these communities the salaries of teachers are doubt- less too low to permit the saving necessary for time off. Even if such saving is accomplished, the teacher ‘often expects after a period of study or travel to move on to a community where conditions are more attractive. The per- centage of cities granting extended leaves of absence bears a direct relationship to the size of the cities considered. For professional im- provement it varies from about 26 percent in the smallest population group to 79 percent among cities over 100,000. For purposes of travel the proportion ranges from about 9 percent to 60 percent. In all except the largest population group, more cities apparently grant extended leaves for rest and recuperation than for the purpose of travel. Of the entire number reporting, however, only 24 percent grant such leaves for rest. Table 23 also shows the extent to which teachers in these cities receive pay while on extended leave for professional improvement, and the total number of teachers taking such leave in 1930-31 with some part of their sala- ries paid. Of the cities granting extended leave, 91 percent pay no salary to teachers during such leave. Most of the remaining cities pay one-half of the regular salary, while no city pays full salary to a teacher on leave for pro- fessional improvement. Variations among the different population groups are rather striking. Extended Leaves of Absence for Professional or Cultural Improvement Twenty-nine percent of the cities over 1() pay some fraction of the teacher’s salary, while none of the cities below 5,000 pay an) of the salary. In 1930-31 relatively few teachers on extended leaves of absence with part of thei; salaries paid. Of the 1,952 such teachers re. ported, 1,710 were employed in New Yor\ City. Why grant pay during extended leaves of absence?—The steady extension of the tice of granting a certain amount of leave with part or full pay suggests a general satis faction with the plan. Sabbatical leave for co! lege professors, a practice now widely lowed, also appears to be working with ; cess.' However, opponents of this policy question whether the returns justify the cost. They urge, further, that the same amount spent on other means of encouraging protes sional growth may yield larger results with fewer administrative difficulties. Those favo: ing the plan of leave with pay, however, be lieve that it pays for itself by increasing schoo! efficiency through improved cultural and pro- fessional standards among teachers. ‘| he) point out also that such a plan makes it pos sible for teachers to make up deficiencies in their early preparation or to improve thei: mastery of the subject which they teach. ‘|! he validity of these conflicting claims may even tually be decided through further experience and research. Principles governing administration of sab- batical leave—Meanwhile when a plan o! leave with pay is in force, it is desirable that it operate with maximum effectiveness. After detailed study of plans already in effect in thirty cities, a report of the National Educa tion Association lists the following essentia! elements in an effective plan for sabbatical leave: 1. A period of uninterrupted teaching service prior to taking sabbatical leave. 2. A provision which will safeguard to the schoo! system the use of sabbatical leave for purposes professional growth. 3. Compensation during the period of sabbati leave sufficient to make the leave possible with undue sacrifice by the teacher. 1 Lemon, Allan C. “The Leave of Absence in Universities and Colleges.” Journal‘of Educational Research 16: 210-12; Oct: 1927, [ 62] te ies vith de- 100] )TO- hey OS 0! \ statement as to the number of teachers who be on leave at one time without embarrassment to the school system. An equitable basis for selecting the teachers to granted leave, when more apply than may be sent at one time. A period of leave long enough to make real fessional study and growth possible. A provision guaranteeing that the improved service of the teacher following sabbatical leave shall be rendered in the school system granting the ve. TABLE 23.—EXTENDED LEAVES OF 8. Protection of the salary and retirement status of the teacher taking leave Plans in effect—A number of the plans for granting sabbatical leave are described in the references which supplement this bulletin. Two plans, those for Ann Arbor, Michigan, and Schenectady, New York, are given below. The latter plan, it will be noted, combines sick leave and sabbatical leave provisions. ABSENCE FOR PROFESSIONAL IM- PROVEMENT, TRAVEL, AND REST IN 1930-31 reproduced on pages 72-75. illness; two indicated that leave is granted for teaching in unspecified reasons. 2 Two of these cities also indicated that leave is granted reasons. 3 Two of these cities also indicated that leave is granted reasons. sometimes allowed by special vote of school committee. ranges from none to six. reported special cases are sometimes given some salary. population group ranges from none to two. Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 00,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in — —_ population population population population population | aia & | Policy : i Num-/| Per- |Num-!| Per- |Num-| Per- |Num-/| Per- | Num-| Per- |Num-} Per- | ber cent ber cent | ber cent ber cent ber | cent | ber | cent | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1} ets i RB 13 ——____—___—___—— ——— | - Leave of absence granted: | | For professional improvement| 67 78.8 | 119 | 64.0 180 | 46.4 | 147 36.5 | 103 26.5 | 616 | 42.5 | ke Ee ee | Si 60.0 oo | 37.31. 33 18.8 60 14.9] 37 | 9.5 | 290 | 20.0 | ik. Pee eer 47 33.3 74 | 39.8 | 100 25.8 83 20.6 | 48 | 12.4) 352 24.3 | j ) | Total number reporting......| 85! {100.0 | 186? |100.0 | 388% |100.0 | 4034 |100.0 | 388 1100.0 11450 |100.0 | } — ——— —} — \mount of salary paid to teachers | | } ' taking leave for professional | | } improvement: | / | | eo oe : #2 16.7 10 8.5 6 3.4 412) 2.7 |} 31 5.1 | Full salary less pay of sub- | | TEE » ) F367 7 6.0 . Y £2 i ae | -— 5 2.8 Some other fraction ot salary | | 3 4.5 @ 9 | . 7 7 | EE: visa daca tices ...| 478 | 71.2 | 998 | 84.6 | 1671°| 94.9 | 1389 | 94.6 | 102 |100.0 | 553 | 91.1 | | | | | | ° | | | | | | Total number reporting......| 66 |100.0 | 117 |100.0 | 176 |100.0 | 146 [100.0 | 102 |100.0 607 {100.0 | Number of teachers who took | | leave of absence of professional | | improvement with some salary | } | | in 1930-34......... sialon: tre» |} 45° } 7 10"! &. | 1952 | | Read table as follows: Of the 85 cities over 100,000 which reported policy concerning the granting of extended leaves of absence; 67, or 78.8 percent grant such leave for professional improvement, 51, or 60 percent grant such leave for travel, etc. Ot the 66 cities in this population group reporting amount of salary paid during leave for professional im- provement, 11, or 16.7 percent allow half salary, 5, or 7.6 allow full salary less pay of substitute, etc. Similarly read figures for other population groups. This tabulation is based on replies to questions 20, 21 and 22 of the inquiry blank 1 Eight of these cities also indicated that leave is granted for maternity; eight indicated that leave is granted for one indicated that leave is granted for teaching in other systems; and four indicated that leave is granted for unspecified one indicated that leave is granted for teaching in other systems; and one indicated that leave is granted for unspecified 4 One of these cities also indicated that leave is granted for maternity; nine, indicated that leave is granted for ill- ness; and one indicated that leave is granted for unspecified reasons. 5 Eight of these cities also indicated that leave is granted for illness. 6 One of these 47 cities reported no salary but a $1000 added to salary during first three years after return to teaching duties; one reported no salary but $20 reimbursement per month for 50 months on return, and two reported half salaries * With the exception of New York City, which reported 1710 teachers, the number of teachers taking leave with some salary for professional improvement, in individual cities in this population group, ranges from none to thirty-two. 8 One of these 99 cities reported that leave with full pay is granted in cases where annual sick leave has accumulated. *The number of teachers taking leave with some salary for professional improvement in this population group 10 One of these 167 cities reported that ‘‘all tuition and matriculation charges plus $50 for each 16 points of approved work”"’ is granted; one reported that half pay is granted only when teacher has earned the four advanced study incre- | ments and has been employed for ten years; one reported that one-third salary is granted in special cases; and another The number of teachers taking leave with some salary for professional improvement in individual cities in this 12 One of these four cities grant sixty percent of salary during leave for professional improvement. 3 One of these 138 cities reported that healthy teachers may use their accumulated sick leave and one city reported that leave with full salary may be granted after long and satisfactory service by special action of board. other systems; and one indicated that leave is granted for | for maternity; five indicated that leave is granted for illness; for maternity; ten indicated that leave is granted for illness; Sf ein nn nae The Ann Arbor Plan‘ 1. After seven years of service as a teacher, ad- ministration officer, or librarian, one is eligible for a year’s leave of absence. 2. A teacher who is granted a leave of absence of one year shall receive one-half of her regular salary for that year, 3. Regular annual salary increments shall be given for time of leave, the same as for regular services in school, 4. A teacher granted a leave of absence and re- ceiving a salary under its provisions agrees to return to the Ann Arbor school system and teach for a period of three years or return to the Ann Arbor School District all or part of the salary paid during such leave. The amount of money is in the same ratio to the salary received during the leave as the unfulfilled term of the contract bears to the contracted three-year period. 5. Not more than three percent of the group may be granted a leave in any one year. The Schenectady Plan? 1. Each person coming under our plan is allowed a maximum of 10 days sick leave on full pay each school year. This 10-day period is accumu! in whole or in part until a total of 100 days has been reached. At any time the person may use a part of the days accumulated for personal ji! on full pay. When 100 days or over have accumulated the person may apply to the Boa: Education for a half year’s leave of absence o: pay, for travel or study or some other act which, in the judgment of the Board of Educa shall be of equivalent value to the school syst 2. The maximum budget which the Boa: Education will allow for these periods will be 1 cent of the total salary budget for such empl. The requests for leaves of absence are honored, in the order filed, as the budget permits. Any p: must use his one-half year’s leave of absence w one year after the date approved by the Boa: Education. 3. The plan is retroactive as to the accumula of 10-day periods for 10 years preceding Feb: Ist, 1928. 4. For all absences not covered above full pay shall be deducted. The Board of Education may re- quire a physician’s certificate in cases of doubt Teacher Rating as a Means of Improvement The question of teacher rating as a factor in the construction and administration of a salary schedule has been discussed in earlier sections of this bulletin.? Here we are con- cerned only with the use of devices for esti- mating teaching skill as means for the im- provement of professional ability and morale. Rating as an efficiency measure—Psycholog- ical investigation seems to confirm the general opinion that work is more effectively and easily done when the worker has a rather definite goal in view and a standard of judgment against which he may measure his achieve- ments and shortcomings. In furnishing such standards teacher rating scales and score cards may be an important element in a program for the development of teachers. The chief danger in the use of such scales as are now available appears to reside in the tendency to assume for them a greater degree of accuracy and reliability than they actually possess. The accurate measurement of teaching ability is the Gordian knot of the new science of edu- cation. Many more years of careful work are required before the complex tangles of this problem will be fully understood. Those who most completely understand the limitations the present crude measures of teaching ski! are the most cautious in placing blind reliance: on their accuracy.* Meanwhile, schools must proceed and teach ers should be encouraged to improve. While the inaccuracies of existing scales must be admitted, the use of some definite guide a desirable element in the supervisory prog: Any program of professional improvement n« essarily begins with an estimate of the present ability, efficiency, limitations, needs, and in terests of each teacher. Such an estimate ma be made formally or informally; it may written, oral, or merely implied; but an es timate of some kind there must be. Teach: rating devices are useful aids in making, cording, and checking these estimates. Administration of a rating system—lhe principal steps in the successful administration of a system of rating teachers are: 1. Selection of a rating scale or score card appro- priate to the needs of the particular community; or, if none of the available score cards are satis- factory, the construction of a new score card. 1 Haisley, Otto W. “Sabbatical Leave Fundamentally Sound.” a Educational Journal 7: 218-19; December, 1929 2 Acagee from: ay and 44-46 pages 4 See "American Educational Research Association. ‘‘ Teacher ae. " Review of Educational Research 1: 99-107; “Teacher Rating especiall April, 1931. Washington, D. C.: the Association. Chapter VII, y. New York, Department of Public Instruction. Rules and Regulations of the Board of Education [ 64] Appointment of certain persons to do the rat- or decision to use the scale merely as a self- ing rating device. Enlisting the understanding and interest of the teaching staff in the enterprise, 4. The rating itself. 5. The use of the ratings as a basis for discussion leading toward the improvement of teaching. In carrying out such 2 program, the follow- ing principles adapted from a report by a com- mittee of the National Education Association will be helpful : A rating plan must have as its main purpose the guiding of teachers into better service. For this reason, a rating plan should be inspirational and instructive. Teacher rating systems should afford each per- son rated a definite basis for the improvement of his eficiency as a teacher. The methods used in arriving at a rating of teaching efficiency should be as objective and scien- tific as educational progress permits and should be understood by all those rated. 4. A teacher shovld be fully informed in advance, upon beginning service in any school system, what will enter into the estimation of his work and how that estimation will be recorded. 5. Ratings should be automatically in written form to the teacher rated for his infor- mation and guidance. 6. There should be one official who is the final rating authority. Principals and supervisors may be advisory to this rating official. 7. A rating system should be a result of mutual agreement by administrative, supervisory, and class- room staff.’ transmitted "1 Riddle, Anna, chairman. Proceedings, 1925. Vol. 63. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 2 See page 40 **Report of the Committee of One Hundred on Classroom Teachers’ Problems Present practice in city school systems— Table 24 shows the number cities which give their teachers a definite peri- and percent of odical rating as to quality of service (such as A, B, c. >. E, or Excellent, Good, Poor). Of the 1,465 cities reporting, 46 cent scheme. Fair, per- This according to the size of cities now use some such rating proportion varies from 33 percent in the smallest population group to 76 percent among cities over 100,000 in population. Comparison of this table with Table 4° reveals that only 114 of the 668 cities which give ratings to teachers use these ratings in determining a teacher's place on the The tendency to than as regular salary schedule. use rating as a supervisory device rather a salary-schedule feature is clear. Trend of practice in recent years—Compari- son of the data in Table 24 with those ob- tained in 1928 indicates that the teachers has gained very little in favor during the three-year period. For all cities reporting, the proportion which give teachers definite ratings increased from 44 percent to 46 per- cent. A small increase occurred in all except the smallest population group, where the per- centage decreased slightly. The percentages for both 1931 and 1928 lower than those reported in the Of the 941 school systems answering tion in 1923, 57 percent were giving their teachers definite ratings, and of the 57 cities over 100,000 in population which reported in rating of however, are somewhat 1923 survey. this ques- Teacher Rating. 1925. p. 203-04. TABLE 24.—EXTENT OF TEACHER RATING IN 1930-31 Cities over | Cities 30,000 | Cities 10,000 | | Cities 5,000 | Cities 2,500 All citi 100,000 in | to 100,000 in | to 30,000 in | to 10,000 in | to 5,000 in ll cities Teachers definitely rated as to population population a | population population reporting quality of service rendered Se SS ae minnnateiaipibintiaai i . c Num-| Per- |Num-| Per- | Num-/| Per- Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- | Num-| Per- ber cent ber cent | ber | cent ber cent ber cent ber cent 1 2 | 3 4 s | 6 7 8 | 9 | | m | a2 | 13 i oo 641 | 76.2 | 1152 | 61.8 | 183° | 46.4 | 178* | 43.6 | 1285 | 32.6 | 668 | 45.6 i MC MEES hs ecreteanks ees vee | 20 | 23.8 71 38.2 | 211 | 53.6 | 230 56.4 | 265 | 67.4 | 797 | 54.4 ES eer | 84 fi00.0 0 | 186 |100.0 | 394 |100.0 | 408 |100 0 | 393 |100.0 | 1465 |100.0 mentary teachers"’; ‘Yes, in some cases"’; one reported “’ Read table as follows: Of the 84 cities over 100,000 in population which reported, 64, or 76.2 percent definitely rate teachers as to quality of service rendered, while 20, or 23.8 percent indicated that teachers are not definitely rated. ilarly read figures for other population groups. This tabulation is based on replies to question 11 of the inquiry blank reproduced on pages 72-75. 1 Four of these cities reported that teachers are rated during first years of service. 2 Five of these cities reported that teachers are rated during first years of service. 3 One of these cities reported that teachers are rated during first years of service. } 4 One of these cities reported that only teachers not up to standard are rated. 5 One of these reported ‘* Yes, to a limited degree'’; one reported * | and one reported ‘‘ Yes, for first two years only. Sim- » | Yes, for ele- [65] that year, 82 percent were rating teachers. Whether these facts indicate a true decrease in the use of teacher rating since 1923 can- not be stated with certainty. The number of cities reporting in 1923 was much smaller ¢ in 1928 and 1931, and possibly containe larger proportion of the more progres cities." Selected and Classified Bibliography The following list of references has been carefully selected and classified under the principal topics discussed in the text of this bulletin. The items are limited to a few of the best and most recent books and magazine articles dealing with each subject. Each refer- ence is briefly annotated to facilitate the use of the list. A number of other publications are referred to in footnotes to the text of the bulletin. Teachers’ Contracts and Term of Employment 1. ALLEN, IRA M. The Teacher’s Contractual Status as Revealed by an Analysis of American Court Decisions. Contributions to Education, No. 304. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. 147 p. A study of the nature and characteristics of contractual relationships between public school teachers and boards of education. 2. Atmack, J. C., and Lana, A. R., Problems of the Teaching Profession. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.; 1925. Chapter XII, “The Teacher’s Tenure of Position,” p. 215-34. A general consideration of the causes and consequences of brief and uncertain tenure. Dis- cusses advantages and disadvantages of perma- nent tenure plans. Presents seven principles of tenure legislation. 3. ANDERSON, EarL W. The Teacher’s Contract and Other Legal Phases of Teacher Status. Contri- butions to Education, No. 246. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College; Columbia University, 1927. 180 p. An analysis of contract forms, local regula- tions, state laws, and court decisions to discover the legal status of the teacher. Tenure pro- visions in contracts, tenure legislation, and the optimum status of the teacher with respect to tenure and dismissal are discussed on pages 49, 128-29, and 138-41. 4. Butscn, Russert L. C. “Teacher Tenure.” Re- view of Educational Research 1:118-21; April, 1931. Washington, D. C.: American Educational Research Association, National Education Asso- ciation. Reviews studies of teacher turnover with re- spect to its extent, causes, and the influence of tenure legislation. 5. CUBBERLEY, ELLwoop P. State School Adm tration. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., | “Appointment and Tenure,” p. 642-51. Describes conditions in American schoo! s tems responsible for the annual-election pla: employing teachers. Gives arguments for against life tenure, and advocates probation employment followed by indefinite tenure. © lines a sound state plan of teacher tenure 6. Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Tea ing Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. Cha, XVI, “Significance of Turnover,” p. 328-4 and Chapter XVII, “How To Increase Tenur p. 342-62. Defines turnover in terms of replacements a discusses its causes. Lists arguments for a: against long tenure, and sets up principles { the formulation of state laws and local re; lations. . NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION, RESEAR( Division. “A Self-survey Plan for State Sch Systems; Part I: Checklists; Part II: Han book.” Research Bulletin 8:67, 81-82, Marc! 1930; and 120-24, May, 1930. Washington, |) C.: the Association. Sets up ten criteria for judging state legis! tion and administration with respect to teacher: empleyment and contracts. Applies the checklis to Pennsylvania for illustration. “I 8. Peterson, A. G. “Turnover of Rural Teachers Educational Administration and Supervision | 659-67 ; December, 1930. A summary of conditions and factors relating to the tenure of rural teachers in various se tions of the United States during the pas: decade. 9. ROWLAND, ALBERT L., chairman. “Report of th: Committee of One Hundred on Tenure Prob lems.” Proceedings, 1930, Vol. 68. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 193) p. 195-97. Presents twelve principles underlying the formulation and operation of wise tenure legis lation. Reviews recent legislation and reports studies in progress on the problem. 10. RowLANnp, ALBert L., chairman. “Report of the Committee of One Hundred on Tenure Prob lems.” Proceedings, 1931. Vol. 69. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1931. p. 264-70. Summarizes the results of a study by Holm- stedt concerning the effects of the New Jersey teacher tenure law. Conditions in New Jersey 1 See footnote on page 41 for explanation of the assumptions and methods used in comparing data for the different years. [ 66] re compared with those in Connecticut, a state :ving no tenure law for teachers. Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Scheduling l l re: In addition to the references listed here, Sources of Information on Salaries and Salary juling” on pages 48-51 of this bulletin. Salary Scheduling as a Principle ELSBREE, WitLarp S. Teachers’ Salaries. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. 286 p. Chapter I describes the development and ad- vantages of salary scheduling. Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staf. New York: Century Co., 1925. 460 p. Pages 279 and following, list and summarize nine advantages of a proper salary schedule over individual bargaining. NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION, RESEARCH Division. “The Scheduling of Teachers’ Sal- aries.” Research Bulletin 5: 130-92; May, 1927. Washington, D. C.: the Association. Points out advantages and difficulties in the salary-scheduling idea. Factors Determining the Teacher’s Place on the Regular Schedule i4. CLARK, Ruwwoctey C. “Principles of Advancing a the Salaries of Teachers,” and “Principles Underlying the Maximum Salary.” American School Board Journal 80:41-42, March, 1930; 50, 142, Apri!, 1930; 47-48, May, 1930. A general discussion centering around the various bases used for determining teachers’ salary increments. DEFFENBAUGH, W. S. Recent Movements in City School Systems. U. S. Department of the In- terior, Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1927, No. 8. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1927. 26 p. States that the defense of some boards for establishing a salary schedule in favor of men teachers is the law of supply and demand. Con- tends that equal salaries should be paid if pos- sible, but that if capable men are to be held in the profession their salaries must not be low- ered to equal those now paid women. ELsBREE, WiLLarp S. Teachers’ Salaries. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. 286 p. Chapters III, IV, and V give an extended treatment of the use of merit ratings, position held, preparation, experience, and sex as fac- tors in fixing salaries. 7. ENGELHARDT, Frep. “Changing Practices in the Administration of the Teaching Personnel.” The Changing Educational World, 1905-1930 (A. C. Eurich, editor). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1931. p. 162-73. A critical discussion of some of the practical difficulties involved in the single salary schedule plan. 20. nN nN 25. [ 67] ENGELHARDT, Frep. Public School Organization atid Administration. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1931 p. 198-217. Discusses the importance of sound policies of compensation, the movement to establish satis- factory salary schedules, the principles of sched uling, teacher supply and demand in relation to salaries, costs and standards of living, the single salary schedule, and the recognition of merit in administering schedules. McGaucny, JAMEs R. “The Movement Toward Scientific Salary Schedules.” Teachers ¢ Record 30:752-59; May, 1929. Analysis and comparison of three city salary surveys: New York, Pittsburgh, and San Fran cisco. Attacks state laws making equal pay for Lege men and women mandatory. MEEKER, RoyAL. A Study of Costs and Standards of Living of Minneapolis Teachers in Relation to Their Salaries. Minneapolis: Central Com- mittee of Teachers’ Associations, 1926. 39 p. Presents data on number of dependents of single and married men and women teachers in Minneapolis. MOoEHLMAN, ARTHUR B. Public School Finance. Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1927. 508 p. Chapter IX describes the nature and effects of four types of salary schedule: position-auto matic, preparation-automatic or single, position- merit, and preparation-merit. Morris, Lyte L. The Single Salary Schedule. Contributions to Education, No. 413. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Co- lumbia University, 1930. 79 p. A discussion of principles and current prac tices. Urges that single salary schedules give more recognition to the kind and value of train ing than to the amount of training. RESEARCH Teachers’ Sal May, 1927. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, Division. “The Scheduling of aries.” Research Bulletin 5: 130-92; Washington, D. C.: the Association. A general discussion of theory and practice. Reever, Warp G. The Fundamentals of Public School Administration. New York: Macmillan Co., 1930. Chapter VI, “Pay of Teachers,” p. 114-36. A good discussion of many factors involved in the sound administration of teachers’ salaries. Deals with criteria for determining the adequacy of salaries, advantages of a salary schedule, principles of scheduling, the single salary sched- ule, salary campaigns, and payroll procedures. Supermaximum Salaries BALLou, Frank W. “Determining Who Are Su- perior Teachers.” Elementary School Journal 28: 256-62; December, 1927. Presents schedule of supermaximum salaries paid in Washington, D. C., with description of system for selecting candidates for promotion to this schedule. i: a $ is a 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. . CLark, Ripcitey C. “Principles Underlying the Maximum Salary.” American School Board Journal 80:47-48; May, 1930. Recommends a supermaximum for superior training or performance. Evspree, Wititarp S. Teachers’ Salaries. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. 286 p. Considers the formulation of supermaxima as part of one of the seven general steps in 35. formulating a salary schedule. Special Bonuses Boynton, F. D. “Improving Teachers in Serv- ice.” Journal of Education 106:352-3; October 17, 1927. Declares that plans for the improvement of 36. teachers in service should provide both oppor- tunity and reward. Favors salary increases rather than the special bonus. Evspree, WILLARD S. Teachers’ Salaries. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931. 286 p. Bonuses are defined and described, p. 113; arguments for and against are given, p. 64-6. Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. p. 72-81. Gives a number of school-board regulations relative to the granting of financial rewards in recognition of study and travel for professional improvement. “Symposium on Professional Study: Should Teachers Receive a Bonus for It?” Journal of Education 111: 91-92, January 27, 1930; 119-120, February 3, 1930; 147-49, February 10, 1930. An exchange of views among a group of five superintendents of schools, an assistant super- intendent, a teacher, and two college experts. Sick Leave and Related Problems Atmack, J. C., and Lane, A. R. Problems of the Teaching Profession. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1925. Chapter XV, “The Health of the Teacher,” p. 273-93. Emphasizes the importance of conserving the teacher’s health; makes suggestions as a guide 39. to administrative officials and to teachers them- selves looking toward the physical well-being of teachers. Anperson, Eart W. “Health of the Teacher.” Review of Educational Research 1:111-14; April, 1931. Washington, D. C.: American Edu- cational Research Association, National Educa- tion Association. Reviews most of the important research studies in this field. CarrorHers, Grorce E. The Physical Efficiency of Teachers. Contributions to Education, No. 155. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teach- ers College, Columbia University, 1924. Chapter IV, “The Operation of Board Regulations,” p. 61-76. [68] 37. 38. 40. Presents data secured from a study of senteeism among teachers in the Denver, ( land, and Springfield, Massachusetts, s« Compares sick-leave provisions in relati the number of teacher absences in the three cities. Concludes that of all sick-leave I the cumulative is the best if a definite numbe, of days of paid sick leave must be writte: school board rules. CLARK, Ripcuey C. “When the Teacher Is § American School Board Journal 80:68 June, 1930. Describes practices in allowing sick lea, various communities in Connecticut; men administrative measures designed to pro the physical welfare of teachers. Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the T. ing Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. Cha ter XX, “The Teacher’s Health, Recreation and Leisure,” p. 399-412. Urges that teachers be living examples of good health, maintaining a high level of vitali: States that much of the ill health of teachers js preventable; emphasizes importance of physica examinations, sick leave, and a planned recrea tional program. NATIONAL EpucaTION ASssocIATION, DEeparTMr) oF CLAsskooM ‘TEACHERS. “The Economic W, fare of Teachers.” Sixth Yearbook. Washing ton, D. C.: the Association, 1931. 244 p. Chapter IV deals with commercial insurance as a means of protecting teachers against loss of earning power. Discusses especially group in surance and describes group plans in operation among local teachers’ organizations. Chapter \ presents information on teachers’ mutual! benefit plans, and Chapter VI summarizes available information concerning teachers’ retirement and pension systems. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, RESEARCH Division. “Practices Affecting Teacher Person nel.” Research Bulletin 6:205-56; Septembe: 1928. Washington, D. C.: the Association. “The Sick Leave Problem,” p. 233-37. Reports practice in granting sick leave in 1,532 cities reporting in 1928. Reever, Warp G. The Fundamentals of Publi School Administration. New York: Macmilla: Co., 1930. Chapter VII, “Administration of S stitute-Teacher Service,” p. 137-50. Discusses the importance of substitute servic: presents data as to its present status in school systems, and outlines a procedure for securing efficient substitute service. Also describes various methods of protecting absent teachers from |oss of income. Rocers, JAMesS Freperick. The Health of the Teacher. U. S. Department of the Interior, B reau of Education, School Health Studies, No. 12. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Offi 1926. p. 2-17. Summarizes data from several studies on practice of cities in granting sick leave to teac! ers. Finds no relation indicated between allowed +~ 43, 44, 45. 46. length of leave and amount of absenteeism. De- clares that cities are wise in granting sick leave with pay for at least ten days a year. Quotes by- laws of departments of education relative to the granting of sick leave in six large cities. Rocers, JAMES Freperick. “Wide Variation of Practice in Matter of Sick Leave.” School Life 13: 28-29; October, 1927. Gives data on sick leave for teachers in cities reporting to U. S. Bureau of Education, and lays down a few principles, relating to the health of the teacher, which should govern in the admin- istering of sick-leave system. States that a cumu- lative plan is “the next best thing” to allowing as many days as are needed and deciding each case on its individual merits. 2, “Safeguarding the Teacher’s Health.” (A sym- posium) WNation’s Schools 3:50-56; January, 1929. Tells of the progress made in various com- munities in protecting the health of teachers. Describes programs in 23 cities. “Sick Leave Allowances for Teachers.” (Edi- torial) American School Board Journal 78: 69; May, 1929. Quotes seven conclusions on sick-leave prac- tices developed by I. M. Allen, Superintendent of Schools in Highland Park, Michigan. Edi- torial states that public interest, based upon the interests of the children, should be the guiding principle upon which school boards should base their sick-leave policies and regulations. TERMAN, Lewis M., AND ALMACK, JOHN C. The Hygiene of the School Child. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1929. Chapter XXII, “The Teacher’s Health,” p. 437-71. Reviews studies made in Europe and the United States; offers a suggested program for improving and safeguarding the teacher’s health. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, BUREAU OF EpucaTion. Pay Status of Absent Teachers and Pay of Substitute. Teachers. City School Leaflet No. 21, April, 1926. Washington, D. C.: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1926. 14 p. Gives provisions of school systems in 163 cities of 30,000 or more population as to: the number of days teachers are granted leave for sickness; the pay of teachers during leave for sickness; and the rate of pay for substitute teachers. Woop, Tuomas D., chairman. The Teacher's Health: What Some Communities Are Doing To Conserve It. Monograph No. 4, School Health Bureau, Welfare Division. New York: Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., about 1928. 32 p. Includes results of a questionnaire answered by 48 school systems; makes detailed recom- mendations for a school board policy to promote good health among teachers; reproduces forms used in Philadelphia in making periodic health examination of school employees. Extended Leaves of Absence for Profes- 47. 49. 50. _ 5 52. as 53. 54. [ 69] sional Improvement BrickHOousE, Lucy N. “Leaves of Absence for Study and Travel.” Fourth Yearbook. Washing- ton, D. C.: Department of Classroom Teachers, National Education Association, 1929. p. 139-41. Lists cities granting leave of absence for pro- fessional improvement on half salary, or full salary less pay of substitute. Reports that less than eight percent of the school systems give financial encouragement for travel Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teach ing Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. 460 p. Chapter V contains a brief summary of prac tices in granting sabbatical leave to teachers in seven cities. Gives two plans in some detail. “Sabbatical Leave for Teach- A sso- MacCaucuHe_y, V. ers.” Journal of the National Education ciation 15:18; January, 1926. Reviews outstanding points in report on sab- batical leave for teachers to the California Council of Education. Lists cities which have plan in some form. McGLapE, JoHN C. “Leave-of-Absence for Study.” Sierra Educational News 24: 9-10; Janu- ary, 1928. Summarizes data from two studies of prac tice in American cities. Benefits to teachers, school system, and community are discussed. . MorGaAn, KATHERINE M. “Report of the Com- mittee on Sabbatical Year.” Proceedings, 1925. Vol. 63. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1925. p. 369-72. Report of a committee of the operative Council, Kansas City. cities granting leave, and surveys variations in practice. Concludes that sabbatical leave is fast becoming a recognized means of securing for the community the benefits of teacher improve- ment. Teachers’ Co Lists typical NATIONAL EpUCATION ASsocIATION, RESEARCH D1- VISION. “Practices Affecting Teacher Personnel.” Research Bulletin 6: 205-256; September, 1928. Washington, D. C.; the Association, p. 225-27. A survey of conditions in 1928. NATIONAL EpucaTIon AssociATION, RESEARCH D1- vision. Sabbatical Leave for Public School Teachers. Washington, D. C.: the Association, July, 1927. 31 p. A study directed by the Representative As- sembly of the Association. Brings together data on systems for sabbatical leave in thirty cities. Discusses purpose and value of sabbatical leave and essential elements of plans for granting leave to teachers and characteristics of existing plans. Includes tabular analysis and an exten- sive bibliography. “A Practical Plan for Sabbatical Leave.” Na- tional League of Teachers’ Associations Year- book, 1926. Minneapolis: the Association, 1926. p. 40-43. States that plans of sabbatical leave have met with general approval, and that the expense is 55. 56. = 57. 58. 59. small. Gives some of most widely accepted regu- lations governing sabbatical leave. Names bene- fits accruing to teachers and to school systems. “Sabbatical Leaves for Teachers.” Elementary School Journal 27: 321-23; January, 1927. Abstracts from an article in 1926 Yearbook of the National League of Teachers’ Associa- tions. Lists eleven regulations generally applica- ble to sabbatical leave plans. Describes plans in Rochester, Richmond, and New York. SKINNER, VERNE P. “Sabbatical Leave for Teachers.” Fourth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: Department of Classroom Teachers, Na- tional Education Association, 1929. p, 135-39. Reports that about sixty-five cities provided some form of sabbatical leave, fifty percent of these paying half salary or more. Leave may be granted for professional improvement only, for travel and study, or for rest and restoration of health. 62. Teacher Rating AtMacK, J. C., anpD Lanc, A. R. Problems of the Teaching Profession. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1925. p. 175-94. Discusses objections to the rating of teachers and the use of various devices of measurement. Names six purposes for which rating schemes are used. Maintains that chief value of rating lies in professional improvement. BRUECKNER, L. J. “Scales for the Rating of Teaching Skill.” University of Minnesota Bul- letin. Vol. 30, No. 12. Minneapolis, Minnesota: College of Education, University of Minnesota, February 18, 1927. 28 p. Names three functions of teacher rating. Points out difficulties in the use of existing scales and seeks to develop a more objective plan. This plan provides for rating of teachers according to teaching methods used. Butscu, Russet, L. C. “Teacher Rating.” Re- view of Educational Research 1: 99-107; April, 1931. Washington, D. C.: American Educational Research Association, National Education As- sociation. [70] 60. 61. 63. 64. research A summary of the scientific teacher rating up to November, 1930. Exten bibliography. CuHarTErs, W. W., AND WaApLES, DoucLas Commonwealth Teacher-Training Study. ( cago: University of Chicago Press, 1929 14-19. Presents an extensive list of traits of succ: ful teaching arranged in order of estimated portance. Crapes, LetAH Mar. Measuring Efficiency Supervision and Teaching. Contributions Education, No. 175. New York: Bureau of P lications, Teachers College, Columbia Uniy sity, 1925. 98 p. Describes a program of supervision based measurement and attempts the evaluation such a program. Describes results of appl) a teaching efficiency formula to urban and ru teachers. Lewis, E. E. Personnel Problems of the Teach Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. p. 190-2! Briefly describes the theory of teacher ratin presents evidence concerning its reliability, a mentions a number of score cards. Rippie, ANNA, chairman. “Report of the Co: mittee of One Hundred on Classroom Teach: Problems—Teacher Rating.’ Proceedings, 19 Vol. 63. Washington, D. C.: National Edu tion Association, 1925. p. 200-15. A summary of the teacher rating situation American schools. Arguments for and again rating are compared and fundamental princip! are presented. Wuirney, Freperick L. The Growth of Tea ers in Service. New York: Century Co., 192 p. 42-55, 143-53, 206-12. Discusses methods of teacher rating. Sugges' activity analysis and the “trade-test” forms « being most helpful. States that a number o! school systems have abandoned schemes fo basing salaries on merit as measured by ratin devices. Summarizes details of reports o1 teacher-rating plans in thirty-one small scho systems. LIST OF TABLES Table Policies Governing the Term of Employment for Teachers in 1930-31. . — 20. 21. 22. 23 24. Use of Written Contracts for Teachers in 1930-31. Use of Definite Salary Schedules for Teachers in 1930-31. Certain Factors Automatically Determining a Teacher’s Place on the Salary Schedule A Res Rietarn as Differentiation between Salaries of Men and Women Teachers in 1930-31 .. Combinations of Factors Determining a Teacher’s Place on the Salary Schedule in 1930-31... ssa ms: . Supermaximum Salaries for Teachers in 1930-31. . . System of Credit Allowances for Promotion to Supermaximum Salary Levels in Wash ington, D. C. ag ivy echolts. aie Sukde dies tectia beaters . Granting Special Bonuses for Summer-School Attendance and Educative Travel in | Peer ree Sok icta endibiaia aia tok Mie sierwis Uracacaiblaresueamnicoen Comparison of Policies as to Granting Special Bonuses for Summer-School Attendance Sit OE MONEE BPO oo ois ice ov a s.ccdesnenectuaes Er ene re . Policies as to Period and Frequency of Teachers’ Salary Payments in 1930-31 Policies Governing Employment of Substitute Teachers in 1930-31.... Conditions under Which Leaves of Absence with Pay May Be Granted to Teachers and Supervisors in the Boston Public Schools. . . es i] Causes of Absence among Baltimore School Teachers in 1927-28........... Brief Leaves of Absence with Some Salary Granted for Various Reasons in 1930-31 Full Pay or Part Pay Allowed during Brief Leaves of Absence in Cities Granting Leav with Some Pay in 1930-31. Se ERTS Be MSM aes eee ey Frequency of Cumulative Sick-Leave Plans in 1927-28 and 1930-31..... . Amount of Sick Leave and hides cninue of Salary Granted in Cities Over 100,000 in Population in 1930-31. 1 OE ce tr . Amount of Sick Leave and Proportion of Salary Granted in Cities 30,000 to 100,000 in Neen nae ala ee casa a dais cha gna aesmaplensohed sua dma nie Amount of Sick Leave and siinmnees of Salary Granted in Cities 10,000 to 30,000 in Population in 1930-31. . Oe OO we or ; Re er LE Amount of Sick Leave and Proportion of Salary Granted in Cities 5,000 to 10,000 in og or ig wash 6A. sie0 bie! Sige d.eral'a, 8 60001 kaa Se ae Amount of Sick Leave and Proportion of Salary Granted in Cities 2,500 to 5,000 in a ee dg dg andes a als RM wlalée ck cis Bae Mae saat Extended Leaves of Absence for Professional Improvement, Travel, or Rest in 1930-31. Extent of Teacher Rating in 1930-31. . [71] Questionnaire Used in Collection of Data THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1201 SIXTEENTH STREET WASHINGTON, D. C. June, 1931 ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES AFFECTING CLASSROOM TEACHERS Professional Qualifications of Teachers 1. Educational requirements.—Check below the number of years of training beyond high school graduation require initial appointment as teacher in your city: Required Number of Years’ Training Elementary ot High Senior High Beyond High School School Teachers ool Teachers School Teachers ~~ SE RRO Oe pe ee eee LP Oe es ae: as eee EE OTE TOPE TOT (Leen RSE eT ae aie ae ik Beet cea pea pei ek + ike An ae ails ob ind a adicn cab ddadasicdacdchccsctcaccmsanees j ee Oe: A ee Ee: Kee ee An es a ae , DOR eng dlinssahetedapscndh nee heehehsess6p05« naedguncatuuebendbesesnstounsthscanbacaceessicecsecancceseses- i 2. Experience requirements.—Check below the number of years of previous teaching experience required for initial appointment as teacher in your city: ® : Number of Years’ Elementary PP High } Senior High Experience Required School Teachers ool Teachers School Teachers 4 SN oc CORGN Ch SRREAEES 040 b0S 6 006k d keds cukhnededehdbaodeiontinedbadiaSebsnaadannsédioadededdenececess UU ats ie eka wana ore b i aes sah bec kwskeh ne 0+ kasiisedscbbncadmsbeabbabbebanbicbabidsccinbecsa-léneeavcewcannce< | | Ee COTE REET) ee ee RE SRR Te TES Cane er Cae ' RE RE a Ee Se ee Se a ae Se a ee ee ere ee q : : Personal Factors Related to Appointment ‘ 3. (a) Local teachers—Does your policy give preference to the appointment of local residents as teachers? Yes 4 ee fl (b) Please state briefly your practice with regard to the employment of local residents as teachers:........._-. who are married women? Yes_...-.. a . : (b) Does your school board require women teachers who marry to give up their positions at once? Yes_. V ee At the end of the school year? Yes...... FURL shows : i re [72] Questionnaire (Cont.) Appointment and Contractual Status Selection of teachers.—Check any of the following practices which you follow consistently in the selectior Bas 1) Definite search for desirable prospects: (1) In other systems. Y No . (2) In teacher-trair institutions. Yes-_----- No ») Use of formal application blank. Yes No Collection of letters from persons given as references. Yes N Personal interview with applicant. Yes No Written examinations. Yes No f) Physical examination. Yes . No g) Observation of classroom work of applicant. Ye No Other practices (please describe): 6. Term of employment.—What method of employment is followed? (Ple ite below Method of Employment ' For newly- For teachers with s¢ ars . elected teachers experience in yo em Annual! election Election for term of more than one year (state length of term in years Election for an indefinite period subject to termination at any time Election for permanent service Other plan (please describe) 7. Contracts—Are teachers required to sign a contract? Yes...... No 8. Basis for paying teachers’ salaries —Over how many months does the payment of a teacher's annual d (a) Nine months-_--.--- (b) Ten months _. (c) Eleven months 1) Twelve month 9, How often are payments of teachers’ salaries made? (a) Monthly b) Semi-monthly (please describe) 10. Promotional examinations.—Does your school system conduct written examinations in connection with t teachers within the service? Yes_..... No 11. Ratings—Are all teachers given a definite rating (e.g., A, B, C, D, E, or Excellent, Good, Fair, P lical as to quality of service rendered? Yes...... No_.---.. Salary Schedule Features 12. Salary schedule—Has your city a definite schedule for teachers’ salaries? Yes . No 13. If a salary schedule has been adopted, check below the factors which automatically determine a cla teacher’ place on the schedule: (a) Number of years of service. Yes...... No- (b) Amount of professional training. Yes...... No (c) Ratings on efficiency scale. Yes..-... No (d) Position held! (e.g., elementary, high school, etc.). Yes...... No (e) Other factors (please describe) ---- 1 Remember that this blank applies only to classroom teachers. [73] ‘ ' - ' 2 14. 19. Questionnaire (Cont.) Salaries of men teachers—Are men teachers paid higher salaries than women of equal training and experie: In elementary schools? Yes...... No....... (b) In junior high schools? Yes _ No . (dlr high schools? Yes...... No . Supermaximum salaries —Above the regular maximum of your salary schedule do you have a supermax which regular teachers with special qualifications may be promoted? Yes_..... No . If a supermaximum salary is provided, please check below the bases upon which a teacher’s promotion fi regular maximum to the supermaximum is dependent: (a) Additional training. Yes...... No-. (b) Superior rating and performance. Yes...... No (c) Extra duties. Yes...... No._- (d) Length of service. Yes. ----- No.. (e) Written examination. Yes_...-. No.. (f) Other bases (please describe). _........-- 9 a tar ae . Indicate below the statement which describes the teins situation as it affects teachers’ salaries in your city in 193! (a) The regular salary schedule will be followed as usual, with teachers receiving the customary annual increm (c) The regular salary increments will be withheld: i.e., teachers will receive the same salaries in 1931-32 that « deren xs sas 5 on ek ee ee ees See (d) Other situation (please describe)... ..______. Summer School and Travel . (a) Is a bonus (apart from the regular salary schedule) granted to teachers for attending summer school Yes ences Sabbatical Leave Do you grant extended! leaves of absence to teachers: (a) For professional improvement? Yes----.- No (b) For travel? Yes_._..- No....... (c) For rest? Yes.....- PO winirn as (d) For any other purpose?- . What part of the regular salary is paid to teachers taking leave for prefessional improvement? (Check b below.) Oe Ne iad 5.cnc ae Lewd os a dc av on cncaclodbemteee cee tekst eins (b) Full salary...........-- + gene eee. FO AP Midetteedlal tecoeree Se cen i ep ue he re et es ee ee. ep Brees ary, Damn eh GE Io on ano nk cece nccsennccccsccues OP EE + Not including sick leaves. See Question 23. [74] > Questionnaire (Cont.) Other plan (please describe) How many teachers in 1930-31 took extended" leaves of absence for professional improvement, with some part of salary paid? Sick Leave and Absence of Teachers Is sick leave with some salary granted to teachers? Yes_- No If sick leave with some salary is granted: (a) Please indicate, after the fraction of salary allowed, the number of days of sick leave allowed each year: Fraction of Salary Allowed Number of Days of Sick Leave Allowed Each Year Full salary 2) Half salary 3) Full salary, less pay of substitute $) Other fraction of salary..... (b) Is the allowance cumulative; that is, may the days not used during one year be added to those of later years? (c) If so, what is the maximum number of days of sick leave which may accumulate? (d) Is a doctor’s certificate required to receive salary for days absent on account of sickness? Yes No . For what reasons other than personal illness, and for how many days, do you permit teachers to be absent with some salary? (Indicate below.) | Number of Days Allowed | Number of Days with Reason for Absence r | with Full Pay Part Pay Oniy | (a) Death in immediate family. . (b) Visiting other schools... .. (c) Attending educational meetings (d) Religious holidays. . | } (e) Other reasons:........ ; és . | 26 . Payment of substitute teachers —Please check below your method of paying substitute teachers: (a) Flat rate per day--- (b) Percent of regular teachers’ salary. (c) Monthly salary, on full-time basis- (d) Other plan (please describe) - Name of person reporting. Official position- Clap... Sand ee oe ‘ Wad ted ‘ ae .State-- Return one copy only, to: Research Division, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C. Please inclose a copy of any printed or mimeographed rules of your school system dealing with any of the above topics. ‘Not including sick leaves. See Question 23. — LAOS. ora 1932 YEARBOOKS ON CHARACTER EDUCATION | | | Two viewpoints on one of the crucial problems | of modern education Character Education | | THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE PRESENTS: | This Yearbook, published in February, 1932, includes a treatment of such topics as the agencies of character education, sex education, character education in the life of the school, the teacher and character education, home and school cooperation, and tests in character education. 526 pages. Price, $2.00 each. THE DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS PRESENTS: The Classroom Teacher and Character Education topics as character education in the regular school subjects, use of the case method, character education through out- of-class activities, the community in character education, and character growth through provisions for individual differences. Price, $1.50 each. | This volume, available in June, 1932, will include such Y These two volumes supplement each other in such a way that both are necessar) in any complete professional library. Make checks payable to the department concerned and send to 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. Discounts allowed when ordered in quantity. [76] TS: CONTENTS Foreword Introduction What is Efhciency ? How is State School Efficiency Measured Purpose and Scope of This Study [he State School Survey.. Characteristics of State School Surveys Purpose and scope of state school surveys Survey research procedures , Organization and administration of the surveys Summary of the state school survey Che Self-Survey Plan Bibliography of State School Surveys State-Wide Achievement Testing Programs The Achievement Test in State-Wide Surveys State Testing Programs. . Selected Bibliography on Extensive State Testing Programs Statistical Analyses of State School Systems Indexes of State School Efficiency ~ Indexes of City and County School Ethciency Estimates Based on a Single Factor Difficulties Involved in Statistical Analyses Bibliography on Statistical Measures of School Efficiency Present Standing of State School Systems on Five Factors Related to Efficiency Problem and Purpose of the Section Discussion of Factors. Proportion of children reached Holding power of the schools Quality of teaching provided Material school environment Percent of literacy Review of the Standing of the States Estimating School Efficiency in the Future LIST OF TABLES lable 1. Methods Used in 35 State School Surveys for Estimating Efficiency Illustrative Interstate Comparisons: Missouri Survey te we Iilustrative Interstate Comparisons: New Jersey Survey 4. Self-Survey Plan for State School Systems as Applied to Seven States 6. Amount of School Attendance by States, 1930 7. Holding Power of the Schools in the Age Range 14 to 17 Years, by States, 1930 8. Relationship Between Education and Salaries of Teachers 9. Salaries Paid Teachers, Principals, and Supervisors by States, 1931 10. Value of Public School Property per Child Enrolled by States, 1930 11. Percent of Literacy of Native-born Population by States, 1930 12. Standing of the States on Five Factors Related to School Efficiency, LIST OF CHARTS Chart I—Relative Amount of School Attendance, 1930 Chart IIl—Holding Power of the Schools, 1930 Chart I]1I—Salaries Paid Teachers, 1930 Chart I1V—Value of Public School Property per Child Enrolled, 1930 Chart V—Percent of Literacy, 1930 [77] 5. Statistical Factors Used in Indexes of School Efficiency 1930 FOREWORD STIMATES of school efficiency will be made as long as people are sufficient], interested in education to establish and maintain schools. The citizens of each of the forty-eight states in the Union want to know how the state school system which they support compares with those of the other states. Educators are eager to compare the effects of different plans of organization and methods of teaching. Such comparison is not only inevitable but also de- sirable. A standard of judgment and a critical attitude are necessary to prog ress. Naturally, therefore, there has been a general and insistent demand that the National Education Association publish useful materials on this topic. While the development of a perfectly satisfactory scale for rating school eficiency is still a task for the future, every honest attempt to evaluate the achievement of school systems is a step toward its final solution. ‘This Bulletin brings together and evaluates the more important attempts to estimate the efficiency of school systems. This is an important contribution since the investi- gations on this topic have previously been widely scattered and inaccessible to the general student of the problem. In addition to the resumé of past studies, a plan for making a self-survey of state school systems is presented and com- parative data are submitted with respect to the present standing of the states on five important factors related to school efficiency. This Bulletin does not advance a final or complete solution to the problem of estimating state school efficiency. No such solution is possible in the present state of our knowledge of what makes schools efficient and in the face of the incompleteness of comparable educational statistics. Nevertheless, the technics described and the facts presented should make this Bulletin indispensable to state departments of education, state and local education associations, local school administrators, and civic groups interested in the progress of their school systems. J. W. Crasrrer, Secretary, National Education Association Introduction What is Efficiency? mechanical engineer defines efficiency as tio of useful work produced to the energy led in producing it. The efficiency of a team engine, for instance, is computed by di- ‘ding the energy delivered at the driving wheel the energy consumed in the burning of the fuel. Such a concept has no concern with the ibsolute amount of work done by the engine or the absolute amount of fuel used. The mechan- cal concept of efficiency is a matter of relation- ships—of output to input, of effort to results.’ In the application of scientific methods to education and other types of social engineering, the term efficiency has been borrowed from the mechanical field. However, the concept of efh- ciency used by the mechanical engineer is not well-suited to the field of education. Even tho the educational results accomplished are not in direct proportion to the effort expended, it may be socially desirable to put forth a large addi- tional effort in order to achieve a relatively small additional gain. A $2,000 a year might not be as much as four school that costs times as educative as a school that costs only $500 a year. Nevertheless, the former would ilmost certainly be more effective and achieve results which would be superior enough to jus- tify abundantly the additional expenditure. In estimating the efficiency of a social institution, such as the school, human values, satisfactions, and benefits are basic considerations. The costs, both in money and in effort, cannot be ignored, but the mere ratio of costs to results cannot be accepted as a complete and satisfactory measure of school efficiency. lf the school system makes a contribution to social welfare and individual happiness, it is an efficient social institution. The greater this con- tribution, the greater is its efficiency. State school efficiency as used in this Bulletin reters to the amount and quality of educational services rendered. Educational service is nar- rowly construed to mean, primarily, the work ot organized schools below the collegiate level. No special attention is given to higher educa- 'Slichter, S. H. “‘ Efficiency."’ Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences 5: 437-39. ? National Education Association, Research Division. ‘*The Ability of the States to Association. +: 1-88° January and March, 1926. Washington, D. C.: the [7 tion as such, to the program of adult education, } or to auxiliary educational agencies such as libraries and museums. The several states face educational problems of difficulty. wealthy ; some have a relatively low per capita varying Some are relatively income and wealth. Some have many children in proportion to their total population; others have a low ratio of children to adults. Some have a population largely concentrated in cities ; Some have others are predominantly rural. a relatively homogenous school population; others have wide racial, social, or economic dif These and other factors make it relatively easy or rela ferences among their school children. tively difficult for a given state to provide satis factory educational opportunities. However, in general, these differences in ability are left out of consideration in this Bulletin.? ‘These factors should always be considered in interpreting any survey of school efficiency, but they are not within the scope of this study. Here the dis cussion centers around methods for estimating state school achievement, without reference to the relative ease or difficulty of making that achievement. How is State School Efficiency Measured? The application of objective methods to edu cation has led to the development of a number of for school efficiency. These have been used in con devices and technics measuring state nection with three general methods of studying this problem; namely, (1) the state-wide sur vey, (2) standard tests and measurements, and (3) statistical analysis. The survey method employs a variety of technics in order to collect a wide range of tacts pertaining to a school system. These facts are then organized and interpreted by experts in charge of the survey. With these data as a basis, estimates are made of the effectiveness of the school system. The chief characteristic of the survey method is its reliance ‘on the con sidered judgment of professional educators who Bulletin Support Education.” Research 9 | have attained expertness through breadth of knowledge, wide experience, and scientific re- search. Objective educational tests attempt to meas- ure directly the relative achievement of a school system in terms of the amount learned by the children in the regular school subjects. Statistical analysis, the third method of esti- mating school efficiency, undertakes to discover objective data regarding the functioning of a school system by studying certain factors be- lieved to be closely related to school efficiency ; as, school expenditures, the number of children enroled, teachers’ salaries, literacy, and similar tactors. These three methods are not always distinct and the first, the survey, frequently makes in- cidental use of both standard tests and statisti- cal analysis. Purpose and Scope of this St This Bulletin presents, first, a revi: of the more important attempts to state school efficiency by the three met scribed above. In addition to this review of past s self-survey plan for evaluating the effec: of state school systems is presented with illustrations of its application to a of states. With this plan as a basis f work, educators and laymen are en and assisted to make a continuous su their own school system. Finally, this Bulletin submits recen parative data on several factors genera| ceded to be essential to the effective fun of state school systems. The data are or; in such a way as to give each state its resp. rank with regard to each of the factors. mon-School Education. No community should rest contented with being superior to other communities, while it is inferior to its own capa- bilities —Horace Mann on Means and Objects of Com The State School Survey school survey has been defined as ‘‘a fic inquiry which obtains facts about the + eficiency of a school system, and on the of these facts offers constructive proposals sirable improvements.”* This definition ludes the essential features of state-wide sur ; although such investigations may diffe: widely with respect to organization, methods oved, and types of problems attacked. [he conscious use of the modern survey nethod as a means of systematically collecting began tacts re lating to a school system about 111 with city school surveys. ‘Vhe practical efulness of the method immediately recom nended it to school officials with the result t, in a short time, its use was extended to all nes of school units, from a single school, as a normal school or university, to a whole school stem as large as that of a state. [he survey method has the advantage of not ing limited to any one procedure in its inves- tigations. It has at its disposal any or all exist ng research technics. Not only has the survey iiled itself of methods and technics already hand, but it has devised many of its own id improved others in the effort to solve par- ticular problems. ‘Thus, the survey has made luable contributions to research procedures. School surveys have developed scales for evalu- ting teaching efficiency, score cards for rating the school plant and tests for measuring edu- cational achievement. \n important outcome of the survey move ment has been the development of a critical at- titude toward school efficiency. Surveys by out side agencies are often followed by self-surveys conducted by educators and laymen within the system. A plan of self-analysis affords oppor- tunity to understand the points of strength and weakness in the scheols. The chief objective of Sears, Jesse B. The School Survey. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., For the list of surveys consulted, see p. 94 of this Bulletir btained by addressing the Research Division I * Public School Administrative Code Commission of the gislature, January 11, 1921. Olympia, Washington. p. 3. * State School Code Commission of Kansas. Report. Topeka, Kan Indiana Rural Education Survey Committee. Report. Indianapolis, Ind.: State March, 1926, 130 p. * O'Shea, M. V. A State Educational System at Work. ( Mississippi). Hattiesburg, Miss Treas., Box 477), 1927. Title page. 1. Coptes of the work-shee ite of Washington ,; ae such a plan is the improvement of a school system from within and not comparison among school units. Characteristics of State School Surveys In order to discover the nature and chara teristics of the state school survey as a means of estimating efhciency, the reports of thirty five general state school survevs were studied The purposes of the survey, the scope of the report, the research methods emploved, and the organization and administration of the survey h Case, staff itself were noted in eac Findings from this analysis follow. Purpose and scope of state school survey \ state school survey may be confined to some particular phase of education or it may involve systen an investigation of the entire school Quotations from a few surveys reveal a wide range of objectiv es: school system of the Washington. Th: with state Was studied a view to the “revision and readjust ment to existing conditions’ of the common school laws. Kansas. The School Code Commission was appointed “for the purpose of clarifying, revising State and codifying the school laws of the state Indiana. As its name indicates, the Indiana Ru Education Survey Committee confined its efforts to an investigation of the problems of rural education; and this scope was narrowed still further to include only problems relating to teachers, administration and finance Mississippi. In 1927 the Bernard B. Jones Fund onducted an “investigation of the intellectual status and educational progress of pupils in the elementary and high schools and freshmen in the colleges, public and private.” In contrast to the relatively Narrow scope covered by the above surveys are the following widely inclusive studies: 1925. p. xi-xii of Preface ts used in analyzing the surveys Report delivered to the Governor and t : State School Code Commission, 1929. Vol. 1, p. 3 Superintendent of Schools, State House Bernard B. Jones Fund (F. S. Harmon, [ 81 ] : : | - Alabama. The survey investigated “all schools and educational institutions supported in whole or in part from public funds, to determine the efficiency of the same and to report its findings with recom- mendations for increased efficiency and economy.” Florida. It was the object of the survey “to make a complete and thoroughgoing survey of the public school system.” Delaware. The survey included “the public schools for both white and colored children in the state, to study the administration of the said schools, to consider the appropriations made therefor, to in- vestigate the use of funds so appropriated, to har- monize, unify and revise the school laws, to develop an educational system suited to the conditions exist- ing in the state.” Indiana. The survey of 1923 investigated the “en- tire educational system of the state with a view to standardizing, unifying and correlating the various policies and agencies of such system in order that they may be in harmony with the educational re- quirements of the state.” * Survey research procedures — The survey method is seldom a single, clearcut research procedure, but rather a collection of procedures. The method used in any particular case is de- termined largely by the nature of the problem involved, the data already at hand, ; ability of reliable measuring devices, time and money to be expended. Analysis of thirty-five state schoo! shows the frequent application of « ferent methods to the problems met in the surveys. Table 1 gives the metho frequency of use, and the problems each was applied. 1. Analysis of existing statistical Analysis of existing records is the onl, used in every survey. Data were used pe: to such factors as tax rates, school fur penditures, indebtedness, illiteracy, en: and attendance, transportation, school tern school day, and the tenure and turnoy: ries, certificates, training, experience, an of teachers. 2. Questionnaires. When records cont the desired information were not a\ questionnaires were circulated among from whom the desired information could 1 readily be obtained. Probably the most : sive use of this method, in point of num inquiries circulated, was made by the Cal 1U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. An Educational Study of Alabama. Bulletin, 1919, No. 41 ton, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1919. p. 9. * Florida Educational Survey Commission. Oficial Report to the Senate and House of Representatives. Tallahassee, | of Florida, April 2, 1929, p. ¥. 3 General Education Board. Public Education in Delaware. New York: General Education Board, 1919. p. vii of Pr * Bachman, Frank P. Public Education in Indiana. New York: General Education Board, 1923. See letter of tra p. v-vi. TABLE 1.—METHODS USED IN 35 STATE SCHOOL SURVEYS FOR EST MATING EFFICIENCY 4 Problems to Which Method Was Applied 3 School finance, illiteracy, attendance, enrolment, transportat school term and day, teacher tenure, salaries, certificates, trait experience, and teaching load. Salaries, training, tenure, age, experience and certification of t ers; courseg of study; personnel of board of education; pu opinion concerning the educational system as a whole; schoo! tv: and school day; consolidation of schools; supervision; attend officers; medical inspection and school nurses; office equipn and clerical assistance; family, salaries, expenses, savings investments of rural teachers; teachers’ institutes; school grou buildings, equipment, sanitation and janitor service; arrange! of class schedule; distance of pupils from school. Organization and administration of school systems; curriculum s! the effectiveness of the vocational program. Salaries, enrolment, attendance, school support, illiteracy, trai: and experience of teachers and school officials, achievemen Teaching efficiency, buildings, courses of study. ; Elimination, retardation, failure, promotion, acceleration. Achievement of pupils; teaching efficiency; the effect on achiey ment of term length, amount of salaries paid teachers; cost instruction; attendance and supervision. Teaching efficiency, buildings, courses of study, recitation periods Number of Method of Study Surveys 1 2 | 1, Analysis of Existing Statis- 35 | tical Records 2. Questionnaires Circulated Es- 27 pecially for the Survey 3. Interviews and Conferences 6 | 4. Statistical Comparison with 30 Other States : pupils. | 5. Rating Scales 10 | 6. Age Grade Studies and Related 18 Methods of Determining andard Tests 0 7. Standard Tests of Achievement 13 | 8. General Observation 27 [ 82 j specific ly pice ind in tne Ty | INDIE Ippi1er Cali Ed icat the Co means sion a: vidual! more 0 state, ¢ college leader VISOTS, Flo educat was tl | states conte! lata 1 total « dinate — Fa la ty Na CC ia conferences with public school officials .ijon for the Study of Educational Prob- he Commission circulated among resi- tents of California more than fifty thousand -stionnaires printed on post cards in an trempt to learn “what the general public con- pra to be the most outstanding school prob \ summary of the results is given in the the Commission.' T'wenty-six other used the questionnaire in attacking rious problems (see Table 1), usually cir- ting them among school administrators and teachers. : Interviews and conferences. Most of the rvey staffs held conferences at one time or nother. Generally, these were for the purpose { organizing the work of the survey or for ob- raining general information concerning the school situation. Most of such conferences were ily incidental to the study; but at least six surveys used a series of definitely planned con- ferences and interviews as a means of obtaining specific information on particular problems. l'ypical accounts of the use of the conference ind interview taken from these surveys show the type of problem to which this method was ipplied and the procedure followed. California. The Commission for the Study of Problems “A major part of the Commission’s investigations was conducted by Educational reports: means of personal interviews between the Commis- sion as a body and more than one hundred indi- viduals possessing special knowledge on one or more of the problems being studied. The list included state, county, and city school officials, university and college professors and administrators, teachers, labor leaders, agriculturists, county auditors, county super- visors, employers of young people, and others.” Florida. In attempting to evaluate the vocational education program, the method chiefly relied upon was that of the conference or interview. The report states that most of the work was carried on “through The data were secured by personal conferences with a total of 60 school administrators, supervisors, coor- dinators, and teachers, and with a total of 31 rep- resentative citizens called into conference for the purpose of determining community attitude toward the vocational program. Some of the state and local school officials sat in a number of the 46 hearings so that the total these 3 attendance at hearings Public Instruction, 1930. p. 12. * A study of the questionnaire as a research tool is available in: National Education Association, Research Division Questionnaire, Research Bulletin 8: 1-52; January, 1930. Washington, D. C.: the Association alifornia Commission for the Study of Educational Problems. op. cit. p. 12. 3 ( California Commission for the Study of Educational Problems. Report. Vol. 1. Sa amounted to 193 people. Sample data were secured from 18 different public school communities repre senting an average spread of the rural and urban Florida.” * West Virginia. Members of the survey staff met with the superintendents and boards of education of communities in the largest cities in the state “to study, in general, the administrative organization with particular ref erence to relationships affecting administration.’ 4. Statistical comparisons with other states. A useful means of estimating the relative efh ciency of a school system, or of some part of it, is that of direct comparison with other systems. Thirty of the thirty-five surveys made statis tical comparisons between the particular school system under investigation and other systems with respect to such factors as teachers’ salaries, enrolment and attendance, schoo] support, il literacy, training and experience of teachers, and achievement of pupils. ‘The Missouri and New Jersey surveys contain good illustrations of this procedure, part of which are reproduced as Tables 2 and 3. 5. Rating scales. As a rule the surveys’ esti mates of such factors as teaching efficiency, the school plant, and courses of study were based on random observation. Six of the surveys, however, attempted to supplement direct obser vation of the work of the teacher by objective ratings; eight used building score cards; and one used a score card for courses of study. Survey reports from Indiana, New York, Texas, Utah, Virginia, and West Virginia give accounts of the use of various methods of rat- ing teaching efficiency. Descriptions of the de vices used follow. Indiana. The Indiana “success schedule’ rating teachers was developed in compliance with an act of the State Legislature of 1915 which required tor the State Superintendent of Public Instruction to provide from time to time “such schedule of items as should, in his judgment, enter into the record and grading of a teacher’s success by the city, town, The grades” of 428 rural teachers were obtained by the and county superintendent of schools.” “success survey commission by means of a questionnaire. The “suecess schedule’ rated teachers on personality, preparation, teaching technic, pupil achievement, imento, Calif.: State Department of “The ‘ Florida Educational Survey Commission. Oficial Report to the Senate and House of Representatives. Tallahassee, Fla.: State Florida, 1929. p. 356. * Cavins, Lorimer V., director. Surrey of Education in West Virginia. Vol. 1. Charleston, W. Va.: State Board of Education, 1928. p. 130, [ 83 ] management, professional attitude, and professional reading.’ New York. Personal observation of classroom instruction in the rural high schools of New York was controlled to some extent by the formulation of a plan which would direct the attention of the ob- dure. The purpose of this form was “to as far as possible the personal reactions a; ments of the classroom observers.” The tained in the form emphasize the nature of | in which pupils were engaged: as practising or memorizing; reading and discussing sto) ing or reporting the point of view of th: preparing or making reports to the class server to certain phases of classroom work generally conceded to be indicative of its quality. The items collected were subjected to statistical treatment. The outline of the observation plan included: (1) class routine; (2) assignment and study guidance; (3) conduct of the recitation, with five special items for drill subjects such as mathematics and languages, and for recitations in other subjects; (4) general observations; and (5) critical comments. One hun- dred seventy-nine recitations, taught by 144 different a carefully trained vidual assignments; and related activities. were checked, giving the number of pupils in each.* Utah. The survey staff rated 141 teachers ing to a ranking system devised for the pu the survey.’ ality traits, teaching skill and technic, the | include such factors as stimulating pupils make judgments, use initiative, pupil skills, fund of information, appreciat ating wholesome ideals and attitudes.” A working on group | Twenty-four such The teachers were ranked on instructors, were observed by staff of seven persons.” Texas. The Texas survey form to aid in the observation of classroom proce- execute; j staff also devised a ‘Copy of ‘‘success schedule,” p. 118-21. Indiana Rural Education Survey. Report. Indianapolis, Ind.: State Su of Schools, State House, 1926. 130 p ? Ferriss, Emery N. The Rural High School. Rural School Survey of New York State. Vol. 7. Ithaca, N. Y.: Joint on Rural Schools, 1922. p. 127-46. * Works, George A., director. Courses of Study and Instruction. Texas Educational Survey Report, Vol. 5. Texas Educational Survey Commission, 1924. See Appendix L, p. 517, for copy of form. 4U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. Survey of Education in Utah. D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1926. p. 343-44 Bulletin, 1926, No. 18 TABLE 2.—ILLUSTRATIVE INTERSTATE COMPARISONS: MISSOURI SURVEY! (Computed from Data in Research Bulletin of the National Education Association, Vol. VII, No. 1, p. 9) Percentage of Income Ex- nded for blic Ele- mentary and High Schools Percentag¢ Income Expended for Al! Public Education Percentage of Income Expended for Public Higher Education Average for United States ? ares 2 68 Average for Eleven Comparable States ; .40 3.07 Missouri , | 27 49 Missouri's Deficie ney from United States Average : : 0 .19 Missouri's Deficiency from United States Average in Percent. ; Missouri's Deficiency from Average of Comparable States. . . 4 | .13 58 Missouri's Deficiency from Average of Comparable States in Percent awd aun Individual States: Arkansas Illinois Indiana lowa Kansas Michigan Minnesota Missouri. Nebraska Ohio. ea Oklahoma. Wisconsin NNNAONWWNwWNNe NNN wWNWWWwwwnn } Missouri. Eightieth Report of the Public Schools of the State of Missouri, School Year Ending June 30, 1929. V« Jefferson City, Mo.: State Superintendent of Schools, 1929. p.9 ? Computed thus: 2.41 (for United States)—2.22 (for eae. 19. Then .19+2.41=8%(nearest whole numbe: 84 | D, were assigned to each letter according to five letters was used: A, B, C, and I scale ot Values i pla ! suggested by Rugg.’ For each teacher trait, “9 esite of traits, each surveyor was asked to + from his experience: (1) a teacher to be rated \.” being the best in this respect he had ever a teacher to be rated as “E,” being the and (3) a teacher to be rated as “C,” being age teacher. Teachers judged between “A were rated “B” and similarly those between nd “E” “iD.” rved the type of instruction, classifying it were rated The surveyors also ypse as jlinary, socialized, or purposing, using the plan analysis developed by Courtis.” Virginia. In this survey teachers were rated on: 1) personality; (2) teaching ability, as indicated by motivation, pupil activity, vital material used, emphasis on topics, effective drill, organization, and individual attention; (3) ability; (4 ittention to seat work and study; (5) disciplinary general rating; 6) supplementary activities, as Junior League, di rected play, contests with other schools, etc.; ( grade of certificate; and (8 ties, representative of the various sections of the total of 103 teachers were observed, the period of observation experience. Seven coun- state, were visited and a elementary generally lasting fifteen or twenty minutes.’ Rugg, Harold O. ‘‘Self-[mprovement of Teachers Thre School Journal 20: 670-84; May, 1920. Vanual of Directions for Making Efficiency Shea, M. V., director. Public Education in Virginia Educational System of the State. Richmond, Va.: Card Rating vins, L. V., director. S 96-97, urvey of Educat \lmack, John C Building rement Check List and Measuring Scale for Cit Stanford University, Cal School of lif American School Board Journal 70: 52-54: ugh Report Superintendent of Public Printin ton sm West Virgini Education January, Se , Vol School Classrooms and West Virginia. The staff followed a definite procedure in developing a rating system for teach ing. With the help of local educators they constructed 1 3) questions a 20-point scale with five divisions: classroom =] management, (2) the teaching process, 5) directed study. Each point was rated A, B, C, D, and E, according to the ex 4) assignments, and cellence of the item. In order that persons using the scale might be as nearly uniform as possible in their judgments, three members of the staff observed the same recitations and compared results. This process was repeated until the staff members were able to agree rather closely. In all, over 500 teachers were observed and rated by this scale.’ Fight surveys report the use of rating cards for measuring the efficiency of the school plant : Arizona, Florida, Missouri, New York, Texas, Utah, Virginia, and West Virginia. The meth ods used are summarized below. Arizona. In order to make an appraisal, the school buildings were first divided into two classes: those with five or more rooms and those with less than five. Separate forms were devised for each class.” inventory The check-list called These forms consisted of a check-list or sheet and a detailed score card. lf-Rating; a New Scale Detroit, Mich.: Board of to the Educational Commission of irgi g, 1928. p. 77-78 W. Va.: State Department 1 t and Measuring See Juilding Surveys 1925 ilso: Almack, J TABLE 3.—ILLUSTRATIVE INTERSTATE COMPARISONS; NEW JERSEY SURVEY’! Percent of Wealth in Public Schools Rank Missouri 31 Montana Nebraska Nevada. ... New Hampshire 747 412 285 769 19 Vew Jersey. A 2.325 New Mexico 477 New York ‘ 613 North Carolina 314 North Dakota 230 357 S. (Exclusive of D.C 484 039 Income Devoted to Public Schools 1 New Jersey. Report of ihe Commission lo Survey Public Education (Harlan Updegraff, director) State of New Jersey, 1930. p. 32. The data in this table were gathered from various sources be exact figures in all cases, but are substantially correct and represent, according to picture of the situation in 1926. Only part of the table is reproduced here Per Capita Investment in Public Schools Appropriation for Public Schools Rank Amount Rink Amount Rink $46 125 69 97 37 26 58 113 56 29 139 63 95 66 $47 $15.56 Trenton, N. ] hey do not purport t the Survey, an approximate [ 85 ] for actual measurements, inventories, and other ob- jective data. An article or item was judged (1) worthless, (2) in need of repair, (3) good enough to be usable, (4) in good condition, or (5) new and in excellent condition.’ Florida, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia. The elementary, high school, and college buildings of these four states* were scored by one or more of the three rating cards designed by Strayer, Evenden, and Engelhardt* for these three types of buildings. Missouri. The survey staff supplemented its study of school buildings by means of a checking schedule for specifications which was developed from an analysis of specifications of some of the best re- cently constructed school buildings of the country. Then the survey staff checked sets of specifications from 30 of the most recently erected buildings in Missouri. The items of the working drawings were rated as excellent, mediocre, poor, or omitted. In the course of the survey the plans of 125 buildings were checked “for three different purposes—(1) to discover the adequacy of the working drawings sub- mitted by architects and pirchased by boards of education; (2) to determine the adaptability of the plan to educational needs and its fitness for educa- tional use; and (3) to discover whether the condi- tions of the contract were favorable to the board of education and whether sufficient detail was writ- ten into the specifications to make possible highly competitive bidding to the ends that boards were purchasing school buildings at the lowest possible price.” * New York, Texas, Utah, West Virginia. The small rural schools in these four state surveys‘ were rated by a scale designed especially for the small school by Butterworth.® Virginia. The smal! school buildings \ by a score card developed by the survey buildings and grounds were rated on suc! general condition of the school plant, heat ing, and ventilating systems, cloakrooms, t: ties, fuel storage facilities, and articles of , as desks, maps, globes, window shades, a: books. Each item was rated on a five- Independent ratings, as made by different of the staff, were compared and individu tions in grading were eliminated as far as While courses of study are usually « by general observation, the Missouri Report* mentions the use of criteria fi courses of study developed by the Bu Curriculum Research, Teachers Coll: lumbia University.° Further attempts to supplement ran. servation with quantitative analysis in : ing either the course of study or the ski! teacher in applying it to the daily prog: indicated in seven surveys which take of the time allotted to recitation periods jects, or grades. 6. Methods of determining pupil >» Eighteen of the surveys undertake to determin: the progress of pupils through school by of age-grade studies and related methods in mM cluding studies of the number of pupils p: moted, accelerated, retarded, or elim from school. The Florida survey*® investigated the age-grade status of the children in ten 1 Tapper, C. Ralph. A Survey of the Arizona Public School System. Phoenix, Ariz.: State Board of Education, 1925 * Florida Educational Survey Commission. Oficial Report to the Senate and House of Representatives. Tallahassee, | of Florida, 1929. p. 660, U.S Government Printing Office, 1926. p. 383. L. y= of the Interior, Bureau of Education. Survey of Education in Utah. Bulletin, 1926, No. 18. Washing: Inglis, Alexander, director. Virginia Public Schools, Part I. Yonkers, N. Y.: Virginia Education Commission a1 Survey Staff, 1920. p. 241. Cavins, L. V., director. Survey of Education in West Virginia, Vol. 3. Charleston, W. Va.: State Board of Educat “School Buildings,” p. 69. * Strayer, George D., and Engelhardt, N. L. Score Card and Standards for Elementary School Buildings. New York College, Columbia University, 1923. 57 p. Strayer, Geo Columbia University, 1924, 95 p. D., and Engelhardt, N. L. Score Card and Standards for High School Buildings. New York: Teacher Evenden, E. S., Strayer, G. D., and Engelhardt, N. L. Score Card and Standards for College Buildings. New York College, Columbia University, 1929. * Strayer, George D., and Engelhardt, N. L., Division of Field Studies, Institute of Educational Research, Teacher Columbia University. A Preliminary Report of the Survey of the Public Schools and Higher Institutions in the Stale of Jefferson City, Mo.: State Superintendent of Public Schools, 1929. p. 78-85. * Works, George A., and others. Rural School Survey of New York State, Vol. 3. Ithaca, N. Y.: Joint Committe: Schools, 1922. 131 p. . be a Cue A., director. Texas Educational Survey Reports, Vol. 1. Austin, Texas: Texas Educational Survey sion, .p. 313. U. S. t. of the Interior, Bureau of Education. Survey of Education in Utah. Bulletin, 1926, No. 18. Washing! Government Printing Office, 1926. p. 381. en ae Lorimer V., director. Survey o ; Education in West Virginia, Vol. 3. Charleston, W. Va.: State Board of | . p. 10. _ © Butterworth, Julian E. ‘‘A Score Card for One and Two-Teacher School Buildings.’ Journal of Rural Educatio September, 1922. 7 Inglis, Alexander, director. Virginia Public Schools, Part I. Yonkers, N. Y.: Virginia Education Commission and Survey Staff, 1920. p. 240-41, and Table 104. * Strayer, George D., and Engelhardt, N. L., Division of Field Studies, Institute of Educational Research, Teachers Columbia University. A Preliminary Report of the Survey of the Public Schools and Higher Intstitutions in the State of \ Jefferson City, Mo.: State Superintendent of Public Schools, 1929. p. 109. * Stratemeyer, Florence B., and Bruner, H. B. Rating Elementary School Courses of Study. Bulletin No. 1. New Yor! of Curriculum Research, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1926. 193 p. % Florida, op. cil., p. 214-28. [ 86 ] inated urvé gene schor movi wert neve metl the expe and tle yn sond the whi ject suri cert omi ticu this ith these data as a basis it reports on rdation and failure, acceleration and tion of pupils, and the holding power of rida schools beyond the compulsory age [he other surveys using this method ke similar reports. Standard tests. Thirteen of the surveys ed data on pupil progress and achieve Lila ment by means of standardized educational tects. This method is considered of sufficient mportance to merit a more detailed treatment than could well be given it at this point. For liscussion of this topic see the next section f this Bulletin. 2 (General observation. One of videly used of the survey methods is that of the most seneral observation. ‘'wenty-seven of the sur ! veys give specific accounts of its use in estimat ing teaching efficiency, the school plant, and courses of study. In many cases the survey re lied solely upon this method to supply data on these problems; in some instances its use was supplemented by objective ratings. The older urveys indicate almost complete reliance on ceneral observation supplemented by whatever school records were available. As the survey movement advanced, more objective methods were increasingly employed, but these have never been used completely to supplant the method of direct, personal observation which has its own peculiar contribution to make in the study of a school system. It remains as yet the only way of providing the vital, personal experience by which to judge certain subjective and yet important elements in a school situa- tion, as the “atmosphere”’ of a school, the “‘per- sonality” of the teacher, or the “attitude” of the pupils—all intensely subjective factors which do not readily lend themselves to ob- jective treatment. The most extensive school surveys supplemented objective methods by a certain amount of general observation. It is omitted only from those confined to some par- ticular problem, as school legislation, where this method does not well apply. Organization and administration of the sur- veys—The organization and administration of a state school survey doubtiess has much to do with its accuracy and effectiveness. One or more experts are always placed in charge of the investigation, but a study of the administrative aspects of the thirty-five surveys shows that no single, general plan of action is followed. While the staff usually consists of fifteen o1 sixteen members, its size ranges from one to The typical state school survey as the forty-six. revealed by this analysis is authorized by state legislature. In a few instances surveys have been authorized by state departments of education, superintendents of public instruc tion, governors of states, or even by committees of laymen interested in the educational welfare of the state. The cest of the typical state school survey is usually covered by a state appropriation of $25,000, although the cost may run up as high as $75,000. In some cases the expenses of the survey are borne wholly or in part by individ- uals or by organizations. The time allowed for field work varies from ninety to more than five hundred days. A yea usually elapses between the acceptance of the survey commission and the publication of the report, the time varying from three months to two years. The report is usually published by the or ganization or individual sponsoring the investi gation. Of the 35 state survey reports ana lyzed, sixteen were published by the state, ten by the Federal Government and nine by private means. The complete report may be quite brief, as in the case of the Minnesota report which contained only 56 pages, or it may comprise two, three, four, or even eight volumes. Ex- clusive of the New York and Texas reports, which together occupy sixteen volumes and over four thousand pages, the median number of pages in the thirty-three remaining surveys is about 250. Much of the objective data con- tained in the reports are in the form of tables which are in many cases illustrated by graphs and charts. ‘Lhe emphasis of the report is usually given to school costs, rural education, school laws, and state and local school adminis- tration. The state school survey does not directly at tempt to remedy the weaknesses of a state school system. This is outside its province. Corrective measures are in the hands of the people of the state and their representatives. The survey may be said to have performed its mission when it has investigated the school sit uation as carefully and scientifically as possible with the means at its command; when it has made a report of its findings with recommen- dations for improvement; and when it has aroused public interest sufficiently to assure that at least the most outstanding difficulties will be subjected to remedial action. A study has been made which throws some light on factors which contribute to or hinder the suc- cess of the school survey. Garlin has collected data trom 21 states and 48 cities on factors which condition its success. According to fre- quency of mention by the states reporting, the twelve factors contributing most to the success of the state school survey were (1) support of the newspapers, (2) cooperation of the state department of education, (3) presenting actual facts, (4) placing copies of the survey report in the hands of leaders, (5) reasonable recom- mendations, (6) leadership of teachers and co- operation of county and township superintend- ents, (7) support of leading citizens, (8) out- side survey staff, (9) sensible view of school conditions and problems by the survey staff, (10) support of the survey by the women of the state, (11) emphasis on evident school needs, and (12) presenting a complete school code. ‘The six most frequently mentioned obstacles to the success of the state school survey were (1) reaction against taxes, (2) the fact that considerable time is required to reap the full benefits of a survey, (3) conservatism of the people, (+) politics, (5) increased cost of pub- lic education, and (6) failure to prepare enough local leaders.' Many of these factors are largely within the control of the survey commission. Proper or- ganization, cooperation, and publicity contri- bute much to the success of the state school survey. Summary of the state school surveys—The foregoing analysis of the scope, methods, and administration of thirty-five general state school surveys reveals at many points the im- portant contributions to research technics made by these investigations. These contributions, as far as the measurement of school efficiency is concerned, are of three general types. First, the surveys have independently developed and applied a number of useful statistical proced- ures, score cards, and other devices which throw light on some of the problems involved in esti- mating the various aspects of state school achievement. Second, the surveys have served [ 88 as proving grounds for trying out other measuring devices developed els They have supplied an important pract; let for the product of individual researc! ers. Finally, the survey movement as to state school systems has made educa: the general public alive to the values o} tinuing appraisal of efficiency from wit school system. The special technics of : vey have tended to become a part of the work of state school leadership and The report of a state school survey m have an indirect influence extending to years beyond the date of the survey its: The Self-Survey Plan A systematic review of the import concerning the organization of a stat: system may be made with advantage eit those within or without the state conc The self-survey plan for estimatin school efficiency provides a means w! those interested in the educational welt a school system may discover for then its weak and strong points. ‘The Research |) sion of the National Education Associatio: recently published such a plan,’ consistin fifteen check-lists, and a handbook for ¢! pose of explaining and supplementing the c! lists. This plan may be used either by ed or laymen to review the facts basic to ' ciency of their own state school system plan is not a substitute for a highly det appraisal by experts called in for consul: from without the school system. The check-lists and handbook are pub! separately, the March, 1930 Bulletin Research Division containing the chec! and the May, 1930 Bulletin, the handbook The criteria of administrative efficienc\ prising the check-lists are derived fron composite judgment of leading American thorities on schoo! administration. Such a posite was secured through conferences \ leading state school experts and twenty) departments of education and through an of more than two hundred state school su theses, monographs, and books. The validi! of the plan is based, therefore, on a systen attempt to secure a cross-section of thx judgment and experience available. ' Garlin, R. E. “Factors Conditioning the Success of School Surveys."’ School and Society 28: 337-40; September 15, | * National Education Association, Research Division. ‘‘A Self-survey Plan for State School Systems. Part I, Che Part Il, Handbook.’ Research Bulletin 8: 53-88, 89-164; March, May, 1930. Washington, D. C.: the Association. ] TABLE 4.—SELF-SURVEY PLAN FOR STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS AS APPLIED TO SEVEN STATES TOM *‘yayeey ay} 07 MU Iedap 313818 ay} Ss20q OAc 34 uM * Aud jooyos ik JusUTRUTOdde ay} Ss] ‘papeau J2AIIBYM ‘SasINU [OOYIS JO JUaUTJUIOddE ay} 8] ¢uoT}vONpes jo JusUfsedap OYIS WIOJaI [BIO] JO 3}"IS Jy} JO YIOM [BUOTIeONpPs ay} 8] Me} [OOYUIs jemeds apraoid O} S}1UN [edo] viINDal MP] Vy) S90q JOS 10} JUSUT[OJUe WINUTIUIW © SulusIIUOD SUOTE/[NFe1 sey} aly JO $8ZIS WINWIUIW puke WINUWIxeUl 94} BulaAod su ye[nso1 ai9y) vy 18 opimee $ B dYeUI UOT PON] yu IT J} s90q “ee ae :jueusnipy pue jeuuosleg jidng JO} ysI;yIeYD pue Apnis MU IEGIP 21 P}s « 110 u0oNn ) wiyiedap < 18 < } s290q PasiAsodns sort 1 usu a4 " 1 ) FIOM Jy} 8] }e[NFa1 so 3} aiIp[iyo jo FIOM vty bu oO t jA0} ‘wre g pue “wid ¢ useMjaq QT Japun siOUTUT JO Iu: yur AO] dure > ay} 8] sa aha ag R éiuiied YOM 10 ayBOYyy yuoUA (ojdma ue JO 3dURNSS! 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JayBIY 33e}8 JO Sprvog 1M Prevod Buljf[o1UOD ayy JO SlaquIsUI JO BdYJO JO U1I9} 39Y} Ss] 4 I I I ai [emoueuy jo suid) ul ausinbaieid uUINnUWTUIM xy SaBaijoo Jo1uNf Jo JuauTYSTTqeis é8aZa]]09 1o1unf dIjqnd [O12U0D 6} JeMOd ay} UOTBONpa J JO SaBieyD peaoid uo Aju ¢SIPVA USAID ISPI[ ‘uoRwINpPA WNpy puye Joys] 103 yst~HDeYqD The check-lists provide for the evaluation of five aspects of state school administration: (1) The child and his welfare, including at- tendance laws and their enforcement, child labor laws, and pupil personnel and adjust- ment; (2) The teaching profession, including teacher training and supervision, certification of teachers, employment and contracts, state salary laws, professional organizations and teacher retirement systems; (3) State school finance, including sources of school revenues and apportionment of school funds; (4) Ma- terial equipment; and (5) Administration and control, with special reference to the state board of education, the state department of education, and higher education. There are 162 questions in the check-lists. Each question may be answered in three dif- ferent ways: “yes,” “no,” or “does not apply.” Space for comments is provided at the bottom of each page in which qualified answers may be written. A question answered in the affirma- tive indicates that the administrative system of a school organization has met a criterion of ef- ficiency, while a negative answer usually means that it has failed to meet such a criterion. How- ever, the interpretation of the data depends to some extent upon the particular situation under investigation. The handbook discusses separately each cri- terion. It analyzes the implications of each, explaining terms used, indicating relationships to other criteria, giving special directions for their application to given situations and mak- ing suggestions for further study of the issues involved. In places it includes a brief summary of arguments intended to establish the validity of the criterion as a reliable indication of school efficiency. Table 4 illustrates the application of the self-survey plan to states located in various parts of the United States. These states have not been selected as examples of either good or bad educational conditions. They are merely used to show how the plan works and what problems may arise in applying the check-lists to practical situations. No attempt has been made, nor should be made, to add the number of affirmative answers for each state for the purpose of comparing the totals and drawing conclusions concerning the 10. cit., p. 60. relative efficiency of the school organ of these states. Such comparisons cou! produce wholly unreliable results, sinc: bining the various points into a total ; tates the assignment of a weight of one ¢ criterion with no justifiable basis fo; each an equal weight. Lack of know), the exact weight to be given each crite: viously prevents the combination of wei into one mathematical quantity. No one whether the criteria on attendance laws be more heavily weighted than those on of school revenue, or vice versa. As th: ductory paragraphs to the check-lists' poi: the self-survey plan is a guide for diagno “not a micrometer for making hair-lin: parisons between states with respect to efficiency.” The fundamental purpose o} +! plan is the improvement of state school s rather than determining the educationa! of each or formulating an index of effi Under this plan each system is to be « against a series of generally accepted « of efficiency, with no attempt to redu results to a single mathematical expressici Those who would avail themselves of 1 help afforded by the check-lists must by criminating rather than arbitrary. Comn sense should guide in interpreting the These criteria of administrative efficiency selected with the general educational situati of the United States as a whole in mind possible that certain criteria may not app! particular situations which deviate widely tro: the average. A state may be meeting a certain criterion very effectively and yet receive nv credit on the check-lists because the particula: situation involved in that individual case is not covered by the check-lists. It is clear that suc! situations arising from time to time als: vent the use of the self-survey plan as a n of objective comparison between states. Bibliography of State School Surveys These are the thirty-five surveys which wer analyzed as a basis for the discussion o! th survey method in the first part of this Bulletin The list includes practically all the organi/ed comprehensive state school surveys that been published. It does not include rout'n [94] reports. Nor does it include, as a rule, s of some single aspects of state school istration.’ U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. An Educational Study of Alabama. Bulletin, 1919, No. 41. Washington, D. C Government Printing Office, 1919. 522 p. U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. Educational Conditions in Arizona. Bulletin, 1917, No. 44. Washington, D. C Government Printing Office, 1918. 200 p. 3. Tupper, C. Ralph. 4 Survey of the Arizona Public School System. Phenix, Arizona: State Board of Education, 1925. 112 p. insas U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. The Public School System of Ar- kansas. Bulletin, 1923, No. 10. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1923. 79 p. fornia 5. California Special Legislative Committee on Education. Report, As Authorized by Senate Concurrent Resolution, No. 21 by the Forty- third Session of the Legislature of California Sacramento, Calif.: California State Printing Office, 1920. 96 p. 6. California Commission for the Study of Edu- cational Problems. Report. Vols. 1 and 2. Sacramento, Calif.: State Department of Edu- cation, 1931. 197 p. Colorado U. §. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. Report of an Inquiry into the Ad ministration and Support of the Colorado School System. Bulletin, 1917, No. 5. Washing- ton, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1917. 93 p. Delaware 8. General Education Board. Public Education in Delaware. New York: General Education Board, 1919. 202 p. Florida 9. Florida Educational Survey Commission. Official Report to the Senate and House of Representatives. Tallahassee, Florida: State of Florida, 1929. 743 p. Indiana 10. Bachman, Frank P. Public Education in Indi- ana. New York: General Education Board, 1923. 304 p. 11. Indiana Rural Education Survey Committee. Report. Indianapolis, Ind.: State Superintend- ent of Schools, 1926. 130 p. a For a study of state school reports, consult. Shaw, F. L York: Teachers College, Columbia University 1926. 142 p. State School Report ( Kansas 12. State School Code Commission of Kansas. Re- port. Topeka, Kansas: Vol. 1, 88 p.: Vol. 2, 156 i I the Commission, 1929 Vol. 3, 99 p Kentucky 13. Bachman, Frank P tucky. New York 1921. 213 p Public Education in Ken General Education Board Vinnesota 14. Foght, H. W. The Rural School Syste of 1 Study in School Efficiency. U.S Department of the Interior, Bureau of Educa Bulletin, 1915, No. 20. Washington Government Printing Office, 1915. 56 | Minnesota. tion, Ds Gxs Mississippi 15. O'Shea, M. V. A State Educational System at Work. Miss Bernard B. Jones Fund (F. S$. Harmon, Treas., Box 477), 1927. 368 p. 16. O’Shea, M. V., director. Public Mississippi. Jackson, Miss.: > ment of Education, 1926. 362 p (Mississippi). Hattiesburg, Education in State Depart Missouri 17. Strayer, Geo. D., directors, Division of Field Studies, and Engelhardt, N. I Teachers College, Columbia University. “A Preliminary Report of the Survey of Public Schools and Higher Institutions in the State of Missouri Eightieth Report of the Public Schools of the State of Missouri, Parts I-III. Jefferson City Mo.: State Superintendent of Public Schools 1929. 464 p. Missouri School Survey Committee. Facts Con cerning Public Education in Missouri. Supple ment to Seventy-fifth Report of the Public Schools of the State of Jetterson City, Mo.: State Public Schools, 1924. 139 p. Missouri Superintendent of New Jersey 19. Commission to Survey Public Education. Hat lan Updegraff, Re port. N. J.: State of New Jersey, 1930. 204 p York . Works, George A., and Others. Rural School York State. Ithaca, N. Y Rural Schools, 1922. 8 director. Trenton, Survey of New Joint Committee on Volumes. North Carolina 21. General Education Board. Public Education in North Carolina. Report to Public School North Carolina. New York General Education Board, 1921. 137 p Morrison, Fred W., and Others. Report School North Commission of on the System of Carolina, 1-111. yntributions to Education, No. 242. New For a list of state school surveys in special fields, consult: National Education Association, Research Division Bibliographies on Eight Problems of School Legislation. Studies in State Educational Administration, No. 5. Washington, D. C.: the Association, September, 1930. Revisions of this bibliography are to be prepared biennially [95] Raleigh, N. C.: State Educational Commis- sion, 1927. 644 p. . North Carolina Educational Commission. Re- port. Raleigh, N. C.: State of North Carolina, 1927. 269 p. Oklahoma 24. U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. Public Education in Oklahoma. Bulletin, 1923, No. 14. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1923. 420 p. Pennsylvania 25. Pennsylvania Committee on Appropriations and Subsidies, High Schools, Normal Schools, Rural Schools, Teachers’ Institutes. Educa- tional Surveys, 1925. Harrisburg, Pa.: De- partment of Public Instruction, 1925. 398 p. South Dakota 26. U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. The Educational System of South Dakota. Bulletin, 1918, No. 31. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1918. 304 p. Texas 27. Works, George A., director. Texas Educa- tional Survey Reports. Austin, Texas: Texas Educationa! Survey Commission, 1925. 8 volumes. Utah 28. U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. Survey of Education in Utah. Bul- letin, 1926, No. 18. Washington, D. C.: Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1926. 510 p. Vermont 29. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. A Study of Education in Vermont. Bulletin No. 7, 1914. New York: ( Foundation, 1914. 241 p. Virginia 30. O'Shea, M. V., director. Public Edu Virginia. Report to the Educational ( sion of Virginia. Richmond, Va.: § tendent of Public Printing, 1928. 634 . Virginia Education Commission and \ Survey Staff, Alexander Inglis, directo ginia Public Schools, I-Il. Yonkers, World Book Co., 1921. Part I, 400 | II, 235 p. Washington 32. Public School Administrative Code ( nis sion of the State of Washington. Report. De livered to the Governor and the Legislature Jan. 11, 1921. Olympia, Washington: State of Washington, 1921. 117 p. 33. U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureay Education. Survey of Educational Institut of the State of Washington. Bulletin, 1916, N 26. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1916. 228 p. W est Virginia 34. Cavins, Lorimer V., director. Survey of Edu cation in West Virginia. Charleston, W. Va State Board of Education, 1928. 4 volumes Wyoming 35. Monahan, A. C., and Cook, K. M. Educational Survey of Wyoming. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1916 No. 29. Washington, D. C.: Printing Office, 1916. 120 p. Government A survey is a scientific inquiry which obtains facts about the present efficiency of a school system, and on the basis of these facts offers constructive proposals for desirable improvements. Actual administration, supervision, and instruction are pro fessional in character only when they are carried on in the light of such facts and proposals as a survey would provide, and, accordingly, all teachers, supervisors, and administrators must do survey work. This is merely saying that the technique of the survey is essentially a part of the proper technique of administration, supervision, and teaching.—Jesse B. Sears, The School Survey. | ment whic of tl meth lieve ficiet sessit train secu! The of Ss valid then mini outc by tl anal tent Tew the ( the s testi achic thos Ken Care and T achi sury obse tivell Stional ot the 1916 nment State-Wide Achievement Testing Programs The standardized objective test of achieve ment is by far the most widely used method which undertakes to measure directly any phase of the product of state school systems. Other methods collect data on factors which are be lieved to bear a close relationship to school ef- ficiency; for example, school costs, length of cession, the holding power of the schools, the training of teachers, etc., but the objective test secures data on actual scholastic achievement. The reliability of this procedure as a measure of school efficiency obviously depends on the validity, reliability, and objectivity of the tests themselves; the care with which they are ad- ministered ; the extent to which all educational outcomes are covered by the tests used ; and the correct interpretation of the data procured. The Achievement Test in State-Wide Surveys State-wide testing programs were carried on by thirteen of the thirty-five state school surveys analyzed for the purpose of this study. The ex- tent of the program ranged from tests in a few tool subjects in some of the surveys to the concentration of all the time and effort of the survey staff on a rather complete state-wide testing program. The state surveys including achievement testing among their procedures are those of: Arizona, Arkansas, « lorida, Indiana, Kentucky, Mississippi, New York, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Texas, Utah, Virginia, and West Virginia. The advantages and limitations of the achievement test with respect to its use in school surveys are summed up by the New York Rural School Survey report: The advantage of such standardized tests is that they give objective results which are uninfluenced by the personal judgment of individual observers. Such results lack concreteness, picturesqueness, and the lively sense of reality inherent in the direct observation of pupils in action, but they are objec tively statable in mathematical terms and thus aid we a Geo. A., and Others. Rural School Survey of New York 22. p. " greatly in the objective evaluation of the school system,’ A brief description is given below of ex tensive testing programs reported in state school surveys. The summaries include a review of the methods of sampling used, the administrative procedure followed in giving the tests, and the school subjects covered. Mississippi. The Mississippi survey was con fined to the problem of securing “precise data relat ing to the intellectual status and educational achieve ment of pupils in the elementary and high schools and of students in the freshman year of college In order to obtain such data, achievement and in- telligence tests were administered to 14,480 white and 3,439 negro pupils in grades one to eight; 10,075 white and 1,591 negro high-school students ; and 1,667 white and 55 negro freshmen college stu dents. The tests used were selected according to four reliability, (3) compre criteria: (1) validity, (2) hensiveness, and (4) administrative feasibility For the purpose of applying the tests to a random sampling of pupils, and also for administrative con venience, the state was divided into five sections, with one of the inv estigators in charge of the work done in each section. In addition to the studies made from these five centers, several independent investi gations were made in the larger cities of Missis sippi. The data thus secured were used not only to de termine the intellectual and educational status of the pupils tested, but were applied to such problems as the classification of pupils on the basis of mental maturity and ability, race and sex differences in intelligence and achievement, sectional and com munity differences in educational achievement, the relation of achievement to ability, and the over lapping in achievement of high-school seniors and college freshmen.” West Virginia. An extensive testing program was also given a prominent place in the West Vir ginia survey. The first step in the program was to divide the state into following natural geographic and industrial lines. These zones in cluded the eastern mountain region, the southern coal section, the Ohio Valley section, the northern coal section, and the northern manufacturing sec tion. To assure an equal representation in the sur- vey, the percent of total population living in each “zones” State. Vol. 6. Ithaca, N. Y.: Joint Committee on Rural Schools, ? O'Shea, M. V. A State Educational System at Work. (Mississippi). Hattiesburg, Miss.: Bernard B. Jones Fund (F. S. Harmon, Treas., Box 477), 1927. Title page. ‘ Ibid., digest of volume. [ 97 J zone was computed. One reason for thus dividing the state into zones was to secure a fair representa- tion of all interests and sections of the state; an- other was to measure the efficiency of districts typi- cal of a particular kind of organization or school situation. “For example, certain districts were selected because they are exceedingly wealthy, others because they are extremely poor; some dis- tricts were selected because they have a high de- gree of consolidation, others because they have a large number of one-room schools; some districts were chosen that have a high percent of daily at tendance; others in which the attendance is as low as 50 percent; again, some districts were chosen be- cause of the superior training of their teachers, others because of their poorly qualified teachers.” ' Of the schools included in the sampling, 690 were the one-room type; 118, the two-room; 97, the three- or-more-room; and 22, high schools. Both white and colored schools were included. Ten tests were selected on the basis of validity, ease of administration, and the amount of compara- tive data that could be obtained from surveys of similar character. Intelligence tests adapted to the various levels of mental ability to be tested were given in grades one to twelve. An achievement test which is a collection of nine separate tests, cover- ing reading, arithmetic, nature study and science, history and literature and language was given in the elementary grades, and a test covering English, mathematics, science and history and the social sciences was given to high-school students. These tests were given to a total of 19,847 pupils in grades one to twelve. Although the program called for the visitation of approximately 1,200 schoolrooms housed in about 900 separate school buildings, practically all tests were given during the second and third weeks of October. This was made possible through the co- operation of local teachers and school administra- tors. In order to insure uniformity in the training of the various testing crews a complete manual of directions was prepared by the central office of the survey staff. This manual explained the procedure to be followed in administering the tests and gave suggestions regarding the training of assistants. The careful sampling plan made it possible to apply effectively the results of the tests. The re- sults of the tests in larger and smaller school or- ganizations were compared; racial differences in intelligence and achievement were noted; and the findings on the achievement tests were also applied to such administrative problems as teachers’ salaries, length of term, attendance, supervision, and type of district organization.” New York. The Division of Tests and Measure- ments of the Joint Committee on Rural Schools made ' Cavins, L. V., director. Survey of Education in West Virginia. Vol. 2. Charleston, W. Va.: State Board of Education, 192% ? [bid., digest of volume. definite inquiry into the product of the ry of New York State. Generally, the method personal observation was employed, but supplemented by achievement tests on subjects. For the purpose of the survey was divided into seven sections on a economic, and social basis. It was the int: to secure “a fair and accurate picture of ing conditions throughout the state.” M 5,000 children were tesied in grades one 6,000 in grades five to eight; and 2,500 nine to twelve. In all, about 14,000 pupi schools were examined. Tests on the vario subjects were given in different schools, th varying with the school situation, but a test reading was given to all pupils tested.® Texas. Tests of both intelligence and ment were administered in the Texas su: largest number of pupils was tested in rea total of 8,562 white and 400 colored chi grades three to seven, and 3,965 white colored high-school students in grades eleven, inclusive. The “commissioner’s pre« taken as the geographical unit of testing in ¢! sections. The state was divided into seven the timbered region, the blackland, “cross Central West, Plains (Anglo-Saxon), (Mexican and American), and Central (Eu: Some testing was done in the larger cities 0! for comparison with the data secured fr schools. The plan called for testing all negro sc the areas chosen for testing. A special inves was made of the colored and of the Mexica children relative to mental ability as meas a non-verbal test. Assistants were trained the tests and these cooperated with the sur) An Examiners’ Manual served as a guide. The data obtained from the tests were a; such administrative problems as the size of th in relation to efficiency, selection as a facto: relative efficiency of small and large rural sc! the relation of the length of the schoo! achievement, and similar problems.‘ State Testing Programs Several states have adopted the p giving standardized tests at regular in! in the schools of the state as a means of ating the school product. A few such p: are described below: Delaware.* Testing programs were admi! in 1926-27 in all the white and colored schoo the state. The tests were given in grades | * Works, Geo. A. and Others. Rural School Survey of New York State. Vol. 6. Ithaca, N. Y.: Joint Committee on Rural 1922. 223 p. * Works, Geo. A., director. Texas Educational Survey Report. Vol. 4. Austin, Texas: Texas Educational Survey Con 1925. 233 p. * Delaware. Annual Reports of the Department of Public Instruction for the Years Ending June 30, 1927, and June 3 Dover, Del.: State Board of Education, 1927, 1929. p. 117-38, and 129-49. [ 98 } in January and in April. The purpose was the vement of instruction by: Diagnosing individual differences, Measuring result of teaching and the im proving of teaching methods, Classification of pupils according to educa tional achievements, Comparison of individual results with stand ard, grade with grade, school with school, Using results as a factor in classification and promotion of children.” fests were given in the elementary schools in iding, spelling, history, geography, and arithme- tic. The same tests in reading and spelling had been viven in each of the three preceding years. In May, 1927, standard tests were given in high school in spelling, reading, arithmetic, biology, gen- eral science, civics, chemistry, physics, stenography, bookkeeping, French, and Latin. Practically the same testing program was carried out in 1928-29. Florida.’ Members of the Division of Elementary Supervision have given standards tests to the ele- mentary schools, and have trained teachers to ad- minister them. “The purposes in giving these tests were: (a) to demonstrate the results to be secured from giving standard tests, and (b) to familiarize teachers and others with the procedure of giving and scoring the tests.” The following is a statement of the extent ot this activity: 1926-27 1927-28 Both Schools giving reading tests... 139 20 342 9 42 Schools giving arithmetic tests. 6 Schools giving English tests. . 0 4 3 Schools giving spelling tests. . 41 9 50 3 2 Maryland.* The State Department of Education does not give standardized tests every year in all subjects. In 1924 tests were given in reading and arithmetic only. No state-wide standard tests were given during 1925-26, but the State Department pre- pared an annotated list of standard tests which was sent to the counties in the fall with the suggestion that the counties select those best suited to their plans. Six counties cooperated in testing pupils in grades seven, eight, and nine. The supervisors in twenty counties gave information concerning the tests used, in their annual reports to the State Super- intendent. The tests given were in reading, English, arithmetic, American history, geography, and hand- writing. Several intelligence tests were also given. In 1927-28 pupils in grades two to seven through- out the state were tested in reading and English in October and May. Pupils in grades four to seven throughout the state were tested in history in May. In 1928-29 standard every county in Maryland except Baltimore. The tests were given in purposes diagnostic and to provide for of the tests were remedial work. Tests were given in the elementary schools in mental capacity. Achievement tests were given in the following subjects: reading and litera- ture, English, geography, arithmetic, and history Appropriate tests were given each grade in all sub- jects covered by that grade. The counties which did not have their schools at standard or above in read ing in 1927-28 were asked by the State Department of Education to give re-tests in the spring of 1929. In October, 1928, and in April, 1929, practically all high school pupils were given diagnostic in English composition. Approximately 40,000 pupils tests were tested. Virginia.* school achievement and mental ability in eighty-five counties in 1929-30. The tests suitable for grades four to nine, but testing was Over 50,000 pupils were tested in administered were emphasized in the sixth grade. Data were also col- lected concerning the teachers of the pupils tested, since the plan is to relate the data secured in the tests to the experience and certificate of the teacher; also to other factors related to school eficiency such as length of school term and size of school. The school officials of Virginia expect, with the aid of these cumulative records, that educational standards, methods, and facilities can be studied “under natu- ral field conditions.” Washington.‘ During 1927-28 the eighth grade examination questions were changed from the essay to the objective type. In response to requests for measurements of pupils prior to the eighth grade final examination, a test in arithmetic for grades four to eight, inclusive, was prepared and sent to county superintendents for use, September, 1927. The aim of this test was to give a common measure in arithmetic and to diagnose the difficulties of in- dividual pupils. It also provides a means of com- paring individual schools with the county or state as a whole. The Stanford Achievement also given throughout the state in grades four to ests were eight inclusive in schools of every type and in all parts of the state. The chief purpose of this study of achievement was said to be diagnostic. Wyoming.” Rural schools were visited for the purpose of making mental and educational surveys. Handicapped children were detected by means of the tests given in these surveys. The extent of their defects was ascertained, and provision made for exclusion from school, removal to an institution, or for their training in the local school. The results of these surveys also serve as a basis for educational guidance including preventive and remedial work and better classification of pupils. ' Florida. Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the Year Ending June 30, 1928. Tallahassee te Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1928. p. 83. * Maryland. Sixtieth, Sixty-second, and Sixty-third Annual Reports of the State Board of Education for the Years 1926 1928, and 1929, Baltimore, Md.: State Department of Education, 1927, 1929, and 1930 p. 77-79, 11-23, 44-48 * Virginia. Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the Commonwealth of Virginia with A com panying uments, 1929-30. Richmond, Va.: Division of Purchase and Printing, 1930. p. 86 om Washington. Twenty-ninth Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the Biennium Ending June 30, 1928, Olympia, Wash.: Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1928. p. 33. ‘Wyoming. Biennial Report of the State Department of Education of Wyoming for 1928-30. Sheridan, Wyo.: 1930. p. 66-73. Mills Company, [99 | In addition to mental and educational measure- 4. Cuirton, J. L., and Woon, E. R. Report ments made in rural schools, a reading survey was December 2, 1930 ‘Every Pupil Test’. Co conducted in the fall of 1928 and in the spring of Ohio: F. J. Heer Printing Co., 1931. 55 p 1929. Gates Diagnostic Reading Tests were given to An account of a state-wide testing prog 10,183 pupils in 1928-29. This survey was conducted which achievement tests were given in ¢ by the County Superintendents’ Association. The and high schools to several thousand pupils teachers were supplied with the testing material . COLVIN, STEPHEN S., and McPuat, A. H. / and instructions for administering them, by the gence of Seniors in the High Schools of Mas, county superintendents. After the tests were given chusetts. U. S. Department of the Interior. 2 by the teachers the papers were returned to the reau of Education, Bulletin, 1924, No. 9. \Wa. county superintendents to be scored. A copy of the ington, D. C.: Government Printing Offic: results was given to each teacher, with recommenda- 39 p. tions for the improvement of reading. A mental survey was given to 3,333 In the cities of Wyoming intelligence and achieve- students in Massachusetts high schools d ment tests were used for the purpose of homogene- December, 1922 and January, 1923. A ques ous classification, promotion, diagnosis of educa- naire supplemented ‘the results of the testi tional deficiences, improvement of instruction, and . Comparative Results of a State-Wide | comparison of teaching methods. Nineteen thousand Standard Tests and Measurements No. 158 four hundred seventy-six children were tested in tension Series No. 29. Chapel Hill, N. ¢ the cities of Wyoming by the use of 1,872 individual versity of North Carolina, 1918. 2+ p. mental measurements, 11,263 group-mental measure- Report of a cooperative research plan fo; ments, and 13,019 educational tests, making a total vising tentative state standards for the us of 26,154 mental and educational measurements. certain educational tests and measurements The value of regularly evaluating the work a" ae of a state school system by means of direct . Covert, Timon. Educational Achievements in measurement is readily apparent. A continuous One-Teacher and Larger Schools. U. S. Dy testing program yields comparative data which partment of the Interior, Bureau of Educatio enable a school system to keep informed of Bulletin, 1928, No. 15. Washington, D. C.: Gor , wie il P ernment Printing Office, 1928. 23 p. certain phases of its educational achievement at Retethesines the wesules of a eumber of tea: all times. At the same time, it must be recog- programs given in large and small schools nized that many of the most desirable results - Cram, Frep D. “Tests and Measurements of education, such as the development of stand- Rural Schools—Tentative Conclusions from * . Special Investigation Being Carried on for th ards and ideals of conduct, the effect of train- siccuilinen aa mee Spar t yy eearte . €tu *y ing on the emotions, the building of desirable 1921. Vol. 59. National Education Associat attitudes, and other attributes which go to make Washington, D. C.: the Association, 192! up the sum total of personality, have not yet 357-62. er ) llow ntat been scientifically measured. Report of procedure followed and ter 5 conclusions reached in extensive testing progra nia . in one-teacher rural schools. Selected Bibliography on Extensive . CrAM, Frep D. “Tests and Measurements i State Testing Programs Rural Schools.” Proceedings, 1923. Vol. 61. \: 1. BACHMAN, FRANK P. Public Education in In- tional Education Association. Washingto diana. New York: General Education Board, D. C.: the Association, 1923. p. 322-45. 1923. 304 p. Gives detailed account of a testing program Chapter one gives an account of the measure- designed to include a “sample” of rural schoo! ment of pupil progress in elementary schools by in the United States. means of standardized tests in reading, spelling, . Detaware. Annual Reports of the Department arithmetic, and history. These tests were given of Public Instruction for the Years Ending Jun to 15,691 pupils located in 10 cities. 30, 1927 and June 30, 1929. Dover, Delawaré . BACHMAN, Frank P. Public Education in Ken- State Board of Education, 1927, 1929. p. 117-38 tucky. New York: General Education Board, and 129-49. 1941. 213 p. State-wide testing programs are administered In all, 16,700 pupils were given examinations. In the elementary schools tests were given in reading, spelling, arithmetic, and history. High school pupils were tested in reading and algebra. : 2 Seats se -— . Cavins, Lorimer V., director. Survey of Educa- struction by: (1) diagnosing individual ditter- tion in West Virginia, Vol. 2. Charleston, W. ences, (2) measuring the results of teacl ng Va.: State Board of Education, 1928. 160 p. (3) classification of pupils, (4) comparison 0! Gives plan and scope of the testing program, individual results with standard, (5) using 1 the names of the tests used, and the results of sults as a factor in classification and promotio! their application to approximately 30,000 pupils. of pupils. [ 100 } in Delaware. According to the above reports the purpose of these tests in elementary and high school subjects is the improvement o! | EeLts, W. C. “Use of Standard Tests in 72 Pub- shed School Surveys.” School Life 14: 168-69; May, 1929. Report of the analysis of 72 school surveys 1914-1928) using standardized tests. The sub cts tested most frequently and the tests used r each are given. A comparison is made be tween the frequency of use of certain tests in these surveys and their rating by experts. FLoripa. Biennial Report of the Superintendent f Public Instruction for the Year Ending June 0, 1928. Tallahassee, Fla.: State Department of Public Instruction, 1928. p. 83. In 1927-28 tests were given in the elementary schools in reading, spelling, arithmetic, and English. This testing program was administered under the direction of the Division of Elemen tary Supervision. FLorIpDA EDUCATIONAL SURVEY COMMISSION Oficial Report to the Senate and House of Representatives. ‘Tallahassee, Fla.: State of Florida, April, 1929. 743 p. A number of elementary and high schools were selected for testing. Tests were given in reading, spelling, composition, writing, and mental ability in the grades, and content ex aminations together with tests covering indus- trial arts, music, and mental ability were given in the high schools. GERBERICH, J. R., and Stopparp, G. D. “Person- nel Survey of 10,000 lowa High School Seniors.’ School and Society 30: 515-20; October 12, 1929. This high-school testing program was inau- gurated in 1923 and has been given annually to an average of more than 1,700 Lowa high school seniors since that year. The survey has had as its objective the use of a mental-educational test battery in the senior year of high school as a foundation for educational and vocational guidance. More specifically the aims have been: (1) the determination of the selective factors in operation between high-school graduation and college entrance; (2) the discovery of the gifted high-school graduate; (3) the determination of the degree to which tests can be used in pre- dicting scholastic success in college. Grecory, C. A. The Efficiency of Oregon School Children in the Tool Subjects as Shown by Standard Tests, Vol. 1. Eugene, Oregon: Uni- versity of Oregon, 1919. An extensive testing program carried out in the schools of Oregon, including city, village and rural schools. Tests were given in arithmetic, language and grammar, spelling, reading, and handwriting. Haccerty, M. E. “Educational Achievement.” Rural School Survey of New York State, George A. Works, director. Ithaca, N. Y.: Joint Com- mittee on Rural Schools, 1922. 223 p. Approximately 14,000 pupils in 441 schools were given objective standardized tests of in- telligence and achievement. The latter included reading, American history, spelling, arithmetic, algebra, and Latin. { 101 ] INGLIS, ALEXANDER, director, Educational Survey Commission. Virginia Public Schools, Part U Yonkers, N. Y.: World Book Co., 1921. 235 p Standardized tests of intelligence and achieve ment were used in this survey. The latter in cluded reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic composition, and algebra. A summary of results is given with recommendations referring esp¢ cially to factors influencing efficiency as term length, trained teachers, uniform standards of achievement, supervision, attendance, and othe factors KANSAS STATE ScHOoL CopE COMMISSION, SUR VEY COMMITTEE. The Results of Instruction in Different Types of Elementary Schools in the State of Kansas. Pittsburg, Kansas: Kansas State Teachers College Press, 1922. 45 p Four thousand two hundred forty-four pupils located in fifteen cities and seventeen counties participated in this testing program Mapsen, I. N. “Some Results from a Testing Program in Idaho.” School and Society 13 668-71; June, 1921. Reports results of extensive testing programs carried on for several years. Mental and edu cational tests were given to several thousands of pupils in both rural and city schools MARYLAND. Sixtieth, Sixty-second, and Sixty third Annual Reports of the State Board of Education for the Years 1926, 1928, and 1929. Baltimore, Md.: State Department of Educa- tion, 1927, 1929, and 1930. p. 77-79, 11-23, 44-48. For some years Maryland has undertaken extensive testing programs. In 1928-29 standard tests were given in every county except Balti- more. The purposes of these tests are diagnostic and provide for remedial work. Morrison, J. CAyce. Some Administrative Uses Made of Standard Tests and Scales in the State of New York, 1921-22. University of the State of New York, Bulletin, No. 772. Albany, N. ¥ University of the State of New York Press, 1923. 37 p Sixty-one city and village superintendents and 102 district superintendents reported that they had used standard tests and scales during the vear, using 70 different tests. Two hundred fifty thousand children were tested. NorTH CAROLINA EDUCATIONAL COMMISSION Public Education in North Carolina, New York: General Education Board, 1921. 137 p Standardized achievement tests were given in reading, spelling, arithmetic, history, algebra, and Latin. More than 10,000 children in various counties and cities were tested. Nortu Dakota. Twentieth Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the Period Ending June 30, 1928. Bismark, N. Dakota: Department of Public Instruction, 1928 p. 40-77. Reports a state-wide survey in the minimum essentials of English. Fourteen thousand one hundred twenty-six pupils in 442 public schools of all classes and from every county were in- cluded in this testing program. In addition, 409 pupils from private and parochial schools par- ticipated. . Overt, CHARLE3 W. Conservation of Intelligence in Illinois High Schools. Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin, No. 25. Urbana, Ill.: Univer- sity of Illinois, 1929. 58 p. The writer analyzed the educational status of 12,300 seniors from 368 Illinois high schools. The testing program was supplemented by a questionnaire. . OKLAHOMA EDUCATIONAL SURVEY COMMISSION. Public Education in Oklahoma. U. S. Depart- ment of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Bul- letin, 1923, No. 14. Washington, D. C.: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1923. 420 p. Twenty-six thousand eight hundred forty-five pupils were tested in all types of public schools and in all sections of the state. . O'SHEA, M. V. A State Educational System at Work. (Mississippi). Hattiesburg, Miss.: Ber- nard B. Jones Fund (F. S. Harmon, Treas., Box 477), 1927. 368 p. The scope and character of the measurement program are treated in Part I. Gives a de- tailed account of the organization of the meas- urement program, the selection of tests to be used and methods employed to secure adequacy and accuracy. . Rainey, Homer P. A Surwey of the Achievement of Oregon Pupils in the Fundamental School Subjects. Education Series, Vol. 1, No. 3. Eu- gene, Oregon: University of Oregon, 1927. 168 An objective survey of the achievements of 1,049 Oregon school children, representing schools of various sizes. . Rernoeni, CuHartes M. “A Study of Instruction in Montana Rural Schools.” Montana Education 17: 197-98; January, 1922. Summarizes results of standardized educa- tional tests reported by 11 consolidated and 34 one-teacher schools. Of 42 corresponding median scores for six grades in each subject, 83 percent are favorable to the consolidated schools. . Reynoips, ANNIE. Supervision aad Rural School Improvement. U. 8. Department of the Inierior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1930, No. 3! Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Othce, 1930. p. 18-21. Gives an account of experiments made in South Dakota, Indiana, Michigan, and North Caro- lina which attempted to measure the results of supervision by means of objective achievement tests given to pupils. . Stevenson, P. R. “Report of the State-Wide Testing Project in Plane Geography.” Educa- tional Research Bulletin 2: 118-19, 128; April 18, 1923. An account of a state-wide test in geegraphy in which 50,000 children participated. . Tupper, C. Raven. A Survey of the Arizona Public School System. Phoenix, Arizona. State Board of Education, 1925. 112 p. 35. Intelligence and achievement tests wer: in grades one, five, and eight and in th, schools of Arizona. . U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, Bur Epucation. Survey of Education in Uta/ letin, 1926, No. 18. Washington, D. ( ernment Printing Office, 1926. 510 p. Pupil achievement in the elementary « was measured by means of standardized of both mental and educational ability. ) thousand four hundred and fourteen pupils the combined tests. Tests of achievemen; intelligence were also administered in ten and eight junior high schools. . U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, Bur: EpucaTion. The Public School System kansas. Bulletin, 1923, No. 10. Washi D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1923 In all, 3,824 pupils were tested, of wh 403 were in one-teacher schools and 2,4. rural schools having more than one teac! . VAN WAGENEN, M. J. Comparative A. ment in Rural, Town, and City Schools. M apolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota | 1929. 144 p. More than 150 town and city school s\ and over a thousand rural schools scat throughout nearly every county in the cooperated in this project. The major p: involved was to determine the success o! outstanding policies of the State Departm: Education: (1) the advocacy of an increas the length of the school years from 7 to 9 m for rural schools, and (2) the encouragement consolidation of small rural schools. VirGINIA. Annual Reports of the Superin ent of Public Instruction of the Common: of Virginia with Accompanying Document the Years 1927-28, 1929-30. Richmond, Va vision of Purchase and Printing, 1928, | 136 p., 189 p. In 1929-30 over 50,000 pupils were test: school achievement and mental ability i: counties in the fall of 1929 and again in spring of 1930. Plans have been made to use | data from these tests to study the effect \ pupil learning of: (1) length of term, (2 of school, (3) certificate of teacher, and experience of teacher. . WASHINGTON. Twenty-ninth Biennial Repo: the Superintendent of Public Instruction fo Biennium Ending June 30, 1928. Olym Wash.: State Department of Education, | 203 p. During 1927-28 the eighth grade examin: questions were changed from the essay to objective type; also comprehensive achieven tests were given throughout the state in grades four to eight in schools of every type. . Wisconsin. “Education in Wisconsin.” Bien { 102 ] Report, 1924-26, of the State Superintendent Public Instruction. Madison, Wis.: State D partment of Pubiic Instruction, 1926. 220 p. Chapter eight gives a full account of the tes ing program formulated and administered ‘ Division of Tests and Measurements. In Educational Survey Commission, 1925. 233 ence tests and achievement tests in read Gives detailed account of the testing pri arithmetic, language, grammar, spelling, carried out in connection with this survey raphy, and history were used extensively telligence and achievement tests were gi idy of children’s interests was included in all grades. program. : WyYoMING. Biennial Report of the State Depa wy, CLIFFORD. Achievement in Ninth-Grade lish in Various High Schools of Michigan. ilts of the May Testing Programs. Report e Testing Program for October, 1931. Bu- of Educational Reference and Research, : etins No. 67, 140, 142. Ann Arbor, Mich.: tal and achievement tests. The results of these versity of Michigan, 1924, 1931. tests aided in the detection of handicapped chil - dren who needed special provisions for the / ) ment of Education of Wyoming for 1928-3 Sheridan, Wyoming: Mills Company, 193 / I 66-73. Both rural and city schools were given met Reports on testing programs carried on in nentary and secondary schools throughout education. These tests, also, served as a Michigan. for educational guidance, including preventive Works, GEorGE A., director. Texas Educational and remedial work and better classificatior Survey Report, Vol. 4. Austin, Texas: Texas pupils. Tests will not replace skill, they will not replace tact, they will not replace kind ness, they will not replace enthusiasm, or nobility. On the other hand, they will not in any sense harm us, and they will be useful as helps, no matter how ideal our aims Our ideals may be as lofty and subtle as you please, but if they are real ideals, they are ideals for achieving something; and if anything real is achieved it can be measured Not perhaps now, and not perhaps in fifty years from now; but if a thing exists, it exists in some amount; and if it exists in some amount, it can be measured.—E. L. Thorndif: [ 103 ] Statistical Analyses of State School Systems Statistical analysis of state school efficiency is defined as the direct measurement or count- ing of quantitative facts. It usually involves also the combination of these facts into a single index or estimate of efficiency. It deals with such factors as: average number of days schools are in session, per capita cost of éducation, average daily teaching load, and similar items. When such a criterion is applied to a given state school system, the response is always a numerical expression — two hundred days, eighty-three dollars, one hundred pupil-clock- hours, and so on. A dozen different statistical indexes have been made in this field and these are summarized in this section. Indexes of State School Efficiency Comprehensive rating of the state school systems on quantitative standards was first at- tempted by Ayres in 1912.? This little-known pioneer investigation was followed eight years later by his index number for state school systems,” which immediately attracted fational attention. In this second index Ayres selected 10 sets of statistical data which, he believed, reflected educational conditions. Five of these items were concerned with attendance and enrolment; five were concerned with financial matters. These 10 sets of data were then aver- aged and the states arranged in order according to this average. Indexes were computed for every year from 1871 to 1918 for the United States as a whole. For each of the individual states the computations were made for 1890, 1900, 1910, 1916, and 1918. In evaluating the results of his work, Ayres® made this significant comment : If some great national agency were to undertake a survey of each of the 48 state school systems, it would surely report on many phases of th not included in the items of the index. Amon; phases would be the legal bases of the syste, organization, professional leadership and vision, business management, course of stud ing staff, plant and equipment, and the res standard tests of classroom work. Although the limitations of the index wer, thus frankly recognized by its autly study, on the whole, had a tonic effect 0; school leadership. States which were ranked high were urged to maintain their positions oj leadership. States in the lower ranges were urged to make a better record in the futuy, The Ayres Index is still used from time to tine in the official school reports of several states At the same time, the Ayres study was no received with unanimous approval. The inde, method itself was not generally questioned new attempts at ranking were usually made | weighting certain of the Ayres items, or } omitting certain items, or by adding new ones Myers,° Blair,° Brooks,’ and others have ob jected to the implications of the Ayres Index on the ground that it combined unlike denomi nations, that it measured quantity of instru tion and omitted the quality, that certain of the items were not significant, that it did not apply well to states with large private school enrol ments, and that high rank on the financial items might mean either educational efficiency fiscal inefficiency. Some of the criticisms di rected against the Ayres Index arose from fail ure to understand its meaning and to use it a: the author intended. In other cases the in cautious statements of over-enthusiastic cham- pions of the Index increased the skepticism with which it was received. On the whole, howeve: the criticisms made were justified although the) frequently indicated weaknesses which Ayres himself fully recognized. ' Ayres, Leonard P. A Comparative Study of the Public School Systems in the Forty-Eight States. New York: Russell Sag dation, 1912, 33 p. 2 Ayres, Leonard P. An Index Number for State School Systems. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1920. 70 p 3 Ibid., p. 58. 4 See, for example: Maryland, State Board of Education. Sixty-third Annual Report, Year Ending July 31, 1929. Ba Md.: Maryland State Department of Education, 1929. p. 276-79. ’ Myers, Charles Everett. ‘Educational Ranking of States."" Pennsylvania School Journai 75: 237-40; December, 192 * Illinois, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Educational Press Bulletin, Nos. 252, 253; February, March, 193 No. 273; March, 1932. 1930. ? Brooks, E. C. *‘The Taxpayer's Idea of School Business Administration."’ School Executives Magazine 49: 553-55; [ 104 ] ’ ones walk Index nomi riticisms of the Ayres Index were sum- ized in 1924 by Frank M. Phillips, then ef of the Statistics Division of the U. S. ice of Education.’ Phillips made, in addi- tion, two important adaptations of the Ayres Index: (1) the financial items were revised to low for the decreased purchasing power of dollar, and (2) the states were classified into urban, mixed, and rural types to make possible the comparison of ranks among states al of similar population characteristics. In addi- tion. a method of ranks based on different sta- tistical factors was suggested to supplement the index method as evolved by Ayres. In the Phil- lips’ rank method ten items were used. ‘The number of general financial items was re- duced from five to two, and statistics concern- ing illiteracy, teachers’ salaries, and teacher training were substituted for the three financial items which were discarded. The attendance and enrolment items were also modified con- siderably. In 1926 Schrammel,? in the course of an investigation of the effectiveness of certain types of state educational organization, found it advisable to rank the states according to their general educational efficiency. He departed from the precedent of ten-point ratings as established by Ayres and followed by Phillips and used the average of eleven statistical items. Three of his factors dealt with school finance, two with literacy, and the remaining six with enrolment and attendance statistics. In spite of these differences he found a close relation- ship between his own ranking of the states and that calculated by Ayres.* Indexes of City and County School Efficiency Paralleling the work of Ayres, Phillips, and Schrammel in the field of state school ad- ministration, a series of attempts have been made to find a quantitative basis for evaluating city and county school efficiency. Since many of these attempts might well be applied to states, a few of them will be described at this point. A study of the effects of fiscal independence of city boards of education led Frasier * to attempt an evaluation of the efficiency of 169 city school systems on a quantitative basis. He made use of six statistical items which he com- bined into a single rating by a method based Harrell® has pro measure of city on standard deviations.® posed a_ tentative school efficiency based on the average of eleven statis- tical items. ‘hese include factors of class size and the supervisory program which are seldom represented in ratings of this kind. Still an other attempt to rate cities and towns was made in 1927 by Thompson of the Connecticut State Board of Education, Division of Research and Surveys.’ This study, being applied to onl one state, admitted many refinements in the basic statistics which are seldom possible when cities in different states are compared. Another important new feature of the Connecticut rat ing is the use of the standard score technic in combining the eight items chosen into a single measure. The rating of county systems has also been attempted many times. A large number of these studies have consisted simply of the application of the Ayres Index to the counties of a state. However, several investigators have used other combinations of statistical data, or have used one or more of the Ayres factors combined with other data. ! Phillips, Frank M. ‘‘ Educational Ranking of States by Two Methods." American School Board Journal 69: 47-49; Decem ber, 1924. As this Bulletin goes to press, a 1930 revision of both the Ayres and Phillips ratings is being published. See: Phillips, Frank M Educational Rank of States, 1930."" American School Board Journal 84: 25-29; February, 1932, and subsequent issues 2?Schrammel, Henry E. The Organization of State Departments of Education. Ohio State University Studies, Bureau of Educa tional Monographs, No. 6. Columbus, Ohio: the Ohio State University Press, 1926. Chapter 9. + Correlations by the rank-difference method ranged from .62 to .78. See: Schrammel, op. cit., p. 128 4 Frasier, G. W. The Control of City School Finances. Milwaukee, Wis.: later used by the Educational Finance Inquiry. See: McGaughy, J. R. The Fiscal York: Macmillan Co., 1924. p. 47-54. Bruce Publishing Co., 1922. 132 p. This index was idminisiration of City School Systems. New 5 The method is fully described in Chapter VII of Frasier's study. 6 New York Tax Commission. Fiscal Problems of Ciiy School Adminisiration. Report by the Special Joint Committee on Taxa tion and Retrenchment. Legislative Document, 1928, No. 66. Albany, N. Y.: State of ire listed in: Englehardt, N. L., and Alexander, Carter. School Finance and Busine College, Columbia University, 1928. p. 7-9. New York, 1928. p. 65-7. The same factors s Management Problems. New York: Teachers 7 Connecticut State Board of Education, Division of Research and Surveys. Tentative Index Number for the Schools of Con- necticut Cities and Towns. Hartford, Conn.: State Board of Education. Mimeographed, 12 p. 8 This technic is not described in the study itself but can be found in: McCall, William A. How to Experiment in Education. New York: Macmillan Co., 1923. p. 98-102. 1 105 J TABLE 5.—STATISTICAL FACTORS USED IN INDEXES OF SCHOOL EFFICIENCY —— State ratings City aang County ratings Factor Thompson | » | Schrammel eo | 1 Number of Factors Used Attendance 1. Percent of school population attending school daily... } Average days attended by each child of school age... 3. Av erage number of days schools were kept open . Percent high school attendance was of total attendance. 5. Average days attended by each child enrolled . Percent of enrolment in average daily attendance Enrolment | . Percent that boys were of girls in high school. . | Percent of total enrolment found in high school] . Percent of total population enrolled in public | elementary and secondary schools........ . Percent of school population enrolled in public elementary and secondary schools. . Percent of those enrolled who graduate ‘from | public high school. | . Percent of 16 and 17 year old children in school | . Percent of those enrolled who graduate from elementary schools ‘ | . Percent that average daily attendance in high | school is of total average daily attendance . Distribution of enrolment through the grades Teacher Training . Ratio of students preparing to teach to teach- | ing positions ° Percent of teachers who have 6 or more yeare | training above &th grade . Percent of elementary teachers holding certifi- cates above the minimum requirements | . Percent of secondary teachers holding certifi- cates above the minimum requirements ‘ . Percent of elem«: tary school teachers who are | normal school graduates - . Percent of teachers holding above first grade | certificates | . Percent of all teachers who are normal school graduates. .... . Percent of all teachers who are college graduates. . Percent of teachers having two or more years of college training School Plant | . Percent of children who have 60 sq. ft. or more | | of playground space | . Percent of children enrolled who attend school a full day in adequate buildings owned by the | | | | ee . Percent of elementary pupils with 50 ‘sa. ft. of playground space per elementary pupil con- | tiguous to the school Adequacy of educational facilities .... . . Value of school property per child in average daily attendance x | ‘ se 1 Citations to the published and unpublished studies which form the basis for this table may be readily found in the { joes to the accompanying text. .—( Continued ) State ratings City ratings Factor Schrammel Thompson te General Finance rage expenditure per child in average daily endance erage expenditure per child of school age verage expenditure per teacher employed Expenditure per pupil for purposes other than aries eee . Expenditure for education per capita of tota population Expenditure for education per $1000 mated true value of all property" Percent of current expenditure devoted to in ruction ix rate necessary to raise amount of money ievoted to schools verage annual cost for current expense per ementary school pupil in average daily attend nee over a 3-year period ‘ Expenditures for education from local funds per capita of enrolment Total cost of education per school room Expenditures for instruction per child enrolled Expenditures per child enrolled Financial index?.... : ; True (County) tax rate for elementary schools True (District) tax rate for schools Operating expenditures per child in average laily attendance Bonded debt for school purposes per $1000 of true property valuation Class Size Percent of elementary classes having fewer in 40 children enrolled Achievement Percent of those taking the regents examination who | ussed them. . \cademic index 3..... Percent of children not retarded Percent of annual expectation graduating from the eighth grade Percent of annual expectation graduating from high school Supervision Percent of total supervising hours to total teach- ing hours during a typical week Salaries Expenditure for salaries per teacher Average salary of teachers, principals, super visors @cees ° ° Percent of the increased cost of living, 1913-14 to 1919-20, that was met by increased salaries for elementary women teachers \verage annual salary of elementary teachers Literacy Percent of literates 10 years of age and over Percent of illiteracy eliminated during preceding decade Higher Education Percent of high school graduates continuing education....... County ratings Number of times factor is used 14 * Financial index is calculated from a formula based on item 1 under salaries, and items 10, 11, 12, and 13 under ge lance. * Academic index is calculated from a formula based on items 1 and 3 under attendance, item 6 under teacher tr em 2 under enrolment, and item 4 under school plant. Grimm ranked the counties of Illinois on one of the Ayres criteria; namely, the average number of days schools were kept open, and on five other factors: percent of total public school enrolment in high school, percent of teachers having six or more years training above eighth grade, percent of elementary school teachers who are normal school graduates, average an- nual cost for current expense per elementary school pupil in average daily attendance over a three-year period, and average salary of teachers, principals, and supervisors. Wiley ranked California counties on twelve items. In addition to items on length of session, attendance, enrolment, teacher training, and school tax and expenditure, he included percent of pupils not retarded and percent of the in- crease in the cost of living since 1913-14 which has been met by increases in the salaries of ele- mentary women teachers. Combs ranked the counties of Virginia ac- cording to five educational and five financial factors. He calculated both an academic and a financial index for each county, added the two and took the arithmetic average as a general index upon which to rank the counties. Brown ranked the counties of Oklahoma by means of the ten criteria of the Ayres Index in combination with three other factors, namely, the percentage of annual expectation graduat- ing from the eighth grade, the percentage of annual expectation graduating from high school, and the percentage of teachers having two or more years of college training. These three items he combined with the Ayres Index by adding the percentage of each item for each county and multiplying by five-thirds times one-tenth to make the three factors count for the same as the five educational or the five fi- nancial factors in the Ayres Index. The ten indexes which have thus fa; mentioned, namely, those by Ayres, P Schrammel, Frasier, Harrell, Th. Grimm, Combs, Wiley, and Brown, p| other indexes to be mentioned below (S; Witham’s), use, all told, 61 different st items. Of*these 61 factors, only 21 we: in more than one index, and only 9 we: more than twice. These nine factors, tovethe with the number of indexes using the: 1. Average number of days schools were kept open Percent of total enrolment found in high school Percent of school population attending schools daily Average expenditure per child in average daily at- tendance Expenditure for salaries per teacher employed Percent of enrolment in aver- age daily attendance Expenditure per pupil purposes other than salaries. Average expenditure per child of school age Average number of days at- tended by each child of school Out of the total 61 items, 18 are fir 15 deal with enrolment and attendance; with the school plant; 9, with teacher prepara tion; 5, with pupil achievement ; 4, with teach ers’ salaries; and 2, with literacy. Table 5 sun marizes the statistical factors suggested fo: inclusion in indexes of school efficiency state, county, and city school systems.” 1 The 10 factors used in the Ayres Index of 1912 are not included, since the ones used by Ayres in 1920 are assumed ¢ the items used in his earlier study. The 1912 index was based on these ten items: percent of children 5-17 enrolled in pu! private schools; total school revenue; average value of public school property per child of school age; current expend public schools per child of school age, minus private school enrolment; average days attended in public schools per child age, minus private school enrolment; average number days schools were open; average number days attendance for ea: enrolled; cost per child per day in.public schools for current expense; proportion high school enrelment is of elementary » enrolment; average annual salary, teachers, principals, supervisors. * Other projected, but as yet tentative, studies in this field which have come to the attention of the Research Divis An index of efficiency for Ohio school districts, the factors used being based in part on questionnaire returns, by J. J. Lowd State University; an index for state school systems based on six items which is being developed by M. M. Daugherty Delaware School Foundation; and a study planned by the National School Finance Survey. Estimates Based on a Single Factor In contrast to these elaborate methods of ‘ndexes and ranks, brief mention should be made of two attempts to estimate the efficiency of a state school system statistically in terms of , single factor. Witham, asserting that “the eficiency of school systems varies directly as their holding power,” measure of school efficiency based on the percent of pupils found in each grade. He first fixes certain standards for the distribution of pupils by grades. The index of efficiency is then found by comparing the actual grade-distribution of pupils in a given state with these standards. This “index of holding power” has been cal- culated for each state for 1923-1924. Another item which has been suggested as a numerical index of state school efficiency was used by Sias in 1926. In attempting to evaluate different methods of apportioning state school proposes a funds, a need arose for a measure of state school The measures then available were satisfactory efficiency. tested and rejected because no method of weighting the various factors could be discovered. A single item was therefore sought which “‘can be obtained with some de gree of exactness and which will be, without question, a measure of school efficiency.”? This single item, according to Sias, is the average number of days attendance for each child of school age. Difficulties Involved in Statistical Analyses On the whole, none of these attempts to de- termine relative school efficiency can be said to have failed in its purpose. For its own special purposes each study has made an important, sometimes an exceedingly important, contribu- tion. But as purely objective measures of school eficiency which can command universal ac- quiescence, none of the studies can be said to have succeeded. Statistical criteria for the measurement of state school efficiency possess the great advan- tages of definiteness, appeal to the public, and ease of recurrent application. But precisely be- cause of these alluring advantages certain dan- gers lurk in placing exclusive reliance on them 1 Witham, Ernest C. ‘Index of Holding Power.” American Educational Digest 46 and in hasty or uncritical interpretation of the comparative statistics which quantitative cri teria develop. Before it is possible to derive and to make proper use of quantitative criteria the following difficulties must be faced and } overcome: 1. The data from which the criteria are com puted must be are to be ranked with respect to the regularity with which children attend their schools, the validity of such ranking will depend on the fact that “a day's means the same thing in each The degree to which the states comparable. If, for instance, states attendance” state under consideration. do not keep their basic statistical records with rea sonable degree of uniformity * constitutes a first pos sible source of error in applying quantitative criteria to state school systems. must 2 used 2. Every possess a demonstrable relationship to the efficiency of the schools. For example, if state school systems are to be reliably rated according to the percent of according to the percent quantitative criterion to be illiterates in the state or of boys enrolled in high schools, or according to the number of volumes in school libraries, it must be possible to show (either logically or statistically, that these factors are directly and preferably both etliciency and intimately Therefore, the selection of a given criterion at ran dom, or merely because the data upon it are easily chance for error. different associated with school available, creates a second 3. The relative affecting school efhciency known. If, for instance, the expenditure for teachers’ salaries is three or twenty or a hundred times more important in determining the efhciency of a school system than, say, the percent of high school graduates entering weight of factors in must be college, it is obvious that a serious error would be ethciency the Che of averaging a number of different factors to secure involved by taking as a measure of simple average of these two factors. practice a single measure of school efficiency is based on the doubtful assumption that all factors considered are of equal importance. Unless, therefore, the factors con- sidered are weighted according to their importance, a third serious error is likely to occur. Although it is impossible completely to avoid all of the difficulties just mentioned, it does not follow that the ranking of states on quantita tive criteria is an enterprise of no value or that the attempts to rate the states on such factors should be abandoned. It does mean, however, that results of such ratings should be cautiously interpreted, that the possibilities of error should be recognized, and that such ratings should be supplemented by such other estimates of school efficiency as are available. “Public School 548-51; August, 1927 Progress of the States.’’ American School Board Journal 75: 37-39; October, 1927 *Sias, A. B. The Financing of a State School System. Unpublished Ph. D. thesis. Stanford University, Calif., * Reavis, Wiiliam C. ‘‘ Items of Information Collected by Departments of Public Instruction of Ten Representa Elementary School Journal 29: 666-73; May, 1929. [ 109 } 1926 tive States.”’ 1. ALABAMA, Bibliography on Statistical Measures of School Efficiency Annual Report for the Scholastic Year Ending September 3, 1920. Part I. Mont- gomery, Alabama: State Superintendent of Edu- cation, 1920. p. 32-43. This study of the rural elementary schools of the 67 counties of Alabama is based on the Ayres Index. . ALEXANDER, CarTER. “Presenting Educational Measurements So As to Influence the Public Favorably.” J-urnal of Educational Research 3: 345-58; May, 1921. A criticism of the use of educational measure- ments. Emphasizes the need for a style of pre- sentation adapted to the public. . ALMACK, JoHN C. “Class Size and Efficiency.” Journal of the National Education Association 12: 107-09; March, 1923. Formulates size of class and efficiency in- dexes for ten cities based on wealth per pupil, cost per pupil, cost per class, and pupils per class in the elementary schools of 196 cities. . ANGOFF, CHARLES, and MENCKEN, H. L. “The Worst American State.” American Mercury 24: 1-16, September; 175-88, October; 355-71, November, 1931. Ranks states on wealth, education, health, public order, and other factors. . Ayres, Leonarp P. A Comparative Study of the Public School Systems in the Forty-eight States. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1912. 33 p. A pioneer investigation of the relative effi- ciency of the school systems of the 48 states. . Ayres, Leonarp P. An Index Number for State School Systems. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1920. 70 p. A statistical measure devised to make possible a numerical comparison of one state school sys- tem with another, and with that of the United States as a whole; also can be used as a meas- ure of progress of a school system from year to year. . Bactey, WittiaM C. “Do Good Schools Pay?” Journal of the National Education Association 12: 211-16; June, 1923. Contains a comparison of forty-one states as to median scores in “army alpha” with the ranks of the same states in school efficiency in 1900. (Ayres’ Rating). . BacLey, Wittiam C, Securing ‘Moral Ratings’ for the Several States.” Educational Administration and Super- vision 11: 289-306; May, 1925. An attempt to find a causal relationship be- tween public education and the morals of the general population of each state as indicated by three criteria. . BaGLey, Wittiam C. “Why Some States Read More.” School and Society 18: 531-32; Novem- ber 3, 1923. A discussion of Reeder’s statistics of maga- zine circulation distributed by states. (See refer- “On the Possibility of 18. { 110] . “Can We Lift Ohio 22 ence 36, below.) Obtains a correlati cient of .91 between the data of maga culation and school rating of twenty-six . Brooks, E. C. “The Taxpayer’s Idea | Business Administration.” School EF Magazine 49: 553-55; August, 1930. A criticism of the Ayres scale for m the efficiency of state school systems. . Brown, E. E. A Statistical Survey by ( of Education in Oklahoma. Bulletin Oklahoma City, Okla.: State Depar: Education, 1925. 62 p. Employs a modified form of the Ayr. together with three other factors in m the efficiency of the county school sys: Oklahoma. Notches?” Jou Educational Research 3: 71-73; January Gives an account of an attempt to | 48 states on (1) the percent of cities ji state making systematic use of tests, and a (2) the percent making any use of test tematic or irregular. . Comps, M. L. Efficiency in Relation to § High Schools, Vol. 10, No. 3. Richmond, \ Bulletin State Board of Education, Marc! 124 p. A study made to determine what size o! school is most desirable from the standp both cost and efficiency. The schools wer on teaching staff, salaries, per capita cost struction, program of studies, material eq ment, holding power, results of tests, record graduates in freshman year at college and | centage of high schools meeting accredit quirements. . ConneEcTicuT STATE Boarp oF Epucation, D! VISION OF RESEARCH AND SuRVEYS. Tentative In dex Number for the Schools of Conn Cities and Towns. Hartford, Conn.: Sta Board of Education. Mimeographed, 12 | Eight factors used as criteria in formu an index number. . Coox, ALBERT S. “What Should the Peop! State Be Told About Their Schools?” /.: tional Administration and Supervision 9: ( February, 1923. Gives an account of Maryland’s pu! campaign for better schools inspired by publication of Ayres Index of efficiency of stat school systems. . “Counties Ranked on School Factors.” / Teacher 18: 38-39; October, 1929. One hundred two Illinois counties were ranked on six factors related to school efficiency. | h« counties were also ranked on ability to su education. . Decaware. Annual Report of the Department of Public Instruction for the Year Ending 30, 1929. Dover, Del.: State Board of E tion, 1929. p. 219. Ranks Delaware on the ten factors inc! in the Ayres Index, from 1890 to 1929. Esaucu, Mary O. Index Number for the Puli: High Schools in the Counties of Marylund, 17-18, 1918-19, and 1919-20. Unpublished \faster’s thesis. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hop- ns University, 1920. Applies the Ayres Index to Maryland coun s, adapting it to the high school situation ENGELHARDT, N. L., and ALEXANDER, CARTER. hool Finance and Business Management Prob- ms. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928. p. 7-9. An exercise to determine whether or not inv relation exists among the various types of administrative control of schools in the state ind the result, other than fiscal, of the influence f the type of control. Each city was to be anked on eleven items. FRASIER, GEO. W. The Control of City School Finances. Milwaukee, Wis.: Bruce Publishing Co., 1922. Chapters 7 and 8, p. 65-82. An attempt to discover what method or de- gree of fiscal control is best for city school sys- tems. In working out this problem the investi- gator devised a statistical measure of the rela- tive achievement of city school systems. One hundred sixty-nine cities were rated on six items. GuLick, LUTHER. “Wanted: A Measuring Stick for School Systems.” National Municipal Re- view 18: 3-5; January, 1929. Defends the proposition that ods of measuring school performance do not really measure,’ but regards the efforts put forth as a manifestation of the “research temper” of our times and a hopeful sign. ILLINOIS STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PuBLic IN- sTRUCTION. Educational Press Bulletin, Nos. 252, 253; February, March, 1930. A criticism of the Ayres Index as a measure of school efficiency with special reference to the effect of private schools on rank and errors liable to be present because of diverse methods of reporting data employed by individual states. Ranks states with certain of the Ayres items modified. ILLINOIS STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PuBLic IN- STRUCTION. Educational Press Bulletin, No. 273, March, 1932. Refers to the Phillips ranking of the states in 1932 by the Ayres scale. Finds evidence in Illinois high rank which tend to support the writer’s criticisms of Illinois’ former rating on this same scale. MAINE. Report of the State Commissioner of Education. Augusta, Maine: State Department of Education, 1926. p. 45-46. Gives Maine’s rating on the various factors included in the Phillips’ ranking of the states in 1924. MaryLand. A Graphic Picture of Maryland Schools, 1920-21. Bulletin, 1921. Baltimore Md.: State Department of Education, 1921. 63 p. Applies the Ayres Index to Maryland counties. MaryLanp. Fifty-fifth Annual Report of the State Board of Education for the Year Ending July 31, 1921. Baltimore, Md.: State Department of Education, 1921. 205 p. Compares ratings of Maryland schools from 1918-1921 in accordance with the Ayres Index. ‘current meth- [111] Computes indexes for the counties s p. 7-47 MARYLAND. Measurable Evidence of P1 in Maryland Public Schools, 1926. Baltimore Md.: State Department of Education, 192 213 p A general review of progress in the schools of Maryland. Contains data on Maryland's index numbers in the various educational ratings which have been made since 1918. Table 121 ranks the counties of Maryland according to the Ayres’ Index of educational efficiency. McGaucny, J. R. The Fiscal Administration of City School Systems. Educational Finance In- quiry Commission. New York: Macmillan Co 1924. 95 p. In studying the relationship between fiscal in dependence and school efficiency the writer used the criteria set forth by Frasier as measures of the efficiency of a city school system Mort, PAut R., and HiILLesor, Guy L. 4 Rating Scale for Elementary School Organization. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1930. 47 p. A plan for rating the elementary school on the progress and adjustment of pupils, educa tional activities, school environment, and morak and services. Myers, C. E. “Educational Ranking of the States.” Pennsylvania School Journal 75: 237-40; December, 1926. Discusses the Ayres’ system of measuring school efhciency and suggests that two scales are needed; one which measures instructional eficiency, and one which measures financial efficiency. Presents formulae designed to meas- ure school systems according to these two scales New York. Fiscal Problems of City School Ad ministration. Report by the Special Joint Com mittee on Taxation and Retrenchment. Legisla tive Document, 1928, No. 66. Albany, New York: State of New York, 1928. 130 p. Chapter four reviews various attempts to measure school efficiency, presents general con clusions concerning the use of such measures and suggests further study of the problem OpeLL, CHARLES W. The Progress and Elimina tion of School Children in Illinois. Urbana, Ill University of Illinois, 1924. 75 p Includes a chapter on holding power as an index of school efficiency. PHILLIps, FRANK M. “Educational Ranking of States by Two Methods.” American School Board Journal 69: 47-49; December, 1924 Brings the Ayres’ index for state school systems up to date with two important adapta tions: (1) the purchasing power of the dollar was taken into account, and (2) the states were grouped into urban, mixed, and rural types to make comparison possible; also formulates a method of ranks based on different statistical factors on which to rate state school systems. PuHittips, FRANK M. “Educational Rank of States, 1930.” American School Board Journal $4: 25-29; 37-39; 29-30; February, March April, 1932. A revision and extension of ref- ference 33. 35. 36. 38. 39. 40. 41. Neeper, Warp G. “Amount and Kind of Read- ing in the Various States.” Educational Research Bulletin 3: 179-82; April 30, 1924. The writer considers the amount and kind of reading in the various states as indicative of the amount of education in a state. The rank of each state was computed by finding the per- cent which the total circulation of twenty-three magazines in the state was of its population. Reeper, Warp G. “Which States Read Most?” School and Society 18: 235-40; August 25, 1923. Ranks states according to the percent of population reading ten magazines, a_ study which preceded that cited above. . SCHRAMMEL, Henry E. The Organization of State Departments of Education. Ohio State University Studies, Bureau of Educational Re- search Monographs, No. 6. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1926. Chapter 9. An investigation to determine the relation- ship which exists between types of organization and degree of efficiency. In order to obtain the statistical measure of efficiency necessary to complete this study, the author ranked the forty-eight states on eleven items. ScHrope, J. M. An Index Number for District School Systems of Schuylkill County. Harris- burg, Pa.: State Department of Public Instruc- tion, 1921. Survey of School systems of 68 districts in the county, using the Ayres Index. Sias, A. B. The Financing of a State School System. Unpublished Ph. D. thesis. California: Stanford University, 1926. Uses the average number of days attendance for each child of school age as a measure of school efficiency. STETSON, Frep L., and ALMACK, JoHN C. County School Systems of Oregon. Salem, Oregon: State Department of Education, 1921. 26 p. Compares counties of Oregon on ten points of efficiency over a period of six years. Van Sickie, JAMes H.; Ayres, LEONARD P.; KENDALL, CALVIN N.; MAXWELL, WILLIAM H. 43. +4. 45. 46. 47. [ 112] ‘ “The Investigation of the Efficiency of § and School Systems.” Proceedings, 1915. \ ington, D. C.: National Education Associ 1915. p. 379-402. A review of early attempts to measure < efficiency objectively. Deals chiefly wit school survey. . VirciniA, Superintendent of Public Inst: n Annual Reports, 1923-24, 1924-25, p. 22-23, and 1925-26, p. 27-30. Richmond, Va.: Superin ent of Printing, 1924, 1925, 1926. Rates counties of Virginia on twelve points West VIRGINIA. Report of State Superintendent of Free Schools, 1927-28. Charleston, W. Va Department of Free Schools, 1928. p. 259-61 Applies the Ayres scale to the counties of West Virginia. Wiey, Ross B. An Educational Index Numbe; for California Counties. Unpublished Master's thesis. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California 1925. Rates county school systems on twelve i WituiaMs, AusBrey W., editor. How Good | Your Town? Madison Wisconsin: Wisconsi: Conference of Social Work, 1931. 124 p Contains forms for making surveys of the various institutions and conditions in a con munity. These forms may be used for organ zing information concerning the __historica background, city planning system, municipa government, industry, health, education, lib social work, recreation, town and country r¢ tions and religion. WitHaM, Ernest C. “Public-School Progress the States.” American School Board Journal ° 37-39; October, 1927. Calculates “index of holding power” of the school systems of the forty-eight states. WirnHas, Ernest C. “Index of Holding Pow: American Educational Digest 46: 548-5! August, 1927. Offers the holding power of a school system as an index of its efficiency. Th re | nits intendent uNties of Numbey Master § alifo nia listorica lunICcIpa library try rela gre ss rnal 7 Powe 548-51 | system The Present Standing of State School Systems on Five Factors Related to Efficiency’ Problem and Purpose of the Section No formula for measuring state school eff- ciency by means of a single mathematical quan- tits has yet been discovered. In the light of present knowledge it is impossible to combine a series of factors related to school efficiency and +) draw from this combination an acceptable single index. The interplay of forces is so com- plex and differs so greatly from state to state that the discovery of such a formula must await the results of long and patient research ind the development of new technics and meas- uring devices. It is a problem for the future. Fortunately, however, a formula is not neces- sary in order to present significant data relative to the present educational status of the forty eight states. It is entirely possible to name a number of factors which are generally conceded to be closely related to the efficient functioning of a school system. Practical experience and educational research combine to demonstrate that certain of these factors are essential, not only to the progress, but to the very operation of an effective school organization, and that progress in any of these results in the advance- ment of the whole school system. To show the standing of the states on such factors is the pur- pose of this section of the Bulletin. Factors selected—From among these basic factors, five have been selected to indicate the present educational situation in the forty-eight states. These five factors have been chosen be- cause they are widely accepted as valid, because their validity is supported by the data avail- able, and because reasonably reliable, nation- wide figures are available on each one. Among the crucial questions which might be raised concerning the quality of a state school system, the following would surely oc cur: How many children does the school system reach? For how long does the school system maintain contact with these children? What quality of teaching service has been purchased for them? Under what favorable or unfavor- able environmental conditions is the education conducted? What general education advance Lhese questions are covered in the items listed below : ment of the state has been attained ? 1. The proportion of children reached by the services of the schools. 2. The holding power of the schools 3. The quality of teaching provided. 4. The school environment. 5. The percent of literacy. -While it would be highly desirable to know the exact weight that each of these five factors should have in a single measure of the efficient functioning of a school system, such knowledge is not essential Limitations of the study to this study since no attempt is made to com bine the data into a single index number o: rank for each state. With our present lack of knowledge of the proper weighting no attempt should be made to combine these factors into a single quantity. The validity of these factors rests chiefly on logical reasoning with a certain limited amount of statistical evidence. The choice of these par ticular criteria depends on certain very prac tical considerations. Obviously, a nearer ap proach to an exact measure of state school eff ciency would be to obtain direct measures by means of tests of the growth in interests, de sirable social habits and attitudes, and academic achievement of every child within each state, and to compare the data thus secured with the effort (as measured, for example, by school costs, corrected for sparsity of population) which was required to produce the results ob tained. It is equally obvious that the present limits in financial and technical resources pre clude the use of such a plan. The selection of quantitative criteria is limited not only by the requirements that the data used shall be com parable and shall possess a demonstrable rela tionship to school efficiency, but also by the availability of reasonably accurate statistics.’ The essential difference between the figures to be reported here and those presented in the pre- vious investigations summarized above is that in this bulletin no attempt is made to set up a single general measure of school efficiency. 1 Acknowledgments are due the following for advice in connection with this section: John K. Norton and Paul R. Mort, Teachers College, Columbia University; E. M. Foster, U. S. Office of Education; A. B. Sias, Ohio University. These specialists however, are not responsible for the methods used or conclusions reached. * For the concept of efficiency used in the Bulletin, see page 79. { 113 ] Sources of Data—The figures presented in this “section are as accurate and comparable as possible when comparisons among states are attempted. The reports of two United States official agencies, the Census Bureau and the Office of Education are the only sources used. The Census Bureau figures are those of the Fifteenth Decennial (1930) Census. These figures are secured by enumerators employed by the Federal Government. The Census Bureau attempts to cover every person living in the United States at the time of the enumeration by a dwelling- to-dwelling canvass. The Census figures are usually regarded as highly reliable for data of this sort. The figures published by the Office of Education are not collected originally by Federal officials but are reported by a responsible member of the State Department of Education in each state. Although the Office of Education sends field workers at inter- vals to assist in preparing these reports, final re- sponsibility for the figures submitted rests with the several State Departments of Education.’ Statistics from the Office of Education used in this Bulletin are for the school year 1929-30. Presentation of data—The figures for the five factors listed above are presented state by state in Tables 6, 7, 9, 10 and 11, respectively, and are brought together in summary form in Table 12. The states are not arranged alphabetically in these tables, since that order contributes little or nothing to the comparison and interpretation of the figures. The arrangement of the states is in order of the percent of their population which is urban. This fact is probably the most significant single social fact on which reliable data exist. As the subsequent discus- sion will show, it has a close connection with many of the factors related to school efficiency. Discussion of Factors The five factors used in this part of the bul- letin have been merely listed above. A more complete discussion follows: 1. The proportion of children reached.— However excellent the educational facilities provided by a state, they are effective only to the extent that they reach those for whom schools are primarily provided. Hence, the amount of school attendance is a basic prelimi- nary measure of the effectiveness of a school system. Such a measure should include both public and non-public schools. The relative amount of school attendance in any state depends on (1) the proportic; children who are enroled in school, proportion of those enroled who actua tend, and (3) the number of days scho in session. In this study these three ite: included in a single figure called the ‘ of school attendance.” An attempt is n take account of all children 5 to 17 age attending schools of any type o1 public, private, or parochial ; kindergarte: mentary, secondary, special, or collegiat No data can be obtained at present which to base an exact calculation of t! tive amount of attendance in both pul non-public schools. ‘The United States [Dece: nial Census reports for 1930? and the Bienn Survey of Education for 1929-30,° how supply data upon which a rather accurate | mate can be based. The detailed procedure {, making these estimates is described in the { lowing paragraphs. A reader who does not to go into this detail may readily omit the pa: graphs which follow, beginning again on | 116. pertinent facts may be (1) the number of childre: 17 years of age, inclusive, in the general tion of the state, and (2) the number of childre: 5 to 17 years of age, inclusive, who attended s any time between September 1, 1929 and \, 1930. This number includes children attendin type of school. Since the length of time sch attended is not specified, the “attendance” 1 by the census is roughly equivalent to enroln school as usually understood.‘ The Biennial Survey of Education supplies additional pertinent data: (1) The number of dren attending public schools daily for ea enrolled in school; or in other words, the | which the daily attendance is of the total ment. This includes all children attending school without regard to ages. (2) The ay number of days public schools are in session Usable figures on attendance and term for private schools and colleges are not avail However, with the above Census and Of! Edvecation data at hand, the calculations sug by Table 6 were carried out. First, th The following from the Census: _ | Some question has arisen concerning the accuracy of the report from Rhode Island for the year 1929-30. The figur: this Bulletin are those used by the U. S. Office of Education, which in turn relied upon data from the Rhode Island State |! ment of Education. However, since submittin tion has submitted new data to the Research these figures to the Office of Education, the Rhode Island Department « ivision as follows: Number of children 5-17, 166,291; number of children : as attending school, 148,097; average number of days attended by each child enrolled in public schools, 174; number o! « aged 14, 15, 16, 17 years, 46,904; number of children reported as attending, aged 14, 15, 16, 17 years, 32,414; averax: paid teachers, princi Office of Education 8, supervisors, $1,687. This second set of figures differs markedly both from the Census figures gures used in this Research Bulletin. If the figures cited in this footnote were used for the state o! Island the state would rank first with respect to amount of attendance, thirty-sixth with respect to holding power and six respect to average salary paid teachers. These ranks are all higher than those assigned to the state by the figures used Office of Education and reproduced in Tables 6 to 12. 2 Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930. Population Bulletins. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Biennial Survey of Education 1929-1930. Bulletin, 1931, \ 4 The question asked by the enumerator was: Has the person attended school any time since September 1, 1929? [ 114 ] TABLE 6—AMOUNT OF SCHOOL ATTENDANCE, BY STATES, 1930 | A Number of Average Relative |Aggregate days |}; ty Percent | Number of | attendance if presen po = Estimated et States and of popu- | children 5-17 every child “attending” | me a ened number of days neat Rank territories lation | years of age 5-17 years of | po ct & child , Fine ae aggregate which col. | 2 urban (in population age attended (according Gia cubic attendance pe beet & 200 days to Census) | schools col. 4) l : : : yntinental United States | 322 |6, , 264,400 ,392, | 143.0 3,679, of Colum- 104 620,800 | . 146 11, ie Island. 2 889 33,977,800 7 151.5 20 esachusetts 2 696 ,939, 200 F | 163 139, } 806 | 558,561,200 bas 163 388, 274 054, 800 | 157 131, 315 354,063 ,000 , : 162 238,! 224 27 , 844, 800 151 154, ,773 ,554,600 : 157 53 057 239,011, 400 , ' 161 168, 554 | 319,910,800 ; ; 160 217, Aan chigan a 904 § , 980, 800 , ee 155 | Sa, land... , 562 ,512,400 158 48, New Hampshire | , 241 , 848 , 200 k 159 | 14.: Washington... 357,028 | , 405 ,600 | 145 | 44, 553 56,710,600 : | 155 ann om Pennsylvania n ~ Indiana Wisconsin. .. . 4 844 | . 768 , 800 ; 150 tah ; ‘ 53,686 30,737,200 i 150.7 Delaware. . | Se. 57,610 | _ 522,000 | 156 Florida. . Da. 378,446 75,689, 200 Rs 119 Oregon 179 835, 800 5 } 140 Missouri a § 094 ,018, 800 158 Colorado. . ‘ 748 | 52,149,600 -¥ } 142 Minnesota 57,099 31,418,000 ‘ 149 Texas..... 7, 836 325 , 567, 200 ; 126. 4 Maine.. ‘ .< 796 | 39,159, 200 ; 160 Louisiana... 39. ,318 | , 263 ,600 > 121 lowa | < 740 , 948 ,000 ,675 | 147. ¢ Kansas. . ol . , 464 5,292,800 33. 143.7 Nevada ? 007 3,801,400 o. 148 Nebraska : aa.3 648 , 529,600 ; 139 Arizona... ’ ,218 | 3,443,600 8, 12! Tennessee.......| 34.:; : 173 | 50, 434,600 557, 125 Oklahoma... 34.3 | 334 39,056, 800 11° Montana........ 3: ,349 | 28,269,800 8,2! 151 Vermont : 33.0 | 563 | , 512,600 a 151 Virginia 32.4 | 445 289,000 : 131 Wyoming. .. 31.1 | 795 559,000 8, 141 Georgia... 30. 723 944,600 Kentucky....... 30. 53,063 50,612,600 WANG. 5550050503) 201 25,440, 200 Alabama........| , 365 473,000 West Virginia . 4) , 236 | ,047, 200 North Carolina. . s | 30,317 063, 400 New Mexico..... ,324 464,800 South Carolina.. . 3 | 592,047 | 409, 400 Arkansas...... | 560,048 | 007, 600 South Dakota... 195,477 025,400 Mississippi. ..... ; 613.148 629,600 North Dakota. .. 204,010 | 802,000 J ES See Sener ee ee : American Samoa.|...... 3,306 661, 200 Canal Zone.... Reg te ans Guam : . ,744 , 148, 800 Hawaii | ; Philippine Islands} Porto Rico Virgin Islands 1 Statistics for 1927-28. population 5 to 17 years of age (Column 3, Table 6) was multiplied by 200. The product (Column 4, Table 6) is the aggregate number of days attend- ance resulting if every child of this age range had attended school every day of a 200-day term. This figure may be arbitrarily taken as the desirable amount of attendance.’ It is to be divided into the total amount of attendance actually secured in order to form a basis for ranking of states on this point. The actual number of children enrolled (‘“attend- ing’ according to Census terminology) in schools of all types between 5 and 17 is taken from Census data (Column 5, Table 6). This number is multi- plied by the average number of days attended by each pupil enrolled in public elementary and sec- ondary schools (Column 6, Table 6).? The only necessary assumption involved here is that the rela- tively small proportion of school children below 5 and over 17, and children enroled in private schools attend school with approximately the same regularity and during approximately the same ses- sions as children between 5 and 17 in public schools. The product (Column 7, Table 6) represents the amount of school attendance achieved by the chil- dren 5 to 17 in each state. If this product be di- vided by the desirable amount of such attendance, the resulting ratio (Column &, Table 6) represents the relative amount of attendance and the state is ranked on this basis (Column 9, Table 6). The above calculations, reduced to a formula, may be represented as follows: Relative amount of attendance Actual amount of attendance Desirable and possible amount of attendance Actual: (Enrolment x regularity x term) Desirable: (Enrolment x regularity x term) (Children 5-17 enrolled x (Percent of attend- ance )* x (Length of term)? (All children 5 to 17) x (100%) x 200 days (Total enrolment for all schools, ages 5-17) x (Ave. number days attended by each child enrolled )* (Total number in population, ages 5-17) x 200 days An example will illustrate the application of this method. According to the United States Census for 1930, 756,763 children between 5 and 17 were “attending” (enroled in) the schools of North Carolina between September 1, 1929 and April 1, 1930. The Biennial Survey of Education reports that each child enroled in public schools of that state attended, on the average, 119.7 days. The ag- gregate daily attendance for the year is computed by multiplying 756,763 by 119.7, or 90,584 total population 5 to 17 years of age in N lina numbers 1,030,317. If each one of thes: had attended school every day for a 200-d the aggregate attendance would have }, 063,400 days. This figure divided into 9 days, the actual aggregate attendance, giy, which indicates the relative amount of tendance in North Carolina and places th: 43rd position in this respect. The minimum and maximum ages sele: basis for calculating the percent of childr: ing school daily require some discussion. limit, 5 years, includes only children wh, tained their fifth birthday by April 1, 1939 year level is chosen in order to include ch kindergarten age. While national statistics n available on the average age of entrance to kinds; garten, recent studies show the average age o{ mission to be approximately 5 years.‘ The kind garten is now almost universally recognized integral part of a complete school system, and all states now have laws or provisions of some ki by which kindergartens may be established. age of 17 is selected as the upper limit becaus: approximately normal progress through schoo! pupil entering Grade I between his fifth and sj birthdays has had sufficient time to complete the re; lar elementary and secondary course of study his eighteenth birthday. Table 6 gives the relative amount of attend ance for each state and the rank of each with respect to this factor. 2. The holding power of the schools power of a school system to hold its pupil school during the period of their school ca: when this task becomes especially difficult | strong indication of its efficiency.® Statistic elimination show that this period occurs pre dominantly from grades 7 and 10, inclu sive. Koos, in his study of American secondary education, concludes that : “Elimination runs through many schoo! but it is, after all, chiefly a problem of the second ary school if this school is conceived of as extend ing from the seventh grade into the freshman and sophomore years of college. . . . The proportionate elimination takes place between the eight grades and the first year of the conventional high school. It is still large between the first and second high school years, but tapers off rapidly from this point upward, since the great bulk of all pupils have by this time been eliminated.” ! The choice of 200 days is purely arbitrary in order to give a working basis for the calculations. The rank of the sta be identical if any other figure had been used. ? The average number of days attended by each pupil enrolled is, in turn, the product of the regularity of attendan: length of the term. In public schools. ‘ Davis, Mary Dabney. SQ ory Se ieey Education. U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education 27 1930, No. 30. Washington, D. C.: vernment Printing Office, 1930. p. * Van de Walker, Nina C. Kindergarten Legislation. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Bullet No. 7. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1925. * Holding power has important implications for general social efficiency as well as for educational efficiency in pa: The present unemployment situation emphasizes the need for removing the competition of children in the labor market Morrison, Henry Unemployment." School Life 17: 41-42; . School Revenue. yy University of Chicago Press, 1930. p. 34-42. Proffitt, Maris M. ‘‘ The Sch ovember, 1931. National Education Association. Childhood and the Depre Look Ahead. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1931. p. 22-33, 41-42. *Koos, Leonard V. The American Secondary School. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1927. p. 114-15. [ 116] pow lhe tend strol hist plet tain yeal soul pare the tion the abil hea arr: teri eral gall ot t por the id near yme kind ed." The Ise, with chool a nd sixth he regu Vv betore attend *h state s. The ipils in Careers . ult is a stics on inclu ondary years: second- extend- an and largest een the ntional rst and rapidly : of all rate and local courses of study are generally Janned so as to make it possible for a pupil, completing a grade each year, to complete . first eight grades by the age of fourteen o1 Sfteen. Because of the many factors influenc ‘ng individual cases, such as natural ability, health, school opportunity, there is a certain amount interests, economic conditions, and of deviation from the average high school en- trance age. In order to take account of such variation, the years from fourteen to seventeen, ‘nclusive, have been selected as roughly indicat- ing the range of ages within which most pupils enter high school and pursue the first year or two of their high school course. During this transition period the holding power of the school is most severely tested. The combined influence of many forces which tend to eliminate the child from school becomes stronger than at any other time in his school history. Eight grades of school have been com- pleted in the large number of schools still main- taining the traditional organization of eight vears in the grades and four years of high school, and a more or less difficult adjustment to a new school situation must be faced if the child is to continue in school. Forces which tend to eliminate the child from school generally originate in one or all of four sources: (1) the home, (2) the child, (3) the community, and (4) the school. Those arising in the home include the financial re- sources of the family, the nationality of the parents, the amount of schooling received by the parents, the interest of the family in educa- tion, etc. Determining factors dependent upon the nature of the child himself are inherent ability, interests, previous success in school, health, age, sex and all others of the complex array which are included under the general term “personality.”” The community sets gen- eral standards, determines the opportunity for gainful occupation, and influences the attitude of the child toward the school. The school op- portunity provided, the course of study offered, the effort made to adjust the school environ- 1 Holley, Charles E. ‘‘The Relationship between Persistence in School and Home Conditions.” ment to individual differences, the social life of the school, are all factors for which the school system is directly responsible since they arise within the school itself. It is impossible, at the present time, to state definitely just which eliminating forces of those originating within the home, the child, the school, or the community exert a predomi- nating influence in the greatest number of cases. Various studies have been made of the relation ship between many of these factors and amount of elimination from school, but the facts pre sented are subject to different interpretations. While certain of the earlier studies conclude that home conditions, with special reference to financial and social status, are among the chief 1 more recent studies causes of school-leaving, have tended to minimize the effect of poverty on elimination, and to emphasize influences arising from within the child himself; such as, native capacity and success in school. In reporting a recent study of school elimi nation in which a number of investigations were summarized, Reed says: “In the early elimination to period, popular opinion ascribed economic pressure, or poverty, whereas survey findings indicated very clearly that percentage of eliminated a considerable groups came from comfortable homes and could have remained in school had they, and their parents, 92 considered it worth while.’ This investigation also concludes that “in ability to accomplish school tasks is the major cause of school elimination,” and _ further, “economic pressure has continuously accounted for less than one-third of school elimination.”* Feingold also states: “Some drop out for econ omic reasons, others because they are not fond of book-learning, and still others because they are eager to become financially independent of their parents’ purse. But when we come to in vestigate what kind of individuals drop out in the largest proportion, we find that, as revealed by intelligence tests, it is those who lack the sheer mental ability to do regular high school work.” * Van Denburg’s study also seems to support this conclusion. He found that the Fifteenth Yearbook, Part 11 National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, III.: Public School Publishing Co., 1916. 119 p. Counts, George S. The Selective Character of American Education. Supplementary Educational Monograph, No. 19. Chicago, Iil.; University of Chicago, 1922. 162 p. * Reed, Anna Y. Waste in Human Education. New York: Century Co., 1927. p. 20-21. * Op. cit., p. 43 ‘ Feingold, Gustave A. ‘Intelligence and Persistency in High-School Attendance.’ School and Society 18: 443-50; October , 1923. [ 117] pupils receiving high marks remained in school longer than those receiving low marks.’ The fact that many forces which tend to eliminate the child arise outside the school it- self in no way releases that institution from its task of providing a democratic education for “all the children of all the people.” Certain problems of the child and the home are also problems of the school; and those upon whose solution depends the continuance of the child in school must be dealt with by the school sys- tem. The fact is, an efficient school organiza- tion is better adapted and equipped to cope ef- fectively with these problems than is any other existing institution. It can establish part-time or continuation schools for those who must work; it can distribute scholarships to deserv- ing pupils; it can provide curricula which meet the needs of all; it can exert its influence toward the legislative enactment of relief legis- lation which will place the relief of poverty elsewhere than on the shoulders of childhood. Even if it be true, as many studies indicate, that a considerable proportion of children leave school because they have not the ability to do the regular academic work required, then it is the business of the school system to provide those of different abilities with a training which they can acquire and use. Too long have some schools attempted to adjust the child to the school system. The effective school organiza- tion increases its holding power by adapting the school to the needs of the child. Koos comments on this situation: “The educational offering must be adjusted te the needs of those who are now being eliminated. New curricula must be established, new courses introduced and old courses adapted to the abilities and interests of those whom it is desired to re- tain.” * 1Van Denburg, Joseph K. Causes of Elimination of Students in Public Secondary Schools in New York City. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1911. 206 p to Education, No. 47. Palmer also states: “Schools are making their most success{ in solving the problem of adjustment in ¢! grades before the pupil has become cons: he is a misfit. When the work in the upp is especially adapted and pupils are ; classes where they can succeed, much earl, tion will cease.” And Feingold says: “Granted that such individuals have n inclination nor the power to comprehend value, or the meaning, or the use of Lati: gebra, or ancient history, they nevertheless sess special abilities and tastes for things that are just as worthy of being developed Society is just as duty bound to provide th kind of education for its young members of mental ability as for its prospective genii Many similar opinions could be cited urbanization of the population, the gre: proved means of transportation, and the quent increase of school opportunity brought to the secondary schools a het neous group of pupils. ‘The student bod) high school is no longer made up of hig! lected individuals; so that the holding of the school depends in a large measur: its ability to minister to the capacities, int and needs of this widely varying group. of course, recognized that merely kee; child in school may or may not produc: worthwhile educational result. ‘The period of schooling has, as a necessary cor the broadening of the school’s program an recognition of the fact that, properly vised, work itself may be an education perience, provided always that the wel! the child is the prepotent consideration. I+ Con For further references to studies of the various factors responsible see: Book, William F. Intelligence of High School New York: Macmillan Co., _ 1922. 371 p. Feingold, Gustave A. 65-82; February, 1924. ‘Intelligence of the First Generation of Immigrant Groups.” Journal of Educational Psyc! Flint, Elsie M. “Freshman Fatalities." Educational Review 70: 79-82; September, 1925. Hopkins, L. Thomas. The Intelligence of Continuation-School Children in Massachusetts. Harvard Studies in Educati: Cc a Mass.: Harvard College, 1924. 132 D. ndike, Edward L., and Bregman, E. O. ‘‘On the Form of Distribution of Intellect in the Ninth Grade.” cational Research 10: 271-78; November, 1924. Journal Waples, Douglas. “ Indexing the Qualifications of Different Social Groups for an Academic Curriculum."’ School R¢ 537-46; September, 1924. Pal mer, Emily G. Pupils Who Leave School. Part-Time Education Series, No. 17. Berkeley, Calif.: Division of Vo Education of the University of California and of the State Department of Education, 1930. 142 Woolley, Helen T. An Experimental Study of Children. New York: Macmillan Co., 1926. 762 p pen Elizabeth, and Marks, L. A. Fitting the School to the Child. New York: Macmillan Co., Cast, G ? Koos, L. V. Op. cil., p. 144-45. 3 Palmer, Emily G. Op. cit., p. 69. ‘ Feingold, Gustave A. “Intelligence and Persistency in High School Attendance." Op. cit., National Council of Education. Education and Training. Washi! by For a good brief statement on this oe consult: D. : the Council, 1931. p. 8-10, 26-29, 33-34 _C. “Elimination of the Unfit: A Problem of Waste in Public Education.” School and Soclay 18: 84-87; July 2! p. 450. { 118 } \ttracting and holding the chiid in school _ not a simple but a complex criterion of school eficiency. ; . th many distracting forces. of the school, involving as it does a com- \icated array of problems reaching into every e of the school organization from the ad- It necessitates successful competition ee The holding nowel yids ministrative machinery to the personality of hb» teacher, may be regarded as an unusually far-reaching indication of the functioning of the school system as a whole. At least one in- estigator has considered holding power, in ind of itself, to be a reliable index of the effi- -iency of the whole school organization. While no such claim is made for the data relative to the holding power of the forty-eight state school systems presented in Table 7, it is con- dered a highly important and useful criterion. While the school organization cannot be held esponsible for the removal of all the forces which act to eliminate the child from school at too early an age, an effective school system olans with prudent foresight to build up an organization capable of competing with these forces with a fair chance of success. Those who ire responsible for school administration realize that holding a pupil in school after the age of fourteen should depend upon the attraction of the school, the influence of the home and the nature of the child himself quite as much as on the compulsion of the law. By the time the hild is fourteen the hold of the compulsory ittendance laws begins, in most states, to relax. While the average compulsory age limit is six- teen for the United States as a whole, state laws usually include exemption clauses which make it possible for many children to leave school and go to work after the age of fourteen vears. Hence, the selection of the age group trom 14 to 17 years, inclusive, as that which most reliably indicates the holding power of the school. The statistics on holding power given in Table 7 were computed by dividing the total number of pupils in each state, 14, 15, 16, and |7 years of age, who were enrolled in school between September 1, 1929 and April 1, 1930 by the total population of the state at the same age levels. Enrolments in any kind of school— public, private, or parochial; full-time or part- time; day schools, night schools, or continua- tion schools—are included. All data are from the United States Census for 1930. For ex ample, there are 16,216 children 14 to 17 years TABLE 7—HOLDING POWER OF THE SCHOOLS IN THE AGE-RANGE 14 TO 17 YEARS, BY STATES, 1930 Holding Children power of Children attending schools R States and aged school in the ank territories 14, 15, 16, aged age- 17 years | 14, 15, 16, range 17 years 14-17 years on col. 4 1 Continental United States (9,341,221 |5,826,235 District of Columbia 26,099 21,214 Rhode Island 49,974 31,874 Massachusetts 298 , 808 228, 166 New York 841,331 645 373 New Jersey 295 ,470 204, 848 Illinois ‘ 543,701 406 , 293 California 333,367 298 , 867 Connecticut 121,355 81,101 Michigan 341,979 267 , 826 Ohio . 468 838 386, 403 Pennsylvania 754,579 529, 236 Maryland 116, 836 71,558 New Hampshire 32,017 23,931 Washington 110,321 95,105 Indiana 231,148 183,218 Wisconsin 224,248 168,470 Utah 13,528 38 842 Delaware 991 12,154 Florida 830 77,718 Oregon 513 55,582 Missouri 689 ,134 Colorado 7 446 8,664 Minnesota 7,755 039 Texas 955 693 Maine 579 2,982 Louisiana 255 960 lowa 53, 839 575 Kansas 200 709 Nevada 440 4,613 Nebraska 779 295 Arizona 2,040 2,738 Tennessee 221,339 2.389 Oklahoma 2 665 52,985 Montana 991 , 899 Vermont 5,828 957 Virginia 359 914 Wyoming , 216 109 Georgia 270.023 O18 Kentucky 298 800 | Idaho 37,158 31,000 Alabama 2 591 ,814 West Virginia 427 , 281 North Carolina 7,430 ,001 New Mexico 34.874 795 South Carolina , 215 337 Arkansas 599 805 South Dakota , 986 43, 283 Mississippi 81,209 ,050 | North Dakota 2,103 5,620 Alaska American Samo 873 634 Canal Zone Guam 559 711 Hawaii Philippine Islands Porto Rico Virgin Islands ‘ Witham, Ernest C. ‘‘ Public School Progress of the States." American School Board Journal 75: 37-39; October, 1927. [ 119 } of age in Wyoming. Of this number 13,109, or 80.8 percent, are enrolled in school.' 3. The quality of teaching provided. The education provided by a state school system de- pends primarily upon the kind of teachers em- ployed. Obviously, the more capable the teacher the better the quality of education offered. The influence of the teacher on the school has so long been recognized that it has become prover- bial: As is the teacher so is the school. It fol- lows, that if accurate data could be secured which would give a clear representation of the teaching ability of the teachers of each state, we would have an unusually reliable criterion of school efficiency. Unfortunately, such data are not available at the present time. Lacking a direct measure of ability of teachers, most educators turn to a measure of the amount of training. Even this measure is not available for all states. However, data on the percent of elementary and secondary school teachers hav- ing two or more years of training beyond high school have recently been secured from twenty- nine state departments of education by the Re- search Division for the purpose of this study. The fact that this information is not available for each of the forty-eight states precludes its use here as one measure of state school eff- ciency. However, a factor has been selected which bears a close relationship to the amount of training secured by teachers, and for which there is sufficient data from each of the states. This factor is the average annual salary paid teachers, supervisors, and principals. The relationship between the education of teachers and average annual salary paid in 29 states is shown in Table 8. All states which replied to a request for such information are included in the Table. The coefficient of cor- relation is + .749 + .05 by the Spearman Rank-Difference formula. This relationship is sufficiently high to assure, in most cases, closely similar rankings of the states by average an- nual salary paid teachers and by amount of training. Nineteen out of the twenty-nine states have a difference in rank between salary and training of five or less places. Logical considerations support the above statistical evidence to suggest that the amount lina, Texas, Virginia and Maryland, probably lessens slightly the comparability of However, the comparison is not between states with respect to any with the eighteenth birthday. paid in teachers’ salaries strongly influen type of teacher selected, and thru the ¢, the quality of education provided. In ¢! run, communities as well as individy only what they pay for, in education as thing else. In order to compete with oth fessions for the best ability and training j; ; also necessary to compete with them spect to monetary rewards. Most teachers cay, not afford to invest in training which op), brings them inadequate remuneration. The {4¢; that many teaching positions may be secured with only a minimum of training stil] { decreases the incentive to obtain adequate pre; aration, but a school system cannot success{\)|\; demand a high grade of personal ability an) professional training unless it is willing to p: for it. The average annual salary paid to teach ers in each state is therefore proposed as a suit able indirect measure of the quality of th: struction provided. There is a further subtle, but none ¢! vital, consideration connecting salary and ciency which applies with special force to th work of teaching. The teacher is inevita! example as well as a preceptor. His pupils learn from observing him as well as from listen ing to him. The cultural level of the teache: tends to be reflected in the cultural ideals and standards of his pupils. Cultural level can hardly be separated from the standard of |i: ing. A teacher who must wear the cheapest clothing, occupy cramped and unlovely 4 ers, and spend little or nothing for books music, and the other amenities of life, cannot bring to his pupils the dignity, the peace ot mind, the quiet assurance of one who lives somewhat above the level of merest subsistence. This consideration would apply with greatest force to thousands of teachers in rural and vi) lage schools whose salaries are just adequat for the barest necessities of life. It is recognized that increasing the sala: paid by a school system does not automatical!| and immediately increase the efficiency of the teachers employed therein; neither does paying a poor teacher more money suddenly trans- form him into a good teacher. However, it a matter of common observation that, ove: ‘ All of the states received credit for children graduating from school at the midyear promotions in February, eve! such graduates did not return to schools of any type thereafter. d The presence of seven-year elementary schools in some states, particularly Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, Sou! d gures on holding power for those siates rticular form of school or school organization but 1a! t to the success of each state in maintaining some form of educational contact with its children from the fourtee: { 120 } DOOKS innot of time, an attractive salary schedule . selective influence. At the same time, in es in salaries have practically always been npanied by the demand for better quali fed teachers. Increase in salaries and higher randards of training are concomitant. Look t the situation from the viewpoint of the || system, W. H. Gaumnitz of the United States Office of Education says: “It is only rea sonable that the schools paying the best salaries should be able to compete more adv antageously in the teacher market than those paying pooret salaries. A comparison of salaries may there fore be regarded as a significant index of the quality of education provided.” Cavins compared scores made by pupils on series of achievement tests in five districts yaumnitz, W. H. Availability of Public School Educ tion, Bulletin, 1930, No. 34. Washington, D. (¢ Cavins, Lorimer V., director. Survey of Education i» 1928. p. 153. of West Virginia which paid an average yearly salary of $1,335 with those in five districts pay ing an average yearly salary of $617. He found that, in the districts paying the higher salaries, the children made significantly higher test scores. The correlation between the average salary paid and achievement was positive, and high enough to indicate a substantial relation ship between salaries and educational achieve ment. The author regarded his findings as “tangible evidence that the districts paying the better salaries are getting better teachers.”’ That other influences than the selective value of teachers’ salaries may have been at work is admitted. Nevertheless, it is reasonable to sup pose that the better type of teaching service se cured by offering a better salary is responsible t Rural Communilie | S. Department of the Interior ment Printing Office, 1931. p. 33 TABLE 8.—RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATION AND SALARIES OF TEACHERS Ye to which training data apply 2 3 \rizona 1928 \rkansas ‘ 1930 Connecticut 1931 Delaware 1931 District of Columbia 1931 1929 1931 1929 1931 1928 Kentucky ; 1929 Louisiana . 1929 Massachusetts 1930 Michigan ; 1931 Mississippi 1930 Missouri. . 1930 Nebraska 1929 New Mexico 1930 North Carolina 1930 North Dakota 1929 Pennsylvania 1931 South Dakota 1931 Tennessee 1929 Texas 1930 Vermont 1931 Virginia 1929 Washington 1931 West Virginia 1930 Wisconsin 1930 Percent of Average ar teachers having) annual salary 2 or more years of teachers, of training supervisors, beyond principals, high school in 1929-302 Rank Rank on on training salaries 1587 42 673 RS 1812 8&2 1570 2269 684 1200 1630 1466 1094 896 941 1875 1534 620 1235 1077 1113 873 900 1620 956 902 924 963 7 861 32 5 1556 31 1023 31 5 1399 ' Data secured direct from state departments of education, unless otherwise noted ? Data on salaries from the Biennial Survey of Education, 1928-30, Office of Education, unless otherwise indicated *U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Biennial Survey of Education, 1926-28, Bulletin, 1930, N 16. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1930, p. 466 ‘Arizona. Ninth Biennial Report for the Period July 1, 1926 to June 30, 1928. Phoenix, Ariz.: Public Instruction, 1928. p. 22-23. 5 Louisiana. Annual Report for the Session, 1928-29, Bulletin No. 165. December, 1929. Baton Rouge, La.: State Superintendent of Public Instruction. p. 140-43. State Department for a share of the difference found by this and by other studies. Data on the average annual salary paid teachers in each state are from the Biennial Survey of Education for 1928-30.1 This item is obtained by dividing the aggregate sum paid teachers, principals, and supervisors by the number of teachers, principals, and supervisors employed in the state. Table 9 gives the average annual salary of teachers by states and the rank of each state with respect to this factor. This item includes public elementary and secondary schools only ; data for private schools on a comparable basis are not available. Certain facts must be frankly recognized in considering the validity of the comparison of teachers’ salaries between states as one indirect indication of educational efficiency. In the first place, some time must elapse before the effects of differences in salaries will be reflected in differences in the quality of the teaching force. If a state should suddenly raise or lower the level of economic attractiveness in its teach- ing positions, it will be some time before the ef- fects of this policy would become evident. The movement of superior teachers from one part of the country to another is not perfectly free. Superior teachers tend to secure the better paid positions but it takes some time to bring this balance about. On the other hand, the very considerable degree of mobility among the teaching population combined with its high an- nual turnover makes the process of adjustment proceed more rapidly than might at first be expected. A second consideration involves the question of intelligent and capable selection of teachers. If those who are selecting teachers within a state do their work poorly, a considerable por- tion of the value of a higher schedule of sala- ries may be lost. A better salary schedule will not necessarily bring a competent teacher into a school system unless those who are choosing these teachers know how to select the capable from the less capable and consistently do so. A third objection to the use of salary statis- tics, as roughly indicative of the kind of teach- ing service secured, has to do with the varying standards of living and costs of living among the states. That differences exist between rural and urban living costs and between states in different parts of the country is well known. ! Biennial Survey of Education, 1928-30. Op. cit. Ideally, the figures for average salary 0; ers should be corrected to allow for + ference. Practically, such a correctio; TABLE 9—SALARIES PAID TEACH ERs BY PRINCIPALS AND SUPERVISOR STATES, 1930. Average salary | paid teachers, | Ra principals, and supervisors States and territories 2 Continental United States 419 District of Columbia Rhode Island.... ,437 Massachusetts : , 875 | New York ,493 New Jersey Illinois. California Connecticut | Michigan Pennsylvania Maryland. ' New Hampshire Washington | Indiana..... Wisconsin Utah | Delaware Florida. . . Oregon... Missouri. . Colorado Minnesota. . | Texas... Maine. . | Louisiana. | Kansas... Nevada. Nebraska. | Arizona..... Tennessee Oklahoma | Montana. Vermont.... Kentucky.... West Virginia...... North Carolina... . New Mexico.... | South Carolina. . Arkansas....... | South Dakota... North Dakota... . | American Samoa..... | Canal Zone. Philippine Islands... . Porto Ri Virgin Islands 1 Statistics for 1927-28. [122] le since there are available no reliable tes of the comparative costs of living in ‘he several states. The statistics published by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics the National Industrial Conference to the United States ind Dy Board refer as a whole or , a comparatively small group of selected In consulting Table 9 some allowance should he made for variations in the cost of living. [he most reliable comparisons will be among those states where the cost of living is approxi- mately the same. 4. The material school environment. It is cason: ible to conclude that, other things being equal, schools providing comfortable and _ at- tractive buildings and adequate equipment can produce better results than those having the op- posite environmental conditions. Cold, poorly lighted and ill-ventilated rooms are sources of distraction. Absence frequently results from ill health due to unsatisfactory school build- ings. Lack of suitable equipment and textbooks It is proverbial that good Teachers and impedes progress. work depends upon good tools. pupils require optimum working conditions in the school room in order to produce optimum results. Furthermore, the school building itself is an educational agency. In a twelve-year child will spend at least school environment. If that environment be attractive, esthetic, and worthy of admiration, it can make a definite addition to that child’s education. The reverse is also true. After analyzing the school buildings of the the Texas Educational Survey Commis- sion asserts: schooling the average 12,000 hours in the State, “Parents, trustees and teachers do not realize the effect of the school building and environ- ment upon the physical, mental, and moral develop- ment of the child. This effect may be beneficial or injurious depending upon the standards which ob- tain. Sanitary and hygienic conditions either favor or oppose good health or physical well-being. The arrangement and plan of the building, the kind and quality of furnishings and equipment, and the at- tractiveness or unattractiveness of the classrooms, corridors, and grounds react upon the mind and attitude of the pupil and either help or hinder him in his efforts to learn. The school and its surround- always ‘Works, George A. Texas Educational Survey Report, Vol. Organization and Administration.” p. 407. 1. Austin, Texas: ings are active forces, always recognized in determining and fixing The kind of building determines in not moral and measure ideals and stand equipment pro the essential ards. vided quality of the school buildings meeting modern standards be some teacher’s work. Therefore, it is that pro- so that both teacher and vided in every community pupil may work to advantage.” kind of school environment on the The skill with which school buildings are planned, con- the provided depends to a large Obviously extent money invested in school property. structed, and equipped also contributes to a degree which cannot be exactly determined. While no definite causal relationship can be statistically proved between the value of school property and the educational results achieved, there is some evidence? which suggests that pupils schools having better buildings and equipment obtain higher scores on standard tests than those attending schools where a minimum amount is expended on the school plant. In the last kind of provisions for education found in a analysis, it is possible that the school are primarily dependent upon the type of community which supports the school, the more intelligent community providing the bet- then ter school environment. If this is true, perhaps the greater achievement shown by pupils in the better school plants is accounted for chiefly by the operation of a selective factor the more intelligent groups of The way in which cause and effect operate in order the well-built equipped school plant with the greater achieve- which places pupils in the better school environment. to associate and adequately ment of the pupils is not of primary concern to this study. concomitant plus the logical considerations al- The fact that the two are usually ready presented, is considered of sufficient im portance to justify the use of the value of school property per pupil enrolled as a measure of of course, that school officials are using reasonable school efficiency. It is necessary to assume, care to get value received for every dollar ex- pended for school buildings and equipment. ‘To the extent that money may be wasted in this direction, the criterion loses its validity. Texas Educational Survey Commission, 1925 * For a review of studies made on this problem see: Covert, Timon. Educational Achievement in One- Teas her and Larger Rural Schools. U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1928, No. 15. Washington, D. C. Othce, 1928. 23 p. : Government Printing 23 | The value of public school property, includ- ing buildings, sites, and equipment of all kinds, is collected biennially by the U. S. Office of Education. The figures secured from the sev- eral states are, of course, estimates of varying accuracy. The Office gives the following ex- planation of this item in the report form sent to the state departments of education. Value of school property—There are three plausible bases on which the value of school prop- erty may be estimated: (1) original cost of the building, (2) replacement value, and (3) present value. To secure uniformity in reports it is sug- gested that the original cost of school property be reported. The replacement value, that is, what it would cost to replace the present building, does not represent the true and actual value of such property and does not represent the original cost to the taxpayer. Furthermore, such values are largely gross estimates. The present value of school property is likely to be a mere guess, since, if such property were sold for commercial use, it might bring considerably more or less than its present value for school purposes. The original cost is, therefore, the most accurate value, is the most easily secured, and represents what a given build- ing cost the community. The original cost, however, does not take depreciation into account, but in many instances this factor is offset by appreciation, or in- creased value in school lots or even in school build- ing. To secure accurately the value of depreciation and appreciation is practically impossible and is not contemplated in this section of the schedule. The value of public school property per pupil enrolled is calculated by dividing the total estimated value of public school property in each state by the number of pupils enroled in public elementary and secondary schools. Table 10 gives for each state the average value of public school property per pupil enrolled in public schools and the rank of each state. Pri- vate school properties are not included. 5. Percent of literacy. The very minimum acceptable achievement for a state school sys- tem would certainly include the ability to read and write on the part of every youth and adult in the population. This is indeed a very low educational goal. However, many of the states have yet some distance to go before they can achieve it. The percent of literacy reflects not merely the available amount of education gen- erally offered throughout the state but also the minimum amount of education offered to its most remote and handicapped citizens. Since, however, some of the states re large immigration with an unusually } TABLE 10—VALUE OF PUBLIC SCHOo; PROPERTY PER CHILD ENROLLEp BY STATES, 1930 | Value of schoo! property per | chil States and territories enrolled Continental United States. District of Columbia Rhode Island...... Massachusetts... . . | Mew Worm........ | New Jersey ee California....... Connecticut. . . Michigan Pennsylvania....... Maryland. . New Hampshire | Washington... Indiana Wisconsin Utah Delaware Florida. . . Oregon. . Missouri | Colorado Minnesota. . Louisiana Kansas....... | Nevada....... Nebraska. .. | Arizona....... | Tennessee..... Oklahoma... . Montana..... Vermont.... Virginia Wyoming a ee Kentucky...... Idah West Virginia | North Carolina | New Mexico.... | South Carolina. . Arkansas....... South Dakota Mississippi. . North Dakota.. | American Samoa..... Canal Zone Philippine Islands...... | Porto Rico Virgin Islands 1 Property values for 1927-28 divided “a enrolme 29-30 2 Statistics for 1927. ‘See U. S. Bureau of Education Statistical Circular No. 10, entitled, “Items of Statistics for Public School Systems special reference to reports to the United States Bureau of Education. [ 124] column ? vee of illiteracy, it seems advisable to limit the istics presented here to native-born persons of ten years of age and over. These figures are open theoretically, to the objection that a certain number of illiterate native-born per- ons are now residing in a state other than that ‘aq which they spent their childhood and youth. No complete figures exist on the extent of this state-to-state migration of illiterates. It is prob- bly relatively small and certainly is partly compensated for by migration in the opposite direction. Statistics are given in Table 11 for white ind colored races separately and for the general population of the state as a whole. ‘The rank- ing of the states is on the percent of literacy umong the general native-born population over ten vears of age. The separate figures for the colored and white races are included so that, in those states with a large percentage of colored population, a comparison may, if de- sired, be made for the white population alone. It may be noted, however, that the ranking of most of the states would not be materially iltered if the colored population were excluded from consideration, although the actual per- cent of literacy would, of course, be higher. Review of the Standing of the States The present standing of the forty-eight states on five factors related to school efficiency has been given in Tables 6, 7, 9, 10, and 11, and in Charts I to V. The ranks of the states are sum- marized for convenience in Table 12. The aim has been, primarily, to present the tacts in a way that will permit the reader to interpret them for himself. It is not within the province of this Bulletin to discuss in detail the standing of the states on these five factors, nor to attempt a systematic account for differences in rank, However, the tables and charts have been arranged to show the relationship between the rank of the states on each of the five factors selected and two other factors. The first is that of population distribution; the second relates to geographical differences. The relationship between each of the five factors and population distribution is shown in the tables. In each table the states have been arranged according to the proportion of popu- TABLE 11—PERCENT OF LITERACY OF NATIVE BORN POPULATION, BY STATES, 1930 Percent of literacy among persons over 10 years of age In the native- | In the In the born Negro total white popula- | popula- popula- | tion! tion? tion States and territories l Continental United States District of Colun Rhode Island Massachusett New York New Jerse y Illinois California Connecticut Michigan Ohio Pennsylvania Maryland New Hampshire Washingt Indiana Wisconsin Utah Delaware Florida Oregon Missouri Colorado ta Louisiana lowa Kansas Nevada Nebraska \rizona Tennessee Oklahoma Montana Vermont Virginia Wvoming Georgia Kentucky Idaho Alabama West Virginia North Carolina New Mexico South Carolin Arkansas South Dakot Mississippi North Dakot: Alaska American Samoa Canal Zone Guam Hawaii Philippine Islands Porto Rico Virgin Islands 96.2 83.0 1 The Bureau of Census does not give separate figures for native and foreign-born negroes. Practically all are native born. 2 Except foreign-born white persons [125 | lation which is urban.t The state having the largest percent of rural population the highest percent of urban population (Rhode Dakota) is listed last. Island) is listed first, while the state having Geographical differences among th the smallest percent of urban population and with respect to the five factors are pres. Charts I-V. The forty-eight states ha TABLE 0-07 eoepee® OF THe Sr ATs divided into four major groups acco: ON FIVE FA pl “$f ere SCHOOL EFFICIENCY, 1930 rank. The tw elve highest ranking states white on the charts; the second twelve | Rank of the States! for 1930 in: are stippled; the third twelve are a Se “ee hatched and the last twelve in rank a black. The data on attendance, Table 6, ill) tend- | "8 | sala- ‘ = |Power| ries | ~ 4 strikingly the relationship between ru | | States Amount | Teach- | of at- Hold- | “ ers’ and attendance. The nine states rankin; antl est on urban population also rank high ee | | | 4: attendance with one exception, Rhode New 3Osm....-.) 4 | which ranks first in percent of urban pop New Jersey 3s 3 | ; Ilinois.........| and twenty-second on attendance. The te: California rural states, on the other hand, show a < Connecticut ; s ‘ P Th . : Michigan. . . § falling-off in attendance. The relation Ohio anh P Pennsylvania between these two factors is further Maryland... : : cated by their correlation coefficient w! New Hampshire. x a 750 + .04.? Washington ic a ~~ . . . Indiana... . : Geographical differences in amount of Wisconsin ‘ . ain attendance are presented graphically in C| Delaware I. The states ranking in the first and secon Florida ° y Oregon quarter are, in general, the Northeastern issouri Central and Western. The Southern mcm ile y : rank lowest on attendance. | REI le or The success of a state school system in | Louisiana ; ing pupils in school between the ages lowa....... 17, as shown in Table 7, does not appea Kansas....... ° Nevada. ... be closely related to the proportion of urban Nebraska F . . Arizona. . or rural population. Correlating the ranks ot Tennessee. .... 3 the states on percent of urban population with Mestess.. ese oP ; : ‘¢ | their ranks on holding power yields a coeff bn ag ee = 5 | of only + .208 + .09. The large proba Saal error renders this small coefficient insigni!' Wyoming atk J Georgia. « : However, Chart II shows two pronoun entucky...... ’ ° ‘ 6 Idaho........ 3: 3 sectional differences. Eight of the twelve states | Alabe ‘ ‘ ° ° . Pree: | ranking highest on holding power are gr North Carolina 4: , : 3; «| «together in the western and northwestern | Sate A Ft od a, Ley Vv > [——] Ficst Twelve States FEES] Second Twelve States Third Twelve States MM Fourth Twelve States | = tescai Based on average annual salary paid teachers, principals, and supervisors, according to figures of the U.S. Department of Interior, Office of Education. CHART IV —, VALUE * PUBLIC SCHOOL PROPERTY PER CHILD ENROLLED -19%0 j jy, (—] First. Twelve States Second. Twelve States Third Twelve States Me Fourth Twelve States P Secsearch Dursiwn, Nahe Lidice Based. on figures of the U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Financial, sanitary, and educational considerations justify the assumption of son degree of state leadership and control in the matter of schoolhouse construction. ‘| !i best investment in school plants also means the provision of the safest, most healt!) school buildings and equipment and the best adaptation of the buildings to the needs 0! children as formulated by a progressive educational outlook. In order to assume ‘!\ proper measure of leadership and control over school buildings the state should proy i\\: for the inclusion of a division of schoolhousing in its department of education. | precise function of such a division will vary from state to state. Research Bull: National Education Association, May, 1930. p. 142. | _CHART V emia: First Twelve States Td Second Twelve States Wiza Third Twelve States MM Fourth Twelve States tescarch Dunsion fatonadl Based. on the percent of literacy among the natwe white and negro populakion 10 years of age and. over, according to figures of the U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the. Census Illiteracy is a national liability and a national menace. No American citizen, no matter what his color, what his occupation, or what the land of his birth, can, with safety to our social order, be merely “hands and feet to fetch and carry.”” The funda mental problem that now confronts us is to raise the common man not so much to a greater degree of skill and industrial efficiency as to those higher planes of thinking, feel- ing, and social action which the complexity and interdependence of life demand. This can be accomplished through education and only through education.—George D. Strayer, Addresses and Proceedings of the Sixty-Third Annual Meeting of the National Edu cation Association, 1925, p. 158. RESEARCH BULLETINS ON STATE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Can the States Afford to Educate Their Children Vol. VII, No. 1, January, 1929. 44 p. A Self-survey Plan for State School Systems—Part I: Checklist, Vol. VIII, No. 2, March, 1930. 36 p. A Self-survey Plan for State School Systems—Part II: Handbook Vol. VIII, No. 3, May, 1930. 76 p. The Outlook for Rural Education Vol. LX, No. 4, September, 1931. 76 p. Teacher Demand and Supply Vol. LX, No. 5, November, 1931. 102 p. STUDIES IN STATE EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION A series of leaflets approximately 30 pages each are also available on the following topics: School Revenues and New Methods of Taxation, Group Insurance for Teachers, Bibliographies on Eight Problems of Schoo! Legislation, State School Legislation, Flat-rate and Percent-of-Salary Retire- ment Systems, The Personal Income Tax and School Support, Staffs and Salaries in State Departments of Education. Single copies of any of the above bulletins, 25 cents. When ordered in quantity the following discounts are allowed: 2 to 9 copies—10 percent; 10 to 99 copies—25 percent; 100 or more copies 33% percent. All orders for publications should be accompanied by funds in payment for same. Orders not — nied by funds in payment are subject to transportation charges. Make checks or money orders paya to: NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. CONTENTS Foreword Introduction Some Typical Stereotypes or Beliefs Is crime increasing?.. Are criminals younger today? Does education cause crime?. Other Questions of Interest to Educators Purposes and Organization of the Bulletin Acknowledgments *k-lists Part I—Statistics on Crime What Is a Crime? Classification of Crimes and Criminals dbook What Is Juvenile Delinquency ?. Tabulations of Adult Crime. Total number of law violations. Offenses known to the police. Statistics of arrests Court statistics Commitments to prison. Statistics on prison populations. Summary Statistics as to Juvenile Delinquency. Of What Significance to Educators Are the Present Statistics on Crime? Part II—Crime Costs and School Expenditures:.. The Public Cost of the Administration of Criminal Justice Federal costs State costs Municipal costs Private Expenditures for Protection against Crime. yn the Protective agencies Group Protective devices School Retire- ts and Private detectives Correctional treatment Summary Private Losses Due to Criminal Acts... Losses due to crimes against the person. Losses due to crimes against property Losses of wealth other than direct crimes against property.. Cost of insurance against crime.... llowing & Losses incident to the administration of criminal justice — Indirect Losses to the Community Due to the Existence of Crime.. lers not Loss in earning power of criminals y orders Loss in earning power of prisoners. Loss of productive labor of officers. . Miscellaneous labor losses [ 133 ] Part Il1I—Factors Associated with Crime....................0.0 0000 cece cece. PN © iidiccc chan 5 deene Caan ea) Wak hans WORN aRe ERR dak aesess MME: ns Dodeeebbacns Hae Wiesas ncnne ne Pa eieed Ghemad os etek Tks aaa iess PU ok GAaene 6086 Webs a womans ba od CSS AE SERRE ET Ee CEE ET eee w beeline’ eset eecaes. Se I Na se dca cwnedss cusp Ree ens WERE CER PORES a0 ie CS in ak ves cau y ented 40 ah dak SoD cRNA ON ee in ven v's Bee ke. OR, crises KEV ne MEW ASE K vb wane ee One Rees OW Me AIO KS eee cceacrecs EE ee PE ee a elroy e i eth s ot pea Sv caenehrnees hv kash a eRENN EMAWEE ERP Os ad 5 soe 05 dew ence. IS hak busine wad Hae dens 4d x KEK D PARRA ORE MOREE ASS oda si Heese. Pi ee er Le A. rs Die ree ee st neds Pe a iy 5h hs PRR e see no Shaws Fcc AGES wow de RbeG Eee head be denccscces. EY tas Fates GB ob bay Mwctente ek UN hss A4-Geee epee o ue etkan ag \ Kida nvscccccvnceces ND den cnc 85.5 abe ESeh 5h CHER WES SHE HEAT MERU Cea ee iss cccececee. EN EE ES eee are Sie ee Sn Mental and Emotional Defects... ... 2.0.0... ccc ccc ccc ccc cc ccc cece cece ccc ceeeee Rg i cigs nas 1:0 he Sa OR Les MMSE S Cxk ho ab eesecaecess The Factors Associated with Crime and Their Significance to Education.......... Part IV—The Problem of the Delinquent Child.....................0.00......... Extent of Juvenile Delinquency................... cc cne cece cece ccc cccccecceecees 165 General Characteristics of Delinquents..................0.. ccc cc ccc cee ccc eeeceeeee 165 ee oy EO ae = REET er ERS gc aluidvinvg mada awa c Ge nda wee enn a) ca dwn «itv ss ewdemossess BE GE, epee ieee oe ee ee he EE He ee os RR SPU Pin ae R67 ee ick Dinie's aininhe arb Sk MPa dain MON tiiaMamlianina 4: $s 00.00s 0 scenes. CHESTS EEHSH EHH HES ES EHEHEHSHHEHEHEHEHS HEHEHE EEE E SESE EE EEE EEE EHO DEE RINE io 6a grue & beh danced CHEM E Vhs ia UO WRURMT ssc ccc cedlawceccess EE Eu ink wen cGa Wh bake WoW gd mab ated nempe eR EW EME 4 cass ecoeececccess 17 Evidence of Maladjustment among School Children................... 000000 ceueuceee 17 Number of maladjusted children... ..... 0.0.0... ccc ccc cece eee cece eee eeees 17 EE ESR ES Se MID own tk ba su Ais oi nso MI a TE CR ie occa ove oda cewececs- Ne ne ee ee es wo pscnudencce- 172 Ce et ss ou oda maleate ee - re ee ee ee [ 134] Part V—The Social Agencies of Crime Prevention... The Promotion of Economic Welfare. Extension of Public Health and Recreational Activities. rere 176 Physical welfare Geach akabe ; ies eee 176 Mental hygiene eh Soe Pisa daaearsct ee The special problem of the defective. . i od we BOO Recreation —— pis. Pin : er 177 Improving the Agencies of Justice sare Ste Pare Sates 178 Revision and simplification of the law ee 178 Improvement of court procedures. . eee osasicahs ; 178 Ethics of the legal profession se : sie ee Lawlessness in law enforcement......... mee 179 Probation and parole leg baics 179 Educational programs of prisons and reformatories ' inst 179 Religion a Vital Force wis Saves 180 The Need for an Intelligent Public Opinion biaivabe er 181 The School’s Opportunity in Cooperation with Other Agencies of Society.............. 181 The home ie Tes 5 eer 181 The community ee ; a iokaeeaee 181 Juvenile courts aeiaiaers sata ieieo Adult education ae ee 183 Character education Bead asvikealan 183 School efficiency .... ; .. 184 Conclusion eS scsi ae Part VI—Organizations Interested in Crime Prevention. 186 Part VII—Selected Bibliography Saito .. 187 Table LIST OF TABLES 1. Percent of Offenses Known to the Police in 1200 Cities Over 2500 Population, 1931. 140 Page . Male Prisoners Received in State and Federal Prisons.... 141 3. Prisoners Present in State and Federal Prisons in 1927 and 1928.. ashe oid gre naeate cay 142 . Color and Nativity of Delinquent Children Dealt With by Juvenile Courts Reporting Statistics to the Children’s Bureau. 5. Prisoners under Sentence Received During the Year Ending June 30, 1930, by Age and . Cost of Federal Police Activities, 1929-30 . Cost of Federal Prosecution Activities, 1929-30 . Cost of Criminal Business of Federal Courts, 1929-30 . Cost of Federal Penal Treatment, 1929-30 . Total Cost of Federal Criminal Justice, 1929-30 . Cost of Criminal Work of State Police, 1928 . Cost of State Penal and Corrective Treatment, 1928... . Cost of Criminal Justice in 300 Cities, 1930 . Private Expenditures for Protection Against Crime . Summary of Insured Losses Due to Direct Crimes Against Property . Summary of Expenditures for the Administration of Criminal Justice and Estimates of the Losses Due to Crime . Per Capita Expenditures for Delinquents in Industrial Schools, Prisoners in Penal Institu- is oso a: oot. Spa e¥ ree. 50 00 sie eeses basa sb ntenn aos 153 . Ratio of Educational Status of Prisoners in 1923 to General Population Over 21 Years . Percent Distribution by Educational Status, by Sex, and Offense of Persons Committed to Prison in 1923 . Educational Achievement of 454 Prisoners... .. [ 135 ] FOREWORD N 1762 Rousseau wrote: “Everything is good as it comes from the hand of the Author of nature, but everything degenerates in the hands of man.” He was striking at a society that permitted its children to grow up amid poverty, vice, and disease—and then blamed the children for their unsocial behavior. This emphasis upon the responsibility of the social group for the behavior of each individual has been lost sight of many times since Rousseau. We have so frequently given our attention to what an offender has done instead of trying to discover why he did it. We have been too willing to shift to the individual the blame for shortcomings of the group. Horace Mann did not make this mistake. In his report of 1847 he wrote: “If any given percentage of all children can be rescued from vice and crime, and can be so educated and trained as to become valuable citizens, but the State re- fuses or declines to do this work, then the State itself becomes a culprit.” Recently the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection has passed on the torch in these words: “For every child a community which recog- nizes and plans for his needs, protects him against physical dangers, moral hazards, and disease ; provides him with safe and wholesome places for play and recreation ; and makes provision for his cultural and social needs.” The criticism heard sometimes today that education has failed to prevent crime is but another way of saying with Horace Mann that “the State has become a culprit.” Schools can only be as good as the citizens are willing to demand and to support. Inadequate provision for schools in times of prosperity and retrenchment in periods of depression contribute to maladjustment, delin- quency, and crime among our youth. This latest publication of the Research Division shows the need for aggressive action with certain problems, and cautious general conclusions with all action. The delinquency which we see today is but a symptom of deep-rooted social pres- sures and stresses. It will take the united effort of the home, the school, the gov- ernment, and other social agencies to alleviate the fundamental maladjustments. Teachers, principals, and superintendents will find in this bulletin the basis for many profitable conferences. Parents, police officials, and social workers may find herein suggestions for cooperative action with the schools. If this period of history is “a race between civilization and catastrophe’”—then education must not fail. The teacher is the savior of the people. J. W. Crastresr, Secretary, National Education Association Introduction Today, crime is a topic for conversations, conferences, and conventions. Theories as to causes of crime are advanced, discussed, ridi- culed, and dropped. Statistics are cited, criti- cized, revised, and finally filed. Almost every- one has a remedy or an explanation to offer. Out of the swirl of contention and counter statement there are gradually formed certain “stereotypes” or generally accepted beliefs.’ Some Typical Stereotypes or Beliefs A number of “beliefs” have formed in con- nection with crime conditions. These widely accepted viewpoints have been both supported and denounced by experts. The points of con tention may be illustrated by these three ques- tions: (1) Is crime increasing? (2) Are crimi- nals younger today? (3) Does education cause crime ? Is crime increasing?—The amount of crime and its tendency to decrease or to increase have long been subjects of heated discussion. Louis Seibold? made the following statement in 1926: All federal, state, and municipal reports show that crimes of violence have been steadily increasing in the United States since 1900. Philip Parsons,’ also writing in 1926, has taken a somewhat different stand: In fact, with all the data available up to 1922, there is a serious question whether there is actually an increase in the amount of crime out of propor- tion to the increase of population. Although both of the statements were made in 1926, the debate continues today. Disagree- ment arises, first, because arguments are based upon too few facts. Figures are used for such limited areas and such short periods of time that the results do not fairly represent condi- tions. In the second place, many of the available statistics are not comparable because the terms and the procedures used in assembling the data are not standardized. Third, looseness in the use of terms leads to further argument.* Are criminals younger today?—lt is widely believed that criminals today are younger than those who committed similar crimes ten, twenty, or thirty years ago. The evidence cited on this point is often taken from the @gures of the fed- eral Bureau of the Census. For example, Hon. Ellen C. Potter,5 Secretary of Welfare of Pennsylvania, made the following statement: Comparing the percent distribution of commit- ments by age for 1910 and 1923, we find an increase of 3.7 percent in the group under thirty-four years of age. In a 1930 bulletin® of the U. S. Children’s Bureau, the data cited from the federal census show that in 1923 the percent (54.4 of male prisoners) between the ages of eighteen and thirty-four years was the same as in 1910. From other data the bulletin concludes: Institution commitments, therefore are only one of the indexes of the extent of crime which should be available. For the period 1910 to 1923 they in- dicate in all age groups a decreasing number of delinquents and criminals committed to correctional institutions. There appears to be some discrepancy in the two statements cited above in spite of the fact that both are based upon federal census sta- tistics. Perhaps the difference may be due to the number of women committed. The first state- ment implies that it includes both men and women, the second statement applies only to male prisoners. However, the point should be clear that general statements based upon the same evidence are often misleading when re- moved from the original context. Does education cause crime?—It is some- times asserted that education today is producing “educated” criminals. Even more common is the statement that the public schools develop 1 Lippmann, Walter. Public Opinion. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927. p. 89 _ # Seibold, Louis. “Crime Increase Steady in U. S. September 8, 1926. p. 3. since 1900, All Records Show.” Evening Star. Washington, D. C * Parsons, Philip A. Crime and the Criminal. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1926. p. 143. ‘In 1926, the Children’s Bureau of the United States Department of Labor inaugurated a plan for uniform statistics on juvenile delinquency. The Bureau of the Census and other federal agencies bave cooperated with local officers in preparing more exact statistics on prisons and criminals. ® Potter, Ellen C. “Spectacular Aspects of Crime in Relation to the Crime Wave.’’ The Annals 125: 14; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. * United States Department of Labor, Children’s Bureau, Youth and Crime. Publication No. 196, 1930. p. 3. [ 137] persons who are irreligious and lawless. In com- menting upon a public address by Mr. Wicker- sham, a Newark editor’ wrote: How does it happen that criminal tendencies are gaining so rapidly at a time when the nation is spending staggering sums on education? Is it pos- sible that the modern school, emphasizing the crea- tive impulses and personality of the pupils, un- wittingly fosters in them a reckless, anarchistic spirit that breeds lawbreaking? A general ans®er to the questions raised by the Newark editor is given in another news- paper statement :* Education does not offer a guarantee against crime and poverty, but it has been proved to be valuable in reducing this tendency of youth to go wrong. Other quotations might be given to illustrate the opinions of those who criticize and praise education. For present purposes the two quota- tions are sufficient to show two more or less opposing viewpoints. Elsewhere this bulletin will present objective evidence on the question. Other Questions of Interest to Educators In addition to the general “beliefs” cited above, the educator is genuinely concerned with many specific relationships between crime and education. For example: 1. What are the most common types of cr mes, and are these amendable by education? 2. How can teachers identify the children who are potential delinquents and criminals? 3. What factors, or so-called causes, are asso- ciated with criminal behavior? 4. What are the comparative costs of crime and education ? 5. How can the various social forces, particularly the schools, prevent juvenile delinquency and crim- inal behavior? Purposes and Organization of the Bulletin It is expected that this bulletin will provoke discussion in educational circles. It should do something toward silencing loose and critical talk about the schools. It should show that crime is more than a school problem. It should point the way for schools to prevent crime by dealing more effectively with so-called “problem” children. The bulletin is divided into seven major parts as follows: uotation from the Hornell (N. Y.) Tribune-Times as reprinted in School Executives Magazine 50: 567; Part I. Statistics on Crime—This section the status of statistics on crime showing | isting data must be used and interpreted \ tion. Part II. Crime Costs and School Expendity summary of crime costs by the Nationa mission on Law Observance and Enforcem: pared with data as to the cost of public ed Part UI. Factors Associated with Crime eral treatment of the so-called causes of crim Part IV. The Problem of the Delinquent ( A review of objective evidence on the ma ments of juveniles. Part V. The Social Agencies of Crime Pr. —A general statement of the need for judi: forms, better schools, enlightened public o health programs, and other social means fo; prevention. Part VI. Organizations Interested in Crin vention—A list of national committees and ciations that are helping to correct and to | social maladjustments. Part VII. Selected Bibliography—A select of references dealing with the major p: treated in the bulletin. Acknowledgments In the preparation of this bulletin the Re- search Division has drawn upon the inves: tions of numerous individuals and groups. (ne of the most useful sources of information |: been the reports of the so-called Wickersham Commission, officially designated as the \, tional Commission on Law Observanc: Enforcement. Publications of the U. S. Office of Education, the Children’s Bureau, the [Bu reau of Prisons, and the Bureau of the Censu: have been utilized extensively. The reports ot the New York and Chicago crime commis: have been helpful. The writings of so many individual peno gists, sccial workers, teachers, and others been used so as to make it impossible to ¢ specific acknowledgments other than found in the footnotes. Special appreciat: expressed to the following persons for reading the manuscript and making important cisms: Katharine F. Lenroot, Acting ( U.S. Department of Labor, Children’s Bu Marjorie Bell, Field Secretary, Nationa! | bation Association ; Lewis E. Lawes, Wa: Sing Sing Prison; and Sanford Bates, Dir U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Pri The Research Division assumes respons! for the bulletin in its general interpretat other than those quoted fully from other p cations. 1 UN he 4 oe PERF es 100.0 The same study of federal prisoners shows interesting comparison between the type of of- fenses and the last school attended.? Table 19 summarizes a portion of these data. In commenting upon the data shown in part in Table 19, the federal study for 1923 con- cluded: This comparison, like the figures shown pre- viously, indicates that the best educational stand- ing was among the prisoners convicted of em- i See Tlie Prisoner's Antecedents, p. 19. 2 [bid., p. 21. ® See The Prisoner's Antecedents, p. 22. 4 Glueck, Sheldon, and Glueck, Eleanor T. 500 Criminal Careers. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1930, p. 132-34 8 Ibid., p. 133. TABLE 19.—PERCENT DISTRIBUTION BY EDUCATIONAL STATUS, BY SEX, AND OFFENSE OF PERSONS COMMITTED TO PRISON IN 1923 Based upon Table 10, p. 132, 500 Criminal Career by Glueck and Glueck.— In commenting upon the data of Table 20 Glueck and Glueck wrote as follows :° In contrast to the educational achievement of reformatory group is that of Boston school children in the year 1924-5. During that year 1.4 percent of boys in the public schools of Boston permanent!; withdrew from school at the fifth grade or low 5.3 percent withdrew between the sixth and +! eighth grades. Of our reformatory group, but 4+( Percent of total Last school attended Sex and offense ae et Illiterate [stor | 3rdor | Sthor | 7thor ; | School 2nd 4th oth sth | High | Trade | College | not grade grade grade grade | verified SAEED. «0 ovdcounsedatibass 10.7 6.0 14.9 18.5 28.1 14.4 1.0 3.4 3.0 CO eee. rr 10.8 6.2 15.0 18.4 27.9 14.3 1.1 3.4 3.0 LS sv canecn vb eowane 19.7 9.5 18.5 16.7 19.9 6.7 0.6 1.8 6.5 EL wis.cng nl iin s oe sare aN 24.0 10.6 19.4 18.0 18.1 5.2 0.2 1.3 | 3.2 CS eee 6.1 4.5 32.2 17.0 30.5 19.2 1.5 $5.6 | 3.4 | Violating liquor laws.......... 17.3 11.5 18.4 20.5 17.8 9.5 0.4 | 2.9 San \ dw ie énaieh ee ameannn 8.5 3.8 12.9 20.4 31.9 16.1 0.6 2.8 | 2.9 | Se ery « 4.0 3.5 12.4 16.3 31.2 22.3 1.0 5.4 4.0 Violating drug and liquor laws. 16.0 5.1 16.0 14.9 30.3 SS EP G4 3.4 | 3.4 | Based on Table 12, p. 21, in The Prisoner's Antecedents. [ 160] percent continued in school throughout the ninth whether or not the public school system is t offenders : id hile 92 percent of the children in the eighth . a . . ca gg a, B grade, W y & doing its full dut . > preve standing, grade in the year 1922 in Boston public schools en- .— duty in crime prevention. shown for tered the ninth grade. In the year 1910, however, Motion Pictures | violatir which is much nearer the time when our reform- atory group attended school, 53 percent of Boston According to one well-known authority y of 500 public school children entered the ninth grade. among the producers of movies, 100,000,000 t had not . is the total weekly attendance at moving picture 20 shows It is, therefore, clear that the schooling of the theaters.‘ Of this number at least 8 percent fh reformatory group is far less than that of the gen- | ESP SE iT 454 of lati ieee Bek, Minus, hlic. Fe children’s admissions. eral population as represented by Boston publi : : q school children. As the causes for withdrawals from A conference on the community and the mo- school could not be ascertained in the reformatory tion picture was held in New York City in HIEVE group, we ge Aig aivg to ig am the pete be 1929 under the auspices of the producers’ and hese c ses wit those amon the enera 20pula- . . ’ ° ° e 7 y . Ree g s POF distributors’ national association.® Various edu- ——— tion. . a ‘ cators, recreation workers, and religious leaders ‘Mator ‘ . ° ry ‘ticipate as ‘e g ‘enrese ‘ , aS > oup \ Further data on retardation in school and P@™!pat " " well ‘A rey sig ng of the : . . j ~ *rcial agencies. Accor y * repor withdrawals! of the group investigated led pry ae a Se om Nena 4 é ~ of the conference, moving pictures were charge 6 Glueck and Glueck to conclude: i SECS, SSS Pereere Were Caer 8 with suggesting crimes to children and to L. 6 . “ n : 1. One may deduce with sufficient reliability that adults ie resentatives of the produce rs denied a considerable number of our group were educa- the charge and went on to point out that the 0 tionally retarded one or more years. newsreel, unlike the newspaper, never refers Thee Eee Saeetete - = _ of to current crimes. Little objective evidence was rer reta tion in our rou than among the com- . . . _ retards _— . submitted by either side. parable general population. os : , 3. In deities of eae of withdrawal, 20 well 2s Brearley finds that the exact influence of the in educational achievement and in school retarda- movie upon anti-social opinion cannot be de ible 20 tion, our reformatory pie 8 not compare favor- termined by the existing scanty and inconclu d ral population. ; ; . ibly with the gene populatic sive evidence.’ Ft ons a : ; Barnes thinks that the movies depicting — 1 Truancy from the school is now recognized ORE > eT Segre shildren | hej eg £ the f ¢ prison conditions are creating a public opinion | by inves rs as one of the first overt acts o . . . percent : - pi Sp i; F - which will demand reform. He writes that | > juVv uent. Frequently a “prob- a, . anently , | Oe Re ata ore full and relentless publicity turned on our lower: lem” child is retarded, his status produces dis- ‘ r iain ty dlen ap nd ti os ‘e z : . present prison methods is the only cure for ne satisfaction, then impudence, punishment, and SRE TE TT aT a he 44 : . a : arbarism in treating criminals. finally rebellion in the form of truancy. During |truancy various contacts, habits, and attitudes Chronological Age ' lare formed which lead him to violate the law. , , : | Deliataealia then: te edly an extreme form of It is doubtful, of course, that the age of the » =| Deli r , Is only an ex ( tone - a , | a he . criminal actually stimulates the individual to the problems faced daily by every teacher in : : ae AND he cas violate the law. But tabulations of offenses by class (? : ; : ‘ ages show that certain crimes have appeal at a Brearley compares the Ayres index ratings —— for 1918 with the homicide rates. TI ir given age or else that the violation is adapted or wi e homicide rates. The southern _ nye to persons of a giv en age and amount of physi- states have the worst records in both homicide 1) (nergy . . *-* bs &!)* and ciency. Howev micide ; oo ; ype siowe Ps a Ww Gehlke and Moley, after a study of criminal heal relatively greater amounts in the West cases in New York State in 1925, concluded 100! ™ 4 - than in the East, although the Ayres index rates an felt: fied the western state school systems as superior to ee ; ‘ 2 " The median age for robberies, perhaps the most those in the East. Brearley concludes that the 4, 0 ‘ : ee mes er as: : ae serious of the so-called professional crimes, is not 0 : Ayres rating is of “little aid in determining over twenty-three, while burglary is fractionally : : Glueck and Glueck, OP. cit., p. 133-34. ? Ax 9 4 Cri eee State Crime Commission. Report, 1930. Albany, N. Y.: J. B. Lyon Co., 1930. Chapter 9, “‘The School Role in Crime Prevention.’ 375-433. * Brearley, H. C. Jomicide in the United States, p. 45. 4 ‘Hays, Will H. “A Word of Greeting.”’ Report of the National Conference on Motion Pictures. New York City. Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America, 1929. p. 16. 5 Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America. The Community ond the Motion Picture. Report of National Conference on Motion Pictures, September, 24-7, 1929. New York: the Corporaticn ®* Brearley, H. C. Homicide in the United States, p. 40. 7 Barnes, Harry Elmer. Battling the Crime Wave. Boston: Stratford Co., 1931. p. 234-37. [ 161] pea =a a lower. The median for forgery and frauds is about thirty, while grand larceny falls somewhere be- tween twenty-five and thirty.’ The U. S. Bureau of the Census made a de- tailed study of the antecedents of about 20,000 persons committed to 102 state and federal in- stitutions in the first six months of 1923. Thirty percent of the group had been separated from their parents before the age of sixteen years. Of the men separated from their parents be- fore the age of sixteen years, the highest pro- portion were convicted for the following of- fenses: burglary, 35.1 percent; robbery, 33 percent; having stolen property, 31.9 percent; and larceny, 31.2 percent. Of the women sepa- rated from home before sixteen years of age, the largest proportion were arrested for the following offenses: violation of drug and liquor laws, 37.9 percent; sex offenses, 35.2 percent; and larceny, 32.9 percent.* In a report of slightly over 30,000 violators of federal laws who were committed to city and county jails, we find the following median ages for each type of offense: Median ages of Law violated Men omen EO See Pree eee 34.9 30.0 Motor vehicle theft act.:........... 22.1 iia ERE Tids sae es ces tudes esos is 35.2 39.3 dd: h. ccrrakeudesnon 29.5 COMBIIIIIIUIEE, s.ccsiccnssecnacicns 29.3 adi Bf Se re See eee 30.9 22.8 PIII Dig eects au teeents 4 24.6 25.2 Interstate commerce act............ 28.2 ‘she ee 31.1 32.3 PS MN inex scar eedawiens akin 32.1 32.1 The above tabulation shows that median ages are highest for those prisoners who had violated the drug and liquor laws. The male offenders against the motor vehicle theft act are the youngest group, with a median age of 22.1 years. Among the women, the groups with the youngest median age are those who violated the postal laws.® Intelligence Criminal law is based partly upon the theory that all citizens have intelligence enough to know the difference between right and wrong. 1 Gehlke, C. E York for ee Year 1925. Albany, N. Y.: J. B. Lyon Co., See The Prisoner's Antecedents. p. 30-1 In comparatively recent years the advance: intelligence testing have revealed that there in reality wide differences in the mental n up of people. Many investigators believe ; persons below a certain level of intellicen, should be segregated and given special medica}, educational, and social care rather than pun ment. Further treatment of the topic of de‘ tive intelligence is given below under the head- ing “Mental Defects.” Recent studies indicate that good or superior intelligence, as well as mental defectivenes a factor in crime. A study‘ of the intelligence of white offenders in a Pennsylvania prison showed the following median intelligence quo tients: Me liar Type of offense intelligence I, Sea dbs occ cace caw nesese 103.75 RG CM one Rev dios Sic ead eaewese 88.2 RSE ET COP ee eer reer err ee 86.4 eR ORE Magic 06+ 61 400 *.0aee. 8 9b ees 84.8 ees ai meke ¢ eae sp ewaiddsiee.d.c $3.3 ER a ans b424seicasdaccuvanee we 82.7 I eRe tGEe gcd ctndepaccdecaeees 73.3 ee Sac vida Gs ecebat answers 77.4 Murchison gave the Army Alpha Test to about 4,000 male prisoners and found certain definite variations in intelligence for different types of offenders. Offenders for fraud, black- mail, counterfeiting, robbery, and stealing in- clude a large proportion of those of above-aver- age intelligence. Offenses against drug laws, the carrying of concealed weapons, murder, and arson seem to be committed by persons of al! levels of intelligence. Crimes such as vagrancy, abduction, and sex assaults include a larger proportion of those with inferior intelligence ratings.° Care must be taken not to confuse “causal” and “contributing” factors. The level of inte!- ligence has been shown to be only a factor closely associated with other influences, but not the cause of a specific type of crime. Mental and Emotional Defects Up to a few years ago some investigators felt that they had found in mental defects the “major cause” of crime. Studies of prisoners , and Moley, Raymond. A Statistical Jos g of the Criminal Cases in the Courts of the State of New : 1 Pp. *U. S. Department of Justice, Bureau of "Prisons. Federal Prisoners in Jails, 1929-30. Washington, D. C.: Government shes Bee itiam 31-32. William tentgry a Pennsylvania, p urchison, Carl. Criminal Intelligence. Worcester, Mass.: I 162] Jr., and others, A Psychological and Educational Survey of 1,916 Prisoners in the Western Pens Clark University, 1926. p. 58-62. Vance of there ire tal make. lieve that relligen nce medical. 2 punish- of defec. superior e€ness, js llige nce L prison Ice Quo- Median telligence 103.75 88.2 "est to >ertain ferent black- ng in- -aver- laws, r, and of all ancy, arger vence usal” intel- actor t not ‘ndicated a proportion of feeble-mindedness -anging between | and 60 percent, and it was believed that these proportions were higher than in the general population. Objective evi- dence does not exist, however, as to the extent of mental defects among the general popula- tion. Hence, recent investigators tend to agree with Sutherland, as follows: We find feeble-minded persons well behaved in some situations, delinquent in others; even in one objective situation some feeble-minded persons do not become delinquent. The significance of feeble- mindedness apparently can be determined only when studied in relation to a great many other personal and situational factors.’ Recently investigators have turned toward studies of the emotional aspects of mental dis- orders. These reports tell of the “anti-social tendencies,’ “psychopathic personality,” and similar defects found in persons of normal in- telligence. There have been reports of the fact that mental disease or deterioration is found among as many as 12 percent of prison popu- lations. So far little has been done to prove direct causal relationships between crimes and pathological conditions. Glueck questions whether a pathological condition “predestines” one to crime since so many pathological persons outside of the prison do not become criminals because they have the “benefits of suitable en- vironment and the protection which goes with these benefits. ** Brearley advances the theory that persons with a low sociological age are most likely to commit homicide when provocation arises. He defines sociological maturity as the ability. to adjust one’s egocentric wishes to the require- ments of the social milieu.* The study of the psychological and psychi- atric phases of crime has only begun. ‘Technics for examinations are still imperfect. Types and kinds of mental disorders have not been clearly distinguished. Some enthusiastic investigators concentrate to such an extent upon the crimi- nal’s defective or pathological condition that they tend to exclude many environmental fac- tors.* 1 Sutherland, E. H. Mental Deficiency and Crime, p. 373. 2 Gluéck, Sheldon. First Annual Report of the Psychiatric Clinic, 8 Brearley, H. C. Homicide in the United States, p. 93-96. Miscellaneous Factors There are numerous other so-called ‘‘causes” of crime which should be brought to the atten- tion of the socially-minded educator of today. It will be necessary, however, merely to touch upon these briefly at this point: (1) Mobility of population—Bagley suggests that the mobility of families tends to weaken the social controls that go with a settled abode.® (2) Diversity of social standards—In the United states we not only have racial groups with their different customs, but the law varies greatly from state to state. These differences make it difficult to create “a respect for law,” in the minds of youth.° (3) Availability of firearms—Nowhere in the world are pistols so common as in the United States. We shall probably continue our high homicide rate until legislation and public opinion effectively con- trol the sale and carrying of firearms.° (4) Cultural patterns—Sections of the United States have their “codes of conduct’ which are stronger than the law. Gangs have their peculiar codes. Undoubtedly, these customs supported by group pressure lead to so-called “honor” slayings and assaults.’ (5) Saiftness of justice—It has been said that in countries where criminals are apprehended, tried, and sentenced with speed, crime loses much of its attractiveness. In other words, punishment to be effective as a deterrent of crime must be sure and swift, and not necessarily physically painful.” (6) Lawlessness in law enforcement—Many au- thorities contend that police brutality (i. e., third degree, etc.) breaks down respect for law and de- velops hatreds which lead to criminal acts. The evi- dence indicates that “strong arm methods” are often substituted for skill and intelligence in police work.” Other so-called conditioning factors of crime will be recalled by the reader. Most of these so- called “causes” have been touched upon in the discussion above. Conditions predisposing to crime are many in number and present such varying aspects as the economic, the social, the political, the mental, and the physical. Error arises in examining a particular offense if we over-simplify conditions and center upon any one predisposing factor as the cause of a crim- inal act. Sing Sing. p. 12. * National aa on Law Observance and pomeonement. Report cn the Causes uf Crime, Vol. I, 1 5 Bagley, W. C. Education, Crime, and Social Progress. bg Sor mt H.C. Homicide in the United States. p. 68-77. Ibid., p. 51-56, 73-74. 0 Heid” p. 131- 39, ® See the Report on Lawlessness in Law Enforcement, No. ment, June 25, 1931, 347 p., and Our Lawless Police, by E. J. New York: Macmillan Co., 1931. p. 25-26. 11, National Commission on Law Observance and Enforce- Hopkins, Viking Press, 1931, 379 p. [163 ] th a The Factors Associated with Crime and Their Significance to Education One fact stands out clearly in most investiga- tions of the factors associated with crime: tha environmental factors precipitate the criminal into his misbehavior. There are thousands of feeble-minded persons, who, in spite of the handicaps of heredity, never offend against the law because they live sheltered lives. Many per- sons of normal intelligence and physique lead law-abiding lives as long as they avoid such environmental factors as unemployment, evil -ompanions, and poverty. ~Among some of the conclusions of interest to educators are the following: 1. Teachers can do much both with children and with adults to sublimate the “gospel of greed” into something more socially construc- tive. Our stress upon “getting ahead” or ‘“‘win- ning the game” is often at the sacrifice of any consideration of the other fellow. Does “suc- cess’ mean material wealth regardless of how it is obtained ? 2. Schools and educators should be molders of public opinion. If current practices in news- papers, movies, and cheap literature in a par- ticular community are factors which predispose to crime, then the schools should cooperate with civic groups in bringing about the necessary im- provements. Schools can do much to encourage public support and proper recognition of an efh- cient police department. By well-directed class- room discussion, teachers can develop attitudes in youth which in adulthood will not tolerate the corruption found today in public office. 3. Local culture patterns and customs which encourage or sanction violence are evidence of the need for new group standards. Among the children of such communities the schools must develop a respect for the basic principles . cial living. The parent-teacher groups, study classes, law enforcement associations similar organizations can aid the school i: promotion of better social standards. 4. Public education owes something ¢. criminal who returns to the community. If | lic opinion does not give a new chance, it school does not offer further education, if t ers and others do not rehabilitate leisure habits, then there is great probability tha: individual will become a second offender. s a program would require safeguards to pi impressionable boys and girls from the fluence of hardened criminals. 5. The amount of illiteracy, even as n ured by the relatively superficial method the federal census, continues to be a blot the national record. More important “mere ability to read and write” is the use ' adults make of their fundamental skills. they read constructive books? Do they letters which bring happiness, or do they wri kidnaping notes? Do schools teach pupils | discriminate between tested evidence and 1). cheap gossip in the daily mewspapers? Edu tion must make intensive efforts to carry learn ing to the point where skills are utilized in so cially worthwhile ways. 6. Educators should have a place in planning. There is evidence that communit can eliminate slums, disease, and other environ mental conditions of crime. In their places « be developed model apartments, clinics, park: social centers, playgrounds, and other devices for making life more wholesome. Visiting teac!) ers and other social workers, who go direct! into the homes, can point the way from povert, disease, ignorance, and economic instability. RECREATIONAL program for children has an educational function and may be considered within the scope of the school. This is true of physical education not only as a subject, but as meeting the interests of young people in sports and group games dur- ing the time in which they are not engaged in home occupations. This conception of | recreation is enforced by a survey recently made of 10,052 children in a great city, which demonstrated that more than 60 percent preferred a recreation program of games or hikes to the motion pictures which 99.94 percent of them attended for want of something better to do—The White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. Home and School Cooperation. Report of the Subcommittee on Cooperation of Home and School, Section III C. New York: The Century Co., 1932. p. 7. [ 164 ] Ons. ol is g te : If ; e, if tl if te Ire ti that Tt. . prote the In Ss m hods pils nd the Edu l . lear n- | in so unities iViron es Can parks, levices teach rectly verty, ty. ich PART IV The Problem of the Delinquent Child In the past, parents, teachers, and public have tended to label the maladjusted school child as a dunce, a truant, or an incorrigible, depend- ing upon his particular form of misbehavior. Recent developments of psychological, psychi- tric, health, and home-visitation work in the schools have centered attention upon the prob- lem child as the product of problem parents or unwholesome community conditions. The purpose of this section is to review briefly a number of the investigations that have been made of the maladjusted child. Data wil! be presented on the potential delinquent as well as upon those who have been before the courts. For the modern viewpoint and further details on delinquency one should consult The Delin- quent Child,a report of the White House Con- ference on Child Health and Protection.’ Extent of Juvenile Delinquency The tendency to write or to speak at length upon the degeneracy of the present generation is not a recent phenomenon. An article in the December, 1926, Atlantic Monthly shows that sensational statements concerning delinquency have appeared periodically since 1840.2 Others have reported lamentations on the degeneracy of youth dating back to the twelfth century. Existing facts, however, permit no one to say with certainty that juvenile delinquency is in- creasing or decreasing. No national statistics have ever been compiled as to the juvenile ar- rests. Records of juvenile courts, covering less than one-fifth of the population, have been com- piled for 1927, 1928, 1929, and 1930.° Reports issued at various times from several of the large cities, suc. as Chicago and New York, do not indicate that delinquency has in- creased out of proportion to the increase of population.* 1 White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. cal connotation of the word A recent study by Maller of New York City shows that in the decade from 1902 to 1911 there were approximately 85,000 boys brought before the Children’s Court as compared with 64,000 cases in the decade just closed. The num- ber of delinquent boys per thousand population has decreased by one-half during the past twenty rT e e ‘ years. [he number of girls brought before the courts never exceeded 200 up to 1924, but since that date it increased about four times that number.° The total number of juvenile delinquents brought before courts each year in the United States has been estimated as approximately 200,000.° General Characteristics of Delinquents “What Is Juvenile De- Part I has emphasized the techni- Under the heading, linquency,” “delinquent.” This section will present numerous studies of (1) the personal, and (2) the social factors involved in juvenile delinquency. The data are varied, incomplete, and often conflicting. Read ers are directed to the summaries on page 167 and page 170 which emphasize the important findings. Personal Factors (1) Race—The Joint Committee on Negro Child Study ip New York City made a study of cases before the Children’s Court in that city.’ ‘Out of*the 11,512 cases before this court in 1925, 890, or 8 percent, were negroes. Sixty-one percent of the cases of negro children were de- linquents. On the basis of population, the pro- portion of juvenile delinquency among negroes seemed to the Committee greater than among the whites. The most common charge against The Delinquent Child. New York: Century Co., 1932. 499 p. 2 Hulbert, A. B. “The Habit of Going to the Devil.”” Atlantic Monthly 138: 804-806; December, 1926. 3 Consult the Report of the Chief of the Children’s Bureau for 1927 (page 17) and other publications of the Children’s Bureau, U. Department of Labor. Also, The Delinquent Child, p. 235-42. * See The Delinquent Child, White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. Report of Committee on Socially Handicapped-Delinquency. New York: Century Co., 1932. p. 235-4 5 See summary of investigation in Section 10 of the New York “Times, June 12, 1932, p. 8. ® See Part I of this bulletin. ™Murray, Virginia M., chairman. A Study of Delinquent and Neglected Negro Children before the New York City Children’s Court, 1025. p. 6. [ 165 } ay - z oe A NN TER a ett ies Aner ea oe . wee the white boys was stealing; that against negro boys, disorderly conduct. The charge second in importance was, for white boys, burglary; for negro boys, desertion of home. In approximately 85 percent of the negro girl delinquency cases, the charge was given as “ungovernable and way- ward,” or “desertion of home.” The study pointed out that while there is considerable pro- vision for mild delinquents among the white children, there is less for colored children than for white, and that even this limited provision is decreasing. Data assembled in 1930 by the Children’s Bureau from eighty-eight juvenile courts showed that in 50,000 cases there were 40,000 whites and 10,000 colored. According to the 1930 census the ratio of whites to colored in the general population is 11 to 1. (2) Nativity — The Sub-Commission on Causes and Effects of Crime, New York State, made a study of 251 boys committed to the Truant School in the Borough of Manhattan.’ An average of 85 percent of the parents were foreign born; 82 percent of the offenders were native born. Of the 40,000 juvenile court cases of white children reported in 1930 to the Children’s Bu- reau, 47 percent were from homes where one or both parents were foreign born.* Studies reported by the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement indicate that juvenile courts in Chicago have a dispro- portionate number of delinquents from homes of the foreign born. This is attributed to the residence of these families in areas where delin- quency rates are high and where neighborhood controls are weak. Nationality is credited with having little or no effect.* (3) Sex—Data from eighty-eight juvenile courts in 1930 showed that the ratio of the num- ber of boys to girls was approximately five to one.® A statistical analysis of juvenile delin- quency in Salt Lake City. 1923 to 1928, showed seven times as many delinquent boys as deljp quent girls.* Maller’s recent study of Ney York City showed about 6,500 boys and 90 girls appearing before the Children’s Court. |p the decade after 1902 the ratio of boys to was 60 to 1, and in the past decade the rat: been 8 to 1. The change has been due to the j; crease in the number of girls brought before ¢| court.” (4) Age—The survey of delinquency in S:! Lake City showed that at least 70 percent of the delinquent boys and girls ranged in ave from twelve to sixteen years.® In St. Pay! where 460 delinquents were under investiy tion in 1925, fifteen to sixteen and sixteen to seventeen were the peak years for girls and boys respectively.* The largest number of delinquent negro children were found to be between ages of thirteen and sixteen.® Fifteen-year-old boys comprised the largest truant group in eve: grade above the fifth, according to a 1924 rep of the Philadelphia Bureau of Compulsory Edu- cation.’® Glueck and Glueck, after an intensive study of five hundred criminal careers, con cluded that 27 percent of the group came in conflict with school or police authorities at the age of fourteen years. Seventy-seven percent maladjusted before the age of sixteen years. All of these studies are in substantia! agreement with the Juvenile Court Statistics: 1930 of the Childrens’ Bureau wherein 60 percent of the cases in 1930 were of children between the ages of twelve and sixteen. (5) Intelligence—The number of menta deficient children among the delinquents in St Paul was nearly five times as great as among the normal school population.’? Deficiency o! the delinquent boy, according to Slawson, is mostly manifested in verbal abstract inte|li- gence, rather than in non-verbal concrete in- telligence or mechanical aptitude.'*® A study ot problem boys and their brothers showed that 1! LLY 1U. S. Department of Labor, Children’s Bureau, Juvenile Court Statistics, 1930: Publication No. 212, 1932. p. 6-7 2 Shulman, Harry M. From Truancy to Crime—A Study of 251 Adolescents. p. 21. 3 See Juvenile Court Statistics, 1930. p. 6-7. 4 National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Report on the Causes of Crime, Vol. II, p. 82-105. 5 See Juvenile Court Statistics, 1930. p. 6-7. ® Beeley, Arthur L., director. Boys and Girls in Salt Lake City. p. 32. ™ See summary of Maller’s study in Section 10 of the New York Times, June 12, 1932, p. 8. 8 Elmer, M. C. The Juvenile Delinquent in St. Paul, Minnesota. p. 3. ® Murray, Virginia M., chairman. O?. cit., p. 6. 1% As quoted in Reed, Anna Yeomans, Human Waste in Education. p. 217. ™ Glueck, Sheldon, and Glueck, Eleanor T. 500 Criminal Careers. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1930. p. 148. 12 Elmer, M. C. Op. cit., p. 3. 18 Slawson, John. The Delinquent Boy. p. 442. [ 166 ] as delin- of Ney and 900 ourt. In S to virls ratio has to the in- efore the cy in Salt ercent of 1 in age it. Paul. nvestiga- ixteen to and boys linquent een ages old boys in every 4 report ory Edu- ntensive Ts, con- came in *s at the percent years."! reement 0 of the t of the the ages nentally ‘sin St. , among ency of vson, Is intelli- rete in- tudy of ed that the problem boys were, on the average, duller than their normal brothers.’ The report, The Delinquent Child, cites an investigation of 4,000 juvenile court cases of which number 14 percent were feeble-minded. Such data must be accepted critically as there are no comparable data as to the proportion of feeble-mindedness in the general population.” (6) Meatal defect—Mental examination of 2.647 children in children’s courts and deten- tion homes in nine states, by the National Com- mittee on Mental Hygiene, showed about 13 percent to be psychopathic.* A clinical and fol- lowup study of 246 delinquent girls referred to the University of California Medical School brought out the fact that the defective delin- quent seemed to offer a more serious problem than the average delinquent girl. A committee of the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection concluded that mental disease was relatively rare both among children in general and among delinquents. Mental ab- normality is apparently a complication rather than a “cause” or characteristic of delinquency.® (7) Physical status—Of 620 consecutive ad- missions, during 1924-25, to the New Jersey State Home for Boys, 5.2 percent showed physi- cal abnormalities.®° A survey of 316 delinquents in St. Louis showed only a few to be free of physical defects and disease.’ Among the de- linquents in St. Paul, 34 percent showed de- fect. Slawson has shown that the delinquent boy, particularly the younger delinquent, was on a par in physical maturity with the non-delin- quent.® Summary—The data presented up to this point on the characteristics of juvenile delin- quents are incompiete and conflicting. It ap- pears that there is a larger proportion of colored children appearing before the courts than should be expected. Homes in which one or both pa- rents are foreign born seem to supply more than’ their share of juvenile court cases. Both of these 2 See The Delinquent Child. p. 64-69. conclusions do not indicate “causes” so much as obscure social, economic, and other environ- mental conditions. Boys have outnumbered girls in appearing before the courts. Whereas the studies previously cited attribute lower intelli- gence, mental or physical defect, to delinquents as a group, the data are hardly conclusive. As with the data on adults given in Part III, we must conclude tentatively that many juvenile delinquents have physical and mental defects which in association with numerous environ- mental factors may predispose to crime. Yet hundreds of young people with similar handi- caps never develop criminal tendencies due to protection from predisposing environmental factors. Social Factors (1) Home environment—In the family and home surroundings we have a merging of the conflict between “heredity and environment.” Does a defective family strain lead to an un- wholesome home environment? Does an un- wholesome home lead to a degeneracy of the physical and mental aspects of family life? Ap- parently a number of factors are at work and investigators are forced to admit the ‘‘associa- tion” of many influences. Congestion of population does not affect the juvenile delinquency rate, according to a study in New York City, but bad housing conditions do exert a distinctly harmful influence.’ A study in Chicago shows, in areas of the city where the culture and the spirit of the citizens are low, that the juvenile delinquency rates are higher than in the so-called “better” districts. Types of juvenile offenses are often character- istic of certain areas of a city.™ Of a study of about 20,000 aduits com- mitted to one hundred state and federal prjsons in 1923, 61.7 percent were living with their families or relatives at the time of the crime. The compiler of the data estimates that the per- 1 Shulman, Harry M: A Study of Problem Boys and Their Brothers. p. 11. % Wade, Frank E., chairman. The Psychopathic Delinquent. p. 13. “Walker, Jean. Factors Contributing to the Delinquency of Defective Girls. p. 202. 5 See The Delinquent Child, p. 66-67. * Willson, G. M. “Adaptation of Treatment to Cause in Male Juvenile Delinquents.” Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminality 18: 207-17; August, 1927. 7 Report quoted in Reed, Anna Yeomans. O?. cit., p. 300-08. 8 Elmer, M. C. OP. cit., p. 3. ® Slawson, John. Op. cit., p. 345, 450. 1% Shulman, Harry M. A Study of Environmental Factors in Juvenile Delinquency. Albany, N. Y.: J. B. Lyon Com. pany, 1928. p. 8. 1 Lashly, Arthur V., director. I/linois Crime Survey, p. 662-76. See also, Report on the Causes of Crime, Vol. II, 1931. p. 21-188. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. [ 167 ] cent without normal home life is higher than in the general population. Other data in this study indicate a large number of childless marriages, divorces, and separations for both the men and women prisoners.* Case studies show that delinquent and crim- inal patterns are often transmitted with the family group. Older brothers particularly set examples for the younger members of the fam- ily to follow.? The problem of the broken home in relation to delinquency was given intensive study by the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. After a study of a group of 1,675 juvenile court delinquent boys and a control group, the report concludes that “ the differ- ence between the rates in the delinquent and the control group furnish a very inadequate basis for the conclusion that the broken home is an important factor in delinquency. This should not be interpreted to mean that the family is not an important factor in behavior problems; but that the broken home, as such, is not a significant measure of the importance of family life in the case of the delinquent boys appearing in the Cook County juvenile court.”’* Glueck and Glueck found in their study of 500 criminal careers that in 60 percent of the cases abnormal home conditions existed by vir- tue of the long or complete absence of one or both parents. Death disrupted the family in 60 percent of these cases, and separation, divorce, or desertion accounted for 25 percent more. The families to which the criminals belonged were appreciably larger than the average Massachu- setts family.* Forty-six percent of the delinquents studied in St. Paul came from broken homes.° The study of the 251 boys committed to the Truant School in Manhattan showed the home status to have been impaired in 52 percent of the families by the death or absence of one parent.° Analysis of 620 consecutive admission cases to the New Jersey State Home for Boys showed a large amount of poor supervision in the 2 National 1931. Sn 3 the Report * Glueck, Sheldon, and Glueck, 5 Elmer, M. C. Op. cii on the Causes | ELwoy Vol. II, p. 284. eanor T. 500 Criminal Careers. p. 122. home.’ From his study, Slawson concluded +} a boy coming from a disintegrated home seem. more apt to become delinquent than one {;oy a home with normal parental relations.* ;; examining studies of this type, Lenroot cluded that “many factors in family life a greater importance in studying the caus of delinquent behavior than the mere fac: oj physical completeness or incompleteness 0} the family circle.”® Almost one-titird of the parents in the of the delinquents in St. Paul had a pre bad record.?® Seventy-eight percent of parents showed no interest—took a nega! attitude or lacked control over the Eighty-two percent of the delinquents antagonistic or had unusually strained tions with their homes. The proportion of families, one or more of whose members had criminal records, was larger in the case of boys committed to th: Truant School for the more serious crimes than in the case of boys committed for tr ancy.'! Thus, 43 percent of families of truants 50 percent of families of juvenile delinquents, 66 percent of families of misdemeanants, ani 83 percent of families of felons had criminal records. (2) Empleyment—Whether unemploy men: leads to delinquency or whether the delin quent is not capable of keeping a position may be argued indefinitely. Records of the Jew ish Board of Guardians in New York in 1°27 and 1928 indicate that the delinquent is ver unstable in his employment. After comparing delinquent and non-delinquent groups, the con- clusion reached was as follows: . « The miscellaneous cases are apparent| twice as stable industrially as the problem cases That the employment turn-over among the pro! lem group is a characteristic and not a transient probiem, may be gathered from the fact that in its previous year of effort, in 1927, the proportion of cases remaining at a job longer than six months was but 6 percent.” 2U. Ss. ea of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, The Prisoner's Antecedents. p. 25-28 ‘ommission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Report on the Causes of Crime, Vol. II, No. 13, June cit, 3. * Shulman, Harry M. eum Truancy to Crime—A Study of 251 Adolescents. p. 13. MP many G. ~ cit., p. 210. Slawson, John. i ® Lenroot, ke : lade 4: 529; May, 1° El 1932 Elmer M. C. Op. cit. 446, tharine. “Discussion of ‘Are Broken Homes a Causative Factor in Juvenile Delinquency?’ ” Social For > . 3. ™ Shulman, Harry M. ph Truancy to Crime—A Study of 251 Adolescents. p 14, : ‘ 12 Jewish Board of Guardians. Annual Reports of Vocational Department, 1927-28. Quoted in New York State Cri Commission, Report 1930, p. 448. [ 168 ] ided that le seemed ne trom more ot Is, Was to the crimes, Or tru- Truants, quents, ts, and riminal oyment delin- Osition ie Jew- n 1927 is very paring 1e COn- arently Cases. 4 prob ansient t in its ion of nonths une For The superintendent of th. 'tdaho Industrial School considered idleness as a decided factor in waywardness and delinquency. “A very large percentage of our small boys come in sum- mer and early fall when they are out of school, hence for the most part idle. On the other hand, a correspondingly large percentage of our large boys come during the late fall and winter, when work is scarce and idleness results.’’! There is considerable doubt that actual labor or work in itself actually “causes” crime or de- linquency. However, the continuous contact of children with certain employment conditions, together with other important factors, seems to be associated with an unusual rate of delin- quency. The Children’s Bureau found that 12 per- cent of 273 young newsboys in Columbus in 1922 and 1923 had juvenile court records, al- though only 2 percent of the boys of the same ages of the city came before the courts in 1927.? A study by the Children’s Bureau of children in Milwaukee between the ages of fourteen and sixteen showed that more of the working chil- dren, than children attending school regularly, have been delinquent at some time in their lives.® Healy and Bronner’s study of 2,000 cases of delinquency in Boston showed vocational dis- satisfaction as a contributing factor in delin- quency.* In England, Burt found that 4 per- cent of the delinquents were vocationally mal- adjusted.® A commission in California found that the children of seasonal workers who were moved about the state and required to work formed a growing problem.® Several authorities point out that the ex- ploitation of children by employers often comes at the crucial period when children are ac- quiring important ideals and habits. Missing the opportunity to make normal social ad justments leads to irregular employment later and finally to predatory acts.” (3) Truancy—While available _ statistics may not bring out striking differences between delinquents and non-delinquents with regard to length of time in school, they do emphasize the prevailing amount of truancy among de- linquents. A study of the period prior to de- linquency of 1,744 cases in the Cleveland pub- lic schools credited truancy as the “direct cause’ in 74 percent of the cases.* Among the 251 adolescents studied by Shulman, the juve- nile delinquents had been serious truancy prob- lems in grade 2-A, the misdemeanor and felony groups in 3-B, and the non-delinquent groups in 3-A.° Truancy was reported as a major form of delinquency in Salt Lake City.’® Several studies by the New York State Crime Commis sion show that truancy is the first overt step in the development of a delinquent or criminal career." (4) Motion pictures—Mitchell inquired into the movie interests, tastes, and experiences of 10,000 children in Chicago.'* She included in this group typical children of the public schools, juvenile delinquents, and several special groups as the Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts. Most of the data were obtained through questionnaires which the children were not required to sign. Among the conclusions of the study'® were the following: 1. The present study found that the delinquent children have a wider movie experience than do children in the other two groups (typical school children and Scouts). 2. The movie offers these children (delinquents) an immediate escape from drab realities and cruel certainties of their surroundings and gives them for a brief time another life. 1 Vincent, W. D., compiler. Ninth Biennial Report of the Idaho Industrial Training School, 1919-20. Quoted by Leeper Robert D., in “A Study of Juvenile Delinquency in Thirty Counties of Idaho.” p. 427. 2In a similar study the New York Crime Commission raises the question whether the boys in street trades become delinquents or whether the street trades are unusually attractive to delinquents. 8 The question may be raised whether or not environmental factors which force children to work at an early ag are closely associated with the causes of delinquency. ‘Healy, William, and Bronner, Augusta F. Delinquents and Criminals; Their Making and Unmaking. New York The Macmillan Company, 1926. p. 182 5 Burt, Cyril. The Young Delinquent. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1925. p. 171. ® Rieger, Paul, chairman. Report of the California Commission for the Study of Problem Children. Sacramento: State Printing Office, 1929. p. 27. 7 Root, William T., and others. A Psychological and Educational Survey of 1,916 Prisoners in the Western Penitentiary of Pennsylvania. Pittsburgh, Pa.: Western Penitentiary. p. 241. (no date). Also Criminology by Fred E. Haynes, published by McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1930. p. 156-61. § Quoted in Reed, Anna Yeomans. Human Waste in Education. p. 308-15. ® Shulman, Harry M. From Truancy to Crime—A Study of 251 Adolescents. p. 56. 1 Beeley, Arthur L., director. Op. cit., p. 32. 1 See the Report of the Crime Commission, 1930, p. 375-433, and the reports for other years. State Crime Commission. Albany N W y rk 2 Mitchell, Alice Miller. Children and Movies. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1929. 181 p 8 Ibid., Chapter 13, “Delinquents and Movies,”’ p. 133-43. [ 169 ] he 2a OP? Se paiah ae 3. A few (delinquents) felt that their conflict with the law had been because of some contact with the movie. 4. The delinquent girls spoke more freely about how restless the movie made them than did the delinquent boys. The boys were more interested in the movie as entertainment and apparently did not look upon it as personally as did the girls. 5. Some (of the delinquents) looked upon them (the movie theaters) as havens from temptation. 6. Not many of the delinquent boys felt that movies generally or any movie in particular were to blame for their delinquency. In fact, quite a few of them said that had they been “in a movie at the time it happened it would not have hap- pened.” 7. The delinquent child’s extensive contact with the movie may or may not be due to the fact that he is a delinquent and because of the things back of his delinquency. Whether or not the movie enters into his delinquency is a subject for further research and is out of the realm of this study. The present data only show that the delinquent does have a wider movie experience than do the other children studied. Summary—There is rather definite agree- ment that juvenile delinquency results from a number of factors. No agreement exists as to origin or relative weight of the various factors. There is evidence that the economic uncer- tainty and lack of control in the broken home are likely to combine with other factors in pro- ducing delinquency. Older brothers who are delinquents often lead younger children into crime. Neighborhoods in which mobility of population weakens the usual social controls tend to have high delinquency rates. Areas with high delinquency rates tend to persist in this con- dition. Idleness and vacations are associated with increases in delinquency. Street trades and other employments of juveniles either tend to attract or to develop delinquent children. Tru- ancy and conflict at school are usually the first overt acts of the child who later becomes seri- ously out of adjustment. Evidence of Maladjustment among School Children As pointed out in preceding sections of this bulletin, delinquency may be only an extreme phase of child behavior. If children are “de- linquent” only in the sense of court sentence, there are many others exhibiting simila: havior who have not yet come to the attention of the courts. From another standpoint, + are many children classed as delinquents represent victims of misguided effort and directed energy, who with forethought an, dividual attention from others might avoided probation officer and courtroom. Number of maladjusted children—In ever public school, children can be found who seem unable to adapt themselves to the usual! quirements of group life in the classroom on the playground. Are they present in such numbers as to present a serious problem? ‘| hie Committee on Special Classes of the White House Conference on Child Health and Pro tection estimates that 675,000, or at least 3 per- cent of the elementary school enrolment, pre sent behavior problems, less than 10,000 of whom are now enrolled in special classes 01 schools." In 1929-30, fifty-five cities of 10,000 popula- tion or more reported for twenty-five states a total of 9,040 pupils enrolled in classes for the delinquent and unstable.? A study of provisions made for atypical children shows that at least ten states have made provision for mandator) or permissive public school classes for “ such atypi- ‘uant, is au- choc )] apted f the nrol- id in pub- | un- Chair- earch oder ae hi ae vase (PIP ay wt Sata Be BPO a Se ano ively <2 uhiips Types of behavior problems—The Commit- tee on Special Classes of the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection ’ divides cases of behavior difficulty in three groups: 1. The nervous—Children suffering from chorea, speech disorders, encephalitis lethargica, and gen- eral nervous disability. 2. The emotionally unstable—Cases from mild emotional unbalance through cases of definite psychoneurotic and prepsychotic behavior to confirmed cases of advanced mental disorder. 3. The delinquent—Cases in the public mind looked upon as resulting from a poor home, bad gang, poverty, sometimes complicated by emotional varying instability.” A Committee of the National Education Association and the National Conference of Social Work, reporting in 1926, states that: Behavior problem children are those who stand out or who differ from others of their group be- cause of certain undesirable habits, personality traits, or behavior in the home, schooi, or com- munity; whose conduct interferes, or is likely to interfere, with the individual’s (or the group’s) fullest development and usefulness socially, educa- tionally, or hygienically; and whose behavior may result in more serious handicaps of one sort or another in later life.* The Committee offers a grouping sugges- tive of behavior problem children: 1. Underlying difficulties indicated by symptoms ordinarily regarded as undesirable habits: such as, thumbsucking, nailbiting, enuresis, masturba- tion, mannerisms, peculiar food fads, disturbances in sleep. 2. Underlying difficulties indicated chiefly by characteristics and personality traits: such as, sen- sitiveness, seclusiveness, secretiveness, inattention, apathy, daydreaming: fanciful lying, “nervousness,” tendency to cry easily, moodiness, obstinacy, quar- relsomeness, selfishness, laziness, lack of ambition or interest, timidity, cowardliness, general fear- fulness, unpopularity or inability to get along with other children, general restlessness and hyperactiv- ity, wanderlust. 3. Underlying difficulties indicated chiefly by such behavior as: disobedience, teasing, bullying, temper tantrums, bragging or showing off, defiance of or rebellion against authority, keeping late hours, seeking bad companions, lying, stealing, truancy, destructiveness, cruelty to persons or animals, unusual sex activities. p. 500-02. 1 White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. Special Education: The Handicapped and the Gifted. The preceding sections have pointed out the extent of, and factors accompanying delin- quency. They have shown that a child brought before the habits present to a greater or less degree in court exhibits characteristics or children who have never been apprehended by the law. Since children are essentially individ- ualistic and the school basically social, there will always exist stress, maladjustment, and delinquency. Fortunately, most of the conflicts “will disappear as the teacher interests herself less and less in what the child did, and more and more in why he did it.’’* Educational Facilities for Delinquents +, The problem of educating the delinquent of school age has two aspects: First, to prevent delinquency by providing special provisions for the problem child, or potential delinquent ; second, to rehabilitate the individual who has come in contact with the court. Special facilities for the care of the nervous, the emotionally unstable, and the delinquent, appear to be meager.® The types of school or- ganization developed for these children have been classified as follows: parental schools ot homes, special schools, and special classes. Parental schools—The parental schools for truants or delinquents are usually twenty-four- hour-a-day schools. ‘They assume the entire re- sponsibility for the children’s school and non- school activities. The parental school is located sometimes on a farm, houses the children in cot- tages, provides regular schooling, emphasizes home life, attempts to build up new social atti- tudes, and gives the children industrial or home- keeping training. State laws provide for establishment of twenty-four-hour parental schools in Illinois, Pennsylvania, and California. A few cities have schools maintained in detention homes, and there are other private or semi-private institu- tions which deal with behavior problems.° The average enrolment of these various parental schools is about eighty, with approximately one teacher for every thirty pupils. The school fol- 2 For details on this phase see The es = Child, White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. Report of Committee on Socially Handicapped— 8’ National Education Association and National Conference of Social Work, Cooperating Committees on elinquency, Published by the Century Company, New York, 1932. 499 p. Behavior Problems of Children. Report As Adopted in Joint Session at Cleveland, Ohio, May 27, 1926. p. 4. * Principals and teachers, in particular, should consult The Delinquent Child, . 41. 5In many schools the unstable child is given special work and treatment while he is still a member of a typical class. Where such a plan proves successful, there is reasonable doubt that a potential delinquent should be taken from his normal social group and sent away to a special school. ® For names o the United States by Arch O. Heck, Bulletin, 1930, No. 7, [171] cities and statistical items see Special Schools and Classes in Cities of 10,000 Population and More in ‘ U.S. i Office of Education. t na ating Pid A cat ee oe Sl Ree ee ian ae: 4 = pe ARP wage Ee ot wre lows the regular courses and provides for more handwork' Special schools—Special day schools for truants, incorrigibles, and treatment of special behavior problems have been established in a few of the larger cities. Good examples of such schools are the Thomas A. Edison School for Boys, in Cleveland, and the Montefiore Special School of Chicage.? The work of the special schools is usually di- vided between regular academic work and shop or other similar activities, such as woodwork, weaving, basketry, mechanics, metal work, mechanical and freehand drawing, elementary sciences, and, where possible, gardening and animal husbandry. The Montefiore School also offers clinical services for treatment of the pupils.® The Thomas A. Edison School for Boys was made a unit of the Cleveland School System in September, 1921.4 The enrolment on June 20, 1930, amounted to 1,549. The median age represented is 15% years; the median I. Q. is 87. Boys are transferred to the school, in gen- eral, because of educational maladjustment elsewhere. This school was established to provide for the needs of the boy differing from the normal pupil. It aims to guide and direct, rather than to punish. The boys are classed as nearly homogeneously as possible, according to inter- ests, grade, and I. Q., in about forty groups of approximately equal numbers. In more ad- vanced classes the pupils are divided into a vo- cational and an academic group. For the latter group the same material is offered as in other academic schools of the city. In the case of the vocational group, however, the conventional curriculum has been abandoned, in favor of ma- terial of practical or interesting nature. Work is carefully graded to the ability of the child. Special classes—There are more special classes for behavior problems than special schools. The classes are usually housed in regu- lar schools and receive a part of the regular principal’s time, and the direction of a special p. 493-94, 507-08, supervisor. The special classes attempt to some special work, but cannot offer as features as the special schools.® According to a survey of public school ¢,, cation of atypical children, eight states |),\, permissive and two states mandatory le; tion concerning classes for “disciplinary o corrigible” children.® Of sixty-eight cities 100,000 population, 41 percent reported ciplinary classes”; 12 percent reported p: tion classes. Enrolment in ‘‘disciplinary cla of forty-two cities of over 100,000 population. in 1927-28, amounted to 4,646. In twenty cities having special classes for problem children. there was an average daily enrolment of 3,1) boys and 286 girls. The minimum class enro| ment ranged from 15 to 20. Chronology: ages varied from 7 to 24; mental ages from 5 to 16. With exception of classes in three cities. high-school instruction was not given, Five « the ten cities, represented in reports submitted to the Office of Education, established mena! standards for admission. ‘The average net schoo! time reported for “disciplinary” classes was 5.4 hours. Behavior clinics—In addition to parental schools, special schools and classes, a few ot the larger cities maintain clinical or adjustment services to help care for behavior cases. In 192% there were nearly 500 such clinics, distributed among approximately 350 cities in 36 different states.’ In 1928 the school system of Berkeley, Cali fornia began work to meet the needs of chi! dren who are considered serious behavior pro} lems.* According to a description published «: this work: Responsibility for meeting these children, {01 studying their difficulties and diagnosing thei: needs, for making recommendations for adjus! ment, and for following up their development has been placed upon a group of specialists comprising psychiatrist, physician, and psychologist, who hay at their disposal all the service that can be given by a staff of social workers and psychological a: sistants. The social workers are a group of fiy: chosen school counselors who give half time the work of this behavior clinic. The psycholog 1 White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. Special Education: The Handicapped and the Gift. * Stullken, Edward H. “School-Juvenile Court Cooperation.” Eleventh Yearbook. Department of Elementary Sch Principals, 1932. p. 508-16. hite House Conference on Child Health and Protection. Special Education: The Handicapped and the Gif? p. 494-95, 508. * Cleveland City School District, Thomas A. Edison School, cited in bibliography at end of this bulletin. } 5 White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. Special Education: The Handicapped and the Gif! p. 495, 508-09. bd ~~. Robert W. Ce. cit., Pp. 13, 63, 77, 118-22. T See “Child Guidance Clinics.’ School and Society 30: 704-05; November 23, 192 929. 5 Martens, Elise H. “Berkeley's Coordinated Program of Child Adjustment.” School Life 16: 23-24, 56-58; Octob November, 1930. . [ 172] t to g as Ma ool ed tes y 01 Hes 0 ed 1 pr Classes” ulation, ity Cities hildren, »f 3,198 Ss enrol- Ological from 5 e cities, Five ot bmitted mental t school was 5.4 arental vy of the istment n 1928 ributed ifferent y, Cali of chil- r prob- hed ot en, for 4 their adjust ent has prising o have > given cal as of five ime to hologi Gift r Sch leg 7 assistance is given by the assistant director of the bureau of research and guidance, as well as by chosen teachers in the schools who have been carefully trained in the technic of giving mental and educational tests. [his group of specialists at first worked directly in the schools as a type of “traveling clinic,” but more recently it has established headquarters at the administration building of the board of educa- tion, to which the children are brought by social workers or parents. It is deemed desirable to have father or mother accompany the child, and the behavior clinic undertakes to work only with those children whose parents indicate their willingness to cooperate in the treatment to be given. Such treatment may involve physical attention, medical or surgical aid, readjustment of home conditions, or suggestions to principal and teacher looking to- ward a better understanding of the child’s nature and difficulties. Often several of these factors are involved. All too frequently it is found that the problem child is only the result of problem parents, who themselves need treatment and _ re-education. Medical aid is provided at a nominal cost by the health center for those in financial need; the social worker follows up the contacts with the home and reports developments as they occur; the case is discussed with the teacher, counselor, and principal of the school which the child attends, with a resulting increased ability on their part to handle it tactfully. The child may return to the clinic periodically, or he may visit it only occa- sionally, as the case demands. Training schools for delinquents—-Pub- lished material on the education of delinquents deals largely with training of delinquent girls. Reeves has discussed the educational program adopted in fifty-seven training schools for de- linquent girls.t In the majority of cases, the academic departments in these institutions were about on the same plane as the schools in out- side communities. Forty-four institutions had a graded academic school. In twenty-three schools, some high-school work was given. In thirty-eight schools, the academic department follows the course of study in an outside system. In most of the institutions little instruction was offered in art. A number of the academic depart- ments gave a regular public school music course. There appeared a need for right kind of moral instruction. Two of the schools had full-time resident religious workers; one, a part-time resident worker, In none of the schools was there a director of religious education who seemed to be doing the type of work outlined by present leaders in religious education. The field of vocational guidance for delinquent girls seemed almost entirely undeveloped. On page 292 Reeves presents a statement of certain goals to be sought by the educational system as a whole in a training school : . Education in these training schools should be made dynamic and objective, a vital part of the prograin of rehabilitation of the girl with conduct problems. It should be planned to meet the needs of the individual, both while she is in the institution and later when she returns to the community. . Each school should have a comprehensive plan which should include the various phases of education. With proper correlation each part of the educational program will become more vital and worthwhile. . These institutions have large opportunity for service as laboratories of research in the educational field. They should be utilized for this purpose as far as is practicable. . If any worthwhile educational program is to be successfully carried on, there must be well- trained teachers. In many cases this will neces- sitate higher salaries. According to a discussion of correctional edu- cation by Van Waters, the major problems of correctional school life are physical education, academic and vocational education, personality adjustment, and sharing group life in the spirit of social solidarity.? In conclusion, Van Waters writes that the true value of correctional edu- cation consists in the following: . Vigorous and joyous health, a sense of phys- ical well-being. Emotional adjustment, a correct understanding of the individual by himself. . The restoration of confidence and the respect of the individual for his own personality. This is best accomplished by the discovery of tasks within the strength and capacity of the young person, tasks the performance of which wins merited approval from the group . The individual must develop loyalty and the feeling of friendship or social solidarity, by means of participation in the actual conduct of affairs within the student-group; activity related to a social purpose. . New outlets must be formed for the creative energy of youth. . The social status of the individual must be restored, that is to say, he must be absorbed into the community, which in its turn must be educated to recognition that the young person has been returned to full citizenship in our humanity.* 1 Reeves, Margaret. Training Schools for Delinquent Girls. p. 282-310. 2? Van Waters, Miriam. Youth in Conflict. p. 200. * Van Waters, Miriam. Jbid., p. 221-22. [ 173 ] Dee eraemntteat anal ae OES. ca: ; ed : } | pana ner ee wep ae | nlm to eR iy Paar: 20 eee: pe OT an a Sas Sa naan What Does the Problem of the Delin- quent Child Mean to Education? More than one writer on the problem of maladjusted youth has pointed to the school as a great social laboratory, wherein problem chil- dren could be discovered and possible delin- quency guarded against. Aside from the gen- eral function of the school in providing needed social integration, the preceding studies of juve- nile delinquency or irregular behavior bring out the following aspects of special import to educators: J 1. A more enlightened public opinion is needed with regard to the unadjusted child, whether deiinquent or not. Through newspaper accounts, magazine articles, parent-teacher meetings, and home visits, teachers can explain to adults the significance of various maladjust- ments of children. Particularly important is this community work at the present time when citizens are likely to label these special welfare activities as “fads and frills.” \y 2. Educators can do much to encourage the establishment of behavior and child guidance clinics where experts may help the child who does not respond to the teachers’ efforts. Care- ful records need to be kept for these clinics. Often the school’s regular program must be adjusted to a plan laid down by the psycholo- gist, the psychiatrist, and the medical expert. 3. Truancy has been isolated as one of the first overt acts of a criminal career. Why are children truant ? Sometimes they are truant be- cause of factors which have no connection with the school, The chances are, however, that “lock-step teaching,” unusually severe dis- cipline, ridicule of playmates, or some other school factor is associated with the truancy. It is up to teachers, principals, and superintend- ents to discover these points of irritation and to make the necessary adjustments in school procedures. 4. When teachers lack the ability to recog- nize potential problem cases then they should remedy this deficiency in professional prepara- tion. It is possible to organize study groups under the principal who can call to his assist- ance the visiting teacher, the school nurse, the doctor, and others. College summer courses are available in psychology and psychiatry. Books and extension classes may be obtained by those who cannot participate in group study. . School systems should have the personnel )and the facilities to test the intellectual. , / tional, and physical condition of every ¢ \ Whenever possible, the home should be vised of the defects and urged to correct thy \ inadequacies which may respond to the p \treatment. 6. The fact that a large proportion of ¢, linquents show their maladjustments before the age of fourteen years, places particular! heavy responsibilities on the teachers and prin cipals of elementary schools. Since other | lems arise between the ages of fourteen and sixteen, the importance of articulating the ele- mentary school with the junior and senior }jv| schools cannot be overemphasized. Schoo! ma- chinery should be flexible enough to account continuously for every child. 7. Unemployment has been found to be associated frequently with delinquency. Some unemployment is due to the failure of students to make the most of their school opportunities for academic and trade training. Teachers and administrative officers, as well as specialists, can guide individuals with their personal, so- cial, and vocational problems. 8. The ieisure time hours are often those which lead to questionable companions and un- | lawful activities. More social centers and play areas in the schools at nights would help to | keep children off the streets. Teachers may fre- quently organize or urge other adults to or- anize various youth clubs in connection with he schools, the churches, and other centers. 9. Principals of schools can be helpful in organizing community welfare committees to unite schools, churches, homes, business, and _ social work agencies behind a neighborhood program. There is considerable evidence to | support the contention that neighborhood con- trols are exceptionally useful in preventing !! types of delinquency. A neighborhood commit- tee can be the means of eliminating cheap literature, questionable movies, and destruc- tive amusement centers. 10. Teachers today, more than ever before, are called upon to utilize their daily classroom contacts with children in shaping character. A hundred opportunities arise in every day’s work to set standards, to vitalize high ideals, and to glorify wholesome contacts. Research clearly indicates that the influence of the classroom teacher is a particularly significant factor in character development. [174] ak. A. Seas wisn A sia apne aor ey 1 of de- ) before ‘icularl; nd prin er pri een and the ele- ior high ool ma- account to be y. Some students ‘tunities lers and *cialists, nal, so- n those and un- nd play help to nay fre- } to or- on with ters. pful in ttees to ss, and yorhood ence to od con- ting all ommit- : cheap destruc- before, assroom cter. A ’s work and to clearly issroom ctor in PART V The Social Agencies of Crime Prevention Crime concerns all individuals and groups of organized society, It is not a problem to be left with the police, the courts, and the prison officials. These public officers need the support of public opinion and the active assistance of all (1) to prevent crime, (2) to reform the criminal, and (3) to re-establish the offender as a good citizen. This section of the bulletin will review briefly some of the agencies and procedures associated with the three lines mentioned im- mediately above. The treatment will show how the efforts of educators may be integrated with the forces now at work. None of the sugges- tions in this section are offered as panaceas, but rather as some of the next steps forward. For detailed treatment of some of the major prob- lems touched upon in this section the reader should turn to the standard works in the fields of sociology, government, economics, penology, and education. The Promotion of Economic Welfare The type of life lived by the individual citi- zen and his family is determined by numerous economic factors. A person cannot live in a beautiful home in an exclusive neighborhood, read the best literature, enjoy leisure, and send his children to fine schools—unless he is eco- nomically independent. Economic independ- ence has been defined as: “that condition of ma- terial wealth which enables a person to support himself and his dependents at an appropriate standard of living without the necessity of accepting charity.” * A recent publication of the Department of Classroom Teachers summarizes the basic prin- ciples underlying the economic welfare of teachers.* These basic principles, applying to all occupational groups, are summarized as follows: (1) The worker should receive an adequate salary in accordance with a definite plan based on the increasing usefulness and enlarged responsi- bilities of the worker which follow additional years of service. The salary schedule should be based on the actual cost of living at the desired standard in the particular local community. Under no circumstances should a worker be paid less Yearbook, 1931. p. 13. 2 Ibid, p. 14-18, than it actually costs him to live decently and in reasonable comfort. It is highly desirable, also, that the minimum beginning wage be sufficient to permit the saving of a small amount regularly, and the expenditure of a small amount regularly for wholesome recreation and cultural improve- ment. The amount available for savings should be at least sufficient to provide protection against any ordinary emergencies which may arise. (2) The worker should have continuous em- ployment during efficiency. Few people can main- tain their economic independence if they are the victims of long or frequent unemployment. An oversupply of workers, the replacement of men by machines, the seasonal nature of some occu- pations, petty prejudice or favoritism, economic depression, and the urge toward reduction in the costs of operation are some of the important fac- tors responsible for unemployment among com- petent workers. Such factors are often very dith- cult to control, but efforts should be made to eliminate or to counteract them so far as is humanly possible. (3) The worker should follow a definite plan of expenditure based on genuine needs and modi- fied in accordance with his income. The person who spends his income without regard for such a plan runs a dangerous risk. Unless he enjoys an unusually large income he is likely to exceed it at any time and to contract unnecessary debt. More- over, he and his dependents are likely to suffer from a poorly balanced program of living, with too much emphasis upon the superficial, less essen- tial aspects, and too little emphasis upon self-im- provement and cultural development. (4) The worker should save a portion of his income systematically and invest it soundly. In any program of personal finance it is tremendously important that adequate provision be made for increased needs and unforeseen emergencies in the future. No matter how excellent a person's health may be at present, there is no assurance that illness or accident will not overtake him at any time and destroy his earning power, perhaps per- manently. If he lives to old age, he will be un- ble to maintain his former level of efficiency, and will often be unable to compete successfully with younger and more competent persons. (5) The worker should secure specific protec- tion against loss of his capacity to render efficient vocation service. Such protection should cover any loss of capacity due to each of the following spe- cific causes: (1) temporary disability because of illness or accident, (2) early permanent disabili- ty, whether from physical or mental causes, (3) superannuation, or the attainment of an age be- 1 National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. ‘““The Economic Welfare of Teachers.” Sixth [175] Oe t~ ani, eee at SS cep aia ainartine RISE : = a mn See ae Fe yee ina eae ss yond which efficient work cannot normally be ex- pected, and (4) early death. (6) The worker should have protection against the loss of his property. Fires, thefts, storms, and various kinds of accidents take a huge toll of property each year. These factors are a constant menace to the economic security of preperty owners, particularly those with relatively small incomes who have invested most of their savings in homes, furniture, automobiles, and similar neces- sities. Every person, therefore, who acquires destructible property of any considerable financial value should have it insured if this is possible at reasonable rates. (7) The worker should have access to credit facilities at reasonable cost. In spite of all pos- sible efforts to protect the worker against future emergencies by savings, investment, and_ insur- ance, occasions will arise in which the need to borrow money is urgent. Especially among per- sons at the lower salary levels, relatively small amounts are frequently needed over short periods of time. There is, of course, seldom much diff- culty in obtaining such loans from one source or another. But it is seldom possible for persons without collateral security to obtain short-time loans at rates of interest in proportion to their means. Even a superficial observer will note that the seven principles of economic security as noted above are not widely practiced in American life today. Where industry is under socially- minded leadership, the workers may be short- sighted in saving for emergencies. Where the state is progressive in its legislation, the citizens generally may be unable to keep pace. Ob- viously, the need is for social planning on a large scale." What can education do with the economic problems? First, as various leaders propose, the school curriculum can give increased attention to the study of the social and economic prob- lems of American life. Second, classes and schools should be extended to give 2ttention to the whole range of intellectual and physical abilities, Third, provision needs to be made for vocational education, guidance, and placement. Fourth, continuation schools are necessary to keep up the schooling of the individual who is forced into industry at an early age. Fifth, pro- vision must be made to re-educate those forced into unemployment by technological changes. Sixth, habits of thrift and socially acceptable ideals should be developed systematically from the beginning of the school experience. Seventh, schools must set up the necessary machine:) +) capitalize upon the work of the visiting tea the psychiatrist, the police, the prison waren the public health nurse, and similar experts. Extension of Public Health and Recreational Activities Bad housing, disease, and unsanitary con ditions are often found in association with +h, high crime rates of communities. Physical and mental disorders cannot be permitted tv without public attention. By enforcing ing laws, prescribing health regulations, ani fostering recreation, organized society prey ents conditions in which crime thrives. Anyone not familiar with the role of izno rance in the health of the typical American community should read Middletown by Lynd and Lynd.* They report quackery as attempt ing to cure sickness, immorality and cheapne stalking the leisure hours, shortsightedness culties arising from conflicting social standards. Physical welfare—The physical examina- tions of the World War revealed numerous For the first time many citizens began to ques tion whether children should be allowed t grow up without strenuous public efforts to pre- vent and to remedy the physical handicaps Recently, the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection® has set forth as the fundamental rights of every American child the following: For every child health protection from birt! through adolescence, including periodical healt! examinations and, where needed, care of specialists and hospital treatment; regular dental examina tions and care of the teeth; protective and pr ventive measures against communicable diseases the insuring of pure food, pure milk, and pur water. For every child from birth through adolescence promotion of health, including health instruction and a health program, wholesome physical an! mental recreation, with teachers and leaders ade- quately trained. For every child a dwelling-place safe, sanitar) and wholesome, with reasonable provisions {o! privacy; free from conditions which tend thwart his development; and a home environment harmonious and enriching. 1 Consult Whither Mankind, Charles A. Beard (editor); Men and Machines, Stuart Chase; “‘Swope’s Cure for Ila: Times,” yg way est 111: 8-9; October 3, 1931; and similar current treatments of economic difficulties a Lynd 8 complete Conference, 1930. New York: Century Co., 1930. p. 46-47. [176] » and Lynd, Helen M.’ Middletown, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1929. 550 p. Children’s Charter published in the Addresses and Abstracts of Committee Reports, White I! chinery to ig teacher, n warden, lar social and tary con- with the ysical and ed ing hous- to go ions, and prevents of igno- American by Lynd attempt- sheapness rhtedness ital diff- randards, examina- jumerous ed men. to ques- owed to ‘S$ to pre- indicaps. ence on forth as ‘an child m_ birth ] health Decialists *xamina- ind diseases; nd pre pure lescence, struction cal and ers ade- janitary, ons tor rend to ronment for Hard te House ee Bie a) Tie. eters, For every chiid education for safety and pro- rection against accidents to which modern condi- tions subject him—those to which he is directly exposed and those which, through loss or maiming of his parents, affect him indirectly. [due care should be taken to note that the Children’s Charter emphasizes the community's responsibility for the physical welfare of chil- dren. First, there is the home with its obliga- tions to the child. Second, the school with its medical inspections, teaching of health prin- ciples, provision for relaxation period, program of games, special physical exercises, and similar devices. Finally, there are the public health services including disease control, prevention programs, clinics, health surveys, building regu- lations, sanitary laws, and hospitals. A report of the White House Conference, The School Health Program, presents a com- prehensive and forward-looking program for education.' A joint committee of the National Education Association and the American Med- ical Association compiled Health Education, a program for public schools.” An earlier Research Bulletin has listed numerous references in the field of physical health.® Mental hygiene—The Children’s Charter sets forth one of the basic rights of children as follows: For every child who is in conflict with society the right to be dealt with intelligently as society's charge, not society’s outcast; with the home, the school, the church, the court, and the institution when needed, shaped to return him whenever pos- sible to the normal stream of life. The above statement summarizes the new approach to personality and emotional diff- culties of problem children. Note the words “the right to be dealt with intelligently as so- ciety’s charge” which places the responsibility largely upon society for child’s maladjustment. Certainly, the responsibility is upon society to provide a remedial program. Here, as in the case of physical health, the 1 White House Conference on Child Health and Protec 1932, 400 p. _ ,* National Education Association and American Medical National Education Associaton, 1930. 251 p. ® National Education Association, Division of Research. Research Bulletin 7: 51-58, 95-96; March, 1929. Washington , ‘An excellent summary of these specialists is found in Yearbook, Department of Classroom Teachers, National Edu ® Published by Century Co., New York, 1932. * National Education Association, Division of Research Research Bulletin 7: 59-66, 96; March, 1929, Washington, home must assume the first responsibility. Next the school through its crained classroom teach- ers, psychologists, psychiatrists, visiting teach- ers, and medical workers must administer its constructive program. Finally, public and pri- vate agencies must supplement, extend, and assist the efforts of the home and school.* The possibilities of the school’s program in cooperation with the home and various public agencies have been set forth in the publications of the White House Conference Child Health and Protection. For example: Organi- zation for the Care of Handicapped Children, and The Delinquent Child.’ Various books, useful in connection with a school program of mental hygiene, have been listed in a Research Bulletin in 1929.° The special problem of the defective—What necessary health measures should society take on in the case of those persons who are feeble- minded? Persons working with such handicap- ped individuals point out the difficulty of ever adjusting the mentally defective to normal so- cial existence.’ It has been recommended that the courts should increase their facilities for detecting and treating the offender who is feeble-minded or mentally-diseased.*® In light of the menace to society of the pres- ence of mentally irresponsible individuals, so- cial workers have suggested a number of pre- ventive measures that could be employed by society : (1) Segregation of the insane or feeble-minded in special institutions; and (2) Sterilization of the mentally diseased, to prevent their reproduction, with- out at the same time, removing them from normal association.® Up to this time, extensive application of the above measures await advance of public or physically opinion and development of clinical facilities. Recreation—The Children’s Charter de- mands the following: tion. The School Health Program. New York: Century Co., Association. Fiealth Education (Revised). Washington, D. C “The Principal and Progressive Movements in Education.”’ , D. C.: the Association. “The Classroom Teacher and Character Education,” Seventh cation Association, 1932. p. 169-80. “The Principal and Progfessive Movements in Education.” D. C.: the Association. : 7 Walker, Jean. “Factors Contributing to the Delinquency of Defective Girls,” University of California Publications in Psychology; and Davies, Stanley P. Social Control of the Mentally Deficient. § Glueck, S. Sheldon. Mental Disorder and the Criminal Law. p. 472-74. ® Davies, Stanley Powell. Social Control of the Mentally Deficient, p. 105-8. See also: Thayer, Walter N., Jr. “Institu- tions for Defective Delinquents’; Whipple, Helen Davis. Making Citizens of the Mentally Limited, listed at end of bulittin. [177] For every child a community which recognizes and plans for his needs, protects him against physical dangers, mora! hazards, and disease; pro- vides him with safe and wholesome places for play and recreation; and makes provision for his cultural and social needs. As in previously cited declarations of the Children’s Charter the emphasis is upon the community’s responsibility to safeguard the child’s recreation.’ Studies of delinquent groups show that a large proportion of the individuals had no contact with organized recreational facilities, Delinquency areas were shown to con- tain less than the minimum amount of play space considered adequate according to social standards. In addition, available amusements and sources of entertainment have been found to be hardly effective means of character training. The desires of children for novelty or their other interests are often exploited by operators of amusement houses ; activities of clubs are un- supervised ; and available reading matter lends interest to vice.” Only development of community interest in the child’s recreational life and responsibility for the kind of entertainment offered can bring about any material change. Salt Lake City has united various civic and welfare groups in a city-wide program for youth. Elementary school principals in Chicago, Minneapolis, Mil- waukee, Newark, and other cities have de- scribed their procedures in providing neighbor- hood recreational and welfare activities. The National Recreation Association and other or- ganizations listed in Part VI of this bulletin have suggestions to offer to those interested in the recreational aspects of child health and protection.° Improving the Agencies of Justice Upon the police, the judges, the lawyers, and the prison officials falls the major respon- sibility for meeting the challenge of crime. In recent years these officials have turned to “‘pre- vention” as the way to better conditions. There are certain serious weaknesses and strengths of Hammer, American City 40: 119- 20; January, 1929. 2 See Middletown by Robert S p. 93-502. these “wheels of justice’ which should | cussed at this point. Revision and simplification of the la: is the law that brands the individual as linquent or criminal. The whole prob! crime and delinquency cannot be treated quately without considering the structu criminal law and the present organizati criminal justice. While any detailed considera. tion of these legal aspects is outside the ; of this bulletin, a few general points m brought out. According to Edgar A. Doll: Many authorities believe that the contin of obsolete laws or of indefinite laws or of popular laws creates situations which eng: disrespect for laws in general with conseque: social disorder. There is also much antig legislation which obstructs police and court cedures, such as rules of evidence, technicali: systems of appeal, unequal or unreasonable alties which aggravate rather than ame! the control of crime. Other laws may be ineffec: nonexistent, or subject to abuse, such as ¢! providing for adequate systems of probation don and parole, indeterminate sentence, res tion following criminal offenses, control criminal “fence,” control of habitual control of deadly weapons and similar items must reckon with existing abuses in the se! tion and control of juries, and in the whole n chinery of our judicial system, such as rules ¢ erning expert testimony, loopholes in prosecut judicial discretion in sentence, probation, of commitment, fines vs. imprisonment, and s. through a long chapter.* What can the schools do about obsolete lay If the schools send out young citizens who ( crimin mand the revision of laws and insist upon wise legislative enactments, much progress wil! \ made. After all, public officials are moved public opinion and that “opinion” should be socially constructive as possible. Improvement of court procedures—VV ith respect to future development of court proc dure, these improvements, among others, have been suggested: (1) extension to adult crim inals of methods and treatment given children of juvenile court age; (2) recognition of assistance rendered by psychiatry; (3) more centralization of responsibility; (4) establis! ment of investigating bodies to study procedura! 1 Numerous articles deal with this problem, such as “The Relation of Public Recreation to Delinquency,” by Lee |! . Lynd ead Helen M. Lynd, published by Harcourt, Brace and Co., New York, s Beeley, Arthur L., director. Boys and Girls in Salt Lake City. p, 182-83. ‘ National Education Association » Department - 4 aaa School Principals. “The Principal and His Communi Eleventh Yearbook. Chapters VI and IX in 8U. S. i Otce, I of Labor, Children’s ment, Pate ie B 36-50. Peigar A 7 Control of Crime,” rticul ureau. “Public Dance Hall. Publication No. 189. Washington, D. C.: Scientific Monthly 26: 553-54; June, 1928. Gover [178] the i¢ t ture of ition of isidera- € scope May be I]: Inuance wender sequent iquated rt yr pl talities le pen sliorate Fectual Minals is. W e s¢ lec e Cuti mn place so on laws? 10 de- | wise ill od by be as With roce- have >rim- dren f the more lish- ural problems.’ Cooperation with the juvenile courts and the development of fine attitudes toward the courts are important contributions of the school in making the public tribunals highly effective. Ethics of the legal profession—-In recent years some of the practices of lawyers have brought sharply to public attention the pro- fessional ethics of the bar. The devices resorted to in court to influence juries, the attempts to excite public opinion through the newspapers, the stampede of high legal talent to support the cases of criminals, the ‘ambulance chasers,” and similar petty tactics have lost much pres- tige for the legal profession.” Fortunately, there are strong local, state, and national professional associations at work to establish high levels cf social conduct and service. Lawlessness in law enforcement—The Na- tional Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement has discussed police brutality as exemplified by the third degree. Much can be said on both sides of this problem. Public opin- ion is so indifferent when the police are in- jured or even killed that enforcement officers claim that they must be brutal in self-defense. At the same time one is impressed by the in- frequent use of firearms and the lack of brutal- ity reported as common among the police of the British Isles. The police of Berkeley, Cali- fornia, and in other cities exemplify in this country the development of the scientific, highly-trained police officer. Schools working with the crime prevention bureaus of police departments can establish many right attitudes toward the police and law enforcement. Upon state colleges and uni- versities should fall responsibility for training skilled and intelligent enforcement officials. Probation and parole—Prison officials have long been urging the advantages of probation and parole. First, it costs about $40 a year for each person on probation and $20 to supervise each one on parole while maintenance in an in- stitution ranges from $300 to $550 per year.‘ Second, penologists and wardens agree that many persons are now sent to prisons when it is Criminal Justice in America, p. 177-78, 188-91; Callender, listed at the end of this bulletin. wholly unnecessary. These persons are sufh- ciently punished by the sentence, and under proper guidance can be kept in society in the role of good citizens. Third, a system of parole permits society to release prisoners under su- pervision which is better than unconditional freedom. Parole is also a device advocated by prison officials as a means of making the treatment of prisoners more flexible, Wardens and other ex- perts at the prison are usually qualified to de- termine when a prisoner should be returned to society. Because of the obsolete practice of met- ing out so many years of punishment for cer- tain types of crimes, the warden is unable to treat his prisoners in accordance with the many physical, mental, and social differences. Schools have opportunities and obligations with children who are on probation. How can these youngsters be interested in constructive work? How can the original predisposing en vironment be modified? How can school off- cials cooperate with probation and court ofh- cials? With offenders on parole public education should have something to offer in the way of opportunities for vocational and social rehabili- tation. Educational programs of prisons and re- formatories—Reports of educational work in the prisons are far from encouraging. In fact, MacCormick has stated that, “Of all the fields in which the American penal institution gives evidence of futility, education very nearly heads the list.”° During 1927-28 MacCormick visited the prisons and reformatories for men and women in this country. Not a single com- plete and well-rounded educational program, adequately financed and staffed, was found in the prisons. A discussion of present provisions by Best reports that the proportion of prisoners attend- ing school varies for adults in different institu- tions from one-fifth to two-fifths. In most in- stitutions there are one civilian teacher and one or more convict teachers. The maximum time in one day devoted to instruction is three or 1 For discussions of needed improvements in the courts, see: Haynes, Fred E., Criminology, p. 111-16; Pound, Roscoe, Clarence N., American Courts, p, 224-30. These sources are 2See A Lawyer Tells the Truth by Morris Gisnet; Published by J. P. Kahn Co., New York, 1931. 160 p. * National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Report on Lawlessness in Law Enforcement, No. 11, June 25, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 347 p * National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. ape! on faee Institutions, Probation, and Parole, No. 9, June 23, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 34 4p. 5 MacCormick, Austin H. The Education of Adult Prisoners, p. 38. [179 ] four hours. Instruction is generally of an ele- mentary order, ranging, as a rule, from the fourth to the eighth grades. The subjects taught are mostly reading and writing, with possibly some civics, commercial subjects, and music.’ Libraries and reading materials constitute an element in educating prisoners. However, lack of funds and trained supervision have pre- vented library work among prisons from prov- ing its value. Correspondence instruction has proved its validity in several institutions.* In the prisons vocational training is given only incidentally in industries, on the prison farm, or in connection with maintenance de- tails. A few prisoners are taking vocational courses by correspondence, “‘but almost without exception they choose their courses without guidance, pay for them from their own funds, and study them without assistance from the prison authorities.” Reformatories for men have usually set up fairly elaborate programs of vo- cational education. Reformatories for women have a better opportunity than institutions for men to set up successful programs of vocational education, because the work of the institution provides training in so many occupations which women can enter after leaving the institution. Stutsman in his Curing the Criminal pre- sents on pages 185-86 a model educational plan, representing a composite of present institutional work: A. Literary and scholastic studies should be adopted according to the individual needs of the population, as follows: (1) Reading, writing, spelling, grammar, rhetoric, English composition, English literature, debating, and language study. Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigo- nometry, surveying, and astronomy. Physics, chemistry, physiology, geog- raphy, natural history. (4) Geography, history, civics, etc. (5) Other studies as demanded. . Trade apprenticeship in blacksmithing, car- pentry bricklaying, plastering, stone masonry, cement finishing, painting, decorating, struc- tural iron work, automobile repairing, me- chanics, etc. . Agricultural training, using the various farm departments as a laboratory. These studies would embrace: stock raising, judging stock, dairying, poultry raising, agronomy, horticul- ture, floriculture, entomology, etc. (2) (3) 1 Best, * MacCormick, Austin H. Op. cit. See Chapter 10, Chapter 14, “Corresponde: ® MacCormick, Austin H. Op. cit. See Chapter 9, p. 470-72. D. Engineering and kindred courses in me: cal engineering, electrical engineering engineering, mechanical drafting, archit. drafting, efficiency engineering, accountin, - Cultural training in music, music-ap; tion, art, drama, etc., using the recrea activities for exhibition purposes. F. Ethical and religious instruction. Th¢ lar religious services under the direct: the chaplain should be augmented by . instruction for the entire population evening each week at which educationa|! ing pictures are shown, and follow: ethical talks on character, habits, ho truthfulness, our relation to society presented by various successful business teachers, and professional men, in an esting manner. . Exhibitions, such as debates, dramatic entations, musicals, etc. A prison pay: which all may contribute under the c ship of the educational director. Religion a Vital Force The keynote of many current discussion religious organizations and teaching is 1 tive. Some writers believe that present relic cults are declining in influence and that church retains neither adults nor childre: However, it cannot be denied that a pow: motive for “good citizenship” is to be foun religious ideals and teachings. Practically all of the states have consti! tional or statutory provisions expressl) hibiting sectarian instruction or teaching religious doctrines in public schools. The r ing of the Bible in public schools is required statute in eleven states. While creed and co: troversial doctrines must be left to the chu: and to the home, there are fundamental ligious experiences in which the school can | ticipate. In this respect, the Commission Character Education has stated: It is commonly thought that the public scho must refrain from taking part in the teaching 0! religion. It is true that the schools cannot attempt to settle the controversial matters of doctrine creed, but surely the schools can deal with thos experiences which are fundamental to the impulse: and attitudes essential to religion. A study of the age-long yearnings and strivings of humanity must tend to make the individual religious in a funda or mental sense. Where appreciation of the needs | the world is developed and a desire to share meeting those needs is created, surely a religious Harry. Crime and the Criminal Law in the United States. p. 468-70. “The Library as an Aguesy of Education,” p. nce Instruction and University Extension Service,”’ p. 216-31. “Vocational Education,” 150-79 p. 99-149. Also, Best, Harry. O/P. [ 180 ] in hools ig of empt e or those ulses f the must nda- Is of ‘é in r10US impulse has been gained. The world today needs religion as much as it ever did, perhaps more. This need can be met only by means of religious interpretation and leadership in terms of life as it is today. The schools can do much to prepare the way for such interpretation and such leader- ship. The Need for an Intelligent Public Opinion As one of six reasons for increase of crimes of violence during the last fifty years, is sug- gested: “The apathy and indifference of our best citizens toward their duty as citizens.” ” Previous sections of this bulletin have stressed the desirability of altering certain undesirable attitudes toward the juvenile delinquent and the adult criminal. Reform in police methods, prison practices, court procedures, and aspects of the problem must be supported by an enlight- ened public opinion. The individual citizen should help to alleviate the causes of crime by demanding wise legislation and impartial en- forcement. In brief, every prophylactic of crime depends ultimately upon active public support for its success.* The School’s Opportunity in Cooperation with Other Agencies of Society The place of education in the prevention of crime has received much attention from crim- inologists as well as from educators. Emphasis has been given largely to the strategic position in society occupied by the schools. Part IV has described in brief the special classes and schools already available for children who are tempera- mentally atypical, There are other ways, how- ever, in which the schools make a more positive approach to crime and delinquency. (1) The home—Even though present-day sociologists deplore the status of the family as a unit of control, for many years of the indi- vidual’s life the home is the chief influence. The home has the last word in what the child eats, wears, thinks, and does. It determines his ideals 1 National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. “Character Education,” Tenth Yearbook, 1932 9 2 Strawn, Silas H. Fifty Years’ Progress in Law. p. 189. and associates. Education is given both con- sciously and unconsciously. Imitation and sug- gestion mold the child’s character. The home consciously instructs the child in forms of cour- tesy, domestic life, literature, religion, sex and morality, play, and in some cases, industry. Home and school cooperation is necessary to insure the happiness and development of chil- dren.* Such cooperation requires that the school take account of the extent and quality of the home training. It should encourage better home conditions in such matters as food, venti- lation, clothing, sanitation. Agencies assisting in securing this cooperation are parent-teacher associations, school exhibits, visiting days for parents, visiting teachers and nurses, and sys- tems of full and frequent reports.°® In a number of cities a complete study of a problem child requires that the visiting teacher call upon the parents. In these visits the teacher often discovers back of the “problem child” such home conditions as the following: (1) in- dulgence of the child, (2) great severity by parents, (3) uncooperative attitude toward the school, and (4) no adult supervision of the child. Often the visiting teacher discovers out- standing assets in the home which the school can use in its program.® As the home may contribute in a helpful or destructive way to the school program, the school makes a distinct contribution to the sta- bility and cultural level of the home. Depart- ments and officers within the school system specially promoting home and school coopera tion are these: the visiting teacher, health serv- ice. department, department of census and attendance, the research department, and coun- seling program. The subject of home and school cooperation is given extensive treatment in Chapter 14 of the Tenth Yearbook of the De- partment of Superintendence, National Edu- cation Association.’ (2) The community—There has been ap- parent a consistent growth in use of schools as social, civic, recreational, or neighborhcod cen- 4 * Consult the bibliography at the end of this bulletin for further discussion of the importance of public understanding and support. ‘ Reeve, Mrs. A. H., Chairman. Home and School Cooperation. Report of the White House Confererice on Child Health and Protection. New York: Century Co., 1932. 122 p. 5 See “Home Contacts Sought by the School” and other chapters in the 1932 Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Association. * Culbert, Jane F. The Visiting Teacher at Work. p. 47. wee Education Association, Department of Superintendence. “Character Education,” Tenth Yearbook, 1932. 5-32. p. 3 [ 181 ] st Ne LG I ee ters.' Wider use of the school plant has been stimulated by university extension divisions, state departments of public instruction, private organizations, and day school groups. School- houses are now very generally used for com- munity purposes, though only 5% percent are used regularly and as often as once a week. The school would appear to be a natural com- munity center, especially in the case of the con- solidated rural school.” The schoolhouse has been used for lecture courses, public library purposes, art exhibitions, concerts, and pageants. The 1932 yearbook of the Department of Elementary School Princi- pals describes how the school may be used as an employment center, a health and recreation cen- ter, or a civic center.* The many values of such use of the schoolhouse have been emphasized. For instance, by provision of healthful leisure- time activities, the school center is helping to break down the barriers between people of dif- ferent creeds, nationalities, social and economic strata, thus creating a basis for friendly contact among them. In making available a construc- tive means of self-expression, the school center is increasing the happiness and worth of the individual. “ (3) Juvenile courts—There is a growing tendency for school authorities, trained in the newer technics and viewpoints of child psy- chology, to handle maladjusted cases formerly referred to the juvenile courts. In a few cities the court and school authorities have developed coordinating child welfare units.* These units are guided by the theory “that maladjustment has definite causal factors of a physical, men- tal, or environmental nature which should be recognized and carefully considered before the child himself is held responsible.” The Jersey City organization established in February, 1931, under the superintendent of schools, includes twenty-five attendance officers, six visiting teachers, five plain clothes police officers, a medical inspector, a dental inspector, a nurse, a psychologist, and a psychiatrist. In handling school cases the procedure is as fol- lows: 1. Children showing definite signs of al; physical or mental conditions are reported Bureau of Special Service on special forn pared for such reports. Accompanying this is a complete statement of the school histor, permanent record card of the school syst well as the analytical statement of pers traits, recreational habits and interests. a; special indications of maladjustment. 2. These cases are then referred to the teachers for complete investigation of bot! and school conditions. This record bec cumulative one by means of weekly fo! visits by the visiting teachers. 3. All children are scheduled for clinical examination in the light of the inforn gained from school and home. Special attenti given to sensory defects due to the alarming | ber which have been found to escape detec the classroom teachers. 4. Weekly conferences are held for the d sion of these cases in an attempt to formulat well-rounded judgment of the proper wa handling each individual. 5. Recommendations are made to the tendent of schools regarding the necessit transferring children to the various special « and schools. Further than this, recommenda: are also made for the establishment of additio: classes of a given type or additional t classes. Delinquent children located by the poli handled as follows: 1. Whenever a child is detected committ some juvenile offense of sufficient importan demand police attention, he is escorted home by the officer who secures the nam address, and school attended. The following d a complete report is made to the captain of 1 police detail assigned to this Bureau giving the above information together with the offense com mitted by the child. 2. Parents are notified to present themselves at the office of the Bureau of Special Service accom panied by the child for a conference concerning the reported offense. 3. Complete statements are taken from parents and children regarding the family conditions, home life, and recreational habits of the child. They are given to understand that continuance of such offenses will lead to serious difficulty and are ad- vised in regard to the regulation of the children’s habits along constructive lines. 4. All of these cases are given the same clinical examinations as that described for those reported 1 For information on community use of schools in the United States, see Glueck, Eleanor Touroff. The Community of Schools, listed in bibliography at end of bulletin. 2 Mueller, A. D. Progressive Trends in Rural Educetion. See Chapter 16, “The Rural Community Center.” p s 1932. ‘ See “Community Center Activities,” Chapter VI, Eleventh Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Princ Rothe Institute for Juvenile Research and the School System,” Eleventh Yearbook, Department of Elementa: 40. incipals, 1932. p. 534- 5 2 wee Pye non of Special Service of the Jersey City school system were supplied to the Research Divisior Superintendent James A. Nugent. Space limitations prevent the publication of statistics showing the success of Superinten dent Nugent’s program. [ 182] rth comes follow comy forma fentior ing nun ection by e discus mulate a Way of superin ssity for i] classes endations dditional tvpes of olice are mmitting ‘tance 1 me, age, ving day n of the ving the nse com- selves at e accom- meerning | parents ns, home They are of such are ad- hildren’s e clinical reported munity Use p. 313-33 Principals, ‘lementary livision by uperinten- by the school authorities, and the parents are ad- yised in regard to necessary treatment. 5. Follow-up visits are made to the home and the school by plain clothes officers who secure information regarding the child’s activities until such time as there is sufhcient evidence that there is no further need for this follow-up work. 6. In those cases where parents show the proper cooperation, and still the children continue to be 4delinquent, the child is taken before the juvenile court with a complete statement of the case and the desirability of a correctional insitution is decided by the judge. This procedure has been necesssary in less than 10 percent of the cases which were formerly automatically referred to such a court. Even in school systems where no such com- plete organization can be established, there are at least three ways in which the school systems may help: (1) through the establishment of research bureaus to study child behavior; (2) by the improvement of each classroom situation so as to reduce pupil maladjustment to the minimum ;' and (3) by full cooperation with juvenile court authorities.” Adult education—Ot significance for educa- tional organization are the studies of adult learning published within the last five years.® While it was popularly believed that learning capacity declined with age, actual experiments seemed to indicate that the older student is as capable of acquiring knowledge and skills as the younger student, and perhaps more so. Approximately 900,000 men and women are enrolled in public evening schools annually.‘ It is estimated that 1,500,000 new students are enrolled each year by private correspondence schools. The total enrolment of university ex- tension students in the United States, exclusive of agricultural extension, was estimated at 250,000 in 1929. Associations originally organ- ized for religious and social purposes maintain auxiliary educational activities. The significance of adult education as a means of curbing crime perhaps lies to a large extent in the possibility cf reaching parents.° Since many evidences of maladjustment appear in early childhood, the parents, as well as teach- ers, should know how to handle behavior piob- lems. Parent education has been called “a new force in education.” ® Large numbers of parents have realized the value of systematic group study of their common problems. Material of assistance to them has been made available through the Child Study Association of Amer- ica, American Association of University Women, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, as well as child welfare research stations. Vocational maladjustment has been suggested as a factor in crime. This suggestion emphasizes the desirability of retaining children in school as long as possible, establishing educational facilities for workers,’ and providing some op- portunity for re-educating those forced into idleness by technological changes in industry The Workers’ Education Bureau enrols fifty national and inter-national unions, eleven state federations, thirty-six central city labor bodies, sixty local unions, twenty trade union colleges and study groups, and six co-operative and stu- dent associations. The residential labor college at Brookwood was established in 1921 at Katonah, New York. The International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union, a pioneer in work- ers’ education, has the most highly developed educational program among national unions. Other labor colleges are the Boston Trade Union College, Philadelphia Labor College, Cincinnati Labor College, and Portland (Ore.) Labor College. Character education — Criminologists and penologists have pointed out the school’s oppor tunity for crime prevention. Warden Lawes of Sing Sing Prison insists that schools must ex- tend themselves beyond any mere “illiteracy campaign’”’ if they are to develop in pupils a re sponsive social outlook.* Other statements em- phasizing the character developing responsibili- ties of education are as follows: Upon the matter of possible juvenile delinquency, and perhaps also upon the matter of future adult 1 Wickman’s study of teachers’ attitudes in behavior cases shows that many teachers are unfamiliar with the recent research and viewpoint of child psychology. See Children’s Behavior and Teachers’ Attitudes, Commonwealth Fund, New York, 1928. 247 p. The problem of school-juvenile court relationship has been discussed by LeRoy F. Jackson in “Public Schools and Probation,” Probation 10: 1-2; February, 1932. Consult various publications of the National Probation Association and the Children’s Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor. ' See Thorndike, Edward L., and others. Adult Learning, Macmillan, 1928, 335 p. “ Cartwright, Morse A. and Ely, Mary. Adult Education in the United States of America. p. 5, 8, 10. 5 For example, Intelligent Parenthood, Proceedings of the Mid-west Conference on Parent Education, University of Chica Oo Press, 1926, 326 p * For discussions of the potentialities of parent-teacher cooperation, see: National Congress of Parents and Teachers. A New Force in Education, listed in bibliography at end of this bulletin. * For discussion of werkers’ education, see Peffer, Nathaniel. New Schools for Older Students. p. 203-43. wes, Lewis E. “A Warden Looks at Education.” New York Times Magazine, July 31, 1932, p. 1-2, 13. [ 183 ] criminality, the school can never have other than a great bearing. A large part of the child’s waking hours are in its hands, and under its influences— and at a time when the child’s character and in- terests are subject to almost measureless shaping and molding. Upon its schools society plates a heavy responsibility. It expects them to give the child committed to their care an equipment that will make ef him a good citizen and not a potential law-breaker' The nation’s budget for crime has been shown to be about three times its expenditure for educa- tion. The reversal of these figures would bring salutary results without costing us an additional penny. It is probably safe to assert that the trebling of our budget for scientific education should reduce the cost of crime by two-thirds. This does not take into consideration the social and spiritual results which would accompany this transition.” It has remained the task of the educator to develop methods and objectives of direct and indirect moral instruction.? The Tenth Year- book of the Department of Superintendence, and the Seventh Yearbook of the Department of Classroom Teachers are devoted to the subject of character education.* These yearbooks do not set forth curriculums for character education as such, but present points-of-view looking toward development of more comprehensive and more constructive school life. They take up the theory, agencies, and objectives of character education, the part played by classroom pro- cedure, individual counseling, school organiza- tion and administration. With respect to the curriculum, the attitude taken is that “any curriculum that makes a sincere, intelligent, and courageous approach to the real problem of liv- ing is a character education curriculum.” The final pages of Chapter 9 of one of the yearbooks present the “Cardinal Principles of Education,” restated in the language of char- acter education. The potentialities of the schools are suggested in the outline. The princi- pal divisions of the outline are to this effect.’ A. Is our school program meeting the intellectual needs of our boys and girls? B. Are our boys and girls getting some under- standing of the major fields of occupations and pro- fessions together with an appreciation of their opportunities and requirements? C. Are our boys and girls intelligent a: sponsive to the requirements of health? D. Are our pupils growing in understandi the principles upon which our nation is foun freedom, equality, implications of meaning of patriotism? Are these principles in the life of the school? E. Is the school preparing its leisure time worthily? F. Are our boys and girls forming satisfactory' standards of social relationships: (1) toward thei, democra pupils t contemporaries both of their own and of ¢h opposite sex, (2) toward the “elders” of their e; vironment—parents, teachers, civic leaders, toward the handicapped of society? G. Are our pupils acquiring ethical habits conduct—playing fair, owning up, being honest work, learning to respect the rights and pro of others? Are they learning to regulate condy in terms of consequences to themselves ani ; others? Are the more thoughtful and mature lear ing to regulate their conduct in terms of acc: principles? H. Are our boys and girls acquiring a sens: personal debt to others for their part in build up a civilization for us; a debt to the institutions family, school, church, community, government and past civilizations? I. Are our children becoming sensitive and sponsive to the needs of others; to the need fo; friendly companionship on the part of new pupils to the need for friendliness and toleration on th part of those who are “different” in speech, in nationality, and in temperament; t need for helpfulness on the part of those who ar strange or have fallen behind in their work? dress, School efficiency—Research and competent opinion both assign to the public schools ani other agencies of education a major role in ' prevention of crime. As Warden Lawes of Sin Sing Prison has pointed out, the proper . charge of this obligation will require (| higher standard for teachers, (2) small classes to permit attention to individual ditte: ences, and (3) a new conception of the soci and scholastic goals of education. While thos improvements would require more expenditure for public education, ultimately the pu)! budget would be balanced because of the re! tively smaller expenditures for courts, po! work, and custodial care.® 1 Best, Harry. Crime and the Criminal Law in the United States. p. 578. 2 Parsons, Philip Archibald. Crime and the Criminal. p. 370. ® For tests of personality and character see the Review of Educational Research, American Educational Res Association, June, 1932. 88 p. iona’ ion Associati tment of Superintendence. “Character Education.’ Say ——— settee Denes rs, “The Clssesteen Teacher and Character Education.”’ Seventh Yea 535 p. Also, Department of Classroom Teachers, 1932. 272 p. 5 National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. “Character Education,’ p. 239-42. * Tenth Yearbook * Tenth Yearbook, > ® See “A Warden Looks at Education.”” New York Times Magazine, July 31, 1932. p. 1-2, 13. [ 184] igent and Ith ? lerstanding of is founded— F democracy rinciples vita] upils to use g satisfactor toward thei; and of the ’ of thei: en- leaders, (3 cal habits of ing honest ip and property ulate conduct elves and to mature learn. s of accepted ig a sense of t in building institutions of government itive and re- the need for new pupils; ‘ation on the in dress, ir ment; to the 1ose who are - work? | competent schools and role in the wes of Sing proper dis- uire (1) 2) smaller dual differ f the social While those xpenditures the public of the rele urts, police onal Research arbook, nth Year arbook, But the problem is more than one of improv- ing the existing school machinery. There is a need (1) to carry the advantages of modern education to every rural child,’ and (2) to ex- tend the period of exposure to modern education hy increasing the holding power of the schools.? However excellent the educational facilities provided by the state, they are effective to the extent that they reach those for whom the schools are intended. Conclusion This bulletin has summarized the social and individual aspects of crime. Studies have been presented to show the association of crime con- ditions with intelligence, race, age, sex, mental disease, and other individual criminal charac- teristics. Other studies have indicated the con- nection between crime and such social condi- tions as unemployment, crowded living condi- tions, inadequate recreational facilities, and the broken home. While these investigations show that the normal individual must be re- sponsible for many of his acts—the modern viewpoint emphasizes society's responsibility to prevent and to remove the underlying environ- mental causes of crime. a oe 9: 230-302; September, 1931. * National Education Association, Division of Research. 10: 76-132; May, 1932. ® See Life and Works of Horace Mann, Vol. I\ 4 National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education of Education, Bulletin, 1918, No. 35, Office of Education. Washington, D. C.: 1 National Eaucation Association, Division of Research. Horace Mann sounded the “social concept of crime prevention” as early as 1845 when he wrote: If it is proved, with « reasonable degree of cer- tainty, that ninety-nine, ninety-five, ninety, e ghty, or any other given percentage of all children can be rescued from vice and crime, and can be so educated and trained as to become valuable citi- zens, but the State refuses or declines to do this work, then the State itself becomes a culprit; and, before the great moral Judge who is seated on the throne of the universe, it must stand a spectacle of shame and guilt, like one of its own inferior culprits before its own judicial tribunals.* The school is the social agency strategically placed to develop good citizens. Society ex- pects the school to accept every child regard- less of “race, or color, or situation’ —and to “develop in each individual the knowledge, interests, ideals, habits, and powers whereby he will find his place and use that place to shape both himself and the society toward ever nobler ends.” tional task cannot be accomplished without con- * Obviously, such a stupendous educa- tinuous cooperation between the school, the home, the government, the church, and the other important agencies of society, “The Outlook for Rural Education.” Research Bulletin “Estimating State School Efficiency.’’ :Research Bulletin Boston: Lee and Shepard Publishers, 1891. p. 159 Cardinal Principles Government Printing Office, p. 9. OVERNMENTS DO NOT see the future criminal or pauper in the neglected child, and therefore they sit calmly by, until roused from their stupor by the cry of hunger or the spectacle of crime. They erect the almshouse, the prison, and the gibbet, to arrest or mitigate the evils which timely caution might have prevented. The courts and the ministers of justice sit by until the petty delinquencies of youth glare out in the enormities of adult crime; and then they doom to the prison or the gallows those | enemies to society, who, under wise and well-applied influences, might have been supports and ornaments of the social fabric—Horace Mann. Life and Works of Horace Mann, Vol. IV. Boston: Lee and Shepard Publishers, 1891. p. 6. [ 185 j PART VI Organizations Interested in Crime Prevention In the preceding sections of this bulletin, reference has been made to the activities and publications of different organizations in the fields of education, law, and social work. ‘The studies, bulletins, and reports of these organi- zations are of special interest to students of the whole problem of crime and delinquency. Be- low the names and addresses of a num the most active organizations are given fo, erence. For lists of other agencies one may sult the Handbook of Social Resources United States of the American Red Cross A Handbook of Educational Organizat; the federal Office of Education, , | Name of organization Address American Academy of Political . ad Social Science. American Association for Adult Education. | American Association of Psychia- tric Social Workers. American Bar Association | American Bankers Association American Family Welfare Associa- tion. | American Foundation for Mental Hygiene. American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology. American Medical Association. . . American Prison Association. .. . American Public Welfare Associa- tion. American Social Hygiene Asvocia- tion. Big Brother and Big Sister Federa- tion. | Catholic Charities of the Archdio- cese of New York. Chicago Crime Commission Child Study Association of America. Child Welfare League of America. . | Commonwealth Fund Commonwealth Fund, Joint Com- mittee on Methods of Prevent- ing Delinquency.— General Federation of Women's Clubs, Department of Public Welfarc Illinois Association for Criminal Justice. Institute of Social anc Reiigious Research. Judge Baker Foundation Missouri Association for Criminal Justice. 3457 Walnut St. Philadelphia, Pa. 60 East 42d St. New York City, N. Y. 41 East 57th St. New York City, N. Y. 1140 North Dearborn St. Chicago, Ill. 22 East 40th St. New York City, N. Y. 130 East 22nd St. New York City, N. Y. 450 Seventh Ave. New York City, N. Y. 1028 Land Title Bldg. Philadelphia, Pa. 535 North Dearborn St. Chicago, Ill. 135 East 15th St. New York City, N. Y. 850 East 58th St. New York City, N. Y. 450 Seventh Ave. New York City, N. Y. 425 Fourth Ave. at 29th St. New York City, N. Y. 477 Madison Avenue New York City, N. Y. 300 West Adams St. Chicago, Ill. 54 West 74th St. New York City, N. Y. 130 East 22nd St. New York City, N. Y. 41 East 57th St. New York City, N. Y. 50 E. 42nd St. New York City, N. Y. 1734 N St., N. W. Washington, D. C. Springfield, Ill. 230 Park Ave. New York City, N. Y. 40 Court St. Scollay Square, Boston, Mass. St. Louis. Mo. Name of organization Motion Picture Producers and Dis- tributors of America, Inc. National Association of Visiting | | Philadelphia, P | 1 Park Avenue Teachers. National Bureau of Casualty and Surety Underwriters. National Board of Review of Mo- tion Pictures. Nationa! Child Labor Committee National Child Welfare Associa- tion, National Commission on Law Ob- | | 14th and K St., N servance and Enforcement. National Committee for Mental Hygiene, Inc. National Committee on Prisons and Prisen Labor. National Committee on Visiting | Teachers. National Conference of Juvenile Agencies. National Conference of Social ork. National Congress of Parents and Teachers. National Education Association National Probation Association. . . National Recreation Association. . . New York State Crime Commis- sion. Russell Sage Foundation. . . Social Science Research Council U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. U. S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Prisons. U. S. Department of Labor, Chil- | dren's Bureau. Health and Protection. Address 28 W. 44th St New York City, > 1421 Race St New York City, > 70 Fifth Ave. New York City, > 331 Fourth Ave | New York City, } 70 Fifth Ave. | New York City, } Tower Building, Washington, D. ( | 450 Seventh Ave New York City, 250 West 57th St New York City, N 8 West 40th St. New York City, N House of Refuge | Welfare Island, N 82 North High St | Columbus, Ohio. | 1201 Sixteenth St.,N Washington, D. ( | 1201 Sixteenth Si Washington, D. ‘ | 450 Seventh Ave | New York City, N 315 Fourth Aveni« New York City, N Albany, N. Y. | 130 East 22nd St New York City, N | 230 Park Ave. | New York City, N 14th.St., between | and Constitution A N. W. Washington, D. ( 18th and F Sts., N | Washington, D. ( Tower Building | 14th and K Sts., N. \V’ Washington, D. C 20th and Constitut Ave., N. W. | Washington, D. ( White House Conference on Child Washington, D. Interior Building, PART VII Selected Bibliography This bibliography should enable the reader to discover recent and readable material on many aspects of this problem. In an attempt to ise only objective data, emphasis is given state and federal reports, studies of actual prison populations, and reports of various crime com- missions. Part I. Statistics on Crime A. Classes and Definitions CLARK, WILLIAM L., and MARSHALL, WILLIAM L. A Treatise on the Law of Crimes. Chicago: Callaghan and Co., 1927. p. 1. Includes a definition of crime based on legal decisions. 2, Dow, Grove SAMUEL. Crime and Its Preven- tion. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Edwards Brothers, 1927. Mimeo. p. 4-6, 84-94. Quotes classifications of crimes and criminals given by other writers. Lawes, Lewis E. Life and Death in Sing Sing. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1928. Chapter 1, “Crime—What Is It” p. 1-17; Chapter 2, “The Criminal—Who and Why?” p. 18-28. Points out that crime cannot be considered apart from the letter of the law. It is now known that the “born criminal” type does not exist. Behavior- of The University . Owens, ALBERT ALEXANDER. Problem Boy. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania, 1929. p. 14-17. Quotes definitions illustrating confusion of terminology in discussion of delinquents and behavior problem-cases. 5. Parsons, Puitip ARCHIBALD. Crime and the Criminai. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1926. Chapter 4, “Familiar Classifications of Crimi- nals,” p. 48-66. Lists classifications Lombroso, Garofalo, others. criminals made by Parmelee, of and among B. Statistics 1. Adult Criminals . Baumes, Cates H., chairman. Report of the Crime Commission, 1930. Legislative Document (1930) No. 98. Albany, New York: J. B. Lyon Co., 1930. 454 p. The recommendations cover prisons, pris- oners, police, psychiatric practices, procedures, and statistics. 7. JoHNsTon, James A., chairman. Report of the California Crime Commission, 1931, Sacra- mento, California: California State Printing Office, 1931. 142 p. [ 187 ] 14. Presents findings and recommendations of California Crime Commission relating to crime situation in that state, with legislative pro posals. Meap, Bennet. Federal Jails, 1929-30. U.S. Dept. of Justice, Bureau of Pris ons. Washington, D. C.: Othce, Covers federal offenders in 1,118 workhouses. Deals with prisoners under tence held jail before trial. Gives information on offense, and Prisoners in Government Printing 1931. 57 p. jails and sen those in of one year or less, and geographic distribution, race, nativity, The charged 118 also the age. covers prisoners report during year and maintenance costs. MEAD, nals 146 American Science. Statistics.” The An 1929. Philadelphia Social BENNET. “Police 74-95: November, Academy of Political and Presents statistics on crime rates, from data compiled by police departments. Mo ey, RAyMoND. The Administration of Crim in Missouri. St. Missouri: for Justice, Louis, Criminal inal Justice Missouri Association 1926 Summary of Missouri Crime Survey in 1925. Potter, Etten C. “Spectacular of Crime in Relation to the Crime Wave.” The Annals. 125: 1-19; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political Social Science. 56 p. Aspects and Investigates statistics underlying prevailing conception of a crime wave. During 1875-1926 there appeared a decrease of 37.7 percent in crime throughout the United States, in propor- tion to population. Article includes data on crime in Pennsylvania. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, BUREAU OF THE CENSUS. Prisoners, 1923. Washington, D. C. Government Printing Office, 1926. 363 p. A census of persons on sentence in penal or reformatory, institutions January 1, 1923, and those committed to such institutions from Janu- ary 1 to June 30, 1923. Statistics on prisoners under age eighteen are not included. The re- port covers 2,341 institutions, 109,075 prisoners serving sentence, and 166,356 commitments. U. S. DEPARTMENT oF CoMMERCE, BUREAU OF THE Census. The Prisoner’s Antecedents. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Of- fice, 1929. 77 p. Gives statistics on previous life of offenders committed in 1923 to state and federal prisons and reformatories. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, BUREAU OF THE CENSUS. Prisoners in State and Federal Prisons and Reformatories, 1928. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 48 p. Presents statistics on 55,746 prisoners re- ceived by ninety-seven prisons and reforma- tories in 1928. . U. S. DeparTMENT oF Justice, BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION. “Uniform Crime _ Reports.” Monthly Bulletin 2: 1-34; May, 1931. Wash- ington, D. C.: Government Printing Office. Includes data on offenses known May, 1931, to police in 1,197 cities, a number of counties, and possessions of the United States. . U. S. Department or Justice, BureAu oF Prisons. Federal Penal and Correctional In- stitutions. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: U. S. Penitentiary Annex Press, 1930. 90 p. Annual report for fiscal year ending June 30, 1930. . WIcCKERSHAM, Georce W., chairman. Report on Criminal Statistics. Report No. 3. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforce- ment, April 1, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1931. 205 p. Presents principles underlying criminal sta- tistics, a survey of such statistics in the United States by Sam B. Warner, and a critique of federal criminal statistics by Morris Ploscowe. 2. Juvenile delinquents . Dearvorrr, Neva R. “Some Aspects of Juve- nile Delinquency.” The Annals 125: 68-78; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. Information on extent, nature, and treatment of juvenile delinquency. . U. S. Department oF Lapor, CHILDREN’s Bu- REAU. Juvenile-Court Statistics, 1930. Bureau Publication No. 212. Washington, D. C.; Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1932. 69 p. Based on information supplied by ninety-two courts cooperating with Children’s Bureau in plan for obtaining uniform statistics on delin- quency, dependency and neglect cases dealt with by juvenile courts. Statistics published previously for 1927, 1928, and 1929. . WicKERsHAM, Georce W., chairman. Report on the Child Offender in the Federal System of Justice. Report No. 6, National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, May 28, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Government Print- ing Office, 1931. 175 p. Contains report by Miriam Van Waters on “Problems Presented to the Federal System of Justice by the Child Offender,” p. 7-175. Raises the following questions as a guide for its study: What is the volume of cases eighteen years and under appearing in federal district courts annually; what is the geographical dis- tribution? How far distant from home were these children when tried? What offenses are most common? What procedure has been used? Part II. Crime Costs and Schoo! Expenditures 21. ApPLeToN, RosBert, chairman. Crimin, ceivers in the United States. Associati Grand Jurors of New York County, | Committee. New York: G. P. Putnam's 1928. 143 p. Report of a survey covering the ec: loss and conditions surrounding failure +. cover stolen goods. Takes up also related |, practices and suggested revisions. . Lez, Cartes A. “Maintenance of Penitep. tiaries as Burden on Education.” United §/a;>, Daily. Washington, D. C., January 29, 1932 p. 10. Claims that mounting costs of crime s sion decrease funds available for schools . Meap, BENNET. “Police Statistics.” The 4p. nals 146:74-95; November, 1929. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Socia Science. Presents statistics on police costs, parti: larly in connection with city police depart- ments. Data given represent those offi compiled by police departments. . WICKERSHAM, Georce W., chairman. Repo; on the Cost of Crime. Report No. 12, Nationa Commission on Law Observance and Ent ment, June 24, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Goy- ernment Printing Office, 1931. 657 p. Following analysis of the cost of crim: siders the cost of administering criminal tice, private expenditures for protection, pri vate losses from criminal acts, losses to state and community, and the totai cost of crin Part III. Factors Associated with Crime A. General Discussion’ 25. Barnes, Harry Exmer. Battling the Crime Wave. Boston: Stratford Co., 1931. 245 p. A brief, popular summary of essentia! prin- ciples of the new scientific criminology and penology. . Best, Harry. Crime and the Criminal Law in the United States. New York: Macmillan Co., 1930. 615 p. A consideration of crime and criminal! law in their present-day social aspects. Chapter 32 p. 262-70, deals with education in its relation to crime. . Brearrey, H. C. Homicide in the United States Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1932. 249 p. A monograph presenting facts on the extent of homicide in the United States. Suggests ex planations of the high rate of homicide in this country. Aims to bring out its social significance: 1 General discussions of the nature and causes of crime may be found in the following references, cited more full) other sections of this bibli phy: Brasol, Boris. The Elements of Crime; Gillin, John Lewis. Criminology and Pono and Kavanagh, Marcus A. The Criminal and His Allies. [ 188 ] y, “TISON m’s Sons economic ire to re- ited legal Peniten- ed States 29, 1932. depart- officially Re port Nati nal Enforce- we : Gov- me, con- nal jus- ion, pri- to state f crime Crime Crime ) p. al prin- gy and Law in lan Co., | law in ter 32, relation | States ‘arolina > extent ests eX- in this ficance fully in enolog 9g, ErtincerR, CLAYTON J. The Problem of Crime. New York: Ray Long and Richard R. Smith, 1932. 538 p. A textbook on criminology covering (1) the criminal, (2) machinery of justice, and (3) so- ciety’s reaction to crime. 29, GeiseRT, Henry A. The Criminal. St. Louis, Missouri: B. Herder Book Co., 1930. 466 p. General study of the characteristics, early development, and reformation of the criminal. 30. HAYNES, Frep E. Criminology. New York: Me- Graw-Hill Book Co., 1930. 417 p. Includes chapters relating to the criminal, social control, and prevention of crime and penal institutions. . KuH~MAN, AucGustus Freperick. A Guide to Material on Crime and Criminal Justice. Pre- pared for Social Science Research Council, Com- mittee on Survey of Research on Crime and Criminal Justice, Justin Miller, chairman. New York: H. W. Wilson Co., 1929. 633 p. A descriptive, classified union catalog of books, monographs, and pamphlets in thirteen selected libraries; and of articles listed in lead- ing periodical indices relating to all phases of crime and criminal justice in the United States. . STEARNS, ALBERT WARREN. The Personality of Criminals. Boston: Beacon Press, 1931. 146 p. Treats crime as the general problem of the handicapped. Neglected childhood, mental and physical disease, and the primitive culture of immigrants seemed fundamental causes of crime. Recommends more attention to recrea- tion, health, use of leisure, and home surround- ings of problem children. . SUTHERLAND, Epwin H. Criminology. Philadel- phia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1924. 643 p. A textbook dealing with the whole subject of criminology from the nature and causes of crime, to courts, penal institutions, and preven- tive aspects. . WICKERSHAM, GeorGe W., chairman. Refort on the Causes of Crime, Volume I. Report No. 13. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, June 26, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 390 p. Among the factors in criminality discussed, includes the morphological, physiological, men- tal, social, economic, and _ political. B. Studies of Individual or Groups of Criminals' 35. GEHLKE, C. E. and Morey, RAyMonp. 4 Statis- tical Analysis of the Criminal Cases in the Courts of the State of New York for the Year 1925. Prepared for Sub-Commission on Statis- tics, John Knight, chairman. Albany, New York: J. B. Lyon Co., 1927. 80 p. Analysis of 25,018 arrests on felony charges in New York State, during 1925. 36. GLUECK, SHELDON, and GLUECK, ELEANOR T. 500 Criminal Careers. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1930. 365 p. A study of the life histories of 510 men re leased from the Massachusetts Reformatory, whose sentences expired in 1921 and 1922. The histories were studied from the following angles: (1) the history of the youths prior to their sentence; (2) their history while in the in- stitution; (3) post-parole history, covering not only their their parole history; (4) their criminal conduct, but their industria! activities, family life, economic history, use of leisure, habits, and other significant items, over the five- year period following expiration of parole. ° Lawes, Lewis E. Twenty Thousand Years in Sing Sing. New York: Ray Long and Richard R. Smith, 1932. 412 p. A description of activities at Sing Sing, with accounts of some individual prisoners. The final chapter deals with the problem of the prison as an institution devised by society for punishment and reform. C. Influence of Specific Factors 1. Educational status . Brasor, Boris. The Elements of Crime. New York: Oxford University Press, 1927. p. 162-64. From the standpoint of criminology, illiteracy seemed of little significance. However, an il- literate might represent a mentally undeveloped person easily affected by bad environmental in- fluences. Illiteracy might also indicate moral neglect in childhood. However, “the mere fact that a person is unable to read and write does not induce him to become a criminal.” Dow, Grove SAMUEL. Crime and Its Prevention. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Edwards Brothers, 1927. Mimeo., p. 47-9. States that the ratio of illiteracy is higher in prison populations than in the general popula- tion. GILLIN, JoHN Lewis. Criminology and Penology. New York: Century Co., 1926. “Education and Crime,” p. 219-27. States that ignorance and general lack of cul- ture bear directly on the making of criminals. . Lawes, Lewis E. Life and Death in Sing Sing. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1928. p. 40-1. Gives data on relation between education and types of crime as shown by statistics of Sing Sing prisoners. On intelligence tests the prison- ers as a group showed a slightly higher rating than the draft army of the United States in the late war. Murcuison, Cart. Criminal Intelligence. Worcester, Massachusetts: Clark University, 1926. Chapter 7, “Literacy,” p. 97-111. 1 See also the following references, cited more fully in other sections of this bibliography: Lawes, Lewis E. Life and [ 189 ] Death in Sing Sing; Murchison, Carl. Criminal Intelligence; and Shaw, Clifford R., and others. Delinquency Areas. A comparison of data for 3,932 white native- born men criminals and 51,620 members of the United States Army. The criminal was found much less literate. . Parsons, Puitip ArcHipaALp. Crime and the Criminal. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1926. p. 175-76. Lack of opportunity to complete an adequate education could not be isolated from other fac- tors in seeking a cause of crime. . STUTSMAN, Jesse O. Curing the Criminal. New York: Macmillan Co., 1926. p. 168. No very definite relation could be shown be- tween crime and illiteracy, nor could it be proved that education in letters is in itself suffi- cient to deter individuals from lawlessness. 2. Environment . Evuierr, Jonn L., and McCroskey, Mark A. “Environmental Conditions and Crime.” The Annals 125: 157-61; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. Includes the statement that “Better schools where attention is given to the specific needs of children, better trained teachers able to cope with simple mental and nervous problems, cur- ricula providing preparation for family life and avocational pursuits, vocational guidance, be- havior clinics, decent housing, comprehensive recreational programs to include all ages, play- grounds with able play leaders, mothers prop- erly trained for their function as home-makers— all will contribute to a better community life which would decrease environmental causes of delinquency.” . Porrer, Evten C. “Responsibility of Society for Prevalence of Crime.” United States Daily. Washington, D. C. October 20, 1931. p. 10. Present conditions are ascribed to failure of social units, such as the family, to function properly. The modern environment seems to render it impossible for the family to retain its old social values. . SHaw, Cuirrorp R., and others. Delinguency Areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929. 214 p. Includes data on geographic distribution of 7,541 adult offenders, (age seventeen to seventy- five) placed in Cook County jail during 1920. 3. Intelligence . Murcuison, Cart. Criminal Intelligence. Worcester, Massachusetts: Clark University, 1926. 291 p. A study of the backgrounds of criminals in a number of state correctional institutions. Deals with white native-born men criminals, white foreign-born men criminals, negro men crimi- nals, and women criminals. Does not find basis for prevailing opinion that criminality and feeble-mindedness are closely related. . Roor, WituiaM T., Jr., and others. 4 Psycho- logical and Educational Survey of 1,916 Prison- [190] ers in the Western Penitentiary of P vania. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Wester; tentiary, Board of Trustees, (No date). , Presents information on mental ages telligence quotients of the prisoners by race, and nationality. 4. Mental defect . Davies, STANLEY POWELL. Social Contro Mentally Deficient. New York: Tho Crowell, 1930. 389 p. An account of the present status of + and investigation in the field of ments ciency. . Giueck, S. SHELDON. Mental Disorder Criminal Law. Boston: Little, Brown 1925. 693 p. Deals with the problem of the crimi sane, their identification and legal staty . Heary, Wititiam. Mental Conflicts an conduct. Boston: Little, Brown and C 330 p. Concludes that study of mental confi resents a scientific method of approachin; tain problems of misconduct. Includes deta histories of specific cases. . LasHiy, ARTHUR V., operating directo: Missouri Crime Survey. New York: Ma Co., 1926. Part 10, “Mental Disorder, ( and the Law,” by M. A. Bliss, p. 397-43 Based on results of three surveys cond in Missouri, with relation to insane, inma of certain correctional institutions, and sc} population in nine representative counti: 5. Nationality . Harvey, Beatrice and SULLENGER, 1 “A Survey of the Cause and Extent of ( among Foreigners in Omaha.” Univer: Omaha Rulletin 1: 4-12; January, 1924 Based on a study of records for 1922 of t! Police Court, Criminal Court, Federal ( inal Court, and Adult Parole Officer in Omaha . Kersey, CARL. “Immigration and Crime.” / Annals 125: 165-74; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and § Science. The article summarizes results of va studies of crime among immigrants. Conc! there is no reason to believe that immigrants themselves are contributing unduly to the volume of crime. The crux of the problem seemed to lie in activities of the children | immigrants. . WICKERSHAM, GEorGE W., chairman. Report Crime and the Foreign Born. Report No. | National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, June 24, 1931. Washington, D. ‘ Government Printing Office, 1931. 416 p. Opens with general discussion of crime and the foreign born, presenting some recent statis- tics and community studies, Points out that statistics have never justified the popularly supposed relation between immigration and crime. 6. The Press’ BrasoL, Bors. The Elements of Crime. New York: Oxford University Press, 1927. “The Press,” p. 165-85. States that general considerations of the auses and generation of criminality would minimize the influence of the press. The prin- cipal danger of perverted publicity seemed to be its ultimate demoralizing effect upon social psychology. Mo.ey, RAyMonD. A Study of the Relation of the Daily Press to Crime and the Administra- tion of Justice. Sub-Commission on the Causes and Effects of Crime, William Lewis Butcher, chairman. Albany, N. Y.: J. B. Lyon Co., 1927. , Health and Protection, Committee on Socially Handicapped—Delinquency. New York: Cen- tury Company, 1932. 499 p. A discussion of the delinquent child in his relationships to social and political agencies. Van Warers, MiriaM. Youth in Conflict. New York: Republic Publishing Co., 1925. 293 p Describes situations of conflict between young people and established social standards Written from point of view of the social worker, and largely to arouse interest in the problem of delinquent youth. WICKERSHAM, GeEoRGE W., chairman. Report on the Causes of Crime, Volume II, Report No 13. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, June 26, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 401 p. 25 p. Presents results of social research studies in and Mis. Con iders charges made against newspapers the field of delinquency. Limited to data con aan concerning their relation to crime. Illustrates cerning community, play group, gang, and . from selected issues. The findings, when taken family. Alicts quantitatively, were inconclusive. ® Probibisien laws B. Studies of Individual or Groups of ching cer An Ex-Criminat. “After Repeal—More Crime, or Less?” Scribner’s 89: 258-66; March, 1931. The writer believes that repeal of the Delinquents * . Beecey, Artuur L., director. Boys and Girls in Salt Lake City. Salt Lake City, Utah: Uni ‘tor The z Aacmil Eighteenth Amendment would precipitate an versity Press, July, 1929. 220 p. ce et unparalleled orgy of crime. Aims to determine nature, extent, and de- 743) sirability of recreational and leisure-time ac conducted , inmates nd school inties T. Eart of Crime versity f 24. 122 of the ‘al Crim- n Omaha me.” The adelphia: ud Social F various “oncludes imigrants r to the problem ildren of Report on t No. 1 ance and a D.C: 6 p. rime and . SULLIVAN, Epwarp Dean. “Racketeers and Crime—After Repeal!” Redbook 55: 53-7, 120- 22; August, 1930. Repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment, ac- cording to Sullivan, would direct energies of bootleggers into other channels. . WICKERSHAM, GeorGE W., chairman. Report on the Enforcement of the Prohibition Laws of the United States. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. January 7, 1931, House Document No. 722. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1931. 162 p. Report on benefits and abuses occurring under prohibition laws before and after adop- tion of the Eighteenth Amendment to the Con- stitution. Part IV. The Problem of the Delinquent Child A. General Discussion’ 2. Burt, Cyrm. The Young Delinquent. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1925. 619 p. A study of causes of youthful delinquency and methods of treatment. Limited to children who are subnormal in morality and character. . Casot, Freperick P., chairman, The Delinguent Child. White House Conference on Child 1See also: Cole, Virginia Lee. The Newspaper and Crime; Holmes, Joseph L. “Crime and the Press tivities of boys and girls age eight to eighteen in Salt Lake City. Data secured by question- naire sent to 7,500 pupils, some recreational case studies, and observation of recreational activi ties with which boys and girls come in contact. BurKE, DororHy WILLIAMS. Youth and Crime. U. S. Department of Labor, Children’s Bureau Publication No. 196. Washington, D. C.: Gov ernment Printing Office, 1930. 205 p. Study of prevalence and treatment of de- linquency among boys over juvenile-court age in Chicago. Based on records of the police court, jail, and municipal court, from 1915 to 1925. An analysis of a selected group of cases dealt with by the boys’ court branch of the municipal court, and detailed studies of eighty- two of the cases form the body of this report. Eimer, M. C. The Juvenile Delinquent in St. Paul, Minnesota. St. Paul: Community Chest, 1926. 48 p. A study of 460 juvenile delinquents in St. Paul, in 1925. . Murray, Vircinta M., chairman. A Study of Delinquent and Neglected Negro Children be- fore the New York City Children’s Court, 1925. New York: Joint Committee on Negro Child Study in New York City, 1927. 48 p. = Jour nal of Criminal Law and Criminology, May and August, 1929. ‘ .. 2 See also the following references, cited more fully in the section of this bibliography under Part I: Deardorff, Neva R. Some Aspects of Juvenile Delinquency;” and Lenroot, Katharine F. Juvenile Delinquency. also the two following studies prepared by Harry Shulman, and cited in the section on environment, below: A Study of Delinquency in a District of Kings County, and A Study of Environmental Factors in Juvenile Delinquency. [ 191 ] mt statis- out that popularly Deals with four aspects of the probiem, as 76. SULLENGER, THOMAS Ear. Social Determ follows: (1) Extent of negro delinquency and in Juvenile Delinquency. Omaha, Nebr.: }) neglect; (2) character of offenses for which las Printing Co., 1930. 87 p. negro children are brought into court; (3) dis- An analysis of 1,145 juvenile delinque: position of negro delinquency and neglect pearing before Juvenile and Domesti: cases; and (4) present facilities for care of tions Division of the Omaha District Cou delinquent and neglected negro children. ing 1922-27. Comparisons made with s| . SHAw, Cuirrorp R. The Jack-Roller. Chicago: same length of time of seventy-five cases University of Chicago Press, 1930. 205 p. Columbia, Missouri. One of a series of studies of repeated male offenders under age seventeen on parole from correctional institutions. Published to illustrate 1. Child labor? ae . Child labor the use of “own story” material in the study and treatment of the delinquent child. . Lewis, Crare L. “Child Workers in an | . SHaw, Cuirrorp R., and Moore, Maurice E. ployment Period.” American Child 13 The Natural History of a Delinquent Career. January, 1931. New York: National Child La Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930. bor Committee, 331 Fourth Avenue. 280 p. Points out that current unemployment co; The second volume in a series of case studies, ditions among adults have forcibly d following publication of The Jack-Roller. Rep- strated that the younger and more unt resents the history of a young male recidivist the applicant, the fewer his opportunities | sentenced to a state penal institution a few securing worthwhile employment. months prior to his seventeenth birthday, after . “They Belong in School.” American C) being implicated in a series of crimes of vio- 1, 4; September, 1931. New York: Nat lence. Child Labor Committee, 331 Fourth Ave: . SHULMAN, Harry M. From Truancy to Crime Presents results of study during 193! —A Study of 251 Adolescents. Sub-Commission National Child Labor Committee on return on Causes and Effects of Crime, William Lewis unemployed children to school. Forty-six cities Butcher, chairman. Albany, New York: J. B. in twenty-one states reported unemployed c! Lyon Company, 1928. 139 p. See p. 437-575, Re- dren brought back into school system on basis port of New York State Crime Commission approximating full-time attendance. for 1928. A study of 251 boys in the Borough of Man- C. Influence of Specific Factors 2. Environment hattan who were released from the Truant . Boorue, Viva B. “Criminality and the Hom: School. Covers history following release, and The Annals 125: 192-200; May, 1926. Philadel- phia: American Academy of Political and So- cial Science. States there is some evidence to indicate that present organization in many homes is not conducive to development of satisfactory stand- ards of conduct and that lack of supervision in the home is partly responsible for a large share of juvenile delinquency and even misconduct in aspects of their remote childhood. . SHULMAN, Harry M. A Study of Delinquency in Two Rural Counties. Sub-Commission on Causes and Effects of Crime, William Lewis Butcher, chairman. Albany, New York: J. B. Lyon Co., 1927. 48 p. A study of state and county penal admissions in two counties of western New York. i adult life. . SHULMAN, Harry M. A Study of Problem Boys and Their Brothers. Sub-Commission on Causes . SHaw, Ciirrorp R., and others. Delinguenc) and Effects of Crime, William Lewis Butcher, Areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press chairman. Albany, New York: J. B. Lyon Co., 1929. 214 p. 1929. 408 p. See p. 195-602, Report of New York Found that rates of truancy, delinquency, State Crime Commission for 1929. and crime reflected differences in community From cases coming to children’s court of backgrounds. High rates occurred in areas New York County in 1927, forty pairs of characterized by physical deterioration and brothers were selected for study, in each case declining population. Rates also varied one of the brothers representing a non-delin- versely in proportion to distance from cente! quent. The data were considered from the of the city. following standp ints: chronological data, gen- . SHutMAN, Harry M. 4 Study of Delinguenc) eral conduct, intelligence, temperament, physi- in a District of Kings County. Sub-Com: cal condition, character, associates, interests, sion on Causes and Effects of Crime, William school and vocational history, home and family. Lewis Butcher, chairman. Albany, New York . SLAwson, JoHN. The Delinquent Boy. Boston: J. B. Lyon Co., 1927. 57 p. Richard G. Badger, 1926. 477 p. An analysis of certain environmental fac- Presents data on approximately half the tors in juvenile delinquency, initiated by city inmates of four institutions for delinquent boys life. Selection of precinct based on police de- in New York State. partment records of arrests of juvenile delin 1 See also: Van Waters, Miriam. Youth in Conflict, cited in other sections of this bibliography. Chapter 4, p. 111-23 deals with “Conflict in Industry.” [ , 192 elerm -br.: iquen estic Cour lur 1 Study for C Cases In an | nem BS: 1 , I Child La- ment con- y demon untrained Nities fo; Child 13 National Avenue, 1931 by return ot “Six Cities ed chil on basis > Home.’ Philadel- and So- Cate that s is not ry stand- vision in ge share nduct in mguency ‘0 Press, quency, nmunity Nn areas on and ied in- 1 center nguency ‘ommis- Villiam y Yor k r al fac- by city ice de- - delin- 111-23, quents in all precincts in Brooklyn during 1925. Special reference made to factors of housing, spare-time activities, commercial rec- reation, and gang life. 32, SHULMAN, Harry M. A Study of Environ- mental Factors in Juvenile Delinquency. Sub- Commission on Causes and Effects of Crime, William Lewis Butcher, chairman. Albany, New York: J. B. Lyon Co., 1928. 93 p. See p. 577-699, Report of New York State Crime Commission for 1928. Survey of types and extent of juvenile de- linquency in a portion of District No. 1 of Manhattan Children’s Court, New York City. The study, made in 1926, dealt with 819 boys and 107 girls who came to attention of public and private agencies. 3. Intelligence 33. LasHty, ARTHUR V., operating director. The Missouri Crime Survey. New York: Macmil- lan Co., 1926. Part 10, “Mental Disorder, Crime and the Law,” by M. A. Bliss, p. 397- 430. A study of 381 out of 417 juvenile delin- quents in St. Louis, giving information on mental age. The middle 50 percenc had intel- ligence quotients between 65 and 89; 90 per- cent had intelligence quotients below 100. 4. Mental defects . GRIMBERG, L. Emotion and Delinquency. New York: Brentano’s, 1928. 147 p. A clinical study of five-hundred delinquents, to determine whether mental defectiveness is a cause of delinquency. . LasHty, ArtTHurR V., director. The Illinois Crime Survey. Chicago: Illinois Association for Criminal Justice, 1929. 1108 p. Chapter 15, by H. Douglas Singer, p. 737- 810, deals with “The Deranged and Defective Delinquent.” . Wain, J. E. Wattace. “Feeble-mindedness and Delinquency.” Mental Hygiene 1: 585-90; October, 1917. New York: National Commit- tee for Mental Hygiene, 450 Seventh Avenue. Survey of conservative literature on relation of feeble-mindedness to delinquency revealed estimates of proportion of feeble-minded per- sons among delinquent groups falling below 25 or 30 percent. 5. Motion pictures . AppaMs, JANe. The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets. New York: Macmillan Co., 1909. Chapter 4, “The House of Dreams,” p. 75-103. Discusses attraction of and at times unde- sirable influence of movies on young people. Mircuet, Atice Miter. Children and Movies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929. 181 p. Based on a study of the movie experience of 10,052 Chicago children, representing three groups: average public-school childrem, juve- [193] nile delinquents, boy and girl scouts. Delin- quent children’s contact with movies exceeded that of the other children. 89. Perry, CLARENCE ArrHur. The Attitude of High-School Students toward Motion Pictures. New York: National Board of Review of Mo- tion Pictures, 70 Fifth Avenue, 1923. 55 p. Presents data from 1922 questionnaire study involving 37,505 high-school students. Prefer- ences as to screen performers and photoplays seemed intelligent and wholesome, in general. The educational film did not realize its pos- sibilities. 90. THomas, Aucustus O., chairman. The Neigh- borhood and Its Motion Pictures. Committee on Children’s Pictures. New York: Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America, 28 W. 44th St., 1930. 109 p. Manual for community worker interested in best motion pictures for the family. D. Early Indications of Delinquency . Morcan, Joun J. B. The Psychology of the Unadjusted School Child. New York: Mac- millan Co., 1926. 300 p. To develop character in a pupil requires, in addition to the proper attitude on teacher's part, a knowledge of mechanism concerned in trait development, deviations liable to occur, signs of such deviations, their causes, and proper remedial measures. 92. NorTON, PARKER LAVELLA. Early Indications of Delinquency in Problem Boys. Master's thesis, Seattle, Wash.: University of Washington, 1926. 153 p. ms. Analyzes problem boy situation in Seattle public schools, by tracing, through interviews with 228 teachers, school histories of fifty boys in local Boys’ Parental School. Also presents data from teachers in twelve Seattle grade schools on questionnaire concerning problem traits. . RAUBENHEIMER, ALBERT SyDNEY. An Experi- mental Study of Some Behavior Traits of the Potentially Delinquent Boy. Psychological Monograph: Vol. 34, No. 6. Princeton, New Jersey: Psychological Review Co., 1925. 107 p. Attempts to devise method of analysis whereby certain delinquent tendencies in boys may be determined prior to their crystalliza- tion in permanent habits of thought and action. E. Extent of Behavior Difficulties among School Children 94. Berry, CHARLES Scort, chairman. Special Edu- cation: the Handicapped and the Gifted. White House Conference on Child, Health and Pro- tection, Committee on Special Classes. New York: Century Co., 1931. p. 6. States that in the United States a total of 675,000 children, or at least 3 percent of the elementary school enrolment, present behavior problems. . Paynter, Richarp H., and BLANCHARD, PuyL- Lis. A Study of Educational Achievement of Problem Children. New York: Commonwealth Fund, Division of Publications, 1929. 72 p. A group of 167 children were examined in Los Angeles, 87.4 percent showing behavior difficulties; 163 examined in Philadelphia showed behavior problems in 84 percent of the cases. F. Types of Behavior Difficulties . Ackerson, Luton. Children’s Behavior Prob- lems. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931. 268 p. A statistical study of 5,000 children examined consecutively at Illinois Institute for Juvenile Research. Takes up relation of children’s be- havior problems to age and intelligence, as shown in group of 4,952 white children. In- dividual study was made of 154 frequently ap- pearing personality and conduct problems. . Brueckner, Leo J., and Mersy, Ernest O. Diagnostic and Remedial Teaching. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1931. Chapter 1, “Evi- dences and Causes of Maladjustment in our Schools,” p. 1-16. Statistics on age-grade progress and non- promotion seemed to indicate serious malad- justments in schools. Factors contributing to maladjustments classified as mental, physical, pedagogical, emotional, volitional, social, and moral. . Martens, Exise H. 4n Annotated Bibliography on the Education and Psychology of Excep- tional Children. U. S. Department of the In- terior, Office of Education. Pamphlet No. 23. July, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Government Pnating Office, 1931. p. 7-18. A list of references on behavior problems and juvenile delinquents. Covers general prin- ciples, clinical procedures, case studies, re- lated surveys, and research. . NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR MENTAL HyGIENE. Behavior Problems of School Children. New York: the Committee, 450 Seventh Avenue, 1931. 20 p. The four sections of the pamphlet deal re- spectively with the nervous child, the truant, the bad boy, and the retarded child. . NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION AND NA- TIONAL CONFERENCE OF SocIAL Work, CoopEr- ATING COMMITTEES ON BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS OF CuHILpREN. Report as Adopted in Joint Ses- sion at Cleveland, Ohio, May 27, 1926. Wash- ington, D. C.: National Education Association, July, 1926. 15 p. Deals with three topics: (1 children who present behavior problems; (2) objectives of cooperating committees on behavior problems of children; (3) means of attaining these ob- jeciives. . Owens, ALBerT ALEXANDER. The Behavior- Problem Boy. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1929. 188 p. Study of behavior-problem boy, with to factors surrounding his developmen: school career, and effectiveness of disci school in treating him. . SayLes, Mary Busey. The Problem ( Home. New York: Commonwealth Fund sion of Publications, 1928. 342 p. Discusses most typical and frequently, ring problems of parent-child relati: Based on records from clinics conducted five-year period under Commonwealth P; for the Prevention of Delinquency. . SAYLES, Mary B. The Problem Child in New York: Joint Committee on Meth Preventing Delinquency, 1925. 288 p. Illustrates common types of problems school children which might lead to serio manent maladjustment. Indicates method by visiting teachers in helping such child . TrMME, ARTHUR R. “The Role of Physica! ( ditions in Behavior Problems.” Mental I, 15: 468-79; July, 1931. New York: Nat Committee for Mental Hygiene, 450 S: Avenue. According to the writer, rational treat of behavior problems must recognize inf: of physical conditions and their social im tions. However, influence of physical cond is apparent when individual studied as from physical, intellectual, emotional, and s standpoints. G. Educational Facilities for Delinquents 1. Special schools 105. CLEVELAND City ScHooL District, SUPERINT!» ENT. Thomas A. Edison School. Report to B of Education, 1929-30. Cleveland: P Schools, 1930. 16 p. The Thomas A. Edison School for B teaches the boys who are educationally ma justed elsewhere. . Heck, Arcnu O. Special Schools and Class: Cities of 10,000 Population and More in | United States. Bulletin, 1930, No. 7. U. S. 1D partment of the Interior, Office of Educatic: Washington, D. C.: Government Printing © fice, 1930. p. 3-6. Presents data on cities having parental schools, disciplinary schools, and classes truants and delinquents. 2. Special classes . Kunzic, Ropert W. Public School Education Atypical Children. Bulletin, 1931, No. 10. U Department of the Interior, Office of Educat Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Of! 1931. 160 p. . An analysis of educational opportunities | vided atypical (including disciplinary) child in large cities, and unit costs of this educati Part I covers thirty states having cities of 0\ 100,000 population; Part II, sixty-eight cit! of over 100,000 population. [ 194] ‘ith 1 nent ISCi| ae ts und ntly atior ted h Pri i 18. MARTENS Exise H. Biennial Survey of Educa tion in the United States, 1928-1930. (Advance pages, Vol. 1) U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1931, No. 20. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Of- fice, 1931. Chapter 11, “Education of Exceptional Children,” 38 p. Considers state, city, and county provisions for education of exceptional children, prepara- tion of teachers, and mental hygiene facilities. 3. Behavior c'inics’ Brown, SANGER, and Porrer, Howarp W. The visiting teacher. Based on experience of visiting teachers in thirty communities. Exiuis, Maser Brown. The Visiting Teacher in Rochester. New York: Joint Committee on Methods of Preventing Delinquency, 1925. 205 p Study of visiting teacher from viewpoint of social worker. Describes organization and de- velopment of visiting teacher work in Rochester, New York. On p. 128-31 gives results of study of seven cases of truancy treated by court repre- resentative in Rochester, 1923-24. 5. Teacher training ins Psychiatric Study of Problem Children. Utica, : ; etho New York: New York State Department of BENSON, ( BARLES E., and Al SRR IEe, Lot SE E. 3 Mental Hygiene, 1930. 152 p “Mental Hygiene in Teacher-Training Institu- . - ’ . ——-—™ ° ° ; 7° oy a. } Ms among Prepared for use of child guidance clinics and tions in the United States: A Survey.” M<¢ ae : . i. cs . — Gc. 996. P s le oo oe rious institutions handling problem children. An at- Hygiene 15: 225 nek sae ya ~~ , ] . lati : : ittee nts r} > Th) hods : tempt to present a general outline of methods of National - ommittee for Menta ygiene, 45 hildren examination approved by qualified workers in Seventh Avenue. : ; anal the field Reports results of questionnaire circulated in ical iT : » . ‘er LH January, 1930, to determine the training now ygien National Sevent! treatment infl ence im] ica onditions is a nd socia juents ucation ing Of- yarental ises tor ation f & U.S ication. x Off es pro hildren ication of ovel HitpreTH, Gertruve H. Psychological Service for School Problems. Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York: World Book Co., 1930. 317 p. Describes implications of psychological serv- ice for educational institutions, progressive movements in education creating need for this service, and actual work of administering psy- chological service in schools. . STEVENSON, GeorcE S., and Bassett, CLARA. Di- rectory of Psychiatric Clinics for Children in the United States. New York: Commonwealth Fund, Division of Publications, 1928. 181 p. Includes only clinics providing regular sery- ice to public for study and treatment of chil- dren’s behavior problems, and having psychia- trists regularly on the staff. . Truitt, RALPH P, and others. The Child Guid- ance Clinic and tne Community. New York: Commonwealth Fund, Division of Publications, 1928. 106 p. A group of papers covering function and re- lationships of clinic as part of the organized social effort of the community. On p. 64-82 Wil- liam L. Connor discusses “The Child Guidance Clinic and the Public Schools.” . U. §. DEPARTMENT OF LABor, CHILDREN’s Bu- REAU. List of Psychiatric Clinics for Children in the United States. Publication No. 191. Wash- ington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1929. 28 p. List of clinics established up to April 1, 1928. 4. Visiting teacher . CULBERT, JANE F. The Visiting Teacher at Work. New York: Commonwealth Fund, Divi- sion of Publications, 1929. 235 p. A discussion of professional standards, pro- cedure, and administrative relationships of the provided teachers in principles and practice of mental hygiene. Marked progress appeared since 1919-20 when similar survey was made. NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION, COMMITTE! ON BeHAvior Prosiems. The Preparation of Teachers for Dealing with Behavior-Problem Children. Report presented at Minneapolis, July, 1928. Washington, D. C.: the Association, 1928. 11 p. A discussion of present training facilities and minimum essentials in preparation for teachers of behavior-problem children. 6. Treatment and care of delinquents AppaMs, JANE, and others. The Child, the Clinic, and the Court. New York: New Republic, 1925. 344 p. A group of twenty-seven papers covering, in Part I, “The Personality of the Child”; in Part II, “The Clinic and a Symposium on Funda- mental Behavior’; in Part III, “The Court.” AppiTion, Henrietta. City Planning for Girls. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1928. 150 p. A study of social machinery available for case work with girls in Philadelphia. Comments on present methods, brief histories of past experi- ments and recommendations for future activities in this line. . Bono, Eart D., and Appert, KennetTu E. The Treatment of Behavior Disorders Following Encephalitis. New York: Commonwealth Fund, Division of Publications, 1931. 163 p. Describes hospital treatment given forty- eight children whose behavior had been ef- fected by encephalitis. Brings out occurrence and treatment of behavior disorders following mild injuries to the brain. ....1 For further material on child guidance clinics see the following reference, cited more fully in other sections of this bibliography: Thomas, William I., and Thomas, Dorothy Swaine. The Child in America, A more recent directory of Psychiatric clinics than that cited above is being prepared by the Commonwealth Fund. [195] t cities 121. Brown, L. Guy. “The Problems in Juvenile ” Delinquency and Dependency.” Proceedings, 1930. Louisville, Kentucky: National Confer- ence of Juvenile Agencies, 1930. p. 53-77. Among other problems takes up that of evaluating present methods of handling cases, training and qualifications of workers, and pre- ventive measures. . Dosss, Harrison A. “Institutional Care for De- linquent Children: A New Appraisal” The Annals 151: 173-79; September, 1930. Philadel- phia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. Points ut increasing attention given delin- quent children, with accompanying specializa- tion of institutions for their care. . Ettiorr, Maser Acnes. Correctional Education and the Delinquent Girl. Harrisburg, Pennsyl- vania: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Depart- ment of Welfare, No date. 112 p. An attempt to test objectively program and methods of modern reformatory training. Based on follow-up study of 110 girls committed to Sleighton Farm, at Darlington, Pennsylvania, during 1913, 1914, and 1915. . HeaALty, WILuiAM, and Bronner, Aucusta F. Delinquents and Criminals. New York: Macmil- lan Co., 1926. 317 p. An attempt to estimate effectiveness of treat- ment upon certain offenders. Based on case studies and follow-up work of repeated juvenile offenders in Chicago and Boston. . Hearty, WituiAM, and Bronner, Aucusta F. “Juvenile Detention Homes.” The Annals 151: 180-83; September, 1930. Philadelphia: Amer- ican Academy of Political and Social Science. Deals with administrative-advantages of de- tention and the disadvantages accruing to in- dividuals therefrom. Concludes detention of juveniles very frequently inimical to interests of society and fundamental intentions of good juvenile court procedure. . Hearty, Witi1aM, Bronner, Aucusta F., Bay- Lor, EpirH M. H., and Murpny, J. PRENTICE. Reconstructing Behavior in Youth. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1929. 325 p. Study of 501 problem children placed in fos- ter homes and studied over an eight-year period. . Jounson, Kate Burr, chairman. Organization for the Care of Handicapped Children. White House Conference on Child Health and Pro- tection, Committee on National, State, and Local Organization for the Handicapped. New York: Century Co., 1932. 365 p. A study of public and private provisions made for the handicapped, including the delin- quent child. Services developed for the delin- quent children include the juvenile court, visit- ing teacher service, and child study clinic. . Kino, Anna Exizapetu. Changing the Delin- quent Attitude. Cleveland, Ohio: Western Reserve University, School of Applied So, Sciences and Catholic Collegiate As; 1927. 80 p. Describes methods and agencies opersting ; successful adjustment of delinquent girls. Bas. on records of forty-four girls, an intens ty being made in fifteen cases. . Reeves, MarGareT. Training Schools for Delir quent Girls. New York: Russell Sage | tion, 1929. 455 p. A study of fifty-seven training sch girls, undertaken for Department of Chi ing of Russell Sage Foundation. Aims in ascertain tendencies and develop standards. [p formation obtained through personal visits t) institutions. Part V. The Social Agencies of Crime 130 132. [ 196] Prevention A. Gener#! Discussion . Dott, Encar W. “The Control of Crim Scientific Monthly 26: 551-56; June, 1925 Discusses seven methods of approach to siudy of crime prevention: (1) statistics; (2 posing conditions; (3) opportunity for crime (4) criminal law; (5) law enforcement; punishment and correction; and (7) rehabilita- tion of offenders. predis- . Kino, Crype L., editor. “Modern Crime: Its Prevention and Punishment.” The Annals 125 1-286; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. The four parts of this issue cover (1) tendencies in crime; (2) judicial procedure and modern crime; (3) prevention of modern crime; and (4) punishment of modern crime as a means of crime prevention. modern SmiTH, Barry C., chairman. Commonwealth Program for the Prevention of Delinquency Progress Report. Publication No. 8. New York: Joint Committee on Methods of Preventing De- linquency, 1925. 47 p. Describes activities in promoting community services for understanding and guidance of behavior-problem children. The program aimed to demonstrate methods of psychiatric clinics and visiting teachers, and to enlarge training facilities for workers in these fields. . Van Waters, MiriaM. Youth in Conflict. New York: Republic Publishing Co., 1925. Chapter 12. “A Community Program,” p. 257-80. Outlines a community program for adjust- ment of delinquents. . Vottmer, Aucust. “The Prevention and Detec- tion of Crime as Viewed by a Police Officer.” The Annals 125: 148-53; May, 1926. Philadel- phia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. Urges further cooperation of public, press, and pulpit with police representatives. plied Socia Association perating in Birls. Based eNSive study s for Delin. ge Founda. schools for Child Help. IS IN Part to ndards In- al visits to f Crime f Crime,’ 1928 ch to study 2 predis- for crime: ment; (6 rehabilita- ‘rime: Its unals 125: American ce. |) modern procedure f modern 2rn crime ronwealth inquency: ew York: nting De- »yMmunity dance of 1m aimed ic clinics training ict. New Chapter adjust- B. Economic Welfare 35, BoNGER, WILLt~M ApRIAN. Criminality and Economic Conditions. (Translated by Henry P. Horton.) Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1916. 706 p. Reviews literature available on relation be- tween economic conditions and criminality, and discusses the possible consequences of the pres- ent economic system. 36, KeLso, Ropert W. “Character Last.” Survey 66: 303-04; June 15, 1931. According to the writer, social consequences of current economic conditions fall most heavily on children. . LewisoHN, ADOLPH. “Some Factors in Crime Prevention.” The Annals 125: 135-37; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. As factors indirectly contributing to the de- crease of crime, suggests the extension of educa- tion among children and general public; better housing conditions, reasonable hours of work, facilities for rest, recreation, and wholesome amusement for the masses; elimination of un- employment; and improvement of conditions among persons finding it difficult to secure an adequate income. C. Public Health Activities 1. Housing 38. Forp, JAMEs. “Improved Housing as a Means of Crime Prevention.” The Annals 125: 177- 80; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Acad- emy of Political and Social Science. There seemed to be a relation between hous- ing and conduct, despite difficulty of separating effect of bad housing from other factors. Bad housing may reduce physical health, and re- sistance to temptation; it inay be direetly con- ducive to moral contamination, and may lead members of the family to spend their leisure away from home. 2. Recreational facilities . Murray, Vircinia M., chairman. 4 Study of Delinquent and Neglected Negro Children be- fore the New York City Children’s Court, 1925. New York: Joint Cornmittee on Negro Child Study in New York City, 1927. p. 7-8. Among other items, the committee recom- mended development of an all-year-round recreational program and further social case work, . TruxaAL, Anprew G. Outdoor Recreation Leg- islation and Its Effectiveness. New York: Co- lumbia University Press, 1929. 218 p. A summary of American legislation for pub- areas and juvenile delinquency in Manhattan during 1920. Wynne, SAMUEL O. “Recreation Centers as a Means of Crime Prevention.” The Annals 125: 175-76; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science Recommends turning schools into recreation centers and directing efforts toward moral im- provement of boys. 3. Control of defectives’ . Gopwin, Georce. Cain or the Future of Crime. New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1929. 108 p. As bad heredity and bad environment ap- peared to be causes of crime, the remedy would seem to require elimination of degenerate hu- man stock, sterilization of waste human mate- rial, and improvement of environment. PopENOE, PAuL. “Sterilization and Criminality.” Report of the Fifty-first Annual Meeting of American Bar Association. Baltimore: Lord Baltimore Press, 1928. p. 575-81. With reference to legal provisions in Cali fornia for sterilization of certain criminal groups, brings out need for adequate evidence concerning ultimate results of this practice. Would have it made clear whether steriliza- tion of criminals was for punitive, therapeutic, or eugenic reasons. D. The Agencies of Justice 1. Criminal law CLARK, WILLIAM L., and MarsHALL, WILLIAM L. A Treatise on the Law of Crimes, Chicago: Callaghan and Co., 1927. 794 p. Aims to present general principles of com- mon law in relation to crimes, and to show ex- tent to which they have been modified by stat- ute. Covers principal statutory crimes at length, citing from selected cases. Strawn, Sicas H. “Fifty Years’ Progress in Law.” Report of the Fifty-First Annual Meet- ing of American Bar Association. Baltimore: Lord Baltimore Press, 1928. p. 171-91. Shows changes in substantive law in respect to crime, legal education, and other topics. 2. Court procedure* CALLENDER, CLARENCE N. American Courts. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1927. 284 p. Describes court organization in state and federal jurisdictions, and explains procedure for various types of litigation. Chapter 15, p. 216-36, deals with “The Problem of Improvy- ” ing Legal Procedure . JouNnsToNE, ALAN Jr., “Suggestions for Reform in Criminal Procedure.” The Annals 125: 94- d Detec- . = : ; , . Officer.” lic outdoor recreation, 1915-1927, together with 6; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Acad- hil tel a study of the asscciation between recreation emy of Political and Social Science. liadel- id Social 1 See also the following reference cited under “Mental defect,” in Part III of this bibliography: Davies, Stanley Powell, Social Control of the Mentaliy Deficient. E ; . ee . also the following reference, cited fully in other sections of this bibliography: Kavanagh, Marcus A. The ct, press, Criminal and His Allies. [197] Suggests certain changes in criminal proce- dure. Recommends restatement of law and procedure of arrest; establishment of the right cf state to formally interrogate the accused; abolition of inferior criminal court; and es- tablishment of consolidated criminal court, as opposed to multiple hearing of cases. . Lewis, Epwin O. “The Prevention and Punish- ment of Modern Crime.” The Annals 125: 119- 25; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Acad- emy of Political and Social Science. Among reasons suggested for failure in the administration of criminal justice are: techni- cal rules of law and procedure; too much con- trol by lawyers of these rules -and the courts; poor jury material; delay in bringing accused to trial; influence of politics upon police and judicial administration. . Morey, RAyMonb. Our Criminal Courts. New York: Minton, Balch and Co., 1930. 271 p. Deals with administration of criminal courts, discussing “Preliminaries to Trial,” “The Long Day in Court,” and “The Public’s Interests vs. the Public Interest.” In Chapter 8, “The Riddle of Insanity,” points out that to ascribe practically all crime to mental defectiveness and substitute mental therapy for legal proc- esses would put undue burden on psychiatrist. . Morey, RAyMonp. Politics and Criminal Prose- cution. New York: Minton, Balch and Co., 1929. 241 p. Presents evidence of political factors en- tering into criminal law administration in the United States, particularly as they affect the prosecutor. . Pounp, Roscoe. Criminal Justice in America. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1930. 226 p. Discusses role and background of present criminal justice as organized in the United States. Improvement is considered from stand- point of aims and agencies. . WickEerRsHAM, GeorGe W., chairman. Report on Criminal Procedure. Report No. 8, National Commission on Law Observance and Enforce- ment, June 9, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1931. 51 p. A review of criminal procedure in the United States, on the basis that satisfactory procedure is important to maintain public faith in crim- inal justice. Deals with petty offenses, proce- dural protection of the accused, criminal plead- ing, criminal evidence, conduct of trials and conviction. . WickersHAM, Georce W., chairman. Report on Prosecution. Report No. 4, National Com- mission on Law Observance and Enforcement, April 22, 1931. Washington, D. C.: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1931. 337 p. Presents a study of public prosecutor, public defender, and grand jury. Emphasizes impor- tance of individualization in treatment of of- fenders, and interrelation of all parts of ad- ministration of justice. The volume contains analysis of criminal justice surveys to prosecution and courts, and bibliog prosecution. 3. Law enforcement . WICKERSHAM, GeorGE W., chairman on Lawlessness in Law Enforcement No. 11. National Commission on Law ance and Enforcement, June 25, 1931. \\ ington, D. C.: Government Printin, 1931. 347 p. Presents report dealing with abuses in administration of criminal justice third degree and unfair procedures i; cution. -. WICKERSHAM, Georce W., chairman. PR»; on Police. Report No. 14, National ( sion om Law Observance and Enfo: June 26, 1931. Washington, D. C.: © ment Printing Office, 1931. 140 p. This report aims to present the causes » fects in police administration. Includes a s of “Police Conditions in the United p. 11-40. 4. Improved prison conditions . AMERICAN Prison AssociaTIon. The D tion of Principles of the 1870 Congress Res and Reafirmed. New York: the Asso 135 E. 15th St., 1930. 11 p. A revision of thirty-seven principles on | ment of criminals. . Cass, E. R. “American Prisons Today: A Su: vey.” The Annals 157: 6-12; September, 1931 Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. Outlines types of penal institutions and gives a description of typical prison life. Claims | public indifference and neglect is largel) sponsible for lack of worthwhile progress development and improvement of ou: and correctional system. . Rector, Frank L. Health and Medical § 160. [ 198 ] in American Prisons and Reformatories York: National Society of Penal Inforn Inc., 1929. 282 p. Survey of organization and functioni health and hospital service in American ons. Found few prisons with hospital fa adequate for needed corrective medica surgical work. . SELLIN, THORSTEN and Younc, Dona.p tors. “Prisons of Tomor: vw.” The Anna! 1-262; September, 1931. Philadelphia: A: can Academy of Political and Social Presents articles on the American | and prisons abroad. WIcKERSHAM, Georce W., chairman. R on Penal Institutions, Probation, and Pu Report No. 9, National Commission on Observance and Enforcement, June 23, Washington, D. C.: Government Printing fice, 1931. 344 p. ber, 193] f P litical and g laims tha irgely ogre ss yur al S¢ rlé s orm ionit ican faci lical and An inquiry into methods of penal treatment, yvering imprisonment, probation, and parole. Concludes that incarceration is a formless, au- tomatic procedure, without regard to indi viduals. Neither probation nor parole appeared to be properly or adequately developed in this country. 5. Probation and parole CocHRAN, Herpert G. “Probation, Its Uses and Potentialities.” Yearbook, 1929. New York: National Probation Association, 1929. p. 12-17. Considers probation greatest forward step in criminal justice occuring for a century. States that while it costs $15 to $18 a year per person to supervise a person on probation, it costs $350 to $500 a year to maintain a per- son in prison, not counting economic loss to family and community. 2. Cootey, Epwin J. New Goals in Probation. Albany, New York: State Probation Commis- sion, 1926. 71 p. Describes experiment in well-organized, “standard” probation work, as conducted by Catholic Charities Probation Bureau in Court of General Sessions, New York City. This “model” court over period of twenty months investigated the cases of 2,976 offenders, plac- ing 19 percent of these on probation, 3. Jounson, Frep R. Probation for Juveniles and {dults. New York: Century Co., 1928. 242 p. Concerns history, present status, principles and methods of probation. Voip, Georce B. Prediction Methods and Pa- role. Hanover, N. H.: Sociological Press, 1931. 138 p. A study of factors involved in violation or non-violation of parole. Based on records of 1,192 men paroled during five-year period from two adult male penal institutions in Minnesota 6. Juvenile court Lou, Herpert H. Juvenile Courts in the United States. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1927. 277 p Presents a critical account of more important aspects of juvenile court, including philosophi cal, legal, historical, diagnostic, procedural, ad- ministrative, and sociological. Explains its prin ciples, development, present status, forms of organization, actual operation, and significant tendencies. NATIONAL ProBATION AssOCIATION, COMMITTEE ON STANDARD JUVENILE Court Laws. A Standard Juvenile Court Law. (Revised edition.) New York: the Association, 450 Seventh Avenue, 1928. 32 p. The committee aimed to prepare an act that could be recommended for adoption in all states, with modifications to fit local needs. Conforms, . For other discussion ~ the influence of public opinion, see p. in The Administration of Criminal Justice in Missouri, sum- | E. Haynes; also p. 40 The Part the Public Plays, of the Missouri Shes "Survey, prepared by Raymond Moley. in general, to “Juvenile Court Standards,” fos mulated in 1923 by committee appointed by Children’s Bureau. Sducational programs of prisons and reforma tortes CANTOR, NATHANIEL F. “The Prisoner and the Law.” The Annals 157: 23-32; September, 1931. Philadelphia: American Academy of Political and Social Science. On p. 28-9 discusses educational facilities provided by American prisons. States that less than 20 percent of the prison population in the United States is enrolled in any school. Pro vision is rarely made for sound program of education, for trained personnel, or for equip- ment. MacCormick, Austin H. “Education in the Prisons of Tomorrow.” The Annals 157: 72-7; September, 1931. Philadelphia: American Acad emy of Political and Social Science. States that in future, prisoners will be looked upon not only as criminals in need of reform but as adults in need of education. Types of education offered will include fundamental aca- demic, vocational, health, cultural, and social instruction. Intelligence tests indicate that pris oners do not differ greatly from the adult pop- ulation. Conservative estimates show that adult prisoners as a group lack education of all types. MacCormick, Austin H. The Education of Adult Prisoners. New York: National Society of Penal Information, 114 East 30th Street, 1931. 456 p. A study of educational and library facilities in American prisons and reformatories for adults, with emphasis on prisons. Based on visits to the institutions, involving about 110 institutions of major importance. Attempts to formulate a workable educational program. E. Religion Dunn, C. V. “The Church and Crime in the United States.” The Annals 125: 200-28; May, 1926. Philadelphia: American Academy of Po litical and Social Science. A consideration of relation of church to prob lem of crime, based on examination of prison records and correspondence with ministers, judges, prison officials, and others. Discusses church as a curb on crime, a factor in elimina tion of causes of crime, and its relation to the criminal. F. Public Opinion’ LrpPpMAN, WALTER. Public Opinion. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927. 427 p. \ discussion of forces entering into formation of public opinion, and need for knowledge of underlying facts in deciding issues. 382-85, “Campaigns of Education,” in Criminology by These two books are cited fully in other sections of _ s bibliography. [ 199 ] G. The School’s Opportunity 1. General considerations * . Bactey, Witttam C. Education, Crime, and Social Progress. New York: Macmillan Co., 1931. 150 p. A consideration of what education can do to fit society for new era of industrial progress and excessive individualism. . NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION, RESEARCH Division. “The Principal and Progressive Movements in Education.” Research Bulletin 7: 45-104; March, 1929. Washington, D. C.: the Association. A practical handbook for principals and organizations, covering certain problems, a knowledge of which seems essential to construc- tive supervision. Deals with mental life and physical health of children, individual differ- ences, character, pre-school and parent educa- tion. Lists sources of information and organiza- tions supplying useful material. 2. Home and school cooperation . Reeve, Mrs. A. H., chairman. Home and School Cooperation. White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, Subcommittee on Co- operation of Home and School. New York: Century Co., 1932. 122 p. Presents results of several surveys concern- ing actual and recommended relationships be- tween school and home. Based on information supplied by contributing organizations and agencies, educators, and parents. . THomas, Witu1AM I., and THoMAs, Dorotuy Swaine. The Child in America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1928. Chapter 7, “Parent Edu- cation,” p. 295-329. The parent education movement developed from growing consciousness among parents of need for guidance. . Van Waters, Miriam. Parents on Probation. New York: New Republic, 1927. 333 p. A consideration of problems encountered by parents in their relation to child and his en- vironment. 3. Commurity relationships . Giueck, ELeaAnor Tourorr. The Community Use of Schools. Baltimore: Williams and Wil- kins Co., 1927. 222 p. An examination of the schoolhouse as an in- strumentality for organization of neighborhood life, in its civic, social, and recreational as- pects. Based on returns from a questionnaire sent 6,353 school superintendents on community use of schoolhouses. 4. Cooperation with the courts 178. Hoyt, Guy M. “The Relation of the s, the Juvenile Court.” Yearbook, 1929. Ney National Probation Association, 450 Avenue, 1929. p. 109-13. Recommends cooperation between sc! venile court, and probation departm¢ scribes program developed in Los schools. . Jackson, Leroy F. “Public Schools and Prob, tion.” Probation 10: 1-2; February, 1932. Ney York: National Probation Association 4: Seventh Avenue. Recommends development of plan of cooper, tion between courts and educational force States that, “The probation system of the cours is founded on a conviction that education js th, only means of controlling human behavior and is an attempt to re-educate persons whom the normal agencies of education have failed ¢ reach.” a VANN, Harovp K. “The School and the Juvenil: Court.” Yearbook, 1929. New York: Nationa! Probation Association, 450 Seventh Aveny 1929. p. 114-18. Calls attention to closer understanding de. sirable between court and school. Makes refer- ence to practices in Seattle, Washington 5. Adult education . CARTWRIGHT, Morse A., and Ey, Mary. 4 dul Education in the United States of America. New York: American Association for Adult Educa- tion, 60 East 42nd Street, 1929. 16 p. A survey of forms of adult education in the United States. . Perrer, NATHANIEL. New Schools for Older Students. New York: Macmillan Co., 192 250 p. One of a series of studies on adult education made for Carnegie Corporation of New York Discusses institute, individual schools, national associations, and other agencies. Chapter &, p 203-43, covers “Workers’ Education.’ 6. Character education® . Bowyer, VERNON L., WINTER, OLIce, and W1- KINSON, GILBERT H.., editors. “Character Educa- tion” Sixth Yearbook, Chicago Principals’ Club Chicago: the Club, June, 1931. 292 p. Contains chapters on progress in character education, and character education plans and ideas found in Chicago public schools, . GERMANE, CHARLES E., and GerMANE, EniTH Gayton. Character Education, New York: Si/- ver, Burdette and Company, 1929. 224 p. 1 For other ger:eral discussions of the relation of education to the problem of crime and delinquency, see the following references, cited fully in other sections of this “7 > hy: Beeley, Arthur L., director, Boys and Girls in Salt Lake (i! . 52; Best, Harry. Crime and the Criminal Law in the United States, p. 262-70, 578-80; Dow, Samuel Grove. Crime and J's revention, p. 47-9, 317-26; Gillin, John Lewis. Cotmtostogy and Penology, p. 223-27; Parsons, Philip Archibald. (rime and the Criminal, p. 174-76, 369-70; Shulman, Harry M. A Study of Problem Boys and their Brothers, p. 13-14. 2 See also the following reference, cited fully in other sections of this bibliography: Thomas, William I., and Th Dorothy Swaine. The Child in America, “Character Education in the Schools,” p. 273-94. [ 200 ] nd | roba- 1932. New ition, 45 es al forces the co irts tion is the avior and whom the failed to e Juy enile » National 1 Avenue nding de- kes refer- ton. RY. Adult rica. New lt Educa- ion in the for Older Co., 1926 education Jew York. 3, National ipter 3, p. , and W1- er Educa- yals’ Club. character plans and S. NE, EDITH York: Sil- ald. Crime 14. 2d Thomas, 185 A book planned for teachers and parents which presents theory and practice of character building through a program designed to fur- ther cooperation between school and home. De- fines character education as “a process through which the child learns to make wholesome so- cial adjustments to his many perplexing life situations.” NATIONAL EpucaTION AssoOciATION, DEPARTMENT or CLAssrooM ‘TEACHERS. “The Teacher and Character Education.” Seventh Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Department, June, 1932, 272 p. A handbook for use of teachers desiring to develop desirable character in pupils. Empha- sizes fundamental principles in the field of character and personality, and also gives spe- cific illustrations of actual classroom activities and school procedure. Classroom . NATIONAL EpucaTIon AssociATION, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. “Character Education.” Tenth Yearbook. Washington, D. C.: the Asso- ciation, February, 1932. 536 p. . Woon, Presents points of view to stimulate thought and discussion in direction of a more construc tive school life. Does not attempt to present a character education program. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH (American Educa tional Research Association). “Tests of Person- ality and Character.” Review of Educational Research 2: 183-270; June, 1932. A summary of research in the field of char- acter testing. Includes a comprehensive bibliog raphy. 7. Health education THomas D., chairman. The School Health Program. White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, Committee on the School Child. New York: Century Co., 1932. A study of health services and health train- ing in the schools. Represents a condensation of several subcommittee reports on the school child. Ws THE child can find near at home, with companions of his own choice, oppor tunity for all that his ever widening sphere of craving and interests demands ; when his community, including all groups, private, municipal, commercial, holds as its greatest asset the security and development of all of its children ; when the spirit of the neighbor hood reflects our most ideal teaching, then will the community help to minimize those behavior problems that handicap the lives of so many children.— The White House Con- ference on Child Health and Protection. The Delinquent Child. Report of the Com mittee on Socially Handicapped—Delinquency, Section IV. New York: The Century Co., 1932. p. 224. VERY CHILD, regardless of race, creed, social position, residence, or physical condition, should have the opportunity for the fullest development of his individual powers through education. Character is the major outcome of education. All activities of the school should contribute to the habits and attitudes which manifest themselves through integrity in private life, law observance, and intelligent participation in civic affairs. The school program for physical and mental health should supplement the efforts of the home to establish habits of clean and wholesome living. Children should be taught how to think more than what to think. Education should prepare the rising generation to meet the social and economic problems of an ever-changing world. No child should engage in premature or excessive employment that deprives him of the benefits of comradeship, of play, and of education —Adopted by the Representative Assembly of the National Education Association at Atlantic City, N. J., July 1, 1932. PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO PENOLOGISTS AND SOCIAL WORKERS RESEARCH BULLETINS Can the Nation Afford to Educate Its Children? Vol. VI, No. 5, November, 1928. 48 p. 25 cents. Can the States Afford to Educate Their Children? Vol. VII, No. 1, January, 1929. 44 p. 25 cents. [he Principal and Progressive Movements in Education. Vol. VII, No. 2, March, 1929. 60 p. 25 cents. Investing in Public Education. Vol. VIII, No. 4, September, 1930. 56 p. 25 cents. The Principal at Work on His Problems. Vol. IX, No. 2, March, 1931. 64p. 25 cents. The Outlook for Rural Education. Vol. IX, No. 4, September, 1931. 72 p. Estimating State School Efficiency. Vol. X, No. 3, May, 1932. 54 p. cents. _ 4) Cents. / 25 YEARBOOKS The Classroom Teacher and Character Education. Seventh Yearbook, Department of Classroom Teachers, 1932. 272 p. $1.50. The Principal and His Community. Eleventh Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals, 1932. 494 p. $2.00. Character Education. Tenth Yearbook, Department of Superintendence, 1932. 536 p. $2.00. MISCELLANEOUS Tests of Personality and Character. Review of Educational Research 2: 183-270; June, 1932. $1.00. Childhood and the Depression. November, 1931. 42 p. 25 cents. American Education Week Handbook, 1932. 32 p. 25 cents. te Single copies of the above publications at the price listed. When ordered in quantity, the following discounts are allowed: 2 to 9 copies—10 percent; 10 to 99 copies—25 percent; 100 or more copies—33 1/3 percent. All orders for publications should be accompanied by funds in payment for same. Orders not accompanied by funds in payment are subject to transportation charges. Make checks or money orders payable to National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Wash- ington, D. C. A complete list of publications will be sent free upon request. CONTENTS Foreword The Need for Facts on Public School Finance.... National Income and Public School Expenditures. . The Facts for the Nation... The Facts for the States National Wealth and the Value of Public School Property. The Facts for the Nation The Facts for the States National Income and Gcvernmental Costs The United States and Other Countries Compared.. Tax Collections by States School Costs and Other Governmental Costs The Major Tax Bills in the United States Tax Collections and School Costs by States School Costs and Certain Other Expenditures... Life Insurance Building Construction Passenger Automobiles Luxuries Recent Trends in School Costs Depreciation of the Dollar Longer Terms and Increased Attendance Improvements in Educational Service. Summary of the Bulletin Index to Volume X, Research Bulletin ; LIST OF TABLES lable . National Income and Public School Costs, 1930 . Income and Public School Costs by States, 1930 . National Wealth and Value of Public School Property, 1930 . National Wealth and Value of Public School Property by States, 1930 . Income and Tax Collections by States, 1930 . Purposes of Governmental Expenditures, . Tax Collections and Public School Costs by States, 1930.. pes Ald . Annual Expenditures for Life Insurance, Building Construction, Passenger Automobiles, and Public Schools by States, 1930 . Estimated Causes of Increase in School Costs, 1914-1930. Increases in Public School Attendance, 1914-1930... COND 4 & YH = LIST OF CHARTS Chart I. National Income and Public School Costs, 1930 Chart II. National Wealth and Value of Pubiic School Property, 1930 Chart III. Percent Tax Revenues Are of National Income in Selected Countries, 1928... Chart IV. The Governmental Dollar Chart V. Percent Public School Costs Are of Total Collections by States, 1930 Chart VI. School Costs and Certain Other Expenditures, 1930. Chart VII. Estimated Causes of Increase in School Costs, 1914-1936.. [ 203 J FOREWORD EN YEARS ago in the first of these Research Bulletins the following Fore word appeared : In this time of confusion and unrest there is need for clear thinking in the shaping of educational legislation. It is the state legislature that shapes the policies and work of the public schools. But, altheugh education is a state-controlled function, the welfare of the nation as a whole is affected by the efficiency of its forty-eight school systems. Where state school systems are adequate they must be kept so; where they are in- adequate they must be strengthened if the national welfare is not to suffer. The failure of any one state to meet its educational responsibilities lowers the whole nation’s tone. Freedom of movement, made easier with each advance in transportation, is guaranteed to all. No state can confine its educational shortcomings to its own borders. The illiter- acy, ignorance, and economic inefhiciency that is the problem of one state today becomes, through the railroad and the automobile, the problem of other states tomorrow, Once again the schools of the nation face a severe crisis, There is much talk of tax reduction, often without adequate consideration of results. The hard- won educational progress of the last ten years is in jeopardy. Only a well-in- formed public and a united teaching profession can stem the tide which threatens the very existence of public schools in some communities and the continued efficiency of the schools throughout the nation. This Bulletin should reach every state legislator in America. It should be placed in the hands of every civic leader. Such distribution will be most effective if handled by local and state school officials. During American Education Week, particularly, the facts contained in this Bulletin should be placed before news- paper and magazine editors, service clubs, women’s clubs, and school boards. The case for good public schools cannot be better sustained than by an appeal to well-organized and authentic facts. J. W. Crastree, Secretary, National Education Association. The Need for Facts on [he problem generally faced by the public schools at the present moment may be concisely summarized in four words: ties; decreased resources. ‘Vhe responsibili- increased responsi OUli ties are shown by the unusually rapid increase in school enrolment due to the depression, ‘hus, in practically every community hundreds o1 thousands of young men and women, unable to find work, are continuing their training in the public schools and preparing themselves for the opportunities which will open before them when more prosperous times return. It is well that they do so. If the ratio of school enrolment to school population which prevailed in 1920 were unchanged today, nearly two million ad- ditional young people would be added to the competition for jobs. While the schools are thus being given a task larger, more difficult and in many ways more important, than ever before, the financial re- sources which should enable them to do this work are being threatened or actually curtailed. About three out of every four cities throughout the United States are attempting to operate on asmaller school budget this year than last year. Present estimates are that 1932 school budgets were about 4 percent below 1931, and that 1933 will show additional cuts averaging about 8 percent.! Education has evidently carried a significant share of the general retrenchment in public expenditures. Such retrenchment cannot continue indefinitely if the schools are to per- form their important functions with reasonable success. The curtailment of educational which has marked the past two years stands in sharp contrast to the policy followed in previous periods of economic recession.* During the de- pression of 1837-43 public school support, both legislative and financial, in most states outside the slave-holding region. Under the leadership of Horace Mann, school revenues in Massachusetts increased 35 percent in the seven-year period, and similar gains were regis- tered in other states. During and following the depression seventies (1873-78) school expendi- tures rose about 53 percent. Except at the very end of the period, expenditures per pupil rose year by year. School terms were lengthened, support increased 1 National Education Association, Department Finance, 1932-33. Educational Research Service, Circu'ar No. 5, i * Pitkin, Royce S. Public School Support in the United States during Periods of Economic Depression of Superintendence and Research Division. Some Trends in City Public School Finance high schools established, and compulsory edu cation laws enacted, Vhe panic of ‘93 and the business recession which followed it until 1898 aid not bring about material reductions in ex penditures for public education. Teachers’ sal aries rose slightly, school opportunities were extended, and the increase in expenditures for schools outran the increases in property valua tions. With a few exceptions, public schools in the several states received strong and growing financial support. Similar statements might be made for the depressions of 1907 and 1921. It is interesting to speculate on the reasons for the apparent difference between the for tunes of public education in this and previous depressions. Probably the difference arises from causes that are many and complicated. ‘The fact remains that the present depression is the first one in which school support has been generally reduced. ‘This fact constitutes a challenge to educational leadership which cannot be ignored. The educator knows the importance of his work and senses the dangers in its neglect. He is called on to bring the public to the same point of view. A wisely operated school system is the indis pensable basis for such an appeal. But there is need, in addition, for a body of facts about the cost of public education as compared with na tional income, tax collections, and other public and private expenditures. The unsupported as sertion that education is costing too much is best answered by referring to such facts as these: that schools have never absorbed as much as 4 of the that the proportion of the national income devoted percent national income ; to public education remained practically con- stant for a decade prior to 1929; that the pro- portion of municipal expenditures devoted to education is lower now than at any time since 1922: 22; that America spends about five times as much for passenger automobiles as it does for public schools ; that effective public schools are essential to the welfare of our country; and that funds for public education have been, on the whole, wisely and intelligently expended. To make some of this data available is the purpose of this Bulletin. A summary is provided 226. on page School Association, May, 1932. 34 p, Unpublished doctoral 1932. Washington, D, C.: the dissertation submitted to Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1932. [ 205 ] National Income and Public School Expenditures The Facts for the Nation For practical purposes, we may think of the national income as the total amount received by the people from wages, salaries, profits, in- terest, and the like.' For the year 1930, this sum may be conservatively estimated at $78,000,000,000.? In the same year, according to the United States Office of Education, $2,615,068,177 * was expended for all tax-sup- ported public schools of elementary, secondary, and collegiate grade. An income of $78,- 000,000,000 and public school expenditures of $2,615,068,177 give a figure of 3.35 percent of the national income devoted to public schools.* The Facts for the States Table 2 estimates the yearly income of each state in 1930 and compares it with the amount spent for public schools. For example, the total expenditure for all public schools in Alabama in 1930 was $28,420,601 and its income for the same year is estimated at $826,020,000. Ala- bama’s school bill in 1930 was, therefore, 3.44 percent of the total income of its inhabitants. In studying Table 2, it is essential to have in mind that whether a state spends a large or a small percent of its income for schools is not, in and by itself, a matter of primary signit No state should be commended merely }y it spends a small percent or a large perc: its income for schools. A more fundamental approach to this lem must begin with the realization ¢! penditures for schools are an investment other good investments, wisely expended money constitutes no diminution of the n income. Expenditures for schools do not : the total amount of income available for . ing. Quite apart from the wholesale eco and social effects of education itself, is th. deniable fact that two and a quarter dollars spent for education is also two and quarter billion dollars in national income spent again, and usually immediately, fo: and services by those to whom it is paid. Furthermore, the desirable economic, s and political effects of education are unive acknowledged by men of wide vision and | lic spirit. Ignorance never made a good wo: man, a good neighbor, a good citizen, or « parent. Human assets are of far more vita portance than natural resources and deser correspondingly more care and thought in : conservation. The special human aptitudes technical knowledge, and the social intel |i which must constitute the final basis fo: 1 For more complete discussion and definition of income see: Mitchell, Wesley C. and Others. /mcome in the United 1909-1919. Vol. I. New York: Harcourt Brace and Co., 1921. p. 1-11; Leven, Maurice. /mcome in the Various States 1920, and 1921. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1925. p. 19-20; and King, Willford I. The National /) and Its Purchasing Power. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1930. p. 41-3. * The moet reliable estimates of national income as defined above are made by the National Bureau of Economic Res: The estimates of this agency have used by the.Research Division since 1923 and it seems desirable to continu practice. However, estimates for 1930 by the Bureau will not be availabie for several months. Such preliminary figures « now available from the National Bureau of Economic Research suggest that the sum used in this Bulletin, $78,000,000 probably too low rather than too high. with the latest reported data on this topic may be obtained by addressing the Research Division. * While this Bulletin was in press, the U. S. Office of Education published figures which make it possible to eli: certain duplications from the total United States figure for public school expenditures. These duplications are not, however eliminated from the individual] state figures. The total used in this Bulletin is the sum of the state figures. These duplica constitute less than three tenths of one percent of the total cost of public education. The corresponding percent in 1928 was 2.74, The increase from 1928 to 1930 has been due very largely to the de« in national income rather than to the increase in school costs. TABLE 1.—NATIONAL INCOME AND PUBLIC SCHOOL COSTS, 1930 A detailed statement of the method used in estimating national income together Amount Percent of . national incom« $78 ,000 , 000 ,000 National income. . Cost of public schools: Elementary and secondary Colleges and universities Teacher-training institutions... . 100.00 $2,320. 776,036 2.97 231,199,679 30 63 ,092 , 462 $2,615, 068,177. 3.35 Sources: School costs calculated from various reports of the U. S. Department of Interior, Office of Education; in come figure is an estimate based on figures of the National Bureau of Economic Research. [ 206 ] lies tal In Res tinue res a 100 it of ncome »”0 tional economic welfare are highly perishable an ts. A single generation of neglect may im pail national progress for many generations in the future. Education is the barrier of defense erected between civilization and savagery. Weaken the fence and civilization falters; de- stroy the barrier and savagery reclaims human- ity once more. To be sure, savagery is not the only alternative to our oresent highly organ- ized civilization. We could return to the level of living and economic efficiency obtaining be- fore 1900. But most of us would prefer not to do this. We would prefer to maintain recent gains, to restore temporary recent losses, and to advance still further. To do this we must maintain and improve our human assets. This can be done only by keeping our educational facilities in first-class condition. It is in the light of these considerations that Table 2 and the other tables of this Bulletin should be examined. Does analysis of the fig- ures presented indicate that your state looks upon the uninterrupted maintenance of first- rate schools as a matter of major significance? Or does the proportion of your state’s income devoted to educational support indicate that this function is considered a minor project ? Has every rcasonable effort been made to place the financing of your schools on a sound basis? Or are some features of your state school system less effective than they should be due to inade- quate plans for financial support ? The tables are so arranged that the position of the states may be compared with that of others. This arrangement does not imply that uniformity among states is necessarily desirable in the items with which the tables deal. Some states should, under existing conditions, invest a higher percent of their total income in educa- tion than others. Some states have from five to six times as much income and wealth behind each child to be educated as others. Hence variation in the percent of income devoted to school support is to be expected. CHART I Expenditures for all public schools —— $2,615, 068, 177 NATIONAL INCOME AND PUBLIC SCHOOL COSTS -1930 Estimated, National Income $78,000,000,000 SKescearch Division, Aattonal Lducation Assi Sources of data: Income estimated from figures of National Bureaie of Economic Research, and. National Industrial Conference Board. School costs ffom, various reports of the US. Department of Interior, Office of Education. { 207 ] Cw ane TABLE 2.—INCOME AND PUBLIC SCHOOL COSTS BY STATES, 1939 | | States | | United States Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana lowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey ‘ | New Mexico New York = North Carolina ; North Dakota } Ohio.... Oklahoma Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota | | Oregon ; | Tennessee . Utah.... . | Vermont Virginia... Washington. West Virginia Wisconsin . Wyoming : other states. 1931, No. 20, Vol. II, Also note that figures Expended for public elementary | and secondary schools 2 $2 320,776,036 21,657 ,857 10,878,167 14,148,155 148 816,078 24,555,281 35,741,255 5,108 , 186 12 666 081 18,533,721 18,676,829 10,326,210 154,740,774 63 329 806 50,757 ,133 38 843 ,407 22,973 ,665 21,835 ,855 11,185,706 24,672,143 86 ,891 313 119,457,501 ST(789 778 17,395 ,052 56,470,043 13,678,881 27,142,345 2,755,034 6,935,522 117,633,537 6,799, 409 361,512,754 37 , 301 084 16,453,171 145 910,353 30 , 867 , 706! 19 616,351 184,238,972 13,259,880 15,332,324 15,304,063 22,880,371 78,323,048 11,643 ,061 5,663,229 23 636,186 33,612,352 28, 242,563 54,092,429 6,491,415 | Receipts for tax-sup- Total cost of pub- | ported universities, col- leges; and expenditures | for tax-supported teacher- | training institutions | 3 $294 202,141 ,762 ,744 372,758 592,194 014,260 ,843 551 _ nN & ONN A eo 33 ~ o z a aco-- a = a: << = nN x we aw ~ uw a an wn N NAN D . os a ~~ ow o w nw > Ow - 2° ra) NN ~ ee _ - ~ oa NAW ia ties 7 o¢ w 5 - ww 2 wo N wn o > _ 925,917 322,792 920,650 .054, 466 ,923,270 ,062 ,047 977,762 —Ps Dee oe Nw lic schools, ele- mentary, secondary, aetna . and collegiate (col, 2 plus col, 3) 4 5 $2 .615 ,068 ,177 $78 ,000 ,000 ,000 28,420,601 | 826 ,020 000 13,250,925 261 ,300 ,000 16,740,349 646 ,620 000 166 830 ,338 3,834,480 000 29 398 832 765 ,180 ,000 37,791,163 1,214,460 ,000 6.423 ,829 177 ,060 ,000 12,874,397 557,700 ,000 22,327 .462 475,800 000 22,677 ,010 1,127,100 ,000 12.095 ,415 166 ,692 ,471 6,011 ,460 ,000 73,398 934 1.905 ,540 ,000 61,650,851 1.518 ,660 ,000 45,799,743 | 1,162 ,980 ,000 3 x ,600 ,000 28 893 056 1.085 , 760.000 25,081,991 | 859 560 ,000 12,942,258 | 526,500 ,000 30,133,310 | 1,174,680 ,000 90 , 382 ,569 3 896 880 000 137 ,738 ,439 2,933 , 586 , 00 ' 64,682,845 1,531,920 ,000 ' 22,162 ,443 565 , 500 ,000 3 63,197,241 2,223 ,000 ,000 : 15 698,704 385 ,320 ,000 i 32,485,544 | 806 , 520,000 } 3,477,999 81,120,000 j 8 993,193 326,940 ,000 ) 120,514,973 | 2,864, 160,000 +21 8,905,612 | 193 ,440 ,000 +. 6 373,023,880 | 11,901,240,000 31 45,083,161. | 1,017,900,000 14 20 , 186 , 688 331,500,000 6.09 162,504,219 4, 532,580,000 3.59 38,388,399 | 1,143, 480,000 3. 3¢ 25,548,945 652,080,000 3 196950, 196 7,250'880000 ? 14.051,211 572_520,000 2 4 19. 157,555 632,580,000 30 17,767,131 382, 200000 165 27,637,386 | 949 , 260,000 2.94 93538770 | 2,812.680,000 33 13.568/978 | 280 020,000 +85 6 986.021 230,100,000 3 04 32,556,836 1,087 |320'000 299 40 , 666,818 1,171,560,000 3.4 33,165,833 | 841 620,000 3 04 65.154/476 | 1,786.980'000 3 65 7,469,177 196,560,000 3.80 Bureau of Economic Research and the Read table thus: In 1930 the income of California is estimated to have been $3,834,480,000. Expenditures for publi: elementary and secondary schools in California in 1930 were $148,816,078; for public colleges, etc., California expends $18,014,260; making a total of $166,830,338 expended for all public schools in California, or 4.35 percent of the total income of that state. In the nation as a whole, the corresponding percent was 3.35 percent. Similarly read figures tor Sources of data: Figures of columns 2, 3, and 4 from U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, hapter II, IV, and V. The total cost of lack of data, expenditures of certain institutions, for example, institutions for the ublic representing the collegiate costs are receipts rather than expenditures. In this Bulletin these figures have been treated as expenditures. The figure as to total national income is an estimate based on figures of the National ational Industrial Conference Board. This total was distributed among the states of the Union on the bases of the average of the total national income found in each state in the years 1919, 1920, and 1921 as estimated by the National Bureau of Economic Research. Income estimated for each state will tend to be somewhat low in the case of those states where income during the past few years has increased more rapidly than in the United States as a whole. In states where income has increased less rapidly than in the nation as a whole during the last few years the estimates given in this table may be somewhat high. 1 Preliminary figure. Revised figure should read $32,817,157. iven in column 4 omits, because of leaf, blind, and feeble-minded, etc education as National Wealth and the Value of Public School Property The Facts for the Nation The national wealth of the United States may be thought of as consisting of all those material things which possess value. The sum { all these values equals the total amount of national wealth.' A portion of the wealth of the nation exists in the form of school prop- erty—sites, buildings, and equipment. What part of our national wealth is invested in school property? According to the National Industrial Conference Board the total wealth of the United States in 1930 was approximately $322,735,000,000. In the same year, according to the U. S. Office of Education, the value of public school property of all classes was $7,- 143,803,297. there- e, of the national wealth exists in the form Less than 24 percent, of school property. Table 3 gives figures as to the nation’s total wealth and the value of the property of public The value of securities is not included in this total jt merely represent rights of ownership of wealth already included in the estimated total schools and colleges. ‘This table shows that for every $100 of wealth possessed by the nation, $1.92 is invested in the buildings, grounds, and equipment of public elementary and secondary schools and an additional $.29 is invested in the plants of public colleges and universities. ‘The property of public schools thus accounts for $2.21 of each $100 of the nation’s wealth. The facts are shown graphically in Chart II. The Facts for the States ‘Table 4 compares the percent of the wealth of each state which exists in the form of school property. Only a of of nation is represented by its investment in pub- minor part the wealth the lic school property. In no state does the value of public school property amount to as much as + percent of the total value of tangible prop- erty. and of themselves co in other forms ince securities d not in CHART II [ Value of all property usech for pr alle school purposes #7,143,803, 297 - NATIONAL WEALTH AND VALUE OF PUBLIC SCHOOL PROPERTY 1930 Value of all tangible property # 322, 735, 000,000 Research Qiviston, Aational Fducation Ass Sources of data: Wealth figure is an estimate of the National Industrial Conference Board ; value of public school property calcu - lated. from fieyires of the LL.S. Department of’ Interior, O of Education. [ 209 ] TABLE 3.—NATIONAL WEALTH AND VALUE OF PUBLIC SCHOOL PROPE RTY 1930 — Total amount $322,735 ,000,000 Percent of national wea|th 100.00. | National wealth | Value of public school property: Elementary and secondary College and university Teacher-training institutions 6,211,327 ,040 1.92 748,376,441 .23 184,099,816 .06 7,143 , 803 ,297 21 Sources: The figure on national wealth is the estimate for 1930 of the National Industrial Conference Board. Fig on value of property of elementary and secondary schools, colleges and universities, and teacher-training institutions from the U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Biennial Survey of Education, 1928-1930. | | | | | TABLE 4.—NATIONAL WEALTH AND VALUE OF PUBLIC SCHOOL PROPERTY BY STATES, 1930 Value of public school Wealth (value | property, elementary, sec- of all tangible ondary, and collegiate property) of wealth 2 3 4 $7, 143 , 803,297 $322,735, 000, .21 70,394,223 23,309,391 44,052,511 489 877,152 78,768,048 116,478,054 15,816 , 863 32,699,244 87 , 702,373 64,032,507 30,549,095 476,142, 847 182,249, 369 154,638,482 112,937,616 Percent schoo property is 38 71 17 32 California Colorado 2 22222 3 eRe ] Kentucky Louisiana Maine..... Maryland... Massachusetts 61,472,059 66 ,595 ,625 37 ,055 ,669 79,592,471 251,972,453 398, 436, 219 167,861.514 39. 227/747 98, 198, 497 8/179.870 24: 101/172 1331350 17,578,663 931,461,525 136 , 358 ,043 53 , 206, 485 458,273,981 108,705 ,277 65,678,294 545 ,359 657 37,021,212 56,598 ,068 49,445,753 67 ,857 ,601 107 , 367 , 337 91,726,464 199,790, 398 21,457 ,060 g2 £2882 38383 8222 2228 88982 82222 2223 g2 $8388 £35 ow ones ~_ ate BSSSS Bu S323 FFs 333 385 SHEE RERES 25 e588 E888 £2 222 22222 £2222 RNR ee NNNNh RN ee eK Nhw — ee ee ee RNR ry NNN ead table «hus: In 1930 the value of all tangible property in Alabama is estimat of public school property, elementary, secondary, a 2 the value of all tangible property. Similarly interpret data for other states. Sources of data: See table 3. collegiate, in Alabama in 1930 was to have been $3,065,000,000. $70,394,223, or 2.30 { 210] National Income and Governmental Costs Although school support requires but a minor fraction of the nation’s wealth and income, school costs are responsible for a considerable part of the total tax bill. Some consideration, therefore, must be given to the general problem of governmental costs as a whole. Total tax collections in the United States in 1930 were $10,266,000,000. Of this sum the federal government collected $3,468,000,000 or 4.45 percent ; the state governments, $1,780,- 339,561, or 2.28 percent; and the municipal, county, and various other local governments, $5,017,789,000, or 6.43 percent of the national income. A summation of these percents indi- cates that total tax collections in the United States in 1930 amounted to 13.17 percent of our national income. The United States and Other Countries Compared None of the major European countries for which figures are available spends a smaller percentage of its income for taxes than does the United States. Great Britain, the nation which ranks next to the United States, both in national wealth and national income, devotes approximately 25 percent of its income to gov- ernmental costs. While the United States in 1928 spent 10.4 percent of its income for taxes, Germany spent nearly 14 percent; Italy more than 14 percent ; and France over 16 percent. A graphic presentation of these relationships is given in Chart III. The above percentages are based on estimates of national income for the year 1928, the latest year for which estimates of income in all of these countries could be obtained. It is prob- able, therefore, that they represent the situation as it existed before the economic depression rather than at the present time. If figures on both income and tax revenues in each of these countries were available for some later year, since the beginning of the depression, the differ- ence between the percent of income devoted to taxes in the United States and in European countries would probably be found to be even greater than Chart III indicates. CHART III - United States 10.4 % Great Britain 25.2% France 16.1 % Italy 14.2% Germany 13.6% Japan 7.6% PERCENT TAX REVENUES ARE OF NATIONAL INCOME IN SELECTED COUNTRIES - 1928” SKesearch Division, National Lducation Assn, lable nearest to 1928. Modern State, tt National income figures are for 1928 in every case; tax revenue figures are those for year avai Sources of Data: Moulton, Harold G. and Ko, Junicki, Ja:an; an Loaonomic and Hnancal Appraisal, National Bureau of Economic Research, National Industrial Conference Board, U.S Department. of Commerce, Statesmen’ Jeachook , 1930,and, Comstock, Alzada, Jaration in the [ 211 ] Furthermore, the disparity between the effort required in the United States and in other coun- tries to support public activities cannot be ade- quately represented upon a mere percentage basis. A man with a yearly income of $5,000 is able to pay 5 percent of his income for taxes with less effort than a man with an income of $1,000. In the first case the payment probably requires little personal sacrifice in the form of reduction in the consumption of necessities such as food, clothing, and shelter. The payment of such a tax by the man of small income may in- volve such sacrifice, since his income is close to the level of subsistence. The United States, in comparison with other countries, is in the position of a rich man. Its yearly income per person in 1928 was $752 as compared with $383 in Great Britain which ranks second. The income per capita in the United States was more than twice that of either France or Germany in 1928. The per capita wealth also, that is, the value of tangible property per person, is appreciably larger in the United States than in Great Britain—$2,629 as compared with $2,027 in the latter country. According to the latest figures ' available, per capita wealth in France is $1,473 ; in Germany, $633; and in Italy, $607. These facts combine to show that the effort involved in the support of public enterprises in the United States is considerably less than in other countries. Tax Collections by States Table 5 gives estimates for the United States as a whole and for the several states of the amount of income and taxes collected. An important explanation must be kept in mind when studying Table 5, especially Col- 1 World’s Almanac, 1932. p. 335, 593. umns 3, 6, and 7 which relate to fede; It is frankly admitted that it is impos trace accurately the state in which fede are ultimately paid. For example, mar corporations, doing business in practica| state in the Union, pay their federal tax: state, in many instances, New York. Al: these taxes are collected in New York t! resent only in part a burden upon the of that state. Another example: In 19 federal government collected 57 percent tobacco taxes, or $256,729,938," in the Stary of North Carolina. This amount does not , resent a tax burden upon the people of Carolina alone. Every time a person package of cigarettes, a box of cigars, o; tobacco products in any one of the forty-ei states, he pays a part of this tax throug stamp which is attached. In short, the fact that the federal government collects taxes within certain state does not mean that the real burden of these taxes rests within that state. For these reasons Column 7 cf Table 5 has been left except for the national figure. The figures in Column 8 give a better pictur: of the ratio of income to state and local taxes collected. It should be held in mind, howeve: that the percentages of Column 8 represent an understatement of the tax burden in each state by the amount of the federal taxes which maj be pronerly apportioned to each state. ‘There is at present, however, no reliable method fo: termining just what this apportionment shou! be. Column 7 of Table 5 shows that for th: nation as a whole federal tax collections repre sent 4.45 percent of income. It is certain, how- ever, that this average does not apply to each of the states. 1ank ] ae _* Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1930. p. 212. predecessors. ILLIONS of children and young people follow the old, worn way to the school house. There they must find at least the opportunities offered so freely to thei: If there must be a choice, build a schoolhouse, and leave a road unbuilt, some streets unpaved. We must have education; it is America’s boast. While othe: things are crumbling, our schools must be maintained.—William Frederick Bigelow, Editor, Good Housekeeping. der npos ede man ical taxe Alt “k t] the forty jroug e fact s withir il bur en For these left blank er pict ocal taxes howe\ er resent an each state hich may There is xd for de nt should t for Ms repre uin, how- , to each TABLE 5.—INCOME AND TAX COLLECTIONS BY STATES, 1930 Percent Taxes collected by taxes col lected by ; ais federal Federal State Local we govern overnment overnment overnment ment is 8g 8 8 government of income Estimated States income 1 2 3 4 : 6 7 ited States 000 , 000 |$3 , 468 ,000 ,000/$1 ,780,339,561)$5 ’. 789,000 $10, 266.128.5 4 45 020.000 19.074,.000 025.2783 3? 937 000 74 036 Arizona , 300 , 000 4 00 679,319 7.356.000 31 200 Arkansas ,620 ,000 li 100 . 782,492 633 .000 R59 ilifornia i 480 , 000 169, 238, 400 ). 261.126 ; 828.000 397 Colorado ; 765 , 180,000 16 400 04,161 996 ,000 846 Alabama Connecticut y 460 , 000 3,7 000 31.967 ,196 3.945 000 666 Delaware 060 , 000 3 35,200 662,158 5,327,000 57.524 Dist. of Col 700 ,000 000 578.000 918 Florida 800 , 000 2.888.800 098 , 146 084.000 070 Georgia , 127,100,000 2 316,400 $414,191 708 .000 438 Idaho.. 288 , 600 ,000 ic) 5.580.042 9. 383,000 Illinois , 460 , 000 271,544,400 82.032.751 3 194,000 Indiana . 540 ,000 39 882,000 é 65 027 34.507.000 lowa . . 518, 660.000 929, 200 94,993 5 041,000 Kansas 2,980,000 24.969 , 600 25,123,426 85 994,000 Kentucky 760 ,000 003,200 320,688 47.289 .000 Louisiana 59 , 560,000 21,154,809 7.546.043 812.000 Maine 26,500 ,000 791,200 ,640 549 213,000 Maryland . 174,680,000 390, 400 807 838 017 ,000 Massachusetts , 880 , 000 , 396 , 800 524,782 929.000 Michigan 3,580,000 53.632.409 8.108.314 440.000 80.714 Minnesota : ,920 ,000 49 922,400 45,258,149 673,000 853.540 Mississippi . 500 ,000 097 .609 666 588 8,772,000 536.188 Missouri t , 000 , 0060 949 , 200 38,714,306 130,000 5.798.506 Montana 5,320,000 855,200 , 223,235 888.000 38 966.435 791,200 530,200 394,000 81,715,400 080, 800 2,579,723 981,000 9,641,523 895 ,600 672,294 &. 764,000 33,331,894 , 332,800 88,072,482 25 67 ,000 480,172,282 774,400 ,103,401 §. 575,000 17,452,801 Nebraska . 520,000 Nevada 81,120,000 New Hampshire 326,040 ,000 New Jersey 2,864, 160,000 New Mexico 193,440,000 w RAN 888 000 060,733,683 128,000 377,194,265 769.000 38,727,384 206 ,000 545,788 .O86 New York 901 , 240,000 764,000 , 086 , 683 N. Carolina ,017 ,900 ,000 2 093, 200 973.065 N. Dakota 331,500,000 814,800 7,143,584 Ohio 4,532,580,000 932,000 650 086 Oklahoma . 143,480,000 28 , 437 ,600 25,761,000 5.967 ,000 120,165 ,600 Oregon 652,080,000 ,057 , 200 : 784,858 403.000 79.245.058 Pennsylvania . 250,880,000 264,608 , 400 93,381 3 135.000 765 .036.781 Rhode Island 572,520,000 7,686, 800 5,446,526 421,000 59 554.326 So. Carolina 632,580,000 . 750,800 8.427.317 778,000 58 .956.11 So. Dakota 382 , 200 ,000 , 161,600 2,123,166 461,000 48 745.766 Tennessee 949 , 260.000 27,744,000 954.276 517.000 102.215.276 Texas 2,812, 680,000 158 ,000 79 068 , 453 30,764,000 273,990,453 Utah. . ; 280,020,000 5.548.800 628,797 97 000 31.474.5907 Vermont ; 230,100,000 814,800 8,603,612 && 000 23,206,412 Virginia. . ,087 , 320,000 3, 693, 200 626.577 582,000 183,901,777 Washington ,171,560,000 808 ,000 425.963 152.000 123.385 .963 West Virginia 841,620,000 420, 800 780 603 936.000 91.137.403 Wisconsin , 786.980 ,000 7,511,600 8.416, 384 37.937 .000 133,864,984 Wyoming 196. 560,000 734,009 3.986. 336 505 .000 15. 225.336 } Read table thus: In 1930 the income of Colorado is estimated to have been $765,180,000. In this state Percent axes col lected by local and state govt is of income 8 lected by the federal government during the same year were $16,646,400; by the state government, $15,204 16 1: local governments, $45,996,000; making a total of $77,846,561 taxes collected. State and local taxes in this st ale stitute a sum equal to 8.00 percent of the income of a'l the people in Color .d ». Similarly interpret data for other stat Sources of data: The figure as to total nationz il income is an estimate based on figures of the National Bureau Economic Research and the National Industrial Conference Board. This total was distributed among the sta Union on the bases of the average of the total national income found in each state in the years 1919, 1920, an es { the ] 1921 as estimated by the National Bureau of Economic Research. Income estimated for each state will tend to be somewhat low in the case of those states where income during the past few years has increased more rapidly than in the Unit as a whole. In states where income has increased less rapidly than in the nation as a whole during the last few estimates given in this table may be somewhat high. The total figures for the United States as to amount of lected by the federal, state, and local governments, are those of the National Industrial Conference Board as given in Table 24, p. 77 of Cost of Government in the United States, 1929-30. Total federal taxes were distributed among the states on the basis of the percent of federal taxes collected in each state as given in Table 34, p. 103-4 of Cost of Governmént in the United States, 1929-30. Figures as to taxes collected by state governments in the various states are from the | ment of Commerce, Bureau of Census. Figures as to amount of taxes collected by local governments in the vari are from Table 40, p. 114-5 of Cost of Government in the United States, 1929-30 S. Depart- US States 'The percent which federal taxes is of income in the several states is not reported here because of the impossibillty of tracing the state in which federal taxes are ultimately paid. The fact that the tederal government collects taxes within a certain state has no definite connection with the total tax burden borne by the income of the people of that st i Confusion often arises as to the portion of tax money expended for public education or for other purposes. This is due primarily to the tact that three types ot ,overnmen:al units—fed- eral, state, and local—collect taxes. The mis- take is sometimes made of comparing all school costs with the taxes collected by one or at most two of these three governmental units, with resulting exaggeration of the proportion of tax money going to the schools, In a given local community, the cost of local governmental! en- terprise, such as roads, may be divided between the local government, the state, and the fed- eral government, while schools may be almost wholly supported by a local tax. Approximately 83 percent of public elementary and secondary school revenue comes from taxes !evied in local jurisdictions. On the other hand, less than 50 percent of all taxes is collected by governmental units smaller than the state. The annual investment in public education in the United States amounts to approximately 25 percent of the taxes collected for ail public purposes. For every dollar expended tor public schools we expend three do!lars for other pub- lic purposes. ? The latest year for which data on local expenditures for all purposes are available is 1929. School Costs and Other Governmental! Costs TABLE 6.—PURPOSES OF GOVERNMENTAL EXPENDITURES, 1929 The Major Tax Bills in the Un: States Since educatior is one ef the most im: runctions of government, one is not surp: find that it is one of the chief objects to public expenditures are directed. The ma bills in the United States together wi: amounts devoted to them in 1929! are . in Table 6 and Chart iV. As will be seen Table 6, education ranks first among al! py; —< peses of local expenditures, but it receives |, than 1 percent of federal expenditures and only second to highways among the pur for which state government moneys a pended. A glance at Chart IV will show ¢! smaller amount of money is devoted ann to public education by federal, state, and governments combined than is paid out in year by the federal government alone tow the cost of past and future wars. Chart IV also shows the sources of p) revenue. The local governments were respon- sible for more than half (57.5 percent of nm and 54.6 percent of gross expenditures) of th total cost of government in the United States CPN AM REN 10. Federal State Local Total Percent Percent Purposes nh illions ai of net. of gross (miitiens) = ) (millions) expenditures | expenditures RE Poet “$ys.8 | $548.6 | $1925.5 | $249.9 23.8 19.1 EE ae ae 97.4 669.2 1169.9 1936.5 18.5 14.8 NE, 6 ot Mn a tg 4 En 1567 .6* 174.6 462.78 2204.9 21.1 16.9 Public utilities............... Fa 162.7 14.8 323.98 51.4 4.5 3.9 Social welfare.................... 87.4 253.7 559.53 910.6 8.8 7.0 Economic deveopment........... 194.3 _ 7 2 eae aa 259.5 2.5 1.9 . General govecnment.............. 437.5 126.7 16.4 760.6 7.2 5.8 Miscellaneous.................... 18.7 7.3 29.73 55.7 5 4 Unclassified local...........0...00}-ccceee vane cee 64 1335.9 1335.9 12.8 10.2 Total net expenditures*......... $2581.4 $1860.1 $6013.5 |$10,455.0 100.0 80.0 aids coatemakenne sc eniun 2 ; 17.8 37.5 100.0 Debt redemption aad interest.... .. 1353.4 140.9 1112.6 LP” Ban vb ccctan nen 20.0 Tota! groes expenditures*........ $5934.8 $2001 .0 $7126.1 /|$13,061.9 phe taee ca db are omitted here and included with state business taxes, CHART IV cOLLtcr, + Ly ae ae: Tustoms - G cents Federa| txcises -5 cents -Shate Gasoline Taxes - 3 cents Stote Pusiness ves - 5 certs WHERE iT COMES FROM PEND) « < ~ WHERE IT GOES EXPEND ST ee |

, ‘ Highwour Education m, 5 cents 19 cente / ZZ Expenditures for educastion (al! gov ernments)- 7! cents Federal expenditures due to pas! and future wors -72 cents ¥ Sased or data of Mational Industrial Gunference Guard [215] Lé I £Z le “L? 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Jy BIOSAUUI UeSIYTA S}JasNYyoesse yy pur Arey aurey BUeISINO’] Ayonquay srourllly] os ouepy "+ BIquINJOS Jo 39198Iq] ** QIeMPPd ynoIWeuU0. opes0jo> BIUIOME sesueyIy Buoy vureaely sayeyg poyuy 4q pez20]]09 sexe] Of6I-—-SALVLS Ad SLSOD IOOHOS JI1ENd ANV SNOILOATIOON XVI—-—L ZIAGVL ‘OPS A-NBY posiAsy "O£-OZ6I “SPIDIS } ut ur CG ‘Ot t 101} < Sa}eIS PA oy} U LIDAOB [BIO] AQ Pe Da[jOI Sexe} Jo } ol ns JO NeveIng ‘asJeuIMIOD jo JUamIIEd|G “Ss “() Wl S}UDUIUIOAL C ) ) S9XB} 0} ) "OL-OZ6I “S#IDIS pannus ay] ut suamuszao0ry {0 180 JO F-EOI “A ‘FE AIQUL Ul USAIZ SU 9}IEIS Yee UI PazI2T/09 Saxe? JO BBO} 91¥ *SJUIUIUIBAOS [PDO] put I } ay? Aq ps ) ul Ie O} SB SIIBIS PIIUL, ay} JO} SaINBy [e303 Vy] “V]Qe} SITY} UI USAIZ Suet! JO[e 943 JO 9SIA0l A[[POIpes Jou pynom ‘JaAIMOY *39R] nye t 1 } ’ 8 J8Y2O WOl} S9UIOD AJUOUI [OOYIs JO aBejUaIIed [Tews Y “3901109 A[}91138 JOU MUSAII XB} WOI) pred ase sainjipuedxe | S [je ey) pewnsst 1 a] { : t 10U aJt ISU! BS9Y} JO} SaInIIpusdxy ‘seiniipuesdxe ueYy? JeyIeJ S}dI99e1 VIP 4S09 asaidel Soinsiy “A pure ‘Ay “Ty 8403 i) ‘OZ “ON “TE6T UNeing ( : WY JO WYO *40Ue}UT ) yuauTyIedag ‘S “‘() Wosj ere Z UNIO, jo sainsy ay :eep jo seainog *$938IS 194}O JO} SVINSY peal AjIe[IUNIS "s}JUIUTUIBAOS [BIO] jusdied EERE PU }UAUIUIAAOS [PIO] PUL 3738 By} Aq Paj}da[[OD Saxe} Se YON se JUa.Iad TZ" ¢ /WUPUTUIBAOS [elapaj Bayi Aq Pozd9]]09 Sexe? 9M OF6l UI BUege[y ul ys DqQnd JO} sainjIpusdxy *a3eIs Syy UI Saxe} UI Pe Wa][OO E PERCENT PUBLIC SCHGDL COSTS IS OF TOTAL TAX COLLECTIONS BY STATES, 1930 Llnritedd, States 25.47 % RQ WT Alabama 38.39% fi Arizona 41.55 % Ackaneas 30.51 % California. 27.70% Colorado =: 37.77% Connecticut 23.67% Delaware 11 .17-% Dist of Golumbia27.44 9 Florida. 19.57 % V.o1 % 42.09% 9A.74 % 34.04% 37.76% 33.65 % 24.16% 25.46 % 24.13 % Mary: 24.66% a 20.32% ichi 17.43%. 8 Minnesota. 32.20% ippi 30.14 % 27.99 % 40.29 % 39.75 % 36.07% ire 26.98 % 25.10 % 51.03 % Caloulations based. on figures of’ the National Industrial Conférence Board and the W.S. of Interior, Office of Education . [ School Costs and Certain Other Expenditures Up to this point this Bulletin has been con- cerned with comparisons involving govern- mental income and expenditures. But, after all, only a small proportion of the nation’s income is devoted to governmental operations. It is nat- ural to inquire how the cost of schools com- pares with other large items of expenditure of the American people. To make such compari- sons is the purpose of this section. Table 8 shows the estimated annual expenditures in the several states for public education, building con- struction, life insurance, and passenger automo- biles. ‘The same facts are shown graphically for the nation as a whole in Chart VI. Life Insurance The nation’s payments for life insurance premiums in 1930 were $3,524,326,635. This figure may be compared with $2,615,068,177 expended for public schools of all types—ele- mentary, secondary, and collegiate. The na- tion’s annual bill for life insurance is, therefore, considerably larger than that paid for public education. Out of every $100 which we have to spend, we pay $3.35 for public schools and $4.52 for life insurance premiums. In making this comparison thought of depreciating the importance of life insurance. there is no Life insurance constitutes one of the and in- The fact that there were 32,776,335 ordinary life and 89,436,438 industrial life in- surance policies in force in 1930, and that these policies protected the lives of the people of the nation to the amount of $107,948,277,730, is a reason for optimism. These figures indicate thrift and foresight on the part of the nation’s citizens. However highly we may rate the service ren- dered to the nation by the life insurance busi- ness, the question may be raised whether it is any more important than the service rendered by public education. The fact is that at present important forms of protection, saving, vestment. CHART VI #3,524,326,635 LIFE INSURANCE $e 2,615,068,177 PUBLIC SCHOOLS - ELEMENTARY , SECONDARY, AND COLLEGIATE SCHOOL COSTS AND CERTAIN OTHER EXPENDITURES IN 1930 #5,806,374,417 $11,817, JOO, O00 BUILDING PASSENGER. CONSTRUCTION AUTOMOBILES Rescarch Division, Aational Fducation Assi school costs ; the Spectator Co. for Life Insurance ; mobiles. Calculations based om the following sources : U.S. —— of Interior, Office of Education. for for building construction; and National nae Chamber of Commerce for passenger auto- ent of Commerce, Bureau of Consus we are spending $1.35 for life insurance for each $1.00 spent for public schools. Building Construction According to the U. S. Census of Construc- tion, the nation’s expenditures for construction of all types in 1929 was $5,806,374,417.' This figure is somewhat higher than $5,046,829,000, the value of building construction in 1930, as estimated by the F. W. Dodge Corporation on the basis of reports from thirty-seven states.? Fither of these figures is approximately twice $2,615,068,000, the amount expended for pub- lic education in 1929-30. Again, in making this comparison the desire is not to depreciate the importance of substan- tial investments in building construction. A well-constructed home, factory, or office buiid- ing is serviceable for years. Expenditures for such structures when wisely made, constitute an important permanent investment. It would be folly to allow this portion of the nation’s wealth to deteriorate. Such deterioration can be pre- vented only by making substantial expenditures to replace worn-out or out-of-date structures with modern ones. In accepting these important and easily understood facts, let us not overlook the even more fundamental truth that the value of our human resources far exceeds the value of the wealth invested in buildings. The total value of all buildings in the United States is, at the present time, probably something less than $120,000,000,000. A recent estimate places the value of human resources of the United States roughly at $1,500,000,000,000.* To protect and enhance the value of that portion of this asset represented by our intellectual resources we spend $2,615,068,000 for public education. An investment of less than three billion dollars a year to protect our intellectual assets seems reas *nable when compared with an investment _of five billion dollars a year for the protection of material assets in the form of buildings and other construction. At any rate, for every $1.00 of our national income that we invest in public education we invest $2.22 in building construc- tion. Passenger Automobiles Some look upon the automobile as a nec: of life; others call it a luxury. Both view; are justified in some instances. Much of money which we spend for passenger mobiles deserves to be considered as a investment. Some of it, extravagance. But whatever allocation we may automobile expenditures under the head of 1 cessities or of luxuries, who would say that more important to make full provision fo: possible passenger automobile needs than our educational needs? Yet we are spending several times more each year for automo than for all public schools. In 1930 there \ 23,042,840 passenger automobiles in opera in the United States. We own 74.4 percent all the automobiles in use in the world. Exclud ing motor trucks from consideration, we ex pended in 1930 approximately $1 1,817,700,00) for the purchase, upkeep, and operation of | senger automobiles. The public school bill represents an invest ment of $3.35 out of each $100 of income ; the passenger automobile bill claims $15.15 out each $100 of income. no doubt, verges op make of Luxuries Since 1924 there have been no accurate 1 ports covering the value of luxuries consumed by the people of the United States. Previous issues of the Research Bulletin have given the best estimates available concerning annual ex penditures for such items as tobacco, chewing gum, soft drinks, etc.* Such estimates are not presented in this Bulletin because of the diff culty of determining the effect of current eco nomic conditions on spending for luxurious pur- poses in the several states. The United States Census Bureau is now tabulating returns on its census of distribution which may yield reason ably accurate estimates of the amount of ex- penditures for various luxuries in the yea 1929. The reports of collections of the new 1 The Census of Construction was taken as a part of the U. S. Department of Commerce Census of Distribution It is the first official census of the construction industry that has been taken in the United States and, therefore, there are no figu for earlier years that are strictly uy 2 Estimate q * Dublin, Louis I. : *Refer to: National Education Association, Research Division. 166-219, September, 1930. Washington, D. C.: by iment of Commerce in the Commerce ee 1931. Vol. ealth and Swiekee New York: Harper & 5, SSR. 1928. 361 “Investing . Public Education.” Bros., . Research Bulletin ° the Association, p. 181. [ 220) TABLE 8—ANNUAL EXPENDITURES FOR LIFE INSURANCE, BUILDING CON- STRUCTION, PASSENGER AUTOMOBILES, AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS, BY STATES, 1930. Percent school costs were of Cost of public a Expenditures Expenditures education, or life for for : . States elementary, insurance building passenger - —¥ - Expendi- secondary, premiums construction automobiles for life for — and collegiate insurance | building passenger premiums | construc- auto tion mobiles Nake t 2 3 d oO . hat . ted States 2 068 ,177'$3 524, 326,635'$5, 806, 374.417'$11.817.700.000 for \labama 28,420,601 604 , 344 364,722 122.319.000 vi \rizona , 250,925 , 286, 490 8,852,655 51,790,000 han hos Arkansas , 740,349 ,621,633 26,615, 98,710,000 : st California , 830,338 929,842 444, 586,733 951.920.0000 bendin Colorado , 398 , 832 »7 489,748 ,162,5 138,680,000 movie Connecticut 37,791,163 962 , 206 8,380, 151,860,000 Delaware ,423,829 925,412 ,745 24,330,000 re were Dist. of Columbia § , 397 23,612,988 ,234,! 69 , 260,000 Florida 327 , 462 317,854 2,085, 149,620,000 eration Georgia : ,010 2,644,352 2,979, 155, 860,000 Idaho 2,095,415 ,696,221 298, 51,490,000 Illinois ,692 471 23,885,618 ,672, 100,000 Indiana 3,398 ,934 231, 406 24,421, 3: 372,670,000 : lows .650, 851 56,741,659 79,318, 338,570,000 Wwe ex- Kansas 799'743 35595.699 51.632: 259_050,000 00,000 Kentucky 893 , 056 824,891 53,192,660 790 , 000 er pac. Louisiana 5,081,991 309 , 209 089, 167 21,060,000 is Maine ,942,258 , 793,527 ,477,419 78,740,000 Maryland 30,133,310 2, 864,899 , 145,700 310,000 Massachusetts , 382, 569 3, 462,813 209 , 008 , 006 39, 800, 000 Michigan 7,738,439 26 ,523 ,326 627,185 87 , 300,000 Minnesota ,682,845 , 847 610 7 455,813 930,000 Mississippi 22,162 , 443 7,974,066 , 845,706 2,420,000 Missouri. . . 3,197,241 , 787 , 097 2,997 000 $32,920,000 Montana... 5,698,704 515,682 7,439,729 150,000 Nebraska... . ‘ 485 544 014,074 36,086 454 81,800,000 Nevada 3,477 ,999 ,409 731 , 997 ,032 2,550,000 New Hampshire , 993,193 , 392,441 26 492,892 48 560, 000 New Jersey .514,973 53 ,660 641 , 168,695 84, 480, 000 New Mexico ,905 ,612 3,524,327 , 422,060 7,220,000 in. mn New York 373 ,023 , 880 7,816,674) 1, ,313 689 ,055 , 280,000 35 Ate . North C’ »lina 45 083,161 3,349,218 , 964,271 180,000 sumed North Dakota 20, 186,688 ,458 384 635.212 77/870 000 121 ‘ , (ere 162,504,219 5,909 337 53,582,370 789,120,000 3 45 vious Oklahoma #38, 388, 399 33,128,670 7,579,322 246,810,000 en the Oregon. ... ‘ 25, £48,945 22,908 , 123 ,014, 382 , 520,000 75 , Pennsylvania 196 ,950, 196 334,106,165 3,966 , 463 85,660,000 58.9: 39.87 ial ex Rhode Island , 14,051,211 , 194,613 , 967 , 800 , 960, 000 49 38 ° South Carolina 19,157,555 20,793,527 27,852,650 ,310,000, 92 68 ewine South Dakota 17,767,131 , 515,682 3,300,478 840,000; 186 133 re not Tennessee 27 ,637 , 386 3,349,218 5 , 286,316 7,850,000 63.3 42 Texas..... 3,538,770 , 535,186 5,179,848 588,210,000| 120 43 > diffi- Ite ; . 978 , 872,321 , 199,420 48,250,000 137.8 83 Vermont...... ,021 , 863 , 909) 5,191,390 950,000 70.7 45 it eco Virginia..... 32. , 836) , 054,083 50, 460, 760 , 260 , 000 73 64.5 s pur- Washington. . . ,818 , 996,785 79,573,940 370,000 94.5 51 : ; West Virginia 5/833 , 547 ,046 38,193, 400 2,890,000) 116 86 Wisconsin. .. 65, 154. 476 ,953,561 156,983 542 . 580,000 89. : 41 Wyoming......... 7.469.177 3,524,327 6,333,624 26,540,000) 211.9: 117 on its a ae ein States Pason- Read table thus: In 1930 there was $29,604,344 paid as life insurance premiums in the state of Alabama. Expendi tures for public elementary, secondary, and collegiate schools in Alabama in 1930 were $28,420,601, or 96.00 percent as ee as was paid for life insurance in that state. Similarly read figures for other states and for other columns ces of data: The figures of Column 2 are from the U. S. Department of Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1931, No. 20, Vol. II, Chapters II, IV, and V. The figures re prese nting collegiate costs are receipts rather than expendi- tures. Expenditures for these institutions are not available. Figures as to life insurance are from Insurance Yearbook, Y new 1931, the Spectator Co. Figures of Column 4 are based on those of the U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau ot Census, and are for the year 1929. The figures given as to cost of building construction in the United States include cost of school buildings, which is approximately $400,000,000 a year for public elementary and secondary schools rhe percent which the cost of public education is of the cost of building construction will be slightly increased if the cost of 1. It is school buildings * deducted from construction cost of all building construction. F igures as to expenditures for passenger automobiles are estimates based principally on figures from the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, and include the cost of operation, maintenance, and depreciation for all passenger automobiles. *Preliminary figure. Revised figure should read $40,337,850. . figures federal excise taxes on these luxuries will also furnish a basis for such estimates. If reasonably accurate figures on expenditures for various types of luxuries become available, such figures will be reported in future issues of the Research Bulletin. However, although no estimate of the ex- penditures by the people of the United States for luxuries is made at this time, it is a well- recognized fact that the cost of public educa- tion is only a fraction of the annual expendi- tures for articles commonly classed as luxuries. In 1928, the people of the United States spent about $2.61 for candy, chewing gum, theatres, and similar luxuries for every dollar spent for schools. The bill for tobacco, alone, was very little less than the bill for schools. Caution must be exercised in comparing ex- penditures for public education with those for other purposes. It must be remembered that there is no economic magic whereby factories built for the production of certain types of commodities and services can be converted overnight into schoolhouses. The presentation of figures concerning school costs, and the costs of other goods and services, does not rej: sound economic principle. Nevertheless hardly be denied that there is a large e¢ of choice in the distribution of the ay national income. There is scarcely a nity in the country which, if it wished to the purchase of other goods and comm: could not increase its expenditures for educa tion. Similarly, most communities could redyc¢ their expenditures for public schools and the money in other ways. If the proper su of public education is once recognized as ter of primary concern, the schools wil! by quately supported even though we may not once have as much as we would like of ma: luxuries and comforts. In the long run penditures for schools return high divi from the increased productive ability and eral intelligence of the people. A wisely plan social and economic order will provide ways and means by which the economic resources devoted to various commodities and services will bear a close relationship to the relative social and human values of these commodities and services. DUCATION has a capacity for consumption which is wholly unlimited and wholly beneficent if wisely used. It is the finest possible solution to the unemployment problem. It should result only in better and better government and in the spread of finer and happier living, for much of our misgovernment is due to the misinformation of the voter, and much of our misery to his sheer ignorance. There should be no satu- ration point whatever to the demand of the public for education if the total economic situation permits it. Further, if the education, whether of youth or of aduits, is wisely done, its results should be cumulatively good. A better and better educated electorate should mean better and better government and ever-increasing sanity and happiness in the living habits of the people.—Rodert 4. Millikan, California Institute of Technology. iy) luce ind spend r support as a mat. I] be ide. AVY not at Material run, ex- livid nds and ven- planned ide Wavs resources services relative mModities Recent Trends The cost of public elementary and secondary schools in 1914 was $555,077,000. In 1930 the corresponding figure was $2,320,776,000—an increase of $1,765,699,000 or 318 percent. These three factors are primarily responsible for this increase : 1. Depreciation of the dollar. 2. Longer terms and increased attendance. 3. Improvements in educational service. Each of these factors should be given its due weight in considering reasons for recent in- creases in school costs. An approximate anal- ysis of the influence of these three factors is attempted in Table 9. Depreciation of the Dollar It is a well-known fact that the purchasing power of a dollar or any other sum of money varies from year to year. Since this is true, the dollar is not an eternally fixed basis of compari- son but a shifting standard whose changes must be known and allowed for. If the purchasing power of the dollar in 1914 be taken as a stand- ard, we find that it steadily decreased in the years immediately following 1914, until 1920. In 1921-1922, it rose sharply, but briefly, and the general trend between 1922 and 1928 was again downward. It had not reached its pre- vious low level of 1920, however, when it be- gan a new upward movement which has con- tinued to the present. In spite of this recent up- ward trend, a dollar in 1930 was still worth in School Costs only about 63 percent as much as it was worth in 1914. In other words, it cost approximately $1.59 in 1930 to buy as much as a dollar would buy in 1914. Obviously these fluctuations must be con- sidered in any year-to-year cost comparisons. The 1930 school bill of $2,320,776,000 repre- sents only $1,460,526,117 in the money of 1914. That is, it would have cost only about $1,460,526,117 to operate the schools of 1930 in 1914, providing for all the changes that oc- curred in the intervening years in number of pupils attending school, and in the improved services rendered. The cost of operating the 1930 school program was thus about $860,- 249,883 more than the same school program would have cost in 1914. This difference is the result of an economic change which is entirely independent of the schools themselves. It does not represent an increase in school expendi- tures at all in any real sense of the word “‘in- crease.” The fluctuations in the purchasing power of the dollar, therefore, as is shown in Table 9, account for $860,249,883 of the total increase in costs between 1914 and 1930. This sum is 48.7 percent of the total increase." Longer Terms and Increased Attendance The schools of the United States were open, on the average, only 158.7 days in 1914. In 1930 the average term was 172.7 days. This is 1 Of the total increase in school costs due to the depreciation of the dollar $326,940,353 is due to the decrease in the value of the dollar as it affects the cost of the 1914 program; $283,915,003 is due to the decrease in the value of the dollar as it affects the cost of the added attendance since 1914; and $249,394,527 is due to the decrease in the value of the dollar as it affects the cost of services added since 1914. TABLE 9.—ESTIMATED CAUSES OF INCREASE IN SCHOOL COSTS, 1914-1930 Increase over 1914 education | Cost of | | 1 2 1914...| $555,077, 000! Amount of increase chargeable to 2oceee ee |Depreciation| Increased | of the dollar! | attendance? | 1930. . .|2,320, 776 ,000|$1 , 765 ,699 ,000|$860 , 249 , 883|$482 ,028 , 867/$423 ,420, 250) 48.72% | 27.30% | 23.98% 100% | | Percent of increase chargeable to Deprecia-| Increased| Other All tion of the) attend- | factors fac- dollar | ance | tors Other factors? 6 7 | 8 9 10 other factors. 1 Depreciation of ''.. aoliar—$860,249,883. In 1930, $158.90 purchased the same amount that $100 did in 1914. There- fore, $2,320,776,000 purchased the same amount in 1930 as $1,460,526,117 did in 1914. The difference $860,249,883 ($2,320,776,000—$1 460,526,117) is due to depreciation of the dollar. 2 Increased atiendance—$482,028,867. Attendance increased 86.84 percent from 1914 to 1930. Am increase of 86.84 percent over the cost of education in 1914 ($555,077,000) is $482,028,867. 3 Other factors—$423,420,250. Depreciation of the dollar and increased attendance added $1,342,278,750. The differ- ence between this amount and the total increase over 1914 ($1,765,699,000) is $423,420,250. This sum is chargeable to [ 223 1 an increase of 14.0 days, or 8.82 percent, in the by 1930 each enrolled child averaged | 4 average length of term provided by the schools. attendance per year. Here is an increas The number of children which the schools days, or 64.9 percent, in the brief pe served also increased during the same period. In tween 1914 and 1930. 1914, there were 26,002,153 children in the The chief increases in enrolment | United States between five and seventeen years curred in the high-school years. This | oi age; in 1930, there were 31,571,322. This is in high-school enrolment is one of the , an increase of 21.4 percent in that portion of the social movements in our history. In 191} 4 population usually regarded as being of school 1,218,804 boys and girls were in Ameri: age. lic high schools. In 1930, the num! This population growth, however, is by no reached 4,399,422, an increase of 261.0 | means the whole of the story. A larger propor- The effect of these increased enro tion of these children went to school. In 1914, especially in the high school, and the 19,153,786 children were enrolled in public attendance of pupils enrolled during the elementary and secondary schools. In 1930, school terms provided has been to add ¢ 25,678,015 children came to school. This is an mously to the size of the task entrusted ¢ increase of 6,524,229, or 34.1 percent in the schools. Between 1914 and 1930 the nun number of children for whom the schools were days’ schooling provided for all pupils in pu required to provide instruction, Furthermore, elementary and secondary schools inc: those who enrolled attended more regularly. from 2,255,657,000 to 3,672,765,000. | In 1914, each child enrolled attended on the total number of days’ schooling provided in e|; average only 86.7 days out of each year, while mentary schools was 2,112,197,000 in 1914 and TABLE 10.—INCREASES IN PUBLIC SCHOOL ATTENDANCE, 1914-1930 Items 1914 1930 Percent of | increase 1 2 3 - _ = — = = - | - - —_ Children 5-17 years of age inclusive od | 26 002 , 153 31,571,322 Pupils enrolled in public elementary and high schools 19,153,786 25,678,015 Average daily attendance bs 14,216,459 21,264,886 Average length of school term. - | 158.7 172.7 Enrolment in public high schools ; oil F ,§ 4,399,422 _ Source of data: Figures from U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1931, No. 20, \ Chapter II, Table 1. CHART VII ESTIMATED CAUSES OF INCREASE IN SCHOOL COSTS, 1914-1930 EEL BBE Expended for Public Schools in 914. Increase over IS14 chargeable to decrease in purchasing power of dollar Increase over 1914 chargeable to increased attendance Increase over i914 chargeable to increased services Sescearch Division, Natéotwal Lducation A Trcent of crease 3.043,620,000 in 1930, an increase of 932,- 625,000 days or about 44 percent, while the days of schooling provided in high schools in- .ased from 143,460,000 to 629,145,000, or Cl approximately 339 perce.it. The rate of growth in attendance at high school was thus more than seven times that in elementary schools. The period from 1914 to 1930 has, therefore, witnessed an increase in (*) the number of children, (2) the number of children enrolled in school, (3) the regularity with which these children attend, (4+) the length of school ses- sion available to them, and the number of the high-school population. Table 10 shows the rapid rate of increase in these factors. These increases in sheer quantity, by adding to the size of the task required of the schools, have necessitated increases in school costs. As has been said, high-school attendance be- tween 1914 and 1930 grew at a rate over seven times as rapid as the rate of growth in elemen- tary-school attendance during the same period. This fact is particularly significant for a study of school costs, since education at the high- school level is more expensive than elementary schooling. Every day of schooling provided the high school costs approximately two and one-half times as much as each day of elemen- tary schooling. Therefore, in estimating the additional financial burden placed upon the schools due to increased attendance between 1914 and 1930, the weighted attendance for each of these years should first be calculated by counting as two and one-half days, each day of attendance in the high school." On this basis, the number of weighted days’ attendance increased from 2,470,847,000 to 4,616,482,000 between 1914 and 1930, an in- crease of 2,145,635,000 days or 86.84 percent. Of this increase 931,423,000 weighted days or 43.4 percent took place in elementary-school attendance, while there was an increase of |,214,212,000 weighted days, or 56.6 percent of the total increase, in attendance at high schools. An increase of 86.84 percent in total days of schooling provided by the schools justifies a similar increcse in school costs. Eighty-six and eighty-four hundredths percent of $555,077 000 is $482,028,867. This amount, shown as Column 5 in Table 9, is 27.3 percent of the total increase in school costs between 1914 and 1930. The increase in elementary-school attend ance was responsible for $209,200,528 of this amount, while $272,828 ,339 was brought about by the growth in high-school attendance Improvements in Educational Service Between 1914 and 1930 increased attendance added $482,028,867, and the depreciation of the dollar added $860,249, 883 to school costs. These sums plus the cost of public education in 1914 gave a total of $1,897,355,750. The dif- ference between this amount and $2,320,776,- 000, actually spent in 1930 for public elemen tary and secondary schools, or $423,420,250, is chargeable to the cost of added services and im provement in the quality of service rendered by the schools. Teachers are better trained than in the pre- war period and mevit higher salaries. ‘The cur- riculum has been revised and extended to meet changing social needs. The great expansion of the high-school enrolment has greatly diversi- fied the student body and necessitated various adaptations in the curriculum, methods, equip- ment, and personnel. Yet less than one-fourth of the total increase in school costs between 1914 and 1930, as ?s shown in Table 9, has been due to the cost of these added and improved services. Table 9 shows that more than three-fourths (76.02 percent) of the increase in school costs between 1914 and 1930 has been traceable to causes other than the extension and improve- ment of the program. School officials can seldom limit the steadily increasing enrolments, nor can they control fluctuations in the value of the dollar. Only $423,420,250,? or 23.98 percent of the total increase, the amount due to the cost of added and improved services, has been in any degree subject to administrative control. The facts presented by the figures of Table ‘ are portrayed graphically in Chart VII. In any consideration of the increase in school costs since pre-war days, these facts speak for themselves. 1“Tt costs 5 pers | two and one-half times as much to educate pupils attending high schools as pupils attending ele- mentary schools. These facts became of great significance in atempting to determine the reasons for mounting costs in education. Swift, Fletcher Harper. A Biennial Survey of Public School Finance in the United States, 1920-19 Interior, Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1923, No. 47. Washington, S. Department of the D. C.: Government Printing Office 1923. p. 5 I * Even this amount is partly due to increased enrolments. Only $226,614,518, or 12.83 percent of the total increase between 1914 and 1930, would be needed to prcvide all the improvements in school service of the 1930 school progr for the number of pupils who were enrolled in 1914. The remainder of the amount of increase due to added services, $196,805 32 or 11.15 percent of the total increase in school costs, is the cost of providing these services for the larger numbe f children coming to school, since 1914 [ 225 ] The figures given in this Bulletin are based on the most recent and reliable estimates avail- able. For the degree and methods of approxi- mation involved, consult the text and footnotes of the preceding pages. 1. Need for facts—Present economic condi- tions make especially necessary the study of facts on the cost of public schools as related to certain other items. 2. National income and school costs—The cost of all tax-supported public schools is 3.35 percent of the national income. This percent is slightly higher than in previous years due primarily to decrease in the national income. 3. Income and school expenditures in the states—Fourteen states and the District of Co- lumbia spend less than 3 percent of their in- come for the support of public education ; eight- een states spend between 3 and 4 percent ; and sixteen spend more than 4 percent. 4. National wealth and public school prop- erty-—Slightly more than 2 percent of the na- tional wealth exists in the form of school prop- erty. If public elementary and secondary schools alone are considered, less than 2 percent of the national wealth is thus invested. 5. Wealth and school property in the states— Only a minor part of the wealth of the nation is represented by its investment in public school grounds, buildings, and equipment, In no state does the value of public school property amount to as much as 4 percent of the total value of tangible property. 6. National income and government costs— Federal, state, and local tax collections amounted in 1930 to approximately 13 percent of the national income. Nearly half of the total tax collections were made for the support of local government. 7. Tax collections in the United States and other nations—The major European countries spend larger proportions of their national in- come for taxes than does the United States. In 1928 Great Britain spent twice as large a pro- portion of its income for government costs as did the United States. 8. School costs and other government costs— Annual expenditures for public education amount to approximately 25 percent of the taxes collected for all public purposes. Over 80 percent of all school support comes from property taxes levied in local jurisdictions. Summary of the Bulletin 9. School costs and expenditures for life in- surance—Life insurance premiums claim $1.35 for each dollar spent for public schools. 10. School costs and expenditures for build- ing construction—For each dollar of national income spent for public education we spend $2.22 for building construction. 11. School costs and expenditures for pas- senger automobiles—Our annual bill for the purchase and maintenance of passenger auto- mobiles amounts to about five times as much as our annual bill for public schools. 12. School costs and luxuries—Although reliable estimates can no longer be secured, it is certain that the cost of public education is only a fraction of the annual expenditures for a few articles commonly classed as luxuries. 13. Recent trends in school costs—In the period 1914-1930, school costs increased 318 percent. 14. Causes of increase in school costs—The causes of increase in school costs since 1914, in order of their relative importance, are (a) the depreciation of the dollar; (4) increased attendance; and (c) improved services. 15. Depreciation of the dollar as a factor in- creasing school costs—Nearly half of the total increase in school costs between 1914 and 1930 may be accounted for by the decrease in the purchasing power of money. 16. Increased attendance as a factor increas- ing school costs—In the period 1914-1930, length of school term increased approximately 9 percent ; the proportion of the population be- tween five and seventeen years of age increased 21 percent ; school enrolment below the college level increased 34 percent; and the regularity of attendance increased 65 percent. High-school enrolment considered separately increased over 250 percent. These increases account for over one-fourth of the total increase in school costs since 1914, 17. Extended services as a factor increasing school costs—The improvements and extensions in school services since 1914 have accounted for less than one-fourth of the total increase in the cost of public education. These improve- ments include the expansion and revision ot the curriculum, great advances in libraries and other phases of school equipment, and a re- markable growth in the training and qualifica- tions of teaching and administrative staffs. [ 226 ] Research Bulletin OF THE National Education Association VOLUME X January to November, 1932 The Research Bulletin is issued by the Research Division, a section of the headquarters staff of the National Education Association. This divi sion was created in February, 1922, for the purpose of conducting scien tific studies of special interest to members of the teaching profession Bulletin One was issued by the Research Division in June, 1922, and Bulletin Two, in November, 1922 The first number of the Research Bulletin is Volume I, No. 1, January, 1923, entitled ‘“‘Facts on State Educational Needs.”’ With Volume I, No. 1, the Research Bulletin became a regular publication, issued five times each year—January, March, May, September, and November. The Research Bulletins composing Volumes I, II, 111, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, and X are listed on the inside back cover of the November, 1932, Bulletin. RESEARCH DIVISION THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1201 Sixteenth Street Northwest, Washington, D. C. 1932 INDEX TO VOLUME X Adams, Logan S., study cited, 23, 25, 26. Adult education, as factor in crime prevention, 183; references, Age, as factor associated with crime, 161. Alabama, object of school survey quoted, 82; total expenditure for public schools, 206. Alcohol, as factor associated with crime, 156. Allen, Ira M., study cited, 18. ack, J. C., quoted, 7. American Association of University Women, interest in adult education, 183. American Education Week, suggestions for observing, cited, 51. American Medical Association, health program, 177. Anderson, Earl W., study cited, 19. Ann Arbor, Michigan, plan for sabbatical leave, cited, 63, 64. Arizona, achievement testing program in school survey, cited, 97; appraisal of school plants by survey staff, 85. Arkansas, achievement testing program in survey, cited, 97. Attendance, School, as measure of state school efficiency, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 113, 114, 115, 116, 126; check list for laws relating to, 89; data on, for states and territories, 115; discussion of as factor in measuring school efficiency, 114, 116; effect of increase on school costs, 223; effect of school environment upon, 123; presentation of data on, 114, 115; ranking of the states on, 115; relationship between ruralness and, 126; sectional differences on, 126, 127; sources of data on, 114. Automobiles, passenger, compared with school costs, 220; expenditures for, 220. Ayres’ Index, as basis of other indexes, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108; compared with homicide rates, 161; description of, 104; effect on state school leadership, 104; use and limitations of, 104, 105. Ayres, Leonard P., indexes of state school efficiency, de- scribed, 104, 105; quoted, 104. Bachman, Frank P., quoted, 11. Bagley, W. C., study cited, 163. Baltimore, causes of absence among school teachers, 54; leave-of-absence policy, 53. Barnes, Harry Eimer, quoted, 161. Bates, Sanford, expression of appreciation to, 138. Behavior Problems, See Maladjustment; Delinquency and Delinquent Children. Bell, Marjorie, expression of appreciation to, 138. Bellingham, Washington, plan for disability insurance, 58. Bibliographies, crime costs and school expenditures, 188; employment of married women as teachers, 28; extended leaves of absence for professional improvement, 69, 70; extensive state testing programs, 100, 101, 102, 103; factors associated w'th crime, 188; factors determining the teacher's place on the regular schedule, 67; miscellaneous problems in the selection of teachers, 29; problem of the delifiquent child, 191; salary scheduling as a principle, 67; sick leave and related problems, 68, 69; social agencies of crime pre- vention, 196; special bonuses, 68; state schoo! surveys, 94, 95, 96; statistical measures of school efficiency, 110, 111, 112; statistics on crime, 187; super-maximum salaries, 67, 68; teacher rating, 70; teachers’ contracts and term of em- ployment, 66; teachers’ salaries and salary scheduling, 67, 68; training requirements for newly appointed teachers, 28. Sa of Education, 1928-30, source of data, cited, Bigelow, William F., quoted, 212. Binet, Alfred, referred to, 129. Blair, F. G., article cited, 104. Board of Education, State, check list for, 92. Boston, list of conditions under which leaves of absence may be granted teachers with full or part pay, 53. Boston Trade Union College, work in education of laborers, 183. Boy Scouts, a study of interests, 169. Brearley, H. C., study cited, 155, 156, 161, 163. Briggs, Thomas H., study cited, 42. Brooks, E. C., article cited, 104. Brookwood, residential labor college, 183. Brown, E. E., ranking of Oklahoma on certain educational factors, 108. Brubacher, John S., study cited, 18. Buckingham, B. R., quoted, 5, 6, 7. Building Construction, compared with school costs, 220. Bureau of Curriculum Research, Teachers College, Columbia University, rating scale for courses of study, cited, 86. Burt, Cyril, study cited, 169. Butterworth, Juiian E., plan for rating the small school plant, cited, 86; use of rating scale in New York, Texas, Utah, West Virginia surveys, 86. California Commission for the Study of Educational Problems, report quoted, 83. Ornia, interviews and conferences reported by survey staff, quoted, 83; post-card survey, 83; tenure laws, 37; university of, medical school report, 167. Cardinal Principles of Education, 184. Carrothers, George E., study cited, 18, 54, 55, 57, 60. Cavins, Lorimer V., study quoted, 121. Certification cf Teachers, by examination, 5; check list for, 90; state requirements for, 5, 11. Champlin, Carroll D., quoted, 6. Character Education, as factor in crime prevention, 183; bibliography, 200; Department of Classroom Teacl seventh yearbook, 184; Department of ‘Superintendence, tenth yearbook, 184. Child Labor, bibliography, 192; check list for laws relating t« 89, Child Study Association of America, reference to, 183 Children’s Charter, list of children’s rights, 176, 177, 178 Chronological Age, of criminals, 161. Cicero, Illinois, allotment for sick leave, 55 Cincinnati Labor College, work for adult education, 183 Clinics, Behavior, bibliography, 195; work described, 172 Combs, M. L., ranking of Virginia counties on certain educa tional factors, 108. Committee on Tenure, twelve guiding principles relating teacher tenure, 37. Community Relations, as means of crime prevention, 181; bibliography, 200. Connecticut, ratio of school costs to tax collections, 215 Connecticut State Board of Education, reference to study by division of research and surveys, 105. Contracts, Teachers, See Teacher Tenure. Cost of living, data on, published by National Industrial Cor ference Board, 50, 123; data on, published by United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, 123; sources of data, 49, 50. Costs and expenditures, automobiles, 220; building construc- tion, 220; crime and school, 145, 146, 147; effect of deprecia- tion of dollar on school, 223; effect of improvement in educational service on school, 225; effect of longer terms and increased attendance on school, 223, 224; for crime, summary statement, 152; for protection against crime, 148, 149; governmental, 211; life insurance, 219; luxuries, 220; recent trends in school, 223; school and other govern- mental, 214; school, by states, 215, 216, 217; school, com- pared with other expenditures, 219. Courtis, S. A., plan for rating teaching efficiency, cited, 85. Crabtree, J. W., foreword, 2, 34, 78, 136, 204. Crime, age of criminals, 137; bibliography on cost, 188; biblio- graphy on factors associated with, 188; bibliography on social agencies of prevention, 196; bibliography on statistics, 187; classification of, 139; comparisons with school costs, 152; correctional treatment, 149; cost of administration of criminal justice, 145; cost, compared with school expendi tures, 145; cost of criminal work of state police, 147; cost of federal penal treatment, 146; cost of federal prosecution, 146; cost of state penal and corrective treatment, 147; court statistics, 141; definitions of, 139; extent estimated by prison populations, 141, 142; factors associated with, 155; federal costs, 145; increase of, 137; indirect losses to the com- munity due to the existence of, 151; insured losses, 150; law violations as measure of, 140; municipal costs, 147; organiza- tions interested in prevention of, 186; percent in cities, 140; police record of, 140; private expenditures for protection against, 148, 149; private losses due to criminal acts, 149; private protective agencies, 148; protective devices, 149; relation to education, 137, 138; significance of costs to educators, 154; significance to educators of statistics on, 143; significance to education of factors associated with, 164; social agencies for prevention, 175; state costs, 147; statistics of arrests, 140; summary statement of cost 152; tabulations of adult, 140; total cost of federal criminal justice, 146; typical beliefs, 137. Crime prevention, extension of public health and recreational activities, 176; improving agencies of justice, 178; promotion of economic welfare, 175; religion, 180; social agencies, 175, 196. Criminals, age of, discussed, 137; chronological age, 161; classification of, 139; commitments to prison, 141; defined, 139; intelligence of, 162; mental and emotional defects, 162; state reports of court statistics, 141. ieTs, Davis, Calvin O., study cited, 25. Defectives, bibliography, 190; problem of, 177. Delaware, achievement testing programs, 98, 99; object of school survey quoted, 82. Delinquency, bibliography, 188; extent of juvenile, 165; juvenile, defined, 139, 140; motion pictures as ‘actor in, 169; race as a factor in, 165, 190; statistics on juvenile, 142; truancy as factor in, 169; unemployment as factor in, 168. Delinquent Child, report of White House Conference, 167, 177. Delinquent Children, age of, 166; bibliography, 191; defective, 177; educational facilities for, 171; general characteristics, 165; home environment, 167; intelligence of, 166; mental defects of, 167; nativity, 166; physical status, 167; problem of, 165; problem of, meaning to education, 174; ratio of boys to girls, 166; report of White House Conference on, 165; total number each year in United States, 165; truancy of, 161; work of juvenile courts, 182. Denver, Colorado, data on illness among teachers, 54. Depression, effects on education, 205. Detroit, Michigan, plan for disability insurance, 58. Dillard, J. H., quoted, 6. District of Columbia, court decisions on married teacher question, 18; regulations governing leaves of absence for married women teachers, 21; tenure laws, 37 [iii J Doll, Edgar A., quoted, 178. Dollar, Depreciation of, effect on school costs, 223. Dozier, Miriam, study cited, 26. Economic Welfare, as factor in crime prevention, 175; bib- liography, 197; principles underlying, 175. Educational Service, improvements, effect on cost, 225. Efficiency, as measured by teacher-rating devices, 64, 65, 66, 83, 84, 85; bibliography on rating teachers’, 70; bibliography on state surveys as measures of state school, 94, 95, 96; bibliography on state testing programs as measures of, 100, 101, 102, 103; bibliography on statistical measures of, 110, 111, 112; Courtis plan for analysis of teaching, cited, 85; criteria of administrative, 88; effect of environmentai factors upon teachers’, 61; effect of period and frequency of salary payments on teachers’, 48; effect of term of employ- ment on teachers’, 36; effect of turnover on teachers’, 35; estimates of school, based on single factor, 109; factors measuring state school not weighted, 113; factors used in present study for measuring state school, 113; geographical differences in school, 126; indexes of city and county, 105; indexes of state school, 104, 105; interviews and conferences as means of obtaining information on school, 83; measures of state, used in present study, 113 to 131; rseasures of teach- ing, by survey staffs, Indiana, 83; New York, Texas, Utah, 84; Virginia, West Virginia, 88; my-chanical and social defined and compared, 79; of marrieci women teachers, 17, 18; estimating state school, in the futurs, 128, 129; of school plants in Arizona, Florida, Missovri, New ¥% ‘ork, Texas, Utah, Virginia, and West Virginia, 85, #5; of teachers, estimated by random observation, %3; pupil progress, as measure of school, 86; questionnaires ‘-Jating to problem of school, 82; rating as salary factor, 40, 41; rating scales as measures of, '83; standing of the states on five factors related to school, 126; ‘school, effect of sabbatical leave, 62; school, in relation to crime prevention, 184; self-survey plan for estimating state school, 88; state school, as measured by achievement tests, 97, 103; state school, how measured, 79; statistical comparisons as means of measuring state school, 83; statistical measures of school, 104 to 129; statistical records concerning school, a validity of factors selected as measures of state school, 113 Elsbree, Willard S., study cited, 49. Equipment, pepe. check list for, 92. vansville iana, plan for disability insurance, 58. Evenden, . x S., quoted, 10. . Ewing, Stephen, quoted, 16. Finance, Public School, amount spent for public schools, 1930, 206; discussion, 205; national income and governmental! costs, 211, 212; national wealth, 209, 210; recent trends in school costs, 223, 224; school costs and certain other ex- penditures, 219, 220, 221, 222; school and other govern- mental costs, 214, 215, 216, 217; yearly income of states, 1930, 206-08. Fe id, Gustave A., quoted, 117, 118. Florida, achievement testing program in school survey, 97; interviews and conferences reported as survey procedure, 83; object of school survey quoted, 82; state testing pro- grams, 99; survey investigation of age-grade status, 86; use of rating cards for measuring efficiency of school plant, France, per capita wealth, 212; percent of income spent for taxes, 211. Frasier, G. W., study of city school efficiency, 105. Frontier, effect on crime, 156. Funds, State school, check list for apportionment, 92. F. W. Dodge Corporation, estimate of construction, 220. Garlin, R. E., study cited, 88. Gaumnitz, W. H., study quoted, 121. Geblke and Moley, quoted, 161, 162. —s capita wealth, 212; percent of income spent for taxes Girl Scouts, a study of interests, 169. Glueck and Glueck, quoted, 160, 161, 163, 166; study cited, 168. Goodier, Floyd, study cited, 18. ome ae per capita wealth compared with that of United tates, L. R., study of efficiency of Illinois county school systems, 108. Handbook of Educationa Organizations, reference to, 186. Handbook of — Resources, cited, 186. Harrell, C. A., measure of city school efficiency, 105. Health, biblicgrap! y, 197; environmental factors contributing to teachers’, 61; illness ~ ny be teachers, 54, 57, 60; of married and single women teachers compared, 55; research studies on teachers’, 51, 53, 54, 55, $7: study of physical efficiency of teachers, 18 Health education, 1 ten Mee Bronner, ane cited, a. H id ‘ee Michigan, report of absence and sick leave of teac Hilleboe, Guy L., “study cited, 170. Holding power of schools, as criterion of school efficiency, 113, 116, 117, 118, 119; sehen influencing, 116, 117, 118, 119; index of, 109, 119; not closely related to proportion of urban or rural population, 126; opinions of educators on, Civ ] 116, 117, 118; yagting of the states on, 119; sectional differ- ences in, 126, Home, influence = ‘181. Idaho Industrial School, superintendent quoted, 169. Illiteracy, as a factor associated with crime, 155. Literacy. mmigration, as a factor associated with crime, 157. Income, in Alabama, 206; national, compared with govern- mental costs, 211; nati onal and public school costs, 206-08; per capita, compared with other countries, 212; percentage spent for taxes in United States, compares with other coun- tries, 211; ratio of, to state and local taxes, 212. Indexes, Statistical, academic and financial, 108; bibliography including references to, 110, 111, 112; difficulties involved in formulating, 109; factors used in formulating, 104-112; formulated by various investigators, 104-09; methods of formulating, 104, 105, 108, 109; of city and county school efficiency, 105; of holding power, 109, 119; of state school efficiency, 104, 105. Indiana, achievement testing in school survey, 97; Gary plan for sick-leave fund, 55; object of school surveys quoted, 81, 82; survey report quoted, on methods of rating teaching efficiency, 83; tenure laws, 37. Insurance, disability insurance plans in certain cities, 58; group health insurance protection against long periods of absence of teachers from school, 58; health, 59; life, com- pared with school costs, 219; mutual benefit plan in Phoenix, Arizona, 59; mutual benefit plans as means of supplement- ing sick- leave allowances, 59. Intelligence, of criminals, 162; bibliography, 190. International Association of Chiefs of Police, reports of offenses, See also 140. International Ladies Garment Workers’ Union, work for adult education, 183. Iowa, self-survey plan applied to school system, 89-92. Italy, per capita wealth, 212; percent of income spent for taxes, 211. ewish Board of Guardians in New York, records cited, 168. ustice, Agencies of, bibliography, 195; educational programs of prisons and reformatories, 179; ethics of legal profession, 179; improvement of court procedures, 178; improving, 178; law "enforcement, 179; probation and parole, 179. Juvenile courts, work with delinquent children, 182. Kansas, object of school survey quoted, 81. Kentucky, peepee — a in school survey, 97. Koch, study cited, 4 Koos, Leonard ‘A study nab 116, 118. Lawes, Lewis E., article a4, | 184; expression of appreciation -. 138; quoted, 139, 158, Leaves of i cheonee. See Sick Teave Sabbatical leave. Lee, Charles A., study cited, Lenroot, Katharine F., ade iat, 168; expression of appre- ciation to, 138. wis, E. E., quoted, 5; study cited, 14, 17, 42. Literacy, as factor in measuring school efficiency, 113, 124, 125, 131; of white and colored races, 125; ranking of the states on, 125; sectional differences in, 128, 131; statistics presented limited to native-born, 125. Local residents as teachers, arguments for and against, 22; — in ciiy school systems with respect to employment of, 22. Long Beach, California, regulations governing leaves of absence of married women teachers, 21. lee Soe California, classification of teachers on physical sis, 61 Luxuries, cost of, compared with school costs, 220, 221. Lynd and Lynd, study cited, 176. McGinnis, W. C., study cited, 17. Maladjustment, among school children, 170; number of maladjusted children, 170; types of behavior problems, 171. - B., study cited, 165, orace, quoted, 80, 154, 1085; reference to, 205. .» arguments for and against, 14-17; attitude of parents toward, 16; bibliography, 28; court decisions on employment of, 18; data concerning absence, 18; decision of Maryland State Board of Education, 19; effect of tradition on employment of. 16; efficiency of, 15, 17, 18; leaves of absence for, 20; legal aspects of the married- teacher question, 18; opinions of educators concerning, 15-17; physical efficiency, 18; practices in city school systems affecti employment and ‘dismissal, 19; regulations con- cerning leaves of absence in Minneapolis, Minnesota, Long Beach, California, and District of Columbia, 21; social and economic loss involved in discrimination against, 16; trend of relative to employment and dismissal, 20. Mary’ decision of State Board of Education on dismissal of pee teachers, 19; illustrations of state testing Programs, ; self-survey plan applied to schooi system, Men 90, 91 on: 93; a laws, 37. easures, school efficiency, advantages and He mae 9 of, 109, 113; based on a single factor, 106, 109; bibli phy on, 110, 111, 112; by certain investigators, camel fess, choice of depends on, 113; difficulties in- fer- so rn- 01 an ng 8; of _s it- volved in developing, 109; indexes used as, 104-12: of city and county, 105-9; of state, city and county school efficiency, summarized, 106, 107; of state school efficiency, discussion, 104; should be cautiously interpreted, 109; weighting of items, 94, 104, 109, 113. See also Statistical indexes and Efficiency. Men as teachers, absence as compared with women teachers, 55; arguments for and against higher salaries for, 42; de- pendents of, study cited, 42; number and percent of cities providing salary differentiation in favor of, 43; percent in elementary and secondary schools, 42; relative demands upon, 42. Mental hygiene, as factor in crime prevention, 17 Merit systems. See Teacher rating. Millikan, Robert A., quoted, 222. Minneapolis, Minnesota, plan for payment of substitute teachers, 53; regulations governing leaves of absence of married women teachers, 21. Mississippi, achievement testing program in school survey, 97; laws governing teachers’ contracts, 36; object of school survey, quoted, 81. Missouri, interstate comparisons from survey, 84; Survey Report, use of rating scales for courses of study and school buildings referred to, 86. Mitchell, Alice M., study cited, 169. oehlman, A. B., research study reported, 17-18 Montefiore Special School, day school for special cases, 172. Motion pictures, as factor related to crime, 161; bibliography, 193. Murchison, Carl, study cited, 155, 162. Myers, Alonzo F., quoted, 7. Myers, Charles Everett, article cited, 104. / National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, Report on the Cost of Crime, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 156, 157, 158, 166, 168. National Committee on Mental Hygiene, study cited, 167. National Conference of Social Work, report, 171. National Congress of Parents and Teachers, work for adult education, 183. National Education Association, cited as source of information on purchasing power of teachers’ salaries, 50; Commission on Character Education, qucted, 180; Committee on Tenure, 37; Department of Classroom Teachers, Yearbook cited, 50, 175, 184; Department of Superintendence, Yearbook cited, 181, 184; Division of Publications, 51; health program compiled with cooperation of American Medical Association, 177; plan of Research Division for self-survey of school systems, 8&8; principles of teacher rating, 65; publication cited, 51; quoted, 201; report of committee cited, 62, 171; Research Division, 3, 9, 13, 20, 48, 50, 88, 120, 138; Salary Committee, 3. National Industrial Conference Board, cited as source of data, 50, 123; estimate of national wealth, 209. National Probation Association, reference to, 138. National Recreation Association, suggestions on recreation, 178. Nebraska, laws governing teachers’ contracts, 36. Negro Child Study, Joint Committee, study cited 165. Nevada, laws governing teachers’ contracts, 37. New Jersey, interstate comparisons from survey report, 83, 85; State Home for Boys, 167, 168. New York, achievement testing program in school survey, 97, 98; Division of Tests and Measurements of the Joint Com- mittee on Rural Schools, testing program, 98; illustration of federal tax collections, 212; self-survey plan applied to school system, 89; size of survey reports, 87; survey report on estimating teaching efficiency, 84. Newspapers, effect in connection with crime, 158. Nietz, John A., study cited, 24. North Carolina, achievement testing program in schoo! survey, 97; illustration of federal tax collections, 212. North Dakota, laws governing teachers’ contracts, 36. Oakland, California, plan for super-maximum salary, 45. Occupations, Types of, as factors associated with crime, 158. Ohio, laws governing teachers’ contracts, 36. Oklahoma, achievement tests used in school survey, 97. Omaha, Nebraska, plan for disability insurance, 58; plan for Payment of substitute teachers, 53. Palmer, Emily G., quoted, 118. Parent-Teacher Associations, vote on employment of married women as teachers, 16, 17. Parental schools, 171. Parsons, Philip, quoted, 137. Pennsylvania, laws governing teachers’ contracts, 37 survey plan applied to school system, 89. Philadelphia Bureau of Compulsory Education, report cited, 166 Philadelphia Labor College, work for adult education, 183. Phillips, Frank M., study of state school efficiency, 105. Phillips’ rank method, description of, 105. mix, Arizona, cumulative sick-leave plan, 59. Physical welfare, as factor in crime prevention, 176. Plants, Public school, efficiency of, mea ured by rating cards in Arizona, Florida, Missouri, Ne« York, Texas, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, 85, 86; use of rating cards for = efficiency of, 85, 86. See also Property, Public school. ; self- Pontiac, Michigan, plan for merging sick and sabbatical leave Si. Portland (Oregon) Labor College, work for adult educati 183 Potter, Ellen C., quoted, 137 Poverty, as factor associated with crime, 155 Prisoners, educational achievement of, 160; number male received in State and Federal prisons, 141; number under sentence during ome year, 144; percent distributi educational status, sex, and type of offense, 160; rati educational status of, to general population, 160 Prisons, commitments, 141; educational programs, 179; statistics on populations, 141. Prohibition, as factor associated with crime, 156; laws, bib liography, 191. Property, Public school, as educational agency, 123; as factor in measuring state school efficiency, 113, 123, 124, 125, 130 average value of, by states and territories, 124; dependent upon type of community, 123; effect on school efficiency discussed, 123; kind of, depends on money invested, 123; quotation on, from Texas Educational Survey Commission, 123; rank of states on value of, 124; relation to urban popula tion, 127; sectional differences in value of, 127, 130; value of national, 209, 210; value of, bases for calculating, 124; value of, by states, 210. See also Plants, Public school Public opinion, bibliography, 199; effect upon crime, 181. Pupil personnel, check list for administration of, 89. Questionnaires, number and percent of responses to question naires used in present study, 4, 5, 35; plan of presenting results, 4; survey of opinion on married women as teachers, 17; used in this study, reproduced, 30-33, 72-75; used in state school surveys, 82, 83. Rating scales, applied to the school plant, 84, 85, 86; as factor in administration of teachers’ salary schedule, 64; as measure of teachers’ efficiency, 83, 84, 85; bibliography on teachers’, 70; extent of use of teacher rating, 65; for courses of study, 86; limitations of, as applied to teachers, 64; reports use of, by survey staffs to measure efficiency of school plants in Arizona, Florida, Missouri, New York, Texas, Utah, Vir- ginia, West Virginia, 85, 86; reports use of, by survey staffs to measure teaching efficiency in Indiana, New York, Texas, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, 83, 84, 85; use of, in city school systems to rate teachers, 65 Recidivism, as a factor associated with crime, 159 Recreation, as factor in crime prevention, 177. Reed, Anna Y., study quoted, 117. Reeves, Charles E., quoted, 15. Reeves, Margaret, study cited, 173. Religion, as factor in crime prevention, 180 Research Bulletins of the National Education Association, cited, 35, 36, 48, 49, 50, 88, 177, 220, 222; quoted, 39: references on health cited, 177. Research Division, cites sources of data on crime, 138; cites sources of information on salary problems, 48; plan for self survey of state school systems, 88; presents data on educa tion of teachers, 120, 121; Special Salary Tabulations cited, 50; studies made of personnel practices, 3, 9, 35; study cited, 13, 0 Retirement, Teacher, check list for, 91 Revenues, School, check list for administration of, 91. Robinson, William M., quoted, 6. Rogers, James F., study cited, 54 55 Sabbatical leave, bibliography, 69, 70; effect on teachers’ professional attitudes, 62; for professional improvement, 62; number and percent of cities granting, 63; plans for certain cities, described, 62, 63; present practice reviewed, 62; principles governing administration of, 62, 63; why grant pay during, 62. See also Sick leave. Salaries, Teachers’, agencies publishing statistics on, as related to cost of living, 49, 50; amount of, closely related to percent of urban population, 126, 127; as indication of quality of teaching, 120, 121, 122, 123; based on measures of teaching efficiency, 40, 41; bibliography, 67, 68; check list for laws governing, 91; distribution of payments over year, 48; effect on supply of teachers, 10; Gaumitz, W. H., quoted on, 121; increases in, as reward for professional study or travel, 46, 47; influence on cultural level of teacher, 120; influence on efficiency of teacher, 120, 121; number and percent of cities granting increases in, as reward for summer school attendance, and educational travel, 47; plans of cities granting super-maximum, cited, 45; policies as to period and frequency of payment 48, 49; ranking of the states on, 122; relationship betw eation of teachers and, 120, 121; relation to school ent, study cited, 121; Salary Committee inquiry, il differences in amount paid, 127, 129; sources o! information on, 48-50; super-maximum defined, 44; trend of pr: with respect to granting bonuses, 47; validity as measure of quality of teaching discussed, 122. Salary schedules, advantages of, 39; bibliography, 67, 68; bonus plan, 46, 47; defined,.39; differentiaticn in favor ot men, 42, 43; factors determining teacher's p’ ce on, 40, 43; illustrations of, 44, 45; more common among larger cities, 39; number and percent of cities granting bonuses, 47; number and percent of cities having definite, 39; number and percent of cities providing_for super-maximum salaries, Cv] 45; number and percent of cities using combinations of factors determining teacher's place, 43; number and percent of cities using position held as factor, 40; number and percent of cities using professional training as factor, 40; number and percent of cities using years of service as factor, 40; opinions of educators on bonus plan, quoted, 47; selective influence of, 120, 121; “single salary schedule,” 42; sources of information Ma 48-50; super-maximum salary plan adds to flexibility, 44; trend of practice with respect to granting bonuses, 47; trend of practice with respect to super-maxi- mum salaries, 44. : Schenectady, New York, plan for merging sick and sabbatical leave, 58; plan for sabbatical leave, quoted, 64 Schools and education, as related to crime, 159; costs, com- pared with life insurance, 219; costs, compared with luxuries, 220, 221; costs, compared with other governmental costs, 214, 215; —_ of increased attendance on costs, 223, 224, 225; effect of increased enrolment on costs, 224, 225; expenditures for, compared with other governmental expenditures, 214; factors responsible for increase in cost, 223; finance, 205; improved service, effect on costs, 225; ratio of costs to tax collections, 215, 216, 217; recent trends in costs, 223; total expenditure for, in Ala Schrammel, Henry E., study of ‘state educational efficiency, 105. Sears, Jesse B., quoted on the school survey, 96. Seattle } pa age plan for disability insurance, 58. Seibold, Louis, quoted, 137. Shaw 7 quoted, 142. Sias, A.B., reference to study on measure of school efficiency, 199. Sick leave, absence of men and women teachers compared, 55; amount of, and proportion of salary granted in various classes of cities, 54-60; bibliography, 68, 69; Cicero, Illinois, allotment for, 55; conditions for granting leaves of absence with pay, 53; disability insurance plans of certain cities, 58; effect on teacher's efficiency, $1; flexible administration desirable, 61; Gary, Indiana, plan for AB eee es granted by larger cities more Fn goed 54; group ealth insurance protection against long periods of, 58; mutual benefit plans as means of ~~ allowances for, 59; names of cities with plans for mer, ng = sabbatical leave, 57, 58; need for additional and percent of cities granting, with some salary, Ss. number and percent of cities reporting provisions for teachers’, with part or full pay, 56; number and — of cities reporting policies governing employment o! bstitute teachers, 52; number and percent of cities having cumulative plan, 57; plans of certain cities for, 53, 4 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61; policy for granting in Baltimore, $ poe against long illnesses, 57; principles ! a “iP 52; recent data con- cerning, summarized, 5, 57; recommendations regarding plan for, 55; reduci in acaich’ to minimum, 61; safeguarding against abuse, 59, 5 cofegeersing.! pupil weifare during, 52; substitute service during, 52, 53 Slawson, John, study cited, 166, 167. Social agencies of crime prevention, promotion of economic —%, 175; public health and recreational activities, 176. > [Mae wna data on illness among te2chers, 54, 57, 60. Stan agencies, Southern Association and North Central nee yy 11. State De of Education, check list for, 92. Steiner, M, A., ez. cited, Sub-Cormission on Causes a Effects of Crime, study cited, 166. Survey, school, application of self-survey plan to seven ptane school systems, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93; biliography, 94, 95, characteristics of, 81; contributions to research caiienes 81, 88; cost of state, 87; emphasis, usually given to, pf Garlin’s study of, 88; interstate comparisons used in, interviews and confe reported by, 83; methods “a measuring state school iency given in reports, 79, 81-96; objectives of, in Washington, Kansas, Indiana, ara Missis- sippi, 81, in a Florida, Delaware, Indiana, 82; les to success, 88; organization and administration of state, 87; plan for -survey, 88, 94; province of, 87: purpose and scope of various state, 81, 82; rts of inter- views and ae in Califo: rnia, Flori and West Virginia, 83; reports statistical comparisons between states, 83, 84, 85; defined, 81; self-survey, plan for, 81, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93; staff, ty 87; state, authorization of, pad study "of factors condi ng success, 88; time req 87; use of achievement 3 in, 97, 98; use of general obomrvtion in, 87; use of measures pupil progress in Floiida, 86, 87; use of questionnaire in, a2 use of rating scales , 83, 84, 85, 86; use of statistical records in, 82; use of standard tests in, 87: Sutherland, E. H., quoted, 163. percent of cities having definite plan for, 65; number and percent of cities using rating scales as factor in salary schedule, 40; steps in successful administration of, 64, 65; report of committee of National Education Association on principles of, 65; trend of practice relative to, 65. Teacher retirement, check list for administration of, 91. Teacher tenure, bibliography, 66; check list for administration of, 90; general Principles for establishment of, 37, 38; number and percent of cities having various types of, 37; policies and practice in city school systems, 37; types of state ‘laws govern ing, 36, 37; use of formal contracts in city school systems, 38. Teachers, as criterion of quality of education offered by states, 120; bonuses for study and travel, 46, 47; certification, 5, 10. , 90; classification on health’ basis, 61; cultural level affected by salary, 120; dependents, 42; effect of schoo} environment upon, 123; "effect of supply and demand upon standards, 9, 10; employment, check list for administration of, 90; employment of local residents as, 22, 23; experience requirements, 12, 13; health insurance for, 58, 59: influence on school, 120, 121; married women as, 14, 15. 16, ‘17, 18, 19, 20, 21; oversupply’ of certificated, 10; policies and practice in city school systems relative to appointment, 22; profes- sional organizations, check list for, 91; rating of, 40, 64, 65, 66, 70; restrictions on personal freedom, 16; retirement systems, check list for, 91; routine procedures in selection, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27; sabbatical leave, 62, 63, 64; salaries, 10, 39, 40, 41. 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 120, 121, 122, 129; salary schedules for, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45; sick leave, Si, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61; sources of suitable candidates, 23; state requirements for certification, 5, 6, 7, 11; substitute, 5t, 52, 53; term of employment, 36, 37, 38: training requirements of newly appointed, S, 6, 7, 8, 9: 10, 11; written examinations as basis for selec- tion, 26. See also Married women as teachers; men as teach- ers; and local residents as teachers. Teachers’ examinations, less dependence upon, among the States, 5; number and oe recent of cities using as basis of selection, 24; writ ten, 3 as s of supermaximum salaries, 44. Teachers, Experience *: vquirements, effect of experience on minimum trainir,, eg 9; for newly appointed 12; objections tc, present practice in city school systems, 12, 13; trend ai practice, 13. Teachers, Seiection, a function of the superintendent, 23; discussion of physical examinations as basis, 27; effect on quality of teachn.z povided, 122; influence of salary upon, 120; number and percent of cities reporting use of examina- tion as basis, 24; number and percent of cities reporting use of application blanks, 24; number and percent of cities reporting use of physical examination as basis, 24; observa- tion of classroom work as basis, 26; personal interview with candidates as basis, 26; routine procedures used in city systems, 24; sources of ‘suitable candidates, 23; studies of use of formal application blanks, 24, 25; use of references and letters of recommendation, 25, 26. Teachers, Training, adequate training necessary, 5; attitude of state school surveys toward, 6, 7; bibliography on training requirements for newly appointed 28; check list for administration of, 89; data on percent of teachers having two or more years of, 120, 121; desirable minimum training, 6; effect of monetary rewards for, 120; effect of supply and demand upon standards of training, 9, 10; need for higher qualitative standards, 10; need for research on, 11; opinion of standardizing agencies concerning — training, 11; opinions of educators concerning, 5, 6, 7; required of newly appointed teachers in city school systems in 1930-31, 8; references on special, 195; requirements for newly appointed 4, 5, 8; specificity of training, 10; statutory requirements, 5, 11; trend of requirements in city school systems, 9; ultimate goal, 7. Teaching, uality, amount of training as measure of, 120 121; as measured by salaries paid, 120, 121, 122; data on, lacking, 120; influence of salary on, 120, 121; influence of selection on, 122; limitations of salary as measure of, 122; selected, as measure of school efficiency, 113; validity of salary as measure of, discussed, 122. Tenure, See Teacher Tenure. Terms, School, lengthened, effect on school costs, 223. Tests, as approach to exact measure of state school efficiency, 113; bibliography on state-wide achievement, 100, 101, 102 103; standard, as method of measuring state school efficiency, 87, ‘97, 98, 99, 100; state testing programs, illustrations, 98, 99, 100; state-wide achievement, as used in surveys, 97; value of, 100. Texas, achievement testing used in school survey, 97, 98; laws applying to teachers’ contracts, 36; report of survey on estimating teaching efficiency, 84; study of school adminis- tration in, 25, 26. Texas Educational S y Commission, quoted, 123. Tanes, collectionseompaced wieh suboshonste, 215,216, 217,218; Thomas A, aly ‘School for Boys, day school for special eral collections, 211, 212; collections, 211; ratio of cases, 172. Zuemanen, R.M., rating of city and town school systems, 105. ao a quoted on tests, 103 1930, 211 Tie yy 27. Teacher rating, as basis for differentiation of salaries, discus- pm wtepe Do “for delinquents, work described, 173. sion, 40, 41; as means of improvement, 64; biblicgraphy, 70; Fenton, ‘New J Jersey, illustration of one type of supermaxi- by rating scales in state school surveys, 83, 84, 85,” 86; um salary, 45 increase in use of, 41; limitations of, 40, 41; teachers’ attitude Troy, N New York, plan for merging sick and sabbatical leave, 57. uant School in Manhattan, toward, as factor in determining salary, 41; number and study of inmates, 166, 168. ae to state and local, 2 212; ratio of school costs to, 215; state collections, 211, 212; total collections in United States, [vi] ind ary on ol mn, h- of Unemployment, as factor associated with crime, 157. United States, average compulsory school age limit, 119; cost of automobiles, 220; cost of luxuries, 220, 221, 222; govern- mental costs, 211; income per capita compared with other countries, 212; national wealth, 209, 210; number children in school population, 224; percent of income spent for taxes, 211; percent of taxes invested in public education, 214; tax collections and school costs by states, 215, 216, 217; total value of all buildings estimated, 220; ‘value of public school property, 209, 210. United States Bureau of the Census, as source of data, 114, 116; classification of crimes, 139; data on prisoners, 142; estimates of luxury costs, 220; report cited, 137, 147, 162. United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, cited as source of information, 50; statistics on cost of living referred to, 123. United States Census of Construction, estimate of construc- tion, 220. United States Children’s Bureau, plan for juvenile court statistics, 142; quoted, 137; report cited, 166, 169. United States Department of the Interior, cost of police activities, 145. United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Investigation 140; Bureau of Prisons, 138; cost of police activities, 145; reports, 149. United States Department of Labor, cost of police activities, 145. United States Interstate Commerce Commission, cost of police activities, 145. United States Office of Education, bulletin cited, 50; cited as source of information on salaries, 48, 49; estimated value of public school property, 209; quoted on value of school property, 124; reference to Statistics Division, 105; source of data on certain factors related to state school efficiency 114; source of data on public school property, 124; source of information on social agencies, 186; ay A quoted, 121. University of Cincinnati, publication quoted, 7 Utah, achievement testing used in school career, 97; report of survey staff on estimating teaching efficiency, 84; self- survey plan applied to school system, 89. Van Denburg, Joseph K., quoted, 1 Van Waters, Miriam, study cited, 173. Virginia, achievement testing used in school survey, 97: illus- tration of state testing programs, 99; report survey on estimating teaching efficiency, 85; use of rating cards for school plants reported by survey, 85, 86 Wang, Charles K. A., study cited, 24, 25, 27 Washington, illustration of state testing programs, 99; object of survey quoted, 81; self-survey plan applied to school system, 89. Washington, D., C., iliustration of a type of supermaximum salary, 45. Wealth, as factor, associated with crime, 155; by states, 210; national, 209, 210. West Virginia, achievement testing used in school survey, 97; Cavins study of school achievement in, cited, 121; inter- views and conferences reported as owes procedure, 83; report of teacher rating by survey staff, report of use oi rating cards for measuring the efficiency of the school plant, 85, 86; self-survey plan applied to school system, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93; survey quoted, 83. White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, Children's Charter, 176, 177; Committee on Special Classes, report, 170; The Delinquent Child, 177; Organisation for the Care of Handicapped Children, publication of, 177; report cited, 165, 167; School Health Program, 177; quoted, 164, 201. Wickersham, G. W., quoted, 138. Wickersham reports, cited, 140. Wiley, R. B., ranking of California counties on school efficiency, 108. Witham, Ernest C., index of holding power, 109, 119; study of school efficiency, 109, 119. Workers’ Education Bureau, work for adult education, 183. World War, effects on crime, 156. Wundt, Wilhelm, referred to, 129. Wyoming, state testing programs, 99, 100 [ vii ] SCHOOL FINANCE The vital problem of today. Recent publications of th. N. E. A. on this subject,— Research Bulletins INVESTING IN PUBLIC EDUCATION. Vol. VIII, No. 4, September, 1930. 56 p. THE OUTLOOK FOR RURAL EDUCATION. Vol. IX, No. 4, September, 1931. 76 p. Studies in State Educational Administration SCHOOL REVENUES AND NEW METHODS OF TAXATION. Study No. 2, January, 1930 THE PERSONAL INCOME TAX AND SCHOOL SUPPORT. Study No. 8, February, 1931... . THE CORPORATION INCOME TAX AND ITS RELATION TO SCHOOL REVENUE SYSTEMS. Study No. 11, August, 1932. Review of Educational Research FINANCE AND BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION. Vol. II, No. 2, April, 1932. 89 p.... Write for complete list of publications. The following discounts are allowed on quantities of the same book: 2 to 9 copies—10 percent; 10 to 99 copies—25 percent; 100 or more copies 331 percent. 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